English Language Teaching: Approaches And Methodologies 0071078142, 9780071078146

Table of contents :
Cover
Contents
1. Nature of Language
Introduction
Meaning of Language
Characteristics of a Language
Scope of Language
Summary
Terms to Remember
Exercises
2. Importance and Functions of Language
Introduction
Importance of the English Language in India
Advantages of English as a Language
Functions of a Language
Summary
Terms to Remember
Exercises
3. Linguistic Principles
Introduction
General Principles Governing the Teaching of a Language
Summary
Terms to Remember
Exercises
4. Aims and Objectives of Teaching English
Introduction
Aims of Teaching English
Teaching English at Various Levels
Summary
Terms to Remember
Exercises
5. Stating Objectives in Behavioural Terms
Introduction
Objectives
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
Summary
Terms to Remember
Exercises
6. Unit Analysis, Pedagogical Analysis and Lesson Plan
Introduction
Pedagogical Analysis
Four Pillars of Pedagogical Analysis
Summary
Terms to Remember
Exercises
7. Teaching of Prose
Introduction
Objectives of Teaching Prose
Types of Prose Lessons
Model Lesson Plan on Prose
Summary
Terms to Remember
Exercises
8. Teaching of Poetry
Introduction
Teaching of Poetry in Schools
Model Lesson Plan on Poetry
Summary
Terms to Remember
Exercises
9. Teaching of Composition
Introduction
Characteristics of Composition
Types of Compositions
Model Lesson Plan on Composition
Summary
Terms to Remember
Exercises
10. Teaching of Grammar
Introduction
Meaning of Grammar
Characteristics of Grammar
Present Position of Grammar in Indian Classrooms
Expected Role of Grammar
Objectives/Aims of Teaching Grammar
Types of Grammar
Methods of Teaching Grammar
Advantages and Disadvantages of Teaching Grammar
Suggestions for Teaching Grammar
Model Lesson Plan for Teaching Grammar
Summary
Terms to Remember
Exercises
11. Micro-Teaching
Introduction
Micro-Teaching Cycle
Time Duration of Micro-Teaching
Teaching Skill
Questioning
Micro Lesson Plan: Skill-Questioning
Skill of Introduction
Micro Lesson Plan: Skill-Introduction
Skill of Explaining
Micro Lesson Plan: Skill-Explaning
Skill of Illustration
Micro Lesson Plan: Skill-Illustrating with Examples
Skill of Stimulus Variation
Components of Stimulus Variation
Micro Lesson Plan: Skill-Stimulus Variation
Skill of Reinforcement
Components of the Skill Reinforcement
Micro Lesson Plan: Skill-Reinforcement
Summary
Exercises
12. Methods of Teaching English
Introduction
Processes of Teaching
Approaches of Teaching-Learning
Methods of Teaching English
Which Method is the Best?
Summary
Terms to Remember
Exercises
13. Learner Centered Approaches
Introduction
Types of Approaches
Structural Approach
Communicative Approach
Summary
Terms to Remember
Exercises
14. Instructional Material
Introduction
Meaning
Objectives of Audio-Visual Aids
Characteristics of Good Audio-Visual Aids
Principles of Audio-Visual Aids
Advantages of Audio-Visual Aids
Precautions for the use of Audio-Visual Aids
Different Types of Aids
The System Console
Summary
Terms to Remember
Exercises
15. Development of Listening Skills
Introduction
Sub-Skills of Language
Developing Listening Skills in Classrooms
Different Ways of Conducting Oral Work
Improvement of Listening Skills
Summary
Terms to Remember
Exercises
16. Development of Speaking Skills
Introduction
Acquiring Speaking Skills
Drilling
Pronunciation
Organs of Speech
The Sounds of English
Exceptions
Summary
Terms to Remember
Exercises
17. Development of Reading Skills
Introduction
Mechanics of Reading
Summary
Terms to Remember
Exercises
18. Development of Writing Skills
Introduction
Development of Writing Abilities
Conventions of Writing
Handwriting
Teaching Handwriting
Summary
Terms to Remember
Exercises
19. Extracurricular Activities Related to English
Introduction
Extracurricular Activities Related to English
Language Games
Debate
Group Discussion Skills
Summary
Terms to Remember
Exercises
20. Remedial Teaching in English
Introduction
Diagnostic Testing
Remedial Teaching
English as a Second Language in India
Common Errors Committed by Learners
Summary
Terms to Remember
Exercises
21. Evaluation
Introduction
Test
Measurement
Examination
Evaluation
Development of Good Test Items in English
Measurement of Achievement in Spoken English
Measurement of Achievement in Vocabulary
Measurement of Achievement in Structures
Summary
Terms to Remember
Exercises
22. Digital Portfolio: Use of ICT in Learning Exercise for Language Competency
Introduction
Digital Portfolio
Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
Summary
Terms to Remember
Exercises
References
Index

Citation preview

English Language Teaching Approaches and Methodologies

About the Author Dr. Navita Arora, a teacher-educator, is actively engaged in innovative methods and techniques in the teaching of English. She has completed her Ph.D on the topic “An investigation into relationships between personal values, teaching attitudes and socio-economic status of teacher trainees”. She has presented many papers in national seminars and her articles have been published in various national journals. She also acted as a resource person for IGNOU. She already has one book on psychology titled, Development of Learners and Teaching Learning Process, to her credit.

English Language Teaching Approaches and Methodologies

Dr. Navita Arora Assistant Professor S.P. College of Education Rewari, Haryana

Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited NEW DELHI McGraw-Hill Offices New Delhi New York St Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogotá Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal San Juan Santiago Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto

Tata McGraw-Hill Published by the Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008. English Language Teaching: Approaches and Methodologies Copyright © 2012 by Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior written permission of the publishers. The program listings (if any) may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication. This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited. ISBN (13 digit): 978-0-07-107814-6 ISBN (10 digit): 0-07-107814-2 Vice President and Managing Director: Ajay Shukla Head—Higher Education Publishing and Marketing: Vibha Mahajan Publishing Manager—B&E/HSSL: Tapas K Maji Deputy Manager (Sponsoring): Amit Kumar Executive (Editorial Services): Yogesh Kumar Copy Editor: Sampurna Majumder Senior Production Manager: Manohar Lal Senior Production Executive: Atul Gupta Marketing Manager—Higher Education: Vijay Sarathi Assistant Product Manager: Daisy Sachdeva Graphic Designer (Cover Design): Meenu Raghav General Manager—Production: Rajender P Ghansela Manager—Production: Reji Kumar Information contained in this work has been obtained by Tata McGraw-Hill, from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that Tata McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. Typeset at Tej Composers, WZ 391, Madipur, New Delhi 110 063 and printed at

Cover Printer:

Dedicated to my favourite teacher, Prof. A.K. Nagar

Foreword “A true teacher helps a learner to discover his own personal philosophy or the invisible sun within him.” —Bhagawad Gita Efficiency in teaching of English language will be reflected in the performance of the learner in and outside the classroom. A mentor for efficient English teacher has its prime goal to serve as a touchstone of successful English teaching. This book has been organised into four main sections. The major themes of discussions are pedagogical analysis, different approaches and methods, vocabulary items, various skills of language, language lab, instructional aids, evaluation, remedial teaching and role of ICT in teaching of English. The author presented the contents with illustrations and examples. The contents are systematically organised. This book deserves to be recommended for all the students of B.Ed as well as teacher-educators. Prof. A.K. Nagar Ex-Principal, S.P. College of Education, Rewari

Preface I am pleased to present this book, English Language Teaching: Approaches and Methodologies, which has been designed and planned according to the latest syllabus of B.Ed. course. English is a second language for Indian students and to teach it effectively requires dexterity as well as selection of appropriate methods of teaching, which, undoubtedly, is a big challenge for teachers. Every possible effort has been made to include latest in second language teaching, yet suggestions from my learned colleagues for improvement by way of adding or deleting the contents therein will be thankfully acknowledged. Nonetheless, efforts have also been made to write this book in simple and lucid language to be easily comprehended by students. Wherever necessary, the contents are amply supported by illustrations and examples. Besides this, web support has also been provided for the readers to assess the proficiency achieved after reading the book. The readers may head over to the URL given at the back to check for resources provided on ‘preparation of achievement test’ and other helpful reading or practice material. I am quite sure that the innovative techniques suggested in the book will inspire the students towards language proficiency in this age of e-learning. Dr. Navita Arora

Acknowledgements First, I salute lord Shiva for empowering me to update the ideas without any mental worries. Second, I express my gratitude for my husband, Sunil Arora, and my kids, Sandra and Surucha, for their constant motivation and support. I am obliged to Ashok Sangwan, Assistant Professor of M.L.R.S. College of Education, Charki Dadri for his significant contribution in framing Chapter 19: Extracurricular Activities Related to English, Chapter 21: Evaluation and Chapter 22: Digital Portfolio – Use of ICT in Learning. I am also grateful to Amit Kumar, Atul Gupta and Sampurna Majumder from Tata McGraw Hill Education for their support in bringing out this book in its present form. With these words, I place the book in the hands of interested learners. Dr. Navita Arora

Contents About the Author Foreword Preface Acknowledgements

1. Nature of Language

ii vii ix xi

1

Introduction 1 Meaning of Language 2 3 Characteristics of a Language 4 Scope of Language 10 Summary 11 Terms to Remember 12 Exercises 12

2. Importance and Functions of Language

13

Introduction 13 Importance of the English Language in India 14 Advantages of English as a Language 16 Functions of a Language 16 Summary 17 Terms to Remember 18 Exercises 18

3. Linguistic Principles Introduction 20 General Principles Governing the Teaching of a Language 21 Summary 27 Terms to Remember 28 Exercises 28

20

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Contents

4. Aims and Objectives of Teaching English

29

Introduction 29 Aims of Teaching English 30 Teaching English at Various Levels 32 Summary 34 Terms to Remember 34 Exercises 34

5. Stating Objectives in Behavioural Terms

36

Introduction 36 Objectives 37 Taxonomy of Educational Objectives 38 Summary 45 Terms to Remember 46 Exercises 46

6. Unit Analysis, Pedagogical Analysis and Lesson Plan

47

Introduction 48 Pedagogical Analysis 50 Four Pillars of Pedagogical Analysis 52 Summary 53 Terms to Remember 54 Exercises 54

7. Teaching of Prose

55

Introduction 55 Objectives of Teaching Prose 56 Types of Prose Lessons 57 Model Lesson Plan on Prose 60 Summary 63 Terms to Remember 64 Exercises 65

8. Teaching of Poetry Introduction 66 67 Teaching of Poetry in Schools 69

66

Contents

xv

Model Lesson Plan on Poetry 73 Summary 77 Terms to Remember 78 Exercises 78

9. Teaching of Composition

79

Introduction 79 80 Characteristics of Composition 82 Types of Compositions 84 Model Lesson Plan on Composition 91 Summary 95 Terms to Remember 96 Exercises 96

10. Teaching of Grammar

98

Introduction 98 Meaning of Grammar 99 Characteristics of Grammar 99 Present Position of Grammar in Indian Classrooms 99 Expected Role of Grammar 100 Objectives/Aims of Teaching Grammar 100 Types of Grammar 101 Methods of Teaching Grammar 102 Advantages and Disadvantages of Teaching Grammar 104 Suggestions for Teaching Grammar 104 Model Lesson Plan for Teaching Grammar 105 Summary 108 Terms to Remember 109 Exercises 109

11. Micro-Teaching

110

Introduction 110 111 Micro-Teaching Cycle 112 Time Duration of Micro-Teaching 113 Teaching Skill 113

xvi

Contents

Questioning 114 116 Micro Lesson Plan: Skill-Questioning 116 Skill of Introduction 118 Micro Lesson Plan: Skill-Introduction 119 Skill of Explaining 121 Micro Lesson Plan: Skill-Explaning 122 Skill of Illustration 124 Micro Lesson Plan: Skill-Illustrating with Examples 125 Skill of Stimulus Variation 128 Components of Stimulus Variation 128 Micro Lesson Plan: Skill-Stimulus Variation 129 Skill of Reinforcement 133 Components of the Skill Reinforcement 133 Micro Lesson Plan: Skill-Reinforcement 135 Summary 137 Exercises 138

12. Methods of Teaching English

139

Introduction 139 140 Processes of Teaching 141 Approaches of Teaching-Learning 142 Methods of Teaching English 143 Which Method is the Best? 152 Summary 153 Terms to Remember 153 Exercises 153

13. Learner Centered Approaches Introduction 154 Types of Approaches 155 Structural Approach 155 Communicative Approach 164 Summary 168 Terms to Remember 168 Exercises 169

154

Contents

14. Instructional Material

xvii

170

Introduction 170 Meaning 171 172 Objectives of Audio-Visual Aids

172 173 Characteristics of Good Audio-Visual Aids 175 Principles of Audio-Visual Aids 176 Advantages of Audio-Visual Aids 176 Precautions for the use of Audio-Visual Aids 178 Different Types of Aids 179 The System Console 185 Summary 187 Terms to Remember 187 Exercises 188

15. Development of Listening Skills

189

Introduction 189 Sub-Skills of Language 190 Developing Listening Skills in Classrooms 192 Different Ways of Conducting Oral Work 192 Improvement of Listening Skills 193 Summary 194 Terms to Remember 195 Exercises 195

16. Development of Speaking Skills Introduction 196 Acquiring Speaking Skills 196 Drilling 198 Pronunciation 203 Organs of Speech 203 The Sounds of English 206 Exceptions 217 Summary 221 Terms to Remember 221 Exercises 222

196

xviii

Contents

17. Development of Reading Skills

223

Introduction 223 Mechanics of Reading 224 Summary 235 Terms to Remember 235 Exercises 236

18. Development of Writing Skills

237

Introduction 237 Development of Writing Abilities 238 Conventions of Writing 239 Handwriting 244 Teaching Handwriting 247 Summary 249 Terms to Remember 250 Exercises 250

19. Extracurricular Activities Related to English

251

Introduction 251 Extracurricular Activities Related to English 252 Language Games 253 Debate 264 Group Discussion Skills 265 Summary 269 Terms to Remember 270 Exercises 270

20. Remedial Teaching in English Introduction 271 Diagnostic Testing 272 Remedial Teaching 273 English as a Second Language in India 276 Common Errors Committed by Learners 276 Summary 278 Terms to Remember 278 Exercises 278

271

Contents

21. Evaluation

xix

280

Introduction 280 Test 281 Measurement 281 Examination 283 Evaluation 283 294 Development of Good Test Items in English 295 Measurement of Achievement in Spoken English 300 Measurement of Achievement in Vocabulary 303 Measurement of Achievement in Structures 304 Summary 306 Terms to Remember 306 Exercises 307

22. Digital Portfolio: Use of ICT in Learning Exercise for Language Competency

308

Introduction 309 Digital Portfolio 309 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) 313 Summary 316 Terms to Remember 317 Exercises 317 References

318

Index

321

1

Nature of Language

Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates.

— Bloch and Trager Inside This Chapter Introduction Meaning of Language

Learning Objectives This chapter will enable the reader to:

Nature of Language Scope of Language Dialect

INTRODUCTION Language is one of the most significant possessions of human beings. In fact, no other species have developed such a complex system of communication as the humans. We tend to express our thoughts effectively with the help of language and this ability of ours distinctly differentiates us from all other living beings. Preservation, enrichment, propagation and advancement of our civilization have been possible largely because of this skill we possess. Language is considered a systematic arrangement of words that help us in communicating our thoughts. People use different sounds and words to express different ideas or thoughts. To communicate a language, may be used in more than one form, viz., verbal communication, written communication and nonverbal communication, i.e. through body language.

2

English Language Teaching

Think!

According to H.E. Palmer, “language is a habit-forming process”. Argue for or against the statement. Give reasons for your argument.

Though English is spoken across the globe, it has several dialects depending upon the geographical locations. The dialects vary from one region to another, primarily because of differences in culture, beliefs, attitudes, environment and way of life. Taken together, these factors contribute to the evolution of dialects of a particular language. English as a language is no exception. Even though English is primarily spoken in the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia and New Zealand, people of these regions speak different dialects, have different accents and even use different words. Even within a country, there can be various dialects. For example, the United Kingdom itself has more than a dozen dialects, like northern, southern, east midlands, west midlands and so on. These dialects have further sub-dialects such as Yorkshire dialect (northern), Cockney dialect (southern) and so on.

MEANING OF LANGUAGE The word ‘language’ seems to have been derived from the Latin word, lingua, which means tongue. French terms langue and parole also bear impression of language (Fig. 1.1).

Fig. 1.1 Origin of the word ‘language’ Learning a language requires four basic skills—listening, speaking, reading and writing (Fig. 1.2).

Fig. 1.2 Basic skills of a language

Nature of Language

3

Language is both verbal as well as non-verbal. Non-verbal language largely implies body language. The verbal language is well-developed which can be used both orally and in written form (Fig. 1.3).

Fig. 1.3 Verbal and non-verbal language

DEFINITIONS OF LANGUAGE Some well-known definitions of language are given below. Ideas and feelings are the realizations but when these are related through mouth is known as language. — Plato A type of speech in which ties of union are created by a mere exchange of words. — Malinowski Language may be defined as the words and the methods of combining them for the expression of thought. — The Oxford English Dictionary Language most shows a man, speak that I may thee. — Ben Johnson Language is a means of communicating thoughts. — Allen Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols. — Edward Sapir

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English Language Teaching

Language is a set of human habits, the purpose of which is to give expression to thoughts and feelings. — O. Jespersen Each community is formed by the activity of language. — Leonard Bloomfield Language is the expression of ideas by means of which speech sounds are combined into words, words are combined into sentences and combination of sentences gives answering to ideas and thoughts. — Sweet Language is the entire complex of phenomenon associated with human vocal and auditory communication of emotions and ideas. — Gray Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-operates. — Bloch and Trager From the above definitions, it becomes clear that language is a set of commonly used symbols and sounds used to express thoughts and feelings within a social group. It is purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating by means of a system of voluntarily produced sounds and symbols. These symbols are, in the first instance, auditory and they are produced by our speech organs.

Think!

Language is a great source of socialization. Discuss how language helps you in the process of socialization.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A LANGUAGE A language has the following characteristics: 1. Wherever human beings exist, language exists. 2. There are no ‘primitive’ languages; all languages are equally complex and equally capable of expressing any idea. The vocabulary of any language can be expanded to include new words to express newer concepts. 3. All languages evolve with the passage of time. 4. All human languages utilize a finite set of discrete sounds or gestures that are combined to form meaningful elements or words, which themselves form an infinite set of possible sentences. 5. English grammar contains rules for the formation of words and sentences of similar kind. 6. Every spoken language includes discrete sound segments like p, n, or a, which can be defined by a finite set of sound properties or features. Every spoken language has a class of vowels and consonants. 7. Similar grammatical categories (for example, noun and verb) are found in all languages.

Nature of Language

5

8. There are semantic universals, such as ‘male’ or ‘female’, ‘animate’ or ‘human’, found in every language in the world. 9. Every language has a way of referring to the past, negating, forming questions issuing commands and so on. 10. Speakers of all languages are capable of producing and comprehending infinite set of sentences. 11. Any child, born anywhere in the world, within any racial, geographical, social, or economic heritage, is capable of learning whichever language he or she is exposed to.

Nature of Language Language is an arbitrary system of vocal symbols by means of which human beings interact and communicate in terms of their common cultural experience.

Language is Learnt Language is a form of behaviour which is essentially learnt. The infant knows no language. He or she is exposed to sounds around him or her. A child begins to learn a language by making babbling sounds and later on develops speech sounds of his or her group (Fig. 1.4). Gradually, meaningful words in the native language are learnt. This helps the child to communicate their immediate needs to the parents.

Fig. 1.4 Development of language in a child Thus, language is learnt largely through the process of imitation.

Language is a System A language system is complex and at the same time everything is well-structured in a language. The system of language functions through three major elements, viz., sounds, words and structures (Fig. 1.5). Human beings have vocal organs through which sounds are produced to form words.

Fig. 1.5

Essentials of a language

6

English Language Teaching

Language is a System of Symbols The system of language works through symbols, the symbols being the words. Symbols represent things and are not the thing themselves. The word ‘chair’ is not a chair; it stands for or rather represents a chair. Thus, the symbols of language have a two-fold aspect. They have the following components (Fig. 1.6): Sounds Meaning

Fig. 1.6 Language as a system of symbols

For communication, it is necessary that a meaning should be attached to the sound. Language functions effectively when its meaning of the words are known to all parties in a conversation.

Symbols of Language are Arbitrary The symbols of language are arbitrary and not based on any logic. A chair is called a chair not because there is any logical or natural relationship between the word ‘chair’ and the physical reality which we denote by it but because it is so called by tradition and convention. Similarly, in English, a certain animal is called horse, in French cheyal, and in Hindi ghora. None of these words is better related than any other to the reality of the animal. Hence, the symbols used in a language have meaning, but by themselves they do not convey any meaning. In English, three important steps are used to convey meaning: Order of words Forms of words Functions of words Let us take an example: Naresh gave me pens. In the above sentence, it is the order of the words that indicates that Naresh was the giver and I was receiver. The second form of the verb indicates that the action was performed and completed in the past, which the speaker is narrating. The suffix ‘s’ in the word ‘pens’ indicates the plurality of pen.

Language is for Communication Ben Johnson once said, “Speech is the instrument of society.” One of the most fundamental acts of society is the communication between the members of the group. In the pre-historic days, people communicated with each other through sign language or visual signals made with their body parts. With the passage of time, sound signals evolved taking the shape of standard recogonizable structure. For example, if a man was attacked by a wild animal, he would make a particular sound and others would come to his rescue. Gradually, speech sounds were developed and language came into existence for the purpose of communication.

Nature of Language

7

According to Sweet, “Language is the expression of ideas by means of which speech sounds are combined into words, words are combined into sentences and combination of sentences give answers to ideas and thoughts.” This is illustrated in Fig. 1.7.

Fig. 1.7 Expressing ideas through language Communication by means of language may be done through speech or writing. Communication through speech requires right pronunciation, vocabulary and intonation, while communication through writing requires proper arrangement of words as per the rules laid down by the grammar of the language to communicate correctly and effectively (Fig. 1.8).

Fig. 1.8

Communication by means of language

Language is Vocal Language is also observed as speech. Speech is fundamental while learning a language; reading and writing follow the former activity. There are many languages in the world that exist only in speech. They neither have written symbols nor a script; but it is difficult to come across any language that exists only in script and not in speech. This emphasizes the importance of speech. In our schools, the speech aspect is neglected and that is why our students find it difficult to speak English fluently. Language and its symbols are primarily meant for speaking. There are other types of symbols, which cannot be called vocal symbols.

8

English Language Teaching

For example, gestures signal and flags are visual symbols and beatings of drum, singing of bells are auditory symbols. They do not form language. Hence, all the sounds produced by the human vocal organs cannot be included in linguistic symbols, for example sneeze and cough have no symbolic value.

Language is Ever Changing The old order changed yielding place to new. — Lord Tennyson Dynamism is one of the essential characteristics of a living language. It is constantly changing and evolving. The ever-evolving aspect of English language becomes clear if we take into consideration some of the changes that have taken place. Some of these are as follows: In the 16th century, the sound /k/ was pronounced in words like know, knife, knowledge. However, this is no longer in use. Some words become old and obsolete. For example, the word ‘whom’ is being replaced by ‘who’. New words are coined according to the requirement of the people and changing patterns of dialogue. For example, the word ‘weblog’ was coined a few years back to define a website where a person writes regularly about events which interest them. ‘Web’ is derived from World Wide Web and ‘log’ stands for regular record of incidents. With the passage of time, the various new words were incorporated in the dictionary as acceptable vocabulary. Thus, we can conclude that language is an outcome of the socio-cultural environment where it exists and it must develop along with the various environmental factors where it originated and exists.

Language Reflects the Culture in which it Occurs The only basis for ‘correctness’ in a language is the usage of its native speakers. No language can stand in isolation. It exists with its users, who in turn exist within specific social groups and in specific situations. The cultural and social influences are reflected in their language. Every language has its own peculiar words, phrases, idioms and structures. Some languages have no parallel in any other language and thus it becomes difficult to translate a literary work from one language to another and yet retain its original essence.

Think!

How is language the flesh and blood of our culture? Discuss.

Language is Made of Habits When we speak we are not conscious of the positions of the tongue, lips or teeth. It is a matter of habit for us to arrange the words in order and to utter them correctly with proper stress and intonation.

Nature of Language

9

Since habits are acquired through practice, therefore, a language is learnt primarily by its use and not by rules. As Prof. H.A. Gleason said, “The native speaker uses this complex apparatus easily and without thought of the process.”

Language is a Skill Subject The power of expression in a language is a matter of skill rather than of knowledge, it is a power that grows by exercise, not by knowing merely meanings or rules. — Thompson and Wyatt Any language cannot be learnt simply by memorizing words. Though words are important, but they alone do not constitute the structure of the language. Words along with sounds and structures constitute a language. Hence, language is a skill subject to multiple factors such as listening, speaking, reading and writing (Fig. 1.9).

Fig. 1.9

Skills of a language

Implications of Nature of Language for Language Teacher A language teacher must be well-versed with the finer intricacies of the language as it will enable him or her to teach students about various characteristics and features of the language, as well as subtle nuances such as dialects, syntax structure etc. Below are few suggestions for the language teachers: Language is learnt: It is a skill-enhancing subject so the teacher should provide ample opportunities to a student to learn English through drill, practice and repetition. Language is an arbitrary system: The teacher should try to teach the language in English itself and proper attention should be paid to the correct pronunciation of various words. Language is primarily meant for speaking: Writing is the representation of what is spoken. Listening, speaking, reading and writing are the fundamentals of learning any language.

Think!

If you want to learn a foreign language, is thinking in that language absolutely essential?

Language is a system in which sounds, words and structures are equally important: Teaching English as a language in Indian classrooms has undergone vast changes. Study of phonetics, morphology and other aspects of English language have been included in most curriculums. Due importance has been given to the understanding of the basic elements of language, i.e.,

10

English Language Teaching

sound and structure. However, there is considerable influence of the mother tongue in the students’ speech which is known as mother tongue influence, or MTI. Language is dynamic: An English language teacher should use the following methods for effective classroom teaching: (i) Dynamic methods of teaching, e.g., structural approach (ii) Descriptive grammar rather than prescriptive grammar (iii) Flexible rules of language (as language keeps on changing) No two languages are spoken alike: An English language teacher should avoid literal translation from the vernacular to English while teaching. The speech habits acquired in the vernacular should not be allowed to be carried onto English. An English language teacher teaches us meanings of new words and structures by associating them with the situations in which they are used. Language is a system: An English language teacher should follow the steps given below: (i) Proceed from ‘the known to the unknown’ and from ‘the concrete to the abstract’. (ii) Select and grade the study material. (iii) Teach vocabulary and structures wisely. There are no exact synonyms in a language: The teacher should explain the shades of differences between the meanings of words as no two words are exact synonyms. For example, the students should know the differences in the meanings of want, desire, longing and so on.

Conclusion To acquire proficiency in a language, we require Drill and repetition Thinking in the same language Regular conversation in English. So, an English language teacher should Have a thorough knowledge of linguistics, phonetics and language structure Stress on oral practice during the early stages of learning Students must follow the fundamental order of learning a language, i.e., listening—speaking— reading—writing.

SCOPE OF LANGUAGE A language has the following potentialities: Language represents a fundamental expression of social identity. Language delimits the influence of social groups. Language helps to connect with the external world.

Nature of Language

11

Dialect A dialect is a social variety of language, distinguished by grammar, vocabulary or pronunciation, especially in a variety of speech differing from the standard or speech pattern of the culture where it exists. The term is applied often to regional speech patterns. In popular usage, the word ‘dialect’ is sometimes used to refer to a lesser-known language, i.e., most commonly a regional language, especially one that is unwritten or not standardized. The number of speakers and the geographical area covered by them can be of arbitrary size. A dialect might contain several sub-dialects. It is a complete system of verbal communication; it can be oral or signed, but not necessarily written, with its own vocabulary and grammar. A dialect that is associated with a particular social class can be termed as sociolect. A dialect is distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation and phonology, including prosody. The term accent is used in cases where a distinction can be made only in terms of pronunciation.

Register Register pertains to the language spoken by a certain class of people. Groups of words which are commonly used by people working in the same profession are called register. For example, people in the teaching profession use words like books, students, blackboard and so on. Similarly, doctors have their own register of language and farmers have their own.

Summary Language is the best possession of mankind. It is unique in comparison to other forms of communication used by the animal kingdom. The study of language and linguistics developed into a science centuries ago. With the passage of time, specialized vocabularies also evolved. Language is essential for communicating thought. Human beings can express their feelings clearly and effectively with the help of language. It is the expression of ideas by means of which speech sounds are combined into words, words into sentences and combination of sentences gives answers to ideas and thoughts. All languages utilize a finite set of discrete sounds (or gestures) that are combined to form meaningful elements or words, which themselves form an infinite set of possible sentences. Dynamism is one of the essential characteristics of language. It is constantly changing and developing. While teaching English Language, a teacher should Proceed from ‘the known to the unknown’ and from ‘the concrete to the abstract’. Select and grade the material. Teach syntax and structures wisely.

12

English Language Teaching

A teacher should be well-versed in grammar and all other aspects of English language to be able to teach English. Thus, we can say that Language makes existence of society possible. Language makes it possible to understand the speaker. Language delimits social groups. Language connects with the external world.

Terms to Remember Dialect A dialect is a variety of a language that is characteristic of a particular group of the language’s speakers. The term is applied most often to regional speech patterns. Language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-operates. Register Register pertains to the language spoken by a certain class of people. The group of words which are commonly used by the people working in the same profession is called register.

Exercises Short Answer Questions (word limit 150) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is language? Explain in ten sentences. Enumerate the distinctive features of the English language. What are the misconceptions about language? Give some suggestions for teachers regarding teaching the English language. Differentiate between dialect and register.

Long Answer Questions (word limit 1000) 1. Write a detailed note on distinctive features of the English language. 2. Give a comprehensive definition of language. Discuss the linguistic principles explaining the nature of the language.

Note: Additional resources related to this chapter are available at www.mhhe.com/navita_arora

2

Importance and Functions of Language

English language is the greatest gift of goddess Saraswati to India.

— C. Rajagopalachari Inside This Chapter Introduction Historical Background to English Language Position of the English Language after Independence Importance of the English Language in India Advantages of English as a Language Functions of a Language

Learning Objectives This chapter will enable the reader to:

INTRODUCTION Riding the crest of technology and globalization, English dominates the world as no language ever has. It has acquired the status of an international language and is officially used for communication across the continents and India is no exception. English, as a language for communication, continues to play a significant role in India. In India, English is the lingua franca. It is the language of higher education, of public administration, of law courts and of Commerce.

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English Language Teaching

IMPORTANCE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN INDIA English is our imperialistic legacy from the British and one of the major reasons why we find it difficult to acknowledge its indigenous nature. However, it cannot be ignored as it has permeated all walks of life. It has acquired an even more paramount role due to its rising international popularity and its role in bridging international boundaries. John Stuart Mill once said: “Language is the light of the mind.” In the words of Edward Sapir, the famous linguist, “Language is not only a vehicle for the expression of thoughts, perceptions, sentiments, and values characteristics of a community; it also represents a fundamental expression of social identity.” Language is the systematic means of communication by means of conventional symbols or sounds. It is essentially the mental faculty or power of vocal communication. According to some linguists, language is learnt through practice and habit. The more one is exposed to the use of language, the better one learns. The historical circumstances of India, gave its people an easy access to master English language. Let us examine the importance of English as a language.

Think!

“Language is the maker and unmaker of human civilization.” Discuss.

1. Educational importance of English In modern Indian society, English is no longer considered as the language of the colonizers. Today, English is the second most widely spoken and understood language in India after Hindi. Major Indian national dailies are published in English. Higher studies in Indian universities are conducted in English. Education at primary and secondary levels is no exception. 2. Better career opportunities Globalisation and economic development across the world has generated abundant employment opportunities. With multinational corporations (MNCs) expanding their operations across the globe, good command over English language has become essential for career progression. MNCs are always on a lookout for ‘linguists’. As the world moves towards an economic integration, a person’s fluency in multiple languages is highly regarded. Rapidly growing ties between India and the West has compelled Indians to learn English, especially businesspeople and officials seeking to build on those ties. The growing BPO sector in India bears testimony to this fact, since India has become the major destination for outsourcing due to its vast pool of English speaking population. 3. English as a window to the world English is a globally spoken and recognized language. It truly acts as a connecting barrier and informs us about the advancement and progress happening all over the world in the various fields, such as science, technology, medicine or any other human activity. With the absence of English,

Importance and Functions of Language

15

it would have been difficult for us to access this vast reservoir of information and our standards of scholarship would have suffered. This in turn would have been detrimental for India’s socioeconomic development. 4. English as an International Language English is a West Germanic language that originated from the Anglo-Frisian and Old-Saxon dialects brought to Britain by Germanic invaders in the 5th century AD. The word English is derived from the one of the Germanic tribes named Angles. Of the two dialects, the latter came to dominate. Later, certain linguistic shifts were introduced in English following the Norman invasion. Modern English, which we know today, dates back to the sixteenth century. In the late seventeenth and early eighteenth century, following the economic, political and most importantly the imperialist ambitions of Britain, English language was widely dispersed around the world. English served as the lingua franca for the colonies of the British Empire. In the postcolonial period, some of the newly created states opted to continue English as a major language, despite having multiple indigenous languages. With the passage of time, English went on to become the leading language of international discourse. By the twentieth century English earned the status of lingua franca across many regions of the world. The British Empire might be in full retreat after the handover of Hong Kong. But from Bengal in Asia to Belize in the South Americas, from Las Vegas to Lahore, English has long acquired the status of first global lingua franca. Though English is spoken as the native language in United Kingdom, Ireland, United States, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa; most countries across the world use English as the second most important language for communication. Today, English language has approximately 375 million native speakers across the globe making it the third largest language spoken after Mandarin Chinese and Spanish. However, if we combine both the native and the non-native speakers, roughly one billion people can speak English, making it probably the most spoken language across the world. English as a language for communication gained further impetus, with the advent of the internet. The social network boom established through various web based applications re-emphasized the power of English as a global language.

Think!

During the last decade, a large number of English medium schools have been set up in India. Now, more and more people are keen to send their wards to these schools. How far is it useful? Discuss.

Mahatma Gandhi had said, “English is the language of international commerce; it is the language of diplomacy and it contains many a rich literacy treasures, it gives us an introduction to western thoughts and culture.”

Think!

What is the difference between English as a second language (ESL) and English as a foreign language (EFL)?

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English Language Teaching

ADVANTAGES OF ENGLISH AS A LANGUAGE Common link language: Being a multilingual society, it was very much necessary to unify a vast country like India through the medium of a common language. Hindi, in Devanagari script was adopted as the official language by the Indian constitution in 1950. However, the main purpose was not served because of the geographical limitations of Hindi. Consequently English succeeded and unofficially became a means of inter-state communication. The Parliament Act of 1965 declared that English would continue to be used as an associate language of the Union. Later, English was given a suitable place in the three-language formula. Administrative language: Since the British colonized India, way back in seventeenth century, English, the language of the British Isles, was adopted as the administrative language. Bureaucracy, judiciary, trade and commerce during the days of the Raj relied heavily on the usage of English which lasted for two centuries. Even after India gained Independence, English continued to hold an important position in India. Slowly, with the passage of time, English became the medium of instruction for verbal and written communication and all kinds of proceedings, from legal to commercial.

Language of trade and commerce: Western education through the medium of English truly benefitted the Indian sub-continent. It has been successful in producing a large pool of professionally qualified workforce adept in the use of language. Be it the IT industry or medicine, engineering, finance, shipping or the BPO Sector, Indian human resource is valued and in demand throughout the world.

English as a language of higher education: Major modern work in medicine, technology, economics, engineering, mathematics, geography, science, politics and many other subjects are studied in English. English literature is full of works of high order, it would be futile to ignore the works of Shakespeare, Milton Shelly, Dickens Hardy, etc., In fact, English is an important library language and plays a vital role in assisting higher education. Although a number of universities have switched over to regional languages as a medium of instruction but it has been limited primarily to the field of humanities.

FUNCTIONS OF A LANGUAGE Language is an extraordinary tool for mankind. It enables us to communicate, create, reason, share our ideas and so on. There are three generally recognized basic functions of a language. Though, identifying these three functions is an oversimplification, but it helps to understand the complexity of language.

Informative Language Function This essentially deals with the communication and sharing of information: The informative functions affirm or deny propositions.

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This function is used to describe the world or reason about it (e.g., whether a state of affairs is true or false). This function has truth value attached to it; they are important for logical deduction and reasoning.

Expressive Language Function This function deals with emotions or attitudes of the writer (or speaker), about the subject, and evokes feelings in the reader (or listener). Poetry is the best example, but much of the ordinary language discourse also expresses the emotions, feelings or attitudes. Expressive discourse is best regarded as neither true nor false, thus, the nature of ‘fictional statements’ is an interesting area of inquiry.

Directive Language Function This function uses language for the purpose of causing (or preventing) overt actions. The directive function is most commonly found in commands and requests. Directive language is not normally considered true or false (although logic of commands is visible). Example: ‘Close the window.’ Several other uses of language can be mentioned. Table 2.1 gives examples of the various function usages. Table 2.1: Usual function /Sentence type

Various function usages of English Informative

Expressive

Directive

Assertion /Declarative

The room is cool

I had a nice time I would like some coffee

Question/Interrogative

But isn’t this room 222A Isn’t that great

Don’t you want to help me

Command/Imperative

Read pages 1–10 for the Have a nice day test

Shut the windows

Exclamation/exclamatory

The universe is bounded I’m really glad!

It’s late

Summary In India, English was introduced with the coming of East India Company. The British came to India for trade and commerce but soon they realized the need for educated Indians

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English Language Teaching

for helping them in their work. Missionaries came along with them for propagating their religion and for western style of educating. With independence, a controversy began about the importance of English. People like C. Rajagopalachari favoured the teaching of English. But there were persons who under the influence of ‘nationalism’ strongly opposed teaching English to the people of India. They argued that English being a foreign language was responsible for a great waste of students’ time and energy. They declared that students could learn and express their ideas more easily in their mother tongue. English has today reached a platform where it gets regarded as a truly international language. It is always remarked that “employers remember linguists”. Multinational corporations are looking for linguists these days. As we move toward global economic integration, the knowledge of other languages has become a sort after skill. English being an international language keeps us updated about the advancement and progress happening all over the world in multiple fields. Trade, commerce and industry rely heavily on the use of English. In these fields, efficiency and success both depend upon adequate knowledge of English. The three important categories of functions of a language are: Informative function: It deals with communication of information. Expressive function: This function reports emotions, feelings and attitudes. Directive function: This function uses language for the purpose of causing (or preventing) overt actions.

Terms To Remember Downward filtration theory Policy adopted by the colonizers to educate Indians in English in order to come up with a class of Indians, who were truly educated in Western education. Orientalists-Anglicists controversy Controversy surrounding which language should be adopted as the lingua franca of India, English or any other vernacular.

Exercises Short Answer Questions (word limit 150) 1. 2. 3. 4.

“English is a unifying link within the country.” Discuss. Write a note on ‘functions of language’. Write a note on the future of English language in India. What do you mean by cultural importance of English?

Importance and Functions of Language

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Long Answer Questions (word limit 1000) 1. “English has been playing, is playing and will play a significant role in India’s national life.” Discuss. 2. “In free India, the importance of English is more than what it used to be in British India.” Discuss. 3. “English is the language of international commerce; it is the language of diplomacy and it contains many a rich literary treasures, it gives us an introduction to western thoughts and culture.” Discuss this statement made by Mahatma Gandhi regarding the English language. 4. Discuss the importance and functions of the English language.

Note: Additional resources related to this chapter are available at www.mhhe.com/navita_arora

3

Linguistic Principles

— Robert Paul Inside This Chapter Introduction General Principles Governing the Teaching of a Language Implications of Linguistic Principles of Teaching–Learning for English Teachers Conclusion

Learning Objectives This chapter will enable the reader to:

INTRODUCTION According to the linguistic principle, a thought can be expressed by a sentence in any natural language and anything which can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in any other language as well. Experts advocate the principle of affability, according to which a natural language can express anything that mankind can think of. A natural language is supposedly capable of rendering the totality of our experience—mental or physical— and, consequently, able to express all our sensations, perceptions

Linguistic Principles

21

and abstractions up to the question as to why is there something instead of nothing. It is true that no verbal language ever achieves total affability, for example, think of describing in words the smell of rosemary. We always need to supplement language with ostentations, expressive gestures, and so-called ‘tonemic’ features. Nevertheless, of all semiotic systems, language is the most expressive, and nothing rivals in its affability.

Think!

‘The power of expression in language is a matter of skill rather than of merely meaning of rule.’ Discuss.

Linguistic principles can be broadly divided into two:

Fig. 3.1

Word break-up of the concept of linguistic principle.

Linguistics is the scientific study of language and methods of communications. Human language is unique in nature because it is a symbolic system of communication which is learnt. Symbols are sounds which have some meaning assigned to them by users. The meaning is arbitrarily assigned. For example, the word “book” does not anyway physically resemble the object it stands for. An advantage of language is that it is infinitely flexible. A person listening to someone else speaking must put together what is being said in order to completely understand. Meanings can be changed and new symbols can be created. Everyday new words are being invented and the meanings of old words are evolving and changing. Modern linguists hold several basic assumptions. These assumptions are sometimes referred to as principles of linguistics. They are least accepted and accounted for linguistic research. Now, let us look at the general principles governing the teaching of a language.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE TEACHING OF A LANGUAGE Teaching and learning of a language is a matter of practice. A teacher can adopt several methods while teaching a language. However, there are certain principles which help in teaching the language effectively. Some of the principles are discussed below in details.

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English Language Teaching

Principle of Naturalness A child learns the mother tongue due to exposure to mother tongue. So, for getting best results, a teacher should focus on the following points—

developed in the learner. proceed to the sentences.

Principle of Learning by Self-Doing It is said that one learns maximum by doing. Therefore, the practice sessions and drills hold paramount importance in language learning. Model reading, imitation reading, silent reading, writing and spelling practice are essential activities for teaching a language.

Principle of practice Edward Thorndike states “language is a skill which depends on continuous practice.” It is a habit formation process and habits are formed through repetition. Robert Lado opines that language students must be engaged in practice during most of their learning times. This principle has a psychological justification since other things being equal to the quality and performance of learning are in direct proportion to the amount of practice. The various skills of language learning namely, listening, speaking, reading and writing will be properly learnt through practice and drills.

