English grammar: 50 exceptions
 9785392143474

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Å. À. ÂÀÑÈËÜÅÂÀ

ENGLISH GRAMMAR 50 EXCEPTIONS ÀÍÃËÈÉÑÊÀß ÃÐÀÌÌÀÒÈÊÀ 50 ÈÑÊËÞ×ÅÍÈÉ

Москва 2015

Электронные версии книг на сайте www.prospekt.org

УДК 811.111(075) ББК 81.2Англ-9 В19 В19

Васильева Е. А. English grammar: 50 exceptions (Английская грамматика: 50 исключений). — Москва : Проспект, 2015. — 40 с. ISBN 978-5-392-14347-4 Grammar rules help to understand the language structure, to see how it normally works. However, when you learn grammar rules you also have to meet various exceptions that on the one hand may seem confusing at first, but on the other hand they are often the most important cases of the rules. Almost all English grammar rules have some exceptions to them. One of the ways to remember the numerous exceptions is to make a list of the most common ones. In this reference book you can find the list of fifty most commonly used exceptions in English pronunciation, spelling and grammar. Грамматические правила помогают понять структуру языка, увидеть, как он работает. Однако, когда мы учим грамматические правила, мы встречаем множество исключений, которые сперва могут показаться запутанными, но в то же время являются самой важной частью правила. Практически все правила английской грамматики имеют несколько исключений. Один из способов запомнить многочисленные исключения – сделать список самых распространенных из них. В этой книге вы найдете список из пятидесяти наиболее используемых исключений из правил английского произношения, написания и грамматики. Вся книга написана на английском языке.

УДК 811.111(075) ББК 81.2Англ-9

Учебное издание

Васильева Елена Анатольевна ENGLISH GRAMMAR: 50 ИСКЛЮЧЕНИЙ АНГЛИЙСКАЯ ГРАММАТИКА: 50 ИСКЛЮЧЕНИЙ Справочник Оригинал-макет подготовлен компанией ООО «Оригинал-макет» www.o-maket.ru; тел.: (495) 726-18-84 Санитарно-эпидемиологическое заключение № 77.99.60.953.Д.004173.04.09 от 17.04.2009 г. Подписано в печать 10.10.2014. Формат 60×90 1/16. Печать офсетная. Печ. л. 2,5. Тираж 1000 экз. Заказ № ООО «Проспект» 111020, г. Москва, ул. Боровая, д. 7, стр. 4.

ISBN 978-5-392-14347-4

© Васильева Е. А., 2014 © ООО «Проспект», 2014

CONTENTS Particular Point 1 ........................................................................................... 5 Particular Point 2 .......................................................................................... 6 Particular Point 3 ........................................................................................... 7 Particular Point 4 ........................................................................................... 7 Particular Point 5 ........................................................................................... 7 Particular Point 6 ........................................................................................... 8 Particular Point 7 ........................................................................................... 9 Particular Point 8 ......................................................................................... 10 Particular Point 9 ......................................................................................... 12 Particular Point 10 ....................................................................................... 12 Particular Point 11 ....................................................................................... 13 Particular Point 12 ....................................................................................... 13 Particular Point 13 ....................................................................................... 14 Particular Point 14 ....................................................................................... 14 Particular Point 15 ....................................................................................... 14 Particular Point 16 ....................................................................................... 15 Particular Point 17 ....................................................................................... 15 Particular Point 18 ....................................................................................... 15 Particular Point 19 ....................................................................................... 15 Particular Point 20 ....................................................................................... 16 Particular Point 21 ....................................................................................... 16 Particular Point 22 ....................................................................................... 16 Particular Point 23 ....................................................................................... 17 Particular Point 24 ....................................................................................... 17 Particular Point 25 ....................................................................................... 17 Particular Point 26 ....................................................................................... 18 Particular Point 27 ....................................................................................... 19 Particular Point 28 ....................................................................................... 22 Particular Point 29 ....................................................................................... 22 3

Particular Point 30 ....................................................................................... 22 Particular Point 31 ....................................................................................... 22 Particular Point 32 ....................................................................................... 23 Particular Point 33 ....................................................................................... 23 Particular Point 34 ....................................................................................... 23 Particular Point 35 ....................................................................................... 23 Particular Point 36 ....................................................................................... 24 Particular Point 37 ...................................................................................... 24 Particular Point 38 ...................................................................................... 24 Particular Point 39 ....................................................................................... 24 Particular Point 40 ....................................................................................... 25 Particular Point 41 ....................................................................................... 25 Particular Point 42 ....................................................................................... 25 Particular Point 43 ....................................................................................... 26 Particular Point 44 ....................................................................................... 33 Particular Point 45 ....................................................................................... 35 Particular Point 46 ....................................................................................... 35 Particular Point 47 ....................................................................................... 36 Particular Point 48 ....................................................................................... 37 Particular Point 49 ....................................................................................... 38 Particular Point 50 ....................................................................................... 40

