English for Students of Medicine 9789645305077

Citation preview

Table

of Contents

Page About the Book .............. e r a t e

tree eeaiaeeeeaeee eet ieeannneas e e n

Lesson One: Cloning ........cooovviviiiiiiiiiiinnnnn...r e r e Lesson Two: Stem Cells . . . . o o o v v i i i i i i

errr

1 3

ee,

14

Lesson Three: Gene Therapy ........cccovvviiiiiiiininnnnnn...eerieieeaas.

24

Lesson Four: Robots in Surgery . . . . . . . c c o o v i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i e e e e e e e

34

Lesson Five: MRI...

45

eee

as

Lesson Six: Plastic SUIZery . . . . . c o v v i i i i i i i i i i i i i iiii

Lesson Seven: Cell o . o o

eenaans 56

cerca

65

Lesson Eight: The Nervous System ........coovvviiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinneiennnnnn.

76

Lesson Nine: Eye ............

89

ee,

Lesson Ten: Heart .........coooviiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiininns, e e e

Lesson Eleven: Laver . . . . . c . . o v i i i i i i i i i i i r c

Lesson Twelve: Alzheimer . . . . . . . . . c . o v i i i i i i i i i i i i Lesson Thirteen: HIVand

98

eee

irre,

118

AIDS L o o e ,

Lesson Fourteen: MS o . o o

e e 109

128 cree

eeeeeeens 140

LessonFifteen: Cancer Patients’ Needs .............covevueveneiinniinnennnns 150 Lesson Sixteen: Lung Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . o o i v i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i e i n e n

160

Lesson Seventeen: Brain Cancer...........ccoovviiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiieiennn 170 References ......... S U P P

PP

180

Key to Phonetic Symbols Vowels and Diphthongs 1 i: asin see /si:/

11

3:

asin

fur /f3:(r)/

2

sit /sit/

12

so

asin

ago /a'gou/

1

asin

3

e

asin

ten /ten/

13

el

asin

page /perd3/

4

&

asin

hat /haet/

14

oU

asin

_ home /haum/

5

Q:

asin

arm /a:(r)m/

15

al

asin

five /farv/

6 7

p 0:

asin asin

got/got/ saw /sO:/

16 17

au or

asin asin

now /nau/ join /d3oIn/

asin

put/put/

18

19

asin

near /n1a(r)/

8

U

9

nu

asin

too /tu:/

19

ese

asin

hair /heo(r)/

10

A

asin

cup /kap/

20

ve

asin

pure /pjua(r)/

Consonants

1

p

asin

pen /pen/

13s

asin

so /sev/

2

b

asin

bad /baed/

14

z

asin

zoo /zu:/

3 4

t d

asin asin

tea /ti:/ did /did/

15 16

f 3

asin asin

she /fi:/ vision /'vi3n/

5

k

asin

cat /keet/

17

h

asin

how /hau/

6

g

asin

get/gpt/

18

m

asin

man /meen/

7

tf

asin

chin /tfm/

19

n

asin

no /ndau/

June /d3u:n/

20

1g)

asin

sing /sip/

8

dz

asin

9

f

asin fall /fo:l/

21 1

asin leg /leg/

10

vv

asin

voice /vOIs/

22

or

asin

11 12

8 6

asin asin

thin /Om/ then /den/

23 24

j - asin ww asin

red /red/

yes/jes/ wet /wet/

I'l representsprimary stress as in about /8'baut/

// represents secondary stress as in academic /aka'demik/ (r) An ‘ r ’ in parentheses is heard in British pronunciation when it is immediately followed

by a vowel sound. Otherwise it is omitted.In Americanpronunciationno ‘r’ of the phonetic spelling or of the ordinary spelling i s omitted.

/-/ Hyphens preceding and/or following

parts of a repeated transcription indicate that only

the repeated part changes.

VI

About

the Book

There are seventeen lessons in the book. Each lesson starts with a list of

words that seem to be important to the students of medicine. The “Word Study” part is followed by main texts which include a variety of topics. Each

text is followed by two sets of “Comprehension Exercises”; namely, true/false and multiple-choice

questions. Here, students should decide

whether each sentence is true, false, or not mentioned in the text. They are required to provide the true information

for sentences that are marked

“false”. The grammar section of the lesson, entitled “Grammar in Context”, requires students to look for relevant grammatical points in the text. The authors have tried to extract the most important and productive grammatical points of the text for the students to do the “Exercise”. This is believed to be

more practical than most traditional ways of presenting grammar. “Word

Cluster” is the next exercise aiming at attracting students’

attention to the main topic. The procedure is very simple, but crucially important. Students are required to provide the relevant technical vocabulary

related to the topic in question. For example, in the lesson on Cloning, they

should write the words that are related to cloning like simulation, asexual reproduction, donor cells, fertilization,

of great importance

parthenogenesis, etc. This exercise is

because it draws students’ attention to the technical

vocabulary. The next section, “Vocabulary

Training”,

tries to develop

students’ technical and general vocabulary related to the topic. All the sentences are related to the topic and students are required to fill in the

blanks with the given words. Of course, there are more words in the list than students require. The “Cloze Test” section requires students to fill in the

blanks with the words provided for each blank. The 7, 8, or 9th words in

each sentence have been deleted and students are to supply the appropriate

words. Here again, the words are related to the main topic of the lesson. Finally, a passage is provided for translation (“Translation Task”) which can be assigned as homework or class work.

What Makes the Book Different? First of all, this book is another contribution to the field of ESP and the

authors do not claim that the book is comprehensive. There are some points, however, that make the book different from other similar books. First, attempt has been made to select topics that are interesting and new. It is

claimed that some of the topics in this book

are the most recent

advancements in the field, for example, Cloning of Mammals, Robots in Surgery, Gene Therapy, Stem Cells, Alzheimer, etc. Another advantage of

the book is the exercises. Some of the exercises are unique: Grammar in Context and Word Cluster. Finally, the authors believe that the book is quite

practical. It can be covered during one semester without any need to extra matenals.

D r . M. H. Tahririan Dr. Ahmad

Ameri

Golestan

Dr. M. A. Tahririan

Lesson One: Cloning Word Study cloning

/'klounig/:

artificially

a plant or an animal that is produced naturally or

from the cells of another plant or animal and is therefore exactly

the same as it Cloning has become one of the most controversial issues in the medical circles.

commence /k3'mens/: to begin to happen She commenced

identical

her medical

/ar'dentikl/:

The number

career in 1956.

similar in every detail

on the card should be identical

nucleus /'nu:klias/:

with the one o n the checkbook.

the central part of some cells, containing the genetic

materials

The nucleus part of the donor cell is used to commence cloning. nutritive

/nu'tritiv/:

of food

Somefood like milk has very nutritive value. offspring

/'a:fspriy/: the young of an animal or plant

Some animals try to protect their offspring until they are grown up.

primate

/'praimeit/: any animal that belongs to the group of mammals that

includes human, apes, and monkey New studies on cloning are targeted at primates such as monkeys.

prolonged /pra'laind/:

continuing for a long time

He was suffering for a prolonged illness. traumatic

/trav'matik/:

extremely unpleasant and causing you to feel

upset and/or anxious

Her disease is a traumatic experience. He has been suffering from

this

diseasefor weeks now.

Cloning of Mammals The startling announcement that Dolly

the sheep had been produced by

cloning indicated that it was possible to produce live mammalian offspring via asexual reproduction through cloning with adult donor cell nuclei. In

outline form, the steps used to produce live offspring in the mammalian species that have been cloned so far are:

|

1. Obtain an egg cell from a female of a mammalian species. 2. Remove the nuclear DNA from the egg cell, to produce an enucleated

egg. 3. Insert the nucleus of a donor adult cell into the enucleated egg, to

produce a reconstructed egg. 4. Activate the reconstructed egg with chemicals or electric current, to stimulate the reconstructed egg to commence cell division. 5. Sustain development of the cloned embryo to a suitable stage in vitro, and then transfer the resulting cloned embryo to the uterus of a female host that has been suitably prepared to receive it. »w

6. Bring

to live birth

identical

a cloned animal that is genetically virtually

(except for the mitochondrial

DNA)

to the animal that

donated the adult cell nucleus.

Cloning to produce live offspring carries with it several possibilities not available through sexual reproduction. Because the number of presumably

identical donor cells is very large, this process could produce a very large number of genetically virtually

identical individuals,

limited

only by the

supply of eggs and female animals that could bear the young. In principle, any animal, male or female, newborn or adult, could be cloned, and in any Fertilization . E | an 23 Chromosomes) Sperm®

Spermnucleus (23 chromosomes)

Zygote (46 chromosomes)

Early embryo

cell

Egg cell

ry

When the egg is fertilized

Polar body

(23 chromosomes)

the polar body exits the cell

. Cloning

Ee

All DNA is removed from an egg. DNA

or

Sd fusea somatic cell to the egg.

Blastocyte Inner cell mass

(contains stem cells) (46 chromosomes)

Cloned embryo

Somatic (body) cell

(46 chromosomes)

Parthenogenesis Polar body

Egg nucleus

The eggretains all of its DNA (46 chromosomes)

Figure

(46 chromosomes)

Parthenogenesis embryo

Using chemicals, electricity or other stimulus, the egg is made to behave as though fertilized.

1-1. Diagram o f early stages of human fertilization,

cloning,

and parthenogenesis. (Modifiedfrom Rick Weiss andPatterson Clark, The Washington Post.) oy

quantity. Because mammalian cells can be frozen and stored for prolonged periods at low temperature and grown again for use as donor cells in cloning, one may even clone individuals who have died. In theory, a clone could be cloned again, on and on, without limit. In mice, such “cloning of clones” has extended out to six generations. Since the report of the birth of Dolly the cloned sheep, attempts have been made to clone at least nine other mammalian species. Live offspring have been produced in a low percentage of cloned embryo transfer experiments with sheep, cattle, goats, mice, pigs, cat and rabbits. According to a press report, attempts to clone rats, dogs, and primates using adult cell DNA have not yet yielded live offspring. In experiments to clone different mammalian species, many of the transferred cloned embryos fail to develop normally and abort spontaneously in utero. In addition, a variety of health problems have been reported in many of the cloned animals that survived to live birth. However, some surviving cloned cattle appear physiologically similar to their uncloned counterparts, and two cloned cows have given birth to their own offspring. Why is production of live cloned mammalian offspring a relatively rare

event? Several factors may play a role. Enucleation of the egg may (variably from

one attempt to the next)

reprogramming”

remove or damage its

“epigenetic

capabilities. Isolating a nucleus from the donor cell and

manipulating it to insert it into the egg is also a traumatic damage the nucleus. An optimal in vitro nutritive

process that may

environment for the

development of cloned animal embryos may not yet have been determined. One interpretation attributes the early death of many cloned embryos to complete failure or incompleteness of epigenetic reprogramming. Adapted from: http://www .bioethics.gov/

I. Comprehension Exercise Read the following

sentences and decide whether they are true,

false, o r not mentioned.