Think!

‘Reading introduces passivity and speaking introduces activity.’ Discuss.

Principle of imitation “When we learn our first language we face the world directly and learn to clothe it with speech, when we learn a second language, we tend to filter the universe through the language already known.” — Robert Paul Language is best learnt through natural imitation. A student learns or acquires the style of speaking and writing as demonstrated by his teacher. Therefore, it is essential that teachers be absolutely thorough with the subject.

Think!

‘A child who hears three languages, instead of one, early enough, learns the unit of all the three without added efforts.’ Discuss.

Principle of motivation and interest Any language apart from the vernacular requires a lot of interest and motivation to be learnt. It is the teacher’s duty to ensure that their lessons are interesting for the students. Herbart has suggested the following rules for making teaching sessions interesting:

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Teaching sessions should comprise activity-centered lessons. Deductive and inductive methods should be followed while teaching grammar. Interactive sessions should be conducted and students should be encouraged to participate in them.

Principle of Speaking It is said that a language can be learnt by maximum usage of auditory capabilities as it allows for correct pronunciation, speaking skill development and also generates interest and motivation through active involvement. It is of utmost importance to make the language sessions interactive and engaging for the students.

Principle of Ratio and Sequence Teaching and learning of language has two main aspects—expressing and receiving. It involves a sequence and a ratio. According to Palmer, “The principle of proportion does not necessarily imply equality of treatment or even a fixed standard of ratio; it simply means that all items in the whole range of subjects and aspects must receive an appropriate degree of attention so that the student’s knowledge of them may ultimately form a harmonious whole.” Thus, there should be proper coordination in teaching different aspects of a foreign language. For example, while teaching a prose lesson, grammar aspects may be concomitantly discussed.

The Principle of Context and Situation Learning a language through context and situation becomes easier. The fundamentals of learning a language comprise vocabulary, structure and grammar. Each aspect should be built upon and taught in context of the other.

Situational approach:

A structure or word becomes meaningful for the learner when it is used in an appropriate situation. The child learns its mother tongue in life situations. A foreign language, like English should also be taught or learnt in situations. The teacher can use a particular situation:To give practice in the structure and to relate it to its meaning. To build an extensive vocabulary. Situations can be built in the following ways as shown in Figure 3.2:

Fig. 3.2

The principle of context and situation

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English Language Teaching

Principle of Selection Learning a language does not mean knowing all the words and structure. Therefore, we need to select language items. Structures and vocabulary can be selected through the following principles. Range Coverage Availability Teach ability Learn ability 1. Frequency: It means how often a particular item is used. 2. Range: The range of an item is the multiplicity of situation in which it is found. For example, the word ‘set’, ‘come’ can be used in different situation. 3. Coverage: It means a word conveying multiple meanings. For example, we use the word seat to displace chair, bench, desk, stool, and sofa. 4. Availability: It refers to the items which are easily available. For example, blackboard, shelf and drawer. 5. Teach ability: It means the items which can be easily taught by the teacher. 6. Learn ability: Items which are easy from the learner’s point of view.

Think!

‘A good teacher is always in search of new principles of teaching. He/she is always keen to make use of them in teaching.’ Discuss.

Principle of gradation: Gradation means putting the language items in order of presentation. Gradation involves grouping and sequencing as shown in Figure 3.3.

Fig. 3.3

Linguistic Principles

Table 3.1:

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Tabular representation of grouping and examples

Grouping

Example

Phonetic grouping

In this grouping, minimal pairs (pairs of words differing in one sound only) are taught together

Sea, tea, feed.

Cat, pet, bat

Lexical grouping

In this grouping, words that can be In the context of a ‘school’ teachers, used in the same situation or context students, principal, chair, classroom are taught together. etc words can be used.

Grammatical grouping

In this grouping, group of structural My age is _________. items can be taught together. Your age is _________. His age is _________. Her age is _________.

Semantic grouping

In this grouping, words that convey E.g. The idea of shelter can be given similar meanings are grouped under by house, hotel, inn, tent etc. one head.

Structure grouping

This grouping includes how to select Sound into words, words into phases, items that are fit for each other. phases into sentences and sentences into context.

Or, this can be represented as:

Fig. 3.4

Sequence: Types of sequencing

Examples

Lexical sequencing

Means words follow which

This, that, here, there, up, down

Grammatical sequencing

Which structure follow which

I am throwing a pen. I am throwing a pen to you.

Semantic sequencing

A word having different meaning. The ball is there. There are many balls.

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English Language Teaching

Maxims of teaching: Oxford Dictionary defines the maxims of teaching as, “Maxims are general truths drawn from science of experience.” The maxims are universal and trustworthy so, every teacher is expected to have knowledge of different maxims as it helps them to proceed systematically. The different maxims of teaching are briefly explained below:From Known to Unknown:—It is easier for learners to understand something which is known and relevant to them as it is easier to relate. Therefore while teaching a new language one should proceed from known to unknown. From Simple to Complex:—A teacher should present simple things to the students and gradually move on to the complex type. By learning simple things, they feel encouraged and ready to learn the complex matter. From Concrete to Abstract:—Lessons are best learnt when they start from concrete and object whereas abstract things involve imagination.

Think!

‘Our lesson ought to start in the concrete and end in abstract.’ Discuss.

From Induction to Deduction:—Induction means drawing a conclusion from a set of examples whereas deduction is its opposite. From Psychological to Logical:—While teaching, the teacher should keep in mind the

Fig. 3.5 Maxims of teaching

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From Actual to Representative:—For teaching effectively, the actual objects should be shown especially to young learners. Representative things in the form of pictures, models, etc., should be used for the advanced learners. From Near to a far:—First of all, a child should be fully acquainted with his immediate environment and then gradually taught about those things which are far from his immediate environment. From Whole to Part:—First of all, a teacher should sum up the lesson and then take up From Definite to Indefinite:—In teaching, definite things should be taught first because the learners have faith in them. Gradually, the knowledge of indefinite things should be given.

Summary Good teachers use the maxims of teaching for yielding better results. The teacher should keep the maxims in his hand and appoint himself as their master. Swami Vivekananda said, “Arise, awake and stop not till the goal is achieved”. A good teacher is in search of new principles of teaching so that the goal of quality education could be fulfilled. The following are the implications of linguistic principles of teaching–learning for English teachers: The principle of habit formation and practice and drill tell the English teacher that language learning is a skill. So, the teacher provides the students with a lot of practice in listening, speaking, reading and writing. An English teacher teaches vocabulary and structures after selecting and grading them properly. The knowledge of the principle of situational approach helps the English teacher through the situations for making its learning effectively. Motivation to use a language plays a very important role in learning a language. The learning of English becomes effective when they are properly motivated to learn it. The knowledge of the principle of speech before reading and writing helps the English teacher begin his teaching of English with speech instead of reading and writing. A good English teacher uses the maxims of teaching for yielding better results. The English teacher knowing the principle of imitation provides a good model of speech before the students. Linguistic principles of teaching and learning are devised by authorities after years of hard work, observation and experimentation. After all these efforts, we can make teaching of English easy and interesting for all.

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English Language Teaching

Terms to Remember Linguistic

It is the scientific study of human language and communications.

Symbols These are the sounds that have meanings given to them by the users. Frequency Range

It means how often a particular item is used.

The range of an item is the multiplicity of situation in which it found.

Coverage It means a word conveying a number of meanings, for example we use the word ‘seat’ to displace chair, bench, desk, stool, and sofa. Availability and drawer.

It means the items that can be conveniently taught, for example blackboard, shelf

Teach ability

It means the items that are easy from teacher’s point of view.

Learn ability

It entails the items that are easy for learner’s point of view.

Gradation It means putting the language items in order of presentation. Gradation involves grouping and sequence. Maxims Maxims are general truths drawn from science of experience.

Exercises Short Answer Questions (word limit 150) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is the natural way of teaching a language? Explain multiple lines of approach. Explain the principle of selection and gradation. What is the usefulness of simple to complex maxim? Write the importance of the maxim ‘known to unknown’ in teaching English.

Long Answer Questions (word limit 1000) 1. Discuss the general principles of language learning. 2. What do you mean by maxim of teaching? Discuss the various maxims of teaching. 3. Discuss the implications of linguistic principles of teaching–learning for English teachers.

4

Aims and Objectives of Teaching English — Galileo Galilei

Inside This Chapter Introduction Aims of Teaching English Teaching English at Various Levels Conclusion

Learning Objectives This chapter will enable the reader to:

INTRODUCTION English language occupies a different status in India as compared to others. For example, in a Western European country like Germany, English is a foreign language; but in India it is a second language. As such, it is widely used in media, administration, education, business and other sectors. Hence, the main aim of teaching English in India is to help students acquire complete command over the language. This implies that students should not only be able to understand spoken English, but read, write and converse in English fluently. In the words of Thompson and Wyatt, ‘It is necessary that the

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English Language Teaching

Indian people should not only understand English when it is spoken but also…able to speak and write it.’

Think!

English should be taught as a language and not as literature. Discuss.

AIMS OF TEACHING ENGLISH The major objectives of teaching English in India are to enable the students to understand to written English enable the students to understand to spoken English enable the students to understand to speak English enable the students to understand to write English The learner has to acquire these four skills which is possible by practice and not by learning. The major aims of teaching English can be broadly divided into two, viz., Reception and Expression which has further sub-divisions. Figure 4.1 given below underlines the key objectives of teaching English.

Fig. 4.1

Aims and objectives of teaching English

Aims and Objectives of Teaching English

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Reception Reception refers to the ability of the students to respond to activities such as listening and silent reading.

(a) Listening:

Listening is the basis of learning a language because learning a language largely depends on imitation and practice. The more a teacher converses in the language which is being taught, the faster the students will be able to learn the language. In this case, radio, tape recorder, record player can also be used to hold listening practice sessions for the students.

(b) Silent Reading: The activity of silent reading demands high concentration. A student is required to read a text with meticulous attention. Then only he or she will be able to grasp the exact idea behind the text.

Think!

Practice in hearing should precede and provide matter for practice in speaking. Discuss.

Expression Expression happens to be an important aspect of learning a language. It refers to the ability of the students to express themselves in the language they are learning. Students learning a language must be able to express themselves in the language. Expression usually comprises three major skills, such as speaking, reading and writing which are as explained below.

(a) Speaking:

Speaking is the most important means of expressing a language. The more fluently a person can speak in a language, the more he can express himself in a better way. Speaking in turn depends largely upon the listening ability. As students constantly listen to a language, they are able to grasp it faster. It is advisable that the teacher provides ample opportunities to the students to speak in the language more often which they are learning. However, while emphasizing on the speaking skills a teacher should always lay stress on pronunciation and intonation.

(b) Loud Reading: Francis Bacon once said ‘reading maketh a full man’. Indeed, reading as a skill is very important in the overall process of language learning. While learning a language, it is a good idea to engage the students in loud reading. This helps in the following: Improvement of pronunciation Improvement of intonation Removal of hesitation Students should be encouraged to practice both silent reading as well as loud reading. Both the activities demand high levels of concentration and are important in their own way in sharpening each language learning skill. Loud reading in particular helps the students to grasp the idea and get a full understanding of English as a language.

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(c) Writing: Just as reading makes a full man, writing makes an exact man. Mastery over the writing skill completes the idea of expressing in a particular language. Since, writing happens to be a very powerful means of expression, the teacher should emphasize on writing. He or she should give ample opportunity to the students to cultivate writing skills. More importantly the students should be encouraged to practice original writing, to be able to think out of the box and write from their own ideas and perceptions. Thomson and Wyatt suggest ways for co-coordinating several types of work as follows: Practice in hearing should precede and provide matter for practice in speaking. Speaking should precede and provide matter for practice in speaking. Reading should precede and provide matter for writing. Reading should provide matter for elucidating rules and setting exercise in grammar.

Conclusion Learning a language depends upon the mastery of all the four skills. Each skill is important in its own way. So students need to master over the reception as well as expression ability. Each of these skills should be given proper attention while being taught. Their co-ordination should lead to a unified result.

Think!

In English every skill has its own importance and mastery in one skill cannot title a person man of English language.

TEACHING ENGLISH AT VARIOUS LEVELS English as a language is taught at various levels. These include the junior level comprising grades from nursery to grade eight; senior level consisting of grades nine to twelve and the undergraduate level as given below: junior level (grades vi, vii and viii) senior level (grades ix, x ,xi, xii) undergraduate level (B.A. English)

Teaching English at the Junior Level Teaching English at the junior level may not be easy as it seems to be. The teacher has to take special care while teaching. He or she should keep in mind the mental age of the students and use simple sentences while conversing. Jargons should be strictly avoided while teaching. Given below are some of the points that a teacher should keep in mind while teaching English at the junior level. Students should be able to understand if a native speaker speaks English, which is not above his level.

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Acquire a limited vocabulary which is enough to help them in the use of the language that he makes. Acquire reading ability so that they can read the material appropriate for their level. They should be able to frame short, simple sentences to express through speech and writing. Speak with a pronunciation that is acceptable. Respond to short conversational questions. Write English legibly and coherently using proper punctuation and correct spelling. Use English when they have to respond to calls, requests, greeting and so on.

Teaching English at the Senior Level Teaching English at a senior level is different from that of teaching English at junior level. While teaching English at senior level a teacher should ensure certain points as given below: Students at the end of the secondary stage should be able to speak English fluently and accurately. Fluency implies acquisition of a reasonable standard in speech habits which means speaking with an acceptable pronunciation and intonation. They should be able to speak freely. They should think in English and speak it with ease and frequently. They should be able to express their ideas in English classroom, at home and in society. They should be able to respond and react to situations actively and not remain only a passive listener. They should acquire the ability to understand the native speakers and also be able to respond to them. They should be able to compose freely and independently in speech and writing. They should be able to read books with understanding. They should also be able to read newspapers and periodicals. They should acquire a vocabulary of 2500 words approximately and that should include frequent and choicest English phrases and idioms. They should be able to use reference material viz. encyclopedia, dictionaries, reference books, etc. when they stand in need thereof.

Teaching English at Undergraduate Level Teaching English at the undergraduate level especially in an Indian classroom is very different form that of teaching the same at both junior and senior levels in schools. In the words of Palmer, “To aim at literature is to miss the way to language. To aim at language is to pave the way to literature.” At the undergraduate level, students of English work upon their literary sense and critical thinking more than acquiring the basic language skills. It is through the study of literature that students end up sharpening their language skills. Teaching English in an Indian classroom at the undergraduate level poses many challenges. This is because; most of the prescribed authors or poets are either British or American. Though most

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of the texts transcend the barriers of time and national boundaries, but the cultural context and locations sometimes offer special challenges for the students, who essentially end up reading such texts as an outsider. For example, an Indian student may recite Wordsworth’s Daffodils but how many Indian students have actually come across “A host of golden daffodils; beside the lake”? It is the situations that the classics deal with which has universal appeal cutting across borders and time. Keeping these challenges in mind, English teaching underwent some modifications in the recent past. New teaching methods were adopted along with modified syllabi. Along with European and American writers, Indian writers were included in the curriculum. These included not only Indian writers who write in English but major Indian writers who write in other languages were being widely read in translation.

Summary The main aim of teaching is to help students acquire command over English. Students should be able to master the major skills of language learning, i.e., reading, writing, speaking and listening. These can be acquired through reception and expression. Reception includes listening and silent reading and in expression we include speaking, loud reading and writing. English is taught at various levels right from nursery school to the university level. Each level has a different way of teaching method.

Terms to Remember Reception Reception refers to the ability of the students to respond to activities such as listening and silent reading. Expression

It refers to the ability of the students to express them in the language they are learning.

Silent Reading

The activity where the student reads a text on his or her own.

Loud Reading This refers to the activity where a student reads aloud a particular text.

Exercises Short Answer Questions (word limit 150) 1. Write the aims of teaching English according to Thompson and Wyatt.

Aims and Objectives of Teaching English

2. Discuss:—

3. Write aim of teaching English at junior level 4. Write aim of teaching English at senior level

Long Answer Questions (word limit 1000) 1. Discuss the aims of teaching English in India. 2. Which aim of teaching English is most important and why?

35

5

Stating Objectives in Behavioural Terms — P. Gurrey

Inside This Chapter Difference between Goals and Objectives Types of Objectives Characteristics of Objectives Parts of Behavioural Objective Advantages of Behavioural Objectives Taxonomy of Educational Objectives Bloom’s Taxonomy Cognitive Domain Affective Domain Psychomotor Domain Conclusion

Learning Objectives This chapter will enable the reader to:

INTRODUCTION Goals are broad, generalized statements about what is to be learned. Think of them as a target to be reached, or “hit.”

The Difference between Goals and Objectives Though we tend to use goals and objectives as synonyms, there are certain differences between the two. Table 5.1 highlights the differences between the two.

Stating Objectives in Behavioural Terms

37

Table 5.1: Goals (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

Objectives

Goals are broad (i) Objectives are hard-fought Goals are general intentions (ii) Objectives are specific Goals are intangible (iii) Objectives are tangible Goals are abstract (iv) Objectives are concrete Goals cannot be validated (v) Objectives can be validated

OBJECTIVES Objectives are something that someone is trying to achieve. Objectives are specific, outcome-based, measurable, and describe the learner’s behaviour after instruction.

Types of Objectives The two common types of objectives are Learner objectives—these reflect what the learner should know or be able to do at the end of the learning period Instructional objectives—these reflect what the instructor intends to accomplish. Instructional objectives may also be called performance objectives, behavioural objectives, or simply objectives. All of these terms are used interchangeably.

Characteristics of Objectives The characteristics of objectives are listed below:

Specific: Objectives are very specific. This means that they should describe precisely what the learner is expected to do. Outcome-based: Objectives are outcome-based. This means that the objective is going to state what the learner should be able to do after the instruction is complete. The process of how the instruction happens is not considered in an objective.

Measurable: Objectives are measurable. This means that objectives should describe learning outcomes that can be measured. Describe student behaviour:

Objectives describe student behaviours. This means that objectives should relate what the student should be able to do after the instruction.

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Hence the behavioural objectives: These reflect what the learner might be expected to do differently (e.g., change in behaviour) as a result of what has been learned. These objectives indicate the specific behaviours students must demonstrate to indicate that learning has occurred.

Think!

Discuss the meaning of objectives in behavioural terms.

Parts of Behavioural Objective 1. Student Behaviour:—skill or knowledge to be gained (e.g., vocabulary words) and the action or skill the student is able to do (e.g., define, label, categorize, analyze, design, evaluate, etc.) Examples: Students will add two-digit numbers; Students will define the vocabulary words identified in bold print in the first story. 2. Conditions of Performance:—under what circumstances or context will the behaviour be performed Examples: In an oral presentation; without the use of notes 3. Performance Criteria:—how well is the behaviour is to done; compared to what standard Examples: 80 out of 100; containing all components discussed in class.

Advantages of Behavioural Objectives The advantages of behavioural objectives are listed below: They are easier to categorize by domain (Cognitive, affective, physical/kinesthetic/tactile) They are more easily evaluated. (usually by objective methods.) May easily be designated for horizontal enrichment or vertical acceleration into categories of must know, need to know, nice to know or categories like: introduced, developed, mastered In general, learner objectives are more effective than instructional objectives. In other words, it is much more effective to state activity objectives in terms of what learners should be able to know or do at the end of the learning period, rather than what the instructor plans to do in the process of presenting the course.

Think!

Which one is better? Objectives of teaching English or Objectives of teaching English in behavioural terms

TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, often called Bloom’s Taxonomy, is a classification of the different objectives and skills that educators set for students (learning objectives). The taxonomy was proposed in 1956 by Benjamin Bloom, an educational psychologist at the University of Chicago.

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39

Bloom’s (and his colleagues’) initial attention was focused on the ‘Cognitive Domain’, The ‘Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook II, The Affective Domain’ (Bloom, Masia, Krathwohl) as the title implies, deals with the detail of the second domain, the ‘Affective Domain’, and was published in 1964. Various people suggested detail for the third ‘Psychomotor Domain’, which explains why this domain detail varies in different representations of the complete Bloom Taxonomy. The three most popularly referenced versions of the Psychomotor Domain seem to be those of RH Dave (1967/70), EJ Simpson (1966/72), and AJ Harrow (1972).

Definitions of Bloom’s Taxonomy Taxonomy means ‘a set of classification principles’, or ‘structure’, and domain simply means ‘category’ Bloom’s Taxonomy model is in three parts, or ‘overlapping domains’. Again, Bloom used rather academic language, but the meanings are simple to understand: 1. Cognitive domain (intellectual capability, i.e. the knowing head) 2. Affective domain (feelings, emotions and behaviour, i.e., the feeling heart) 3. Psychomotor domain (manual and physical skills, i.e.,the doing hand) The levels of this taxonomy are considered to be hierarchical. That is, learners must master lower level objectives, before they can build on them to reach higher level objectives. A low level is “low” only in the sense that it comes first—it provides the basis for all “higher” cognitive activity. Only after a learner is able to recall information at the knowledge level it is possible to move on to comprehension (giving meaning to information) or to other higher levels. The main value of the Taxonomy is twofold: It can stimulate teachers to help students acquire skills at all these levels, laying proper foundation for higher levels by first assuring mastery of lower-level objectives. It provides a basis for developing measurement strategies to assess student performance at all these levels of learning.

Think!

Taking the example of adjective, how will you write objectives in behavioural terms?

Cognitive Domain The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories, which are listed in order below, starting from the simplest behaviour to the most complex. The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first one must be mastered before the next one can take place.

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1. Knowledge Definition Knowledge entails the ability to recall or state information. Knowledge of specifics—terminology, specific facts Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics—conventions, trends and sequences, classifications and categories, criteria, methodology Knowledge of the universals and abstractions in a field—principles and generalizations, theories and structures Clarification of Terms in the Definition This is a restricted sense of the common usage of the word knowledge. In a general sense, we use the word knowledge to describe everything we know, which would include all the levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy. Place in the Hierarchy of Cognitive Skills This is the lowest level of the hierarchy. It is necessary to be able to recall information before it can be comprehended or used for higher level activities. Examples of Knowledge Objectives

Questions like: What is the capital of Maine? Who wrote “Hamlet?” Note: Words typically used:

define, recall, recognize, remember, who, what, where, when.

2. Comprehension Definition

interpreting, giving descriptions, and stating main ideas Translation Interpretation Extrapolation Clarification of Terms in the Definition Often, if the knowledge is meaningful, the comprehension and knowledge levels occur simultaneously. That is, if we can remember a definition of a term, we can also give meaning to that term. However, this is not always the case. It is at least conceptually possible that a person could recall information without giving meaning to it. From Bloom’s point of view, it is essential that learners be able to comprehend information (not just remember it) before they move on to higher levels of knowledge (such as application).

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Place in the Hierarchy of Cognitive Skills Knowledge is a prerequisite for comprehension. Compre-hension is a prerequisite for all higher-level activities. Examples of Comprehension Objectives

Questions like: Words typically used:

describe, compare, contrast, rephrase, put in your own words

3. Application Definition: Application entails the ability to use knowledge or principles in new or real-life situations. Clarification of Terms in the Definition Application refers to rule using rather than problemsolving, which would entail a higher level of thinking. Bloom’s use of the term application differs from our normal conversational use of the term. When working at any of the four highest levels of the taxonomy, we “apply” what we have learned. At the application level, we “just apply.” At the higher levels, we “apply and do something else.” Perhaps it would be best to think of this level as simple application. Note that application and use are not synonymous. For example, a person who spells “cat” correctly is not applying the rule for spelling cat. This is a simple knowledge task. However, a person who spelled “remedied” by “changing the y to i and adding ed” would be applying that rule. Place in the Hierarchy of Cognitive Skills Comprehension is a prerequisite for application. Application is a prerequisite for analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Examples of Application Objectives Write a part of a poem (perhaps by changing a metaphor or inserting a different word that rhymed). Identify an example of a metaphor in a poem. Use the rule for a semicolon in a sentence. Questions like: Words typically used: many, which, what is.

apply, classify, use, choose, employ, and write an example, solve, how

4. Analysis Definition: Analysis entails the ability to break down complex information into simpler parts and to understand the relationships among the parts. Analysis of elements

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Analysis of relationships Analysis of organizational principles Place in the Hierarchy of Cognitive Skills

Application is a prerequisite for analysis.

Analysis was originally considered to be a prerequisite for synthesis; but there is not universal agreement on this issue. That is, some theorists believe that a person who is capable of application can go directly to synthesis (without first learning analysis)—at least in some areas. Analysis or synthesis is a prerequisite for evaluation. Example of Analysis Objectives

5. Synthesis Definition: Synthesis entails the act of creating something that did not exist before by integrating information that had been learned at lower levels of the hierarchy. Production of a unique communication Production of a plan, or proposed set of operations Derivation of a set of abstract relations Clarification of Terms in the Definition This is really a common-sense definition of the word. In normal language, when we put together a whole series of skills, we say we are synthesizing those skills.

Think!

The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills.

Place in the Hierarchy of Cognitive Skills Application is a prerequisite for analysis. Analysis was originally considered to be a prerequisite for synthesis; but there is not universal agreement on this issue. That is, some theorists believe that a person who is capable of application can go directly to synthesis (without first learning analysis)—at least in some areas. Analysis or synthesis is a prerequisite for evaluation. Questions like: Words typically used: identify motives/causes, draw conclusions, determine evidence, support, analyze, why. Example of Synthesis Objectives

Words typically used in synthesis questions: Predict, produce, write, design, develop, synthesize, construct, how can we improve, what would happen if, can you devise, how can we solve. Questions like: Can you predict an outcome?

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6. Evaluation Definition: Evaluation entails the ability to make judgments based on previous levels of learning to compare a product of some kind against a designated standard. Judgments in terms of internal evidence Judgments in terms of external criteria Clarification of Terms in the Definition The word evaluation can also be used in an affective sense. For example, we can evaluate a course we have pursued by stating that we liked the course and would be happy to take another from the same professor. This statement could be based entirely on our emotional reaction to the course. While it is good to have emotions, this would not be an example of evaluation in Bloom’s sense. To meet Bloom’s definition, there has to be a comparison to a cognitive standard of some kind. For example, if a course evaluation asked you to analyze what a teacher did and to state how well he did each of these things compared to some standard of performance, this would fit Bloom’s definition of evaluation. Place in the Hierarchy of Cognitive Skills Evaluation is the highest level of cognitive activity in any area. That is, one of the most important goals in any area is that a person be able to invent new solutions to a problem and determine the degree to which these solutions still need to be improved. Analysis or synthesis is a prerequisite for evaluation. That is, a person can analyze someone else’s product and compare it to a standard; or a person can develop a new product of his own and compare it to a standard. Examples of Evaluation Objectives Analyze your own or a peer's essay in terms of the principles of composition discussed during the semester. It can be used to start a class discussion. It can also precede a follow-up analysis or synthesis question like, "Why?" Questions like:

Affective Domain of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives This domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The five major categories are listed from the simplest behaviour to the most complex: Bloom, Krathwohl and Masia have divided the affective domain into five parts: Skills in the affective domain describe the way people react emotionally and their ability to feel another living thing’s pain or joy. Affective objectives typically target the awareness and growth in attitudes, emotions, and feelings. There are five levels in the affective domain moving through the lowest order processes to the highest:

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1. Receiving The lowest level; the student passively pays attention. Without this level no learning can occur. 2. Responding The student actively participates in the learning process, not only attends to a stimulus, the student also reacts in some way. 3. Valuing The student attaches a value to an object, phenomenon, or piece of information. 4. Organizing The student can put together different values, information, and ideas and accommodate them within his/her own schema; comparing, relating and elaborating on what has been learned. 5. Characterizing The student has held a particular value or belief that now exerts influence on his/her behaviour so that it becomes a characteristic.

Psychomotor Domain This domain is characterized by progressive levels of behaviours from observation to mastery of a physical skill. Several different taxonomies exist. Simpson (1972) built this taxonomy on the work of Bloom and others: Set—Mental, physical, and emotional dispositions that make one respond in a certain way to a situation. Guided Response—First attempts at a physical skill. Trial and error coupled with practice lead to better performance. Mechanism—The intermediate stage in learning a physical skill. Responses are habitual with a medium level of assurance and proficiency. Complex Overt Response—Complex movements are possible with a minimum of wasted effort and a high level of assurance they will be successful. Adaptation—Movements can be modified for special situations. Origination—New movements can be created for special situations. Dave (1970) developed this taxonomy: Imitation—Observing and copying someone else. Manipulation—Guided via instruction to perform a skill. Precision—Accuracy, proportion and exactness exist in the skill performance without the presence of the original source.

Stating Objectives in Behavioural Terms

45

Articulation—Two or more skills combined, sequenced, and performed consistently. Naturalization—Two or more skills combined, sequenced, and performed consistently and with ease. The performance is automatic with little physical or mental exertion. A J Harrow (1972) developed this taxonomy. It is organized according to the degree of coordination including involuntary responses and learned capabilities: Reflex movements—Automatic reactions. Basic fundamental movement—Simple movements that can build to more complex sets of movements. Perceptual—Environmental cues that allow one to adjust movements. Physical activities—Things requiring endurance, strength, vigor, and agility. Skilled movements—Activities where a level of efficiency is achieved. Non-discursive communication—Body language.

Conclusion Bloom’s Taxonomy is a wonderful reference model for all involved in teaching, training, learning, coaching—in the design, delivery and evaluation of these development methods. This Taxonomy provides a simple, quick and easy checklist to start to plan any type of personal development. It helps to open up possibilities for all aspects of the subject or need concerned, and suggests a variety of the methods available for delivery of teaching and learning. As with any checklist, it also helps to reduce the risks of overlooking some vital aspects of the development required.

Summary Teaching English in behavioural terms is a more scientific approach towards teaching English. Objectives are of two types, Learner Objectives and Instructional Objectives. Objectives are specific, outcome-based and measurable. Behavioural objectives have three parts, viz. student behaviour, conditions of performance and performance criterion. The taxonomy of educational objectives, often called Bloom’s Taxonomy is a classification of the different objectives and skills that educators set for students. This was proposed by Benjamin Bloom in 1956. The three main parts of Bloom’s taxonomy include Cognitive Domain, Affective Domain and Psychomotor Domain. Bloom’s taxonomy is an appropriate reference model for teaching, training and learning as well.

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Terms to Remember Goals These refer to targets that are achieved. They are broad and generalized. Objectives

Objectives are specific targets that someone looks forward to achieve.

Bloom’s Taxonomy It is the classification of learning objectives within the system of education. Cognitive Domain skills.

It refers to the domain that involves acquiring knowledge and intellectual

Affective Domain This domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes.

Exercises Short Answer Questions (word limit 150) 1. 2. 3. 4.

Write the characteristics of objectives. Write the three parts of behavioural objectives. Write the various categories of cognitive domain. Write a note on the affective domain.

Long Answer Questions (word limit 1000) 1. Write a detailed note about Bloom’s taxonomy of Educational objectives. 2. Write the categorization of psychomotor domain given by Dave, Simpson and Harrow.

Note: Additional resources related to this chapter are available at www.mhhe.com/navita_arora

6

Unit Analysis, Pedagogical Analysis and Lesson Plan

“Teaching is more than science because it involves artistic judgement about the best ways to teach. Teacher employs his aesthetic sense in his teaching. The expressions of art depart from the rules and principles of science.”

— N. L. Gage Inside This Chapter Introduction Unit Analysis: Meaning and Objectives Pedagogical Analysis: Meaning and Objectives Lesson Plan: Selecting Plan Material Lesson Plan: Evaluation Conclusion

Learning Objectives This chapter will enable the reader to:

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INTRODUCTION In a good syllabus, the different content items are given unit-wise which follows the maxim of easy to complex. When we approach the syllabus or its teaching unit-wise, it is called unit approach. It provides a sort of platform to the teacher to think and decide the order in which he has to teach. Unit-wise teaching, unit-wise learning and unit-wise testing ensures better deal of the contents at the hands of the teacher and the learner.

What is a Unit? A unit is a related learning segment made up of a few lessons along with an outline of its execution in the classroom. Unit will consist of both the subject matter and methodology of its delivery to students.

Unit Analysis Unit analysis is made up of two parts, i.e., unit and analysis. A unit is a group of interrelated subject matter and analysis means breaking it into parts Unit + Analysis Unit: Group of interrelated subject matter Analysis: Breaking it into parts

Fig. 6.1

Unit Analysis, Pedagogical Analysis and Lesson Plan

Think!

49

A unit is a related learning segment made up of a few lessons. Discuss.

For the effective teaching learning process, units should be divided into sub units, further sub units into topics, to cover the syllabus in the stipulated period of time. Figure 6.1 highlights an effective teaching learning process.

Objectives for the Unit Objectives are chalked out to fix the purpose of evaluation. A teacher has to be very careful and intelligent during formulation of instructional objectives. If a teacher sets objectives for a lesson plan of 45 minutes duration, then the objectives will be fixed up for the full unit. Objectives can be of two types: 1. Scholastic objectives:

Skills Applications 2. Non-scholastic objectives: Physical development Social development Personality development Examples of scholastic objectives for poem are: Knowledge: The students will be able to recognize ideas contained in the poem. The students will be able to recall the thoughts given in the poem. Understanding: The students will be able to understand the ideas or thoughts contained in the poem. Skills: The students will be able to develop the different linguistic skills that are listening, speaking, reading and writing. Application: The students will be able to apply the art of reciting a poem in different life situations.

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Advantages The advantages of a unit plan are given below: It provides basic course structure around which specific class activities can be organized. It provides an opportunity for the teacher to keep a balance between various dimensions of the prescribed course. It enables the teacher to complete the syllabus within stipulated time. It helps the teacher to make the presentation systematic and effective. It enables the teacher to integrate the basic course concepts for effective teaching learning process.

Performance for Unit Plan Table 6.1 gives an idea about the performance for Unit Plan Table 6.1 Grade level: Unit: Objective: S. No. Major content items No. of periods Teaching methods Learning aids

Limitations Unit analysis has the following limitations:— All the contents material may not be amenable to categorization into compact and homogenous units. Some units may be too long and some too short. It may not be possible to distribute the topics evenly. The organization of all the content material unit wise requires considerable skill and experience.

PEDAGOGICAL ANALYSIS Meaning of Pedagogy The general dictionary defines pedagogy as an art as well as a science of teaching methods. Similarly, we can define pedagogical analysis as it is a combination of two words, i.e., pedagogical + analysis. Figure 6.2 given below elucidates the meaning of pedagogy.

Unit Analysis, Pedagogical Analysis and Lesson Plan

51

Fig. 6.2 Thus, pedagogical analysis is the concept of “teaching as an art and a science (Fig. 6.3).” True knowledge is based on observations and experiences. Teaching is more than a science because it also involves artistic judgment and aesthetic sense about the best ways of teaching. The expression of art is beyond the rules and principles of science.

Objective of Pedagogical Analysis To make teaching and learning more scientific, systematic, effective and impressive. To critically decide upon aims, objectives and scope of the course. To analyze the course content into effective teaching units. To apply proper teaching strategy. To evaluate critical evaluation of the effectiveness of the topics in the curriculum.

Think!

Pedagogical analysis should be based on unit analysis. Discuss.

Fig. 6.3

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FOUR PILLARS OF PEDAGOGICAL ANALYSIS There are four pillars of pedagogical analysis as shown in Fig. 6.4

Fig. 6.4

1. Content Analysis It means breaking down of the content or subject matter into its constituent subunits, subtopics to make the content systematic and meaningful.

2. Formulation of Instructional Objectives It is the second step of pedagogical analysis. After content analysis, a teacher carefully formulates instructional objectives in behavioural terms as students are expected to demonstrate the specific types of behavioural outcomes.

Fig. 6.5

Unit Analysis, Pedagogical Analysis and Lesson Plan

53

3. Learning Experiences and Chosen Methods It is the third step of pedagogical analysis. A teacher should perform following activities: Use of different methods and approaches. Use of different and effective teaching aids like chalkboard, pictures, flashcards. To make the concept clear by using various teaching skills.

4. Evaluation Devices It is the fourth and last step of pedagogical analysis. Evaluation determines whether the set objectives are to be achieved or not. The behavioural outcomes are measured with the help of evaluation devices which can be oral, written or practical activities.

Think!

How are materials and methods related with each other? Discuss.

Conclusion Thus, pedagogical skill analysis is a cyclic process and it continuous till the desired behavioural changes occur in the students.

Summary A related learning segment made up of a few lessons along with an outline is referred to as unit. Unit analysis is made up of two parts, unit and analysis. Unit refers to a group of interrelated subject matter and breaking up the same into parts is termed as analysis. Pedagogy is defined as the art as well as the science of teaching methods. The four pillars of pedagogical analysis are unit analysis, formulation of instructional objectives, learning experiences and chosen methods, evaluation devices. A teacher’s detailed description of the course of instruction for a particular lesson is referred to as lesson plan. Title of the lesson, time required to complete the lesson are some of the determinants of lesson plan. A well-developed lesson plan reflects interests and needs of students. It incorporates best practices for the educational field. Organization is the key to success. An organized teacher knows exactly what all students are doing at all times, what they have done and where they need to be going next. Lesson plans allow teachers to ensure they are covering all outcomes that need to be taught.

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Terms to Remember Unit A related learning segment made up of few lessons. Unit Analysis Made up of two words, unit analysis individually refers to a group of interrelated subject matter and breaking them up into parts. Pedagogy

The art and science of teaching is known as pedagogy.

Pedagogical Analysis It stands for a type of analysis based on pedagogy. In this analysis the emphasis is given on drawing maximum teaching outcomes. Lesson Plan A lesson plan is a teacher’s detailed description of the course of instruction for an individual lesson. Summative Assessment It usually consists of tests, semester exams, end of unit or end of chapter tests that evaluate student progress, performance, and knowledge. The teacher calculates final grades based upon performance in these exams. Formative Assessment Formative assessment evaluates the process of learning in its process, and is a part of the teaching process.

Exercises Short Answer Questions (word limit 150) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

What is unit analysis? Enumerate the objectives of unit analysis. Enlist the advantages of unit analysis. Define pedagogical analysis. Enlist the characteristics of pedagogical analysis. Pedagogical analysis comprises four pillars. What are they? Describe lesson plan. Describe a well-developed unit in a lesson plan.

Long Answer Questions (word limit 1000) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Write a detailed note on Pedagogical Analysis. Explain the four pillars of pedagogical analysis with the help of a diagram. State the various objectives and advantages of unit analysis. What are the limitations of unit analysis? Write a detailed note on planning of a lesson. Make a lesson plan on any topic of English.

Note: Additional resources related to this chapter are available at www.mhhe.com/navita_arora

7

Teaching of Prose …Words in their best order.

— Samuel Taylor Coleridge Inside This Chapter Introduction Characteristics of Prose Types of Prose Objectives of Teaching Prose Types of Prose Lesson Teaching Prose Intensively: Suggestive Steps Teaching Prose Extensively: Suggestive Steps Types of Comprehension Question Testing Comprehension of the Learner Types of Reading

Learning Objectives This chapter will enable the reader to: -

INTRODUCTION The word prose is derived from the Latin word prosa meaning a ‘straightforward discourse.’ Prose can be defined as the ordinary form of spoken or written language that applies simple grammatical structure and natural flow of speech. It applies to all expressions in language devoid of a rhythmic pattern. In the words of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, “Prose is words in their best order.” Novels, essays, short stories, works of criticism are all examples of prose. Prose is primarily meant for learning a language. Teaching prose begins with teaching the skill of reading. The next step in this process is to teach how to read with comprehension. Reading with comprehension helps the learners to acquire new

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vocabulary through reading and listening. Teaching prose enables the students to understand the passage, to read fluently, to enrich their vocabulary and to enjoy reading and writing. It enables the learners to extend their knowledge of vocabulary and structures and to become more proficient in the four language skills. transmit them to new generations. Listening Speaking Reading Writing

OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING PROSE English language teaching is incomplete without the teaching of prose. The objectives of teaching prose are somewhat similar to that of reading skills. Since prose is defined as the ordinary form of spoken or written language, learning prose help students master English language. The more they read English prose, the more they acquire mastery over the language. The major objectives of teaching prose can be divided into two, general and specific objectives. The following points can be enlisted under the general objectives of teaching prose.

writing. way.

style.

Teaching of Prose

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Present Position of Teaching Prose They rarely teach prose for making the students learn the language.

Advantages of Prose Reading at Different Levels “We should concentrate all our attention on the pupils now in school and make them more and more book minded. We should create in them a real love for books and good taste for reading.” — Prof. Rajagopalan

TYPES OF PROSE LESSONS Two major forms of prose lessons are Intensive Reading and Extensive Reading. These are explained below.

1. Intensive Reading/Detailed Prose Lesson When one reads a text for accuracy it is called intensive reading. This type of reading is done under the guidance of instructors. As intended it results in detailed understanding of the text, it is primarily concerned with the development of reading strategies like judgement, reasoning, interpretation and appreciation. Since intensive reading exercise is primarily taken to achieve accuracy so, the instructor need to keep in mind that 1. It must be based on the structural syllabus. 2. It must be interesting and well graded.

6. It must have provisions for silent reading and reading aloud.

2. Extensive Reading/Non-Detailed Prose Lesson Extensive reading or reading for fluency involves reading of longer texts for pleasure. This is also known as rapid reading or independent silent reading with the primary objective of comprehending the text as quickly as possible.

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It plays a vital role in the learning of second/foreign language. The students are made to read as much as possible by allowing them the choice to select the books of their interest. As they choose what, when and where to read, this freedom creates interest among them producing a conducive environment to learn, to read and comprehend faster. Since extensive reading is more for improving the fluency and speed, following are the various 1. The instructor provides hint about the passage. 3. The students read silently and quickly. 4. The teacher asks questions to test the students’ understanding. Table 7.1: Table 7.1: Intensive Reading

Extensive Reading 1. Non detailed study of the book.

2. The text book is read thoroughly word by word.

2. The text book is read to get the overall understanding of the passage.

3. In detailed prose lesson each and every difficult word, idioms or phrase is fully explained to the students.

3. The teacher need not to explain the meaning of each and every word.

4. Students are required to read it not only for comprehension but also for mastering the present structure and vocabulary.

4. Students are required to read it only for comprehension.

5. Concentrate upon the language.

5. Concentrate upon the subject matter.

6. Reading is aloud and controlled by the teacher.

6. Reading is silent and independent.

7. Its aim is to make a careful and minute security of what is read.

7. Its aim is only to grasp the meaning of what is read.

Which Type of Reading is More Important? Both types of reading are important in their own ways. Generally in the junior classes, books are prescribed for intensive reading. But in the higher classes, extensive reading on the part of the students is as important as is intensive reading. So, a judicious combination should be planned to inculcate both types of reading in curriculum.