PARTICULAR POINT 1 The nouns below don’t take the article a/an and go with a singular verb. Uncountable nouns accommodation (a place to live) advice (a piece of advice) applause cash chess cutlery dancing evidence fruit fun (a bit of fun) garbage information (a piece of information) ink jewelry knowledge (a fact) lightning (a flash of lightning)

luck (a bit/ stroke of luck) luggage (a piece of luggage, a case, a trunk) litter money (a note, a coin, a sum) music parking pasta permission produce progress (a step forward) publicity (an advertisement) scenery travel work (a piece of work, a job)

5

PARTICULAR POINT 2 Some uncountable nouns can turn into countable with a more specific meaning. agreement – an agreement art – an art, the arts beauty – a beauty business – a business cold – a cold competition – a competition conversation – a conversation country – a country crime – a crime damage – damages decision – a decision dislike – dislikes education – an education experience – an experience fear – a fear fire – a fire football – a football freedom – freedoms grammar – a grammar help – a help history – a history kindness – a kindness knowledge – a knowledge of language – a language life – a life light – a light, lights love – a love medicine – a medicine noise – a noise

observation – an observation pain – a pain pity – a pity play – a play pleasure – a pleasure property – a property protest – a protest reading – readings reason – a reason religion – a religion room – a room science – a science sculpture – a sculpture silence – a silence snow – snows space – a space speech – a speech sport – a sport success – a success taste – a taste thought – a thought trade – a trade war – a war water – waters wonder – a wonder wood – a wood work – a work worry – a worry youth – a youth

6

PARTICULAR POINT 3 When an uncountable noun means a material, its countable form denotes an object made of this material. cloth – a cloth copper – a copper

iron – an iron glass – a glass; glasses

paper – a paper tin – a tin

PARTICULAR POINT 4 Another meaning of nouns in their countable form is “one of plenty” coal – a coal

hair – a hair

grain – a grain

pepper – a pepper

stone – a stone

PARTICULAR POINT 5 Two semantic groups of words “Food” and “Drinks” consist of various nouns in their uncountable and countable forms. Variety and sorts

food – foods flour – flours oil – oils bread – breads tea – teas coffee – coffees fruit – fruits meat – meats

Portions, containers, quantity tea – a tea (a cup of tea) pizza – a pizza (a box of pizza) cake – a cake (a piece of cake) chocolate – a chocolate (a chocolate sweet) ice-cream – an ice-cream candy – a candy beer – a beer wine – a wine juice – a juice 7

Substance, ingredients, part of dish chicken – a chicken onion – an onion tomato – a tomato cabbage – a cabbage

PARTICULAR POINT 6 The spelling of plural form of nouns ending with -o is different. consonant + -oes

-os

vowel +-os

an archipelago – archipelagoes a domino – dominoes an echo – echoes an embargo – embargoes a halo – haloes a hero – heroes an innuendo – innuendoes a jingo – jingoes a mosquito – mosquitoes a potato – potatoes a tomato – tomatoes a tornado – tornadoes a torpedo – torpedoes a veto – vetoes

an albino – albinos an alto – altos an auto – autos a canto – cantos a casino – casinos a disco – discos a dynamo – dynamos a hairdo – hairdos a kimono – kimonos a logo – logos a pimento – pimentos a pro – pros a solo – solos a sombrero – sombreros a soprano – sopranos a tango – tangos a zero – zeros

a bamboo – bamboos a cameo – cameos a cuckoo – cuckoos an embryo – embryos a kangaroo – kangaroos a patio – patios a portfolio – portfolios a radio – radios a ratio – ratios a scenario – scenarios a studio – studios a tattoo – tattoos a video – videos a zoo – zoos

contract form + -os

-os/-oes

a cello – cellos a kilo – kilos a memo – memos a photo – photos a piano – pianos

a buffalo – buffaloes, buffalos a cargo – cargoes, cargos a flamingo – flamingoes, flamingos a ghetto – ghettoes, ghettos a mango – mangoes, mangos a motto – mottoes, mottos a portico – porticoes, porticos a volcano – volcanoes, volcanos

