English grammar, past and present; with appendices on prosody, synonyms, and other outlying subjects

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ENGLISH GEAMMAK PAST AND PRESENT 7^ PART

THREE PARTS

IN

I.— MODERN ENGLISH II.— IDIOM

GRAMMAR.

AND CONSTRUCTION.

III.— HISTORICAL

ENGLISH

:

WORD-BUILDING

AND DERIVATION. WITH APPENDICES ON PROSODY, SYNONYMS, AND OTHER OUTLYING SUBJECTS.

BY J.

C.

NESFIELD,

M.A.

LATE DIRECTOR OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCES AND OUDH, INDIA

MACMILLAN & ST.

CO., Limited

MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON

NEW YORK THE MACMILLAN COMPANY :

1898

PREFACE The

plan that has been followed in preimring this book is to mind gradually forward from the more easy to the less easy, from the better known to the less known or

carry the student's

the unknown.

Accordingly, Part I. deals with " Modern English Grammar," covering the more familiar ground of Accidence, Analysis, Sjmtax, and Punctuation. Part 11. discusses the idiomatic iLses of the different Parts of Speech, explaining these, when necessary, by reference to idioms that were in force in the earlier stages of our language. Part III. deals solely with the subject of " Historical English

and Derivation."

On

account of the greater complexity of this it, this Part

subject and the increasing importance ascribed to

has been made to cover about as Parts combined.

much

sjpace as

the other two

The Appendices deal with certain outlying subjects, such as Prosody, Figures of Rhetoric, Synonyms, etc., which do not

Grammar proper. Amongst them there is a valuable Note on the " Names of Vocalic Sounds " by Professor Skeat, which has been printed in this book with his permission. The gi'aduated method here described was suggested to the writer by an experience extending over many years, most of which were spent in an eastern country, where English is studied with extraordinary keenness, and every effort is made to find out the best means of teaching it. In fact, the present book Ls not an entirely new one, but an adajjtation of a manual prepared by the same author a few years ago in India, while he was still living there. In adapting this manual to English use, he has adhered to the original method, because he believes that for England no less than for India it is best to assume that the average student does not know very much to start with, and

Ijelong to

— ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PAST AND PRESENT

iv

that every student must be well versed in the principles of Modern English, before he can be qualified to begin the much

more difficult task of tracing these to their sources. The writer is glad to find that in following the plan thus suggested by his own experience and judgment, he was undesignedly acting up to the spirit of the directions given in the London Matriculation Directory, which run as follows "The English Language papers may roughly be divided into first, modern grammar, including, of course, parsing three parts and analysis second, historical grammar and jjliilology, including the history of the apparent solecisms of modern grammar, and especially of the traces of flexion that Modern English still shows third, subjects that come under neither of these heads, such as the correct use and meaning of words and the dis:

:

;

;

crimination of synonyms, the metrical characteristics of English verse, etc. From the above survey of the scope of the papers, it will be evident that the first essential of a sound and complete preparation will be a thorough grounding in the elements of English grammar." The grounding here prescribed as "the first essential" to the matriculation - course is precisely what the writer has attempted to supply in Part I. of the present book. In fact, .

.

.

own method is so closely analagous to that the 'University, that after reading through all set for the last eighteen years by th-e London examiners, he was able to distribute them under his

laid

down by

the questions

Matriculation three different

headings, answering respectively to Part I. on " Modern English Grammar," Part 11. on " Idiom and Construction," and Part III. on " Historical English and Derivation." Each set of questions

has been reprinted at the close of the Part to which it relates, so that the student may be able to test his own knowledge as

he advances. The student who desires to avail himself of the opportunity thus offered will find, as the writer believes, that there is scarcely any question relating to these three branches of English Grammar, which cannot be answered from information furnished in the text of the book.

Three rather lengthy chapters have been given to the history subjects about which A^ery

of Sounds, Spellings, and Accents, little

is

—

said in current text-books intended for School use.

A

treatment of such subjects appeared to the writer to be indispensable, if something like a complete outline of the history of our language is to be placed before the student. fuller

PREFACE

V

hoped that this book may be of some use at Ladies' any other institutions where Historical as well as Modern Englisli is made an object of study. The names of the authorities consulted by the writer in dealing with Historical English can be seen from the references But he may here state that Professor given in the footnotes. Skeat is the authority from whom he has derived most help, and this not merely from the study of his books, which (it is needless to add) are in the vanguard of research, but still more from the conversations and correspondence that he was privileged to have with that gentleman, whenever he found it necessary to refer to him on any doubtful or difficult point. The writer cannot be too grateful for the help so ungrudgingly given. At the same time it must be understood that, if any mistakes occur in the course of this book, no one but the author himself is It is

Colleges and

responsible.

Whatever

errors

may

be found, they are

all his

own.

The writer must

also tender his thanks to Eev. J. Sephton, Cambridge, Reader in Icelandic at University College, Liverpool, for having read the proofs of Part III. and made such suggestions as struck him in the course of doing so. J. C. N.

M.A.,

Ealing,

1st October 1897.

CONTENTS PART

L— MODERN ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

CHAP, 1.

Analytical Outline

2.

Nouns

General Definitions

—The kinds of Nouns — Substitutes for a Noun —Gender — Case —Number Adjectives Section —The kinds of Adjectives —The two Uses of Adjectives — Substitutes Adjectives — Comparison of Adjectives Pronouns Section —Personal Pronouns —Demonstrative Pronouns —Relative or Conjunctive Pronouns — Interrogative Pronouns Section

3.

:

1.

,,

2.

,,

3.

,,

4.

,,

5.

,,

2.

,,

3.

,,

4.

.

......

1.

4.

for

.

.

.

1.

5.

,,

2.

,,

3.

-,,

4.

.

.

.

Verbs Section

1.—The kinds

of Verbs

.