What is a Comprehension Question In teaching prose, testing comprehension ability of the learner is very important. A comprehension question is a question put to assess the reader’s ability to read and understand a piece of writing.

Teaching of Prose

59

Types of Comprehension Question 1. Global question:—To test the overall understanding of the paragraph. 2. Factual question:—Tries to find out whether the learner is able to locate the fact occurring in the paragraph. 3. Inferential question:—Whenever the learner has to think beyond the answer given in the paragraph. 4. Evaluation question:—The learner is expected to give a critical thinking to the question and give the answer from his point of view. Testing comprehension of the learner:

Think!

Loud reading should be followed by silent reading. Discuss.

Prose may be read loudly or silently. The differentiating factors between these two ways of reading are explained in Table 7.2 Table 7.2: Loud Reading

Silent Reading

1. Loud reading means reading a book loudly so that it is audible to others

1. Silent reading means reading to oneself and what is being read is not audible to others

2. This type of reading is useful during the first three or four years of language learning

2. This type of reading is useful at the advanced level of learning a language

(a) Improvement of listening ability (b) Recognition of different sounds (c) Pronunciation of the students can be improved

(a) Encourage the love for reading (b) Trace the main idea (c) Gives the students feeling of power and achievement

Loud reading is advantageous at the early stages as it Silent readings inculcate love for reading and are help in improvement of pronunciation. pleasurable and it gives the pupil a feeling of power and achievement.

Think!

Silent reading indicates self education and deep study. Discuss.

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MODEL LESSON PLAN ON PROSE P.T’S ROLL NO. –

PERIOD_________

CLASS

– X

DURATION–30 Min

SUBJECT

– ENGLISH

DATE_________

TOPIC

– And thus Flows the Narmada (Reading with comprehension)

Instructional aids to be Used words.

Instructional Objectives in Behavioural Terms Knowledge:

1. The students will be able to acquire knowledge of new words. 2. They will be able to recognize and recall those words.

Understanding: 1. The students will be able to understand the prose lesson. 2. They will be able to use those language items. 3. The students will be able to understand the correct pronunciation. Skills:

1. The students will be able to develop the different linguistic skills like speaking, reading, writing.

Application: 2. They will be able to read newspaper and other such reading material in a better way. 3. The students will be able to use different grammatical aspects of English language.

Previous Knowledge Testing

Teaching of Prose

61

Announcement of the Topic

Presentation Teaching Point

P.T.’s Activities

In the chapter, Royina Grewal describes her journey Brief along the river Narmada. She tells us about the summary of the passage Amarkantak.

Students’ Activities

Chalk Board Writing

Listen carefully

And Thus Flows The Narmada

splashes gently in through an opening that resembles reading by the P.T.

temples clustered around the tank are mirrored in the still water. These temples are dedicated to Lord flock to this place every year for the parikarma of at the edges of the tank and coins gleam at the bottom.

Students will keep their books close and listen carefully.

The river is a little stream barely six feet wide sparkling blue and tumbling gently westwards. The holy river is surrounded by Sal forests. Sal forests the source tank. The youthful river, reinforced by cliff.

smoke’. Second model reading of the passage be the P.T.

P.T. will do the second model reading of the passage. Students will keep their books open and listen carefully

Contd.

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English Language Teaching

reading of the passage by students Difficult words

1. Spring

P.T. will ask the students to do the model reading of the passage

Meaning

Technique

Students will do the model reading of the passage.

Context Spring

By flashcard Yesterday we A point where groundwater flows visited a cool out of the ground mountain spring

The students will note down the difficult words in their Cluster

2. Cluster

A close group of By flashcard A cluster of stars people or things are shining in the sky.

Cliff 3. Cliff

a steep, high face of a rock

By flashcard The sign said, the cliff.

to move slowly & By flashcard without resistance in the water in air and water Silent P.T. will ask the students to do the silent reading of the passage. reading by the students

The students will note down the difficult words in their notebook Students will do the silent reading of the passage.

Contd.

Teaching of Prose

hension

Q.1 Q.2 Q.3 Q.4 What offerings does one find inside the

Royina Grewal

Royina Grewal

White temples

White temples

coins Q.5 Name the two waterfalls mentioned in the lesson.

Review Questions

HOME WORK

(a) splash

(b) gleam

(c) reinforced

(d) innumerable

Summary Prose is the most important form of literature which appeals to the head and there is no rhythm in prose. students for the examination. They rarely teach prose for making the students learn the language. Prose could be in the form of essay, novel, short stories, biography, composition, play and so on. help to enrich the learner’s active vocabulary by promoting the skill of listening and speaking.

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English Language Teaching

Specific objectives help to enrich learner’s active and passive vocabulary by promoting the skill of reading and writing and also help in improving pronunciation. Prose lessons can be of two types, Intensive and Extensive. Intensive lesson means detailed study of the prose. Extensive lesson means non detailed study of the prose. Prose may be read loudly or silently. Loud reading means reading by producing sound audible to others and Silent reading means reading something without producing sound audible to others.

Terms to Remember Prose “Prose is the words in their best order”. Essay A loose sally of the mind, an irregular, indigestion piece, not a regular and orderly performance. Novel A long narrative in prose detailing the action of the fictitious people. Short story can not be treated with the same detail as in the novel. Biography The history of the lives of the individual men as a branch of literature. Composition Composition is an art of self expression. “It is called the expressive aspect of language”. Play Play presents fiction or fact in a form that could be acted before an audience. A play has a plot, character, dialogue and atmosphere and outlook on the life much as a novel has, but is a rule intended to be performed in public, not read in private. Intensive reading Extensive reading

Non detailed study of the prose.

Global question Factual question Inferential question paragraph. Evaluation question question and give the answer from his point of view. Loud reading Silent reading

Teaching of Prose

Exercises Short Answer Questions (word limit 150) 2. Write the general objectives of teaching prose. 3. Write the specific objectives of teaching prose. 5. State the differences between general and specific objectives of teaching prose.

Long Answer Questions (word limit 1000)

3. Give a detail description of aims and objectives of teaching prose. 4. Prepare a detailed lesson plan on prose for class viii.

Note: Additional resources related to this chapter are available at www.mhhe.com/navita_arora

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8

Teaching of Poetry — William Wordsworth

Inside This Chapter

Learning Objectives

Introduction

This chapter will enable the reader to:

INTRODUCTION The word poetry is derived from the Greek term poesis. It is a form of literary art used for its aesthetic and evocative qualities. In literary sense, both poetry and prose are taught as forms of writing in English language. However, poetry differs in form from prose and offers a visual form in words. Poetry commonly appears as a sequence of lines arranged in stanzas. Poetry uses rhyme and relies heavily on figurative language. Poetry can tell a story, describe an object or a situation, narrate an event, or simply express one’s feelings. Irrespective of the substance of the remarks and the ultimate message, poetry is characterized by experts as the literary form that goes beyond standard sentence structure.

Teaching of Poetry

67

Above all, poetry involves those aspects of English language that appeal to a person’s aesthetics, and is communicated by rhyming sounds and visualization. It is for these reasons that we cannot really speak of restating poetry. Indeed, this is one reason why many people find poetry difficult to comprehend.

DEFINITIONS OF POETRY Poetry is defined as a literary form, in which emphasis is laid upon the expression of ideas and feelings by the use of a distinctive style and rhythm. Poetry, as described by few famous poets is given below. William Wordsworth defined poetry as, “the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings.” Emily Dickinson said, “If I read a book and it makes my body so cold no fire ever can warm me, I know that is poetry.” In the words of Dylan Thomas, “Poetry is what makes me laugh or cry or yawn, what makes my toenails twinkle, what makes me want to do this or that or nothing.” To quote Robert Frost “A poem begins with a lump in the throat, a home-sickness or a lovesickness. It is a reaching-out toward expression; an effort to find fulfillment. A complete poem is one where the emotion has found its thought and the thought has found the words.”

Think!

Poetry can be caught, cannot be taught. Discuss.

Though poem and poetry are used interchangeably to mean the same, however there is a fundamental difference between the two. Poetry is a literary art form, whereas a poem is a written piece of the same, the composition itself. It can be said that poetry is one of the literary art form and poem is the fundamental unit of the same. literature. anger, and love. of elemental truth and beauty. In John Keats’ words, “Poetry is artistically rendering words in such a way as to evoke intense emotion or an Ah Ha! Experience from the reader.”

Think!

Why poetry is regarded as noble thoughts and noble emotions caught in noble language. Discuss.

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English Language Teaching

Characteristics of Poetry The characteristics of poetry can be categorized as:

Fig. 8.1

Characteristics of poetry

Objectives of Teaching Poetry at Different Levels

part of poetry.

Teaching of Poetry

69

Present position of teaching poetry 1. Teachers just translate the poem into their vernacular. 2. Teachers ask their students to learn the summary of the poem. 3. Teachers usually dictate notes on poetry and ask them to summarize and reproduce the same in class in oral or written form.

Arguments against the practice of teaching poetry 1. 2. 3. 4.

The teaching of poetry does not help learners acquiring mastery over language skills. We cannot use poetry to enrich the vocabulary of the students. The settings of most English poems are unfamiliar to Indian students. There are very few teachers who love poetry and can reinstate this love in their students.

Arguments in favour of teaching poetry 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Poetry largely appeals to children and is best way of inculcating their love for the language. Poetry shows our emotions and increases our imaginative powers. Poetry imparts the pleasure of reading among the students. Poetry introduces variety in the English language course. Poetry is easily memorable than prose because of its rhythmic structure.

Think!

A successful poetry lesson should leave the students with some insight into the delight or beauty that is portrayed. Discuss.

TEACHING OF POETRY IN SCHOOLS From the above arguments, it can be concluded that poetry constitutes an important part of literature education system. Teaching poetry is very important and it must be given its due place in language learning. Poetry creates love for language and by studying poems; a learner can develop the power of imagination and aesthetic sense. Another important reason for teaching poetry is that it shows the rhythm of a language more clearly than the prose.

Making Teaching of Poetry Easy and Interesting The teacher can adopt the following methods to make the study of poetry easy and interesting for the students.

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learners.

Aims of Teaching Poetry The aims of teaching poetry apply to all poems irrespective of style.

Steps in Teaching Poetry It is an accepted argument that poetry cannot be taught. A teacher can only create the conditions in which the poem holds significance for the learners. The teacher should always keep in mind that poetry is meant for giving aesthetic pleasure rather than knowledge. Step 1: Introducing a Poem Before teaching a poem, the teacher should give an appropriate introduction to poem to arouse the interest of students and to create the proper atmosphere for the poem. Introduction differs from poem to poem. Thompson and Wyatt have suggested three ways to introduce a student to poetry: 1. Firstly, the best method is to read a parallel poem similar in subject matter with the poem to be taught. If possible, the parallel poem should be by the same poet. on that. 3. Thirdly, teachers must give the life sketch, style and characteristics of the poet. Introduction can also be done in the following steps: 1. Introduction can be done by playing same music. 2. The teacher can ask some questions on the previous knowledge of students. 3. If the poem to be learnt is descriptive, a picture can be shown. Step 2: Model recitation by the teacher Teachers give first model recitation of the poem with a proper stress; intonation and gestures. The students will keep their books closed and follow the poem. Step 3: Second Model recitation by the teacher The second model recitation is also given by the teacher but the students will be asked to keep their books open.

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71

Step 4: Meaning of difficult words and phrases Teachers explain the meaning of difficult words and phrases that students may find incomprehensible. Step 5: Imitation recitations by the students Teachers ask two or three students to recite the poem one by one. This helps them to capture the correct pronunciation, intonation and stress. Step 6: Appreciation questions to ask questions which must be carefully answered. These questions are going to reveal their power of imagination in terms of appreciation of imagery, thoughts, emotions, style and aesthetics of the language. Step 7: Assignment The assignment can be related to creative tasks. The teacher may ask the students to memorise or pictures based on the theme of the poem.

Importance of Poetry Rhythm is a universal phenomenon of poetry and this inherent phenomenon of poetry naturally appeals to the child satisfying his natural urges to speak rhythmically. Poetry increases the child’s sensitiveness to beauty of language and thought and helps to develop his imagination. It also helps him to appreciate spiritual things of life. While studying poetry the students not only develop their

Fig. 8.2 Diagrammatic representation showing the importance of poetry

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power of imagination but also learn to appreciate the aesthetics of this literary form. The learners feel the pleasure and naturally appreciate the reality behind the written words of a poem. Another important reason for teaching poetry is that it illustrates the rhythm of language. Figure 8.2 shows the importance of teaching poetry.

Classroom Situation for Poetry Teaching Here are some of the classroom situations that can be adopted for teaching poetry:

in a team. This is an effective way to match students and nurture their personal interests. In a class, students usually come from a variety of family backgrounds, religion, caste, economic can relate to. their reading and performance skills. students to make whistling, snapping, snoring sounds as they come up in the poem. behind the poem.

Think!

How the method of teaching poetry should be reoriented to make the poetry enjoyable?

Difference between Prose and Poetry Table 8.1: Prose

Poetry

1. Prose is defined as, “words in their best order.”

1. Poetry is defined as, “best words in their best order.”

2. Prose usually gives information.

2. Poetry delights the readers.

3. Prose is devoid of rhythm.

3. Rhythm is the very soul of poetry.

4. Prose is essentially meant for reading.

4. Poetry is meant for recitals.

5. The main aim of the prose is to enrich the vocabulary and to enable the students to grasp the idea and arguments of the author.

5. The main aim of the poetry is to acquire speech rhythms.

6. Prose is for knowledge

6. Poetry is for appreciation

Teaching of Poetry

73

Poetry is an expression of aesthetic experience of a poet. At the time it is written, it consists of phrases that have a strong rhythmic beat. But when it is printed and published, we have merely a colourless record of this emotion and music. It is the duty of the teacher to recreate and convey the students this original rhythm and emotional intensity; for, the printed words are only symbols, which may or may not arouse the imagination and feelings of the students to the required degree. Therefore, the teaching methodology of poetry should be simple and spontaneous, stressing the emotional and sound values of the poem. should be given privileged position in the school syllabus. “The matter and method for teaching poetry to Indian children should be completely re-oriented, if the teaching of poetry is to be any value to them.”—Menon and Patel.

MODEL LESSON PLAN ON POETRY P.T’S ROLL NO. –

PERIOD_________

CLASS

– X

DURATION–30 Min

SUBJECT

– ENGLISH

DATE_________

TOPIC

– “The Road not Taken”(poem)

Instructional Aids to be Used A chart depicting two roads diverged in a yellow forest and flashcards showing the pictures of difficult words.

Instructional Objectives in Behavioural Terms Knowledge:

1. The students will be able to recognize the ideas contained in the poem. 2. They will be able to recall the thoughts given in the poem.

Understanding: 2. They will be able to understand the use of rhyming words in the poem. 3. They will be able to understand the thematic content of the poem. Skills:

1. The students will be able to develop the different linguistic skills like listening, speaking, reading, writing.

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English Language Teaching

Application:

1. The students will be able to apply the art of reciting a poem in their different life situations. 2. They are able to make sentences using difficult words of the poem.

SUBJECT CONTENT The Road Not Taken Two roads diverged in a yellow wood, And sorry I could not travel both And be one traveler, long I stood And looked down one as far as I could To where it bent in the undergrowth; Then took the other, as just as fair, And having perhaps the better claim, Because it was grassy and wanted wear; Though as for that the passing there Had worn them really about the same; And both that morning equally lay In leaves no step had trodden black. Oh, I kept the first for another day! Yet knowing how way leads on to way, I doubted if I should ever come back. I shall be telling this with a sigh Two roads diverged in a wood, and— I took the one less traveled by, And that has made all the difference.

Previous Knowledge Testing Q.2 Which poem do you liked the most?

(Robert Frost)

Teaching of Poetry

75

Q.3 Recite that poem. Q.4 Have you read the poem “The Road not Taken”?

Announcement of the Topic Dear students, today we shall study the poem “The Road not Taken” of your book.

Presentation Teaching

P.T.’s Activities

Point

Brief idea of the poet and poem

A celebrated American poet, Robert Lee Frost, was honoured with the Pulitzer Prize four times in his lifetime. He is very often quoted. The main idea of this poem is that decisions in life are easy to make but executing the same becomes difficult.

Students’

Chalk Board

Activities

Writing

Listen carefully

Robert Frost

First model recitation of the poem by the P.T.

recitation of the poem by the P.T. Imitation recitation of the poem by students

The P.T will do the first model recitation with proper stress, rhythm and intonation

P.T. will do the second recitation with proper stress, rhythm and intonation

P.T. will ask the students to recite the poem with rhythm and appropriate gestures.

their books close and listen carefully.

The Road not Taken

their books open and listen carefully

the poem

Contd.

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English Language Teaching

Difficult words 1. Diverged

2. Forest

Meaning

To deviate

Technique

By flashcard

A large area of land By flashcard covered with thick trees

Context Two roads are diverging in a The students will forest note down the difficult words in their notebook Wild animals lives in forest

Diverged

Forest

growth

4. Fair

A mass of bushes and plants that grow close together under trees

By flashcard

Attractive

By flashcard

They used their knives The students will to clear a path note down the through the difficult words in their notebook growth

Undergrowth

always been just as fair Just as fair

Explanation of poem

P.T. Explains the poem to the students carefully Q.1 Where did the two roads diverge?

Appreciation Questions

Ans. 1 The two Ans. 1 The two roads diverged in a roads yellow forest. diverged in a yellow forest.

Q.2 Why was the road grassy and wanted Ans. 2 The road Ans. 2 The road was grassy was grassy wear? because few because led upon it

upon it

Teaching of Poetry

Review Questions Q.1 Which road was grassy and wanted wear? Q.2 What is the theme of the poem? Q.3 Tell the rhyming word of wood? HOME WORK Q.1 Q.2 Write the rhyming words of the following Both Fair Claim Fair Q.3 Write the main idea of the poem.

Summary Poetry commonly appears as a sequence of lines arranged in stanzas which relies on the Poetry is evocative. It typically evokes in the reader an intense emotion: joy, sorrow, anger, catharsis, love. Poetry is the very soul of literature, best form of expression and source of enjoyment. Objectives of teaching poetry are different at different levels. At primary level the main objective of teaching poetry is to read aloud with proper stress and intonation and to enjoy recitation of the poem. On secondary level the objective is to develop the power of appreciation of beauty and to make students understand the thoughts and imagination while on the higher secondary level the main objective is to train the emotions and creation of love for English literature. Present position of teaching poetry is that teachers dictate notes on poetry and ask students to cram and reproduce the same in class, either orally or in written form.

students’ knowledge but to increase the power of appreciation of beauty. Poetry leads to all round development of the students. It develops aesthetic sense, creativity and imparts enjoyment or pleasure.

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English Language Teaching

Poetry is an expression of aesthetic experience of a poet. On the printed page we have merely a colourless record of this emotion and music. It is the duty of the teacher to recreate and convey to the student this original musical beauty and emotional intensity; the teaching methodology of poetry should be simple, natural, and spontaneous, stressing the emotional and sound values of the poem. Thus, poetry has a special appeal for the in the school syllabus.

Terms to Remember Poetry Teaching Poetry Teaching poetry is an integral part of teaching English. Difference between Prose and Poetry

Prose lacks rhythm whereas poetry is all about rhythm.

Exercises Short Answer Questions (word limit 150) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Write the meaning and characteristics of poetry. Discuss the aims of teaching poetry. What is the difference between prose and poetry? What is the purpose and importance of teaching poetry? Write the objectives of teaching poetry at different levels.

Long Answer Questions (word limit 1000) 1. Write the steps of teaching poetry. 2. Prepare a lesson plan on the poem ‘Daffodils’.

9

Teaching of Composition

“The power of expression in a language is a matter of skill rather than of knowledge."

— Thomson and Wyatt Inside This Chapter

Learning Objectives

Introduction

This chapter will enable the reader to:

INTRODUCTION Speech is the beginning of all language learning. In face-to-face communication, speech is the best method. However, when the conveyer (speaker) and the receiver (listener) of the message are not physically present and there is no other means to establish any verbal link, then written form is the only choice. They must know how to organize the ideas in their proper sequence. Therefore, teaching of composition has an important place in any programme of teaching English.

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MEANING AND DEFINITION OF COMPOSITION The word ‘composition’ has been taken from the word ‘compose’ which means to put together. So, composition means the act of putting together words and sentence.

Definitions Some common definitions of composition are given below. Prof. Chapman, “Almost any written exercise is in fact composition”. George Sampson, “The person who cannot make a lucid and intelligible statement in speech or in writing is not an educated person.” A.W. Frisby, “The facility for expression must grow out of the earliest mechanical activity of sentence making the use of words.” Bhatia and Bhatia, “Composition is the expression of child’s thoughts, his own ideas, and feelings and observations. It includes both the process and product of composing”. It can be said that composition refers to the process of collecting thoughts, arranging them in accordance with recognized standards of forms. The product may take the shape of a letter, an application, a paragraph, a story, an essay, a description or narration, a poem and so on.

Think!

Is expansion of a line or a sequence into few sentences and reduction of few lines into one are important way of doing composition work.

Prerequisites for Teaching Composition There are certain prerequisites for teaching composition. (See Figure 9.1)

Fig. 9.1

Flowchart showing the prerequisites for teaching composition

Teaching of Composition

81

1. Command Over Language To be able to compose any piece of writing, one has to master the language with the following pre-requisite skills:— Knowledge of vocabulary

2. Ideas For the expression of the ideas, topic should be according to the mental level of the students. It is advisable that the teacher chooses a subject with which Indian students can easily relate to.

3. Organization of Ideas Ideas should be arranged in a logical sequence so that one thought flows from another. To sum up, the students should know what to say and how to say.

4. Stages of Writing Teaching students how to write letters of the alphabet. Helping students acquire sufficient practice to write the letters of the alphabet automatically. Writing on some topics of interest in a systematic way.

Fig. 9.2

Pyramidal structure of stages of writing

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English Language Teaching

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOSITION (i) The process of writing is divided into four stages:— Structuring Copying Transcribing Composition (ii) Composition is the expression of students’ thoughts, ideas, feelings, observations, and experiences in written form. (iii) Composition is the process of collecting thoughts or information, arranging them in a sequence. (iv) Composition is the process as well as product. The product may take the shape of a letter, an application, a story, an essay, a poem, a description or a narration. (v) Composition means to write on some topic in an interesting way.

Think!

Free composition should start after several years of guided composition. Discuss.

1. Present Position of Teaching Composition Good composition works in the hand of an efficient teacher results in effective learning of the language. However it is a pity, the way English composition is taught in Indian classrooms. Some instances are cited below:— 1. Some teachers simply translate the topics into vernacular and ask the students to cram the material. 2. Some teachers dictate notes on composition and ask the students to learn those by heart. The aforementioned ways of dealing with composition results into following maladies: Unable to think and write Mental faculties are not properly developed Students end up learning for the sake of appearing in the exams and not for gaining knowledge.

2. Aims of Teaching Composition The aims of teaching composition are as follows:— 1. To use appropriate language using the proper words and structure of the language. 2. To recall adequate and appropriate vocabulary and use it properly in sentences. 3. To enable the students to make use of appropriate punctuation marks for clarity of ideas.

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83

4. To encourage the students to express their ideas in writing in an organized and systematic way. 5. To develop the communicative competence through writing.

3. Principles of Teaching Composition Writing is a powerful instrument of expressing thought. The act of writing is accomplished through a process in which the writer imagines the readers, sets goals, develops ideas, produces notes, drafts, revise the text, and then finally edits to meet the readers’ expectations. As the process unfolds, the writer may turn to any one of these activities at any time. We can teach students to write more effectively by encouraging them to make full use of the each activity that comprise the act of writing, not by focusing only on the final written product and its strengths and weaknesses.

Principle of proper selection:

Topics should be meaningful and should appeal to every student and they should be able to comprehend the content.

Principle of gradation:

Topics should be selected according to the age, ability and the intellectual level of the students.

Principle of utility:

To make things easier, the topics selected should be related to day-to-day

life of the students.

Principle of oral practice:

To reduce the chances of making mistakes in writing, oral composition practice should be given to the students.

Principle of sequence:

The subject matter should be arranged in proper sequence for the students to grasp the concept.

Principle of follow-up: After pointing out the difficulties and problems of students, the teacher should find suitable remedial measures to remove their difficulties and mistakes.

4. Major Steps in Teaching Composition Think!

While correcting the composition, over-correction should be avoided. Discuss.

Step 1: Oral composition is developed by the teacher. He or she may use pictures or charts for this purpose. Another option is to sum up the meaning of the composition in a few sentences. Step 2: Listening to the teacher while he or she speaks on a certain topic helps the students. The teacher motivates them to develop composition orally and then related questions could be asked. Step 3: The students may be asked to compose an essay or a paragraph on their own. Step 4: Common mistakes of the students should be discussed openly in the class.

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TYPES OF COMPOSITIONS There are mainly two types of compositions, written and oral which can be further subdivided into guided and free as shown in Figure 9.3.

Fig. 9.3

Oral Composition Oral language development presents the basis of written language. The level of attainment in oral language directly affects the level of growth of writing skill. In the words of Grenning, “Oral composition is still the best means of getting good results. Writing is at best slow and laborious process and while a boy is writing one sentence, he could say a dozen and so get a correspondingly greater practice in expressing his ideas.”

Written Composition The expression of one’s thoughts, ideas and feelings through writing is referred to as written composition. Written composition provides an opportunity to the students to express in writing what they feel. It is divided into two types:-

1. Guided composition: “Guided composition is not panacea for all the problems of teaching composition to foreign students, there is still much that needs further exploration and experimentation.”—Allen and Camp Bell. It is also known as controlled or directed composition. The teacher provides the necessary vocabulary and language structures so that students can express their thoughts and ideas. Actually, guided compositions are written exercises that are recall based and the utterances are already known to the students orally. This is a test for the students to be able to write them down. The job of the teacher is to make necessary corrections in the students’ composition. It is also called controlled composition because the teacher exercises control of structures, vocabulary and ideas. Students should be acknowledged for their correct attempt and if there are mistakes in it, the teacher should make an attempt to correct them.

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85

At an early stage, the composition whether oral or written, should be strictly guided because the students should proceed from initiation to improvisation. There are certain principles which are required to be followed for guided compositions.

Principles for guided compositions: The major principles for guided compositions are enlisted below. The topic should be chosen according to the mental level of the students. The teacher should choose a topic, which the students are familiar with. The teacher should guide students with vocabulary and structure. All work is done orally and then writing work is carried on.

1. 2. 3. 4.

To enable the students to write correctly. To enable them to express their ideas, thoughts and feelings. To enable them to organize their thoughts in composition. To develop their writing ability.

Exercise for Guided Composition

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English Language Teaching

Examples on Guided Composition Exercises 1. The teachers write a paragraph on chalkboard with some words missing in it. The students are asked to fill in the blanks. Once a crow felt ________. He went in search of water. Soon he saw a________. It had no________. He put pebbles in to it. The________rose up. He drank________and flew away. (Once a crow felt thirsty, he went in search of water. Soon he saw a jug. It had no water. He put pebbles into it. The water rose up. He drank water and flew away) 2. The teachers may give some words and ask the students to speak or write sentences on it. Sheep, wool. (A sheep is a useful animal. It gives wool) 3. The teachers give some key words. Then the students are asked to develop composition based on the given keywords. (The postman is a busy person. He collects letters from the post office. He delivers the letters to the respective address.) 4. Conversion of the tenses: The teachers ask the students to convert the sentences into the various tenses.

My mother is a teacher of English. She likes teaching. She reads many books. The students like her very much.

My mother was a teacher of English. She liked teaching. She read many books. All the students liked her very much.

Replacement of words: Teachers write the paragraph and ask the students to rewrite the paragraph by using ‘I’ in place of ‘you’. You are a student. You should behave like a good student. You should read more books to get good marks. (I am a student. I should behave like a good student. I should read more books to get good marks.) 5. Changing gender: The teacher asks the students to change the gender of the subject in the sentence and then frame it again. My father is a teacher. He is the son of rich man. He prays every morning. (My mother is a teacher. She is the daughter of rich man. She prays every morning.) 6. Conversion into negative form: I like dancing. My dance teacher helps me. My friends learn dance with me. (I do not like dancing. My dance teacher does not help me. My friends do not learn dance with me.) 7. Inter-connected questions: A number of inter-connected questions are put to the students.

Teaching of Composition

1. 2. 3. 4.

87

What is your name? What is your mother? Where do you live? Which school do you go to? 1. My name is Suruchi. 2. My mother is a lecturer. 3. I live in Rewari.

8. Arranging jumbled sentences: A few sentences are given in jumbled form. The students are asked to put them in order. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

I went for a walk. I thanked my trainer. Yesterday I got up early. Then I took bath. (Yesterday I got up early and then went for a walk. I thanked my trainer. Then I took bath.)

9. Substitution tables: A set of two or more than two substitution tables are provided to the students. They help students to exercise inter-connected sentences through speaking or writing.

My Father Brother Friend He

Is

Is

A Businessman Teacher

Fifty Thirty Twenty five

Years

Old

10. Action performed by the teacher: A number of actions are performed by the teachers, while the students are asked to follow them and speak. The teacher entered the class. He is closing the door. Now the teacher is writing on the board. 11. Small topic of discussion: A small topic is given for discussion. The students are asked to speak on it. It improves their power to organize the ideas. Without discipline nothing moves. We should maintain discipline in our life to be successful. We can complete our work in time and pay attention to all the required works. Our life can change totally by simply making ourselves more disciplined.

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show a picture and then ask the students to develop or construct an idea on the lines of the same. Figure 9.4 highlights the steps for picture composition.

Fig. 9.4 Steps for picture composition Two or three pictures are shown by the teacher. He asks students to interpret them and speak few inter-connected sentences. The teacher should take care of the following points in picture composition:—

Advantages of picture composition:—

13. Summarizing and taking notes: Summarizing helps a good deal in learning composition. The students are asked to prepare notes based on class lectures. 14. Creative writing: All types of writing gradually enable a person to write free composition and that paves the way to creative writing.

Merits of Guided Composition

The teacher can correct mistakes of the students at the very beginning. Students also learn structures.

Free Composition According to H. Champion, “the ultimate aim of composition is to enable the pupils to arrange their own ideas in their own way, freely and to choose their own words, to express their own ideas, freely”. Hence, the terms ‘free composition’.

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89

Free composition is one in which the student is given a subject, and is asked to write on that subject with no further help from the teacher. It often seems to be thought that the ability to write good English will somehow develop in the student largely of its own accord. It is also known as creative or imaginative writing. In free composition:1. No restrictions on students for use of vocabulary and structure. 2. No restrictions on the length of the composition. 3. Students are free to tackle the topic set for them. 4. Students can think freely.

The learners will commit a number of error

Heavy load of correction work

Learner cram the topics for getting good marks in exams

Structure & vocabulary are not given much practice

Thus, there are many dangers of introducing free composition in early stages. Therefore, the beginning of teaching composition should be made with guided composition. Free composition should start only after some years of guided composition.

Importance of Free Composition Free composition is important because:

Correction Work Correction work is very important in the case of languages. Writing composition will be of no use if it is not corrected by the teacher. Aims of correction work are as follows:-

How to Reduce Mistakes There are certain ways by which mistakes can be reduced. Table 9.1 shows the same.

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Table 9.1: Ways to Reduce Mistakes Oral Assignments Every written assignment should first be dealt with orally. In oral correction, the pupils are made aware of their mistakes.

Drill Work

List of Mistakes

Mental Level of Students

Common mistakes done Exercises given by plenty of drill work in by the students should the teachers should be the class. be commonly discussed. according to the mental level of the students.

Correction of Mistakes Æ S—Spelling mistakes Æ Æ T—Tense mistakes Æ A—Article mistakes Æ W—Wrong word usage Æ G—Grammatical mistakes Æ O—Omission Æ E—Wrong English Æ I—Irrelevant matter 1. Teachers can adopt any symbol that they like but the students should be made conversant with these symbols. All the English teachers should follow the same symbol. 2. Teachers select a number of leaders, in each class, who are good in English. These leaders assist the teachers in correction work. 3. Teachers should distribute the notebooks of junior class students to the senior class students. The senior students are asked to do correction work within five to seven minutes. 4. Teachers should discuss the common mistakes with the entire class. Students benefit from such a discussion.

Conclusion The aim of teaching composition is to develop creativity and imagination among the students. With the help of composition one is able to express oneself precisely, accurately and efficiently. “Writing (make) an exact man”—

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91

MODEL LESSON PLAN ON COMPOSITION –

–30 Min _________

–

A chart, showing the four stages of the story “The fox and the Crane”.

Instructional Objectives in Behavioural Term

2. Understanding

The students will be able to develop the different linguistic skills like listening, reading, speaking learning etc. The students will be able to apply the art of composition of story in their day to day life.

Previous Knowledge Testing Q.1 Which is your favourite story? Q.2 What is the moral of that story? Q.3 Who is the cleverest animal in the jungle? Q.4 Have you heard a story of a fox and a crane?

Announcement of the Topic

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Presentation Teaching Point Narration of the First stage the help of picture Stage 1

P.T’s Activities

Students Activities

Students listen story with the help of picture carefully and i.e., once there was a fox and looked at the a crane. They became good picture. friends. One day fox invited the crane to dinner. The crane accepted the invitation.

Chalk Board Writing

THE CRANE

The Fox and the Crane Q.

Q. Who invited the crane Ans. Fox invited the crane for for dinner? dinner.

Oral development of stage Teacher will motivate the students to respond with the help of students

Narration of the second stage of the story by the

Stage 2

Q.

Once there was a fox and a________. They became good ________. One day fox invited the crane for ________. The crane accepted the ________.

the story that, the crane reached the fox’s house. The fox had prepared soup for dinner. He served the soup in a flat saucer. The fox enjoyed it. But the crane could not do so because of its long beak. It had to remain hungry.

Q. Who enjoyed the dinner?

Ans. The Fox enjoyed the dinner.

Contd.

Teaching of Composition

Oral development of stage Teacher will motivate the students to respond with the help of students

Narration of the third stage the help of picture Stage 3

with the help of students

The crane reached the ________ house. The fox had prepared the ________ for dinner. He served the ________ in a flat saucer. The fox ________ it. But the crane could not do so because of its long ________. It had to remain ________.

Students listen the story with the help of carefully and picture that, the crane wanted looked at the to take revenge. Crane also picture. invited the fox to dinner. The fox reached the crane’s house. The crane served pieces of meat in a bottle. The neck of the bottle was long and narrow. The Crane enjoyed the dinner. But the fox could not manage to reach the bottom of the pitcher. He had to go without dinner. Thus the crane took its revenge. Q. Who wanted to have revenge?

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93

Ans. The crane wanted to have revenge. The crane wanted to have ________. Crane also invited the fox to ________. The fox reached the crane’s ________. The crane served pieces of _______ in a bottle. The neck of the bottle was ________ and narrow. The Crane enjoyed the________. But the fox’s mouth could not entered into the ________. He remained ________. Thus the crane had its ________.

Contd.

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Moral of the story

—As you sow, so shall you reap.

The students will write compo-sition in their notebook

AS YOU SOW, SO

Writing Composition write composition in their notebook Correction Work correction.

Exercises — 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

A fox and a crane ________ good friends. One day fox invited the crane________. Fox serve the food in a ________ saucer. But the crane could not enjoyed the dinner because of its ________. The crane wanted to have ________. Crane served pieces of meat in a ________ bottle. Fox remained ________.

Q.1 Fill up the following blanks:(a) Fox served the soup in a ________. (b) The ________ wanted to have revenge. (c) The crane also invited ________ to dinner.

Q.1 What is the moral of the story “The fox and the crane”? Q.2 Who wanted to have revenge and why?

Q.1 Write another story which is based on moral ‘as you saw, so shall you reap’. Q.2 Write the brief summary of the story “The fox and the crane”.

Teaching of Composition

Summary In face to face communication speech is the best choice. But when the conveyer (speaker) and the receiver of the message are not physically present and there is no other means to establish verbal link, then written form is the only choice. They must know how to organize the ideas in their proper sequence. Therefore the teaching of composition has an important place in any program of teaching of English. The word ‘composition’ has been taken from the word ‘compose’ which means to put together. So composition means the act of putting together words and sentence. Composition is the process as well as product. The product may take the shape of a letter, an application, a story, an essay, a poem, a description or narration and so on. Mastery of language, ideas and organization of ideas are the three prerequisites for teaching composition. Structuring, copying, transcribing, composition are the four stages of writing. simply translate the topics into the mother tongue and asks the students to cram the material. The aim of teaching composition is to encourage the students to express their ideas in writing in an organized and systematic way and to develop the communicative competence through writing. Major Steps in Teaching Composition are oral development of composition by the teacher, oral development of composition by the student, writing of composition by the students and correction work. Written composition is the expression of one’s thoughts, ideas and feelings. It should follow the oral composition. Written composition provides an opportunity to the pupil to write what they feel. Guided composition are those written exercises in which utterances are already known to the students orally but they are asked to write them down. In this type of composition, guidance may be given from hundred percent to one percent. In guided composition if one hundred percent guidance is given by the teacher and then students reproduce it exactly then it is called reproduction exercise. It is also called controlled composition because there is control of structures, vocabulary, ideas etc by the teacher. At the early stage, the composition whether oral or written should be strictly guided because pupils should proceed from initiation to improvisation, from reproduction to an oral expression. is called picture composition. Same picture can be used for junior and senior level. Two or three pictures are shown by the teacher. He asks the students to interpret them and speak few inter connected sentences.

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Free Composition is one in which the student is given a subject, and is asked to write on that subject with no further help from the teacher. Free composition paves the way for creative writing. Correction work is very important in the case of languages. Writing composition will be of no use if it is not corrected by the teacher. Composition helps a person to express his feelings, ideas and emotions clearly and freely.

Terms to Remember Composition A short piece of writing, often taught in school curriculum. Paraphrasing

To express what someone has written using different words. The practice of writing prose involving more than one character in conversational

form. The practice of writing a message on paper addressed to someone. Often included in school curriculum. Any writing that goes beyond professional boundaries. Students are asked to indulge into creative writing in order to enhance their writing skills. Form of letter writing which is formal and absolutely professional. A person usually adopts this method while applying for jobs. The practice where students are taught to summarize a long piece of writing highlighting its main points.

Exercises (word limit 150) 1. Write the meaning and characteristics of composition. 3. 4. 5. 6.

What is the difference between guided and free compositions? Write a note on picture composition. What are the dangers of using free composition at early stage? What are the principles of teaching composition?

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97

(word limit 1000) 1. Guided composition leads towards free composition. Explain with examples. 2. Explain in detail the types of composition. What steps will you take in teaching composition to the students of standard VII?

Additional resources related to this chapter are available at www.mhhe.com/navita_arora

10

Teaching of Grammar

“The rules of grammar are like the laws of nature. The laws were not made for nature to obey, but are simply a few facts which wise men have observed as to the way nature acts. So, the grammarian merely examines the language of the best speakers and writers and deduce rules from their use of it.”

— C. E. Eckersley Inside This Chapter

Learning Objectives

Introduction

This chapter will enable the reader to:

INTRODUCTION Grammar is the theory of language. Grammar is the rules in a language used for changing the forms of words and joining them into sentences. Every language has its own grammar. The knowledge of grammar is perhaps more important to a second language learner than to a native speaker. This is because the native speaker has intuitively internalized the grammar of his or her language whereas the second language learner has to make conscious efforts to master those aspects of the language which account for grammatically.

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99

MEANING OF GRAMMAR Grammar means different things to different persons. For a layman, grammar may simply highlight the correct and incorrect usages involved in a language. In other words it is the sum total of rules and regulations of the language. According to Ballard, “Etymologically grammar means the study of letters. It is the science that lies behind the art of literature and composition”. Dr. Sweet, “The practical analysis of language, its anatomy”. Dr. West, “Grammar is not a code of rules, it is, like etiquette and table manner, a statement of convention, it summarizes what is done by cultural people, and like etiquette it is a state of constant change.” Champion has given a comprehensive definition of grammar. According to him, “grammar is the study of language by specialist made in order to establish the rules and principles which are followed less unconsciously or instinctively by the native speakers.” In short, it can be said, “The meaningful arrangement of forms in a language constitutes its grammar.”

CHARACTERISTICS OF GRAMMAR The major characteristics of grammar are enlisted below.

to establish the rules and principles which are followed by the speakers and writers.

First meaning—to set formal patterns of arranging words of language. Second meaning—Analytical aspect of a language. Third meaning—Linguistic etiquette or norms.

Think!

Is grammar a servant or a master of language? Discuss.

PRESENT POSITION OF GRAMMAR IN INDIAN CLASSROOMS In India, teaching of grammar is structure-based and quite formal. The normal pattern to undertake a grammar class is to give the students some rules using a lot of terminologies and asking students

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to solve a few mechanical and monotonous exercises. This leads the learners to nowhere. Even if the student’s performance is fairly good, there is no assurance that they would be able to speak and write in English proficiently. In most cases, grammar is taught as an end in itself rather than a means to an end; and apparently instructor’s focus is more on teaching the rules of grammar rather than enhancing the communicative aspects of language proficiency. The present position of grammar in the schools is pitiable because

EXPECTED ROLE OF GRAMMAR 1. Grammar should assist in learning the language. It should be a means to learn the language properly. 2. At the initial stages, children should be allowed to learn in a natural way. Grammar should be introduced after two, three years of learning the language. It means the ability to use language correctly is more important than the ability to name parts of speech. 3. Teachers should be conscious of introducing or practicing points of grammar. In the words of A.W. Frisby— “Grammar must always follow. It must be behind reading and writing.”

OBJECTIVES/AIMS OF TEACHING GRAMMAR The main objectives of teaching grammar are,

memorization

Three Safeguards The three safeguards of grammar are as follows. First—The grammar should not be begun until student has acquired a working knowledge of the language. Second—The grammar should never form the sole subject of a full period. Third—No opportunity should be missed to stress those points at which the highly inflicted vernaculars of India differ from English.

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101

TYPES OF GRAMMAR There are two types of grammar, formal and functional grammar.