Write

statements; also put “NM”

“T” for true and “F”

for false

for statements that have not been

mentioned in the text. Finally,

write the true sentence for those

you selected as false. 1. Dolly was a successful example of cloning in animals. LEE IE

4%

BR

2

FBR

LAL

SLL

IE I

A BE OE BE BN NR BBE

EAE

EL

LEE NE EE IE I

ADP

LL

I

2

PSS

OE I

BE

BE

BE

I

BE IE

NE BN BE IN EE NE NN NE BE NE NE I

PDAS

NE BOE

OE IE

REEDS

EE

RE BE BN NE NE IE

BE

SES

LE

RE NE BE RE NE I

RE EE

SEE

A

RE

RE

I

EHS

BL BEE

CI

I

I

RE I

EERE

BE I

I

ERR

I E BE

IE I

I

I

A

TE INE

RN CR TE RN SN I

RRR

I

T E TNE N T

RY T I

EEE

BT UY RY NE RE RY RE RE REE

I

I

I

I

ASHP

A

TAY T E

BENE

A

ERE

RAE REIN

I

TI

TC

ES

BENE

SN TA

IE S E

PEE

NT

I

ERE

RE CY

SE

I

JE J

BREN

I

PRESS

BE R E RE RE R E RN NE NENN R E NE RY NE NE NY RN NE NE I

RN

RT

TE

IEE

SCR

A I

RIES

ON

I

UY I

EEE

NY RC NE T N

TA TE TAY NE CO NRA

RE

I

A

EEE

RN

I

I

EPS

RR

TA I

5. No attempts were made to produce cloned animals after Dolly

NW

RR

EASE

ESL

ARR

EEE

ER FER

EE SSE

SEEDS

EEE

ERAN

EN ANNE

EE RENEE

EES

REE

ESR

SEE

ERE

APES

FES

EERSTE

Il. Reading Comprehension Choose the best choice which completes the following 1. Dolly the sheep .......... : a. proved that cloning is immoral b. was the first successful cloned animal c. caused lots of hostility among specialist

d. was not a very special issue at the time

2. Cloning i s a formof

..........

production.

a. sexual

b. agricultural

c. asexual

d. sexual-asexual

L

IY)

the

sheep had been born. B8

I

sentences.

3. We understand from the passage that cloning from the cells of dead people .......... a. is quite possible b. is the topic experts are looking into

c. 1s definitely impossible d. maybe possible if the eggs are available 4 . The underlined

word species means ..........

a. plants

b . kind of animal

c. sheep

d. cloned animal

5. The underlined word it refers to ...

III.

a. egg

b. offspring

c. damage

d. nucleus

Grammar

in Context

Infinitives

Infinitives

have the following

functions:

The infinitive may be used alone:

We began to walk.

The infinitive

To lean out of the window is

may be used as the

subject: The

dangerous. may

infinitive

be

the

complement of a verb: The infinitive

may be the object or

His plan

is to keep the affair

secrel.

He wants to pay.

part of the object of a verb:

He wants me to pay.

The infinitive

She left work early to catch the 10

may be used to

eXpress a purpose: The infinitive

may be used after

certain adjectives:

o’ clock

train.

Angry, glad, happy, SOFYY, fortunate, likely, lucky, . . . .

He returned home to learn that

may be used to

e The infinitive

his daughter had just come back

connect two clauses:

from the trip.

1V. Exercise

Read the text again and underline

group the infinitives L U E ICI

LLL

BE I

I

RIE I

BE LLB

NE I BBE I

R E SE AE

BY BE I N B S E

NERY E S

BE ICI

Decide which

belong to.

BEE OE RN BN NN RE NE RN RE RE RE AF BREN

RE BN NE IR

the infinitives.

RE NN

NRE NE RN CR

BE RE BE NN NR BE RE NN TN NRE NE NE BY RC

RN NE R R

BY NE

REE

I RI

RE I

RRR

RE

I TI

NN NN CRE NR

RE

SS

I

SRR

RRR

IR

RN

RI

SE I NY

BURY RE IE RE NE RY BE NN RY IN RY BE ON NE BE RY BE BY ON BERN N N RN

RE

V. Word Cluster Write the related words to the topic provided in the diagram.

NS Cloning

/ \ VI Vocabulary Training Fill

in the blanks

with

the words

from

the list.

There

are extra

words. controversial

encouraged

cloners

spread

transferring

encounter

treatment

concise

differentiate

distinction

reported

emerged

healing

associates

medical

Ll

1. In much of the current public discussion, we .......... between two sorts of cloning: “reproductive”

a distinction

and “therapeutic”.

2. Some object to the term “reproductive cloning” used as a term of C e r e s , because they argue that all cloning is reproductive. 3. The act of cloning embryos may be undertaken with ..........

4. Yet the techniques developed in animals have .......... of infertility

motives.

a small number

therapists to contemplate and explore efforts to clone

human children.

5. In 1962, the British developmental biologist John Gurdon .......... that he had produced sexually mature frogs by ..........

nuclei from

intestinal cells of tadpoles into enucleated frog eggs. The experiments

had a low success rate and remained .......... : 6. The animal ..........

did not set out to develop techniques for cloning

humans.

7. Following the announcement in 1998 by James Thomson and his eee

of their isolation of human embryonic stem cells, there

TO

an interest in cloned human embryos, not for reproductive

uses but as a powerful tool for research into the nature and ..........

of

human disease.

VII, Cloze Test Complete the following

passage with the appropriate

words from

the following list. As a scientific and technical possibility, human cloning has emerged as an outgrowth of discoveries or innovations in developmental biology, genetics, assisted reproductive technologies, animal breeding, and, most

recently, research on embryonic stem cells. Assisted reproductive techniques in humans accomplished the in vitro ..... l..... of a human egg, yielding a zygote and developing .....2..... woman’s

10

uterus

”

that could be successfully implanted into a

to ..... 3..... rise to a live-born

child.

Animal

breeders

developed and ..... 4.....

a view to perpetuating

these techniques with

valuable animals and ..... 5..... laboriously identified genomes.

particularly

~ Most recently, the isolation of embryonic stem .....6..... in vitro differentiation

and their subsequent

into many different cell ..... 7..... have opened up

possibilities for repairing and replacing diseased or .....8..... possible research uses for

tissue, and thus

cloned human ....9..... . The German

embryologist Hans Spemann conducted what many consider to .....10..... the experiments on animals. Spemann was interested in

earliest “cloning”

development: does each

.....11..... a fundamental question of biological

differentiated .....12..... retain the full complement of genetic information

present initially in the .....13.....7 In the late 1920s, he tied off part of a cell .....14..... the nucleus from a salamander embryo at the sixteen-cell stage and .....15..... the single cell to divide, showing that the nucleus of that ...16.....

embryo

could, in effect,

Development and Induction, differentiated

“start

over”.

In a 1938 book, Embryonic

Spemann wondered whether more completely

cells had the same capacity and speculated about the

possibility of transferring the nucleus from a differentiated cell — taken from

either a later-stage embryo or an adult organism — into an enucleated egg. b. fertilization

1. a. recreation

c. differentiation

d. fossilization

2. a. embryo

b. tissue

c. cells

d. kidney

3. a. take c. free

4. a. refined c. fertilized

5. a. maintaining c. filling

6. a. tissues c. cells

|

b. send d. give

b. treated d. sent

b. protecting d. releasing

b. bones d. embryos

oy

11

. models

b . types

. trends

d. styles b. nonmatching

8. a. noncorresponding

d. nonfunctioning

. nonfitting

b. cells

9. a. embryos

d. organs

. tissues

10. a. be

b. do

d. cut

. see

b. answering

11. a. proposing

d. making

. directing

b. body

12. a. bone

d. tissue

. cell 13. a. phenotype

b. zygote

. gene

d. organ

14. . complaining

b. containing d. cleaning

. cutting

b. pretended

15. a. tied

d. received

. allowed

16. a. clear

b. prenatal d. early

. quick

VIII.

Translation

Task

Translate the following

text into Persian.

The Ethics of Cloning to Produce Children Two separate national-level reports on human cloning (NBAC,

1997; NAS,

2002) concluded that attempts to clone a human being would be unethical at this time due to safety concerns and the likelihood of harm to those involved. hy

12

The Council concurs in this conclusion. Cloning-to-produce-children

might serve several purposes. It might

allow infertile couples or others to have genetically-related children; permit

couples at risk of conceiving a child with a genetic disease to avoid having an afflicted child; allow the bearing o f a child who could become an ideal transplant donor for a particular patient in need; enable a parent to keep a

living connection with a dead or dying child or spouse; or enable individuals or society to try to “replicate” individuals of great talent or beauty. These purposes have been defended by appeals to the goods of freedom, existence

(as opposed to nonexistence), and well-being — all vitally important ideals.

A major weakness in these arguments supporting cloning-to-producechildren is that they overemphasize the freedom, desires, and control of

parents, and pay insufficient attention to the well-being of the cloned childto-be. The Council holds that, once the child-to-be is carefully considered, these arguments are not sufficient to overcome the powerful case against engaging in cloning-to-produce-children. Adapted from: http://www .bioethics.gov/

13

Lesson Two: Stem Cells

WordStudy distinguish

/dr'stiggwift/: to recognize the difference between two people

or things

At what age are children able to distinguish between right and wrong? donate /'dounert/: to allow doctors to remove blood or a body organ in

order to help sb who needs it All donated blood is testedfor

fundamental

/faAnda'mentl/:

HIV and other infections.

basic

There is a fundamental difference between the two points of view.

proliferate

/pra'hifarert/: to increase rapidly in number and amount

Books and articles on the subjects have beenproliferated

replicate /'replikert/: to copy something exactly The drug prevents the virus from replicating itself.

therapy /'Gerapy/: treatment Scientists have not found a therapy for Parkinson.

14

over the last year.

Stem Cells Introduction Research on stem cells is advancing knowledge about how an organism

develops from a single cell and how healthy cells replace damaged cells in adult organisms. This promising area of science is also leading scientists to investigate the possibility

of cell-based therapies to treat disease, which is

often referred to as regenerative or reparative medicine. Stem cells are one o f the most fascinating arcas of biology today. But like many expanding fields

of scientific inquiry,

research on stem cells raises scientific questions as

rapidly as it generates new discoveries.