8

PARTICULAR POINT 7 The spelling of plural form of nouns ending with -f/-fe is different. -fs a belief – beliefs a chief – chiefs a gulf – gulfs a handkerchief – handkerchiefs a proof – proofs a reef – reefs a roof – roofs a safe – safes a serf – serfs

-ves a calf – calves an elf – elves a half – halves a knife – knives a leaf – leaves a life – lives a loaf – loaves a sheaf – sheaves a shelf – shelves a thief – thieves a wife – wives a wolf – wolves

9

-fs/-ves a dwarf – dwarfs, dwarves a hoof – hoofs, hooves a scarf – scarfs, scarves a staff – staffs, staves a turf – turfs, turves a wharf – wharfs, wharves

PARTICULAR POINT 8 Words of foreign origin (Greek, Latin, French, etc.) have a specific plural form in the English language. -us →-i/-a/-es

-is → -es

an abacus – abacuses/abaci an alumnus – alumni an apparatus – apparatus/apparatuses a cactus – cacti a calculus – calculi/calculuses a census – censuses a focus – foci/focuses a fungus – fungi/ funguses a hiatus – hiatuses a hippopotamus – hippopotamuses/ hippopotami a nucleus – nuclei a papyrus – papyri a prospectus – prospecti a radius – radii a rhombus – rhombuses/rhombi a syllabus – syllabi/syllabuses a stimulus – stimuli a terminus – termini/terminuses a corpus – corpora a genus – genera a viscus – viscera

an axis – axes an analysis – analyses a basis – bases a crisis – crises a diagnosis – diagnoses an ellipsis – ellipses a hypothesis – hypotheses an oasis – oases a paralysis – paralyses a parenthesis – parentheses a synthesis – syntheses a synopsis – synopses a thesis – theses

10

-ex/-ix → -ices an apex – apexes/apices an appendix – appendices an index – indices/indexes a matrix – matrices/matrixes a vertex – vertices

-um/-on → а/-s

-a →-ae

-eau → -eаux

an addendum – addenda an agendum – agenda (agendums) an automaton – automata a bacterium – bacteria a corrigendum – corrigenda a criterion – criteria a curriculum – curricula a datum – data a forum – fora/ forums a medium – media a memorandum – memoranda a millennium – millennia a phenomenon – phenomena a polyhedron – polyhedra a stadium – stadiums/ stadia a stratum – strata

an alumna – alumnae an encyclopedia/ encyclopеdia – encyclopedias (encyclopediae редко) a formula – formulae/formulas a nebula – nebulae a vertebra – vertebrae a vita – vitae

a beau – beaux a bureau – bureaus/ bureaux a chateau – chateaux a tableau – tableaux/ tableaus

an enigma – enigmas/enigmata a stigma – stigmas/stigmata

11

PARTICULAR POINT 9 There are several irregular plural nouns. a man – men a woman – women

a child – children an ox – oxen

a foot – feet a goose – geese a tooth – teeth

a louse – lice a mouse – mice

a penny – pence a person – people

PARTICULAR POINT 10 Singular and plural forms of several nouns are the same. Some fish and sea animals a fish – fish a carp – carp a cod – cod a mackerel – mackerel a monkfish – monkfish a perch – perch a pike – pike a salmon – salmon a squid – squid a starfish – starfish a trout – trout a tuna – tuna

Some mammals a bison – bison a deer – deer a moose – moose a sheep – sheep a swine – swine

but: a crab – crabs a lobster – lobsters a mussel – mussels an octopus – octopuses a scallop – scallops a seahorse – seahorses a shark – sharks a stingray – stingrays

12

Armament an aircraft – aircraft a cannon – cannon/cannons

PARTICULAR POINT 11 Several nouns in the plural form go with a singular verb. Sciences, subjects

Sports, games

economics ethics linguistics mathematics mechanics optics physics

athletics billiards darts gymnastics

PARTICULAR POINT 12 The nouns which are used only in the plural form go with a plural verb. Parts of a whole

Pairs

annals archives arms belongings bowels clothes congratulations contents customs dregs goods groceries imports intestines outskirts premises proceeds remains savings thanks troops wages

binoculars breeches briefs fetters forceps glasses jeans panties pincers pliers pyjamas scales scissors shorts spectacles tights tongs trousers tweezers

13

PARTICULAR POINT 13 The possessive case (‘s) can be partly omitted. Fixed phrases

Offices

Achilles’ heel Jesus’ crown of thorns Moses’ basket Ulysses’ journey for goodness’ sake

Woolworth’s Department Store Harrods Barclays Bank

for conscience’s sake for appearance’s sake

PARTICULAR POINT 14 Some inanimate nouns can take the possessive form. Geographical names Africa’s area London’s parks the ocean’s coast