1. Formal Grammar It is also called perspective or theoretical grammar. Formal grammar is that grammar which is taught in a formal way and deals with the definitions and rules of a language. In this type of grammar the main emphasis is on rules and regulations and any departure from those rules is not allowed. The students proceed from rules to examples. Limitations: 1. Grammarians forget that language is ever-changing and ever-growing. ‘Brunch’ is a new word. 2. Rules of a language are not universal Examples: Plural

Chair

Æ Chairs

Girl

Æ Girls

But

Child

Æ Children

Tenses

Watch Æ Watched

But

Pass

Æ Passed

Go

Æ Went

2. Functional Grammar It is also called descriptive grammar. The main emphasis is laid on the functional side of the language. It helps the learners in the achievement of real aims of language learning. So, it is recommended for teaching purposes in schools. Learners can learn a new language without learning the formal grammar because we learn mother tongue without learning formal grammar. Table 10.1 highlights the differences between formal grammar and functional grammar. Table 10.1:

Formal Grammar

Functional Grammar

1. It is taught with the help of grammar book.

1. It is taught not as a separate subject but along with the graded reader.

2. It lays emphasis on rote memorization of its rules and definitions of parts of speech.

2. It lays emphasis upon assimilating the correct patterns of the language without learning them by rote.

Contd.

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3. Rules of the grammar memorized by the student.

are

consciously

3. Rules of grammar are acquired unconsciously by the student through imitation and practice.

4. It is taught deductively i.e. rules and definitions are told to the students and then examples are explained.

4. Functional grammar is taught inductively i.e., examples are given first and students arrived at rules with the help of examples.

5. It is taught theoretically without its functional utility.

5. It is taught in situations which really happen and the class can understand.

6. It is taught formally and hence its lesson is dull and difficult.

6. It is taught informally and hence it creates interest and learning becomes automatic.

7. It is also known as theoretical grammar or perspective grammar.

7. Functional grammar is known as descriptive grammar.

8. It is not based on its day to day functional utility

8. This is a grammar having a utility for day to day life.

Functional grammar is strongly recommended because of its practical value. A good deal of grammar is absorbed unconsciously and by the process of imitation.

Think!

Formal grammar fails to provide a general mental training, does not enable teachers to eradiate solecism, does not aid in composition and takes up time which could much more profitable be devoted to the study of literature. Discuss.

How much grammar should be taught: The ability of a person learning a language is not to be judged on the basis of quantity of grammar known, but to make proper use of language.

METHODS OF TEACHING GRAMMAR The various methods for teaching of grammar are: The traditional method. The inductive deductive method. The incidental or correlation method. The informal method.

1. The Traditional Method In this method a text book is used. It contains definitions, examples. The teacher’s task is to make the definitions and rules more clear to the students with the help of suitable examples. He or she proceeds from definition and rules to examples, and then he asks students to do some exercise and memorize the definitions and rules by heart.

Demerits

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103

to complex, particular to general, and from example to rule.

2. Inductive and Deductive Methods “Even when facts are discovered inductively the acquired knowledge has to be applied deductively. Table 10.2 gives a detail explanation of both the methods. Table 10.2: Inductive Method

Deductive Method

Inductive means to proceed from observation to law Deductive means to proceed from law and rule to and rules. observation and examples. Inductive process:

Deductive process:

systematic way analysis Merits:—This method breaks the monotony in the Merits:—It lays emphasis on the teaching of formal classroom by making teaching more interesting grammar It lays emphasis on the teaching of functional grammar Limitations:—It requires competence on the part of Limitations:—Uninteresting and monotonous methe teacher teaching English. thod It consumes a little more time to teach particular Does not provide any synthesis between thought grammatical concepts as compare to teaching and expression through grammar translation method

3. The Incidental or Correlation Method It is also called reference method. In this method grammar is taught incidentally. The rules of grammar are taught separately in class, when teaching from the textbook. Complex structures of the language are explained with the help of the examples that appear in the text.

Merit:—This method is very suitable as a supplementary to the inductive deductive method. Demerit:—It is not a complete method. It can interfere with normal teaching.

4. The Informal Method This method advocates the teaching of grammar through usage. By continuous practice of using words while speaking, reading, and writing, grammar can be mastered.

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According to Suri and Bhardwaj, “the informal method is a necessity in the early stages when students have not mastered enough vocabulary.”

Demerits:

Which Method is Better? It is difficult to decide which method is better. It depends upon the teacher, the learner and the general background of the learners.

Think!

Why should grammar be taught functionally at the lower classes and formally in the higher classes? Discuss.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TEACHING GRAMMAR Teaching grammar has certain advantages. Grammar helps in the following developments:

Disadvantages

SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING GRAMMAR

students.

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105

MODEL LESSON PLAN FOR TEACHING GRAMMAR Before teaching a lesson on grammar, it is very important to set a few goals. The process is explained below.

Goal:

The purpose of this lesson is allowing students to explore, learn, and understand the rules and regulations of a language. P.T.’S ROLL NO. –

PERIOD ________

CLASS

–

DURATION ________

SUBJECT

–

DATE ________

TOPIC

– Common and Proper noun (Grammar)

SCHOOL ________

Instructional Aids Flash cards showing various examples of common and proper noun

Instructional Objectives Knowledge: The students will be able to know the difference between common and proper noun. Understanding: The students will be able to understand the difference between common and proper noun. Skills: The students will be able to develop the different linguistic skills like listening, speaking, reading and writing. Application: The students will be able to make use of proper and common noun in their day to day life.

Previous Knowledge Assumed The teacher assumes that the students know about nouns.

Previous Knowledge Testing To test the knowledge of students, the teacher asks the following questions: 1. Give the definition of noun 2. Give two examples of nouns 3. Do you know about the types of noun?

Announcement of the Topic Finding a negative answer of the students, the P.T will say, dear students, today we shall study about common and proper noun“ ________ ”.

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Presentation Teaching Point

Teacher’s Activities

Students’ Activities

Brief Introduction

Students, there are many different types Students of nouns such as common noun, proper listen noun, countable noun, uncountable noun, carefully concrete noun, abstract noun, singular noun, plural noun but today we will discuss about common and proper nouns

Common Noun

The name of a common person, place or a thing is called common noun Let us look at the following sentences. He is a boy.

The students will note down in their notebooks.

Chalk Board Writing

Common Noun

I go to the market.

She has a pet dog.

The book is on the table.

Examples

Girl, school, book, princess, classroom, temple etc.

The students will note down in their notebook

Contd.

Teaching of Grammar

Proper Noun

The name of a proper person, place or a thing is called proper noun. Let us look at the following sentences.

Sandra has a pet Dog

Sandra

Taj Mahal is in Agra.

Taj Mahal Examples

Breeza, Sheetal, Jaipur, etc.

Recapitulation Pick out common and proper nouns in the following sentences. I have two children. The lion is the king of the beasts. Solomon was the wisest of all kings. Birds of a feather flock together. The Nile is the longest river. Jawaharlal Nehru was the first Prime Minister of India.

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Proper Noun

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English Language Teaching

HOME WORK VERY SHORT QUESTIONS 1. Differentiate between Common and Proper noun 2. Pick out common and proper noun in the following sentences The early bird catches the worm It was Thomas Edison who invented the phonograph You can’t pump the ocean

Summary Grammar is the study of the organization of words into sentences. Every language has its own grammar. A knowledge of grammar is perhaps more important to a second language learner than to a native speaker. This is because the native speaker has intuitively internalized the grammar of the language whereas the second language learner has to make conscious efforts to master those aspects of the language which account for grammatically. The present position of teaching grammar in schools is pitiable because students look at grammar from examination point of view and are least bothered about its nuances. The main aim of teaching grammar is to enable the students to express their ideas logically and correctly in speech writing. Formal grammar is that grammar which is taught in a formal way and deals with the definitions and rules of a language while functional grammar helps the learners in the achievement of real aims of language learning. The ability of a person learning a language is not to be judged on the basis of quantity of grammar known, but to make proper use of language. The various methods for teaching of grammar are the traditional method, the inductive deductive method, the incidental or correlation method and the informal method. It is difficult to decide which method is better. It depends upon the teacher, the learner and the general background of the learners. Therefore, the method of teaching should be chosen keeping in view the age and general standard of students and errors should be pointed out and analyzed both in speech and writing.

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109

Terms to Remember Grammar The practical analysis of language, its anatomy. Formal grammar It is the grammar which is taught in a formal way and deals with the definitions and rules of a language. Functional grammar It is also called Descriptive Grammar. The main emphasis is laid on the functional side of the language. The traditional method In this method the teacher proceeds from definition and rules to examples, and then he asks students to do some exercise and memorize the definitions and rules by heart. Inductive method

Means to proceed from observation to law and rules.

Deductive Method Deductive means to proceed from law and rule to observation and examples. The incidental or correlation method The informal method

In this method grammar is taught incidentally.

This method advocates the teaching of grammar not by rules but by usage.

Exercises Short Answer Questions (word limit 150) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Write the meaning and definition of grammar. Discuss the aims and objectives of teaching grammar. What are the characteristics of grammar? What is the difference between formal and functional grammar? What are the various methods of teaching grammar? What are the advantages of teaching grammar?

Long Answer Questions (word limit 1000) 1. How can teaching of grammar in Indian classrooms be improved? What methods do you suggest for teaching grammar to students in India? 2. In right form, right place, right measure and right way, the teaching of grammar is indispensable to any course in English. Elucidate.

11

Micro-Teaching

“Micro teaching is a real, constructed, scaled down teaching encounter which is used for teacher training, curriculum development and research.”

— Encyclopedia of Education Inside This Chapter

Learning Objectives

Introduction

This chapter will enable the reader to:

INTRODUCTION Micro-teaching is so called since it is analogous to putting the teacher under a microscope so to say while he is teaching so that all the shortcomings in teaching methodology are brought into perspective for the observers to give a constructive feedback. It eliminates some of the complexities of learning to teach in the

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111

classroom situation such as the pressure of length of the lecture, the scope and content of the matter to be conveyed, the need to teach for a relatively long duration of time and the need to face large numbers of students, some of whom are hostile temperamentally. Micro-teaching also provides skilled supervision with an opportunity to get a constructive feedback. To go back to the analogy of the swimmer, while classroom teaching is like learning to swim at the deeper end of the pool, micro-teaching is an opportunity to practice at the shallower and less risky side.

DEFINITIONS OF MICRO-TEACHING The main objective of the micro-teaching session is to provide the participants with an environment for practice-based teaching to instill self-evaluative skills. These sessions are usually conducted with a small group. According to Dwight Allen “Micro-teaching is a scaled down teaching encounter in class size and time. Allen and Eve has defined micro-teaching as a system of controlled practice that makes it possible to concentrate on specific teaching behaviour and to practice teaching under controlled conditions.” Figure 11.1 shows the various ways of Micro-teaching.

Think!

The acquisition of a good style of questioning may be laid down definitely as one of the essential ambition of younger teachers. Discuss.

Fig. 11.1

Methods of micro-teaching

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MICRO-TEACHING CYCLE 1. Defining a specific skill A specific skill is defined in the form of teaching behaviour and the knowledge of this defined skill is provided to the teacher trainee by the teachers.

2. Demonstration of the skill

The skills are demonstrated through the micro-teaching

lessons.

3. Micro-lessons plan The trainee and the teachers prepare micro lesson plans. 4. Teaching a small group

A session for small group of 5-10 students is conducted. The teacher trainee teaches the lesson to a small group of pupils, supervised by the supervisor and peers.

5. Feedback On the basis of the observation of a lesson, the supervisor gives feedback to the teacher trainee. The supervisor reinforces the instances of effective use of the skill and draws attention of the teacher trainee to the points where he could not do well. 6. Re-planning, re-teaching, and re-evaluation

In the light of the feed-back given by the supervisor, the teacher trainee re-plans the lesson plan in order to use the skill in more effective manner in the second trial. In this way, the cycle of re-planning, re-teaching and re-evaluation goes on till the teacher trainee develops a certain level of teaching skill. Figure 11.2 gives an idea of micro-teaching cycle.

Fig. 11.2

Micro-teaching cycle

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113

TIME DURATION OF MICRO-TEACHING Micro-teaching should be of a certain duration, which is given below: Teaching session Feedback session Re plan session Re teach session Feedback session Total

= 6 minutes = 6 minutes = 12 minutes = 6 minutes = 6 minutes = 36 minutes

The above mentioned programme will help the trainee-teachers to master the art of teaching effectively. It allows them to learn one skill at a time which is later integrated as a whole and transferred into a real teaching situation.

TEACHING SKILL A teaching skill is an activity or action which is repeated number of times while teaching. Teaching skills are effective in bringing about the desired changes in student teachers.

Number of skills

Educationists have different opinion about number of teaching skills. There is no common view regarding their numbers. Views of some educationists are given below. Allen and Ryan’s—suggested 14 skills B.K. Passi—suggested 13 skills Dr. L.C. Singh—suggested 22 skills Some of the major skills are described below: Keeping the prescribed syllabus in view, a few skills are being described hereunder:

Think!

Every teacher should make efforts to acquire the skill of reinforcement. Once acquired, it will also help him to achieve the desired type of response from the students. Discuss.

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QUESTIONING It is one of the major devices used by a teacher. Teaching is a bi-polar process; therefore, the teacher puts questions to the class in order to involve the students fully in the process of teaching-learning. According to Calvin, “The efficiency of instruction is measured in a large degree by the nature of the questions that are asked and the care with which they are framed”. Figure 11.3 highlights the important points of Micro-teaching.

Fig. 11.3

Important points of micro-teaching

Purpose of Questioning Skill The questioning skill serves five major purposes as listed below:

the teacher ask such question. Example

of the students on some fundamental points. redirecting to think and speak on the right lines. teacher can develop critical awareness in the student.

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115

Aims of Questioning Major aims of teaching comprise the following:

Figure 11.4 highlights the aims of questioning.

Fig. 11.4 Aims of questioning

Classification of Questions Broadly questions can be divided into two categories, formal questions and natural questions. Formal questions can be divided into teaching questions and developing questions. Teaching questions can be further sub-divided into preliminary questions and review questions.

Formal questions In this category the teacher already knows the information which he asked for. These are of two types:

Teaching Questions Teaching questions are of two types: 1. Preliminary Questions— 2. Recapitulatory Questions— Developing Questions

Natural questions— he asks.

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BENEFITS AND DRAWBACKS OF MICRO-TEACHING The method of micro-teaching has its own benefits and drawbacks. These are enlisted below.

Benefits Micro-teaching focuses on sharpening and developing specific teaching skills and eliminating errors.

beginning of their career but also for more senior teachers. constructive feedback. The learner remains active in the teaching-learning process.

Drawbacks

said to be (wrongly) a form of play-acting in unnatural surroundings and it is feared that the

MICRO LESSON PLAN SKILL-QUESTIONING P.T.'S ROLL NO. :

DATED:

SUBJECT

: ENGLISH

SKILL: QUESTIONING

CLASS

: VII

DURATION: 6 MIN.

TOPIC

: Mahatma Gandhi (Comprehension Passage)

Micro-Teaching

Criteria of the Skill (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)

Structuring the language of the questions appropriately Asking more questions within specific time Encouraging the students to respond Maximum participation of students Improving the correctness of responses Developing critical awareness among the students

Opening Statement try to give the answers. Content

Teacher's Activity Q.1

Students' Activity Ans. 1 on October 2, 1869.

Q.2

Ans. 2

Q.3

Ans. 3

Q.4

Ans. 4 Bai.

2nd Oct., 1869 at Porbander in

Q.5

Ans. 5

Q.6

Ans. 6 were his weapons.

Q.7

Ans. 7

mother's name was Putli Bai.

dead. Q.8

Violence were his weapons.

Ans. 8

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English Language Teaching

Observation Schedule Sr. No.

Components

Q.1 Yes/No

Q.2 Yes/No

Q.3 Yes/No

Q.4 Yes/No

Q.5 Yes/No

Q.6 Yes/No

Q.7 Yes/No

Q.8 Yes/No

1. correct 2.

Specific

3.

Relevant

4. 5.

Fluency

6. in the class

Signature of the Supervisor Signature of the Observer

SKILL OF INTRODUCTION (SET INDUCTION) “Set induction helps the teacher prepare students for the lessons in order to induce maximum pay off in learning. Its main purpose is to clarify the goals of instruction, using students’ present knowledge and skills to involve them in the lesson” – Allen and Ryan It is always wise to begin a lesson with something the students already knows in a general enthusiasm of the students, half the game is won. Much depends upon starting the lesson in the right way. The lesson should be started with an interesting example or incident.

Various Components of Set Induction 1. Utilization of the existing knowledge of the students: Learning is a continuous experience. Introduction of the lesson should be based on the previous learning as well as direct and indirect experiences of the students. Therefore the teacher should provide a link between the existing knowledge and the new one. This step may involve:

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119

2. Use of Appropriate Devices: The teacher should use appropriate devices for introducing the lesson. These devices should appeal to various senses of the students and hence motivates Illustrating and Role playing. 3. Maintenance of Continuity: Continuity means the logical sequence of idea or information. Proper introduction of a new lesson requires the continuity in the sequence of ideas or information. The activity done at a particular moment should be properly related to the preceding activity or statement for the maintenance of continuity. Moreover, a pleasing well modulated voice and clear pronunciation of the teacher also help in capturing the attention and interest of the students. 4. Relevance of Verbal and Non-Verbal Behaviour Verbal behaviour: It includes use of relevant ideas or words to introduce the lesson. It

Non-Verbal Behaviour: category we have

MICRO LESSON PLAN SKILL-INTRODUCTION (SET INDUCTION) P.T.'S ROLL NO. :

DATED:

SUBJECT

: ENGLISH

SKILL: INTRODUCTION

CLASS

: VII

Duration: 6 Min.

TOPIC

: Adjectives

Importance of the Skill (i) Linking previous knowledge with the new knowledge (iii) Planning to present the lesson systematically (iv) Arousing interest among the students (v) Encouraging the students to participate in the lesson.

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Teacher's Activity

Students' Activity Taj Mahal, Table, Book, Sita etc.

They describe the noun. Tell us more about them.

STATEMENT Dear students, today we shall learn about the describing words, which we call adjectives in grammar.

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121

Observation Schedule S. No

Components

Tallies

Satisfactory

Good

Very Good

1. of the students 2. 3.

Maintenance of continuity

4.

Relevancy of verbal or non verbal behaviour

Signature of the Supervisor Signature of the Observer

SKILL OF EXPLAINING Explanation refers to a statement, fact or situation that tells one, why something happened. Explanation plays a major role in the teaching-learning process. It is the duty of the teacher to present the subject matter in simple and interesting way. This method is termed as skill of explaining.

Components of Explaining Skill Explaining skills comprises the following components. (i) Beginning Statement:—Beginning statement is used to announce the topic. It makes the students ready in the class to listen to what is going to be explained. (ii) Concluding Statement:—These statements give a consolidated picture of what has been explained earlier to the students. (iii) Explaining Links:—(but, so, hence, thus, etc.) means creating links or bringing the continuity in statements to explain the concept. A good teacher should make use of explaining skill as much as possible. (iv) Covering Main Points:—Explanation should cover all the main points. (v) Correctness of the Language:—The language used by the teachers should be simple, clear and correct. The merits and demerits of Explaining Skills

Merits

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Demerits The major demerit of Explaining Skill is that, it becomes difficult to determine as to what extent the use of this technique is appropriate and sufficient.

MICRO LESSON PLAN SKILL-EXPLANING P.T.'S ROLL NO. :

DATED:

SUBJECT

: ENGLISH

SKILL: EXPLAINING

CLASS

: VII

DURATION: 6 MIN.

TOPIC

: Noun (Grammar)

Purpose of Explanation Skill (i) Introducing an idea or concept to the students (iii) Covering main ideas of the content/concept (iv) Keeping optimum normal speed in explanation (v) Attending completion of idea/concept

Opening Statement Dear students, today I shall explain you the concept of noun. Content

P.T.'s Activity

Students' Activity

(i)

Then P.T. will tell students that

Contd.

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123

(ii) the picture of Taj Mahal, the P.T. will The students will answer–in Agra. Then P.T. will tell students that Agra is the place where Taj Mahal is situated.

(iii) Showing an apple, the P.T. will ask The students will say–an apple. Then P.T. will tell students that an apple is a thing.

So based on above discussion, the The students will try to understand P.T. will now conclude with the and note down this definition in definition of a noun as– their note-books. or thing Sita is eating an apple. the blackboard and ask the students The books are on the table. to underline noun/nouns. Rahul is dancing. Delhi is the capital of India.

Observation Schedule Sr. No.

Components

1.

Opening Statement

2.

Closing statement

3.

Covering main ideas

4.

Speed

5.

Correctness of the language

6.

Spoken English of the Student Teacher

7.

Explaining links (so, but, hence, such as, etc.)

Satisfactory

Good

Very Good

Signature of the Supervisor Signature of the Observer

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English Language Teaching

SKILL OF ILLUSTRATION To illustrate means to make a point or idea clear. It means to elucidate or exemplify ideas with the help of verbal or non-verbal aids. It is because; it becomes difficult to explain certain abstract ideas. Illustrations make the subject matter clear, simple, understandable and interesting. The value of illustration depends upon the skill with which easy and familiar things can be used to explain new and difficult ideas. It will be much better if these examples are taken from students’ daily life.

Objectives of Skill of Illustration To make the lesson interesting. To link unknown knowledge to known. To use various senses of the students.

Components of the Skill of Illustration To make illustration easy and natural and to attain mastery in this skill, it is desirable to be proficient by the following behaviours– Simple Examples—Teacher should formulate simple and clear examples keeping in mind age, previous knowledge, family background and experience of the students. Understandable Examples—The teacher should give examples which help the students to understand the topic. Examples related to the topic produces significant effect on students’ learning. Relevant Examples—The examples illustrated by teacher should be relevant to the topic. Teacher should avoid such examples which are not directly related to the concept. Approaches—There are two basis approaches used by the teacher to clear a concept or idea. Inductive Approach—The teacher starts with examples based on the concept and then try to draw inferences on the basis of these examples. Deductive Approach—The teachers state the facts, concepts and then give examples to support or illustrate. The teachers are advised to use both the approaches, so that they may help the students —Illustration should be presented with suitable and effective mediums which make its effect perfect. There are two major types of illustrations, verbal and non-verbal. These are explained below. of related ideas expressed in words. It can be further divided into stories and description, analogies and comparison, similes and words.

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125

Non-Verbal or Concrete Illustrations—These illustrations are of great potential value than the verbal illustrations. This category includes concrete material such as sketches, actual, objects and specimens, models, pictures, diagrams, maps and graphs.

Aims of Illustration Illustration attract attention Facilitate understanding Stimulate the imagination of the students Illustration overcome and clear up difficulties of comprehension Develops the retention power of the students

Suggestions While Making Use of Illustrations It is advisable to keep in mind these points while making use of illustrations. Illustrations should be exact and accurate. They should be easy and intelligible. They should be interesting. Too many illustrations should not be used. Illustrative aids should be attractive, colourful and appeal to the students. There should be a variety and novelty in the use of illustrations.

Think!

Why there should be a variety and novelty in the use of illustration? Discuss.

MICRO LESSON PLAN SKILL-ILLUSTRATING WITH EXAMPLES P.T.'S ROLL NO. :

DATE: EXAMPLES

CLASS

: VII

TOPIC

: Prepositions (Grammar)

Criteria of the Skill (ii) Making illustrations interesting and effective

Duration: 6 Min.

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English Language Teaching

Opening Statement Dear students, today I shall illustrate the usage of prepositions with some explains. Content

P.T's Activity (i)

(ii)

Students' Activity

the P.T. will The students will answer—The ask—what do you see in this Cat is on the table.

putting chalks in the box,

(iii) Thereafter, card

The students will say—The chalks are in the box.

The students will answer—The cat is (sitting) under the table.

Thus, the words on, in and under used in the sentences are prepositions Definition of Preposition

The P.T. will ask the students to write the definition of preposition as– “a word usually placed before a noun or a pronoun to govern it and show its relation with other words in a sentence”.

The students will try to understand and note down the definition of preposition in their note books.

Contd.

Micro-Teaching

1. The rat is______the box.

2. The ball table.

Showing a chart, the P.T. will ask the students to insert appropriate preposition in the given sentences.

is______the

(i) The student will answer— The rat is on the box.

(ii) The ball is under the table.

3. The water is______the glass.

(iii) The water is in the glass.

OBSERVATION SCHEDULE Sr. No.

127

Components

1.

Simple

2.

Relevant

Average

Good

Very Good

3. 4.

Interesting

5.

A.V. Aids used

6.

Demonstration Contd.

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English Language Teaching

7.

Students involvement

8.

Approach (a) Inductive (b) Deductive

Signature of the Supervisor Signature of the Observer

SKILL OF STIMULUS VARIATION What to change, When to change and How to change requires a skill on the part of the teacher for securing and sustaining attention at high level. Such a skill is named as skill of Stimulus Variation”. – Sneha Joshi Psychologists have proved that for any learning to take place, the learner should be attentive to the information. Therefore, a good teacher goes on varying the stimulus in order to bring variety in his teaching. Thus the teachers are trained in movements, gestures, focusing interaction styles and so on. The skill of stimulus variation is based on the principle that, change in stimulus in one’s perception, captures the subject’s attention. So stimulus variation generates interest among the students in their learning. Every teacher uses some stimulus in order to have a desired type of response from the students. If he continues using the same stimulus for the same students, the desired response will not come up. So there is need of Stimulus Variation. It generates interest among the students in their learning.

COMPONENTS OF STIMULUS VARIATION The major components of stimulus variation are explained below. 1. Gesture of the Teacher in the classroom:—It is advisable that the teacher moves around in the classroom while lecturing. This action draws the attention of the students and inculcates a feeling of being supervised. 2. Voice of the Teacher:—In order to lay emphasis on a particular point the teacher can make sudden changes in the tone, volume or speed of verbal expression. But these changes should be according to the situation and need of the students. 3. Pauses:— to sustain their attention, the teacher should pause during teaching, not only to secure the attention of the students but to give time for the ideas and concepts to simulate.

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129

4. Body language:—The teacher can make various gestures with the help of movement of hand, point being taught and express emotions on the part of the teacher. 5. Students’ Involvement:—It includes active participation of students in the classroom. During the lesson like handling equipments, writing on blackboard, it will arouse interest and motivation in teaching-learning process. 6. Change in Sensory Focus:—There are different sensory focuses during a lesson like listening, spelling, doing writing and demonstrating etc. Changes in sensory focus helps in maintaining the level of attention. Such changes can be brought about through judicious combination of various means of communication as, Aural to Visual, Aural to Aural Visual, Visual to Aural Visual.

MICRO LESSON PLAN SKILL-STIMULUS VARIATION P.T.'S ROLL NO. : SUBJECT : ENGLISH CLASS : VIII TOPIC : Genders (Grammar)

DATE: SKILL: STIMULUS VARIATION DURATION: 6 MIN.

Purpose of the Skill 1. 2. 3. 4.

Drawing students’ attention Clarification of the contents Maximum involvement of the students Creating interest among the students

Opening Statement Content

P.T.'s Activity

Students' Activity

The P.T. will tell the topic and write it on the B.B. (Pause) Then P.T. will explain what gender The students will listen carefully and try to understand the meaning which means kind or sort. classification of sexes (Pause) Contd.

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English Language Teaching

There are four genders in English (Pause) depicting the pictures of all four kinds of gender one by one. The P.T. will first explain Masculine gender as the names of the male species, for examples. Boy, Dog etc. The P.T. will ask the students to give some more examples. (gesturing)

The students will give the following examples: 1. Man

2. Ox

The P.T. will then explain feminine gender as the names of the female species. For example girl, cow, etc. The P.T. will ask students to give some more examples.

The students will give the following examples: 2. Bitch

Contd.

Micro-Teaching

The P.T. will now explain the common gender as a noun that denotes either a male or female. For example, Child, Student (gesturing) The P.T. will ask the students to give few examples (Pause)

131

The students will give the following examples: 1. Baby 2. Friend

Contd.

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English Language Teaching

The P.T. will explain the fourth as a noun that denotes a thing that is neither male nor female or in other words non-living. The P.T. will give the following

The students will give the following examples:1. Table 2. Chair

1. Book 2. Pen (Pause) The P.T. will now ask the students gender By writing on Blackboard find out which kind of gender are the following:— 1. Peacock 2. Master 3. Bag 5. Friend (Pause)

The students will answer:1. Masculine gender 2. Masculine gender 4. Feminine gender 5. Common gender

Closing Statement say Yes). Observation Schedule Sr. No.

Components

1. 2.

Body language

3.

Voice modulation

4.

Pauses

5.

Movements of the students

6.

Shifting sensory channels (Visual, Audio and Audio Visual)

Average

Good

Very Good

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133

SKILL OF REINFORCEMENT Reinforcement is response change or modification and is based on the feedback which means that the reduction or satisfaction of an organic need or drive stimulus increases the probability of future responses of the kind that the organism emitted immediately prior to its being satisfied.

Reinforcers:

Reinforcers may be positive or negative. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus whose presentation increases the probability of the response to reoccur in future, whereas a negative reinforcer is any stimulus whose withdrawal strengthens that behaviour. In both the cases the behaviour is strengthened. A positive reinforcement consists of presenting something like food, water or teacher’s smile, etc., to the students. A negative reinforcement consists of removing something or teacher’s frown, imparting punishment or threat and so on.

Word of caution: Reinforcement involves presentation of a positive stimulus or removal of negative one, while punishment consists of presentation of a negative stimulus or removal of positive one. Also, punishment is a process that weakens a response. Punishment is not considered a proper procedure for behaviour modification as it hardly provides relatively permanent change in behaviour and temporarily suppresses wrong or undesirable behaviour.

Reinforcement in Classroom:

Reinforcement is not only used to promote learning, but also to secure attention, to motivate students. Sometimes the use of reinforcement in the classroom is: to initiate students’ participation, to facilitate learning, to motivate the learner and to maintain the level of motivation, to modify undesirable behaviours, to develop desirable behaviours and to develop self-management of learning experience through self- reinforcement.

Meaning of the Skill of Reinforcement:

In class, the students who respond should be given due recognition. This acts as an immense motivation for the students. They make further efforts

effort of the students, the latter’s interest diminishes. It can be said that skill reinforcement “involves the teacher to use more and more positive reinforces and to decrease negative reinforces, so that student’s participation in the class is maximized”. (Passi, 1976, p.234).

COMPONENTS OF THE SKILL REINFORCEMENT For the effective use of the skill or reinforcement, we must acquaint ourselves with the behavioural components of the skill which are explained below in details. (i) Positive Verbal Reinforcement

It involves giving verbal or linguistic expressions which

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English Language Teaching

(ii) Positive Non-verbal Reinforcers iours to reinforce the student responses, it is known as positive non-verbal reinforcement. This component has four elements: (b) Moving towards the responding student

It has been found that positive non-verbal reinforcement is more effective in bringing about behavioural changes, as repeated use of positive verbal reinforcers reduces their effectiveness and ultimately become part of teacher’s mannerism. (iii) Negative Verbal Reinforcers Though the purpose of this type of reinforcement is to strengthen the occurrence of a particular behaviour, but in practice, the uses of certain undesirable Reinforcers weaken the described behaviour. The other effect of this type of

negative verbal reinforcers and should not be used extensively in order to facilitate learning. (iv) Negative Non-verbal Reinforcer This type of reinforcement can be given to students conscious of certain undesirable behaviours. This can be done through such behaviours like avoiding the particularly student and moving away from him. (v) Extra Verbal Cues

tend to lower the effectiveness as reinforcers and become a part of teacher’s mannerism. (vi) Repeating and Rephrasing Student’s Response Teacher repeats the correct response of the student or rephrases it for the benefit of other students in the class. Such behaviours have reinforcing effect on the students, but the teacher should repeat only those answers by the students which are novel and significant.

Some Cautions Regarding the Use of Skill Reinforcement The following points should be born in mind while using the skill of reinforcement: (i) Frequent use of reinforcement should be avoided. (ii) Only few correct and novel responses should be reinforced. (iii) A variety of reinforces should be used to avoid monotony and to increase the effectiveness of reinforcers. used.

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135

(v) Reinforcement may be given to the whole class from time to time as well as to the individual student. reinforcement may be given in cases where a long answer was to be given in parts by the student(s), but delayed reinforcement should be normally avoided. (viii) Meaningful reinforcers have more effect on student learning. The reinforcement should be given keeping in view student’s level of maturity and the context of classroom discourse so that the student have an understanding of the relationship of the reinforcement to their behaviours.

Think!

Which types of reinforcement is better Positive or Negative and why so? Discuss.

MICRO LESSON PLAN SKILL-REINFORCEMENT P.T.'S ROLL NO. :

DATED:

SUBJECT

: ENGLISH

SKILL: REINFORCEMENT

CLASS

: VII

DURATION: 6 MIN.

TOPIC

: Mahatma Gandhi

Purposes of Skill Reinforcement

Components of Skill Reinforcement

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English Language Teaching

Opening Statement to give the answers.

Teacher's Activity Q.1

Students' Activity Ans. 1 on October 2, 1869.

Q.2

Remarks and Component Reinforcement)

Ans. 2 Reinforcement)

Q.3

Ans. 3

Q.4

Ans. 4

and Repharsing student’s response) Putli Bai. Q.5

Ans. 5

Q.6

Ans. 6

Reinforcement) Very good (Positive verbal Reinforcement)

were his weapons. Q.7

Ans. 7 him dead.

Q.8

the blackboard (writing student’s response on the blackboard)

Ans. 8 reinforcement) Correct (Positive verbal Reinforcement)

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OBSERVATION SCHEDULE Sr. No.

Components

1.

Positive verbal reinforcers

2.

Positive non verbal reinforcer

Yes/No

Average

Good

Very Good

1

2

3

3. 4. 5.

Extra verbal reinforcers

6.

Repeating and rephrasing student’s responses

7

Summary Micro-teaching is a real teaching reduced in time, number of students and range of activities. The duration of micro-teaching cycle is 36 minutes. A teaching skill is an activity or action which is repeated number of times during the course of teaching. Teaching skills are effective in bringing about desired changes in pupil teachers. Micro-teaching provides expert supervision and a constructive feedback and the learner remains active in the teaching learning process but all types of knowledge cannot be imparted by this technique. Questioning is one of the major devices used by a teacher. Teaching is a bi-polar process; therefore, the teacher puts questions to the class in order to involve the students fully in the process of teaching-learning. Purpose of questioning skill is prompting, seeking further information, refocusing, redirection and increasing critical awareness. Set induction It is always wise to start the lesson with something the pupils already knows in a general way or with something they are interested in. Much depends upon starting the lesson in the right way. The lesson should be started with an interesting example or incident. For introducing a lesson we should keep the following things in mind. Explanation means the group of those meaningful statements which are related to the content and arranged in systematic order. It helps to develop good reasoning and imagination ability but sometimes it is difficult to determine as to what extent the use of this technique is appropriate and sufficient.

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Illustration means to elucidate or exemplify ideas with the help of verbal or non verbal aids. Illustrations should be exact and accurate. Too many illustrations should not be used. Stimulus Variation It is defined as the change in teacher’s behaviour to attract student’s attention. Reinforcement is not only used to promote learning, but also to secure attention, to motivate pupils. Sometimes the use of reinforcement in the classroom is: to increase pupil participation, to facilitate learning, to motivate the learner and to maintain the level of motivation, to modify undesirable behaviours, to develop desirable behaviours and to develop self management of learning experience through self reinforcement. Meaningful reinforcers have more effect on pupil learning. The reinforcement should be given keeping in view pupil’s level of maturity and the context of classroom discourse so that the pupil have an understanding of the relationship of the reinforcement to their behaviours.

Exercises Short Answer Questions (word limit 150)

8. Explain micro-teaching cycle.

Long Answer Questions (word limit 1000) 1. Prepare a lesson plan on the skill of questioning.

5. Prepare a lesson plan on the skill of reinforcement.

12

Methods of Teaching English

“The questions, what should be taught? And how should it be taught? Are intimately connected because if better methods of teaching are devised, it is possible to learn more”.

— Bertrand Russell Inside This Chapter Introduction Origin of Method

Learning Objectives This chapter will enable the reader to:

Method

INTRODUCTION The methods of teaching a language differ according to the aims for which it is taught. The methods of teaching a foreign language like English are determined by the aims for which it is taught. When aims are formulated, it must be considered which method should be adopted to achieve a particular aim. If the aim of teaching English were restricted to obtain information, the corresponding stress would be on enrichment of vocabulary necessitating an appropriate method to achieve this aim. It would have little to do with the ability to master linguistic aspects such as speech sounds and loud reading. If the aim is to master the linguistic aspects of English, then an entirely different strategy,

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approach and method may be needed. Methods of teaching English depend on the aims of teaching English as shown in Figure 12.1.

Fig. 12.1

Methods of teaching English depends on aims of teaching English

“Even the best curriculum and the most perfect syllabus remains dead unless quickened into life by the right methods of teaching and the right kind of teachers”. — Secondary Education Commission

DEFINITIONS OF METHOD The dictionary defines “A method is a way of doing things”. Teaching methods deal with how to teach. According to Anthony “Method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which is based upon the selected approach.” According to M.Verma, “Matter is important for determining method. The common teaching matter may be of three types; hence all the methods can be classified under three categories as shown in Figure 12.2.

Fig. 12.2 Categories of teaching

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141

PROCESSES OF TEACHING Teaching methods is a body of techniques that a teacher adopts in classroom teaching-learning situations to put across the subject matter in an effective way. Figure 12.3 highlights the processes of teaching.

Fig. 12.3

Various processes involved in teaching

Maxims:—These are the general truths drawn from science of experience teaching. Techniques:—These are referred to the ways of implementing a method. Different techniques may be employed within one method.

Fig. 12.4 Brief outline of various techniques and methods of teachings

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English Language Teaching

Teaching Method:—It is a style of the presentation of content in the classroom. Approach:—It is related to process and goals of education. Table 12.1:

Explains the Various Processes Involved in Teaching

Maxims (order of teaching)

Simple to complex, concrete to abstract etc.

Techniques (teaching technologies) Copying, drilling etc. Method (how to teach)

Lecture, question answer etc. project method.

Approach (what to teach)

Evaluation approach, management approach.

APPROACHES OF TEACHING-LEARNING The educational process has used several methods of teaching and learning. The procedure indicates the steps of organizing teaching or managing teaching-learning. Technically the procedure of teaching-learning is called as an approach. The following are the main approaches of teaching-learning. Herbartion Approach Evaluation Approach Morrison Approach Management Approach Multimedia Approach Table 12.2: Point

Approach

Method

1. Exponent

Herbert, B.S. Bloom, L.K. Devics, Morrison Socrate, Kilpetric, Herbert, Morrison

2. Meaning

It is process or procedure of education

It is an abstract entity, which is determined by content

3. Nature

Content-centred, objective centred, learner centred

Teacher centred

4. Purpose

To realize the goals of education

To make effective presentation of subject content in classroom

5. Objectives

To achieve educational and national objectives

To have the memorization of facts and content. To reproduce the content

6. Components

Steps of the approach, method and technique, strategies, models and tactics

Techniques of teaching, Maxims of teaching, Device of teaching, Modes of teaching

Contd.

Methods of Teaching English

143

7. Effectiveness

Criterion measures, change of behaviour, attainment test

Qualitative measurement, achievement test, observation

8. Example

Evaluation approach, management approach, multimedia approach

Lecture, Question answer, Project method, story telling, demonstration, translation and direct method

METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH The following are the major methods of teaching English as a second language.

1. Grammar-Translation Method (GTM) “Under the Translation-cum-Grammar method, the meaning of English words, phrases and sentences is taught by means of word to word translation into the mother tongue.” — Champion

Introduction: of helping students read and appreciate world literature. In this method, while teaching, the teacher translates every word, phrase from English into the mother tongue of learners. Further, students are required to translate sentences from their vernacular into English. These exercises in translation are based on various items covering the grammar of the target language. The method emphasizes the study of grammar through deduction that is through the study of the rules of grammar. A contrastive study of the target language with the vernacular gives an insight into the structure not only of the foreign language but also of the vernacular.

Principles of Translation Method Clarity and firmness: Translation interprets the words and phrases of the foreign languages in the best possible manner. Domination of vernacular:

The vernacular dominates in this method.

Parallel study of two languages: The structures of the foreign languages are best learnt when compared with those of vernacular. Maxim of known to unknown: are followed. Word as a unit of teaching:

The fundamental principles of proceedings from known to unknown

The unit of teaching is word not a sentence.

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English Language Teaching

Content and Characteristics 1. Classes are taught in vernacular, with little active use of the target language 2. Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words 3. Long, elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given form and inflection of words 5. Reading of difficult classical text is begun early 6. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis 7. Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue 8. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation

Typical Techniques Techniques closely related with the grammar translation method are summarized below. 1. Translation of a literary passage Translating target language to native language 2. Reading comprehension questions relating to personal experience 3. Antonyms/synonyms

Finding information in a passage, making inferences and

Finding antonyms and synonyms for words or sets of words

4. Cognates Learning spelling/sound patterns that correspond between L1 and the target language 5. Deductive application of rule Understanding grammar rules and their exceptions, then applying them to new example 6. Fill-in-the-blanks Filling in gaps in sentences with new words or items of a particular grammar type 7. Memorization

Memorizing vocabulary lists, grammatical rules and grammatical paradigms

8. Use words in sentences of new words

Students create sentences to illustrate they know the meaning and use

9. Composition Students write about a topic using the target language

Advantages and Disadvantages of Grammar Cum Translation Method The typical technique has the following advantages and disadvantages. Advantages (i) The phraseology of the target language is quickly explained. (ii) Translation is the easiest way of explaining meanings or words and phrases from one language into another. Any other method of explaining vocabulary items in the second language is found time consuming. A lot of time is wasted if the meanings of lexical items are explained through definitions and illustrations in the second language.