— Transitive Verbs — Intransitive Verbs —Auxiliaiy —Active and Passive Voices — Mood, Tense, Number, and Person — Indicative Mood — Imperative Mood — Subjunctive Mood — Infinitive Mood — Participles 12. — Gerunds and Verbal Nouns 13. — The Conjugation of Verbs — Auxiliary, Defective, and Anomalous Verbs Adverbs Section — The Functions of Adverbs — The kinds of Adverbs — Comparison of Adverbs — Verbs compounded with Adverbs —The two Uses of Adverbs ,,

2.

,,

3.

,,

4.

,,

5.

,,

6.

,,

7.

,,

8.

,,

9.

,,

10.

,,

11.

A^'erbs

.

....

,, ,,

G.

.

,,

14.

,,

2.

1.

7.

,,

3.

,,

4.

,,

5.

PREl'OSITIONS

.

.

CONTENTS

Vll

Conjunctions Section ,,

9.

10.

1.

2.

— Co-ordinativo Conjunctions — Subordinative Conjunctions

Interjections

Analysis of Sentences Section „ ,,

1. 2. 3.

— Analysis of Simple Sentences —Analysis of Compound Sentences — Analysis of Complex Sentences .

11.

The Same Word used

12.

Syntax

13.

Punctuation, or the Right Use of Stops Questions on Modern English GraiMmar

as Different Parts of Speech

.

PART II.— IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 14.

Nouns and Pronouns Section ,

15.

,

,,

1.

2.

,,

3.

,,

4.

Verbs Section ,

,

,,

17.

2.

Adjectives Section

16.

1.

1.

2. 3.

Adverbs Section ,,

1.

2.

— Cases of Nouns and Pronouns —Uses of Pronouns, Past and Present .

.

— Uses of the Various kinds of Adjectives — The Uses of Articles —Adjectives used as Nouns — Degrees of Comparison — Uses of Tenses — Further Uses of the Infinitive — Sequence of Tenses — Position of Adverbs — Adverbs qualifying Prepositions

.... .

.... .... .

18.

Prepositions

19.

Conjunctions and Conjunctional Phrases Miscellaneous Words, Phrases, and Constructions Notes on Certain Grammatical Terms Questions on Idiom and Construction

20.

PART

III.— HISTORICAL

ENGLISH

:

WORD-BUILDING

AND DERIVATION. 21.

Historical Outline Section

....

— English and Cognate Languages

,,

2.— Old English 3.— Middle English

,,

4.

,,

!22.

1.

—Modern English — Celtic — Danish or Later Scandian

Borrowings Section

1.

,,

2.

,,

3.— Dutch

,,

4.

— Latin

ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PAST AND PRESENT CHAP. 22.

— French Miscellaneous — Section —Alphabet, Present and Past — Consonants —Vowels and Diphthongs Spellings Section — History of English Spelling —Summary of English Spellings Accentuation, Syllabic Division Section —Words of Native or Teutonic Origin Section

5.

6.— Greek Modern Borrowings 7. ,, Sounds and Symbols ,,

23.

....

1.

24.

,,

2.

,,

3.

.

.

1.

2.

,,

25.

.

1.

,

— Words of French 3.— Syllabic Division 2.

,

,,

26.

Accidence

—The Forms of Nouns —The Forms of Adjectives — The Forms of Pronouns — The Forms of Verbs —The Forms of Adverbs — The Forms of Prepositions —The Forms of Conjunctions Compound Words — Unrelated or Juxta-positional Compounds Section — Related or Syntactical Compounds —Disguised Compounds —Mistaken or Apparent Compounds — Hybrid Compounds Teutonic Prefixes and Suffixes Section — Prefixes Section

27.

or Latin Origin

1.

,,

2.

,,

3.

,,

4.

,,

5.

,,

6.

,,

7.

.

.

1.

•

28.

,,

2.

,,

3.

....

4.

, ,

,,

5.

,,

2.

1.

29.

— Suffixes

Romanic Prefixes and Suffixes Section

1.

— Prefixes

2.— Suffixes Greek Prefixes and Suffixes ,,

30.

Section ,,

31.

32.

...... ...... ...... .... ......

1. 2.

— Prefixes — Suffixes

Summary of Results in Prefixes and Suffixes Bilingualism, Doublets, Grimm's Law, Verner's Law Questions on Historical English

APPENDIX ,,

,, ,,

5>

N^DEX

I.

Prosody and Poetry

IL Figures of Rhetoric in. Synonyms IV. Changes of Meaning V. Note on Vocalic Sounds by Prof. Ske .

....

I. Of Subjects n. Of Selected Words and Phrases

—

PAET

L—MODERN

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

CHAPTER ANALYTICAL OUTLINE 1.

A

Sentence.

sense

2)lete

is

GENERAL DEFINITIONS.

—A combination

is

of words that makes a comThe sense is not complete, Sentence. said about something else.

A

—There are

ship went out to sea.

five different

(a) Assertive, affirming or

A

:

I.

called a

unless something

Note.

)

kinds of sentences {Indie. Mood.) :

denying.

man's success depends chiefly on himself. {Affirmative.) did not get much help from others. {Negative.

He

command or prohibition. {ImiJer. Mood.) Rely chiefly on your own efforts. {Command or Advice.) Do not rely much on the help of others. {Prohibition.)

{h)

Imperative,

(c)

Interrogative, asking a question.

Have you {d) Optative,

{e)

{Indie. Mood.)

finished that task

?

{Subjund. Mood.) God save the queen.

expressing a wish.

Exclamatory, surprise, joy, sorrow,

What

etc.

{Indie. Mood.)

a foolish fellow you have been

!

—

The word or Avords denoting Subject and Predicate. the pei-son or thing about which something is said are called the Subject of the sentence. A ship went out to sea. 2.

The word

or words which say something, about the person

or thing denoted

by the

Subject, as " ivent out" are called the

Predicate. 1

^

The student

subject

is

miist therefore guard against such definitions as

what we speak about"; or "The subject

which something

is

asserted."

