English Intonation: An Introduction 9780521683807, 0521683807, 9780521865241, 0521865247

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English Intonation Intonation — the rise and fall of pitch in our voices — plays a crucial role in how we express meaning. This accessible introduction shows the student how to recognize and reproduce the intonation patterns of English, providing clear explanations of what they mean and how they are used. It looks in particular at three key functions of intonation — to express

our attitude, to structure our messages to one another, and to focus attention on particular parts of what we are saying. An invaluable guide to how English intonation works, it is complete with extensive exercises, drills and practice material, encouraging students to produce and understand the intonation patterns for themselves. The accompanying CD contains

a wealth of spoken examples, clearly demonstrating English

intonation in context. Drawing on the perspectives of both language teaching and linguistics, this textbook will be welcomed by both leamers of English and beginning undergraduates in phonetics and linguistics.

J. c. WELLS is Professor of Phonetics at University College, London. He has lectured in countries all over the world and makes regular appearances on BBC Radio and TV. He is author of the three-volume set Accents of English (Cambridge University Press, 1982).

English Intonation An introduction

J . C . WELL S Professor of Phonetics, UCL

CAMBRIDGE 5;UNIVERSITY PRESS

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sao Paulo, Delhi Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521683807 © J. C. Wells 2006

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the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2006 Fourth printing 2009 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library ISBN-13 978-0-521-86524-1 hardback ISBN-l3 978-0-521-68380-7 paperback

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Contents

Preface

ix

1 Introduction 1.1 1.2 1.3

What is intonation? Prosodic features Is English a tone language?

1.4 1.5

The three Ts: tone, tonicity, tonality The functions of intonation

1.6

Intonation in EFL: transfer and interference

2 Tone: going up and going down Fall, rise and fall-rise 2.1 Falling and non-falling tones 2.2 2.3 2.4

Falls Rises Fal1—rises

O\-P~U~J>—'P"

ll 12

15

15 15 17 21 23

Statements

25

2.5 2.6

25 27 30 36 37 38 41

The definitive fall The implicational fall—rise

2.7 More about the implicational fall—rise 2.8 Declarative questions 2.9 Uptalk 2.10 Yes, no and elliptical answers

2.1 1

Independent rises

Questions

42

2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16

42 45 48 52 54

Wh questions Yes—no questions Tag questions Independent elliptical questions Checking

Other sentence types 2.17 Exclamations 2.18 Commands 2.19 Interjections and greetings

59

Sequences of tones

69 69 72

2.20 Leading and trailing tones 2.21 Topic and comment

59 61 64

COIlI€I'l[S

2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25

Open and closed lists Adverbials Fall plus rise Tone concord

Tone meanings 2.26 Generalized meanings of different tones 2.27 Checklist of tone meanings

Tonicity: where does the nucleus go? Basic principles 3.1 On a stressed syllable 3.2 On or near the last word Content words and function words 3.3 3.4 Compounds Double-stressed compounds 3.5 The old and the new 3.6 3.7 3.8

Information status Synonyms

Prospective and implied givenness

Focus 3.9 3.10 3.1] 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15

Broad and narrow focus Contrastive focus Pronouns and demonstratives Reflexive, reciprocal and indefinite pronouns Contrastive focus overrides other factors

Contrastive focus on polarity or tense Dynamic focus

Nucleus on a function word 3.16 Narrow focus: yes—no answers and tags 3.17 Prepositions 3.18 Wh + to be 3.19 Other function words that attract the nucleus Final, but not nuclear 3.20 Empty words and pro-forms 3.21 Vocatives 3.22 Reporting clauses 3.23 Adverbs of time and place 3.24 Other unfocused adverbs and adverbials

150

Phrasal verbs 3.25 Verb plus adverbial particle 3.26 Verb plus prepositional particle 3.27 Adverb or preposition? 3.28 Separated particles

Nucleus on the last noun 3.29 3.30

Final verbs and adjectives Events

170

Contents

Accenting old material 3.31 Reusing the other speaker’s words 3.32 Reusing your own words

177 177 I78

What is known? 3.33 Knowledge: shared, common and imputed 3.34 Difficult cases of tonicity

180

4 Tonality: chunking, or division into IPs 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9

Signalling the structure Choosing the size of the chunks Chunking and grammar Vocatives and imprecations

Adverbials Heavy noun phrases Topics Defining and non-defining Parallel structures 4.10 Tag questions

S Beyond the three Ts Prenuclear patterns 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4

The anatomy of the prenuclear part of the IP Simple heads Complex heads Preheads

180 184

187 187 191 193 195 196 198 199 202 204 205

207 207 207 208 212 214

Finer distinctions of tone

216

5.5 5.6 5.7

Varieties of fall Varieties of fall—rise Varieties of rise

5.8

Prenuclear and nuclear tone meaning

216 219 222 225

Non-nuclear accenting

228

5.9

Lexical stress and downgrading

5.10

Two or more lexical stresses The focus domain Major and minor focus

228 230 233 235 236 237

5..l 1 5.12 5.13 5.14

Unimportant words at the beginning Onset on a function word

Further considerations 5.15

Stylization

5. 16 Key

6 Putting it all together

240 240 243

6.1

Describing an intonation pattern: the oral examination

246 246

6.2 6.3

Analysing spoken material Passages for analysis

248 250

viii

contents 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.3.4

Towels Getting breakfast Books Comwall

Appendix: notation A1 A2 A3

The intonation symbols used in this book Comparison with other notation systems The ToBI system