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(iii) Learners acquire some sort of accuracy in understanding synonyms in the source language and the target language. (iv) Teacher’s labour is saved. Since the textbooks are taught through the medium of the mother tongue, the teacher may ask comprehension questions on the text taught in the vernacular. (v) Students will not have much difficulty in responding to questions in vernacular. So, the teacher can easily assess whether the students have learnt what he has taught them. (vi) Communication between the teacher and students does not cause linguistic problems. Even teachers who are not fluent in English can teach English through this method. That is perhaps the reason why this method has been practiced so widely and has survived so long. (vii) It enables a comparative study of English grammar and the vernacular. (viii) Abstract words and phrases can be easily explained with the help of translation. (ix) This method is useful for a large class. (x) It is easy, quick and economical method as it is based on the maxims of teaching. (xi) It does not require teaching aid. Disadvantages The disadvantages of the same are enlisted below (i) It is an unnatural method. The natural order of learning a language is listening, speaking, reading and writing. That is the way how the child learns his mother tongue in natural starts with the teaching of reading. Thus, the learning process is reversed. This poses problems. writing. It neglects speech. Thus, the students who are taught English through this method fail to express themselves adequately in spoken English. Even at the undergraduate level they feel shy of communicating through English. It has been observed that, where English is taught through this method, learners listen to vernacular more than that of the second/foreign language. Since language learning involves habit formation, such students fail to acquire habit of speaking English. (iii) Exact translation is not possible. Translation is, indeed, a difficult task and exact translation from one language to another is not always possible. A language is the result of various customs, traditions, and modes of behaviour of a speech community and these traditions differ from community to community. There are several lexical items in one language, which have no synonyms/equivalents in another language. For instance, the meaning of the English word ‘table’ does not fit in such expression as the ‘table of contents’, ‘table of figures’, ‘multiplication table’, ‘timetable’ and ‘table the resolution’ and so on. English prepositions are also difficult to translate. Consider sentences such as ‘We see with our eyes’, ‘Bombay is far from Delhi’, ‘He died of cholera’, He succeeded through hard work’. In these sentences ‘with’, ‘from’, ‘of ’, ‘through’ can be translated into the Hindi preposition ‘se’ and vice versa. Each language has its own structure, idiom and usage, which do not have their exact counterparts in another language. Thus, translation should be considered an index of one’s proficiency in a language. (iv) It is dull and mechanical method. (v) It does not help the learner to accurate pronunciation.

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(vi) (vii) (viii) (ix) (x) (xi)

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It prevents self-expression. It makes the students passive learner. It stops the student from thinking freely in English language. It encourages bookish language. This method is based on cramming. It does not give pattern practice. A person can learn a language only when he internalizes does not provide any such practice to the learner of a language. It rather attempts to teach language through rules and not by use. Researchers in linguistics have proved that to speak any language, whether native or foreign entirely by rule is quite impossible. Language learning is a skill, which can be learnt through practice and not by just memorizing rules. Those who have learnt a foreign or second language through this method find it difficult to give up the habit of first thinking in their vernacular and than translating their ideas into the second language. They, therefore, fail to acquire proficiency in the second language approximating that in the first language. The method, therefore, suffers from certain weaknesses for which there is no remedy.

Some Practical Suggestions

2. The Direct Method Towards the end of the late 1800s, a revolution in language teaching philosophy took place that is seen by many as the dawn of modern foreign language teaching. Teachers, frustrated by the limits students, began to experiment with new ways of teaching language. The appearance of the “Direct Method” thus coincided with a new school of thinking that dictated that all foreign language teaching should occur in the target language only, with no translation and an emphasis on linking meaning to the language being learned. The basic premise of the Direct Method was that second language learning should be more like first language learning. The method would include lots of oral interaction, spontaneous use of language, no translation between first and second languages, and little or no analysis of grammar rules. This method is also known as Reform Method/Natural Method/Phonetical Method/Anti-grammatical Method.

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Therefore, if possible, the teacher should try to create a natural learning environment within the classroom.

(i) Second language learning must be an imitation of first language learning, as this is the natural way humans learn any language, and so vernacular has no place in second language learning. (Baby never relies on another language to learn its first language). (ii) Printed word must be kept away from second language learner for as long as possible (same as first language learner, who does not use printed word until he has good grasp of speech). (iii) The written word/writing should be delayed until after the printed word has been introduced. (iv) The learning of grammar/translating skills should be avoided because they involve the application of the mother tongue (MT). (v) All above items must be avoided because they hinder the acquisition of a good oral proficiency.

Objectives The sole and the most important objective of the direct method is to, communicate in the target language, partly by learning how to think in that language and by not involving L1 in the language learning process.

Principles of the Direct Method The direct method is based on certain principles which are explained below. 1. Inhibition of the vernacular: Classroom instruction should be conducted exclusively in the target language. 2. Limited vocabulary: Only everyday vocabulary and sentences should be taught.

3. Enhancing Communication Skills: Oral communication skills should be built up in a carefully planned manner 4. Descriptive Teaching Grammar: 5. Practice: New teaching points should be taught through modeling and practice 6. Emphasis is laid on pronunciation: Correct pronunciation and grammar should be emphasized. Example The teacher explains new vocabulary using realia, visual aids or demonstrations.

Steps Involved in Typical Techniques

answer in full sentence

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follow-up questions, tone target language

and various models

Advantages (i) The understanding of English becomes easier due to the inhibition of the linguistic interferences of the vernacular. (ii) Direct association between word and meaning tends to improve expression in speech as well as writing. (iii) This method is psychologically sound as it follows the principles of education, e.g., proceed from particular to general, concrete to abstract. (iv) Direct association between the object and the English word and between the English word and its meaning facilitates understanding of English without using vernacular. (v) It is a natural method. It teaches English language in the same way in which the child learns his mother tongue. (vi) It makes more use of audio-visual aids. (vii) This method helps the teacher and the learner to cover-up more syllabi in less time. (viii) This method is an interesting method as it involves many activities. (ix) In this method cramming of words and their meaning are discouraged. (x) This method helps to bring the words of passive vocabulary to active vocabulary. (xi) It emphasizes on pronunciation of the language. (xii) This method helps in self-expression.

Disadvantages (i) The direct method promotes the oral aspect of language learning and undermines the significance of reading and written work. (ii) This method aims at directly associating word with meaning, it restricts the scope of vocabulary as all words cannot be directly associated with their meanings. (iii) E.g., Abstract nouns like ‘honesty’, ‘integrity,’ ‘beautiful’, ‘truth’, etc. cannot be directly associated with their meanings. Implementation of this method requires a proper atmosphere which is conducive to learning English. (iv) Our schools do not have requisite audio-visual materials and/or equipment to facilitate proper teaching of English.

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(v) Lack of linguistically useful material and equipment because of its expenses hampers the progress of this method. (vi) Direct method suits those students who are linguistically oriented, as its basic principle is that the aural oral appeal is stronger than the visual in learning English. (vii) In this method teacher has to spend a lot of time for the preparation of the lesson. (viii) In this method grammar is not taught systematically. (ix) In this method much time is consumed in creating situations. (x) This method is not fit for the overcrowded class. (xi) The Direct Method was an important turning point in the history of foreign language is progressive and heading in the right direction. “Direct association between the word and the thing gives better results than translation.”

Some Practical Suggestions In spite of the limitations of the direct method, it can be successfully applied in the lower and the middle classes. This method should be practiced to prepare a sound background of the oral work at the earlier stage and minimize his future difficulties.

3. The Bilingual Method The bilingual method is comparatively a recent method developed by Prof. C.J. Dodson of Wales. This method stands for the use of two languages i.e., the vernacular and the target language in teaching second language. This method is based on the similarities and differences which exists between two languages. The similarities and differences may be of situation, sounds, vocabulary, structures and so on. When a child learns a foreign languge, he becomes familiar with the situations and picks up the language correctly. While learning the foreign language, the situations are created in order to make the child learn the language. The advocates of this method believe that it is merely a waste of time as there is duplicity of the same thing. So there is no need of creating the situation again and time saved must be utilised for giving practice in sentence pattern.

Philosophy behind the Bilingual Method When a child learns his vernacular, he forms the concept and grasps the situation and learns the meaning of words simultaneously. The advocates of the Bilingual Method believe that it is a waste of time to recreate the situation while teaching a foreign language. Their argument is that teachinglearning process is facilitated if only the vernacular, equivalents are given to the learner without duplicating the situation. The Bilingual Method, therefore, makes use of the mother tongue in this restricted manner.

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Objectives of the Bilingual Method 1. To make the learners of a second/foreign language fluent and accurate in the spoken word. 2. To make the learners accurate in the written word. 3. To prepare the learners in such a manner that he may be able to achieve through bilingualism.

Bilingual Method Principles The bilingual method follows certain principles as explained below. Teaching-learning process is facilitated if only the mother tongue equivalents are given to the learner without duplicating the situation. So the vernacular is used at initial stage to explain the meaning of words. The use of the vernacular saves the time of the teacher from creating artificial situations. More pattern practice The advocates of the Bilingual Method believe that it is a waste of time to recreate the situation while teaching a foreign language, so time saved from creating situations can be used for giving more pattern practice to the students. It is the teacher who uses the vernacular. Students only practice patterns of English. The unit of speech is a sentence and not word. Emphasis is laid on speaking full sentences.

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Bilingual Method Advantages 1. The teacher is saved from the botheration of creating artificial situations in order to convey the meanings in English. 2. The time thus saved is utilized in giving pattern practice to the learner. 3. Even an average teacher of English can teach through this method without any elaborate preparation. 4. The Bilingual Method promotes both fluency and accuracy. It promotes theory as it lays emphasis on speech and pattern practice. It promotes accuracy as the meanings of new words are given in the mother tongue of the learner. 5. It does not require any teaching aids and is suited to all kinds of schools—rural and urban. 6. Unlike the Direct Method, which ignores the linguistic habits already acquired by the learner in the process of learning the first language, the Bilingual Method makes use of them. 7. Judicious use of mother tongue by the teacher does not spoil the environment of teaching English. 8. It helps in developing different linguistic skills i.e., Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing.

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Disadvantages 1. A possible disadvantage of the method is that if the teacher is not imaginative enough,

2. 3. 4. 5.

drawbacks. The Bilingual Method is useful at the secondary stage; the Direct Method is more useful than the Bilingual Method at the primary stage. This method can confuse the students due to contrast between the features of two languages i.e., English and mother tongue. It is not possible to provide an exact word which is equivalent to the vernacular. The bad habit of learning everything by filtering through mother tongue may be formed.

The bilingual method is worth trying in India. This method is suitable for both the students and the teacher because of its time saving characteristics. The teacher can handle it with confidence without bothering for the creation of situations in the class with teaching aids.

Difference between Grammar Translation Method and Bilingual Method 1. In the Bilingual Method it is the teacher who always makes use of the mother tongue to explain meanings and not the students. 2. The learner is sufficiently subjected to sentence pattern drills, which are not provided in the introduced early in the course of language teaching and there is an integration of the speaking and writing skills. Table 12.3 highlights the differences between the three methods. Table 12.3: Translation method

Direct method

Bilingual method

It is a classical method of teaching.

It came as a reaction to the translation method.

It is a modified version of both the translation method and direct method.

It makes excessive use of the mother tongue.

The use of mother tongue is prohibited.

Vernacular is used in restricted manner.

The teachers as well as students use the mother tongue in explaining the sentences, meanings etc.

Neither the teacher nor the students use the mother tongue.

In the Bilingual Method it is the teacher who always makes use of the mother tongue to explain meanings and not the students.

Students are not given any practice in the drill of sentence patterns.

It lays more emphasis on pattern practice.

The learner is sufficiently subjected to sentence pattern drills.

Contd.

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Students have less practice in Speaking English.

Students have greater practice in speaking English.

Students have greater practice in speaking English.

It is not much improved method of teaching English.

It is an improved method of teaching English.

It is an improved method of teaching English.

This method is less costly.

This method is very costly.

This method is less costly.

It suits to both the average and below average students.

It suits only brilliant students.

It suits to both the average and below average students.

It suits to majority of teachers.

It suits to the expert language teacher.

It suits to the average teacher.

WHICH METHOD IS THE BEST? The objective of language learning is to enable the learners to learn the target language and for this students should be actively involved in the learning process. So a good teacher is always in search of an effective method of teaching. The goals of language teaching can be obtained by selecting an appropriate method of teaching. After discussing the various methods of teaching English in India, it can be concluded that there is perhaps no single method which is workable in Indian classrooms. Why not go in for a rainbow effect in which the best of each method be incorporated depending upon the competence of the teacher. The thing that concerns us the most is the output. Methods are good or bad with reference to the output/outcomes of the linguistic abilities. The crux of the linguistic learning is that one is able to use it fluently, correctly and effectively as a matter of habit or, as master of course without any obvious stain on the thinking process. Every teacher of English should be able to achieve this target irrespective of the method implemented while teaching. So, it is advisable that the teacher should adopt eclectic and pragmatic approach because no single approach is useful in all the situations. The teacher should consider the following factors while making a choice of his method.

Conclusion A good teacher is the judge of the methods; the best method is one that works well in the hands of the teacher because the right method in the hands of only right teachers can help in the attainment of goals. The methods are to serve us in our teaching process hence to be our servants and not our masters as “the methods are meant are meant for us and not we for the methods.”

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Summary Teaching is a process of building of a person’s mind and character through its methodology. So methods are the links for connecting aims with its values. Teaching methods is a body of techniques that a teacher adopts in classroom teachinglearning situations to put across the subject matter in an effective way. method, Direct method and Bilingual method Procedure of teaching-learning is called as an approach. The main approaches of teaching-learning are Herbartion Approach, Evaluation Approach, Morrison Approach, Management Approach and Multimedia Approach.

Terms to Remember Methodology A systematic and logical study of principles guiding scientific investigations and for reaching at highest degree of efficiency. Maxims Maxims are the general truths drawn from science of experience teaching. Techniques Techniques are the ways of implementing a method. Different techniques may be employed with-in one method. Teaching method It is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which is based upon the selected approach. Approach

It is related to process and goals of education.

Exercises Short Answer Questions (word limit 150) 1. Explain the meaning and definition of a method. 2. What is the difference between a method and approach? 3. How maxims, techniques, methods and approaches are linked to each other?

Long Answer Question (word limit 1000) 1. Define method and approach. Explain the differences between the two. Note: Additional resources related to this chapter are available at www.mhhe.com/navita_arora

13

Learner Centered Approaches Learning is not a spectator sport.

— Bloch Inside This Chapter Introduction Role of Learner and Teacher Objectives Types of Approaches Structural Approach Constructive Approach Communicative Approach Teaching of Structures Communicative Functions of a Language

Learning Objectives This chapter will enable the reader to:

INTRODUCTION A learner-centered approach in language instruction is founded on the concept that the learner is central in the learning process. Learners learn primarily because of what they bring, in terms of their perceived needs, motivations, past experiences, background knowledge, interests and creative skills to their classroom experience. Teachers, on the other hand, are seen as “facilitators, helpers, and resources”. Students are active participant in their learning; they learn at their own pace and use their own strategies; they are more intrinsically than extrinsically motivated; learning is more individualized than standardized.

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Role of Learner Learners are active as opposed to passive recipients of knowledge. Learners may assume a decisionmaking role in the classroom. Learners often decide what is to be learned, through which activities, and at what pace. Learners can also produce materials and provide activities for the classroom.

Role of Teacher To put this approach into practice, teachers need to help students set achievable goals; they encourage students to assess themselves and their peers; help them to work co-operatively in groups and ensure that they know how to make use of all the available resources for learning.

Objectives The objective of learner-centered approach is—

Think!

Students acquire effective study skills through learner-centered approach.

TYPES OF APPROACHES In teaching learning process we use different teaching methods and approaches. Method is a study subject but in case of an approach, we do not have such type of alternatives. We use different approaches for teaching English like the following:—

STRUCTURAL APPROACH The structural approach to English is teaching the learner certain selected structures in a certain order. — C.S. Bhandari

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This approach is also known as oral-aural approach and speech—first approach. The expression structural approach comprises of two words as— Structural

+

Approach

Thus approaching English on the basis of selected structures is called structural approach. In this approach, the main emphasis is laid on the mastery of structures. The learners are given drill of the structures till they are able to use them automatically without straining their minds.

Definitions “Structural approach is a scientific study of the fundamental structures of the English language, their analysis and logical arrangement” — Breminton “Structural approach is based on the belief that in the learning of a foreign language, mastery of structures is more important than acquisition of vocabulary” — Menon and Patel Structure or pattern is made of words which are arranged in specific order. Hence it is called Structural Approach. Therefore, the structural approach can be defined as the arrangement of words in a suitable pattern — Siva Mohan and Man Singh

Objectives of Structural Approach According to Menon and Patel, the following are the main objectives of structural approach active use

graded structures.

Meaning of Structure The arrangement of words in English is very important. The meaning of an utterance changes with a change in the word order. e.g., Take this sentence. “You are there”

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We can make two other sentences by using same words put in different order. “Are you there?” “There you are” So the arrangement of words in the above three sentences is different but made with the same words. The different arrangement or patterns of words are called “structures”. F.D. French has defined a sentence pattern in these words, “The word-pattern means a model from which many things of the same kind can be made.” vocabulary. Hence, it is more important for the learner of the language to master the structure more than vocabulary. Hornby has made a study of sentence, patterns or structures in English. He found master all of them.

Examples of Structures Words are not ordered randomly, but joined together according to certain rules. An awareness of these rules helps us to write correct sentences. There are five basic patterns around which most English sentences are built. They are explained in Table 13.1. Table 13.1: Examples of Structures S-V

Subject-Verb

John sleeps. Jill is eating. Jack will arrive next week.

S-V-O

Subject-Verb-Object

I like rice. She loves her job. He’s eating an orange.

S-V-Adj

Subject-Verb-Adjective He is funny. The workers are lazy. Karen seems angry.

S-V-Adv

Subject-Verb-Adverb

Jim is here. Flowers are everywhere. No one was there.

S-V-N

Subject-Verb-Noun

She is my mom. The men are doctors. Mr. Jones is the teacher.

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At the heart of every English sentence is the Subject-Verb relationship. Other elements can be added to make a sentence more interesting, but they are not essential to its formation. The following sentences are examples of the S-V pattern as explained in Table 13.2. Table 13.2: S-V Pattern She sleeps. She sleeps soundly.

An adverb is added to describe how she sleeps.

She sleeps on the sofa.

A prepositional phrase is added to tell where she sleeps.

She sleeps every afternoon.

A time expression is added to tell when she sleeps.

She is sleeping right now.

Verb tense is changed, but S-V relationship remains the same.

Mary will sleep later.

Subject is named and another tense is used.

The dogs are sleeping in the garage.

Note: Any action verb can be used with this sentence pattern. Table 13.3: The following Sentences are Examples of the S-V-O Pattern They like rice. The people like rice.

Specific subject

The friendly people like rice.

Subject modified with an adjective

The people in the restaurant like rice. Subject modified with an adjective The people like boiled rice.

Object modified with an adjective

The people like hot, white rice.

Object modified with more than one adjective

Note: Only transitive action verbs can be used with this sentence pattern. Table 13.4: The following Sentences are Examples of the S-V-Adj Pattern He is fine.

Basic sentence with “be” verb

He seems happy.

Basic sentence with another linking verb

Jordan is tall, dark and handsome.

Series of adjectives

He appears very comfortable.

Adverb or intensifier added

George became sick last night.

Different tense and linking verb

Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.

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The following sentences are examples of the S-V-Adv pattern. Table 13.5 The teacher is here.

Basic sentence

The teacher is over there.

Using an adverb phrase

Teachers are everywhere.

Plural noun and verb used

The teachers are in the lobby.

Prepositional phrase functioning as adverb

Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern. The following sentences are examples of the S-V-N pattern. Table 13.6

Think!

The man is a doctor.

Basic sentence

The women are doctors.

Using plural noun and verb

My father is a nice guy.

Modified subject and complement

My grandparents are senior citizens.

Modified plural subject and complement

The fundamental structures of English language can be mastered through the structural approach. Discuss.

Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.

Types of Structures 1. Sentence pattern:—In this type of structure, if the essential part of a sentence gets change, the meaning of whole sentence changes. E.g., Sandra is crying for Surucha Surucha is crying for Sandra The sentence may be of different designs E.g., He is a doctor He is not a doctor Is he a doctor?

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2. Phrase pattern:—Phrase may be defined as word or group of words which express an idea. It is not a sentence or a clause. E.g. under the table, on the chair.

3. Formulae:—Formulae means group of words, used regularly on certain occasions. E.g. Thank you, goodbye, see you, that’s right.

4. Idioms:—Group of words that must be taught as a whole and not as separate ones. E.g. Born with a silver spoon in one’s mouth.

Characteristics 1. Importance of forming language habits—The structures are practiced till the students are able to use them as a matter of habit.

2. Importance of speech—Structures are presented orally and the students practice them the basis of reading and writing.

3. Importance of student activity—Structural approach lays emphasis on pupil activity. They are active learners. They learn through activities. Their learning of English becomes interesting and effective because they are active participants in the teaching learning process.

4. Situational teaching—Structures are better learnt in meaningful situations. Situations are created with the help of objects, pictures, flashcards, actions, gestures. It makes learning meaningful and effective.

5. Selection and gradation—The structures are selected and graded on the principles of 6. Multi-skill approach—Structural approach aims at achieving the four fold linguistic aims of teaching.

7. Deductive teaching of grammar—Grammatical concepts are presented deductively and the students comprehend them.

Principles of Structural Approach The structure approach is based on the following principles:

1. The importance of a speech:—In structural approach, speech is given more importance, other skills like reading and writing. The importance of a speech is necessary for fixing firmly all the ground works.

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2. Importance of forming language habits:—When language is based on the principle of habit formation, everything becomes natural with the language learner. All the skills are efficiently learnt through practice. In such a case, the language becomes a natural gift with the persons who make use of it.

3. Students’ activities:—The students’ own activities are important rather than the activities of the teacher.

4. Emphasis on drills:—The structure approach just lays emphasis on drills. Learning a language means the ability to speak the language. The structures, therefore, are drilled orally first before the learner can read or write them. Moreover, since language learning is a matter the learning process. A class in which language is taught through the structural approach, is livelier than other classes in which only teacher speaks and the students remain mere listener.

5. Principle of selection:—The selection of structures to be taught depends on the abilities principles should be born in mind while selecting structures: (a) Usefulness (b) Productivity—Some structures are productive; other structures can be built on them. For instance, we have two sentence patterns: (i) Mr. John is here (ii) Here is Mr. John. The former pattern is productive because we can frame many sentences on the same pattern like: ‘He is there’, or ‘She is there’, etc. (c) Simplicity—The simplicity of structure depends on the form and meaning. The structure ‘I am playing cricket’ is far simpler in form and meaning than ‘The patient had died before the doctor came’. The simpler structure should be preferred to the complicated one. (d) Teach-ability—Some structures can be taught more easily than others. For example, the structure ‘I am writing’ can be taught easily because the action, which it denotes can be demonstrated in a realistic situation. To teach this structure the teacher will say: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

I played at 4 yesterday. I played at 4 the day before yesterday. I will play at 4 tomorrow. I play at 4 everyday.

6. Principle of gradation:—Structures are to be graded in the order of difficulty. Simple structures should precede the more difficult ones. The following are some of the patterns that should be taught at early stages: 1. Two-part patterns He/goes.

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He/plays/cricket. She/gave/me/a book. 4. Patterns beginning with ‘there’ There are twenty students in this class. Is she coming? Will he go? Has he brought the book? Sit down Please come here, etc. Of the six types of patterns mentioned above, the three part patterns and the pattern grammar and only one meaning of one word is taught at a time. Moreover, the structures are graded in such a manner that a structure follows the preceding one naturally. During the learning of the structures the child automatically learn grammar also (learns grammar, word order and the use of words or usage). Thus he avoids common error in grammar and composition.

Teaching of Structures For teaching structure, the teacher should take the students through four stages as given in Fig. 13.1.

Methods of Teaching Structure The various methods of teaching English are explained below. 1. Oral teaching Steps of oral teaching— (i) Teacher gives oral drills to the class:— (a) Individually (b) Group

Fig. 13.1

Teaching of structure

(ii) Reading and writing. “The speech is the language. The written record is a secondary representation of the language. To master a language, it is necessary to read it but it is extremely doubtful whether one can really read the language, without mastering it orally.” 2. Situational Teaching It means teaching by creating situations. With situational teaching we can establish close relation between an expression and its meaning.

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“A structure or word becomes meaningful for the learner when it is used in an appropriate situation. The teacher should use a particular situation in order to practice the structure with its meaning and to build up a vocabulary of content words. How to Create Situations (i) By using actual objects:– E.g., This is a pen. (ii) Through gestures and actions:– E.g., I am teaching. (iii) By using models, charts:– E.g., Model of elephant. (iv) Verbal situations by speaking something: E.g., I am going out of the class. (v) Action chains:– A number of continuous actions preferred by the teachers. E.g., (a) I am opening the door. (b) I am writing with chalk. (c) I am shutting the window.

Benefits of Structural Approach The benefits of structural approach are as follows: can not be separated from sound.

creating meaningful situations.

sentence patterns which constitute the frame of the language.

there is immediate check by the teacher. order of getting mastery over the skills.

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Limitations of Structural Approach dull and mechanical. our country.

Conclusion Structural approach provides knowledge of structures. In the teaching-learning process, the knowledge of grammar can be mastered through structural approach. If, in one day, one sentence approach is a presentation of structures, which stresses on successful and definite teaching of English.

COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH The term communicative approach is made up of two words, communicative meaning sharing of ideas and feeling and approach meaning coming near. Thus communicative approach enables the students to communicate their ideas freely in and outside the classroom. The communicative approach aims at communicative competence including linguistic competence and ability to use the language appropriately. Out of the many approaches and methodologies available to the language teacher, the It is therefore the teacher’s responsibility to create situations which are likely to promote Approach prioritizes communicative competence over accurate grammar. It is important to remember that as individuals most of us do not learn a language in order to communicate. In this approach, first of all learners will try to communicate, and in doing so, they will learn!

Communicative Competence discourse.” It refers to the knowledge of both rules of grammar, vocabulary and semantics and rule of speaking.” It represents what a speaker needs to know to communicate effectively in culturally significant setting. Linguistic competence is a part of communicative competence and the development of communicative skills involves most areas of the former as essential part of the product.

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Objectives of Communicative Approach The objectives of communicative language teaching are given below:

structures

Characteristics of Communicative Approach The following comprises the characteristics of communicative approach

errors is but natural. learning process itself. to classroom learning.

Principles of Communicative Approach Fluency, accuracy and appropriateness—Fluency, accuracy and appropriateness are the goal of communicative approach.

Communication is meaning based, conventional, appropriate and interactional— There should be a proposition among these which should be appropriate to the age, sex, familiarity and role of the speaker.

Base for reading and writing—The communicative tasks provide a basis for reading and writing.

Suitable situation—Language without a suitable situation is not realistic and functional.

Communicative Functions of a Language Dell Hymes gave seven basic functions of language which bring communicative competence. Using language to get things done

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Expressing personal feelings and emotions Using language to learn and to discover Using language to create a world of the imagination Using language to communicate information

Types of Learning Techniques communication like functional communication activities: ones aimed at developing certain language skills and functions, but which involve communication social interaction activities, such as conversation and discussion sessions, dialogues and role plays

Communicative Activities Activities related to communication are very important when it comes to teaching students. The teacher plays a very vital role in this, because it is the verbal communication that defines the relationship between the teachers and the students. A teacher should be clear and adopt teaching methods with which students can relate to. Figure 13.2 highlights some of the communicative activities.

Fig. 13.2

Communicative activities

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Advantages 1. Focuses on language as a medium of communication. Recognises that all communication has a social purpose—learner has something to say or find out. apologising/expressing likes and dislikes, etc) early stage. communicative way for meaningful activities. normal medium for classroom management and instruction reflects

needs and interests. exploited enough by teachers fearful of noisy class. 8. Primacy of oral work, emphasis is laid on oral and listening skills in the classroom. 9. Errors are a natural part of learning language. Learners trying their best to use the language

and express themselves—form of language becomes secondary. not just limited to oral skills. Reading and writing skills need to be developed to promote pupils’ confidence in all four skill areas. By using elements encountered in variety of ways (reading/summarising/translating/discussion/debates)— makes language more fluid and students’ manipulation of language more fluent. 11. Language analysis and grammar explanation may help some learners, but extensive experience of target language helps everyone. Pupils need to hear plenty said about the topic in the second language at regular and recurrent intervals, so they are exposed to the topic and can assimilate it. of pupils. Meaningful language is always more easily retained by learners. 14. Never feel that textbook must be used from cover to cover. It is only a tool/starting point. With a little inspiration and imagination, text-book can be manipulated and rendered more communicative. —important to provoke practical communicative language.

Disadvantages Trained teachers are not available who can teach through this method. It ignore rules and regulation of grammar. It is not properly developed yet.

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Suggestions The teacher of English should be trained in this approach so that best results of this methods could be achieved.

Conclusion emphasis on the use of language. It enables the students to communicate their ideas in better way. So properly trained teacher can bring proficiency in the language of their students.

Summary Learner-centered approach is based on the concept that the learner is central to the process of learning. effective study skills; discover their own learning style among others. There are three types of approaches, viz., structural approach, communicative approach and constructive or cooperative learning. activities related to teaching comprise describing artificially created situations, narrating stories among others. students are taught according to their levels of ability. Group discussions, face to face interaction are parts of cooperative learning.

Terms to Remember Learner-centered Approach process of learning.

An approach based on the concept that the learner is central to the

Structural Approach It is the scientific study of the fundamental structures of the English language. Communicative Approach The teaching approach which aims at enhancing the communicative competence among learners. Cooperative Learning A teaching method, where students of different levels of ability use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject.

Learner Centered Approaches

Exercises Short Answer Questions 1. Define learner-centered approach.

4. Define structural approach and enlist the types of structural approach. 6. Explain in brief the concepts of constructive approach and communicative approach.

Long Answer Questions 1. Define learner-centered approach and enlist its objectives.

4. Draft the types of structures and explain the characteristics of the same. 6. Enlist the benefits and limitations of the structural approach. 8. Elucidate the characteristics and principles of communicative approach. 9. What are communicative activities? Elaborate its advantages. the same in English teaching.

Additional resources related to this chapter are available at www.mhhe.com/navita_arora

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14

Instructional Material

“It is easier to believe what you see than what you hear, but if you both see and hear, than you can understand more readily and retain more lastingly.”

— Albert Duret Inside This Chapter Introduction Meaning of Instructional Material

Learning Objectives This chapter will enable the reader to:

INTRODUCTION Gone are the days when education was imparted without the use of audio-visual aids. At present teaching without these aids is considered to be impossible. Senses are the gateway of knowledge. Therefore we should provide students as many sensory experiences as possible, inside the classroom and outside it. So audio-visual aids are the different types of useful materials, devices and symbols that make the study of a subject more comprehensible and interesting.

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There is an old Chinese proverb “One seeing is worth hundred telling” Thus audio-visual aids make the teaching lively and effective According to Joseph J. Weber, our perceptions about various things are based on—: 40% of visual experience, 25% on audio experience, 17% on touch experience, 3% on taste experience and small experience, and +15% on other physical experience.

Think!

The foundation of all learning consists in representing clearly to the sense, sensible objects so that they can be appreciated easily. Discuss.

MEANING The term ‘instructional aids’ is made up of two words i.e. instructional + aids Instructional related to teaching and learning experience

+

aids help or support

The term ‘audio-visual aids’ is made up of three words audio + visual + aids Audio—hearing the words Visual—seeing Aids—help or support It means audio-visual aids are those things that appeals to our sense;. i.e, sense of hearing and the sense of sight. Figure 14.1 highlights some of the audio-visual aids.

Fig. 14.1 Various audio-visual aids

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DEFINITIONS C.V. Good, “A.V. Aids are any devices by means of which the learning process may be increased and carried on though the sense of hearing or the sense of sight.” Comenius, “The foundation of all learning consists in representing clearly to sense the sensible objects so that they can be appreciated easily. Mahatma Gandhi, “True education of the intellect can only come through a proper exercise and training of bodily organs—hands, feet, eyes, ears and nose.” Burton, “Audio-visual materials are those sensory objects or images which initiates, stimulate and reinforce learning.” Edger Dale, “Audio-visual aids are those devices by the use of which communication of ideas between persons and groups in various teaching and training situations is helped. These are also termed as multi sensory materials.

OBJECTIVES OF AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS The major objectives of audio-visual are as follows:—

Fig. 14.2 Objectives of audio-visual aids

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Effective audio-visual aids are

Instructional aids have certain limitations such as,

Certain points are to be considered while implementing instructional aids

Audio-visual aids are devices that appeal to the eyes and ears of the learners. Thus Audio-visual aids motivate learners, economize teaching time and help teachers in teaching effectively.

CLASSIFICATION OF AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS Audio-visual aids can be classified into four major parts. These are explained below. Audio Aid: This refers to sound making devices used in teaching and learning. Visual Aid: This refers to maps, pictures etc. Audio-Visual Aid: This refers to hardware equipment and media used in learning. Multi Media Packages: This refers to the packages in which more than two modes of communication were involved. The major aids have individual gadgets which help teachers in teaching. Three major aids have different gadgets. These are listed below:

Gadgets for Audio Aids Radio Tape recorder

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Gadgets for Visual Aids

assist in the process of teaching through instructional material. Figure 14.3 highlights the major

Fig. 14.3 Gadgets used in visual aids

Audio-Visual The audio-visual aid assists in the process of teaching as well. Some of the gadgets used in this case are explained below.

Television—Television happens to be a powerful gadget when it comes to imparting knowledge. It can be used as a catalyst to get the students read. Following up on programme and recommending books on the same subject, keeps up the interest of the students.

Video cassette and video discs—Screening of educational films has been used for teaching adaptations of novels or stories prescribed in the syllabus can be arranged for students. This will not only keep up the students’ interest but will help them in interpreting texts in a better way.

Multi Media Packages Slide + record + workbook = teleconferencing Slide + radio + video = video conferencing Television + documents = e-learning

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CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS The characteristics of audio-visual aids are as follows:—

A teacher should select only those aids which are completely related to the topic.

The teacher should be careful that the aid should be such that it gives a true picture of the topic and the student are not confused to see it.

Aids should neither be too small, that the entire students can not see them, nor it should be too big to disturb their attention. The aids must be adequate size so that all may be able to see them from the entire angle.

Our society is dynamic. A lot of inventions are taking place. Therefore, there is no use if the teacher uses old and obsolete aids. He should use more recent aids.

If the impact is almost the same with the help of simple and cheap aids on the one hand and costly and complex aid on other, in that case, simple and cheap aids are more useful.

intelligence of the learners While selecting aids, the teacher must be careful that it is according to the experiences and intelligence of the students.

There is no use of using aids at all times. It must be used at the proper time when it is needed the most.

Using of too many aids in a lesson makes it cumbersome. Therefore, only one or few aids should be used.

When an aid is purchased, it is new. But if not kept properly, it gets spoiled and does not remain worthy to be used. Therefore, efforts should be made to keep it in good condition.

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Audio-visual aids may supplement the classroom teaching but they can never take place of a teacher.

Think!

The supply of teaching aids to every school is essential for the improvement of the quality of teaching. Discuss.

PRINCIPLES OF AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS Audio-visual aids abide by certain principles. These are enlisted below:

The teaching aids should not be used without any purpose. The teacher should ascertain the purpose before teaching the lesson and can tell it to the students so that the students can take interest in the lesson and can be attentive.

2. Principle of selection The aids should be selected while keeping in mind their utility, need, mental level of the in using them. Selected aids help to make the lesson effective and meaningful. Their effectiveness depends upon the utility and capacity of the teacher. Teaching would become effective and interesting when the teacher use the aids effectively in the classroom. The use of aids speeds up the learning process. They make students attentive by acting as a stimulus for them. They take part in teaching learning through senses, which is long lasting. Thus these principles should be followed by the teacher so as to teach in systematic and effective manner.

5. Principle of presentation The presentation of aids should be good enough so that students can draw the maximum benefits.

ADVANTAGES OF AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS Following are the advantages of audio-visual aids:

While learning through audio-visual aids, learning is based on experiences and is functional instead of being theoretical.

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an element of novelty. it brings healthy changes in the general activities of the school like reading, writing and hearing etc. If judicious selection of audio-visual aids is made, the element of forgetfulness will be diminished and the knowledge will become stable. It is because where a new lesson taught with the help of audio-visual aids, the student takes a lot of interest in it. The experience of expressions are generally vague and ambiguous.

4. Appropriate for less intelligent students Audio-visual aids are very appropriate for less intelligent students. Such type of students do not understand much either from the lecture of the teacher or from text books. They can learn quite easily with the help of audio-visual aids. Audio-visual aids bring reality in classroom because verbal expressions are generally vague. Sometimes a teacher explains a lot of abstract things which the children can not understand. The use of audio-visual aids brings reality in the classroom. Audio-visual aids are supplementary to the direct experiences. If after giving a direct experience of an event, some audio-visual aids are also used, it will make the student learn faster. While a teacher is giving a verbal lesson in the classroom it is possible that the attention of the student may wander. But if appropriate aids are used, the attention of the student will be centered on a point. For example if a lesson is taught with the help of a motion picture, in that case the attention of the student will remain concentrated. Audio-visual aids develop the power of imagination and analysis. The student no longer remains passive listener. We are living in an age where there is continuous expansion in the size of classes. It is not possible for a teacher to solve individual difficulties, but he can do so with the help of audiovisual aids. Audio-visual aids bring reality in the classroom, therefore are related to life.

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Audio-visual aids make even the most difficult content material quite easy and understandable. Therefore learning becomes more faster.

Audio-visual aids are very interesting and inspiring means. It brings about clarity and correctness in the learning. The children are active by nature and they have interest in seeing and listening various things and processes. As a result audio-visual aids serve as a good motivating force in the teaching learning process.

13. Helpful in transfer of learning and training Whatever is learnt by the student during the teaching-learning process at one time can be reinforced only when the student make use of the same in other situation, subjects or areas related to it. It is possible when student develop the abilities of transferring these abilities to another situation. Thus audio-visual aids prove helpful for the development of these capabilities.

Audio-visual aids arouse curiosity among the students and thus help in effective teaching.

Audio-visual aids prove very helpful in providing adequate impressions or images which prove very helpful in providing stable and effective learning experiences.

Think!

A picture is better than thousand words. Discuss.

PRECAUTIONS FOR THE USE OF AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS The last but not the least step in the handling of aids is to use them with complete precautions. As we all know that “precaution is better than cure”. The wrong use of aids may lead to confusion on the part of students rather than creating the concept. Therefore, the following precautions should be followed while using the teaching aids:

Use of equipments should not be for sake of using some aid while teaching. It should be integrated with the subject content being presented. The equipment should be removed, so that it does not distract the attention when the teacher has switched over to lecturing.

While using teaching equipments intelligence level of students should be kept in mind.

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The teacher should be well versed with the uses of equipments. They should be able to handle the gadgets, to make dark room arrangements where needed and should rehearse the demonstration before the class. Teacher should use the equipments only when they are required i.e. never confuse them with the source of entertainment over the use of equipment. This can lead to in attention and become boring for students and the value of teaching equipments is massed. All equipments should be protected against any damage from sunlight, humidity etc.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF AIDS The descriptions about various types of aids are explained below.

1. Tape Recorder Item

Description

Uses

Precaution

TAPE “If used intelligently, RECORDER the tape recorder can help the teacher to provide a wide range of linguistic experience, variety in material and a real stimulus to individual effort.” — S.R.Ingram

1. OVERCOMING POOR SPEECH HABITS: One of the most significant uses of the tape recorder is its value of overcoming poor speech habits and correcting actual speech defects.

1. The working of the tape recorder should be tested before using it in the classroom.

A tape recorder is an instrument used to record speeches, lectures, songs or music, which may be played back at any time and any number of times. If some piece or selections is not needed after a particular time, it may be erased and the tape may be used for

2. HELPFUL IN THE LEARNING OF LANGUAGES: The use of tape recorder proves quite helpful in the learning of language. Here the children may be provided with records of their own reading pronunciation, conversation etc. They may compare it with the model and corrected ones and note the difference. It may lead them to learn how to speak correctly and express their ideas clearly, concisely, and logically.

2. Good quality cassettes should be chosen for better sound clarity.

Contd.

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recording some other speech or song. Tape recorder proves especially effective in developing worthwhile standards of correct speech by providing opportunities to the students to listen to their own speeches and compare them to the speeches of respected and well known personalities.

3. Tape recorder may also help in learning the art and skills of various activities related with speech, conversation, lecturing and discussion. 4. FOR EVALUATION OF TEACHING LEARNING PROGRAMMES: The recording services of tape recorder may prove as an effective aid for the evaluation of teaching learning programme carried out in the institution. 5. FOR RECORDING PURPOSES: It may be used in recording the working of the various seminars, workshops and conferences organised in institution. 6. FOR PREPARING RECORDED EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMMES: A tape recorder may help in preparing recorded educational programmes to be used at the right time as and when desired.

Item

Description

Television Television has been described as “The queen of audio-visual aids.” It is very important scientific achievement of twentieth century. Through radio, we can hear only the voice of great educationists and artists, but on television we can see them participating in various activities. Television is a better aid than the radio as in addition

Uses 1. A television brings the most talented teachers to education institutions throughout the country. can be used in the lesson broadcast on television.

Precaution 1. There should be prior information of the programme to be broadcasted on television. 2. The selection of the programme should be according to the mental level of the students. Contd.

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to the sense of hearing, it appeals to the sense of sight also. Like the radio, the television also needs co-ordination with the school programme.

3. taught easily because their presentation is easy, interesting and attractive.

Kinds of Educational T.V.: 1. Open circuit Television: Usual type of telecast by commercial or non commercial stations 2. Closed circuit television: Selective telecast which can be turned in only by specially equipped receivers.

of the good teachers could be possible. 5. Can present images of excellence by making improvements in the art and skill of his profession. 6. Live telecast makes the lesson realistic for the students. opportunities to all the students. 8. The lessons are economical because students all over the country can see this broadcast at one time.

Limitations 1. Television is a costly equipment. 3. Fear of getting out of order. 4. Ill effect on eyes. 6. The programme can not be repeated immediately. 7. The problem of electricity.

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3. The students should be fully prepared mentally before the start of the television lesson. 4. Television should be set at appropriate place and where it is clearly visible and audible to all. 5. After the broadcast, the teacher should remove the difficulties of the students.

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Description

Film Film strips proves Strips to be much superior to all the visual or audio-visual aids. It is due to the presence of the movement. This is really an interesting way to provide direct experiences to the learner. They are more flexible than cinema and very useful in classroom teaching. The outstanding advantage of the film strip is that any picture may be projected until the discussion is going on in the classroom.

Uses concretized with the help of slides and film strips. These help in making teaching clear, interesting and intelligible. 2. With the help of this, small things can be shown in big form and shape. 3. Children are attracted towards picture by nature. These can develop children’s interests in 4. Their use brings variety in teaching. 5. The sequence of events seen through film strips and slides are retained by the students for a longer period of time in their memory.

Precaution 1. There should be proper arrangement for showing slides should be a special room for this purpose. teacher himself handles the projectors so that he can show a particular slide or film according to need. 3. It would be better if the students are told before hand about the slides or filmstrips to be shown so as to motivate them. the students to ask questions. 5. It should be helpful in the development of the lesson. 6. The film screened should be according to the age, ability and interest of the students.