In point of

fact,

is

we make

"The

that concerning no assertion con-

MODERN ENGLISH GRAMMAR

2

part

i

Hence no sentence can be made without a Subject and a Predicate. These two tilings are necessary to make a complete sense. But the subject may be understood as in go, and in almost all other Imper. sentences. In such a sentence as " Companion, hence /" (Shaks.), both the verb and the subject are understood.

—A combination

A

Phrase. 3. not a complete sense,

is

of words that

make

sense,

but

called a Phrase.

On the river. Through thick and thin. A bird in the hand. The student will therefore undei-stand that a phrase cannot contain a Predicate either expressed or understood.

A

4. is

Clause.

—A

sentence whicli

is

2mrt of a larger sentence

called a Clause.

This is the house where we live. " Here " where we live " is a sentence, because it has a subject " we and a predicate " live." Similarly "this is the house " is a sentence, having "this" for its subject and "is" for its predicate. But both are^a?'/s of a larger sentence, and hence each of them is called a clause. |

Nouns.

5.

as

771 a?i,

—

Hence a

Noun.

we give a name to some person or thing, sucli we call the word used for this purpose a noun is the naming word.

If

house, ship,

—

If instead of mentioning or repeating a noun Pronouns. we use some other word which will show what noun we are referring to, we call the word so used a Pronoun. A ship went to sea, and she had all her sails up. Here the pronoun "she" is used instead of the noun "ship," and saves its being mentioned twice. Hence a pronoun is a substitute word, 6.

and. its chief use

is to

save the mentioning or repetition of

a noun.

—

If we wish to restrict the application of a Adjectives. noun by adding something to its meaning, we call the woi-d used for this purpose an Adjective. More briefly, the adjective is said to qualify the noun, 7.

A fine ship went out to sea. word Adjective means "adding," and is so called because it adds something to the meaning of a noun. In the above sentence we do not speak ol" any kind of ship, but only of afne ship. Tlie

8.

else,

Verbs.

we

call

—

If

we wish

to say

something about something it a Verb.

the word used for saying

A

fine

ship went out to sea.

cerning the Subject, but only about the person or thing denoted by the Subject. If we say, " Tlie ox is dead," we make no assertion about the noun " ox " the subject, but about the ihivg or animal " ox " denoted by the nouu.

—

CHAP.

GENERAL DEFINITIONS

I

3

Here the word which predicates or says something about a ship is out," This is therefore a verb and thus the 2>rcdicate of a sentence must be a verb, or it must at h^ast contain one.

"went

;

—

In the phrcose "to sea," Preposition with its Object. This woi-d expresses to " is caHed a Preposition. tlie relation in wliich tlie thing denoted by " sea " stands to the event denoted by " went out." The noun, pronoun, or other noim-equivalent that foHows tlie 9.

word "

the

preposition

The

called its Object.

is

use of a preposition, then,

is to

show

the relation in

which

the -person or thing denoted by its Object stcinds to something else}

—A

10. Conjunctions.

Conjunction

is

a joining word.

It

joins words and phrases to one another, or one sentence to another sentence. (a) {b)

He made himself mean aiid of no reputation. May he live long and (may he) die happily.

In {a) the adjective " mean " is joined to the phrase " of no reputation" by the conjunction " and." In {b) the sentence " may he live long " is joined by the same conjunction to the sentence " may he die happily." 11.

An

Adverbs.

adjective, as

—

These, like adjectives, are qualifying words.

we have shown,

qualifies anything except

qualifies a

noun ; an adverb

a noun or pronoun."^

Thaf^fer?/ fine ship has already sailed half through the Channel. Here ''very" is an adverb qualifying the adjective "fine " ; "al-

ready " is an adverb qualifying the verb " has sailed " an adverb qualifying the preposition "through."

—

12. Interjections.

emotion by a single for the purpose,

;

and " half"

is

we wish to express some feeling or and without using a whole sentence the word so used an Interjection. If

w^ord,

we

call

My

son, alas

!

is

not industrious.

" is a

sound thrown into the sentence to express regret. Observe that the word alas ! is not syntactically connected with the rest of the sentence, but is a mere sound thrown into it (Lat. inter,

Here "alas

^

The student must guard against such a definition as A Preposition noun to a word, indicating some relation between the noun and the *'

joins a

word thus joined with it." In point of fact, all Parts of Speech (excepting and not merely prepositions, indicate relations between icords. The peculiar function of a preposition is that it indicates a relation between things, that is, between the things denoted by words, and not between the interjections),

words themselves. An Adverb is generally defined to be a " word used to qualify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs." The inadequacy of this definition, which excludes Prepositions and Conjunctions from the qualifying power of adverbs, '^

is

further

shown

in § 216.

— MODERN ENGLISH GRAMMAR

4

In this respect between, jactus, thrown). footing from all other parts of speech,

part

i

stands on a different

it

—

Words are classified 13. The Parts of Speech defined. according to the purpose tliat they are used for, and every such (Hence, in parsing a word, class is called a Part of Speech. the first thing to do is to say what part (quae pars) of speech it belongs (1) (2)

The

to.)

A A

Noun

Parts of Speech can be thus defined

:

naming some person or thing. word used instead of a noun or noun-

a word used for

is

Pronoun

a

is

equivalent. (3)

An

(4)

A Verb

is a word used to qualify a noun. a w^ord used for saying something about some

Adjective is

person or thing. Preposition is a word placed before a noun or noun(5) equivalent to show in wdiat relation the j^erson or tiling denoted

A

tlie

noun stands

(6)

A

(7)

An Adverb

to something else. Conjunction is a w^ord used to join -words or phrases together, or one clause to another clause.

by

except a (8)

noun

An

to express

a word used to qualify any part of speech

is

or pronoun.

Interjection is a word or sound throw^n into a sentence some feeling of the mind.

—

Observe that the Part of Speech to which a word belongs A^ote. depends on thcpur]}ose that the word is used'for in that particular context, and that the same word may be of a different Part of Speech in Thus man is a noun in "The man has come" a different context. but a verb in "Man the lifeboat." ;

The

14.