Transport the ship’s crew the plane’s engine the bike’s design

world/country/city the world’s championship the country’s policy the city’s population

house/office/shop at the doctor’s (office) to the baker’s (shop) at McDonald’s (restaurant)

Celestials the sun’s rays the planet’s orbit the moon’s surface

Time this month’s events night’s dew a winter’s tale

PARTICULAR POINT 15 The indefinite article a/an can be put before a proper name to mean “somebody unknown”, “one member of a certain family” or to mark the characteristic features associated with the name. A Mr. Bond called you. (unknown) Isn’t he a Potter? (one of the Potters) He was an Einstein of his time. (extraordinary genius) 14

PARTICULAR POINT 16 The indefinite article a/an between the verb have and some other verbs mean short-time actions. to have a look

to have a sleep

to have a swim

to have a try

to have a rest

PARTICULAR POINT 17 The indefinite article a/an is used in fixed word combinations. as a matter of fact as a result as a rule at a glance at a speed of

at a time when be at a loss be in a hurry for a long/short time

for a while have a good time it’s a pity it’s a pleasure it’s a shame

PARTICULAR POINT 18 As a rule names of the countries and cities are used with the zero article, but there are several exceptions. the Congo the Gambia the Netherlands the Hague

the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (the UK) the United States of America the Republic of Cuba the Russian Federation

PARTICULAR POINT 19 There are several cases when the zero article is needed. Not places, but activities in these places (school, college, hospital, prison, jail) go to school leave college stay at hospital be at prison

town, sea, camp, bed

Meals

Ailments

be in town go to camp go out to sea go to bed

have breakfast have lunch have dinner

a cold the flu (influenza) a headache pneumonia cancer

15

PARTICULAR POINT 20 The zero article is used in fixed word combinations. at home at work at night

out of doors from morning till night at first sight

by chance by mistake at sunrise/ sunset

on foot on holiday on sale

on credit on business in fact

PARTICULAR POINT 21 There are several cases when the definite article the is needed. Family

Musical instruments

Parts of the day

the Browns the Simpsons the Windsors

to play the piano to play the violin to play the drums

in the morning in the afternoon in the evening at night

PARTICULAR POINT 22 The definite article is used in fixed word combinations. by the way in the country in the street

on the one /other hand on the right/left on the whole

16

to tell the truth (but! to tell a lie) to the right/left

PARTICULAR POINT 23 If the possessive pronoun is not followed by a noun or a noun precedes it, then the possessive pronouns are used in the absolute form. Absolute Form of Possessive Pronouns Singular

mine

yours

his hers its

Plural

ours

yours

theirs

This mobile is mine. Whose friends will come? Ours. Those were not her parents but his.

PARTICULAR POINT 24 Some adjectives form the comparative degrees irregularly. bad – worse – the worst evil – more evil – the most evil far – farther/further – the farthest/furthest good – better – the best ill – worse – the worst

late – later/latter – the latest/the last little – smaller/less – the smallest/the least many/much – more – the most old – elder – the eldest well (in good health) – better – the best

PARTICULAR POINT 25 Some adjectives cannot form the comparative degrees at all as the superlative degree is in their meaning. alive dead

final main

perfect supreme

17

unique universal whole

PARTICULAR POINT 26 Some adverbs have the same form as adjectives. deep – deep, deeply The river is quite deep here. We walked deep into the forest. They fell deeply in love.

fast –fast She loves fast cars. She drives fast.

hard – hard, hardly It is a hard question. They worked hard. They hardly worked.

high – high, highly The mountains were high. There was a rainbow high in the sky. She is a highly educated woman.

little – little They still have a little hope. You know little what awaits you.

loud – loud/loudly There was a loud knocking at the door. Don’t talk so loud.

daily – daily The Internet has become a part of our daily life. Fresh bread is delivered daily.

early – early We had an early spring this year. He got up early.

free – free, freely You can get a free ticket to the show. Buy one, get one free. He freely admits he’s lazy.

late – late, lately I like late spring. He usually works late. We’ve been reading this story lately.

low – low We offer everyday goods at low prices. The plane was flying too low.

friendly – friendly We had a friendly correspondence. The neigbours used us friendly.