Key to exercises 263 References 271 Index 274

Preface

This book is written from a descriptive-linguistic and language-teaching perspective. It is intended both for native speakers and for learners of English at university level. My aim is to help the reader to recognize and reproduce the important intonation pattems of English and to understand what they mean and how they are used. The emphasis is on conversational English. My debt to my teachers J. D. O’Connor and Michael Halliday will be evident. Among more recent writers on intonation I would particularly mention Paul Tench, to whom I owe the idea of devoting a separate chapter to each of the three Ts. My other main sources are listed in the References. I have benefited from many discussions over the years with my colleagues Michael Ashby, Patricia Ashby, Jill House and John Maidment. Email discussions on the Supras list were stimulating, particularly the input from Tamikazu Date. Mercedes Cabrera offered useful comments on a draft version. Thanks to all. Thanks, too, to those whose voices are heard, along with my own, on the accompanying CD: Michael Ashby, Patricia Ashby, Jill House, Alison Keable,

Josette Lesser, Jane Setter and Matt Youens. And thanks to Masaki Taniguchi for help with proofreading.

Intonation is the melody of speech. In studying intonation we study how the pitch of the voice rises and falls, and how speakers use this pitch variation to convey linguistic and pragmatic meaning. It also involves the study of the rhythm of speech, and (in English, at any rate) the study of how the interplay of accented, stressed and unstressed syllables functions as a framework onto which the intonation patterns are attached.

If we had no intonation, our speech would be — in the literal sense of the word — monotonous. Either it would all remain on one pitch throughout, or every utterance would employ exactly the same stereotyped tune at all times. But speakers do neither of those things: they make the pitch of their voice rise, fall, jump and swoop, in all sorts of different ways. Even the most boring speaker has access to a considerable repertoire of tunes (intonation patterns) — though maybe some speakers are better than others at exploiting this. Lively speakers typically make good use of the wide repertoire of possible intonation patterns that English offers. This is true both for the broadcaster, lecturer, preacher, politician, or businessman addressing a public audience and for the participant in an ordinary everyday conversational interchange or informal chat. The purpose of this book is to show how intonation works in English, and to describe a selection of the intonation patterns of English from the point of view of English language teaching (ELT). The emphasis is on points that should be useful for those teaching or learning English as a non-native language. At the same time it will, I hope, enable native speakers of English to appreciate the functioning of

English intonation. Why is the study of English intonation useful for the student of English? The

linguistic study of any language is of course academically valuable in itself. But for the learner of English there is also a very practical reason for making some attempt to acquire a command, both active and passive, of its intonation. If they study pronunciation at all, learners of English usually concentrate on the segmental phonetics — the ‘sounds’ of the language (known technically as

the segments). It is indeed important to leam to recognize and reproduce the consonant sounds and vowel sounds of English and the differences between them. Every leamer of English should be taught to make the th-sounds of thick and this, the vowel sound of nurse, and the differences in sound between leave and live,

2

INTRODUCTION

bet and bat. Most leamers also learn about word stress. They know that happy is stressed on the first syllable, but regret on the second. But intonation (also known as prosody or suprasegmentals) is mostly neglected. The teacher fails to teach it, and the learner fails to learn it. Like other elements of language, some gifted learners will pick it up more or less unconsciously; but many will not.

The problem is this: native speakers of English know that learners have difficulty with vowels and consonants. When interacting with someone who is not a native speaker of English, they make allowances for segmental errors, but they do not make allowances for errors of intonation. This is probably because they do not realize that intonation can be erroneous. After all, almost any intonation pattern is possible in English; but different intonation pattems have different meanings. The difficulty is that the pattem the learner uses may not have the meaning he or she intends. Speakers of English assume that — when it comes to intonation — you mean what you say. This may not be the same as what you think you are saying. Audio recordings of selected examples from the text and exercises are provided on the accompanying CD. The icon Q tells you which they are. The intonation symbols used in this book are explained in appendix Al.

EXERCISES

El . 1.1 Listen to the following sentences spoken (i) normally and (ii) strictly on a monotone (= the pitch of the voice stays level, not going up and not going down). Repeat them aloud in the same way. I ‘can't \§_tgn_c_l it. ‘What do I do \@_w? O /__I_LQ_1_-Q, | ‘open thou our \1ij§! Are you ‘ready to /Qswer? 99999

‘Silly Old @9911

What do these sound like when spoken on a monotone? Would they ever be said like this in real life‘? (Singing? Chanted in a church service? In conversation, with some special meaning?)