Articles.

Articles. "

The "

ticularisas a noun. it

is

—The words

A " or

"

"a" and "the"

are called

called the Definite Article, because it par-

" an

" is called

the Indefinite, because

does not particularise a noun, but generalises

it.

The "

A

articles are not a distinct part of speech, but merely adjectives. " or "an " is an abbreviated form of the adjective " one " while ;

"the"

is

the root form of "this," "that," "these," "those."

—Any

15. Finite Verb Number and Person. can be used as the Predicate of a sentence :

tliat

is

part of a verb

called Finite.

word "finite" means "limited." A finite verb is so the same Person {First, Second, or Third) and to the same Number {Singular or Plural) as its Tlie

called, because it is limited to

Subject. (a)

I see

him.

{b)

They

see

him.

In both sentences the form of the verb "see" is the same. But in (rt) the verb is in the First person, because its Subject "I" is in

—

— CHAP.

GENERAL DEFINITIONS

I

5

the First persou, and in the Singular number, because its Subject is Similarly in (b) the verb is in the Third person, because Singular. its Subject "they" is in the Third person, and plural, because its Subject is Plural.

ticular

Such

a Verb not

not

wliicli are

Subject or be

made the

are

are not limited to

is,

Predicates of a sentence.

jjarts are three in ;

finite.

that

finite,

as " I M'ish to retire " (3)

—There

some parts of a any yavNumber or Person, because they cannot be used with a

16. Parts of

verb

(2)

—

number (1) the Infinitive mood, a Participle, as " a retired officer " ; :

a Gerund, as " I think of retiring"

—

Note. These, though they are parts of a verb, have lost what is most essential in the verb-character ; that is, they do not enable us to saij

something about something

else.

—

Double Parts of Speech. Besides the eight parts of speech shown in § 13, there are four more which must be called 17.

double, or two parts of speech combined in one (1)

A Participle. —This A

is

:

a verb and adjective combined.

retired oJQScer lives next door.

The word "retired" "retire."

"

It

Hence

officer."

(2)

A

is

is a verb, because it is part of the also an adjective, because it qualities the a participle may be called a verbal adjective.

Gerund.

—This

is

a verb and

verb

noun

noun combined.

think of retiring soon from service. Here "retiring" is a verb, because it is part of the verb "retire." is also a noun, because it is the object to the preposition " of" I

It

(3)

An

Infinitive. I

Here

to

It is also a

—This

wish

to

too

is

a verb and

noun combined.

return that book.

return is a verb, because it is part of the verb "return." noun, because it is object (see § 22) to the verb " wish."

—A

A

Eelative pronoun, Relative Pronoun or Adverb. (4) such as who, ivhich, etc., or a Relative adverb, such as where, when, etc., has the character of a pronoun or adverb combined with that of a conjunction. This is the house where we live. is an adverb, because it qualifies the verb "lives." It is also a conjunction, because it joins the two sentences^. Hence, relative adverbs have been sometimes called conjunctive adverbs. Similarly, relative pronouns have been called conjunctive pronouns.

Here "where"

—

18. Apposition of Noun with Noun. A noun is said to be in apj)osition with another noun, or with a pronoun, when it refei-s to tlie same person or thing :

— Philip, king of Macedon, was Pronoun. — the man you were looking

Noun.

fatlier to

I,

for,

Alexander the Great.

am

here.

—

— MODERN ENGLISH GRAMMAR

6

)

part

i

—

Whenever a 19. Apposition of Sentence with Noun. sentence is in apposition with a noun, the sentence must be introduced by the conjunction " that." The rumour

you were coming was generally believed.

that

Noun with

Apposition of

20.

Sentence.

—A noun can be

in apposition witli a sentence or with some implied noun, which (if it were expressed) would denote the action of the verb.

He

a barbarous act. (Here "act" is in killed his prisoners, position with the implied noun, the killing of prisoners.

—

The Subject to a sentence must be Subject. noun or a noun-equivalent. The principal forms in

Forms of

21.

either a

which a Subject can be (a)

aj)-

Noun

A

:

Pronoun

(c)

Infinitive

{d)

Gerund

Phrase (/) Clause

:

: :

:

to sea.

He (some one

previously named) Avas convicted. or proneness to error) is human. Sleeping is necessary to health. How to do this puzzles all of us. Whoever v'as caught was sent to jail.

(&)

(e)

exjiressed are as follows

went out

sAi?;

:

:

To err

(

= error

—

Transitive Verbs Verb and Object. A verb is Transitive, if the action or feeling denoted by the verb does not stoj) with itself, but is directed towards some person or thing. The word or words denoting such person or thing are called the Object to the verb. That snake bit the man. 22.

:

—

Forms of Object. The various forms in which the can be expressed are the same as those in which the Subject can be expressed. See § 21. 23.

Oljject

Noun

(b)

That snake bit the mail. Pronoun That snake bit him.

(c)

Infinitive

:

{d)

Gerund

He

{e)

Phrase

(a)

:

:

(/) Clause

:

:

:

We

desire to succeed loves riding.

(

= success).

We do not know how to do this. We do not know lohat he wants.

—

24. Factitive Verbs: Those Transitive Complement. verbs which require not only an Object (as all Transitive verbs do), but also some other word or words to make the i)redication complete, are called Factitive. They are, in fact. Transitive

verbs of Incomplete predication. Tlie woi'd or Avords that complete the predication (that

complete what the verb

He put

tlie

unsaid) are called the

lihii

is,

Complement.

school (object) into good order (complemeut).

Tliat grief drove

They made

left

him (object) mad (complement). (object) laugh (complemeut).

—— CUAP.

—

— —

—

—

)

GENERAL DEFINITIONS

I

7

There is no sense in saying " he put the school," " that grief drove him," " they made him " lieuce each verb must have a Complement. ;

25. Intransitive Verbs.

—A

verb

Intransitive,

is

by the verb stops with anything else.

action or feeling denoted

not directed towai-ds Fish sivim.

sitive verbs, thougli tliey

if

the

and

is

All animals die,

"Rivers Jloio.