18

PARTICULAR POINT 27 Some verbs have irregular past forms. Form I

Form II

Form III

be do have

was, were did had

been done had

bet burst cost cut fit hit hurt let put read rid set spread shut upset

bet burst cost cut fit hit hurt let put read rid set spread shut upset

bet burst cost cut fit hit hurt let put read rid set spread shut upset

begin drink ring run shrink sing sink swim

began drank rang ran shrank sang sank swam

begun drunk rung run shrunk sung sunk swum

build hear hold leave lose make mean sit

built heard held left lost made meant sat

built heard held left lost made meant sat

19

feed lead meet shoot

fed led met shot

fed led met shot

bring buy catch fight teach think

brought bought caught fought taught thought

brought bought caught fought taught thought

hang swing

hung swung

hung swung

blow draw fly grow know throw

blew drew flew grew know throw

blown drawn flown grown known thrown

send spend sell tell

sent spent sold told

sent spent sold told

mistake shake take

mistook shook took

mistaken shaken taken

bite eat forbid hide ride write

bit ate forbade hid rode wrote

bitten eaten forbidden hidden ridden written

keep sleep

kept slept

kept slept

lie see shine win

lay saw shone won

lain seen shone won

20

lay mislay pay say

laid mislaid paid said

laid mislaid paid said

find wind

found wound

found wound

bear swear tear wear

bore swore tore wore

born sworn torn worn

break speak wake

broke spoke woke

broken spoken woken

drive forgive give

drove forgave gave

driven forgiven given

choose freeze rise

chose froze rose

chosen frozen risen

deal feel

dealt felt

dealt felt

stand understand

stood understood

stood understood

become come

became came

become come

forget get

forgot got

forgotten got

steal fall

stole fell

stolen fallen

go have

went had

gone had

21

PARTICULAR POINT 28 The auxiliary verbs do, does, did can be added in positive sentences to emphasize the speaker’s strong feelings. We do need your help. Kate does like cooking. You did speak to Jill, I know!

PARTICULAR POINT 29 The Present or Past Continuous verbs can be modified by the adverbs “always”, “forever” to express the speaker’s annoyance or surprise. Paul is forever sitting up at the computer deep into the night. You were always giving us so cute gifts!

PARTICULAR POINT 30 There are verbs which can’t form the Present Continuous Tense, though they express the specific present time. They are used in the Present Simple tense instead. Physical states See, hear, feel, smell, taste, etc. I can see a man over there, he’s waving me. Do you feel that it’s worth it?

Emotions

Mental states

Possession

Love, like, adore, hate, want, wish, prefer, need, forgive, etc.

Know, agree, think, forget, understand, notice, mean, etc.

Have, possess, own, contain, consist, etc.

Look! I want this dress. They need his care.

I don’t think they’re right. What do you mean?

What talents do you possess? Syrup consists of sugar and water.

PARTICULAR POINT 31 The structure have/get something done is used to say that someone else performs the action (not the person expressed by the subject). It’s passive in meaning, but not in form. Ann and John had their house redecorated (by professionals) last summer. Sam will get his lawn mowed (by the gardener) next Saturday. 22

PARTICULAR POINT 32 The infinitive without to is used in a limited list of cases. make, let+ Infinitive

had better, would rather, would sooner+ Infinitive

Don’t make me change my mind. Let me help you.

You had better ring her up. I’d rather go now.

PARTICULAR POINT 33 Some verbs (forget, mean, regret, remember, stop, try) change their meaning depending on the following infinitive or gerund. Don’t forget to write us. I will never forget writing you those letters. Remember to learn the poem by heart. She remembers learning the poem last year. They stopped to talk. Stop talking, please.

PARTICULAR POINT 34 Some time expressions are necessary to use with certain prepositions. She enjoys gardening at the weekend. Harry reads at night, in bed. I’m busy at present. He works hard, but he doesn’t mind having a good rest at the same time.

PARTICULAR POINT 35 There are no prepositions before words each, every, last, this, next in time expressions. Martin watched the match last Sunday. We visit our relatives every Christmas. They haven’t met this month yet. 23

PARTICULAR POINT 36 Some place expressions are necessary to use with certain prepositions. There was a long queue in the street. You can see a nice wood in the picture. Is anybody at home?

PARTICULAR POINT: 37 Prepositions on and by express the idea of moving by transport. John travelled to London on the train. John travelled in the third carriage of the train. John often travels by train.

PARTICULAR POINT 38 Prepositions at or to after the verbs to run, to shout, to throw carry not only the meaning of direction but have an additional meaning of positive (to) or negative (at) attitude to the action. Look! Little George is running to you. Look out! George is running at you! Betty shouted to us. Betty shouted at us. Jan threw a stone to me. Jan threw a stone at me.