El.1.2 Pitch awareness exercise. 9 Listen to the syllable ma said with high pitch ('1/na) and then with low pitch (_ma). Irnitate. Learn to produce high (H) or low (L) pitch at will. ma H

ma H

ma H

_ma L

-

_

ma H

ma H

_ma L

_ma L

_ma L

ma L

_ma L

.-

ma H

E1.1.3 Repeat E1.1.2, but with English words. _

0

mine H _yours L

-

_mrne L yours I-I

-

-m1ne L yours H

_

1

_

-

mine mine H H _yours _yours L L

1 .2

Prosodic features

The prosodic (or suprasegmental) characteristics of speech are those of pitch, loudness and speed (or tempo, or speech rate; its inverse is the duration

of the constituent segments). These combine together to make up the rhythm of speech, and are combined in tum with stretches of silence (pause) to break up the flow of speech. To some extent prosodic characteristics are the same in all languages. It is

probably true of all human societies that speakers speed up when they are excited or impatient and slow down when they are being thoughtful or weighty. We all speak more quietly than normal when we do not wish to be overheard. We all have to speak more loudly to be heard over a distance or in noisy conditions (unless, of course, we can use modern technology to transmit and amplify the signal for us). But it is clear that different languages also regularly differ in their prosodic characteristics. Simply transferring the prosodic patterns of one’s mother tongue

or Ll to a foreign language or L2 (such as English) contributes to making you sound foreign, and may quite possibly lead to your being misunderstood by other speakers. Stress is realized by a combination of loudness, pitch and duration. Some lan-

guages use stress placement Iexically (= to distinguish between different words in

the dictionary). For example, the Greek words 'rto7\t ['poli] and 'rto7\rJ [po'li] differ in meaning. The first means ‘city’, the second means ‘much, very’. The difference of meaning depends entirely upon the location of the stress, and involves no difference in the consonant and vowel sounds. Other languages do not use stress

lexically: in French there are no pairs of words of different meaning distinguished

by stress placement. In English there are a few pairs of words distinguished just by stress, for example 'billow and be'l0w or ‘import (noun) and im'port (verb). However, the English habit of weakening unstressed vowels means that most pairs of words differing in stress often also have differences in their vowel sounds, so that the

distinction is not carried by stress alone. Nevertheless, English is, like Greek, a stress language: stress is an important part of the spoken identity of an English word. A complicating factor is that differences of stress in English are largely sig-

nalled by pitch movements, as discussed in chapters 2 and 5 below.

Tone is another prosodic characteristic, being realized mainly by differences in the pitch of the voice (e.g. high level, mid level, low level, rising or falling). A high pitch results from the relatively rapid vibration of the vocal folds in the larynx, a low pitch from a relatively slow vibration. An acceleration in the rate of vibration is heard as a rising pitch, a slowing down as a falling pitch. In a level pitch the vocal folds vibrate at a constant rate. Some languages use tone lexically. For example, in Thai the syllable [khaz] has different meanings depending on the tone with which it is said. With tone 1

4

INTRODUCTION

(a mid level tone) it means ‘to be stuck’. With tone 2 (low level) it is the name of a plant, ‘galin gale’. With tone 3 (falling) it means ‘value’, with tone 4 (high level) ‘to trade’, and with tone 5 (rising) ‘leg’. In Mandarin Chinese, [ma] with tone 1 (high) means ‘mother’, with tone 2 (rising) ‘hemp’, with tone 3 (low fall—rise) ‘horse’, and with tone 4 (falling) ‘to scold’. In Zulu, [i'pa1]ga] inyanga with high tones on the first and last syllables means ‘moon, month’, but with high tone only on the first syllable means ‘traditional practitioner, herbalist’. Some languages have tonal differences, but only on stressed syllables. In Norwegian, ['bonar] has two possible meanings. With one tone on the stressed syllable it means ‘peasants’ (bender), but with another, ‘beans’ (banner). Tokyo Japanese makes lexical use of what is known as pitch accent, which is manifested as a sudden drop in pitch immediately after the place in the word where the accent (if any) is located. The segmental string [haci] hashi with no accent means ‘end, edge’. With an accent on the first syllable it means ‘chopsticks’, and with an accent on the second syllable it means ‘bridge’. For ‘chopsticks’ the second syllable is much lower pitched than the first, but the difference between ‘bridge’ and ‘end, edge’ is manifested in the pitch of the syllable at the beginning of the following particle, e.g. in the [ga] of hashi-ga, which is low pitched for

‘bridge’ but not for ‘end, edge’. EXERCISES

E1.2.1 Practise making and hearing sequences of high and low level tones.

‘manna H L

_rna'ma L H

_ma‘rna_ma L H H

‘ma.rrra‘ma H L L

‘ma'ma..rna H H L

_one'two L H

'one'two H H

_one_two L L

_one‘two“'one L H H

‘one_two'one H L H

El .2.2 Practise hearing and produce falling and rising tones, in which there is a change of pitch on a single syllable. Q

xma HL

/ma LH

\.rna\ma HL

/ma/ma LH LH

\rna/ma HL LH

/ma\ma LH HL

9

xmine HL

/mine LH

/mine LH

xmine HL Q.

/un\known LI-I HL

xun/known LH

é“

Km L-.-:=.s,7.