Verbs with Complement.

26. Intransitive

itself,

— But Intran-

do not require an Object,

may

require

a Complement, as some Transitive verbs also do.

Such verbs are

Verbs of Incomplete

called Intransitive

Predication.

He became a Note.

good

Sleep

scliolar.

is

— Such verbs, when the complement

necessary to health.

in the form of a noun, is less suitable, form other than that of a is

The word "copulative"

can be called copulative.

however, when the complement is in some noun. They have been called copulative, because they couple two nouns together in the same case. 27.

when

the sentence

it

is

—

A verb is said to be used not grammatically related to the rest of

Absolute use of Verbs.

absolutely,

:

Participle (further explained in § 284). The sun having set, all went home. ( With Noun.) Supposing we are late, the door will be locked. ( Without Noun.

(a)

(b) Infinitive Mood (further explained in § 191 and § 192) (Simple.) To think that he should have told a lie to speak plainly, much displeased with you. {Gcrundial.) I am, :

!

—

(c)

Imperative

A 28.

Mood

few men,

Introductory

Intransitive verb

(further explained in § 180)

say twelve,

is

Adverb.

— When

placed after

its

the

subject

verb, the verb

It has

to

an

usually " this relation " there

In introduced by the adverb " there." does not signify " in that place," but merely serves the verb.

:

— may be expected shortly. is

to

introduce

no signification whatever.

There are some men (subject) who never drink wine. There came a maiden (subject) to my door.

—

The following kinds of phrases 29. Kinds of Phrases. should be distinguished from one another (a) Adverbial phrase, or one which does the work of an adverb I liopc you will work better infiiticre. Bind him liand and foot, and take him away. :

:

—

—

!

MODERN ENGLISH GRAMMAR

8

part

i

Prepositional plirase, or one wliich does tlie work of a (Such phrases end in a simple i^rej^osition.)

(&)

preposition.

the event of our fatlier's death, we shall be left jioor. hard for the sake of a prize.

In

He worked (c)

i)hrase, or one which does the work of a (Such phrases end in a simj^le conjunction.)

Conjunctional

conjunction.

am tired us u-ell as He took medicine in

hungry.

I

order that he

might

{d)

Absolute Participial phrase

{e)

Interjectional or exclamatory phrase

The sun having IVcll to he sure

set,

CHAPTER 30.

Noun

31.

Nouns

1.

defined.

some person or thing

all

For shame

!

Section

they

went home.

II.— NOUNS.

—A

Noun

is

a word used for

A

naming

(§ 13). :

.

.

.

.

.

.

Collective

.

.

.

Material

.

.

.

.

.

.

Common

32.

see § 241.

The Kinds of Nouns.

{Proper.

Abstract

;

Good heavens

!

are of five different kinds

II.

recover.

see § 284.

;

.

.1 .2 .3 .4 ,5

Prober Nouns.

Proper

as distinct

Noun

denotes one partimitar person or thing

from every other

;

as

James

(a

person), Kenilworth (a

book), Paris (a city), France (a country).

— —

Note 1. The writing of a Proper noun should always be commenced with a capital letter. Note 2. A word or phrase is sometimes added to a proper noun to prevent ambiguity of reference. Thus we say, "Alexander the Great," or "/S7. Paul," or "Boston in America," to show which Alexander, or wliich Paul, or whicli Boston is meant for many different persons or places might be called by these names. Note. 3. A large number of nouns now Proper were originally :

—

A common name, as Brown, Smith, Baker, Clark (clerc), Shepherd, Butcher, Parson, Mason, etc., being frequently applied to Common.

some individual by way of distinction, was eventually restricted to that individual and liis fanrily, and so the Common name becomes a Proper name. Words, such as Father, ^Mother, Baby, Granny, though really Common names, arc iu most families used as Proper

— CHAr.

NOUNS

II

9

uaines, to denote certain individuals ; as when a man says to liis Proper names of rivers, such as Avon child, "Where is Mother?" (Celtic), Congo (African), -were once common names for "river." Note 4. The name Proper is from Lat. 'proprius, one's own. Hence a Proper name means one's otvn individual name, as distinct from a Common name, that can be given to a class of individuals.

—

Common Nouns.

A Common Noun

33.

particular, but

common

is

denotes no one person or thing in

to

any and

evenj 2}erso7i or thing of the

man," " book," " country." Thus, man does not point out any particular man, such as James, but can be used for any and every man. Book does not point out any l)articular book, such as Kcnilivorth, but can be used for any and every book. Country does not point out any particular country, such as France, but can be used for any country in any part of the world. Note. The name Common is from the Lat. communis, and means that which is shared by several different individuals possessing some common characteristic, in virtue of which the name can be given to any and all of them. as "

same kind ;

—

A

34.

when

Noun

Proper

denotes

it

(a)

is

said to be " used as a

some rank or

office,

or

(6)

Common Noun"

some

class of per-

sons or things.

Such words

as Cwsar, Caliph, Sultan, Khedive, Czar, etc., are nouns, because they denote persons holding a certain office thus we can speak of *' the twelve Ctesars," " the first four Caliphs," "the Sultan of Turkey," " the Czar of Russia." (a)

used as rank or

Common :

{h) A Proper noun becomes a Common noun, when it denotes a class of persons or things and is used in a descriptive sense. "He is tltc Newton of the age," that is, the greatest astronomer of the age.

—

Collective

A

Nouns.

Noun

denotes a group or collection of similar individuals, considered as one comj)lete whole. 35.