Introduction The name comes from the fact that the projector is behind and over the head of the speaker. In an overhead projector, a transparent visual is placed on a horizontal stage on the top of light source. The light passed through this transparency then is reflected at 90° angle on the screen at the back of the speaker. Using over head projector is not a new concept. It dates back to World War II when the armed services employed this equipment.

Construction and Working The overhead projector consist of a projector lamp to act as a source of light, condensing lenses to concentrate all the light into a usable beam, a polished mirror and lens assembly and a blower for cooling the system. The uniqueness of overhead projector can be summarized as: Vertical Projection—It contains an area of vertical projection besides the straight horizontal path of light available with usual projector. The path of light rays is changed into a horizontal one by mirror placed at an angle of 45° and continues over the shoulder of the teacher to the screen.

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It contains a large aperture of size 20 ¥ 20 cm for placing the slides and other usual materials. It provides both focusing of the image on the screen by vertical movements of the projection. —There is a provision of a constant flow of air to pass the lamp by a cooling fan in the base of the projector.

Advantages of Overhead Projector The advantages of the overhead projector are as follows:— Large image A very large projected image from a minimum of projection distance is obtained. Identify with the user Whether in a teaching or a presentation situation the audience sees the visualisation from the same point of view as the communicator. Thus the feeling of oneness with the communicator is created. Light weight The comparative light weight of the equipment makes it protable. Flexible and total presentation The user operated visualisation may be integrated into total presentation with complete flexibility. Low cost it is permanent. Bright image The lens and the mirror arrangement in overhead projector make it possible to have a bright image even in a well lit room. Simple operation It is simple, easy and convenient to operate the overhead projector. It does not need a separate projector operator or instructor. Also the slides can be changed easily.

Disadvantages of Overhead Projectors bulky and heavy to transport. bulky and difficult to store. too small for audience to read. less professional” than slides in a formal setting.

Precautions Regarding Overhead Projectors While using a slide projection, the teacher should take following precautions:

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Removing dust Always remove dirt or dust from the projecting glass and also from the outside lens surface by brush. Do not touch the lamp The lamps should not be touched by hand. No mechanical vibrations The projector should not be subjected to mechanical vibrations.

A voltage stabilizer should be used to avoid voltage fluctuations.

“A language laboratory is a classroom containing equipments designed and arranged to make foreign language learning more effective than is usually possible.” — A.S. Hayas Language laboratory occupies the most important place among the technological aids in teachinglearning process. Though it originated in the United States, it gained popularity all over the world. Language laboratory is a very popular technical innovation. It provides opportunity to the students to hear the language spoken by a native and to practice speaking the language themselves. Language lab is a teaching room equipped with electronic and mechanical devices to aid foreign language learning. In this special lab students may practice speaking and listening with the help of sound equipments .The sound equipments include tape recorders, earphone, microphone and so on. There is facility for recording and reproducing voice. Students sit in a sound proof booth where they can listen to a master tape and record their responses. The teacher who controls the operations can talk to any student. It is a self-learning device which follows individualistic approach. It is designed in such a manner that a student can practice pattern of drills. Thus a teacher is relieved of repetition as in traditional teaching. In the beginning, the lab consisted of tape recorder, amplifiers, headphones and microphone to aid fast learning. Then microprocessors were added which controlled different functions like communication. Computers are used now days as multimedia players.

Objectives of language laboratory The major objectives of language laboratory are to

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THE SYSTEM CONSOLE It is the teachers’ desk which controls all the operations. There are switches with the help of which the teacher can be connected with any of the learner.

There are sound proof compartments for learners. The learner receives programme from the console and records it. He receives an utterance, there is a pause and he has to give response. The response is compared with the right response, received from the console.

Source The sources include recorded cassettes which are used for recording of a programme from the console on the master tape.

Broadcast Type/Audio Active Learner can listen to voice in head set, respond orally to teacher’s head set using a microphone. There is no recording of response. It is similar to classroom learning.

Library Type/Audio Active Comparative There is provision for comparison of the learner’s recorded response with the right response from the teacher.

Computerized Language Lab The latest language labs eliminate the use of tape recorders, amplifiers etc. and are fully computerized. The processing of lessons and interaction are in the digital format so that maximum clarity and

Language consists of a habit which has to be acquired through much imitation and practice. Hence in intensive drill practice, student should be able to stop the tape, hear again the sounds and to practice

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them by imitation as often as desired. In programmed instruction, the student cannot advance until he has mastered the previous frame. But in language laboratory although the program is linear, the next step automatically appears irrespective of the success of the student in the previous frame. If he decides that he has not, the student must be able to repeat the defective frame until he succeeds.

Self-Pacing In the language laboratory every student works at his own speed. A slow worker would be one who does much retracing and a fast worker would do less retracing.

The Console This is the control centre where the instructor’s equipments are located. It has the following switches: (a) Distribution switches To direct the recorded programme to the selected student booths. (b) Monitoring switches for Correcting errors in procedure Correcting linguistic errors (c) Intercom switches To permit a two-way conversation with any individual student. (d) Group call switches a console source. (e) All call switches For making announcements to all students in a laboratory, regardless of the nature of the programme.

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Language laboratories have certain advantages which are enlisted below.

Limitations of language laboratory includes the following:

Summary Audio-visual materials are those sensory objects or images which initiates, stimulate and reinforce learning. The main objective of instruction aids is to improve retention ability of the students by making the presentation more effective. Audio-visual aids motivate learners, economize teaching time, and help teachers. media packages. The teaching aids should not be used without any purpose. The aids should be selected presentation of aids should be good enough so that students can draw the maximum benefits.

Terms To Remember Audio-visual aids These are any devices by means of which the learning process may be increased and carried on though the sense of hearing or the sense of sight.

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Audio aid This refers to sound making devices used in teaching and learning. Visual aid This refers to maps, pictures etc. Audio-visual aid This refers to hardware equipment and media used in learning. Multi media packages This refers to the packages in which more than two modes of communication were involved. Flow charts These are used to indicate flow of directions. Graphic charts These are used to present the topic in a graphic way. Table chart These are used to present the things in a tabular form. Tree chart These are used for displaying divisions and subdivisions. Picture chart These are used for drawing a picture. Time chart These are used for expressing different events.

Exercises Short Answer Questions 2. What do you mean by Instructional materials? 4. Write the educational uses of filmstrips.

Long Answer Questions 1. A good instructional aid should help a teacher to teach better and the learner learn better. 2. The use of instructional materials makes teaching both interesting and enriching. How far do you agree with the statement? Justify your answer by citing example. charts to make your teaching effective?

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Development of Listening Skills

We were given two ears but only one mouth. This is because God knew that listening is twice as hard as talking.

— Larry Alan Nadig Inside This Chapter Introduction Meaning of Listening Steps of Listening Process Present Position of Listening Skill Objectives of Listening Skill Principles of Teaching Listening Different ways of Conducting Oral Work Improvement of Listening Skills Advantages of Listening Skills Suggestions for the Improvement of Listening Skill of Language Conclusion

Learning Objectives This chapter will enable the reader to:

INTRODUCTION The first impact of any language comes from the spoken word, whether we are concerned with the baby in the cradle or the students in college. Listening is one of the four main language skill along with reading, writing and speaking. Whilst in reading and writing we talk about sentences, the spoken (or heard) equivalent is an utterance. Listening is the most basic advising skill. The elements of listening behavior include eye contact, body language, verbal responses, and vocal tone.

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Often we confuse a lot between the act of hearing and listening and use these words interchangeably; however there is a difference between the two. Hearing is a physical ability while listening is a skill. Listening skills allow one to make sense of and understand what another person is saying. In other words, listening skills allow you to understand what someone is “talking about”.

SUB-SKILLS OF LANGUAGE There are two major sub-skills of learning a language, receptive skills and expressive skills. The former comprises listening and reading and the latter comprises speaking and writing. 1. Receptive skills:—Listening + Reading 2. Expressive skill:—Speaking + Writing. Figure 15.1 shows the different sub-skills of a language

Fig. 15.1 Comprehension can be extensive or intensive. This idea has been explained in Fig. 15.2.

Fig. 15.2

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Æ Listening Æ Extensive (Not close listening) e.g., Listen to radio programme while writing. Æ Listening Æ Intensive/Focused (listen to radio news).

Difference between Listening and Hearing Listening and hearing are not the same. Hearing is the first stage of listening. Hearing occurs when your ears pick up sound waves which are then transported to your brain. This stage is your sense of hearing.

Meaning of Listening Listening means that audio makes sense to the sound which is created by speech or to receive the sound which is meaningful. Speech Æ audio sense Æ to attentive listeners + able to understand the meaning of words. Thus Listening is With The Mind Listening is Consciousness An Active Process of Eliciting Information Oral Exchange of Ideas

Steps of Listening Process Real listening is an active process that comprises three basic steps which are explained below.

1. Hearing—Hearing just means listening enough to catch what the speaker is saying. For example, say you were listening to a report on zebras, and the speaker mentioned that no two are alike. If you can repeat the fact, you have heard what has been said.

2. Understanding—The next part of listening happens when you take what you have heard and understand it in your own way. Let us go back to that report on zebras. When you hear that no two are alike, think about what that might mean. You might think, “Maybe this means that the pattern of stripes is different for each zebra.” 3. Judging—After you are sure you have understood what the speaker has said, think about whether it makes sense. Do you believe what you have heard? You might think, “How could the stripes be different for every zebra? But then again, the fingerprints are different for every person. I think this seems believable.” Hearing—Understanding—Judging

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DEVELOPING LISTENING SKILLS IN CLASSROOMS Most of the time the students find it difficult to concentrate in a class lecture. Often they do not get the opportunity to the correct English pronunciation and often in Indian classrooms the teacher ends up speaking in the vernacular. Listening as a skill is not given much importance in the teaching methods adopted by teachers.

Probable Solution

Objectives of Listening Skill

Principles of Teaching Listening Correct pronunciation: Sounds produced by the teacher should be clear and audible. Vital preparation: Teachers should be well prepared. Various devices for developing listening skills: A teacher should use various devices for developing listening skills such as Repetition exercises Question answers Classroom activities

DIFFERENT WAYS OF CONDUCTING ORAL WORK Different ways of conducting Oral Work are explained below:

1. Repetition Exercises In this type of exercise, the teacher produces a sound or speaks words and sentences and asks the students to listen carefully and then reproduce in exactly same manner as shown in Fig. 15.3.

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Fig. 15.3

2. Performing Actions The actions are performed by the students or the teachers and the students are asked to speak what they are doing. The teacher gives the outline of the story and the students are asked to think and then speak few sentences about it. A topic is chosen by the teacher. The teacher provides an extempore on that topic and later on asks the students to speak on the same topic. A teacher uses various audio aids like gramophone, linguaphone, headphone or any other modes to enhance the listening skills of students.

IMPROVEMENT OF LISTENING SKILLS There are various ways by which listening skills can be improved. Some of which are listed below:

Strength of the Class—The ratio between teacher and student should be such that the teacher is able to pay attention to every student. Less the number of students, more substantive would be the lecture and more the students will benefit.

Maintain Eye Contact with the Instructor—It is advisable for the students to build an eye contact with the speaker or lecturer as this helps in focusing on the job and keeps you involved in the lecture. Avoid Emotional Involvement—When you are too emotionally involved in listening, you tend to hear what you want to hear—not what is actually being said. Try to remain objective and open-minded.

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Avoid Distractions— papers near you. If the classroom is too hot or too cold, try to accommodate or compromise in such a situation.

Treat Listening as a Challenging Mental Task—As a student one needs to participate actively in a class lecture, because listening essentially happens to be an active act. Students need to pay full concentration while attending a lecture. Stay Active by Constant Questioning—Active listening keeps you on your toes. Here are some questions you can ask yourself as you listen. What key point is the professor making? How does this fit with what I know from previous lectures? How is this lecture organized? It makes the students active by participating in the process of learning and teaching.

Use the Gap between the Rate of Speech and your Rate of thought—You can think faster than the lecturer can talk. That’s one reason your mind may tend to wander. All the above suggestions will help you keep your mind occupied and focused on what being said. You can actually begin to anticipate what the teacher is going to say as a way to keep your mind from straying. Your mind does have the capacity to listen, think, write and ponder at the same time, but it does take practice.

Advantages of Listening Skills It improves the comprehending ability of the students. Learning nursery rhymes and reciting them orally gives the students a lot of pleasure. It lays the foundations of good speech. It helps the students to form the habit of using correct sentences patterns. It makes the students active participating in the process of teaching learning.

Conclusion Learning of a language is a skill subject which can be acquired through a lot of practice. A language learner can reach the level of acquisition if he practices the language.

Summary In the acquisition of language, the preliminary stage is listening to the language and the attempt to understand it. Information is an intangible substance that must be sent by the speaker and received by an active listener.

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Listening and hearing are not the same. Hearing is the first stage of listening. Hearing occurs when your ears pick up sound waves which are then transported to your brain. Listening means that audio sense make sense to the sound which is created by the speech. Listening is an active process that involves three basic steps i.e., hearing, understanding and judging. For developing listening skill among the students, the teachers should be well prepared and should use various devices such as reproduction exercise, question answer etc. Different ways of conducting oral work are reproduction exercises, role playing and actions performed by the students. Listening skills can be improved by following some of the strategies— Maintaining eye contact with the instructor

Terms to Remember Listening Reproduction Exercises In this type of exercise, the teacher produces a sound or speaks words and sentences and asks the students to listen carefully and then reproduce in exactly same manner. This activity deals with the task of playing the role of somebody by the students.

Exercises (word limit 150) 1. 2. 3. 4.

How will you make oral work a grand success in your classroom teaching? What is listening skill? Write the present position of teaching listening skill to the students. Write the ways of improving listening skill. What are the objectives and principles of listening skill?

(word limit 1000) 1. Listening is considered as an important linguistic skill. What points should be highlighted by the teacher while developing this skill among the students? 2. What is the utility of oral work in classroom situations? How will you carry on oral work successfully in a classroom situation? Write by giving suitable examples.

16

Development of Speaking Skills Speaking comes by nature…

— German proverb Inside This Chapter Introduction Acquiring Speaking Skills Drilling Pronunciation Organs of Speech The Sounds of English Exceptions

Learning Objectives This chapter will enable the reader to:

INTRODUCTION Speaking is referred to as the productive skill in the oral mode. Like the other skills, speaking is more complicated than it seems at first and involves more than just pronouncing words. As you can see, speaking is the second language skill, and probably the one that most language learners wish to perfect as soon as possible.

ACQUIRING SPEAKING SKILLS When we learn a language, there are four skills that we need for complete communication. When we learn our native language,

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we usually learn to listen first, then to speak, then to read, and finally to write. These are called the four “language skills”:

As you can see, speaking is the second language skill, and probably the one that most language learners wish to perfect as soon as possible.

Types of Speaking Skills Speaking happens to be a crucial part in the process of language learning. The process of speaking involves more than just putting words together and pronouncing them. Speaking as a skill comprises three situations such as

conferencing in which we are, alternately, listening and speaking, and in which we have a chance to ask for clarifications, repetitions, or even request our conversation partner to slower the speed of speech. it is the speaker who does the talking for most part of the conversation whereas the audience is engaged in listening. broadcast. Figure 16.1 given below highlights the four major methods of communication

Fig. 16.1 Methods of communication

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DRILLING

structural patterns through oral practice. Drill is a device used for fixing the subject matter in the minds of the learner.

Types of Drills The different types of drills are as follows:

1. Repetition Drill controlled practice stage in which they have the chance to focus exclusively on the new language and start to familiarize themselves with it. What the student says and how it is said is controlled by the activity and restricts the student to the target item. The lower the level, the more important this stage is. The students do not have to speak spontaneously, and therefore do not have to focus on what The simplest and most controlled of these types of activity is a repetition drill where the teacher simply says a sentence containing the target structure (or even just the lexical item being taught) and the students repeat it. This can be done: Silently: The students repeat the sentence or word to themselves in their minds to try and The whole class, or in a larger class, groups of students repeat the sentence/ word together. The teacher calls on one student at a time to repeat the target item. The staging Silent–In Chorus-Individual repetition is in increasing order of challenge for the sometimes be useful to backtrack to an earlier stage. Here are some to do’s and don’ts for repetition drill.

2. Substitution Drill After acquiring the basic sentences by repetition, substitution drill becomes most powerful and useful to overcome the restricted ability of being able to speak only a set of sentences of the same structure. This drill is also called replacement drill. The sentence is composed of segments within a frame, the position of which is in a fixed relation to the position of other slots. The general structure of the sentence is retained but there will be changes in the semantic content.

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Sometimes, substitution introduced into one frame necessitated a change of one or more segments of the sentence. Substitution drill may be of various types according to the mechanism of operation and they are: (a) Single substitution drill (b) Double substitution drill (c) Multiple substitution drill first modelling a word or a sentence and the learners repeating it. The teacher then substitutes one or more key words, or changes the prompt, and the learners say the new structure. The following sequence is an example of a substitution drill:

as a classroom technique, many teachers still learner to lead the activity. Here are some examples of substitution drill questions:

(a) Single Substitution This type of drill enables the learners to assimilate the structure and the variation in a single frame. Illustrations Teacher—‘Sita is a good girl’ Student—‘Sita is a bad girl’ Teacher—‘Vasanta is a very intelligent girl’ Student—‘Vasanta is a very mischievous girl’.

(b) Double Substitution Drill Illustration Student—Geetu is my friend (single substitution) Student—Geetu is my sister (double substitution)

(c) Multiple Substitution Drill Illustration Student—Geetu is my friend (single substitution)

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Student—Geetu is my sister (double substitution) Student—Geetu is your sister (multiple substitutions)

3. Addition Drill The possibility of adding one word after the other enables the learners to acquire the basic mechanism by which a sentence can be expanded without affecting the basic structure. This drill is otherwise called expansion/extension drill. The filler sentence is expanded by adding new items to it. While the drill is administered, the learners’ familiarity with the lexical elements of know the grammatical category of the item to be added to the filler sentence in appropriate slots. Addition may be internal or external and is explained with the following sentences:

External Addition Illustrations

Internal Addition Illustrations

By the use of expansion drill, the learner will become aware of the fact that sentence consists of stringing together various clauses, phrases and words. Thus this drill helps the learners to build up longer sentences by combining words, phrases and clauses starting from the basic sentence.

4. Completion Drill This drill enables the learners to know the grammatical category of the item to be filled in a given sentence and the position of its occurrence.

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Illustrations ‘Leela is a ________ girl (Beauty) ‘Leela is a beautiful girl’ ‘Madhavi ________ a very ________ girl (Mischief)' ‘Madhavi is a very mischievous girl’

5. Chain Drill

and answer the question. This forms a chain

6. Transformation Drill The most common situations of applying the transformation drill is what, when, how and why. for example:

sentences into another. Suppose the teacher wants to give drill of negative sentences of present continuous tense, then drill will be given as below. Illustrations Teacher—She is studying Student—She is not studying Teacher—The girls are doing homework Student—The girls are not doing homework

7. Synthetic Drill them so as to make them a meaningful sentence. Teacher—Yet she is bold, although she is a girl Student—Although she is a girl, yet she is bold.

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8. Question and Answer Drill This drill is otherwise called the response drill. This drill gives an opportunity to the learners to react automatically to situations, making use of the sentence patterns they have already learnt in the target language. Illustrations dosa in the morning.

Importance of Drills Thompson and Wyatt have rightly said, “The power of expression in language is a matter of skill rather than of knowledge; it is a power that grows by exercise, not merely by knowing the meanings or rules.” The drills help in fixing up the subject matter. Drills should be used to form correct speech habits on which further learning of language will go on smoothly. Thus drills can work wonders in providing listening and speaking practice to the learners. how should a drill be used. Drills should be used very carefully. Drill can be practiced in a classroom by individual students or in a group of students. Two major methods are adopted for the purpose of drilling. These are explained below:

Individual Drill

Chorus Drill When the whole class or a majority of the students in a class fails to produce a sound accurately or is unable to speak a word or phrase, chorus drill is practiced. This is particularly done in lower classes.

Don’t make the students drill too much and keep drill activities and levels lively. pronounce or memorise words or master language chunks. language perfect and more memorable.

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it can be of great value to our learners and can do wonders in providing listening and speaking practice to the learners.

PRONUNCIATION

physical cooperation form and training of the tongue and mouth to form the correct sounds. However, with practice, patience, and tips from the following free resources, you will not only be

Learners should be encouraged not to completely eliminate their accents, but to improve their

ORGANS OF SPEECH Almost all of us have studied about the role of nose and lungs in the respiratory system and the function of mouth in the digestive system. However, most of us do not know much about the role of these organs in enhancement of our speech. Although numerous complex effects are produced by the human voice, the inner system that makes the sounds (which make up the speech) is extremely simple in its nature. The organs, which take part in the production of speech sounds, are called the speech organs. When we speak, air comes out through the lungs and is interfered at various places for the production of sounds. These speech organs are called articulators and points of articulation. Sounds can be produced only by the process of inhaling and exhaling. The main organs of speech are shown in Fig. 16.2:

Fig. 16.2 Organs of speech

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The following are the important organs that assist in correct pronunciation:

Soft palate

Hard palate 6. Vocal cords

The Lips

produce different vowels.

The Teeth The teeth take part in the production of the consonant sounds. The upper teeth only take part in the production of the speech sounds. The lower teeth do not take part in the production of sounds. The sound produced with the help of the upper teeth is called the dental sound (q, r).

The Alveolar Ridge The alveolar ridge is the part between the upper teeth and the hard palate. The sound produced with the tongue touching the alveolar ridge is called alveolar sounds, e.g., /s/, /t/, /d/ and so on. to know the movement and the placement of each organ to produce the particular sounds with perfection. The above descriptions and functions of the organs of speech help teachers to guide the students to produce the various phonetic sounds the right way.

The Tongue divided into four parts: the tip, the blade, the front and the back. The variety of vowel sounds is produced with the help of the tongue. Vowel sounds differ from each other because of the positioning of the tongue. The tip of the tongue helps to produce sounds like /t, d, z, etc/. The blade of the tongue helps to produce /tÚ, dŒ, Ú, etc/. The front of the tongue helps to produce palatal sound /j/ and the back of the tongue helps to produce /k/, /g/ sounds.

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The Vocal Cords The larynx contains two small bands of elastic tissues. They are called vocal cords. The opening between the vocal cords is called the glottis. When we breathe in or out, the glottis is open. This is the position that produces filler sounds or voiceless sounds, e.g., /f/, /s/, /h/, etc. /f/, /s/, /h/ are

production of voiced sounds, vocal cords vibrate. So, the main function of the vocal cords is to produce both, voiced and voiceless, sounds.

Fig. 16.3 The larynx or the voice box

The Soft Palate separates the oral and nasal cavities. The last part of the soft palate is called the uvula. When it is lowered, the nasal sounds (/m, n, /) are produced. When it is raised, the air passes out through the oral cavity and the oral sounds (/p, t, k, s, etc/) are produced.

Fig. 16.4 The soft palate

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The Hard Palate The hard palate is similar to the alveolar ridge; the tongue touches and taps the palate while articulating speech.

Pronunciation and models for the pronunciation methods:

What is good English pronunciation? There are three levels in learning

:

sounds used by the speaker.

Notice that good pronunciation is not “perfect American or British accent”.

Learners should aim to fairly accurate as native possible?

THE SOUNDS OF ENGLISH

Vowels A speech sound produced by the passage of air through the vocal tract, with relatively little or no obstruction. All vocal cords are therefore voiced sounds. Vocal cords vibrate while producing these sounds.

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Fig. 16.5 English vowels

Classification of Vowels The classification of vowels is based on five major aspects:

Tongue Height Vowels are classified in terms of how much space is there between the tongue and the roof of the mouth, which is determined by the height of the tongue. There are three primary height distinctions among vowels: high, low, and mid.

Fig. 16.6

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æ These are vowels with a relatively wide space between the tongue and the roof of the mouth. e between the high and low vowels. e

As illustration of tongue height, observe the diagrams (Fig. 16.6) æ

æ

e

the two.

Tongue Backness Vowels are classified in terms of how far the raised body of the tongue is from the back of the mouth, which is called the backness of the tongue There are three primary height distinctions among vowels: front, back, and central (spoken with the help of tip or front of the tongue) (spoken with the help of centre of the tongue) (spoken with the help of back of the tongue) Front Vowels

e/—bet, head (short mid front spread vowel); this may also be shown by the symbol /e/ æ/—cat, dad (short low front spread vowel); this may also be shown by /a/

Fig. 16.7 Articulation of front and back vowels Central Vowels :/—burn, firm (long mid central spread vowel); this may also be shown by the symbol / :/. /—about, clever (short mid central spread vowel); this is sometimes known as schwa, or the neutral vowel sound—it never occurs in a stressed position.

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/—cut, nut (short low front spread vowel); this vowel is quite uncommon among speakers in the Midlands and further north in Britain. Back vowels �/—put, soot (short high back rounded vowel); also shown by /u/ :/—corn, faun (long mid back rounded vowel) also shown by /o:/ /—dog, rotten (short low back rounded vowel) also shown by /o/ :/—hard, far (long low back spread vowel) As you can see from Fig. 16.7

Lip Movement Another aspect of vowel classification is the presence or absence of lip rounding. Some vowels, e are called un rounded.

Another aspect of vowel classification is commonly characterized in terms of the tenseness or e without a high degree of tenseness, and are called lax vowels. Vowels may be classified on the basis of the length of time that the vowel sounds spend in the throat. These are as follows:

Fig. 16.8

Examples of short and long vowels

Since there are only a handful of vowels, they work extra hard and make two types of sounds:

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slowly, you’ll notice that the vowels make different sounds. The letter a, for example, makes a particular sound in the words game and late and another type of sound in the words cat and lack the first pair of words, the sound is a long a and in the second pair, it is a short a. We use the terms short and long to describe the length of time the vowel sounds spend in the throat. A short a needs lesser time to be pronounced and sounded than a long a. The following list gives some examples of of the vowel.) Fig. 16.8 highlights the examples of short and long vowels.

acid

game

rat

tame

felt

scene

set

flight

bit

pine

wig

hone

hog

muse

monster

unify

rug tumble Figure 16.9 given below highlights the rise and fall of vowels.

Fig. 16.9 Rise and fall of English vowels

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Diphthongs Diphthongs are types of vowels where two vowel sounds are connected in a continuous and gliding motion. They are often referred to as gliding vowels. A list of diphthongs is given below: Diphthongs e.g. day, afraid, great e.g. July, decide, buy e.g. boy, voice, enjoy e.g. close, know, moment 5.

e.g. town, flower, mountain

6.

e.g. hear, here, appear e.g. hair, wear, parents e.g. sure, January

Fig. 16.10

Use of various diphthongs

Consonants A speech sound produced by a partial or complete obstruction of the air stream by any of various constrictions of the speech organs, such as (p), (f), (r), (w), and (h) using articulators and points of articulation.

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as in

see

as in

put

as in

sit

as in

but

e

as in

set

as in

ten

æ

as in

sat

as in

den

as in

calm

as in

calm

as in

not

as in

got

as in

bought

as in

kit

as in

put

as in

git

as in

boot

as in

church

as in

but*

as in

judge

as in

bird

as in

make

as in

about

as in

net

as in

play

as in

long

as in

go

as in

light

as in

my

as in

milk

as in

now

as in

full

as in

coil

as in

vole

as in

here

as in

thin

as in

there

as in

then

as in

cruel

as in

sat

as in

zeal

as in

ship

as in

measure

as in

run

as in

hat

as in

went

as in

yet

�

' e

e

Ú

q

Ú

on the basis of their articulatory points, which the articula tors actually touch, or are closest to. This is often related to as articulatory phonetics.

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Table 16.1: Classification

Articulators

Examples

Bilabial

/p b m w/ Teeth and tip of tongue

/q ð/

Lower lip and upper teeth

/f v/

Alveolar (teeth) ridge and tip and blade of tongue

/t d s z r k b/

Hard palate and tip of tongue

/r/

Hard palate—alveolar and tip, blade and front of tongue

/f/z/ò/d /

Hard palate and front of tongue

/j /

Velar

Soft palate and back of tongue

/k g /

Glottal

Glottis (vocal cords)

/h/

Dental Alveolar

What is Word Stress? one syllable. We say very quietly.

syllable very

(big, strong, important) and

, the same syllable. So the Word

and

. Do they sound the same

of each word is different. Shape

Total syllables

Stressed syllable

PHO TO GRAPH

PHO TO GRAPH ER

PHO TO GRAPH

TEACHer, JaPAN, CHINa, aBOVE, converSAtion, INteresting, imPORtant, deMAND, etCETera, etCETera, etCETera The syllables that are not stressed are or quiet for the stressed instantly and automatically improve your pronunciation and your comprehension.

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Implication of word stress

position of the stress. Think again about the two words

and

hear only the first two syllables of one of these words, reality you will hear either know what the word is (

or

Which word is it, photograph or

So without hearing the whole word, you probably or

Rules about word stress There are two very important rules about word stress:

stressed. others are weakly stressed.

feeling for the “music” of the language. All dictionaries spell out words phonetically. This is where they show which syllable is stressed, usually with an apostrophe (’) just or just the stressed syllable. (The notes at the front of the dictionary will explain the system used.)

Example

Sentence Stress in English cially when spoken fast.

Phonetic spelling: dictionary A

Phonetic spelling: dictionary B

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accent on

within a

215

or “beat”. You remember that word stress is . Sentence stress is accent on within a .

Most sentences have two or more types of words:

meaning or sense. Structure words are not very important words. They are small, simple words that make the sentence correct grammatically. They give the sentence its correct form or “structure”.

GONE

Somebody wants you to sell their car for them because they have gone to France. We can add a few words and the message gets better: GONE The new words do not really add any more information. But they make the message more correct grammatically. We can add even more words to make one complete, grammatically correct message conveyed and the information is sentence. You can add more connecting words basically remains the same:

Will

GONE Structure Words

.

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Implication of Sentence Stress

language. (t maintain a constant beat on the stressed words. To do this, we say “my” more , and “because . We change the speed of the small structure words so that the rhythm of the key content words stays the same. Syllables

GONE

t1

t1

T1

t1

Rules for Sentence Stress in English The basic rules of sentence stress are:

and 16.3 highlight the difference between content words and structure words: Table 16.2:

Content words—stressed

Words carrying the meaning Main Verbs Adjectives Adverbs

Example

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Table 16.3: Structure words—unstressed Words for correct grammar

Example he, we, they on, at, into

Articles

a, an, the and, but, because

Auxiliary verbs

do, be, have, can, must

EXCEPTIONS The above rules are for what is called “neutral” or normal stress. But sometimes we can stress a word that would normally be only a structure word, for example to correct information. Look at the following dialogue:

THEY haven’t, but WE have. it is a content word).

Intonation Patterns high pitch and the unstressed syllables in low pitch. So the feature of rising and falling of the pitch while speaking the sentence is called intonation. These variations are called tones. When the pitch of the voice is rising, it is called the rising tone. When the pitch of the voice is falling, it is called the falling tone. These two tones can come in sequence. So we have different types of tones. They are as follows: (ii) The falling tone—(the glide down)

Some rules to teach intonation

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|| It was ’quite ’good. || || I ’wouldn’t ’mind ’seeing it again. || || ’Why did you ’change your ’mind? || || ’Who on the ’earth was ’that? || || ’Don’t ’make a ’noise. || || ’Shut the ’door. || || You like it? || || You ’can’t go. || || ’Have you /seen him? || || ’Did ’John ’post ’that /letter? || || ’Can I /see it ? || || ’Please ’sit, down. || || ’Kindly ’give me ’some ’money. || || I ’looked at him. || ||She ’took the ’car. || ||

||

|| You will be late. || || I ’shan’t ’tell you again. || \ || ordinary. || || ’What a ’beautiful \girl. ||

|| ’Good / morning. || || ’Good / bye. || || ’Good / night. || || ’Did you ? ||

|| Has she? ||

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Rhythm

of a sentence are pronounced carefully at regular intervals whether there are unstressed syllables more time to produce unstressed syllables and less time to produce stressed syllables, the speech becomes rhythmless. So the feature of rhythm suggests that the time taken by each stressed syllable to the next tone to be the same. Since unstressed syllables are produced fast along with the stressed syllables, all

used. Here are some weak and strong forms

and

/ænd/

/´n/

but

/b√t/

/b´t/

him

/hIm/

/Im/

he

/hI/

/i:/

has

/hæz/

/´z/

a

/eI/

/´/

an

/eIn/

/´n/

them

/Dem/

/D´m/

her

/h´:/

/Z:/

have

/hæv/

/´v/

are

/a:(r)/

/´/

Juncture between two near sequence of phonemes. This is also known as re-bracketing, juncture loss, junctural metanalysis, false splitting, misdivision, or refactorization. This is a common process in linguistics where a word originally derived from one source is broken down or bracketed into a different set hamburger taken to mean a burger with ham), or may seem to be the result of valid morphological processes.

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“an oodle”, since “an oodle” sounds just as grammatically correct as “a noodle”, and likewise “an eagle” might become “a neagle”, but “the bowl” would not become “th ebowl” and “a kite” would not become “ak ite”. Technically, bracketing is the process of breaking an utterance into its constituent parts. The term is akin to parsing for larger sentences, but is normally restricted to morphological processes

morphological decomposition, especially where the new etymology becomes the conventional norm. The name false splitting in particular is often reserved for the case where two words mix together but still remain two words (as in the “noodle” and “eagle” examples above). The name juncture loss may be specially deployed to refer to the case of an article and a noun fusing (such as if “the jar” were to become “(the) thejar”, or if “an apple” were to become “(an) an apple”). changes that facilitate the new etymology.

Always–

All

Wherever– Where

ways ever

How to deal effectively with pronunciation? developing their knowledge and skills in the following areas: contrastive usage of sounds, which sequences of sounds occur in particular languages, how sequences of sounds are modified in connected speech, and which patterns of stress, rhythm

language.

in their own speech, and aspects which are perhaps only important for recognition purposes in facilitating listening comprehension.

well as isolating specific pronunciation features for focused attention.

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Summary Speaking refers to the productive skill in the oral mode. Three major kinds of speaking

where the audience simply listen when they are spoken to. The organs, which take part in the production of speech sounds, are called speech organs also known as articulators. Lips, teeth, alveolar ridge, tongue, larynx, vocal cords, epiglottis, pharynx, soft palate, uvula, hard palate are major articulators. Vowels are speech sounds produced by the passage of air through the vocal tract, with relatively little or no obstruction. All vocal cords are therefore voiced sounds. Vocal cords Diphthongs are combinations of two vowel sounds which are connected in a continuous gliding motion. They are often referred to as gliding vowels. Word stress is the kind of stress, which requires a greater degree of force to be applied to a certain syllable which enters the shape of the word. feature of rising and falling of the pitch while speaking the sentence is called intonation. at regular intervals. to differentiate between two near sequence of phonemes.

Terms to Remember Drilling

Drill is a device used for fixing the subject matter in the minds of the learner.

A speech sound produced by the passage of air through the vocal tract, with relatively little or no obstruction. All vocal cords are therefore voiced sounds. Vocal cords vibrate while producing these sounds. Diphthongs are types of vowels where two vowel sounds are connected in a continuous gliding motion. They are often referred to as gliding vowels. A speech sound produced by a partial or complete obstruction of the air stream by any of various constrictions of the speech organs, such as (p), (f), (r), (w), and (h) using articulators and points of articulation. Stress is the degree of force with which a unit of sound or a syllable or a word is uttered. Word stress is the kind of stress, which requires a greater degree of force to be applied to a certain syllable which enters the shape of the word.

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The kind of stress in which certain words comprising a sentence carry stronger stress than the other. at regular intervals. differentiate between two near sequence of phonemes.

Exercises

with appropriate diagram.

Additional resources related to this chapter are available at www.mhhe.com/navita_arora

17

Development of Reading Skills

The habit of reading is the only enjoyment in which there is no alloy; it lasts when all other pleasures fade.

— Anthony Trollope Inside This Chapter Introduction Mechanics of Reading Importance of Reading Forms of Reading Aims of Teaching Reading Skills Involved in Reading Conclusion

Learning Objectives This chapter will enable the reader to:

INTRODUCTION Reading is the receptive skill in written mode and it occupies its legitimate place in the scheme of teaching English. It is a specific skill which is to be learnt carefully and methodically. It is an effective means of language acquisition, sharing information

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and ideas and therefore requires continuous practice. It also involves interaction between the text and the reader’s Previous knowledge Experiences Attitude towards learning Social setting

Elements of Reading Reading is the cognitive ability which enables students to read with a purpose of extracting thoughts, facts and information from the printed page. Reading comprises three elements, viz., symbol, sounds and sense (as shown in Fig. 17.1).

Fig. 17.1 The elements of reading Readers use a variety of reading strategies to assist with decoding (to translate symbols into sounds or visual representations of language) and comprehension. Thus reading is a process in which a written or printed symbol is translated into an appropriate sound. For example, the child reads the word ‘cat’, first of all he will look at the symbol, translate into a specific sound which stands for some animal called ‘cat’ and at the same time he visualizes the concrete picture for which the symbol stands. Reading is the rapid fusion of words, symbols into consecutive units of thoughts. Through reading, the experiences of the readers are extended, his power of thinking is stimulated and he is enabled to interpret life more intelligently and accurately. This is the last objective of reading.

MECHANICS OF READING When we read, our eyes move along the line in jumps, pausing momentarily at the end of each jump. These small pauses of the eyes between jumps are called fixations. The number of words which

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the eyes can take in one complete movement is called Eye-span. A skilled reader will read many words in each block. Thus speed reading helps to read and understand the written information more quickly. A poor reader, on the other hand, has shorter eye span and sometimes the eyes skip back to a previous block of words. Thus wider eye span helps to read 1. Number of words in each block: It is possible by—

2. Shorting duration of the fixation: It is possible by—

3. Reduction in backward movement of the eye: It is possible by— Running a pen /pencil along the line for smooth reading Efficient reading includes not only the ability of wider eye span but also the ability to comprehend the content. Ways to improve comprehension ability are as follows— words as complete whole. is because of tendency of our brain to seek the ‘meaningful whole’ i.e a child can be taught a long complicated meaningful word or phrase more readily than short individual abstract letter symbols.

Think!

Reading brings us in contact with the mind of great authors with the written account of their experiences made by them in various fields. Discuss.

Forms of Reading Skills There are four major forms of reading skills. These are explained below: 1. Word Attack Skills—These skills help to convert graphic symbols into intelligible language. It is also called decoding skills. It involves:

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For Example

2. Comprehension Skills—are the skills to use prior knowledge and to understand sense of what one reads. It helps to predict the correct word in phrases like “—girl and b—” “—chair and t—” “—husband and w—” Example:

This skill is based on—

3. Fluency Skills—are the skills which help to read the meaningful whole by reading large phrases. Example: To supply the correct words in phrases “—black and w—” It involves

4. Critical Skills—These skills help to analyze, evaluate and synthesize the content. Thus the reader has to establish the relationship of ideas and meaning. Example: Supply the correct word “Work hard otherwise you will f—” “If you throw it, it will b—” It involves

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Causes of Retardation in Reading Skill The various causes of retardation in reading skills are as follows—

Problems in Learning to Read English Language There are certain problems intrinsic to the learning of English. Table 17.1 highlights some of them. Table 17.1:

Problems and Possible Solutions to Learning English

Problems

Possible Solutions

The problem of unfamiliar sound

Pronunciations of the teacher should be fairly intelligible.

The problem of words

Teacher should proceed with the properly graded vocabulary in oral work.

The problem of structures

Teacher should not start the teaching of reading until the material has been grilled orally

The problem of scripts to left) teacher should try to remove these difficulties in the early stage. The problem of spelling

English spellings are illogical and irregular so the teacher should provide enough practice.

Interference from mother tongue

The teacher should provide enough reading practice.

The problem of contents or subject matter

Subject matter should be well selected and graded.

The problem of eye movement

The word method and the sentence method should be used instead of alphabetical method to increase eye span.

Physiological difficulties

Students who stammer while reading should concert to doctor.

Psychological difficulties

Some students feel nervous when they are asked to read. The teacher should behave sympathetically with the students.

Think!

Reading does not come automatically with the ability to speak but has to learnt carefully and methodically. Discuss.

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When to Start Reading? We should start the teaching of reading when:

the teacher.

Aims of Teaching Reading The major aims of teaching reading skills include the following:

movement

Skills involved in reading

Skills to be developed

Types of Reading There are four major forms of reading which are explained below—

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Loud reading—Reading with an audible voice is called loud reading. This type of reading is also known as oral reading.

Silent reading—Reading without producing any sound is called silent reading. It is regarded as the most important type of reading. Extensive reading—It is the view of Palmer (1964) that “extensive reading” is considered as being reading rapidly. The readers read books after books. Its attention is paid to the meaning of the text itself not the language. The purpose of extensive reading is for pleasure and information. Thus, extensive reading is also termed as “supplementary reading”.

Intensive reading—The work of Palmer (1921) notes that “intensive reading” means that the readers take a text, study it line by line, and refer at very moment to the dictionary about the grammar of the text itself. To sum up, we can conclude that all types of the reading are important because the main goal of reading is to comprehend the printed pages. The differences between the various types of reading are given in Table 17.2. Table 17.2: Loud reading

Silent reading

Objectives To read with correct To read with pronunciation To read with To read with comprehension comprehension To read with To read for expression expanding To read with practice vocabulary of speaking Procedure Step-1 Step 1 Teacher reading by asks the the teacher students to read the Step-2 reading by passage the students silently Step 2 Step-3 sion if the questions students are asked by the whispering teacher Step 3 nsion questions asked by the teacher

Intensive reading

Extensive reading

To increase vocabulary To understand the meaning of passage To develop reading habit To lay stress on the subject matter of the language Step 1 Introduction of Step-1 Introduction by the passage by the teacher the teacher Step-2 Silent reading by the students Step 2 by the teacher Step-3 questions asked Step 3 by the students by the teacher Explanation Step 4 of new words, Step-4 summarization phrases, sentences. To get command over English language To develop vocabulary To learn English language

Step 5

sion questions asked by the teacher Contd.