What Are Stem Cells and Why Are They Important? Stem cells have two important characteristics that distinguish

them from

other types of cells. First, they are unspecialized cells that renew themselves for long periods through cell division. The second is that under certain physiologic or experimental conditions, they can be induced to become cells with special functions such as the beating cells of the heart muscle or the

insulin-producing

cells of the pancreas. Scientists primarily

work with two

kinds of stem cells from animals and humans: embryonic stem cells and

adult stem cells, which

have different

functions and characteristics.

Scientists discovered ways to obtain or derive stem cells from early mouse embryos more than 20 years ago. Many years of detailed study o f the biology of mouse stem cells led to the discovery, in 1998, of how to isolate

stem cells from human embryos and grow the cells in the laboratory. These are called human embryonic stem cells. The embryos used in these studies were created for infertility

purposes through in vitro fertilization procedures

and when they were no longer needed for that purpose, they were donated ny

15

for research with the informed consent of the donor. It has been hypothesized by scientists that stem cells may, at some point in the future, become the basis for treating diseases such as Parkinson’s disease, diabetes, and heart disease.

What Are the Unique Properties of All Stem Cells? Stem cells differ from other kinds of cells in the body. All stem cells — regardless of their source — have three general properties: they are capable of

dividing and renewing themselves for long periods; they are unspecialized,

and they can give rise to specialized cell types. Scientists are trying to understand two fundamental

properties of stem

cells that relate to their long-term self-renewal: 1. Why can embryonic stem cells proliferate

for a year or more in the

laboratory without differentiating, but most adult stem cells cannot? 2. What are the factors in living organisms that normally regulate stem cell proliferation and self-renewal? Discovering the answers to these questions may make it possible to understand how cell proliferation

is regulated during normal embryonic

development or during the abnormal cell division

Importantly,

such information

that leads to cancer.

would enable scientists to grow embryonic

and adult stem cells more efficiently in the laboratory. Stem cells are unspecialized. One of the fundamental properties of a stem cell 1s that it does not have any tissue-specific structures that allow it to

perform specialized functions. A stem cell cannot work with its neighbors to pump blood through the body (like a heart muscle cell); it cannot carry

molecules of oxygen through the bloodstream (like a red blood cell); and it

cannot fire electrochemical signals to other cells that allow the body to move

or speak (like a nerve cell). However, unspecialized stem cells can give rise

to specialized cells, including heart muscle cells, blood cells, or nerve cells.

Stem cells are capable of dividing and renewing themselves for long ~

16

muscle cells, blood cells, or nerve cells — which do not

periods. Unlike

normally replicate themselves — stem cells may replicate many times. When

A

cells replicate themselves many times over it is called proliferation.

starting population of stem cells that proliferates for many months in the laboratory can yield millions

of cells. If the resulting cells continue to be

unspecialized, like the parent stem cells, the cells are said to be capable of long-term self-renewal. Adapted from: http://stemcells.nih.gov/info/basics/basics1.asp

I. Comprehension Exercise sentences and decide whether they are true,

Read the following

for false

“T” for true and “F”

Write

false, or not mentioned.

for statements that have not been

statements; also put “NM”

write the true sentence for those

mentioned in the text. Finally, you selected as false.

1. Reparative medicine getshelp from stem cells for curing diseases. FOE I

IE I

EN

SE

I EE I EE I

I I

EE

a A IE

A

A

RE EE ET I

BRE RE A RY NE RE A IE BE RE AE RE IE RL RE BE BN B R E A ELIE RR

OE RT RY RENE NE NE I RY BNE RE

RE NY AE BE NY EE EE SE EE BE BEE AE I R

2. Stem cells are specialized cells that renew themselves for long periods through division. LENE

CREE EE NE NE RE EE NE BE BA

LIE

LI

LR

I

I

I

I

TR I

RE

RE NY

IE SE

NY

BE IE

I

SNE

a

RI I

I

RT

II

a

I

RN TAT IEC INE

TN EI

a

a I

TN I

TE RE

I

A a I

NN

I

RY

IE EE NE NE RE EE NE BE

IE

BRE

EN

OE RE RE IE

I

I I

NE IE

NE EE N N

I

TY

I

IE OE IE IEE T E IE

I I I

RE RE C E

AI

AI

RE

RE I

IT

TR

LIL

I

BE REN

IE NE A I

BE BE RE RE EE

RE RE OE IR

RE I

BRE BSE BY BE

BE RL E S

BE RE

I

A

IE

EL A EE EE EE

BE AE AE BENE EE

IE AE A IE BE BE BE OE ON BE BC RENE NE BE RE IE SE NE NE NE RE NE NE

I I A

IE

RE I

RCI

NN T E TY T E

IEE

I

TE

RE RE RE RE NE

AE A

EE SE BE RCI NE NE BE NE RE AE I

I

I

I

I

TI

I

TT

TR

IE

SE RE NR

BE BF EE NE I

I

I

IN

BE RE RR

I

IE

AE IE IE I

NE TN T Y I

NE BE IE RE RE SE SIE BE BE

BE BE DE RE RE NE EE I

A I

BE NE IE

RE

I

ENN

I

EE

EE

RN

BE R N

SL I RE I A SELL

RE OE BE NE BE

I

EEE

NS

EEN

EE

BE

NE NE RE IE IE

NE A

BL

BN E E

LI

BE BE SN

RE NE IE

LE

II. Reading Comprehension Choose the best choice which completes the following 1. Studies on stem cells deal with the question ..........

sentences.

:

a. “why some animals look like each other” b. “how an organism develops from a single cell” c. “how some diseases can be cured more quickly”

d. “what are the causes of some incurable diseases” 2. Stem cells are distinguished from other cells in that .......... :

a. they don’t have the same features b. they have a variety of ways to reproduce

c. these cells are bigger in size d. cell division causes them to have long life word discovered

3 . The underlined

means ..........

a. found out

b. explored

c. revealed

d. pinpointed

4. Stem cells don’t seem to have .......... a. multiplication

b. cell division

c. tissue-specific structure

d. internal structure

5. The underlined word it refers to ..........

III.

:

a. stem cell

b. muscle cell

¢.pump

d. structure

Grammar

in Context

Present Participles

as Adjectives

® Present participles are formed by adding -ing verb.

18

:

to the end of the

The documentary about the young doctors was really interesting.

e They are used as adjectives to

Working on stem cells is a promising field in thefuture.

describe nouns.

that research on

It is encouraging stems-cells is

new

to

leading

discoveries.

IV, Exercise Read the text again and underline

the present participles.

Then

use each of them in a sentence. LEE TE I

BE NE BERN NE IE I

OF I

LIE JE BE BE BE BE BE BN BE RE BE I

NN BY RE NN AY I RE NN I

RE IN NN RY

SN WY I NE NY RY RE NY RY RY I

RE SER NE I

RY IY NRE NN NE BE NN RN BY RN BE RE NE NN RY NY BE BN RN RENN RY RY AN NRE RC

NE

EE RE RE

BN I E SEE IN RE NE SN NE IE JN BE RE IE NN NRE I IN NE NE NE RY NE

IE NE BE IE RW BR I

BE EE RN NE BER AE I

RE EA NE WE AN NE NE RE

NE

NN NE NE BE NN

RE RY IN

I RN NY NY SN NN

SIE SS

NY I

A NN)

RE BY ON RE RN NN RE NY A NN)

V. Word Cluster Write the related words to the topic provided in the diagram.

NN Stem Cells

ZN VI. Vocabulary Training Fill

in the blanks

with

the words

from

the list.

There are extra

words.

19

transplant

therapies

tissues

drugs

physical

biological

determine

opaque

embryonic

advantage

devastate

clinical

1. To realize the promise of novel cell-based .......... for some diseases, scientists must be able to easily and reproducibly manipulate stem cells. 2. It may become possible to generate healthy heart muscle cells in the laboratory and then ..........

those cells into patients with chronic

heart disease. 3. Perhaps the most important potential application of human stem cells

is the generation of cells and .......... that could be used for cell-based therapies. 4. Human stem cells could also be used to test new ..........

:

5. There are many ways in which human stem cells can be used in basic research and in ..........

research.

6. Large numbers of ..........

stem cells can be relatively easily grown in

culture, while adult stem cells are rare in mature tissues and methods for

expanding their numbers in cell culture have not yet been worked out. 7. A potential ..........

of using stem cells from an adult is that the

patient’s own cells could be expanded in culture and then reintroduced into the patient.

VII.

Cloze Test

Complete the following the following An

adult

passage with the appropriate

words from

list. stem cell

is

an undifferentiated

cell

found

among

differentiated cells in a tissue or organ, can renew itself, and can differentiate to yield the major specialized cell types of the tissue or organ. The primary

roles of adult stem cells in a/an .....1.....

organism are to maintain and repair

the tissue in which they are .....2..... . Some scientists now use the term

20

somatic stem cell instead of .....3.....

stem cell. Unlike embryonic stem cells,

which are defined by their .....4..... (the inner cell mass of the blastocyst),

the origin of adult stem cells in ..... 5..... tissues is unknown. Research on adult stem cells has recently ..... 6..... a great deal of excitement. Scientists have found adult .....7..... cells in many more tissues than they once thought een8..... . This finding has led scientists to ask whether .....9..... stem cells could be used for transplants. In fact, adult .....10..... forming stem cells

from bone marrow have been used in .....11..... for 30 years. Certain kinds

of adult stem cells seem to have the .....12..... to differentiate into a number of different cell types, given the .....13..... conditions. If this differentiation of adult stem cells can be .....14..... in the laboratory, these cells may become the basis of therapies for many serious common diseases. 1. a. direct

c. original 2. a. found c. directed 3. a. young c. embryonic

4. a. origin C. use 5. a. pleasant

b. transplanted

d. living b. selected d. verified b. adult d. clinical

b. face d. life b. mature

c. diverse

d. separate

6. a. supported

b. generated

c. printed 7. a. essential

d. released b. formal

c. stem

d. clinical

a. possible

b . seductive

c. eternal

d. essential

9. a. young c . adult [

b. embryonic d. clinical

21

10. a. tissues

b . blood

c. plasma

d. cells

11. a. attaches

b. selects

c. directs

d. transplants

12. a. damage

b. suitability

d. ability

Cc. transfer 13. a. right

b. definite

c. absolute

d. comprehensive b. launched

14, a. diverted

d. controlled

c. accepted

VIII.

Translation

Task

Translate the following

text into Persian.

Embryonic

Stem Cells

Embryonic stem cells, as their name suggests, are derived from embryos.