Collective

may be many sheep) in a field, but only one flock. Common noun, because it may stand for any and

For instance, there

Here "sheep"

a

is

every sheep but " flock " is a Collective noun, because it stands for all the sheep at once, and not for any one sheep taken separately. ;

Every Collective Noun

36.

is

also a

kind of

Common Noun.

may stand for many different flocks (or groups of sheei>) "class " for many classes (or groups of students). 37. Nouns of Multitude. A distinction is made between a Collective Noun and a Noun of Multitude Thus

tlie terra

"flock"

;

—

:

A

Collective noun denotes one undivided whole verb following is singular (§ 15). (a)

The jury

consists of twelve persons.

;

and hence the

— MODERN ENGLISH GRAMMAR

10

part

(b) A noun of Multitude denotes the individuals of the group and hence the verb is plural, although the noun is singular (§ 15). The jury (the men on the jury) iverc divided in their opinions.

i

;

Nou7is of Material.

A

38.

noun of Material denotes some

particular kind of

matter or substance. " is a Common noun a Material noun.

Thus "sheep sheep)

is

;

but "mutton "

(or

the flesh of

39. The same word can be a Material noun or a Common noun according to the sense.

Fish

Fish live in water.

is

good

for food.

sentence the noun denotes individual fish or fishes, and is therefore a Common noun. In the second it denotes tlie matter of which the bodies of fish are made, and is therefore a Material noun.

In the

first

Abstract Nouns.

An Abstract Noun

40.

action, apart

denotes

some

quality,

from anything possessing the quality,

state,

or

etc.

— Cleverness, height, humility, roguery, colour. — Poverty, manhood, bondage, pleasure, youth. Action — Laughter, movement, flight, choice, revenge.

Quality State

The objects

four kinds of nouns previously described all relate to of- sense,

that

is,

heard, smelt, or tasted

;

whick can be seen, touched, such nouns are called. Concrete

to things

and

all

But an abstract noun relates to qualities, states, etc., which cannot be seen or touched, etc., and which are thought of apart from any object of sense. For example : We know that a stone is hard. We also know that iron is hard. We also know that a brick is hard. We can therefore

nouns.

from stone, or iron, or brick, or any other object having the same quality. "Abstract" means "drawn ofl'" (abstracted in thought) from the object. Hence hardness is an abstract noun while stone or hrick or iron is a concrete noun.

si)eak of hardness apart

;

The same word may be an Abstract noun or a Common noun, accoi-ding to the purpose for which it is used. When an Abstract noun is " used as a Common or Concrete noun,'' it may denote (a) the person possessing the quality, or (6) the thing to which the action, state, or quality belongs ^ 41.

:

^

is

The

fact that it

Hence we

name

is

much

Common nouns some person or thing

nouns to Concrete or

coiiversiou of Abstract

due to the

than to think of an

easier to think of

al)stract quality apart

from any person or thing.

art; naturally disposed to transfer the name of the quality to the of the person or thing possessing the quality.

— CHAP.

NOUNS

II

11

Examj)les of Persons. of being just A judge, or one who administers justice The quality or state of being beautiful A person possessing beauty The power or right to command ^ person possessing authority The quality of being noble Those who are of the class of nobles Evidence or testimony One who gives the evidence («)

The quality

Justice

\

Beauty ,

\

^

(\.

..

J Autnonty

2

y^ ri-

\T h-Tt JSoO%l%ty

^2. j\. |2.

jj^..

tyitiicss

Abstract Concrete Abstract Concrete Abstract Concrete Abstract Concrete Abstract Concrete

.

.

.

.

.

(6)

JExamples of Things.

Abstract The act or quality of judging Judgment < f," Concrete The verdict given by the judge Abstract The art or faculty of seeing Sight Concrete The thing seen "a fine sight " Abstract The faculty of speaking Speech speech delivered the word spoken Concrete {I: The Abstract /I. The feeling of wonder or surprise Wonder "" Concrete 12. The wonderful event or object Abstract 1. The quality of being kind Kindness f Concrete \2. The kind thing done 42. The Gerunds and the Simple Intinitives of verbs 188) .

:

.

:

"

.

.

are in fact, tliougli not in form, kinds of Abstract nouns. following sentences all mean the same thing

The

:

Service is better than idleness. {Abstract Noun.) Serving is better than idleness. {Gerund.) To serve is better than idleness. {Infinitive Mood,)

43.

An

Abstract noun

personified,

—

person.

must then

It

Proper nouns

that

is,

is

ho,

used as a Proper noun,

when

it

is

spoken of as an individual commenced with a caj)ital letter, as

Avhen

is

it

are.

He is the favoured child of Fortune. Let not Ambition mock their useful toil. 44. There are two ways in which a Proper, Material, or AKstract noun can be used as (or changed into) a Common noun (a) by putting an article (" a " or " the ") before it ; (6) :

—

by putting

it

into

tlie jjlural

number.

Proper Noun. iJanicl was a learned Jew.

Co /union Nouns.

J A Daniel come to judgment. (There are more Daniels than

one.

Material Noun.

Pear

is

my

favourite fruit.

fGive me the pear in your hand. \Give me one oi yowY pears.

Abstract Noun. Justice is a noble quality.

/He

is a justice of the peace. \There are ioxxv justices present.

——

— —

—— —

:

—

MODERN ENGLISH GRAMMAR

12

Point out

—

helow

hind or

the

part

i

each of the nouns occurring

use of

tlie Great, king of Macedon, -was conqueror of Persia. ignorant of the arts of reading, writing, and ciphering is, in The proper study point of knowledge, more like a child than a man. Cows are as fond of grass as men are of milk, or of mankind is man. Health is one of the greatest blessings that a man hears of honey. The Czar of or woman can hope to enjoy in this bodily existence. Russia, although he is lord of the eastern half of Europe and the northern half of Asia, besides being master of a huge army and a large ileet, cannot live in peace and safety with his own subjects, and cannot leave his own palace without fear.

Alexander

A man

Sectiox

Substitutes for a Noun.

2.