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speech

Saves time and money

Improvement in vocabulary

Assimilate the ideas given in the passage

pronunciation

reading

speech

in the class Increase vocabulary

imitation

classes Is used in public places.

learning grammar Forms the reading habit.

reading Is useful for self study

Wide course cannot be covered within limited time. Procedure is long and tedious.

primary classes Vocabulary of the students can not be improved

Merits

English with clarity Limitation Ignores comprehension and understanding. habitual of loud reading students are not checked

beginners. Ignores pronunciation and oral drill. Ignores correction work of a language

grammar systematically.

grammar systematically

source of pleasure

Reading Strategies The more that you read, the more things you will know. The more that you learn, the more places you’ll go. Reading habits can change the life. It helps to enrich the knowledge. Although the term reading habit sounds too mechanical to the skilled readers but these strategies can enhance the grasping power. These strategies enhance the reading process by increasing the quality and quantity of output obtained after reading. For making the students comprehensive readers, these strategies should be mastered at a nascent stage. The strategies that help students to read more quickly and effectively are—

Rapid surveying: It is also called pre-viewing. Before reading, students do a rapid survey on the reading material which is based on the following points:

Sampling It includes

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Skimming It includes

Search reading This type of reading is used for looking a single piece of information This involves

Selective reading It includes

Detailed study reading It is used for understanding the content in detail. This type of reading may be a part of your course work, research for a project or preparation for an exam.

Close reading It is used for artistic appreciation. In this type of reading, every word is studied in detail.

Rapid reading This type of reading is used to find out; ‘what happens next’.

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For example Reading a popular novel This type of reading is for pleasure and there is no need to pay attention to every word. Speed reading

Conclusion We should choose our own style of reading depending upon the purpose of reading. All the books are not read in the same way.

Techniques for Improving Reading Skills There are two techniques for improving reading skill.

1. SQ3R Method The SQ3R Reading Method Survey–Question–Read–Recite–Review Survey

Exploring the chapters Reading introductory paragraphs

Focus on important/relevant section Question

Ask yourself

3R-Read,Recite and Review Read Focus on the section which is important Contd.

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Try to read with understanding Re-read passages, which are not clear Summarize, what you have just read

Recite

Focus on the arrangement of the content Read the prepared notes

Review

2. Murder Scheme:

R stands for recall the material E stands for expanding knowledge R stands for review Mood

This keyword helps the reader to read the text

Understanding

This is the aim of reading It includes— Willingness or readiness to learn Establishing links between previous knowledge with the new knowledge

Recall

Repetition of important points again and again to store it in meaningful chunks. It is not possible by rote memory

Digesting a text It involves looking and digesting the new knowledge gained Expanding

Expansion of new knowledge by exploring more about that topic

Review

It involves— Preparation of notes Arranging the information in the order

Testing Reading Comprehension It is defined as the level of understanding out of a passage or text. Thus understanding is an essential part of the reading process. In this type of reading, concentration is on the subject matter. This type

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of reading is also called extensive reading or rapid reading. Before introducing this type of reading, it should be ensured that—

Reading can help

based on the present information

Value of Reading with Comprehension Intellectual value

It helps to understand the subject matter quickly It helps to develop in the reader a taste of reading book It helps to enhance vocabulary and sentence structures

Recreational value

It helps to develop the habit of reading for pleasure

questions The following learning experiences helps to develop comprehension ability

Conclusion We should concentrate all our attention on the students to make them more and more book minded. We should create in the real love for books and a good taste for reading. We wish to put them in possession of the power gaining pleasure and profit from the printed pages. Testing is a great tool in the assessment of student’s ability of comprehension as it provides an immediate feedback on the progress of the students. It includes cleverly constructed set of questions related to overall meaning of the text. Example: Read the passage carefully and answer the following questions—

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the payment of the money he lent with such severity that he was disliked by all good men. Antonio was another moneylender who lent money to people in distress and never took any interest for the money he lent. Therefore, there was great enmity between the greedy Shylock and generous Antonio. Whenever Antonio met Shylock, he abused him for hard dealing which the latter bore with seeming patience but he secretly thought of taking revenge on Antonio.

Summary Reading is a process in which a written or printed symbol is translated into an appropriate sound. Thus reading consists of three elements i.e. Symbol (written or printed), Sounds and Sense. Speed reading aims to improve reading skills by increasing the number of words read in each block, reducing the length of time spent reading each block and reducing the number of times your eyes skip back to a previous block. Word attack skills, , Fluency skills, are the kinds of reading skills. defective Examination system and the text books are not well graded. Reading. All types of the reading are important because the main goal of reading is to comprehend the printed pages. Effective language instructors show students how they can adjust their reading behaviour to deal with a variety of situations, types of input, and reading purposes. They help students develop a set of reading strategies and match appropriate strategies to each reading situation.

Terms to Remember Reading It is a multi-dimensional cognitive process of decoding symbols for the purpose of deriving meaning (reading comprehension) and/or constructing meaning. Word Attack Skills These are the ability to convert graphic symbols into intelligible language.

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Comprehension Skills to aid reading and to make sense of what one reads and hears.

context and prior knowledge

Fluency Skills Fluency skills are the ability to see larger segment and phrases as an aid to reading and writing more quickly. Critical Reading one reads. This ability helps to develop ideas and use them as an aid in reading.

synthesize what

Loud Reading Reading with an audible voice is called loud reading. This type of reading is also known as oral reading. Silent Reading Reading without producing any sound is called silent reading. It is regarded as the most important type of reading. Extensive Reading Extensive reading is considered as being reading rapidly. The purpose of extensive reading is for pleasure and information. Thus, extensive reading is also termed as “supplementary reading”. Intensive Reading Intensive reading means that the readers take a text, study it line by line, and refer at very moment to the dictionary about the grammar of the text itself.

Exercises Short Answer Questions

3. Write the ways of improving listening skill.

Long Answer Questions

Note: Additional resources related to this chapter are available at www.mhhe.com/navita_arora

18

Development of Writing Skills

… everything in life is writable about if you have the outgoing guts to do it, and the imagination to improvise

— Sylvia Plath Inside This Chapter Introduction Development of Writing Abilities Teaching Writing Skills Writing as a Process Assessment of Writing The Conventions of Writing Spelling, Punctuation and Capitalization Conclusion

Learning Objectives This chapter will enable the reader to:

INTRODUCTION Skills that enable an individual to write coherently and lucidly can be defined as writing skills. As a skill, writing might be more difficult than it seems. Often writing turns out to be the most difficult activity even for the native speakers of a language since it not only involves a graphic representation of speech but also requires development and presentation of thoughts in a structured way.

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DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING ABILITIES As Sylvia Plath says, “…imagination to improvise”, writing as a skill involves the power of imagination and thereby the students gain control over their thoughts. Their thoughts and imagination help them to pursue the skill of writing which in turn shapes not only their perception of themselves but also the world surrounding them. Writing also aids in their personal growth. Students are often unaware of the power of the written word, yet the written word: …enables the writer, perhaps for the first time, to sense the power of… language to affect another. Through using, selecting and rejecting, arranging and rearranging language, the student comes to understand how language is used.

Teaching Writing Skills In order to master the art of writing, students need concentration, instruction, practice, and patience. The teacher’s mandate is to assist the students to gain control over written word. Students should:

Think!

Writing is a tool which enables us to express what is in your mind. Discuss.

Teaching Learning Strategies A teacher of English may adapt the following strategies while teaching writing skills as given in Table 18.1. Table 18.1:

Teaching-Learning Strategies

Teaching-Learning Strategies

Teacher-Guided

Student Empowerment

Specific Strategies

Before Considering the purpose and audience Planning

Before Before Purpose and audience Topic Planning of organization of ideas During During During Introduction of the topic Discussion with the students Development of the topic Selection of best words Conclusion of the topic

Contd.

Development of Writing Skills

Revising

Revising

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Revising

CONVENTIONS OF WRITING Language is used as a means of communication in both speech and writing. Writing is not only material already learnt. Neat and legible writing is important. Students must be taught how to

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Sentence structure Word choice Language usage Spelling Punctuation and Capitalization

1. Form It is the basis of all writing. During writing, ideas are organized in a systematic way. Students understand the range of writing forms, if instructions are clear.

Prose form The following are the range of prose forms: Description

Paragraph, essay, sketch

Narration

Paragraph, essay, story, biography, autobiography Paragraph, essay, article, newspaper column, report

Persuasion

Paragraph, essay, letter to the editor, review

In prose forms, the basic unit is the paragraph but students should learn the basic elements of paragraph which are as follows— All the sentences should be arranged in chronological and logical order. Organization of sentences should be according to the purpose. All the sentences should have meaningful relationship with each other.

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Various forms of paragraph Story form Headline Details of the summary

Description paragraph Topic Details that lead to main impression Summary or concluding sentence

Narration paragraph Title Details increasing in importance

Exposition paragraph Topic sentence Details or main idea in chronological order Conclusion

Persuasion paragraph Topic sentence Details or main idea arranged in a persuasive order (leaving the most persuasive reason until last). Conclusion

Essay: An essay is a prose form which usually begins with introductory paragraph stating the topic. A body of one or more paragraphs provides the supporting ideas and the last is the concluding paragraph that sums up the evidence presented in the body of the essay. Format of the essay Introductory paragraph Body of paragraphs which provide supporting details Concluding paragraph

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Poem: Lyrical poems

Includes free verse, songs, odes, sonnets

Narrative poems Includes ballads, epics Dramatic poems Includes monologues, soliloques, dialogues

2. Sentence Structure the basic parts of a sentence can be combined and arranged in countless ways. Discussing sentence structures with students can—

Pattern of sentences The following are the various patterns of the sentences. Ritu sleeps I like mango He is lazy She is here He is my dad

Sentence error: Writing requires an understanding of certain sentence conventions. It demands possible in an appropriate order. Common errors of the students’ are—

So teachers should use student samples to explain and clarify problems related to sentence pattern.

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3. Word Choice Writing is a series of choice. As you work on paper, you choose the topic, approach and source.

On the left side there are some phrases that use 3 or 4 words while on the right are some shorter substitute. She is of the opinion that

She thinks that

During the course of

During

Regardless of the fact that

Although

In all cases

Always

Due to the fact that

Because

In academic writing, students should learn to recognize clichés and try to avoid them because

Last but not the least

Last

Dead as doornail

Dead

Agree to disagree

Disagree

Thesaurus should be used carefully. Each word listed as synonym has its own connotations or shades of meaning Simple words should be used to communicate the information clearly Written words should make sense to both you and the reader. So read out your paper loud at a slow pace.

4. Language Usage words and structures in both speaking and writing. and correctly used.” Yet there are no hard and fast rules of language usage but there are ranges of audience. So the following points should be kept in mind Students should be sensitive to the situations. So teachers should give students various

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For example Suppose your family car meets an accident. You were in charge of it when the accident happened. Three different audience are interested in your short written account of the incident.

Students should understand the range of appropriateness found in the language as language differ according to the writer and the purpose. For example Causal

Conversation

Informal

Class discussions Lecture or technical report

Students should learn standard usage of language. They should understand that even standard English allows a variety of acceptable speech.

5. Spelling adds to or subtracts from its status. makes it pathetic or ridiculous. If spelling is too bad, a message may become incomprehensible or even misleading. The teacher should, therefore, make concerted efforts to instill in each student the desire to spell correctly in all subject matter areas.

Checking a word visually Asking a good speller Spell check program on computer Students can become effective spellers by Checking their own writing carefully Keeping a list of their own demons and preparing a list noting sound alike (e.g their/there/

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pronounced words) by mnemonic. Principle is a rule and principal is a person.

6. Punctuation and Capitalization Punctuation: is the system of symbol that are used to separate sentences and parts of sentences to make their meaning clear. Each symbol is called “punctuation marks”. The purpose of punctuation is to help the reader understand the meaning of the writer. For example Look at these three sentences “Reena is there now” “Reena is there now?” “Reena is there now!” All the above three sentences convey different meaning. So the variations in punctuation may result in differences in meaning, lack of meaning, or different emphasis. Students need to know the basic functions of punctuation marks and their use in writing.

Capitalization: is the writing of a word with its first letter as an upper case and the remaining letters in lower case. A new sentence, a title, a name, a day, a month, a place, a holiday season, a direction, a school subject or a language should begin with the capital letter. Students can learn to punctuate and capitalize by—

Conclusion

HANDWRITING Penmanship or handwriting is the art of writing with the hand and a writing instrument. Styles of handwriting are also called hands or scripts.

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Mechanics of Writing The mechanics of writing are the rules to be followed so that the format becomes systematic. It also specify how words should be selected. It aims to make writing precise and grammatically correct.

Think!

Illegible handwriting of an individual is a sign of untidy and careless mind. Elucidate.

The goal of mechanics of writing is to make the writing precise and grammatically correct. It is directed to make the writing systematic and being concerned about how to be correct in spelling, punctuation, italics and so on. The mechanics of writing are the rules that must be followed so that the format becomes systematic and consistent in all academic sectors. The mechanics of writing specify how words should be used when printed, whereas grammar their relationships within a sentence.

1. Spelling:—Spelling should be consistent, clean and correct in the written work. The spelling in quotation must be the original whether correct or incorrect. If we have to divide any words, we should not do so at the end of the line. If the word does not fit there, we should leave the 2. Punctuation:—The purpose of punctuation is to bring clarity in writing and to make it comprehensible. Punctuation clarifies sentence structure, separating some words and grouping others. It adds meaning to written words and guides for readers to understand as they move through sentences. Commas, full stops, semicolons, colons, dashes and parenthesis, hyphens, one should take account of all these marks while writing. 3. Italics (underlining):—In research papers and manuscripts submitted for publication, words that would be italicized in print are usually underlined. In general we should underline foreign always italicized. 4. Names of Persons:—

Researcher must not use formal titles in referring to men as women, living or dead, such as Prof. Devkota, Dr. Sangita. Instead of it, the researcher should only write Devkota, Sangita and so on.

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5. Titles of Works:—Title of the publication works should be cited from the title page not from the cover page.

pamphlets, periodicals, films, radio and television programs etcetera should be underlined if hand written or italicized if printed in the research paper. Titles of the names of articles, essays, short stories, short poems, chapters of book and so on should be put with in quotation marks. The same is for the case of unpublished work, such as lectures and speeches. 6. Quotations:—Only the most important words, phrases, lines and passages should be quoted 7. Capitalization:—Writers tend to err on the side of too much capitalization. The chief reason to capitalize a word is that it is proper—not because the word has greater status than other words. A proper noun identifies a specific member of a class, whereas a common noun denotes (a particular member of a class) was a king of England (the class itself).

How to Improve Your Handwriting

Don’ts

Things you’ll need

Think!

Fair and legible handwriting makes a man perfect in all walks of life.

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TEACHING HANDWRITING English has adopted the Roman script as its script. The following are some of the features of the Roman script which may cause students difficulty if their languages use a different writing system.

1. Left to Right Direction:— Sindhi, Baluchi, and so on, with a variety of dialects, covering millions of speakers, use the right to to bottom direction. Thus, there is a need for you to make this distinction clear to your students from the beginning and remind them constantly of it. They will have some initial difficulty.

2. Writing on the Line:— students to learn which letters go above and which go below. You may demonstrate this from the beginning by drawing lines on the blackboard.

3. Shape and Size of Letters in the Handwritten Form:—Students

may find it difficult to form the basic shape of some letters. They may have some difficulty in distinguishing between the shapes of some letters. Before they practice learning any letter, give them some practice with curvy lines which closely resemble i, u, l and t. What is the distinction between o, p, b, and d? What is the distinction between p, g, and q? What is the distinction between l and t? What is the distinction between n and m? What is the distinction between l and k? What is the distinction between u, v, and w? What is the distinction between y and g?

4. Hand Movements:— the hand while writing the same. This conventional way must be taught, and students should be helps in joining letters and in gaining a good speed in writing.

5. Capital Letters:— of a few letters, capital letters and their corresponding small lower case letters are quite distinct from each other. As a result, the second or foreign language learners of English must be taught to recognize the capital and small letters. The first word of a sentence in English must begin with a capital letter. Some words such as I must be written only in a capital letter whether it occurs in the beginning or middle or end of a sentence. Proper names must begin with a capital letter. There are several such important conventions which require the second/foreign language learner to master the use and writing of capital letters. Hand movements for the capital letters are different from the hand

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movements used for writing small, lower case letters. Students need to practice using capital letters by writing their own names and the names of towns, countries, months, etc.

6. Small/Lower Case Letters:— small/lower case letters. By far these letters are more frequently used than the capital letters. Once again, the small letters form a set by themselves. The main focus of teaching the script revolves around the mastery of recognizing, writing small letters and associating them with their sound or sounds.

7. Joining Letters:—Conventional way of writing letters in English is to join them within movements conducive to joining. There are several combinations of letters which are more frequent the combinations found in words such as scythe and shotgun. A traditional way to teach joining is to ask students to join all the 26 letters of the alphabet. Students were asked to write the model provided by the teacher many times, so that the students mastered the joining process. These days individual words are given to students and while they copy the word, they learn the letter joining process as well. Remember that it is important to show clearly how we make joins from the end of follow the following model steps: Write c and h separately on the board. Point to where c ends and h begins and draw a line joining them. Then draw the joined letters several times, and describe the shape… then up to the top of the h, then down…. Ask students to copy the joined letters several

8. There are Three Styles of Handwriting:— In printing, we keep the letters separate, and they look the same as in printed books.

9. In Simple Cursive: maintained. I understand that in Britain most children learn this style, and most adults use it.

10. In Full Cursive:—All the letters are joined, and many have different shapes from printing. 11. Italics:—Is another style used in printing for achieving certain effects. This style or convention also needs to be learned by the second or foreign language learner. 12. Ornamental Writing:—It is hardly practiced these days. However, it continues to be used in the titles of movies, mastheads of newspapers, in degree certificates and so on.

Development of Writing Skills

Think!

249

What kind of a script of English should be adopted to teach beginners? Give reasoned answer.

Relation among Skills forms and functions.

According to Widdowson “Nothing is to be spoken before it has been heard Nothing is to be read before it has been spoken Nothing is to be written before it has been read” Therefore we should follow the perfect order of mastering skills i.e., Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing

Summary Writing is the productive skill in the written mode. Since it involves not just a graphic representation of speech, but the development and presentation of thoughts in a structured way. Writing is a powerful instrument of thinking because it provides students with a way of gaining control over their thoughts. Writing shapes their perceptions of themselves and the world. In order to become empowered in writing, students need concentration, instruction, practice, and patience. Topics can come from teachers but students also need to develop the skill of using their The writing process usually culminates in sharing and presenting. Publishing in its broadest sense, means “making public” or sharing with others. Students should be given the opportunity to choose pieces of writing they wish to have presented. The ways of presenting student writing are numerous: shared reading, bulletin board, individual books, class/school/city newspapers, student anthologies, or literary contests.

own thoughts and feelings informally. They use the transactional mode to report, inform, place in a balanced writing program.

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Effective writers can communicate clearly with a careful choice of words. Although good word choice is partly a matter of preference, and therefore style, students should understand that certain choices will help them communicate their ideas to their readers. Spelling plays an important role in communicating through the written word. Students need to realize that spelling errors detract from their overall message and that society, in general, is less tolerant of poor spelling than of any other problems with language.

Terms to Remember Writing A skill that enables an individual to write coherently. Drafting This activity enables the learner to master the art of writing gradually. Revising

This activity helps students to modify errors and mistakes in writing.

Editing Editing helps in correcting written documents. Proofreading

The final stage, the process of proofreading helps eradicate simple errors.

Exercises Short Answer Questions (word limit 150) 1. What are the characteristics of good handwriting? 2. Suggest two ways for the improvement of handwriting of school going children. 4. What are the causes of bad handwriting?

Long Answer Questions (word limit 1000) 2. When should writing be introduced? What are the initial difficulties in the way of teaching handwriting? How will you overcome them? 3. What are the essentials of good handwriting? How will you proceed to improve the writing of your students?

Note: Additional resources related to this chapter are available at www.mhhe.com/navita_arora

19

Extracurricular Activities Related to English What we learn to do, we learn by doing

— Thomas Jefferson Inside This Chapter Introduction Role of Extra-curricular Activities in a Student’s Life Language Games Quiz Debate Group Discussions Skills

Learning Objectives This chapter will enable the reader to:

INTRODUCTION An extracurricular activity is defined as a out-of-class activity, which provides additional curriculum-related learning and character-building experiences. Extracurricular activities are

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usually voluntary as opposed to mandatory scholastic activities. It is the intent of the educational institutions which encourage academic effort and achievement by students. Most of the educational institutions in various different parts of the world facilitate these activities for school and college students. Faculty is mostly involved in organizing and directing these activities. Extracurricular activities exist at all levels of education.

EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES RELATED TO ENGLISH Teaching English is no exception to this rule. Some of the extracurricular activities related to English are listed below:

Objectives The major objectives of the activities related to English are as follows:—

Importance of Extracurricular Activities in a Student’s Life Extracurricular activities play a pivotal role in the all-round development in a student’s life. The following points emphasize its benefits:

cooperation, leadership, diligence, punctuality and team-spirit.

others, they acquire a sense of responsibility.

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hands-on training to prepare students for the outside world.

Think!

A few students are study minded, can they be motivated to take part in activities? Discuss.

LANGUAGE GAMES ‘Games encourage, entertain, teach, and promote fluency. If not for any of these reasons, they should be used just because they help students see beauty in a foreign language and not just problems that at times seem overwhelming.’ nuances of the language. In recent years, language researchers and practitioners have shifted

experienced writers and teachers have argued that games have far-reaching educational values and they are not merely fun-filled activities. Practice of several language games help in sharpening all These games offer students a fun-filled and relaxing learning atmosphere. After learning and practicing new vocabulary, students have the opportunity to use language in a non-stressful way while playing games; the learners’ attention lies on the message, not on the language. Rather than paying attention to the correctness of linguistic forms, most participants will do all they can to win. This eases the fear of negative evaluation, the concern of being negatively judged in public, which is one of the main factors inhibiting language learners from using the target language in front of audience. In a game-oriented context, anxiety is reduced and speech fluency is generated. Thus, communicative competence is achieved.

Aims of Language Games Aim of all language games is to “use the language”. However, during a game play learners also use the target language to persuade and negotiate their way to get desired results. This process involves

Why use Game-based Learning?

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When to use Games

lesson, provided that they are suitable and carefully chosen. entertaining way. Even if these games resulted only in noise, chaos and entertained students, they are still worth paying attention to and implementing in the classroom since they motivate learners, promote communicative competence and generate language fluency.

Think!

Some students are very interested in co-curricular activities, can they be controlled? Discuss.

Why use Games During Classes? interact with their environment. the target language. For many children, who are between 4 and 12 years old, especially the youngest,

target language to life.

aware they are studying; thus without stress, they can learn a lot.

How to Choose Games? A game must be more than just fun. A game should involve “friendly” competition. A game should encourage students to focus on the use of language rather than on the language itself. A game should give students a chance to learn, practice, or review specific language material.

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General Benefits of Games The general benefits of the games are listed below:

Affective

Cognitive

Class dynamics

Adaptability

Think!

Extra-curricular activities help in the all-round development of a student’s personality

Examples of Language Games GAME 1 Plurals Objectives To investigate and identify basic rules for changing the spelling of nouns when singular is converted into plural. Contd.

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1. Box

_______________

2.

_______________

3. Inch

_______________

4. Baby

_______________

5.

_______________

6.

_______________

7.

_______________

Contd.

Extracurricular Activities Related to English

8. Shoe

_______________

9. Bell

_______________

10. Key

_______________

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GAME 2 ‘Nice’ is not a ‘Nice’ Word Choose a better word to complete these sentences. One _______ day we decided to go out to the beach. Tennis is _______ to watch. “That is a _______ dress you are wearing,” said mum. Star Wars is a _______ film to watch. Everyone was very _______ on my first day of school. The view was _______ over the mountains. The orchestra was very _______ at the concert.

GAME 3 Plurals Objective To investigate, collect and classify spelling patterns in pluralization, construct rules for regular

Contd.

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1.

Bus ________________

2.

Jelly _______________

3.

Fox ________________

4.

House ______________

5.

6.

Contd.

Extracurricular Activities Related to English

7.

Balloon _____________

8.

Baby _______________

9.

Meal _______________

10.

Party _______________

GAME 4 Broken Sentences Matching Exercise Choose words on the right to finish the sentences on the left. Match accordingly. I go to the gym club

care of their health

Julie seldom wears jeans

a holiday abroad

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GAME 5 Crossword Animals Find the words below in the grid.

S

O

R

E

C

O

N

I

H

R

T

E

S

R

O

H

T

P

B

E

A

R

A

E

F

F

A

R

I

N

T

P

C

R

F

R

T

N

A

I

O

N

O

E

A

N

Y

N

H

T

K

O

P

H

B

E

P

E

E

Y

E

M

R

Y

C

M

N

C

T

C

E E

O

N

H T

Y

E

E

E

M

K

R

N

U

N

M

M

A

O

P

Y

N

K

O

N

A

T

C

B

B

H

F O H

antelope

elephant

bear

giraffe

mule

cat

goat

panther

cow

horse

rhinoceros

dog

hyena

tiger

lion

wolf

GAME 6 Jumbled Words Mixed-up sentence exercise. Arrange the words onto a line to form a correct sentence.

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GAME 7 Missing Preposition Fill in the Blanks with Suitable Prepositions My name is Maria and I come __________ Spain. I am studying English __________ a

me. My neighbour’s brother is married __________ a Spanish girl. I go __________ the cinema quite often-it depends __________ the film. I’m also interested __________ art, so I often visit fun __________ my accent. Perhaps my English is improving!

Think!

Without financial help is it possible to conduct co-curricular activities on the school? How?

Conclusion The experience of teachers can be utilized to create competition for our students. This process has of using their English during game play. The competition gave students a natural opportunity to

And finally, the competition stimulated their interest in language. If not for any of these reasons; they should be used just because they help students see beauty in a language and not just problems that at times seem overwhelming.

Definition of Quiz

The English Language Quiz Quiz 1

Contd.

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3. Majority of English words fall into a small number of types of words. These are called word classes. Name the word classes in this table. The first one has been done for you. Type of Word

Word Class

Example

1. A word which names

1. noun

Petal

2. A word which describes

2.

Pretty

3. A word which describes an action

3.

Push

4. A word which adds information about verbs

4.

smoothly

5. A word which connects parts of speech

5.

And

6. A word which replaces a noun

6.

I

7. A word which indicates relationships

7.

before

8.

The

Answers 1. More than 2 million! 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

2. 2700

adjective verb adverb conjunction pronoun preposition articles

Quiz 2 Adjective or Adverb? Choose the appropriate adjective or adverb to complete the sentences. Q. 1 She played _____ . beautiful beautifuly Q. 2 The TV’s far too _____ . loud loudly Q. 3 She speaks so very _____ .

beautifully Either could be used here.

Contd.

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263

Q. 4 She’s a _____ learner. Q. 5 I know them quite _____ . good well Either could be used here. Q. 6 Check your work _____ . careful carefuly carefully Q. 7 I’ve been having a lot of headaches _____ . late lately Q. 8 He’s a _____ actor. terrible terribly Q. 9 He should pass the test _____ . easy easily Q. 10 He’s really lazy and _____ tries. hard hardly Either could be used here. Q. 11 The newspapers were very _____ of the scheme. critical critically Q. 12 He’s _____ ill. critical critically Q. 13 I do not _____ agree with you. full fuly fully Q. 14 I was _____ shocked. complete completely Q. 15 It was a _____ mess. complete completely Q. 16 They messed things up _____ . complete completely Q. 17 It was a _____ day for us all. sad sadly

Quiz 3 Preposition

Contd.

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2. Be careful. You’re going to fall __________ the chair! 3. I’ll meet you __________ the cinema. 4. The fire-fighters were called because the building was __________ fire.

6. The ceremony is __________ the 4th of July. 7. Yesterday we watched a film __________ television. 8. Julie was so upset, she burst __________ tears.

DEBATE This has been one of my activity for language learning because it engages students in a variety of cognitive and linguistic

reflection on the validity of one’s ideas.

Some Debate Series students. Television Plays a Positive Role in Society.

Argument For

Argument Against

Students should have a Part-time Job.

Argument For

Argument Against

Argument For

Argument Against Contd.

Extracurricular Activities Related to English

Housing Reform has Become Necessary. Fashion Contributes to Society.

Argument For

Argument Against

Argument For

Argument Against

Argument For

Argument Against

Argument For

Argument Against

Argument For

Argument Against

Argument For

Argument Against

Argument For

Argument Against

265

Advantages of Debate and active involvement required by all students. Moreover, it provides an experience by which students can develop competencies in researching current issues, preparing logical arguments, actively listening to various perspectives, differentiating between subjective and evidence-based opinions based on evidence. After the debate is over, students also report that the experience is FUN!

GROUP DISCUSSION SKILLS

that we can help our students develop to become better able to contribute effectively to group discussions.

Why Teach Group Discussion Skills? in multiple discussions with friends, family and colleagues. These may vary in topic and style. You may have very informal chats about day-to-day things, to more serious topics, for example a discussion about a recent news story or a problem that needs to be solved.

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remain very similar.

all students.

Types of Discussion There are a variety of different types of discussions that occur naturally and which we can recreate in the classroom. These include discussions where the participants have to: Make decisions Give and/or share their opinions on a given topic Create something

Some discussion topics may fall into more than one of these categories, but it is useful to consider

Useful Sub-Skills for Students

Analyse:— can then swap their notes and assess or analyse the relevance of each of the sub-topics their partner has included. Together, the students then draw up a fresh list and discuss how the sub-topics might

Persuade:—

members of the group that their selection is the best while compiling a second level of negotiated list. The group members who retain the most from their original lists are the winners. Note down for future reference.

Control emotions:—Students can practice how to control emotions by giving the students a

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267

Support:— an effort to get their point across and forget to listen.

do not understand the point he or she has made’. You can then give them or elicit a list of phrases which they might use to interrupt politely

middle of the table. The other students in the group judge whether the interruption was appropriate

Use Functional Language draw up a list of useful functional language for the students to refer to. This could include phrases

group discussion, you can then refer them to the appropriate section of the list and give them a few moments to consider the language before beginning the discussion.

Conducting Group Discussions group discussions in the classroom to ensure that they run successfully.

functional language that they might find useful which you are confident your students will find interesting starting point Ensure a balance between input and practice variety of styles or types of activity

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Vary Group Size and Procedure Some companies do selection group discussions with very large groups of people—over ten in some cases. If your students will be facing these types of group discussions in the

Encourage Group Discussions outside Class Time perform in group discussions outside of class.

Giving and Encouraging Feedback

the group discussion they discuss how effective each of the participants was during the discussion. Again, giving them some focused questions to guide this stage will help them. the class to analyse. Some students find this extremely useful. individual performances. Keeping a record of these will help you and the students to see where they have improved.

Topics of Group Discussion  There are roughly four types of group discussion topics:

Factual topics for a group are, as the word says, about facts. This is a sample list of speech topics on current issues and facts: 1. The pros and cons of having a credit card. 2. A chain gang is a modern form of slavery.

A controversial group discussion topic is a speech topic that has many controversies, pros and cons. Keep in mind that all current group discussion topics are not my opinion, but just a sample list of speech topics!

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269

2. The pros and cons of a female President. 3. Online dating chats have nothing to do with a search for a soul mate. Abstract group discussion topics are things that cannot be easily defined or formulated. Teachers

2. The Hippocratic Oath 3. Political Correctness The fourth type of group discussion on selected topics is so-called case studies. You determine a problem and together with the other group members you have to find a satisfying solution. These are small group discussion topic ideas. Just modify and alter where necessary, these are just guiding light topic ideas:

Conclusion As we have seen, group discussions can be designed in a variety of formats and are useful for practice simply to increase fluency. Students can also be prepared for extempore or free speech. involved in participating in a group discussion and ensure that you do activities that address each to identify areas for improvement.

Summary According to modern-day academicians, curriculum is not only about teaching and learning in classroom. Extra-curricular activities are a must in today’s curriculum. These so on.

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The various extra-curricular activities related to English can be, English calligraphy, Solo

otivates students to learn, immerses them in the Through playing games, students can learn English the way children learn their mother tongue without being aware they are studying.

Terms to Remember Extra-curricular Activities Activities performed by students outside the realm of their academic curriculum are referred to as extra-curricular activities. Language Games These refer to activities surrounding English teaching such as debates, quizzes and so on.

Exercises Short Answer Questions

Long Answer Questions

20

Remedial Teaching in English

“If the child is not learning the way you are teaching, then you must teach in the way the child learns.”

— Rita Dunn Inside This Chapter Introduction Concept of Diagnostic Testing Concept of Remedial Teaching Characteristics of Remedial Teaching Need for Remedial Teaching The Process of Remedial Teaching

Learning Objectives This chapter will enable the reader to:

English as a Second Language in India Types of Errors Remedial Teaching for Correctness of Errors Remedial Worksheets

INTRODUCTION Learning a language is a complex activity. It is more complex in case of English because it is a foreign language. It involves skills like speaking, listening, reading and writing. These skills, moreover, consist of many sub-skills. As a matter of fact, learning of English is a continuous process i.e., learning and mastering of one structural item serves as the foundation for

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further learning. Therefore, each layer of learning should be strong and long-lasting. Then only, learning of English will be good. However, with the passage of time and due to the law of disuse, students tend to forget some of their lessons whereas sometimes some concepts remain unclear. These often adversely affect future learning. Some students may not make satisfactory progress. It is the teacher’s duty to detect the weakness and then explain the concept accordingly. It is for this purpose, diagnostic teaching and remedial teaching were introduced.

DIAGNOSTIC TESTING The term ‘diagnosis’ means identification of diseases from the symptoms. The teacher, like the physician, uses test instruments to obtain scientific and definite proof for better diagnosis of students’ difficulties in learning. Therefore, diagnostic tests can be defined as the tests which provide a detailed picture of strengths and weaknesses in the areas of students’ learning. These tests are instruments to find out gaps in their learning.

Administration of Diagnostic Tests Administration of diagnostic tests is similar to that of administration of unit tests and achievement tests. However, some precautions must be taken which are listed below.

(a) Introduction by the teacher:—The purpose of the diagnostic test should be clarified to the students.

(b) Proper instructions to students:—Proper instructions regarding the method of answering the questions should be given.

(c) Time limit:—Generally, no time limit is prescribed for diagnostic tests so that each pupil works at his own speed.

Need and Utility of Diagnostic Testing Diagnostic tests are useful to the teachers of English for many reasons. They help the teachers to– (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

Identify students who make slow progress in English language learning Identify the causes of slow progress among students Locate specific weaknesses in an area of English learning Identify the specific areas which need remediation Ascertain the basis for planning remedial teaching in an area of linguistic skills Provide proper feedback to students Place the students properly in the learning process of English

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273

(h) Hasten the process of English language learning (i) Heighten the efficiency of teaching learning process (j) Modify and adjust methods of providing learning experiences.

REMEDIAL TEACHING ‘To remedy’ means to cure against a defect. Therefore, remedial teaching is providing instructional correctiveness. It is a process of filling in the gaps in the process of learning, a process of removing distortions that have crept into students’ learning. It is a type of instruction through which errors are corrected and repetition of earlier flows is prevented. To sum up, it is an instructional effort to upgrade underachievers by remedying their errors. Diagnostic testing and remedial teaching go hand in hand. One cannot exist without the other.

Characterstics of Remedial Teaching The major characteristics of remedial teaching are enlisted below. Remedial teaching involves

Topic 1 Practical exercises of remedial teaching are the panacea of ailments in the teaching of English. Discuss

Objectives of Remedial Teaching

performance. and needs. relationship, communication skills, problem-solving, self-management, self-learning, independent thinking, creativity and the use of information technology.

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Need of Remedial Teaching Various uses of remedial teachings are given below.

which there is homogeneity in the class. Topic 2 Justify the statement “Remedial teaching aims at improving the standard of teaching English language.”

The Process of Remedial Teaching The process of remedial teaching can be explained with the help of Fig. 20.1.

Significance of Remedial Teaching

learning by providing supplementary information throughout the course of study.

as well as among the students during the teaching process. of students’ individual needs, their performances in class and difficulties encountered while learning.

education. other, so that teaching effectiveness can be further enhanced.

aids, tasks and worksheets and so on.

Remedial Teaching in English

Fig. 20.1 Process of remedial teaching

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English Language Teaching

ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE IN INDIA English is spoken as a second language in many countries. If a language is used for limited purposes like trade and commerce, travel etc., it is considered to be a foreign language. If it is used for other purposes than these such as, education, media etc., it is considered as the second language in a country. Second language refers to the language acquired or learned subsequent to the first language.

COMMON ERRORS COMMITTED BY LEARNERS One of the most troubling aspects of learning English as a second language in India is, the number and kinds of errors committed by Indian students, in spite of the fact that English is learned for almost more than half a century in Indian schools. The word error is derived from the Latin word ‘errare’ meaning, to wander. Nelson Brooks writes in his book Language and Language Learning, “Like sin, error has to be avoided and its influence overcomes; But its presence is to be expected”.

Types of Errors Errors of competence are caused by the application of the rules of the target language wrongly, and the errors of performance are the result of repeatedly committed mistakes while using a language. In addition to this, there is another problem for students of English which is the lack of correspondence between the spelling and the sound. This problem results in wrong pronunciation. Errors in pronunciation occur mainly due to the interference of the vernacular. This is also called as the negative transfer. This happens when the target language and the learner’s vernacular are different from each other. Students use the sounds of the vernacular instead of those of the (e.g.,children, equipments etc.)

The Contrastive Analysis Hypotheses (CAH) while learning a second language. This method is nothing but comparing students L1 and L2 to analyse possible difficulties that a learner might encounter in L2 learning situation. This is mainly because of the differences in the linguistic structures of these two languages. Hindi does not have word-initial consonants like sk, st, and s. As a result, students who have Hindi as their mother

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277

tongue make mistakes in learning such clusters. That is why they say ‘mishtake’ instead of the word ‘mistake’ and they pronounce the word ‘school’ as ‘iskuul’. L1 and the L2 should help us correct the inaccuracies of the students. This might act as a probable solution to this problem. Even the native speakers make mistakes. These mistakes are very common. For example, a native speaker of English may use certain words like ‘the’, ‘well’, ‘then’ etc. repeatedly. There are many lapses and slips in a native speaker’s speech as well as writing.

Remedial Teaching for Correctness of Errors Remedial treatment is necessary to avoid the learner’s errors, but all errors may not need the same remedial treatment. The errors due to carelessness should be tackled with individual care. The best way to correct the learner’s errors is to let him correct his own errors with the teacher’s help and the second best way is to let one of his peers correct his error. The teacher can supervise and observe the students who are correcting the errors. Self-correction, peer-correction and then the teachercorrection is the best method of evaluation.

she may have an idea of the common errors. A common practice among most of the teachers is to use some set of symbols in the student’s notebook to denote the type of error; e.g. Sp for denoting spelling error; w for wrong word; gr for grammatical error; p for error in punctuation and ? for something is missing. A teacher can use as many symbols as possible, which should be understood by the students and the teacher has to use them consistently. Students make very few errors in grammar in the early classes because most of the time they imitate the teacher’s sentences. sound alike, but have quite different meanings. Such words are very easy to confuse and the teacher has to explain the difference between these words and should ask the students to pronounce these words, so that they can understand the difference. Errors in pronunciation can be rectified easily. A good pronunciation dictionary can be prescribed. Tongue twister sentences like ‘She sells sea shells on the sea shore’; ‘Purple, Paper, People’ etc., can be given to the students, to improve their pronunciation. Remedial teaching can become monotonous after a certain point. In order to break the monotony,

classroom activities like turn coat, just a minute and one-minute speech should be given to improve their speaking skills. These activities will also help the students to get rid of their nervousness. especially come from rural areas, think that learning English is a difficult task. It is the duty of a teacher to encourage the students; they should counsel them to bring a change in their attitude.

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Summary Learning English is a continuous process i.e., learning and mastering of one structural item serves as the foundation for further learning. Therefore, each layer of learning should be strong and long-lasting. Sometimes, some concepts are not correctly and fully understood. All these drawbacks create obstacles in the process of future learning. In a class, there may be some students who do not seem to make satisfactory progress while learning English. The teacher, like the physician, uses test instruments to obtain scientific and definite proof for making better diagnosis of students’ difficulties in learning. Remedial teaching is a process of filling the gaps in the previous learning, a process of removing distortions that have crept into students’ learning and it provides reinforcement to the students for future learning. It facilitates teaching and the provision of individual guidance. One of the most troubling aspects of learning English as a second language in India is the number and kinds of errors committed by Indian students. Errors are the result of partial knowledge of the system that is learned over a period of time. The errors due to carelessness should be tackled with individual care. A teacher can plan remedial teaching encourage the learners; they should counsel them to bring a change in their attitude.

Terms to Remember Diagnostic Tests The tests which provide a detailed picture of strengths and weaknesses in the areas of pupils’ learning. These tests are instruments to find out gaps in their learning. Remedial Teaching The teaching through which errors are corrected and repetition of earlier flows is prevented.

Exercises Short Answer Questions (word limit 150)

3. Explain the process of Remedial Teaching. 5. Prepare a remedial worksheet for improving pronunciation.

Remedial Teaching in English

Long Answer Questions (word limit 1000) 1. Explain the concept of remedial teaching in detail. 3. Explain the concept of remedial teaching in detail.

Note: Additional resources related to this chapter are available at www.mhhe.com/navita_arora

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21

Evaluation

“Evaluation is a process of gathering and interpreting evidence on change in the behaviour of all students as they progress through school.”

— Hanna Inside This Chapter Introduction of Evaluation Concept of Test Concept of Examination

Learning Objectives This chapter will enable the reader to:

Characteristics of Evaluation Importance of Evaluation Steps of Evaluation Purpose and Functions of Evaluation Types of Evaluation Principles of Evaluation

INTRODUCTION There are various ways of assessing and evaluating how a teacher teaches and what students learn. Testing, examination, measurement and evaluation are the three popularly used words that signify the process of assessing or grading students’ performance in examinations. Evaluation is a systematic determination of merit, worth and significance of a course or textbook using a set standard criteria.

Test, Examination, Measurement and Evaluation Test, examination, measurement and evaluation are some of the ways adopted for assessing both teachers and students alike. These are explained below in details.

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281

TEST The word test is derived from the Latin word testum which means an earthen pot which was used to test the mixture of minerals in which was used to find out whether there was any gold in it. A test can be simply defined as a measuring instrument consisting of a standard set of questions that need to be answered by all students. The use of the term test is only limited to the use of some or other specific set of questions. ‘Testing’ is a process of making the students, answer a set of questions.

Think!

Evaluation is essential in the never-ending cycle of formulating goals, measuring progress towards them and determining the new goals which emerge as a result of new warning. Discuss.

MEASUREMENT Measurement is a one step ahead of the process of testing. It is a broader concept. Both testing and non-testing devices are used in the process of measurement.