Specifically, embryonic stem cells are derived from embryos that develop from eggs that have been fertilized in vitro — in an in vitro fertilization clinic —

and then donated for research purposes with informed consent of the donors.

They are not derived from eggs fertilized in a woman’s body. The embryos from which human embryonic stem cells are derived are typically

four or

five days old and are a hollow microscopic ball of cells called the blastocyst. The blastocyst includes three structures: the trophoblast, which 1s the layer of cells that surrounds the blastocyst; the blastocoel, which is the hollow cavity inside the blastocyst; and the inner cell mass, which 1s a group of

approximately 30 cells at one end of the blastocoel. Growing

cells in the laboratory is known as cell culture. Human

embryonic stem cells are isolated by transferring the inner cell mass into a

22

”

plastic laboratory culture dish that contains a nutrient broth known as culture medium. The cells divide and spread over the surface o f the dish. The inner

surface of the culture dish is typically

coated with mouse embryonic skin

cells that have been treated so they will not divide. This coating layer o f cells 1s called a feeder layer. The reason for having the mouse cells in the bottom of the culture dish is to give the inner cell mass cells a sticky surface to which they can attach. Adapted from: http://stemcells.nih.gov/info/basics/basics3.asp

Lesson Three: Gene Therapy Word Study approach /3'proutf/: to come near to somebody or something in distance or

time As you approach the town, you'll see the college on the left.

‘compensate /'ka:mpenseit/:

to provide something good to balance or

reduce the bad effects of damage, loss, etc. Nothing can compensate the loss of a loved one.

ethical /'e01kl/: connected with beliefs and principles about what is right and wrong

There are so many problems concerning the ethical issues of human embryo research.

insert /in's3irt/: to put something into something else or between two things T.hey inserted a tube in his mouth to help him breathe. integrate

/'intigrert/: to combine two or more things so that they work

together

Theseprograms will integrate with your existing software.

modify

/'ma:difar/:

to change something slightly especially in order to

make it more suitable for a particular purpose Patients are taught how to modify their diet.

mutate /'mjuiteit/: to develop or make something develop a new form or

structure because of a genetic change The ability of the virus to mutate into new forms really surprised the doctors.

restore /ri'stdir/: to bring back a situation or feeling that existedbefore The measures are intended to restore public confidence in the economy.

therapy /'Oerapi/: the treatment of a physicalproblem or illness Most leukaemia patients undergo some sort of drug therapy. vector /'vektar/: an insect, etc. that carries a particular disease from one living thing to another Some special types of viruses are used as vectors because they can modify

the genetic pattern by infecting the cell.

Gene Therapy What Is Gene Therapy? Gene therapy

is an experimental technique that uses genes to treat or

prevent disease. In the future, this technique may allow doctors to treat a disorder by inserting

a gene into a patient’s cells instead of using drugs or

surgery. Researchers are testing several approaches to gene therapy, including:

e Replacing a mutated gene that causes disease with a healthy copy of the gene. e Inactivating, or “knocking

out”, a mutated gene that is functioning

improperly.

”

25

e Introducing a new gene into the body to help fight a disease. Although gene therapy is a promising treatment option for a number of diseases (including inherited disorders, some types of cancer, and certain

viral infections), the technique remains risky and is still under study to make

sure that it will be safe and effective. Gene therapy is currently only being tested for the treatment

of diseases that have no other cures.

How Does Gene Therapy Work? Gene therapy is designed to introduce genetic material into cells to compensate for abnormal genes or to make a beneficial protein. If a mutated gene causes a necessary protein to be faulty or missing, gene therapy may be

able to introduce a normal copy of the gene to restore the function of the

protein. A gene that is inserted directly into a cell usually does not function.

Instead, a carrier called a vector is genetically engineered to deliver the gene. Certain viruses are often used as vectors because they can deliver the

new gene by infecting the cell. The viruses are modified

so they can’t cause

disease when used in people. Some types of virus, such as retroviruses, integrate

their genetic material (including the new gene) into a chromosome

in the human cell. Other viruses, such as adenoviruses, introduce their DNA into

the nucleus of the cell, but the DNA

is not integrated into

a

chromosome.

The vector can be injected or given intravenously (by IV) directly into a specific tissue in the body, where it is taken up by individual

cells.

Alternately, a sample of the patient’s cells can be removed and exposed to the vector in a laboratory setting. The cells containing the vector are then

returned to the patient. If the treatment is successful, the new gene delivered

by the vector will make a functioning protein. Researchers must overcome many technical challenges before gene therapy will be a practical approach to treating disease. For example, scientists

26

must find better ways to deliver genes and target them to particular cells. They must also ensure that new genes are precisely controlled by the body. A new gene is injected into an adenovirus vector, which is used to introduce

the modified DNA into a human cell. If the treatment is successful, the new

gene will make a functionalprotein.

Figure 3-1. Gene therapy using an adenovirus vector.

What Are the Ethical Issues Surrounding

Gene Therapy?

Because gene therapy involves making changes to the body’s set of basic instructions, it raises many unique ethical concerns. The ethical questions surrounding gene therapy include: eo How can “good” and “bad” uses of gene therapy be distinguished? J Who decides which

traits are normal and which

constitute a

disability or disorder?

eo Will the high costs of gene therapy make it available only to the wealthy? ~~

27

the widespread use of gene therapy make society less

eo Could

accepting of people who are different?

e Should people be allowed to use gene therapy to enhance basic human traits such as height, intelligence,

or athletic

ability?

Current gene therapy research has focused on treating individuals by targeting the therapy to body cells such as bone marrow or blood cells. This type of gene therapy cannot be passed on to a person’s children. Gene

therapy could be targeted to egg and sperm cells (germ cells), however,

which would allow the inserted gene to be passed on to future generations. This approach is known as germline gene therapy. Adapted from: http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/therapy/genetherapy

I. Comprehension Exercise Read the following

sentences and decide whether they are true,

false, or not mentioned.

Write

“T” for true and “F”

for false

for statements that have not been

statements; also put “NM”

write the true sentence for those

mentioned in the text. Finally,

you selected as false.

|

1. Gene therapy seeks to treat diseases only. EE

I

CR

CIE BE IE

BN BY NE T N

LE

LCE

EFF

28

I

I

EE

I

BEE

4

4

BER

PR

I

SS

I

BE

I N C NY BE

EE

IE

BS

BE

ESS

EE

IE

CE

EEE

NE NE R E

AR

EFS

Rr

SE

RI

IE

BF B S S

AE

RY S N

BE BN BN NE NE RE RE NN RY NN RE I

EE

RE I

NY R E

EE

EES

EEE

EE

EE

A NE A

ES

IR

I

NE A

RN I

EEE

CRE

EE

IE R R

BE RY BE SY RY A I

RE NC NN CO NE R C R A

EEE

EE

EE

BE RE NE I

EEE

BE BN BY RY RE NE RE NE NE RE RY OE BF RC EE RE NE BE C E NE RE BE RE RE NE EE BE

ERR

E

RFA

SPSS

ED

SEF

REED

ADDS

AEST

BER

EEE

ER

IE

EEE

NE R Y

CE

SE AY R R

ENE

I

RN RE BE

EE

NE NE BE BN ON BE NE NE BEE

NE BE EE

RDA

FEASTS

RE

SE NE RE RE AY BC RE RY SY A

NN RY BE BE SE NN RE RE RNB

EEE

ER

CREE

RE NE I

EE

EE

NL EE

ERE

ARE

EEE

BE

REE

NERA

EE

IN

RE R C E

AEE

BE NE EE BE

SEER

NI

EEE

A

EEE

BR

BE EL EE

ARS

AA

Il. Reading Comprehension Choose the best choice which completes the following

sentences.

1. Gene therapy is a method which employs genes to ..........

a. cure

b. prevent

b. modify

d. remove

diseases.

2. Gene therapy enables the body to .......... the missing gene. a. provide

b. make a copy of

Cc. replace

d. find

3. The underlined word enhance means .......... : a. deteriorate

b. exaggerate

¢. improve

d. prevent

4. We understand from the passage that ..........

:

a. gene therapy is a very acceptable experimental method b. there are lots of moral issues on the topic c. gene therapy has been very successful d. most people disagree with the experiments

III. Grammar in Context Gerunds

Gerunds are formed by adding —ing to the end of the verb: working, talking, studying,

... .

e Gerunds are considered to

be

nouns; therefore, they can be used

Working in the hospital is very

rewarding.

as the subject of the sentence: e Gerunds can also be used as

objects. If so, they are used as the

He

enjoys

writing

scientific

articles in distinguished journals.

object of the verb:

e Gerunds can be used as the object of preposition:

[ am very interested in writing articles about the new medical breakthrough.

29

1V. Exercise

Read the text again and find all the words that have —ing. Then decide whether they are present participle, they are gerunds, which

verbs, gerunds, . . . ; if

type are they. Are they subjects or

objects. EE

EE

EEE

EEE

EEE

EE

EE

EE

EE

EEE

EE

EE

EE

EE

EEE

EE

RE

EE

EE

EE

EEE

EEE

EEE

EE

EEE

EE

TE

EE

EE

EE

Er

I

I

TE

I

EN

ET

NE I

TE

I

TO

EE EE

SN

EE

RE

Ra

RE A S R

EE

a

EE

I

EE E E E

a

SN

EE

RP Ea

EE E T

Sr

A a

EE

S r Sr A

EE

A

EE

A

EE

A

I

EE

EE

IA

AW

ETE

IW

EEE

NW

Ra

V. Word Cluster Write the related words to the topic provided in the diagram.

AN Gene Therapy

/ \ VI. Vocabulary Training Fill

in the blanks

with

the words

from

the list.

There

are extra

words. chromosomes

inserted

inherited

treat

manipulate

alteration

applying

copies

determine

divided

altering

copying

L|

30

1. Scientists have long known that .......... in genes present within cells

can cause ..........

diseases like cystic fibrosis, sickle-cell anemia, and

hemophilia.

2. Errors in the total number of .......... can cause conditions such as

Down syndrome or Turner’s syndrome.

3. The objective of gene therapy is to .......... diseases by introducing

functional genes into the body to alter the cells involved in the disease

process by either replacing missing genes or providing

..........

of

functioning genes to replace nonfunctioning ones.

4. Scientists have known how to .......... a gene’s structure in the

laboratory since the early 1970s through a process called gene splicing.

5. Most o f the current work in .......... gene therapy, however, has been in the realm o f somatic gene therapy.

into tissue or cells to produce a

6. Therapeutic genes are .......... naturally

occurring protein

or substance that is lacking

or not

functioning correctly in an individual patient.