PARTICULAR POINT 39 Words half or part as the subject in a sentence can go either with a singular verb or with a plural one. If the refer to countable plural nouns, then they go with a plural verb; if the refer to uncountable nouns, they go with a singular verb. Half of the students are at the exam now. Half of the cake has been left. Part of the books were sold at a half-price. Part of the house hasn’t been redecorated yet. 24

PARTICULAR POINT 40 Some adjectives can go after the noun. missing, remaining, left (a part of a subordinate one-word clause)

a defining adjective is defined itself There was a play less interesting than last time.

There are still three boys missing. I can see some cake left on the plate.

concerned, involved There’s been a tzunami wave again, but there are only ten people concerned. After the conference, the organizers invited the men involved to the lunch.

PARTICULAR POINT 41 There is a positive tag even though the main part of a tag-question is positive in two cases. nothing or nobody are the subject Nobody likes this lesson, does he? Nothing happened, did it?

few/little/not many/ not much before the subject Few children will enjoy such a present, will they? Little help was offered, was it?

never, hardly ever, rarely, seldom, barely, scarcely He seldom comes, does he? There’s barely money left, is there?

PARTICULAR POINT 42 The Sequence of Tenses rule doesn’t work if in a subordinate clause the idea is true or universal. The teacher said to us that water boils at 100C. Granny noticed that it’s better late than never.

25

PARTICULAR POINT 43 The reading of English consonants and letters combinations has some peculiarities. Letter or letter combination a

Pronunciation

Particular cases

[ei]– ace, ape

any [‘enı] have [hæv]

[æ] – ant, tablet

after [‘a:ftə] ancient [‘eın∫ənt] answer [‘a:nsə] bath [ba:θ] branch [bra:nt∫] example [ıg’za:mpl] grasp [gra:sp] pastry [‘peıstrı] wasp [wo:sp] taste [teıst] ask [a:sk] fast [fa:st]

ar (+ consonant)

[a:] – car, bark

after w – [o:] war, warm, warn

ar + vowel

[eə] – care, bare

are [a:]

ai, ay

[eı] – paint, wait, say, tray

plait [plæt] said [sed] quay [kı:]

au aw

[o:] – fauna, cause, straw, dawn [o] – sausage, Austin

gauge [geı ] aunt [a:nt]

augh(t)

[ :] – daughter, naughty

laugh [la:f] draught [dra:ft]

26

al + consonant

e

[ :] – walk, chalk, ball, appall, always, false, alter, salt, already, halt

alm [a:m] calm[ka:m] palm [pa:m] balm [ba:m] salmon [´sæm n] alf, alv – [a:f], [a:v] half [ha:f] calf [ka:f] calve [ka:v] halve [ha:v]

[ι:] – he, mete

fete [fet] leopard [´lep d]

[e] – pet, press

pretty [´prιtι] English [´ιŋlιʃ]

e

[ - ] – safe, life

[eι] – in French words café [´kæfeι] fiancé [fι n´seι] attaché [ ´tæʃeι] résumé [´rezju:meι]

ea

[ι:] – beat, flea

break [breιk] great [greιt] steak [steιk] before d, th, th – [e] bread [bred] wealth [welθ] weather [´weð ] breakfast [´brekf st] deaf [def] heaven [hevn] pleasant [´plez nt] weapon [´wep n]

ee

произносится как [ı:] – see, emplyee 27

matinee [´mætıneı] fiancée [fı´a:nseı]

ei, ey eigh(t)

[eı] – veil, rein, they, convey, weight, neighbour

either [´aıð ] eye [aı] height [haıt] foreign [´f rın] key [kı:] ceiling [´sı:lıŋ] receipt [rı´sı:t]

er (+ consonant)

[ıə] – here, zero, serious

there [ðe ] where [we ] were [w :]

er (+ consonant)

[ :] – her, serpentaine

sergeant [´sa: nt] clerk [kla:k]

ear

[ı ] – ear, near, hear

bear [be ] swear [swe ]

ear + consonant

[ :] – learn, heard, early

beard [bı d] heart [ha:t]

eir

[e ] – heir, their

weird [wı d]

i, y

[aı] – rice, driver, type, cycle

police [p lı:s] river [rıv ] ski [skı:] give [gıv]

[ı] – chill, list, myth

Christ [kraıst]

ie + consonant

[ı:] – piece, achieve, brief, niece, thief

friend [frend]

ign

[aın] – sign, malign

signature [sıgn tʃ ]

ind

[aınd] – kind, find, bind, grind, wind

wind [wınd]

28

o

[ u] – vote, globe

lose [lu:z] woman [wum n] women [wımın] tomb [tum] other [ð ] one [wn] some [sm] topic [t pık] novel [nvl]