Fig. 21.1

The cyclic representation of measurement as a process

Definitions of Measurement “Measurement can be defined as “an assignment of numeral, according to rules.” —Tyler

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“Measurement is a process of assigning numbers to objects according to certain rules.” —Stanley Smith Stevens “Anything that exists at all exits in some quantity. Anything that exits in some quantity is capable of being measured.” —Thorndike Based on the above definitions, the salient features of measurement are as follows: expressed in numbers. dimensions of the learners.

Functions of Measurement Functions of measurement basically provides answers to the following questions— 1. What a person can do? (Prognosis) 2. What a person cannot do? (Diagnosis) 3. What a person will do? (Prediction) All these functions are explained diagrammatically.

Fig. 21.2

Diagrammatic representation of function of measurement

Evaluation

283

EXAMINATION The word has been derived from the Latin word “examen” which means “the pointer” or the “tongue of the balance”. So, examination means to weigh the achievement of the learners and to know whether they had achieved a certain standard of learning-competencies of the subject taught. Examination is derived from the latin word “examen”, which means ‘the pointer’ or the ‘tongue’ of the balance.

process.

Fig. 21.3

Diagram showing balance in a process through examinations

EVALUATION Evaluation is the final stage. However, we may say that it is the last but not least important stage in the process of gathering, using and imparting all relevant and accurate information. It is a relatively new technical term which deals with the all-round development of a child including his physical, social and intellectual development. Evaluation is an integral part of teaching which includes a series of activities designed to measure the effectiveness of the teaching-learning system as a whole. So, we may summarize evaluation as: alternatives.

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For example: 1. A teacher measures Rohan’s height to be 120cm. She evaluates his height when she says that he is short. 2. A teacher measures Hemlata’s achievement in English to be 56%. She evaluates her achievement in English when she says that Hemlata’s performance is satisfactory. Thus, the measurement of all relevant parameters is computed before a degree is assigned to any student. Until students achieve a set standard of quality, the motive of the teacher is not achieved. When we do so, we make an evaluation. In this way, a test results in a measurement which ultimately leads to evaluation. Test — Measurement — Evaluation Measurement helps in evaluation but is not the same as evaluation. Let us consider one example to clarify this difference. Mohan and Sohan study in the same class. In the first test, they obtain 40 and 60 marks respectively in mathematics. In the second test, both of them obtain 75 marks. Now, in the second test the measurement of their achievement in mathematics is the same, yet the evaluation will differ, when the teacher says that the rate of progress of Mohan is comparatively better than that of Sohan. Thus, the concept of evaluation may be defined as one that:

Definitions of Evaluation According to Quillen and Hanna “A measurement of the all round growth of a child, including his physical, social and intellectual development, as well as his interests, aptitudes and abilities.” According to Goods “Evaluation is a process of ascertaining or judging the value or amount of something by certain appraisal.” According to Dandekar “Evaluation can be defined as a systematic process of determining the extent to which educational objectives are achieved by the students.”

Evaluation

285

According to Kothari Commission “Evaluation is a continuous process; it forms an integral part of total system of education and intimately related to educational objectives.” According to Muffat “Evaluation is a continuous process and is concerned with more than the formal academic achievements of students. It is interpreted in the development of the individual in terms of desirable behavioural changes in relation to his feeling, thinking and actions.”

Characteristics of Evaluation

learner. learning process. behaviour as a result of process of teaching learning. than limiting itself to certain test or conventional examinations. quality of the output in the light of the set objectives. effectiveness of the instructional programs. and evaluation procedures.

Fig. 21.4 Characteristics of evaluation

Four Aspects of Educational Evaluation Evaluation goes beyond measurement in judging the desirability or value of the measure. Evaluation is not only quantitative but also qualitative and includes value judgments

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Evaluation = Quantitative description + Qualitative description + Value judgments

Fig. 21.5 Four aspects of educational evaluation

Think!

As language learning is largely a matter of forming habits and skills in the use of the language so the test must cover a wide range of skills and knowledge. Discuss.

Conclusion The new concept of evaluation involves three things which are given below

The relation between educational objectives, learning experiences and evaluation can be represented as shown in Fig. 21.6.

Evaluation

Fig. 21.6 The new concept of evaluation

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Importance of Evaluation Importance of evaluation may be stated as follows: 1. Evaluation is essential for sound decision-making. 2. Parents are eager to know the result of the education. 3. Educators, administrators, teachers, students and parents all work hard for the attainment of educational goals and it is only natural that they should want to ascertain the extent to which these goals have been realized. 4. Education is truly a giant and an important enterprise. Therefore, it is crucial that we evaluated its process and products. For an adequate teaching-learning situation, evaluation techniques are essential. will play different roles in society. The special objectives of education are, to some extent, parents and students to find out which objectives are reasonable. A sound choice of objectives depends upon sound information about the student’s abilities, interest, attitude and character. This information is obtained through the techniques of evaluation. 6. A good program of evaluation clarifies the aims of education. 7. It helps in the improvement of the curriculum. 8. Evaluation attempts at relating the subject matter, classroom instruction and testing procedures problem. 9. Evaluation helps administrators, teachers and students.

Steps of Evaluation There are ten major steps of evaluation. Figure 21.7 highlights the same:

Purpose and Functions of Evaluation The following types of purpose and functions may be served through the results derived from the process of evaluation.

Motivational functions:—The knowledge of the results and progress is a quite strong factor for motivating an individual to continue his efforts in the right direction. Informational or communicational functions:—Evaluation data may be successfully used for providing useful information to the concerned personnel in order to maintain the essential communication channel in the process of teaching learning like below: 1. It may provide a good feedback to the students by constantly informing them about their progress.

Evaluation

Fig. 21.7 Steps of evaluation

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2. It may also provide sufficient feed back to teachers in terms of the function ability and effectiveness of their models and strategies of teaching. 3. The outcomes of the evaluation in the form of test scores, grades, stars, certificates, report cards, comments and remarks of the teachers provide unique information to the parents about the progress of their children. 4. Evaluation data may also provide necessary information to the school personnel. They can know much about the learning potential, abilities and capacities, interests and attitudes of a child concerning the different learning areas. 5. Evaluation results may also help in fixing responsibilities and accountability for the poor performance of the students with regards to their needed development in a particular area or subject.

Planning functions:—Evaluation, whether diagnostic, formative or summative may play its role in exercising the following functions related with planning of the teaching learning tasks. 1. It may help in the formulation of the set objectives for carrying out the teaching learning tasks. 2. It may help in the selection and organization of appropriate learning experiences framing syllabus and developing curriculum. 3. The methods and strategies of teaching learning, the aid material used etc. can be properly planned in view of the evaluation outcomes. 4. Remedial teaching, individual teaching and group activities, special educational programmes can be better planned in the light of evaluation outcomes.

Decision-making functions:—Evaluation data may prove quite useful for taking important decisions with regard to the welfare of students and society. It can also be helpful in improving the processes and products of education. 1. Evaluation data help in making decisions for the selection of students to various courses and areas of study. 2. Evaluation data may help in making decision regarding promotion or retention of the students, assigning grades, merit position, certification and awarding of degrees and diplomas. 3. It helps in taking valuable decisions, for example, whether to continue or discontinue a scheme of studies, methods of instruction. Introduce changes in the instructional objectives or methods of evaluation. 4. It helps in taking decisions regarding the type and amount of the guidance needed by children and how can it be properly imparted. 5. It may help in deciding the need of special or remedial education to the children and the ways and means of providing such education. 6. It may help in taking valuable and serious administrative decision like rewarding or punishing the child, maintain or dismiss a teacher or any other professional connected with the instructional work of the school.

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Types of Evaluations Evaluation can be divided into two types on the basis of evaluation techniques: 1. Formative Evaluation 2. Summative Evaluation

Formative evaluation:—Formative evaluation occurs over a period of time and monitors summarized as under.

to learn before achieving the set objectives. and frequently. modification in his teaching. them to ask for necessary help. among the students for making a certifying judgment. The results of such evaluation should not necessarily appear in any official record.

Summative evaluation:—The formal techniques may include tests standardized as well as customized by the teacher, questionnaires, interviews, rating scale, work assignments and projects.

lesson. course of instruction. placing them in order of merit or taking decision about their promotion and awarding degree or diploma. It is this characteristic of summative evaluation which enables it to be called as certifying evaluation.

Principles of Evaluation The various principles of evaluation are explained below:

Principle of continuity Evaluation is a continuous process. The teaching process and the evaluation procedure go on together. It makes the students regular, punctual and systematic. Moreover, they acquire different teaching skills involved in the process of teaching and learning.

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Principle of Comprehensiveness Evaluation is based on the principle of comprehensiveness as it takes into consideration all the aspects of overall personality development of the student. The term ‘comprehensive’ refers to both the scholastic and non-scholastic areas of student growth. The comprehensive evaluation covers the whole range of student experiences in the context of total school environment which includes aspects like physical, intellectual, emotional and social growth.

Principle of Objectives Evaluation is directly linked with the educational objectives. It tries to find out how far the set objectives are being achieved. This makes the teaching learning program pin-pointed.

Principle of Learning Experiences Learning experiences means the experiences a student gain from teacher and surrounding. This makes the curriculum better and correlated with life. It makes teaching real and more learnable.

Principle of Totality Evaluation is concerned with total process of education. It means total behaviour of the individual, i.e., intellectual, moral, social, cultural, physical and emotional, is the concern of the teacher. In the teaching and learning of English, learning four skills is important.

Principle of Student-centeredness In evaluation, child is the focus and not the subject matter and hence it should be in accordance with abilities, interests and aptitudes of the students. When the language material will be child centered the learner will be able to grasp it well.

Principle of Selection of Right type of Technique To get the complete picture of the progress towards determined goals and purposes, variety of evaluation techniques should be used.

Principle of Cooperation Evaluation must be done in co-operation with teacher, students, parents and head of the institution.

Principle of Quantity and Quality Evaluation takes into consideration both quality and quantity. The total information about the personality of the child is not put up as separate entities rather they are integrated into unified description of the child. Thus, both quantity and quality are maintained in evaluation.

Scope of Evaluation

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Comprehensive and Continuous Evaluation There are three terms involved in the frame work of continuous and comprehensive evaluation.

Continuous Education is a continuous process. So, the progress of the students should be evaluated regularly and frequently.

Comprehensive The term ‘comprehensive’ means to both scholastic and non-scholastic areas of student growth. Therefore, the role of teacher is to build up the cognitive as well as non-cognitive abilities.

Evaluation Evaluation is the process of knowing up to what extent the desired changes have taken place in the students.

Aims of Comprehensive and Continuous Evaluation The aims of comprehensive and continuous evaluation are as follows:— 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

To improve teaching learning process. To provide feedback and guidance to the learners. To provide diagnostic achievement data to the teacher. To reduce examination phobia among children. To help the children to realize their potentialities and capacities. To enable teachers to evaluate those attitudes, abilities and skills which are impossible to evaluate through traditional examination process. To help teachers in improving the level of achievements. To estimate emphasis on memorization. To help the children to have potential feed back to judge their achievements. To provide remedial and enriched instructions. To develop all the aspects of child’s growth to his/her optional potential. To motivate both teachers and children to improve the teaching learning process. To provide opportunities for teachers to make suitable changes in their efforts. To provide direction to children and parents in their efforts.

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Components of Comprehensive and Continuous Evaluation

Fig. 21.8

Components of comprehensive and continuous evaluation

SIGNIFICANCE OF COMPREHENSIVE EVALUATION IN TEACHING OF ENGLISH The significance of continuous evaluation lies in the fact that all efforts of the teacher are directed towards achievements of the students. Thus, it can be used for remedial work and feedback. So, comprehensive evaluation in teaching English enables the English teacher:

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language. proficiency level.

Limitations

Comprehensive and continuous evaluations help the children to realize their potential. It provide continuous feedback to the child, teacher and thus provide opportunities to make suitable change in efforts.

DEVELOPMENT OF GOOD TEST ITEMS IN ENGLISH Chronback defines “a good test as a test, which has a systematic procedure for comparing the behaviours of two or more persons.”

Criteria of Good Test Items There is two-fold classification of good test. A good test must have two key points:

Table 21.1 highlights the differences between the practical and technical aspects of a good test. Table 21.1: Practical

Technical

1. A good test in English should adequately measure the attainments of students in the four language skills, reading, listening, speaking, and writing English. 2. There should be a variety of test items, but one item should test only one skill. 3. The language of the question should be definite. It should leave no room for ambiguity,

VALIDITY: If a test measures what it aimed to measure is called valid test. Thus every test item must be valid. RELIABILITY: This property of a test item can be called as its ‘consistency’. If the test item is administered a second time, similar results must be got in the classroom.

Contd.

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4. The question should aim at testing the students mastery of the structures and vocabulary item taught to them. 5. Stereo typed questions should be avoided. 6. A good test of English should cover as many areas of the subject matter as possible. 7. The test instruction should be brief, clear and free from ambiguity. 8. A good test in English should be diagnostic. It must locate the difficulties of the students so that they may be removed by remedial instruction. 9. The student should be able to attempt the presented number of questions with in time limit. 10. A good test in English should be neither too difficult nor too easy. 11. A good test of English should be a judicious combination (a) objective type questions (b) questions requiring short-answer and (c) Essay type questions.

OBJECTIVITY: different opinions of various examiners cannot be possible. So examiner cannot be biased. ECONOMIC: It should be economic with respect to cost and time. COVERAGE: It should cover as much of the syllabus as possible.

Types of Test in English

Fig. 21.9 Three types of tests in English

Objective Type Test

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The objective type tests are of following type: Simple recall test These are used to test the knowledge of the facts and events of the students. Examples

Completion test In this test the teaching unit represented by words is left blank in a given sentence or a number of sentences. For example the teaching unit has been noun or pronoun. The following will be the form of the questions puts to the students: Examples Fill in the blanks with nouns or pronouns in the following sentences: ________ is a nice boy. ________ are playing football. True/false test In these questions true or false statements are given. Students are required either to mark the true or the false. Marks the true or false against the statements in the brackets: India is our country.

(T/F)

Sun rises in the east.

(T/F)

Multiple choice test Multiple choice suggests the teacher supplies ‘multiple’ possible answers to a single question, including the correct one. The students are asked to put a mark against the correct from the multiple choices given. India gained freedom in ________ (a) (b) (c) (d)

1947 1946 1949 1944

Matching test According to Benjamin, this test consists of two columns, one of the left hand side called the

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‘stimulus’ column and other on the right hand side called the “response” column. In these tests items listed in the other side. This is good for testing vocabulary, synonyms and antonyms. Stimulus column

Response column

Is not Does not Has not Are not Had not

doesn’t aren’t isn’t hadn’t hasn’t

Classification test In these tests several places, objects and persons are listed but one word among them is different than the others. The students are asked to draw a line under it, or draw a circle around it, to distinguish it with the rest. For example refer to the example given below: Select the odd one out Coat, sari, shirt, box, pant Table, glass, chair, desk, bench Water, leg, coffee, tea, milk

Uses of Objective Type Questions Objectivity These types of tests are almost free from the subjectivity of the examiner.

Validity These tests measures only that for which they are constructed. Hence, these are valid.

Reliability These tests are reliable.

Comprehensibility These tests have capability of testing all the aspects of a teaching subject.

Utility These tests are constructed to test same objective.

Discrimination These tests can easily discriminate among the average, above the average, and below the average students.

Practicability The duration of these tests is short, say about one hour.

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Administrability These tests are easily administered.

Scorability These tests are easily scored.

Demerits of Objective Type Test Difficult to Construct The construction of objective tests requires great skill, clarity of objectives of teaching and testing.

Standardization of Instruction These tests don’t test the thinking and critical aptitudes of the students.

Assimilation and Organization of Thoughts As the students are required to answer the short questions by using marking yes or no which do not allow using language, so the assimilation and organization of thoughts suffers.

Failure to Test the Whole Students The expected short-answer in one word or fails to test the ‘whole’ and personal achievements of the students.

Over Simplification Sometimes these tests turn to be over simple to the extent that even the weakest students supplies correct answers.

Conclusion Balancing the merits and demerits of objective type tests, this can be safely said that every coin has two sides. We must accept its advantages and avoid disadvantages. We should try to extract as much advantage as we can.

Short-Answer Type Test Short-answer type tests play a very important role in evaluation of English. These, therefore, should also be included in evaluation programme of English. Here the students have to answer questions in a few sentences. Short-answer type tests have an advantage over essay type tests. These make it possible to have a large number of questions in the paper. So such questions can be spread over

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the entire courses. Short-answer type tests have advantages over both objective type tests and essay type tests. They are specific. But at the same time, they require the students to compose their own answer.

Essay-Type Tests Essay type tests are the most common tests in our schools. In these tests the students are expected to write answers to given questions in the form of short essays. It is this type of tests which has become encourage cramming and rote memory. Their chief drawback, however, is that there is subjectivity in marking. Scoring is unreadable as it differs with examiner. Moreover, since only a few questions are set, many portions of the course are not tested. Another drawback of this test is that the questions are often vague and the students do not understand what they are expected to write. However, in spite of all these shortcomings, we cannot entirely do away with the essay-type tests. These tests are most important means of judging the students’ power of organization of ideas and expressions.

Conclusion Keeping in view all these types of tests and their importance, it is suggested that in an English test there should be a judicious combination of 2. Short-answer type questions 3. Essay type questions

MEASUREMENT OF ACHIEVEMENT IN SPOKEN ENGLISH or three years of English. In the beginning, tests should be mostly oral. Then, as the students learn senior stage where tests are mostly written, oral tests must not be ignored altogether. Today, we are comprehend in English. They are also the best means of improving the pronunciation of students and measure their oral expression. They not only keep the students alert and attentive, but also stimulate mental activity. Therefore, the students should be encouraged to communicate in English to build confidence and express themselves in English as often and as correctly as possible. Some marks must be set apart from oral testing at the end of every term or whenever formal evaluation takes place. Short questions should be put on familiar objects and topics covered in the class. Students should be encouraged to answer them orally.

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(a) Listening and Comprehension (b) Speaking ability

(a) Listening and Comprehension In order to know whether the students have understood what has been spoken by the teacher, the following types of tests may be used:

(i) Picture comprehension:—The teacher shows the class a large picture depicting many scenes. Then he makes a few statements about it. Some of which are correct and some are incorrect. Pupils listen to their statements and write down ‘R’ for correct statements and ‘W’ for the incorrect one.

(ii) Story comprehension:—The teacher relates a story and gives a question with three or four possible answers, only one of which is correct. The students write down the number of correct answer.

(iii) The body motion test:—The teacher asks a student to perform certain action and watching his movements he tests the comprehension.

(iv) Writing answers to stories:—The teacher reads out a short anecdote, such as a fable or a story, two or three times. The students listen and write out short answers to the questions.

(b) Testing Speaking Ability (i) Producing different sounds:—The teacher writes pairs of words closely related in sound such as sit-seat, pull-pool, wine-vine. The pupils read the pairs aloud. (ii) Describe the picture:—The teacher shows a picture from the reader and the student says two or three sentences about it.

(iii) Conversation:—The teacher and the pupil have a conversation. (iv) Reading aloud:—The pupil reads aloud some sentences. Their stress and intonation are noted.

(v) Describing actions:—The teacher performs a few physical actions and the students are asked to describe them. Measurement of achievement in reading Students’ achievement in reading can best be measured or tested from his response to new material. The presentations of the familiar materials may elicit only memorized response. So, tests of conversation, negative and description. This is to ensure that the students have developed the ability to read and comprehend different kind of prose.

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Ideally, reading comprehension should be separated from expressions. Many students are able to express themselves but they do comprehend the subject matter fairly well. In questions or comprehensions, the examiner is expected to give marks only for comprehensions. But consciously or unconsciously, he gets prejudiced by poor expressions and holds back the actual marks that a student deserves. It is, therefore, desirable to set only objective type and very short-answers questions to do justice to the student’s genuine skill in reading comprehension. Free translation from English to one’s native language may be employed as a test of reading ability. For testing reading ability of students they may be asked to read a few sentences. Their stress and intonation may be noted when they are reading the sentences. Measurement of achievement in writing Free compositions are not a satisfactory device to test students’ competency in learning English. So questions should be set on some functional, contextualized topics. The test of Letter writing may take the form of letter printed on the question paper. The students may be asked to reply to it. Thus, the questions for testing the student’s achievement in writing should be definite, real and purposeful. Since creative ability is not looked for in tests of composition in a second language. It is desirable to provide the students with the necessary information. For example: “You went to the railway station to receive a friend who was coming to stay with you for some days”. Write an essay in about 150 words, touching upon the following points: Some other examples are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Why did you go to the railway station? How did you go to the station? What interested you in and around the railway platform? How long did you have to wait at station for your friend? What did you do when the train was steaming in? What did you do after your friend had arrived?

Some other examples are: 1. Write a piece of composition using given words It morning, washer man, family, garden, washerwomen, sitting by, tree, smoking Pipe, wife, talking, son, reading, under, daughter, sleeping by 2. Write a dialogue between Tinu and Binu using the following key words: Binu: 2nd Binu: in 1876

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3. Write a story with the help of given words The grapes are sour- - -hot summer day. Fox- - -along- - -path- - -jungle. Thirsty but no river or- - - . Suddenly,- - -saw bunches grapes vine.- - -said himself,- - -eat- - -grapes and then won’t be so - - -jumped but couldn’t- - -too high.- - -Several times but walked away saying- -sours.

MEASUREMENT OF ACHIEVEMENT IN VOCABULARY Vocabulary tests are meant for testing the students’ knowledge of vocabulary which they are required to master in a particular class. We can test the vocabulary by testing the following items: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Meaning of words and phrases Uses of words and phrases Word building Spelling and punctuation

Meaning of Words and Phrases 1. Put in pairs the words of the same class from the given list: apples, eat, drink, desk table, father, mother, mangoes. 2. Put in pairs the words and phrases having the opposite meaning from the given list: a lot of little, to awake, near, to fall asleep, a long way day, high, night, low. 3. Put in pairs words and phrases of similar meaning from the given list: to eat, to die, to oppose, to let in, to admit, to have a meal, to go against, to pass away. 4. Put in pairs words of opposite meaning from the given list: top, bitter, sweet, big, bottom, near, far. 5. Write for associated words against each of the following: school, bus stand, village, hospital, post office. 6. Write four words belonging to the class of each of the given words: trees, birds, animals, vegetables, fruits.

Uses of Words and Phrases Put a few or little whichever is correct before: People, furniture, sugar, men Put a or an Substitute different but suitable words for the words nice in following phrases Put the, if necessary, before the following words

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Word Building 1. Make at least three new words (not verbs) from each of the following: agree, employ, able, prove. 2. Make adjective from given nouns: Britian, anger. 4. Make verbs from: dark, full, long and sweet.

Spelling and Punctuation 2. Make a word for each of these meanings in which the letter is silent: land surrounded by

Punctuate the following 1. if you go to delhi please see mohan. 2. here comes someone running said the amit let us see who he is.

MEASUREMENT OF ACHIEVEMENT IN STRUCTURES Structure tests are meant for testing student’s knowledge of structures, sentence patterns, word order etc. we can test structures by the following items: 1. Write two suitable words in the blank column below and then write three different sentences from the table He A pen You A pencil She Sugar 2. Supply the right form of the tense Mohan _________ ill since Tuesday. (is, has been) 3. Complete the following sentences. All that glitters _________ Walk quickly _________ Though she is rich _________ 4. Fill in the blanks with the words below: By, to, against, have, playing, over, as We are _________ football. He is going _________ college.

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The fan is _________ my hand. All birds _________ wings. The ladder is _________ the wall. Sunil is _________ the window. 5. Make the questions from these answers, beginning with word in brackets: He likes mangoes. (Does _________ ?) Cat is not like monkey. (Is _________) Anil runs slowly. (How _________?) 6. Put these into the negative: The girls are dancing. He keeps a dog. 7. Make tag questions: Examples: She is your sister. Isn’t she? You have finished it _________ We are near a village _________ 8. Change the voice: They give the Prime Minister a warm welcome. The man killed a lion. 9. Change the form of narrations: She said, “I shall go to Delhi tomorrow” The teacher said, “Boys, don’t make a noise”. 10. Join these into one sentence. The actress sang a sweet song. I listened to it. I liked it. My mother don’t like anything of it. 11. Put the following groups of words in the right order to make correct sentence: Are drawing water/from the well/The women milk and butter/sell/went to the market/The Milkman. 12. Combine the following sentences using the link word given against each: Alladin opened the door of the cave. He saw some bags of gold. (when) I like the pictures. You showed it to me. (Which) Thus, it can be concluded that evaluation is very important for assessing achievements. Teaching and learning English is no exception to this rule. Evaluation is of utmost importance in the assessment of achievements in English.

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Summary The process of evaluation is of major significance in the process of teaching. It provides quantitative as well as quantitative description of the outcomes of a teaching learning process. It is essential for sound educational decision-making. Evaluation serves the motivational, communicational, planning, decision-making functions in education. There are the two types of evaluations, Summative and Formative. Evaluation ascertain progress of students, diagnosis of the weakness in the student and helps in achieving aim of education. Comprehensive and continuous evaluation helps the children to realize their potential. It provides continuous feedback to the child, and thus provides opportunities to make suitable change in the behaviour of the student. speak English. They are also the best means of improving the pronunciation and oral expression. Vocabulary tests are meant for testing the students’ knowledge of vocabulary which they are required to master in a particular class. Structure tests are meant for testing student’s knowledge of structures, sentence patterns, word order etc.

Terms to Remember Evaluation A measurement of the all round growth of a child, including his physical, social and intellectual development, as well as his interests, aptitudes and abilities. Formative Evaluation

Formative Evaluation is administered during the lesson taught or

amount they have yet to learn before achieving the set objectives. Summative Evaluation It summarizes the final progress of the students as a result of a course of learning unit or lesson. Validity If a test measures what it aimed to measure is called valid test. Thus every test item must be valid. Reliability This property of a test item can be called as its ‘consistency’. If the test item is administered a second time, similar results must be got in the classroom. Objectivity So examiner cannot be biased.

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Exercises Short Answer Questions (word limit 150) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Differentiate test and examination Differentiate measurement and evaluation. What are the purposes of evaluation? What is the difference between formative and summative evaluation? Define reliability, validity, usability. Write the merits of comprehensive and continuous evaluation. How will you test the speaking ability of VII class students? Suggest three test items for it.

9. Discuss the merits and demerits of objective type questions. 10. What do you mean by variety of test items? Explain.

Long Answer Questions (word limit 1000) 1. What is evaluation? Write the principles of evaluation in detail. 2. Write a detailed note on continuous and comprehensive evaluation. 3. What are the characteristics of a good test? Prepare a few test items for judging the written vocabulary of class VIII students. 4. Prepare two test items for each of the following aspects:

22

Digital Portfolio: Use of ICT in Learning Exercise for Language Competency

“Learning is never done without errors & defeat.”

— Vladimir Lenin Inside This Chapter

Learning Objectives This chapter will enable the reader to:

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INTRODUCTION Portfolio is a collection of work selected to achieve a specific goal that exhibits your efforts, progress and achievements. Portfolio is not a plain record of the work you did in the past, so do not merely collect documents in your portfolio. Portfolio should also be unique and tell about your achievements, not a standardized specification.

DIGITAL PORTFOLIO An electronic portfolio, also known as an e-portfolio or digital portfolio, is a collection of electronic evidence assembled and managed by a user, usually on the Web. Such electronic evidence may include inputted text, electronic files, images, multimedia, blog entries, and hyperlinks. E-portfolios are both demonstrations of the user’s abilities and platforms for self-expression, and, if they are online, they can be maintained dynamically over time. Some e-portfolio applications permit varying degrees of audience access, so the same portfolio might be used for multiple purposes. Electronic portfolios are a creative means of organizing, summarizing, and sharing artifacts, information, and ideas about teaching and/or learning, along with personal and professional growth. The reflective process of portfolio development can be as important as the final product. In many cases, they are used as part of faculty and student evaluation along with other assessment tools such as standardized tests. A portfolio is a sampling of the breadth and depth of a person’s work conveying the range of abilities, attitudes, experiences, and achievements.

Think!

Digital portfolio advocates the use of technology in teaching and learning. Discuss.

The multimedia portfolio is a multifaceted tool which can be used to serve several different purposes, but the most important is that it promotes learning among both students and teachers. This type of portfolio will be an important asset to school and individual as society heads into the Digital Age. — (Hartnell-Young & Morriss 1999, p. 105) Digital portfolio is a portfolio using electronic media and services. A digital portfolio can be a combination of mixed media and services. Digital portfolio can be either off-line or on-line, or a combination of both. Whatever the format, a digital portfolio is owned by one person, who has complete control over its content and access.

Digital Portfolio Services Digital portfolio services are provided on the basis of the information stored in a personal record. Services range from assessment-support (tracking individual achievements), to orientation, evaluation, validation, job-hunting, continuing professional development, community building and so on.

Objectives of digital portfolio Digital portfolios serve many purposes and have many advantages:

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The trend toward increased use of educational technology in teacher education can be expected to continue. Costs of hardware and software will continue to fall while the power of educational technology will continue to rise. Technology literacy among students and teachers will increase, along with an increasing need for technology proficient professionals. An increasing number of classrooms wired for the Internet will enable more use of distance learning and distributed education. It seems likely that performance-based assessment will continue to develop. Portfolio assessment will be refined and become more technology based. The greater presence of technology in schools and improved technology literacy among students and teachers will have a profound impact on education.

Technology Requirements There are various software programs that help in developing digital portfolios. Among the popular choices are Microsoft Word, Microsoft PowerPoint, Macromedia Dreamweaver, Macromedia Flash, Hyperstudio and Adobe Acrobat. Other equipment requirements may be digital cameras, scanners and a CD burner.

Materials used in making digital portfolio Provided to the students

Students bring:

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Procedure Step 1: Digital Camera 1. Take at least 2 digital photos using the digital camera. One photo needs to be a self-portrait; the other may be any subject of interest. 2. Insert formatted disk in digital camera. 3. Make sure that camera file is set for image size 640 ¥ 480 resolution when set in the still mode. This will give you a file of manageable size that can be altered using a photo-imaging program. 4. Your photos will be saved on the disk. Remove your disk from camera. Make sure your name is on the disk! Step 2: Scanner 1. Read and discuss directions to operate the scanner. 2. Insert the photos that you have brought to class. You will scan the photos and save to your disks. Step 3: Publishing 1. Take any storage device such as a compact disc or a pen drive with photo images stored in it and open up with program such as Adobe PhotoShop, Photo Imaging Software and so on. 2. Select one of the photos and work with the editing tools cropping, sizing and so on. 3. Watch the size of the finished photo you save by saving in a medium or lower resolution, around #3. This is necessary in order to save your photos on 1.4 Mb floppy disks. 4. Try to keep photos around 45 to 60 Kb. Step 4: the Internet 1. Select four pieces of clip art that you would like to save and possibly use in your class portfolio. 2. Save the clipart you have selected onto your disk. If you are using a PC, right click on the image you would like to save and save image to your disk. If you are using a Mac, hold the mouse button down until a window opens. It will give you a variety of options. At this time direct it to save to your disk. Step 5: Setting up Portfolio Create folders on a formatted disk in drive A. (Title suggestions: Session 1, Session 2, etc. or Clip Art, Photos, Internet, or whatever categories participant would like to establish.) Directions for creating folders: 1. Put CD in drive. create a new folder on your disk.

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4. You can always rename a folder by right clicking on the folder. A pop-up menu bar will come up, and you can choose the option Rename. Step 6: E-mail [Note:

If you already have an e-mail account, compose a note to send to your instructors.]

1. Set up a free e-mail account with mail.com, or one of the many options for web based e-mail. See collection at: http://thebestmails.bizland.com/ 2. On the Internet, go to http://www.mail.com (or the company of your choice) and follow the directions to establish a free e-mail account. 3. Once you have established your e-mail account, send your instructors an e-mail message. Step 7: the Internet Digital Portfolio Information http://www.indiana. edu/~ist/programs/portfolio.html 2. Look at each of these sites and record four good ideas about digital portfolios to share with the group during group discussion time.

Digital Portfolio has the Following Advantages Versatility:—A key benefit of digital portfolios is their versatility. It is easy to update them and keep them current. Users can organize and tailor information toward a specific use, be it to demonstrate mastery over a certain subject or to apply for an internship or a job. Digital portfolios can be a visually interesting medium for presenting disparate information.

Keeping track of academic progress:—Students can build electronic portfolios of their educational achievement and personal growth and at the same time institutions would be able to track the individual student’s progress and achievement. The ePortfolio's comprehensive toolset allows learners to transform artifacts from their coursework, co-curricular life and work experience into a cohesive, digital representation of themselves.

Collect and organize work:—The portfolio solution provides a range of tools and capabilities that make it easy to collect and organize a student's digital artifacts. Familiar file browsing and drag-n-drop features ensure that learners are comfortable using the ePortfolio and also promote quick adoption. The Digital Portfolio Supports the Following

Multiple file types—from documents and spreadsheets to sound recordings, photographs, video clips and files that represent all types of learning.

Blogging capabilities—These are useful in enhancing course requirements, enable selfevaluation, and engages learners in the process of developing their portfolios.

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RSS feeds—stream blogs that instructors and others can subscribe to in order to enable coaching and create connections between learners and mentors. Rubrics—present visual representations of progress toward individual goals, to help learners assess their personal outcomes. Document sharing—publicly share or password-protect all or part of the ePortfolio.

Think!

Versatility is the key benefit of digital portfolio. Discuss.

Warning Without proper vision and editing, digital portfolios can be a hodgepodge of files and documents that is difficult to navigate. There are a couple strategies that can improve a digital portfolio's readability. You can plan the portfolio by creating a mock-up of the desired final product. You can also write a table of contents or index for sorting disparate documents. Some people include a vision statement to help define the purpose of the digital portfolio.

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) unless the teacher masters the educational principles behind it, all of which is patently obvious. ICT is not a method, but a self access course. ICT means Information and Communication Technology, or ICT, refers to technological tools that are used to communicate and to manage information. ICT is often part of a teacher-centred class but it is easy to exploit these tools in learner-centred activities. For example, learners can control a cassette or DVD, stopping it each time they hear a contraction, develop their own class blog on the Internet with minimum teacher involvement, or use a computer in a multi-media area to present their findings from a pre-reading task

ICT Learning ICT helps students learn by enabling them to communicate, edit, annotate and arrange text quickly and flexibly. Using ICT can help students to:

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ICTs in English Literacy in Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) is fundamental to life in our modern technological society. To equip students to be literate life-long learners and global citizens of the 21st century we must successfully integrate ICT into both the English curriculum and English pedagogical practice. ICT is a valuable tool to enhance teaching and learning. For teachers ICT is a professional resource, a mode of classroom delivery, and a source of valid and valuable text types. For students, ICT provides opportunities to communicate more effectively and to develop literacy skills including skills in critical literacy. It is a valuable tool for researching, composing and responding and viewing and representing in English.

Aims of ICT for language learning

ICTs and English classrooms The use of ICT in the English classroom extends beyond its motivational value to address key outcomes of the syllabus, and allow students to become competent users as well as consumers in English. Research suggests that incorporating ICT into the English curriculum can improve:

Research suggests that incorporating ICT into the English curriculum can improve:

collaborative medium, ICT allows responding, composing, and publication to be easily shared and offers students the opportunity to explore the language of texts more creatively and develop as speakers, writers and readers for an ever widening range of purposes and audiences. ICT enhances composing in English by allowing students desktop publishing packages

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software packages

range of forums (e.g. via e-mail, newsgroups, online conferencing raps) and hence promote collaborative learning

Think!

ICT helps students learn by enabling them to communicate. Elucidate.

Using ICTs in assessment Whilst the ability to operate the technology e.g. use a word processor is basic to assessment of ICT in English, the authentic integration of assessment must encompass more than an assessment of basic technical skills and the ability to use the technology as a tool. Such assessment must involve assessing the ways in which students respond to and compose ICT texts and include their understanding of how the texts operate in their social and cultural contexts.

Basic Technical Skills Explained below are some of the basic technical skills.

Composing: a checklist of basic technical skills such as the ability to use certain hardware e.g. a digital camera or software e.g. word processing, email, publishing packages, PowerPoint, Photostory or Moviemaker Responding: hyperlinks, icons, site maps

Research/cyberexploration skills: for example, using a search engine, locating specific information on the web

Literacy skills Responding: A knowledge and understanding of the distinctive features of multimedia texts e.g. the relationship between visual text, written text and design/layout. The formulation of a personal response to the text Composing: The application of this knowledge and understanding of the distinctive features of multimedia texts to the composition of such texts for a range of audience and purposes.

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Critical literacy skills An understanding of how the composer’s choices of representational medium (text, image, sound, multimedia), transitional mode (print, electronic, spoken) position the reader, gives the text authority, and conveys values and meaning. The authentic integration of ICT into English assessment is problematic in an environment where many schools and many students have poor or limited access to computers. In such cases assessment can only occur when students have the opportunity to use the technology to develop essential skills and literacies.

Conclusion Thus ICT helps to improve language learning in collaborative environment. ICT can be used to integrate speaking, listening, reading and writing. It enhances interactive teaching and learning styles. It also extends students' ability to exercise choice, work independently and make connections between their work in English and in other subjects. For example, ICT can help students:

and hypertext

Summary Digital portfolio is a collection of electronic evidence assembled and managed by a user, usually on the Web. Such electronic evidence may include inputted text, electronic files, images, multimedia, blog entries, and hyperlinks. Digital portfolio can be either off-line or on-line, or combination of both. Objectives of digital portfolio are to organize work throughout across the classes and to have a handy, useful record of work.

Digital Portfolio: Use of ICT in Learning Exercise for Language Competency

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There are various software programs to support the creating of digital portfolios. Among the popular choices are Microsoft Word, Microsoft PowerPoint, Macromedia Dreamweaver, Macromedia Flash, Hyperstudio and Adobe Acrobat. Students can build electronic portfolios of their educational achievement and personal growth and institutions can manage evidence of program achievement but without proper vision and editing, digital portfolios can be a hodgepodge of files and documents that is difficult to navigate.

Terms to Remember Portfolio A collection of work selected to achieve a specific goal. Digital Portfolio It is a collection of electronic evidence assembled and managed by a user, usually on the web.

Exercises Short Answer Questions (word limit 150) 1. 2. 3. 4.

What is digital portfolio? Discuss the role of CALL in language learning. What are the objectives and usage of digital portfolio? What materials do we require for making digital portfolio?

Long Answer Questions (word limit 1000) 1. Discuss the different ways of using digital portfolio in language learning?

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43. Thompson, M.S.H. and Wyatt, H.G. (1956), The Teaching of English in India, London: Geoffrey Cumerlege, Oxford University Press 44. Thorne, Steven L., 2000, “Second Language Acquisition Theory and the Truth(s) about Relativity”, In Lamtolf, Games P. (Ed.), Socio-Cultural Theory and Second Language Learning, Oxford: Oxford University Press 45. Valdman, Albert, 1986, Trends in Language Teaching, New York: McGraw-Hill 46. Wong, R. 1987, Teaching Pronunciation: Focus on English Rhythm and Intonation, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents 47. Woolf and Woolf, 1957, Remedial Reading, New York: McGraw-Hill 48. Zinsser, William, 1988, Writing to Learn, New York: Harper & Row

Index A Aesthetic experience 73 Affability 20, 21 Affective domain 39, 43 Alveolar sounds 204 Anglo-Frisian 15 Arbitrary 5 Articulators 203 Auditory signs 228

Controlled composition 84 Conversational style 56 Copying 81, 82 Coverage 24 Critical skills 226 Cubice 185 Cyber exploration skills 315

D

Behavioural objectives 37, 38 Bilabial sounds 204 Bilingualism 150 Biography 63 Blogging capabilities 312 Bloom’s taxonomy 38, 39

Decoding 224 Dental sound 204 Diagnostic testing 272 Dialect 2, 11 Digital photography 315 Drafting 250 Drills 161 Dynamism 8

C

E

Chorus drill 202 Class dynamics 255 Clichés 242 Cognates 144 Cognitive development 56 Cognitive domain 39 Communicative competence 253 Comprehensibility 298 Console 185, 186 Content analysis 52 Content words 215, 216 Contrastive analysis hypotheses 276

Examination 283 Extension drill 200 Extensive 190 Extensive reading 57, 58 External addition 200 Eye span 225

B

F Fictional statements 17 Fixation 224, 225 Fluency 33 Formal grammar 101

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Formative evaluation 291 Formulae 160 Free composition 88, 89 Functional grammar 101

N

G

O

Gradation 24, 83, 161 Grammatical norms 99 Graphic charts 188 Graphic symbols 225

Origination 44 Ornamental writing 248

Naturalization 45 Non-scholastic objectives 49 Non-verbal communication 1

P

Idioms 160 Imitation 22 Inferential question 59 Instructional correctiveness 273 Instructional objectives 37 Intensive 190 Intensive reading 57, 58 Internal addition 200 Intricacies 144

Paraphrasing 96 Pedagogy 50 Penmanship 244 Persuasion paragraph 240 Portfolio 309 Précis 96 Preliminary questions 115 Pre-viewing 230 Pre-writing 249 Prompting 114 Psychomotor domain 39, 44

J

R

Juncture 219

Range 23, 24 Reception 30, 31 Redirection 114 Refocusing 114 Register 11 Reinforced 178 Reinforcers 133, 134 Reliability 295 Revising 239 Rhythm 215 Rhythm and intonation 70

I

L Language fluency 254 Larynx 205 Learning experiences 53, 234, 286 Lexical sequencing 25 Lingua 2 Lingua franca 15 Linguistic etiquette 99

M Maxims 26, 141 Measurement 281 Mnemonic 244 Multi media packages 173, 174

S Scholastic activities 252 Scholastic objectives 49 Script 7

Index

Selection and gradation 160 Self-Pacing 186 Semantic grouping 25 Sentence conventions 241 Sequence 80, 81, 82, 83 Similes 119 Situational teaching 162 Speech organs 203 Spoken comprehension 191 Structure 8, 9 Structure words 215, 216 Structuring 81, 82 Summative evaluation 291 Syllable 213 Symbols 5, 6 Syntax 9 System 9, 10

T Teach ability 160 Teaching skill 113 Tests 281

The incidental or correlation method 102, 103 The inductive deductive method 102, 103 The informal method 102, 104 Traditional method 102 Transcribing 81, 82 Transparency 182, 183

U Unit analysis 48 Uvula 205

V Validity 295 Velum 205 Verbal communication 1, 11 Verbal interaction 192 Vernacular 143, 144 Visual discrimination 228 Vocal cords 205, 206 Voiced sounds 205, 206 Voiceless sounds 205

323