VII. Cloze Test Complete the following the following

passage with the appropriate

list.

words from

|

Gene therapy has grown out of the science of genetics or how heredity

works. Scientists know that life begins in a cell, the .....1..... of all multicellular

building block

organisms. Humans, for instance, are .....2..... of trillions

of cells, each performing a specific function. ..... 3 . . . the cell’s nuclei are pairs of chromosomes. These threadlike .....4..... are made up of a single

molecule of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), which ..... 5..... the blueprint o f life

the form

in

of . . . . 6.....,

or

genes, that determine inherited

characteristics. A DNA .....7..... looks like two ladders with one of the sides

taken off .....8..... and then twisted around each other. The rungs of these Ny

31

e e 9..... meet (resulting in a spiral staircase-like structure) and are .....10..... base pairs. Base pairs are made up ..... 11..... nitrogen molecules and

arranged 1n specific sequences... ...12..... o f these base pairs, or sequences, can make up a/an

13..... gene, specifically defined as a segment of the

chromosome and DNA that contains certain hereditary information. 1. a. original c. early

2. a. made up c. divide

3. a. Where c. Whom 4. a. buildings C. structures

5. a. tolerates c. transfers 6. a. codes c. digits

7. a. molecule

C. tissue 8. a. then

b. basic d. established

b. clean up

d. set up b. Within d. Wherever b. foundations d. functions b. carries d. develops b . numbers

d. serials b. cell

d. bone b. both

c. either

d. none

0. a. ladders

b . traces

c. features 10. a. said C. written

11. a. 1n Cc. at

12. a. Millions ¢. Divisions

32

d. molecules b. called d. presented

b. of d. for

b. Much d. Parts

b. primary

13. a. original

d. single

c. early

VIII.

Translation

Task

Translate the following

text into Persian.

The Future of Gene Therapy Gene therapy seems elegantly simple in its concept: supply the human body with a gene that can correct a biological malfunction that causes a disease. However, there are many obstacles and some distinct questions concerning the viability

of gene therapy. For example, viral vectors must be carefully

controlled lest they infect the patient with a viral disease. Some vectors, like retroviruses, also can enter cells functioning properly and interfere with the natural biological processes, possibly leading to other diseases. Other viral vectors, like the adenoviruses, often are recognized and destroyed by the immune system so their therapeutic effects are short-lived. One of the most pressing issues, however, is gene regulation. Genes

work in concert to regulate their functioning. In other words, several genes may play a part in turning other genes on and off. For example, certain genes work together to stimulate cell division and growth, but if these are not

regulated, the inserted genes could cause tumor formation and cancer. Another difficulty

is learning how to make the gene go into action only when

needed. For the best and safest therapeutic effort, a specific gene should turn on, for example, when certain levels of a protein or enzyme are low and must be replaced. Adapted from: http://www2.vhi.ie/topic/topic100586866

33

Lesson Four: Robots in Surgery Word Study configuration

/konfigja'reifn/:

an arrangement of the parts of something

or a group of things

The apparatus has a very complicated configuration. enable /1'neibl/:

make it possible for somebody to do something

The software enables you to connect the Internet in a few seconds. integrated

/'intigreitid/:

in which

many different

parts are closely

connected and work successfully together When I arrived in London, I discovered that the city has a very integrated fransport.

invasive /in'versiv/: spreading very quickly and difficult

to stop

It turned out that the disease has changed to an invasive cancer.

longevity /lain'd3zevati/: long life We wish you both health and longevity. pursue /par'su:/:

to follow

She left the theater, hotly pursued by thepress.

34

simulation /stmju'leifn/:

a situation in which a particular set of conditions

to study or experience something that could exist in real

is created artificially

situation After the class, the students were shown a computer simulation of how

planets work. transducer /traens'duisar/: a device for producing an electrical signal from another form of energy such as pressure In order to facilitate

the transformation process, the technician used a

transducer.

Robots in Surgery The use of robots in surgery has provided additional tools for surgeons

enabling minimally

invasive intervention or even long distance tele-operated

surgeries. Indeed we may trust on human creativeness and technical capabilities that can ever be improved in terms of technical achievements. In recent years, the medicine has enabled significant wellness for the life quality and longevity

of the world population. And for the coming years, we

may be prepared to experiment even more benefits, as results from advances that are being pursued

step by step in new fields of science, such as

nanobiotechnology. With the expected miniaturization of devices provided by

several works on nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS),

nano-

manufacturing has actually become a reality. Hence, with the NEMS recent advances on building nanodevices, and the development of interdisciplinary

works, altogether may be translated in

few years through the development of integrated nanomachines, also known as nanorobots. With the use of techniques that are advancing rapidly, such as nano-transducers

”

and biomolecular computing nanorobots are expected to

35

Figure

4-1. The depicted blue cones shows the sensors “touching”

areas that triggers the nanorobots’ behaviors.

be able to operate in a well defined set of behaviors performing

pre-

programmed tasks. Thus in the coming few years, nanorobots being teleoperated to perform surgery, or even nanorobots continually supervising the

human body in order to assist organs that may require some kind of repair, is one o f the most expected revolutionary

tools for biomedical engineering

problems. The development of nanorobots is an emerging field with many aspects

under investigation. Simulation is an essential tool for exploring alternatives in the organization, configuration,

motion

planning,

and control

of

nanomachines exploring the human body. The work we have been doing

concentrates its main focus on developing nanorobot control and design

36

applied to nanomedicine. Nanorobot applications could be focused mainly on two major arcas, as follows: nanorobots for surgical interventions, as well as their utilization

for patients that need constant monitoring. The nanorobots

require specific controls, sensors and actuators, basically in accordance with

eachkind of biomedicalproblem. Advanced simulations can include various levels of detail, giving a trade-off between physical accuracy and the ability to control large numbers

of nanorobots over relevant time scales with reasonable computational effort. Another advantage is that simulation can be done in advance of direct experimentation. It is most efficient to develop the control technology in tandem with the fabrication technologies, so that when we are able to build

these devices, we will already have a good background in how to control them.

Figure

4-2. Rendering schematically the nanorobot sensors’ collision

detection for chemical signals molecular identification.

We propose computational mechatronics approaches as suitable way to enable the fast development of nanorobots operating in a fluid environment relevant for medical applications. Unlike

the case of larger robots, the

dominant forces in this environment arise from viscosity of low Reynolds

N

37

number fluid

flow and Brownian

motion and such parameters are been

implemented throughout a set o f different investigations. We have been

developing practical and innovative paradigms based on the Nanorobot

that allows

simulator

(NCD)

Design

Control

fast design testability

comparing various control algorithms for nanorobots and their application for different tasks. Also such information useful as parameters for building

generated by the NCD can be

nanodevices, such as transducers and

actuators. Adapted from: http://www .nanorobotdesign.com/papers/robotsInSurgery.pdf

I. Comprehension Exercise Read the following false,

o r not

sentences and decide whether they are true,

mentioned.

Write

statements; also put “NM”

“T”

for

true

and “F”

for

false

for statements that have not been

mentioned in the text. Finally,

write the true sentence for those

you selected as false. 1. The use of robots in surgery has proved to be the best alternative for operation room. LILES

LIE

* 0 4S

TE

BY BE AE BN RY RE RNY RE RN ON NN RY NY BE BNE RE RE SN BY NN NE RN NL NE RC NE NY RN RE RE RY

ED EERE

LE

LE

I

I

SPREE

NE

I

ANNES

OE BE BE EE

I

EE

EN SAE

NR

ERA

BE IEE

RSA

I

IE BE II

RSE

I

I

E RRS

NE BE RE RN AN IE RLY

NY RE SE RC

EEE

I

FEES

RE NE IE BRE

SE NE BEN NE RE RE I

A NEESER

NE NE I

NE RE RE IE

NE

SSS

NE R E

BE IEE

I

NE NE NE RT

EEE

NE REE

ARF

I

RE

I IC

EAT

IN

EEE

NY BE BE NRE

RE I

NN RCREI

AEDES

R

Aa

NE NN NE BRE

I

SR

I

I

4. In the near future, nanorobots are used to perform tele-operated

surgery. LEC

IE

BEE

EE

OE A

EIN

BE RE IE

RE NE RE NE IE I

AY IE

BE EEE

A

I

BE A RE BE RE RT EAE

A I

EE

BE

BE AY BY BE R T

BE RE RE RY NE NE RE R E IN

NE BE RE NE R E

IE EE NE

BE BE A

A

RE IE

5. Like the case of larger robots, the dominant forces arise from viscosity

of low Reynolds number fluid flow. LAL

38

IEE

EEE

»

ENE

NEE

EEE NEE

EEE EE

EERE EE

N E R SO

NE

BLE

BE RE A BRE I

I

BEI

RE BE RE

RO I IE

NE NE RE RE NE BY RE NCR REE I

NE INCRE I I

NY

IR

IE]

Il. Reading Comprehension Choose the best choice which completes the following 1. The use of robots in surgery ..........

sentences.

:

a. has replaced other methods b. has been as a complementary to medication c. 1s used as a help for surgeon d. can be very effective in the future

2. Another name for nanomachines is .......... : a. nanorobots

b. NCD

c. tele-operators

d. mechatronics

3. The underlined word investigation means .......... a. study

b. exploration

c. discovery

d. treatment

:

4. The components of advanced simulation are all of the following

EXCEPT .......... : a. a trade-off between physical accuracy

b. controlling large numbers of nanorobots C. a MICTOProcessor d. various levels of detail

III.

Grammar

Present

in Context

Perfect

Present perfect is used in the following situations: e It refers to an action that happened

I have seen the movie before.

at an indefinite time in the past: e It refers to an action that happened

in the past several times:

[I have traveled

to New

York

several times.

39

e It refers to an action that started in the past and continued

I have lived in this city since 1

to the

was born.

present or close to the present:

I have studied English for more than two years.

IV. Exercise sentences, and

Read the text and find all the present perfect decide which group they belong to. CI

TE I

IE

NE

T A Y NN I

A & B 0 A 4% ATE

I

NII

FES

SN INE I

GEL

NA TN TA I

TN

EA RE EEE

TTT

TA RE RE OR I

SE EES

A IY J

SEAS

RA

I

SSE

NE RA TE RN NY TAY NE TN IB

SESE S E E S

EAE

UAE

NE

I

IE

J

BY NT S Y BRT NE J

EN ESN

EAE

EEE

IE

UNE

SR

E EE EEA

I

RN I

SE AREF

INCE

RN NN R E

EEE

NK BE ER

NE

I

Be BE RN AN IN

E ESERIES

An

V. Word Cluster Write the related words to the topic provided in the diagram.

NZ Robots in Surgery

/ \ VI. Vocabulary Training Fill

in the blanks

with

the words

from

the list.