The following kinds

of words or combinations of 45. can be used as substitutes for a Noun; see §§ 21, 23

w^oi-ds

:

{a)

A

(6)

An

stood

Pronoun Your horse

:

white

is

;

mine

is

a black one

Noun

Adjective used as a

(

noun under-

:

The blind ( = blind men) receive their sight. The just (=justice) is higher than the expedient {c)

A

Verb in the Infinitive mood

A

Gerund

A

Phrase

He {d)

desires to succeed

No (/)

noun

;

Who

= expediency).

= success).

fond oi sleeping

= sleep),

(

:

one knew how

A

(

(

:

:—

He was (e)

a

= horse).

or with some

do this

to

(

= the method

of doing this).

Noun-clause that is, a clause which does the work of (for the definition of " clause " see § 4). ;

steals

my purse = the (

Section

stealer of

3.

my

purse) steals trash.

Gender.

—

In the grammar of Modem English, difference 46. Gender. of Gender coincides with difference of sex or with the absence of sex ^ :

(2)

Masculine: male animals: Feminine female animals

(3)

Common

(1)

:

:

hull^ horse, hog. :

cow, mare, sow.

animals of either sex

^ In the proi)er sense of the word, this not based ou the form vf the word.

is

:

parent, child.

not gender at

all,

since

it

is

— CHAP,

Neuter

(4) life

——

:

NOUNS

II

:

13

things of neither sex, that

things without

is,

boXj flock, pain.

:

Note.

— We often take no account of the sex of young children or of

lower animals

;

so in speaking of

The child is asleep Have you a horse ? 47.

ways

;

them we use Neuter pronouns

:

let it sleep on.

will

you

let

me

ride

it ?

—

Modes

Tliere are three different of denoting Gender. which the gender or sex of living beings is indicated.

ill

By a change of word as bull, coio. By adding a word as he-goat, she-goat. By adding ess to the Masculine as priest,

I.

;

II.

;

III.

;

1.

By a

change of word

priestess.

:

Boar

maid (or spinster) sow

Masculine. Feminine. Horse(orstallion)mare Husband wife

Boy

girl

King

queen

Brother

sister

Lord

lady

Buck

doe

Man

Feminine.

Masculine. Bachelor

Bull (or ox) cow Bullock(or steer) heifer

Cock

hen

Colt

filly

Dog

bitch (or slut)

Drake Drone

duck

Earl Father Friar (or

mother

monk) nun

Note.

(fish)

niece

Papa

mamma (or

weth er) ewe

Sir Sire (father of CO It)

madam (or damo) dam

Sloven

slut

Son

daughter hind nymi>h aunt witch

Stag

Swain Uncle Wizard

goose lady roe

spawner

Nephew

Ram

bee countess

Gander Gentleman Hart

woman

Milter

(mother of

—There are some Feminine nouns which have no correspond-

ing Masculine hloiulc, hrunette, coquette, dowager, dowdy, drab, prude, shrew, siren, termagant, virago. :

II.

Masculine. Billy-goat Buck-rabbit

Cock-sparrow He-goat Jack -ass Man-servant Note.

colt)

jilt,

By adding a word

Feminine. nanny-goat

Masculine. Grand-father

Feminine. grand-mother

doe-rabbit

Tom-cat

tib-cat

hen-sparrow

Land -lord

she-goat she-ass

Pea-cock

land -lady pea-hen

Bull-calf

cow-calf

maid-servant

Washer-man

washer-woman

—The Masculine " roe-buck" has no corres])onding Feminine

and the Feminine "ewe-lamb" has no corresponding Masculine.

—

——

:

MODERN ENGLISH GRAMMAR

14

III.

By adding

(a)

By adding

the form of the Masculine

author-ess baron-ess count-ess giant-ess godd-ess

Giant

God Heir

heir-ess host-ess

Host

Jew

By adding

of the Masculine Masculine.

Actor Benefactor Conductor Director

Enchanter

ess,

prophet-ess shepherd-ess viscount-ess last syllable

Porter Songster Temi)ter Tiger

ess

Feminine.

Masculine.

benefactr-ess conductr-ess directr-ess

negr-ess portr-ess songstr-ess temptr-ess tigr-ess

Traitor

traitr-ess

Votary

votar-ess

to the Masculine in a less regular

Governor

Lad

lass

Emperor

princ-ess

Negro

Feminine. abbess duchess empress governess

Duke

l^rior-ess

2)oet-ess

Viscount

Feminine.

instructr-ess

Abbot

priest-ess

Prince Prior

actr-ess

Instructor

By adding

Priest

:

enchantr-ess huntr-ess

(c)

Feminine. patron-ess peer-ess

and omitting the vowel of the

Hunter

Masouline.

any change in

Masculine. Patron Peer Poet

Prophet Shepherd

Jew-ess Hon-ess

Lion

Masculine

:

Feminine.

Masculine.

Author Baron Count

(h)

ess to the

to the Masculine without

ess

Master (boy) Mr. Marquis \ Marquess J Murderer

Master (teacher, mistress

way

Feminine. miss (girl) Mrs.

Masculine.

marchioness

murderess

Sorcerer

etc.)

The following modes of distinction between Masculine and Feminine are exceptional 48.

:

Masculine.

Feminine.

Bridegroom

bride

Widower

widow

Masculine.

Fox ("Vixen" is

Feminine. vixen as Fem. of "fox'

now

obsolete.)

49. Foreign Feminines

Feminine.

Masculine. Administrator

administratrix

Hero

Beau

belle

Prosecutor Signor Sultan Testator

Czar

czarina

Don

donna

Executor

executrix

Masculine.

Feminine. heroine prosecutrix signora sultana testatrix

— CHAP.

NOUNS

II

50.

Double Feminines.

songstress

and

—The

15

two examples of

this

are

seamstress.

Originally ster was a Feminine suffix, as it still is in "spinster." force of stcr in "songster" and "seamster" has been lost, and so the Feminine form is now shown by changing er into rcss.