[ ] – not, stop

son [sn] both [b uθ] post [p ust] before l – [ u] old [ uld] cold [k uld] onion [nj n] wonder [wnd ]

oa

[ u] – boat, load, coal

broad [br :d]

oe

[ u] – toe, foe, woe

shoe [∫u:] canoe [k nu:]

oo

[u:] – shampoo, poor, boor, moor, good [u] – book, look

flood [fld] blood [bld]

[au] – house, out, loud, mouse, noun, sound, wound, south

route [ru:t] wound [wu:nd] souvenir you [ju:]

oor

ou

door [d :] floor [fl :]

country [kntrı] cousin [kzn]

[ u] – mould, poultry, soul

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ough(t)

several types of pronunciation

borough [br ] cough [kf] bough [bau] drought [draut] ought [ :t] enough [ınf] though [ðəu] through [θru:]

ould

[kud] – could, should, would

mould [məuld]

ow

[au] – allow, bow, brown, clown, crown, cow, down, how, powder, town

[əu] own [əun] bowl [bəul]

u

[ju:] – cute, abuse

rude [ru:d] flu [flu:] super [´su:pə] busy[´bızı] buy [baı]

[] – but, number, bulb, puddle

bull [bul] butcher [´but∫ə] pudding [´pudıŋ] put [put]

[ju:] – nuisance, suit

fruit [fru:t]

ui

build [bıld] u+r+ vowel

[ju:ə] – cure, pure, fury

sure [∫uə] bury [´berı]

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PARTICULAR POINT 44 Consonants

Pronunciation

Practical cases

b

[b] – bank, globe

mb, bt [-] comb [kəum] debt [det]

c, cc

before e, i, y – [s] cede, acid, juicy

soccer [´s kə] ancient [´eın∫ənt] ocean [´əu∫n] ache [eık] school [sku:l] stomach [´stmək] machine [mə´∫ı:n]

ch [t∫] – chart, lunch

d

[d] – duel, elder

graduate [´græ juət] soldier [´səul ə]

g, gg

[g] – gum, elegant, egg, foggy

suggest [sə´ est]

Before e, i, y –[G] gentle, gin, gymnasium, ginger, gypsy, digit

begin [bı´gın] finger [´fıŋə] gift [gıft]

h

[h] – hand, prohibit

[-] heir [eə] honest [´ nıst] hour [auə] vehicle [´vı:ıkl]

lm

[lm] – film, helm, realm

balm [ba:m] palm [pa:m]

mb

[m] – climb, dumb, plumber

number [´nmbə] timber [´tımbə]

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s

[s] - so, bus

pension [´pen∫n] pleasure[´pleə] sugar [´∫ugə]

[z] – busy, choose, design, lose, nose, refusal, rise, season t, tt

basis [´beısıs] crisis [´kraısıs] case [keıs]

ballet [´bæleı] nation [neı∫n] picture [´pıkt∫ə]

[t] – take, interesting, spot, trumpet

th

author [ :θə] [ð] – brother, together, those, worthy

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PARTICULAR POINT 45 In some three-consonant combinations the second letter d or t is not pronounced. castle[ka:sl] Christmas [´krısməs] handsome [´hænsəm]

postman [´pəus(t) mæn] postpone [pəus(t)´pəun] sandwich [´sæn(d) wıt∫]

whistle [wısl] Windsor [´wın(d)zə] windsurfing [´wın(d)sə:fıŋ]

PARTICULAR POINT 46 There are some words with quite a specific pronunciation. beau [b :] beauty [´bju:tı] biscuit [´bıskıt] bravo [´bra:vəu] chamois [´∫æmwa:] chocolate [´t∫ klıt] choir [´kwaıə] colonel [´kə:nəl] consciousness [´k n∫əsnəs] coup[ku:]

courage [´krı ] ensemble [ n´s mbl] esprit [e´sprı]

moustache [mə´sta: ∫] naïve [naı´ı:v] people [pı:pl]

furlough [´fə:ləu] indict [ın´daıt] island [´aılənd] lieutenant [lef´tenənt] manoeuvre [mə´nu:və] mischievous [´mıst∫əvəs]

queue [kju:] receipt [rı´sı:t] restaurant [´restər nt] routine [ru:´tı:n] Wednesday [´wenzdeı] yacht [j :t]