There

are extra

words. emulating

nanorobot

sequential

completed

cooperatively

proposed

nanoscale

schedule

sequenced

interaction

perception

prolonged

~

40

1. A useful starting point

for achieving the main goal of building

Ceveeena devices is the development of generalized automation control for molecular machine systems which could enable a manufacturing

.......... for positional nanoassembly manipulation. 2. Virtual reality could be considered as a suitable technique for .......... design and for the use of macro- and micro-robotics concepts given

certain theoretical and practical aspects that focus on its domain of application.

3. The collective nanorobotics approach ..........

is one possible method

to perform a massively-parallel positional nanoassembly manipulation. 4. The applicability of multi-robot teams in timely .......... set of works

with practical applications that could enable the establishment of generalized control guidelines for nanorobotics. 5. The use of multirobot

teams working

..........

to achieve a single

global task applied to nanotechnology is a field of research that is very

new and challenging.

|

6. Research on collective robotics suggests that we should consider

rreeans the methods of the social insects to build decentralized and distributed systems that are capable of accomplishing tasks through

the .......... of agents with the same structures and pre-programmed actions and goals.

7. A careful decomposition of the main problem task into subtasks with action based on local sensor-based .......... could generate multi-robot coherent behaviors.

VII.

Cloze Test

Complete the following the following

passage with the appropriate

words from

list.

In future decades the principal

focus in medicine will

shift from

~

41

medical science to medical engineering, where the design of medically-

active microscopic machines will be the consequent result of techniques provided from human molecular structural knowledge gained in the 20th and

early 21st centuries.For the feasibility of such achievements in ..... l....., two primary capabilities for fabrication must be ..... 2..... fabrication and

assembly of nanoscale parts. Through .....3.....

use of different approaches

such as biotechnology,

..... 4.....

capabilities had .....5.....

demonstrated to a limited degree as early .....6.....

chemistry, and scanning probes, both

1998. Despite quantum effects which impart a/an ..... 7..... uncertainty to electron positions, the quantum probability tends to drop .....9.....

..... 8..... of electrons in atoms

exponentially with distance outside the atom. Even

...10..... most liquids at their boiling points, each ..... 11..... is free to move only ~0.07 nm from .....12..... average position. Developments in the field of ....13..... computing have demonstrated positively

the feasibility

of

.....14..... logic tasks by bio-computers, a promising first .....15..... toward building future nanoprocessors with increasing complexity. There .....16..... been progress in building

biosensors and nanokinetic devices which also

may be required to enable nanorobotic operations and locomotion. Classical objections related to the feasibility

of nanotechnology, such as quantum

mechanics, thermal motions and friction, have been considered and resolved

and discussions of techniques for manufacturing nanodevices are appearing

in the literature with increasing frequency.

1. a. nanomedicine

b. biotechnology

c. medication

d. nanomachines

2. a. transmitted

b. fulfilled

c. delayed

d. divided

3. a. the

|+ OT

C. a

d. an

42

. nanomolecular

b. supramolecular

. intramolecular

d. intermolecular

. be

b. being

. to be

d. been

. as

b. then

. for

d. so

. relative

b. definite

. Clear

d. evasive

. a. motion

b. relation

. function

d. division

. then

b. away

. out

d. off

10. . In

b. of

. for

d. on

11. . molecule

b. cell

. nucleus 12. . It’s .1t 1s

d. tissue

b. it d. its

13. . monomolecular

b. biomolecular

. supramolecular

d. nanomolecular

14. . clearing

. processing 15. . level

b. providing d. supplying b. stage

. part

d. step

16. . has

b. have

. would have

d. might have

43

VIII.

Translation

Task

Translate the following

text into Persian.

Robotic Surgery Technology is revolutionizing

the medical field with the creation of robotic

devices and complex imaging. Though these developments have made operations much less invasive, robotic systems have their own disadvantages that prevent them from replacing surgeons. Minimally

invasive surgery is a

broad concept encompassing many common procedures that existed prior to the introduction

of robots, such as laparoscopic cholecystectomy or gall

bladder excisions. It refers to general procedures that avoid long cuts by

entering the body through small (usually about 1cm) entry incisions, through

which surgeons use long-handled instruments to operate on tissue within the body. Both computer-assisted and robotic surgeries have similarities when it comes to preoperative planning and registration. Because a surgeon can use

computer simulation to run a practice session of the robotic

surgery

beforehand, there is a close tie between these two categories and this may explain why some people often confuse them as interchangeable. However, their main distinctions lie in the intraoperative phase of the procedure: robotic surgeries may. use a large degree of computer assistance, but

computer-assisted surgeries do not use robots. Adapted from: http://biomed.brown.edu/Courses/BI108/BI108 2005 Groups/04/

44

Lesson Five: MRI

Word Study alignment /3'lainmont/:

arrangement in a straight line

A bone in his spine was out of alignment. compare /koam'per/:

to examine people or things to see how they are

similar and how they are different It is interesting to compare their situation and ours.

convert /kan'v3irt/:

to change or to make something change from one form,

purpose, system, etc. to another

The hotel is going to be convertedinto a nursinghome.

diagnostic /dardg'na:stik/:

connected with

identifying something,

especially an illness There are some specific methods that are usedfor the diagnostic of AIDS. /in'dikativ/:

indicative

showing or suggesting something

Their failure to act is indicative of their lack of interest.

radiation

/ rexdi'erfn/:

powerful and very dangerous rays that are sent out

from radioactive substances Scientists are working on the relationship between exposure to radiation and childhood cancer.

|

»

45

remarkable

/ri'ma:rkabl/:

unusual or surprising in a way that causes

people to take notice The area is remarkable for its scenery. resemble /ri'zembl/:

to look like or be similar to another person or thing

Children usually resemble their parents.

virtual /'v3irtfusl/:

almost or nearly the thing described, so that any slight

difference is not important The country was sliding into a state of virtual civil war.

What Is Magnetic Resonance Imaging

(MRI)? Magnetic resonance imaging, or MRI, is a painless and safe diagnostic

procedure that uses a powerful magnet and radio waves to produce detailed images of the body’s organs and structures, without the use of X-rays or other radiation.

Figure 5-1.

A computer converts signals from the MRI scan into extremely clear, cross-sectional images of the part of the body that has been scanned. Each

image 1s a slice of the body area scanned, and numerous images are created ~

46

that clearly show all the features of that particular part of the body. The images produced by MRI can be compared to a sliced loaf of

bread. Just as you can lift each individual slice from the loaf and see both the

slice and the inside of the bread, so too the image “slices” produced by the

MRI show the exact details of the inside of the body.

|

The computer is able to reconstruct all the images into a single image resembling

an X-ray. This reconstruction also can be made into three-

dimensional images, allowing complete and remarkable

visualization of the

body area scanned from all angles. MRI is arguably the greatest advance in diagnostic medical techniques over the past century.

Figure 5-2.

How Does Magnetic Resonance Imaging Work? Unlike CT, or computed tomography — another type o f imaging — MRI uses no radiation. Instead, MRI uses a powerful produce high-quality,

magnet and radio waves to

cross-sectional pictures of the part of the body being

studied. Each picture represents a virtual

slice through the part of the body

being imaged. ® The MRI scanning machine is a large donut-shaped magnet with a sliding scanning table. A person lies on this table, which then slides into the desired position in the MRI magnet. The machine produces »~

47

loud, repetitive noises, like banging, during the procedure. But these

noises, while unpleasant at times, aren’t dangerous or indicative

of a

problem. e In our bodies, the nuclei

of hydrogen atoms (called protons)

normally point randomly in different directions. However, when

exposed to the magnetic field in an MRI chamber, the nuclei line up

in parallel formation, like rows of tiny magnets.Nearly two-thirds of the body’s hydrogen atoms arc found in water and fat molecules. e When the nuclei are subjected to a strong but harmless (and painless) pulse of radio waves from the MRI machine, they are knocked out of

their parallel alignment.

As they fall back into alignment, they

produce a detectable radio signal. e The signal is recorded by the machine and transferred to a computer. e The computer uses these signals to calculate an image that is based on the strength of signal produced by different types of tissue. For

example, tissues that contain little or no hydrogen (such as bone) appear black. Those that contain large amounts of hydrogen (such as the brain) produce a bright image.

MRI 1s used for a variety of diagnostic purposes. It is most often used to obtain information that hasn’t been provided by other imaging techniques,

including ultrasound, conventional X-ray, or computed tomography.

In general, MRI is used to:

e Determine exactly what the problem is inside the body,

e Show exactly where the problem is, e Rule out certain diseases.

Because MRI produces images in any plane, it is particularly valuable

in studying the brain and spinal cord and pinpointing even the smallest abnormality there. Because the water and fat content of tumors is different from surrounding normal tissue, MRI can reveal the precise location and size of tumors.

48

MRI also: e Provides images of the internal structure of the eye and ear,

e Produces detailed images of the heart and major blood vessels, e Provides images of blood flow in the circulatory system, ® Produces detailed images of joints and soft tissues, particularly

of

cartilage, ligaments and tendons within joints such as the knee. Some additional diseases and medical conditions identified

by MRI

include: e Disorders of chest and lungs,

e Disorders of abdominal organs and the digestive tract, e Disorders of the kidneys, urinary tract and pelvic organs, Infections,

Inflammatory conditions, Trauma and other injury. Adapted from: http://www.ehealthmd.com/library/mri/

I. Comprehension Exercise sentences and decide whether they are true,

.Read the following false,

for

“T”

Write

mentioned.

or not

true

for

“F”

and

false

for statements that have not been

statements; also put “NM”

write the true sentence for those

mentioned in the text. Finally, you selected as false.