But the Feminine

51.

gender

The following

are examples of

Nouns

in

tlie

Common

:

— — Orphan — male or female. Pig — boar or sow. Sheep — ram or ewe. Elephant — male or female. Cat — male or female. Rat — male or female. Mouse — male or female. Fox — male or female. Spouse — husband or wife. Foal — colt or

— — — — — — —— — — Deer — stag or hind. Fallow-deer — buck or doe. Baby — male or female. Servant— man or maid. Monarch — king or queen. Note. — Some Masculine

Person man or woman. Pupil boy or girl.

Parent father or mother. Relation male or female. Friend enemy male or female. Cousin male or female cousin. Bird cock or hen. Peafowl peacock or peahen. Flirt man or maid. Fowl cock or hen. Child son or daughter.

filly.

Calf— bullock

or heifer.

nouns, as colt, dog, horse, and some Feminine nouns, as duck, bee, goose, are used to denote either sex, provided that no question arises as to whether the animal named is a male or a female. That is a fine little colt. That horse of yours is a splendid stepper. A goose is a much bigger bird than a ducJc.

—

Things wdthout life, 52. Gender of Personified Things. when they are pei'sonified, are regarded as male or female and ;

so,

in speaking of them,

we

use Masculine or Feminine pronouns.

—

Masculines. The stronger forces and more striking objects in nature (Winds, Rivers, Mountains, the Ocean, Storm, Thunder, the Sun, Summer, Autumn, Winter) the violent passions (Love, Fear, Anger, Despair, etc. ) violent actions (Murder, War, etc. ) Time, Day, Sleep, Death, the Grave. Feminines. The gentler forces and objects (as the Moon) whatever implies fertility or claims attachment (the Church, Nature, the Earth, the Mother-country, Countries, Universities, Ships, Cities, the season of Spring) the gentler feelings (Hope, Concord, Justice, Mercy, Charity, Faith, Humility, Modesty, etc. ) the inferior passions (Jealousy, Pride, Anger, Revenge) the Arts and Sciences Fame, Liberty, Victory, Religion, Philosophy, Adversity, Prosperity, Fortune, Night, Morning. A ship, though it is not commenced with a capital letter, is always spoken of as she. The same is often said of a railway train. We sjieak of a sts^cr-ship, a sister-institution, a sister-gun. ;

;

;

—

;

;

;

;

;

—

— —

———

)

)

MODERN ENGLISH GRAMMAR

16

Section

Case.

4.

—

The relation in wliich a noun stands to 53. Case defined. some other word, or tlie change of form (if any) by wliich this relation

is

indicated,

called its Case.^

is

54. There are three Cases in tive^

modern English,

—

the

Nomina-

the Possessive, and the Objective.

But the Possessive is the only case that is noiv indicated by a case-ending or change of form. The other cases have lost their caseendings, and are indicated only by grammatical relation.

When

55.

a

sake of address,

Hain

noun it is

used as the subject to a verb or for the

is

Nominative

said to be in the

case.

{Nominative of Subject. Are you coming, vciy friend? {Nominative of Address.)

When

56. it is

falls.

a

noun

is tlie object

to a verb or to a preposition,

said to be in the Objective case.

The man killed a rat. {Object to The earth is moistened by rain.

The Possessive

57.

denotes is

tlie possessor

called apostrophe

or owner.

s)

Singular N.B^.

case

to the

—man's.

Verb.) {Obj. to Prep.)

so called,

is

It is

noun

;

[

because

was omitted, by the comma

's

usually

(which

as

Plural

—men's.

— The old inflection for the Possessive case was

e

it

formed by adding

es.

When the

as it now always is, the absence of the e was indicated or apostrophe as moon, moones, moon's. ;

—

Omission of "apostrophe s." There are three kinds of instances in which the apostrophe s is omitted (ft) After all plural nouns ending in s ; as 58.

:

Horses' tails (6)

Whenever the

and ends with Moses' laws.

or

Conscience' sake ;

;

the dogs' kennels.

of a Singular

(But we must say Venus' s beauty

Whenever the ce, and the noun skin

the birds' nests

last syllable

noun begins

as

s ;

(c)

s

;

;

;

James's hat,

etc.

Singular noun ends with followed by " sake " ; as

last syllable of a is

for goodness" sake.

(But we must say

— a mouse's

James's smile.)

^ Case lit. means "falling" (Lat. cas-us). The Nom. was considered the upright or perpendicular, and the other cases were said to fall off to one side of it, and were hence called oblique or slanting. Since English nouns have lost every case-ending but one (the Possessive), the term "case " is etyniologically inappropriate. We retain it, however, to denote grammatical relation as well as change of form.

— CHAP.

—— ————

——

:

17

— In poetry the omission of apostrophe

Note.

"

NOUNS

II

ending with

s is

common

Poets are guided simply by the metre

s.

As thick

in words

:

Butlek.

as Ajax' seven-fold shield.

In prose we should say and write Ajaxs.

—

Rare use of Possessive. The Possessive case was once any kind of noun but it is now restricted to such examples as those shown below 59.

iised >vitli

;

:

(1)

Nouns denoting

as

|?e?'so?is ;

Henry's book; a vians foot. (But we cannot say book, " the mountain's foot," since "library and are inanimate objects.) '

(2)

man

;

Nouns denoting any kind

thing other than

of living

cat's tail

a Jiorse's head

;

;

a bird's feathers.

Nouns denoting personified things Fortune's favourite

(4)

library's

mountain

as

A (3)

"a ''

Nouns denoting

;

Sorrow's tears

;

as

;

England's heroes.

time, space, or weight

;

as

leave —A day's journey a month's holiday three a year's absence at six months' sight three days' grace. length a hayul's breadth a hair's breadth a Space. — A throw a needle's point. razor's edge a — weight. Weight. Aimund's weight a

Time.

boat's

;

;

stone's

The

Nouns

;

;

;

(5)

;

;

;

;

loeeks'

;

;

ton's

signifying certain dignified objects

;

as

the sun's rays the moon's crescent nature's works the earth's axis the soul's delight ; heaven's will ; the law's delays the mind's eye ; the ocean's ^n