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PARTICULAR POINT 47 The endings s, -ed are normally pronounced according to rules, but there are also some peculiarities. -s – [z] or [s] a friend – friends [z]; a book – books [s] but a house [haus] – houses [´hauzız] The ending -ed is pronounced [d] – listented [´lısnd]or [t] – looked [lu:kt] or [ıd] – started [´sta:tıd], added [´ædıd]. but The ending -ed of some past participles (work as adjectives), is pronounced[ıd]. aged [´eı ıd] blessed [´blesıd] crooked [´kru:kıd]

dogged [´d gıd] learned [´lə:nıd] naked [´neıkıd]

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ragged [´rægıd] wicked [´wıkıd] wretched [´ret∫ıd]

PARTICULAR POINT 48 The English language is filled with homonyms which are sometimes confusing words that are pronounced the same but are different in meaning. bachelor ball bank bear can case coach date fair fine flat last lie match mean novel palm school spell train well

I – a man who has never been married; II – a person who holds a first degree from a university I – a ball; II – a formal gathering for dancing I – the land alongside a river; II – a financial establishment I – a large mammal; II – to carry I – to be able to; II – a metal container I – an example; II – an item of luggage I – a bus for long journeys ; II – an instructor I – the day of the month; II – a sweet dark brown oval fruit I – a public entertainment; II – light, blonde I – a penalty ; II – good I – without hills; II – an individual residence I – coming after all others; II – to continue I – a false statement; II – to be in horizontal resting position I – a small piece of wood to light a fire; II – a contest I – not generous; II – to signify I – a kind of prose; II – new, unusual I –the inner surface of the hand; II – an evergreen tree I – an educational institution; II – a large group of fish I – to write or name the letters in correct sequence; II – a short period of time I – to teach ; II – a series of railway carriages I – a shaft sunk into the ground to obtain water; II – in a good way

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PARTICULAR POINT 49 Homographs are the words which are spelled the same but are pronounced differently and carry different meanings. abstract [´æbstr kt] – existing in thought bow [bau] – to bend the head as a sign of greeting close [kl us] – very near to live [lıv] – to remain alive minute [´mınıt] – sixty seconds object [´ b ıkt] – a material thing present [´preznt] – occurring now refuse [rı´fju:z] – not willing to do sth. row [rəu] – a line of seats in a theatre tear [teə] – to pull apart to pieces wind [wınd] – a current of air

abstract [ b´strækt] – to make a written summary of bow [b u] – a weapon for shooting arrows close [kl uz] – to cover an opening live [laıv] – not dead minute [maı´nju:t] – extremely small object [əb´ ekt] – to express disapproval present [prı´zent] – a gift refuse [´refju:s] – rubbish row [rau] – a noisy quarrel tear [tıə] – a drop of liquid from an eye wind [waınd] – to move in a spiral course

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Homophones are also related words that have different parts of speech. absent [´æbsent] – not present conduct [´k ndkt] – behaviour desert [´dezət] – a waterless area extract [´ekstrækt] – a passage taken from a text frequent [´frıkwənt] – occurring many times at short intervals insult [´ınslt] – a disrespectful remark perfect [´pə:fıkt] – as good as possible suspect [´sspəkt] – a person thought to be guilty transfer [´trænsfə:] – an act of moving to another place uplift [´plıft] – a morally evaluating influence

absent [[əb´sent] – to stay away conduct [kən´dkt] – to behave desert [dı´zə:t] – to leave extract [ıks´trækt] – to take out frequent [frı´kwent] – to visit often insult [ın´slt] – to speak with disrespect perfect [pə´fekt] – to make as good as possible suspect [səs´pekt] – to think sth. to be true without certain proof transfer [træns´fə:] – to move to another place uplift [p´lıft] – to raise

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PARTICULAR POINT 50 Homophones are the words which are pronounced in the same way but written in a different way. ball – bawl[b :l] bare – bear[beə] be – bee [bı:] beet – beat [bı:t] berry – bury [´berı] berth – birth [bə:θ] bough – bow [bau] break – brake[breık] buy – bye [baı] canon – cannon [´kænən] cereal – serial [´sıərıəl] coarse – course [k :s] currant – current [´krənt] dear – deer [´dıə] die – dye [daı] draft – draught [dra:ft] fare – fair [feə] flour – flower [flauə] hair – hare [heə] hear – here [hıə]

hour – our [auə] idle – idol [aıdl] knight – night [naıt] know – no [nəu] mail – male [meıl] main – mane [meın] none – nun [nn] plain – plane [pleın] rain – reign [reın] right – write[raıt] sea – see [sı:] some – sum [sm] son – sun [sn] stair – stare [steə] tail – tale [teıl] their – there [ðeə] wait – weight [weıt] weak – week [wı:k] wear – where [weə] which – witch [wıt∫]

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