1. MRI is a diagnostic method that does not endanger the patients. LIES BY BE SE BE NE EE I NE RY NC RE RN NN RNR NER RNCRE BE RE NN RN RE RE NE NN BE RY RE BE NRE NE EY RN NERY RE EE BE REY I

FN NE

[BE TE BF SCRE SE BE NE A

RE NE NE NRE RN BER RENE NE NE IR

CR

BRE

I

NE NN BN CRY BE RE BN BY RE BER NE BN RE BE NC NR

NEY RE NEE RE

RY T C E NR I IY RE SE SN RN BY RE SE NN NN NE NE RENN NN RY BE SE IN BE BER NE

EE

BE BE RE RE NE RE RE RE BE EE

IE LA BE SE OE BN BE BE NE NEN BEA BE AN J

3. Like CT, computed tomography — another type of imaging — MRI uses no radiation. AAS

PPE

A

FE

EEE

EEE

EES

ESSE

ERE

SE

FEAF

FS

PAE

SEE

EASE

EEE

SEER

ESE

ESET

FEA

RNS

ENS

AE

SAE

ESSE

EEE

4. MRI 1s a technique that is used to confirm other information

from

other imaging techniques. LLIN

BE

L E EE

6. Most

OL IL AE I

I

AE BERS OB IE EAE SLE IE RE RE I

doctors are very

DE NE AE RN B E RE SEE I

BE EE SE BI

BE EOE ELI

interested in

NE NE I BR

NE RE RE NE I

NE

NN A BE RE RE AE ON BCR NE

RY R E IEI ]

studying about imaging

techniques, like MRI. LL

EE

ELE

OI

EE

a

RT EE RE I

OE DE

RL I

A

BE I

BE IE I

I

I E REA

SE BE

IE

NE I

SE I

RE A

A IE

BE RE RE I

A I

AC BEI

J

BE NE BE A RN A I

A RE A

A

A

A

A

A

EE

ILI

RCN

Il. Reading Comprehension Choose the best choice which completes the following 1. Images created by MRI techniques ..........

sentences.

:

a. are used as an alternative to the other techniques such as X-ray b. do not seem to be clearly representing the defective parts

c. show the characteristics of the specific organ or part of the body d. should be followed by other kinds of imaging techniques 2. We understand from the passage that CT .......... :

a. 1s a better option than MRI b. uses no radiation ¢. needs radiation as an essential part

d. 1s not used as an imaging technique anymore

3. MRlisableto.......... : a. recognize all the diseases using images

b. be used as a very effective treatment tool c. determine whether the treatment has been successful d. the precise features of the inner parts of the body

4. MRI 1s used for the following purposes EXCEPT to . . . . . . . . . . .

a. cure the disease as quickly as possible b . determine F

50

exactly what the problem

is inside the body

I

c. show the location of the problem d. rule out some diseases 5. The underlined word precise means .......... :

a. exact

b. clear

Cc. obvious

d. special

III. Grammar in Context Adverbs

Adverbs are modifiers that have a variety of functions:

e They are used to describe a verb:

She was driving very slowly.

© They are used to describe an

The weather was terribly cold

adjective:

last night.

e They are used to describe another He speaks carefully in class. adverb:

Types of Adverbs eo Manner:

bravely, fast, happily, hard, quickly, etc.

e Place:

by, down, here, near, etc.

eo Time:

now, soon, still, then, today, etc.

eo Frequency:

always, never, occasionally, etc.

® Sentence: certainly, definitely, luckily, surely, etc.

® Degree:fairly, hardly, rather, quite, surely, etc.

IV. Exercise Read the text and decide which

words

are adverbs

and what kind

they are. LI

LAL ES I N I

LL

FL

I I

I

BB

I

BC S B

I

I

BE

BE BLE

I

LR

T E GON BE BL NE BE NE BE NL EE NN D E R E RE 2

I TI I

NE IE IC

RE

a

I

I

REE

I

A

I

BE NE RE I

a

I

A I

NE BE BE RE NN ERE

I

I

NN

RR

IE

IE

I

I

I

SC I

I

TE I

IE

I

INCI

IE SE BCR RT ES

I

I

NRT TR I

I

I

REN

I

I I SER r

CN I

RY

V. Word Cluster Write the related words to the topic provided in the diagram.

MRI

VI. Vocabulary Training Fill

in the blanks

with

the words from

the list.

There

are extra

words. demonstrated

technique

recorded

cardiac

application

resonance

evaluate

means

magnetic

growing

method

awarded

|

consider

1 . I n 1971 Raymond Damadian showed that the nuclear .......... relaxation

times

of tissues

and

tumors

differed,

thus

motivating

scientists to .......... magnetic resonance for the detection of disease. 2. Magnetic resonance imaging was first .......... on small test tube samples by Paul Lauterbur.

3. In 1977, Raymond Damadian demonstrated MRI called field-focusing nuclear magnetic ..........

:

4. In 1987 echo-planar imaging (EPI) was used to perform real-time movie imaging of a single .......... »

52

cycle.

5. In 1992 functional MRI (fMRI)

was developed. This ..........

allows

the mapping of the function of the various regions of the human brain. 6. The development of fMRI

opened up a new .......... for EPI in

mapping the regions of the brain responsible for thought and motor

control. 7. In 2003, Paul C. Lauterbur of the University of Illinois

Mansfield of the University

and Sir Peter

of Nottingham were .......... the Nobel

Prize in Medicine for their discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging.

8. MRI is clearly a young,but .......... science.

VII. Cloze Test Complete the following the following

passage with the appropriate

list.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) primarily

words from

is an imaging

technique used

in medical settings to produce high quality images of the inside of

the human body. MRI

resonance (NMR),

is based on the principles of ..... l..... magnetic

a spectroscopic technique used .....2..... scientists to

obtain microscopic chemical and physical ..... 3..... about molecules. The technique was called magnetic ..... 4 . . .

magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI)

imaging rather than nuclear

.....5..... the negative connotations

associated with the .....6..... nuclear in the late 1970s. MRI cond

started out

a tomographic imaging technique, that is ..... 8..... produced an

image of the NMR signal .....9.....

a thin slice through the human .....10......

MRI has advanced beyond a tomographic imaging .....11..... to a volume imaging technique. Felix Bloch and Edward Purcell, .....12..... of whom were awarded the Nobel Prize .....13..... 1952, discovered the magnetic

resonance phenomenon .....14.....

in 1946. In the period between 1950 and

1970, NMR was developed and used for chemical and physical molecular

analysis. En

53

. physical

b. nuclear

. electric

d. chemical

. by

b. with

. together

d. without

. situation

b. formation

. lesson

d. information

. resistance

b. power

. resonance

d. destination

. because of

b. since

. for

d. because

. sentence

b. word

. jargon

d. discourse

. for

b. since

. while

d. as

It

b. there

. that

d. this

. on

b. at

. in

d. by

10. . tissues

b.body

. parts 11. . Instrument . limitation 12. . both . none

13. . on at

oO

14. . Independently

54

fundamentally

d. corpse b. technique d. device b. all d. together b. in d. of b. essentially d. directly

VIII.

Translation

Task

Translate the following

text into Persian.

MRI Nomenclature Magnetic resonance imaging was developed from knowledge gained in the study o f nuclear magnetic resonance. In its early years MRI was referred to as nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI), but the word nuclear has

been associated with ionizing radiation exposure, which is not used in an MRI,

so to prevent patients from making a negative association between

MRI and ionizing radiation, the word has been almost universally removed. Scientists still use the term NMR when discussing non-medical devices operating on the same principles.

Figure 5-3. Modern 3 Tesla clinical MRI scanner.

Principle Medical MRI most frequently relies on the relaxation properties of excited ~

SS

hydrogen nuclei in water and lipids. When the object to be imaged is placed

in a powerful, uniform magnetic field, the spins of atomic nuclei with a resulting non-zero spin have to arrange in a particular manner with the

applied magnetic field according to quantum mechanics. Nuclei of hydrogen

atoms (protons) have a simple spin 1/2 and therefore align either parallel or anti-parallel to the magnetic field. Adapted from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic

56

Resonance Imaging

Lesson Six: Plastic Surgery Word Study alleviate /3'lizviert/: to make something less severe A number of measures were taken to alleviate theproblem.

crease /kri:s/:

to make lines in the skin

Her face creases into a smile.

discoloration

/dis'kaloreifn/:

the process of changing color, or making the

color of something change, in a way that makes it look less attractive Some chemical

cleaners

fatality

/fo'teelati/:

violence

or disease

cause discoloration.

a death that is caused in an accident or a war, or by

Several people were injured but there were no fatalities.

scar /skair/: a mark that is left on the skin after the wound has healed

Will the operation leave a scar?

sedation /s1'deifn/:

the act of giving someone drug in order to make them

calm or to make them sleep

The victim's wife was last night being kept under sedation in the local hospital.

57

sensation /sen'seifn/: the ability to feel through your sense of touch She seemed to have lost all sensation

in her arms.

susceptible /sa'septabl/: very likely to be influenced, harmed or affected Some of theseplants are more susceptible to frost damage than others.

Dangers of Plastic Surgery With today’s technology, new techniques o f plastic surgery are alleviating the need for general anesthesia and the dangers of plastic surgery associated with anesthetics. Complications from plastic surgery are extremely rare in this day and age — however, anyone who is considering having this type of surgery done should educate themselves about the possible dangers of plastic surgery.

The dangers o f plastic surgery can range from scarring to fatality

(in

the most extreme cases) and the effects o f surgery can sometimes be both physically and psychologically

traumatizing to patients. Complications do

not occur on a regular basis; however, it is important to be aware of the possible dangers o f plastic surgery.

|

The dangers of plastic surgery will increase or decrease depending on the type of surgery performed and the individual’s

reaction to surgery and

anesthesia. One of the most common dangers of plastic surgery that people considering surgery should be aware o f is scarring.

Most plastic surgeons

attempt to hide incision lines in places where they can’t be seen, like under the crease of the breast in breast augmentation plastic surgery, or in the

hairline in facial plastic surgery. Most surgeries will still result in permanent scarring; however, but the scarring 1s usually hidden from sight.

Some other dangers of plastic surgery are bleeding, infection, and blood clots. Close monitoring I

58

of the patient after surgery will

allow

these

complications to be caught early on so they can be promptly treated. A high temperature is a sign of infection,

and with

the ease o f temperature

monitoring, it should be checked every few hours.

Nerve

damage is another danger of plastic surgery that people

considering plastic surgery must be aware of. Some patients can experience problems moving muscles in the area where the surgery was performed or have loss o f feeling in the area that was operated on after plastic surgery. However, in most cases this is only temporary, and sensation should soon return.

The dangers of plastic surgery are directly related to the type o f procedure and area on which it will be performed. Breast augmentation related dangers of plastic surgery include sensory damage around the operation site, discoloration

of the skin, tissue necrosis, asymmetry,

infection, formation of scar tissue, and allergic reactions to sedation. On the other hand, the dangers of plastic surgery of the face can lead to noticeable tissue damage, unnatural looking features and premature aging. It’s not just the procedure that determines the dangers of plastic surgery

involved, but the health of the individual.

You are more susceptible to the

dangers of plastic surgery if you have preexisting health issues. I f you are a smoker, a person with diabetes, has a heart condition, or has certain allergies you are more likely to experience complications that other people can avoid.

As with any other surgery, it 1s important to have blood tests and a

physical to ensure that you are a good candidate for plastic surgery. In

addition, you should make sure to look into the procedure you are considering and learn about the dangers o f plastic surgery involved so that you can be as prepared inside and out for your transformation. Consult an

experienced, board-certified plastic surgeon for more information

on the

plastic surgery procedures that will help enhance your body to its full potential. Adapted from: http://www.aboardcertifiedplasticsurgeonre source.com/plastic_surgery/danger.htm} L

59

I. Comprehension Exercise Read the following

sentences and decide whether they are true,

false, or not mentioned.

Write

statements; also put “NM”

“ T ” for true and “F”

for false

for statements that have not been

mentioned in the text. Finally,

write the true sentence for those

you selected as false. 1. Plastic surgery is a very risky operation and it must be avoided. Ea

LIE

EE

EE

IE E E

LE

IE

IE IE

ON I

OE EE A IE

DE RE IE I

L E E REEE NE BRE AE EEE SE RE RE I

BE

IE

DE NE DEE

RE RE

NN ON BE RE I

CE

IE I

OE

NE I

I

BE BY BE RN SY I

BE BN IE EN L L

I

BEE

BE IEE I

IE NE EI

RN BY IE NE NN I

I

I

NY I

I

I

IY EE

I

I

IE

RN BEE

NE IE NN NN IE NY C E NY IR

INE IRL NY A I

I

I

EN

I E INC NN I

RE RT E S

NY RR

I

IE INE

R C RE RE BE

RE NN I I

I

NE

I

RR

IE

I

EE

CC

CRE IEEE

NE TI

IAT I

I

BE RE EE NE EE

NR

SR

INC RNC OE NR

EEE

IR

LT

I

I

A

RR

IC I

IE EE

I

I

TE

REE

I

I

RE

BR

CN

I

TAC

I

A

ERY EE

RI

NR

A)

4. It does not matter where the surgery is going to be done, dangers are always the same. EN

EE

A

LEC EL EE LB

NN

AE E T

NE

BOE I I

EE

EE

BE I

ELE E E

BNR

EEE

EEE

EF EE

EE

EE E E

EE

EE E E EE

T N NE NC RE NE RE AT RN NE BN NE NE RE NE NE BE NE RE REN BE RY RE

EE

EE EE

EE

BY EE RE NE RN I RR

EE EE

EI

EE

E E EE

NE IE RE ON CRE IE BE EE

EE ET

I RY IR

EE

E E EE

A I RE

NY I ]

Il. Reading Comprehension Choose the best choice which completes the following

sentences.

1. One of the dangers of plastic surgery is .......... :

a. death

b. blindness

Cc. rash

d. flu

. Dangers of plastic surgery depend on the following EXCEPT ........... a. type of surgery

b. doctor’s expertise

c. anesthesia

d. individual’s

3. In some patients, plastic surgery ..........

:

a. may lead to the loss of sense in that areca b. causes serious bleeding

60

»

reaction

EY

c. may not be practical at all d. seems to be a waste of time 4. The underlined word this can be best replaced by .......... a. hidden scarring

b. plastic surgery

c. blood clot

d. loss of feeling

:

5. The underlined word danger means .......... :

III.

a. threat

b. simulation

c. jeopardy

d.aandc

Grammar

in Context Ideas

Connecting Contrasting

eo Although

and even though have

Although

she was falling

asleep,

the same meaning. Both are

she didn’t want to miss the end of

followedby the subject and a verb:

the show.

However

The economy is showing signs of

can be used to start a

second sentence that contrasts information

the

in

the

sentence

first

and is followed by a comma:

are

always

used

concession and

express

to

also

However,

unemployment rate is still

the too

high.

the same

Nevertheless and just

improvement.

start the

second clause. They are both often

There are few high-paying jobs in the

countryside.

Nevertheless,

many people prefer to live there because of healthier life styles.

followed by a comma: On the other hand can express

Many people in America want to

contrast. It always starts the second

improve health-care system. On

a

the other hand, they don’t want

clause and is comma.

followed

by

to pay more taxes.

61

IV. Exercise

Find the contrasting ideas in the text.

LI

A BE AF EE A

AN SE SR BEE

LIEB

I

BER

REE

SRE

RE IE

NY A EE RE IE

INE SAN TA ON INE REN INN DAN BS NE ONY INE NE INLINE TR INN I Y INL TNE

NI

A

IE

AE A

RE RE RE RY BE RE RE

IEE

EY EE

IEEE

TE O E IE NE BN ANY INN CN INE REE BNL

NE

I

RE

BE BE L E

BE RE RE BE R E

OE EE S A

NE

I

EE

I E PE EE BE

BN BN BE RE BE AN NE NEN

ARE

RL 2

IE I

2

A

IE IE

IE

DE RE EE SL BE EE BE

BN EE NE AN BN NE DE EE A

LEE

EN BE EE

IE

BLE

LE

EE ELA

RE

EN

BE

I

A

EI

BN]

V. Word Cluster Write the related words to the topic provided in the diagram.

Plastic

Surgery

/\ VI. Vocabulary Training Fill

in the blanks

with

the words from the list.

There

are extra

words. complications

dangerous

possible

harm

qualification

knowledge

capacity

clear

surprising

susceptible

prone

vary

cosmetic

common

1. It can be immensely ..........

to get exposed to the ill effects of plastic

surgery but a thorough .......... about dangers and risks of it is relaxing the patient, getting prepared for the consequences if arise and thus greatly reducing the .......... : »

62

2. The vital and most important aspect of getting operated by .......... surgery is finding

a surgeon with expert .......... and renowned

reputation for success. 3. The risks of plastic surgery .......... with person to person and the

procedure of plastic surgery patient and surgeons opt for.

4. Patients suffering

from

certain diseases like

diabetics or heavy

smokers are .......... to the dangers of plastic surgery in aftermath situation.

5. Bleeding is pretty regular phenomenon for few hours following surgery and can sometimes results to

.......... :

6. During surgery and within next few hours, the patients become more

een

to secondary line o f infections as open wounds offer better

access to bacterial and viral pathogens via, sutures, or drain sites.

7. Scarring is one of the most ..........risks one shouldbe aware of.

VII. Cloze Test Complete the following

passage with the appropriate

words from

the following list. The number of people inclined to cosmetic surgery is on increase. Even

when, everyone is aware of .....1..... and dangers of plastic surgery, more

andmore .....2..... are raring to go for such treatment.In .....3..... scenario, due to regular inventions and innovations in .....4..... and technology, the field of cosmetic surgery has ..... 5..... more and more safe. Attitude towards

getting .....6..... is becoming more open as discussing its all .....7..... and risks and people are getting better .....8..... . Today the dangers of cosmetic surgery have .....9.....

advances in technique, instruments allowing

lessen, curtsey to

.....10..... their safety and

satisfaction. Studies carried out to .....11..... the inclination

of the people

shows that .....12..... money had no role to play then more .....13..... 75% 5

63

moms of modern world would like to .....14..... plastic surgery to get their prime .....15..... of youthfulness. More the awareness regarding plastic

surgery builds in society, more the number of people getting ready for it. 1. a. risks o

. benefits

2. a. people

b. damages d. merits b. doctors

Cc. patients

d. clients

a. modern

b. early

C. previous

d. last

a. science

b. tradition

C. major

d. development

J . a. set

b. become

¢c. moved

d. directed

6. a. released

b. altered

c. operated

d. printed

7. a. damages

b. benefits

C. principles

d. effects

a. reviewed

b. educated

c¢. donated

d. dedicated

a. done

b. become

c. been

d. had

10. a. managers c. directors

11. aa. modify c. apply 12. a. if

b. patients d. interns b. practice d. check b. for d. in

13. a. from

b. of d. for

14. a. place

b. endure d. complete

c. break

b. periods

15. a. hours

d. selections

c. days

VIII.

Translation

Task

Translate the following

text into Persian.

Advances in Plastic Surgery An

exciting

new plastic

surgery advance has been made with

the

introduction of the endoscope facial rejuvenation. An endoscope 1s a small

camera, which is inserted through a small incision

in the skin. Once

underneath the skin it transmits an image of the underlying tissues to a

monitor. Many people are familiar with endoscopes as applied by orthopedic

surgeons to treat cartilage damage 1n joints and by gynecologists to examine pelvic organs. Plastic surgeons are now able to perform brow lifts through

several tiny incisions in the scalp instead of the traditional

incision.

ear-to-ear

This plastic surgery advance has allowed plastic surgeons to

perform face-lifts using the endoscope. Patients, who complain about jowls and mid-face sagging, rather than skin excess, can now have a face-lift performed through several tiny cuts in the scalp and lower eyelids. Just as

the endoscope has created plastic surgery advances in facial rejuvenation, the tumescent technique of liposuction has changed how plastic surgeons reduce fat tissue in all areas of the body. Tumescent liposuction is where a surgeon

expands the fat and tissues with local anesthesia, adrenaline, and salt water. Adapted from: http://www .aboardcertifiedplasticsurgeonresource.com/plastic_surgery/advances. html

65

Lesson Seven: Cell

Word Study dense /dens/: containing a lot of people, things, plants, etc. with little space

between them There are several areas in the city that are called

“areas of dense

population”.

descriptive /d1'skriptiv/:

saying what somebody or something is

The term I used was meant to be purely descriptive not judgmental.

diffuse /dr'fjuis/:

to spread something or become spread widely in all

directions Theproblem is how to diffuse power without creating anarchy.

distinct /dr'stigk t/: casily or clearly heard, seen or felt His voice was quiet but every word was distinct.

enclose /in'klouz/: to build a wall, fence, etc. around something

The yard had been enclosed with iron railings.

feature /'fiztfor/:

something important, interesting, or typical of place or

thing An interesting feature of the city is the old market.

66

fluid /'flund/:

a liquid

The doctor told him to drink lots offluid. identification

/aidentifi'keifn/:

the process of showing, providing,

or

recognizing who or what somebody or something is The identification of the crash victims was a long and difficult task.

integrity /in'tegrati/:

the state of being whole andnot divided

Each country must respect other nations’ territorial

integrity.

/'intrikat/: having a lot of different parts and small details that fit

intricate together

The new plan of the city has so many intricate patterns.

suspend /s3'spend/: to hang something from something else A lamp was suspendedfrom the ceiling.

Cell Ideas about cell structure have changed considerably over the years. Early biologists saw cells as simple membranous sacs containing fluid and a few floating particles. Today’s biologists know that cells are infinitely

more

complex than this.

Cell Structure There are many different types, sizes, and shapes of cells in the body. For descriptive

purposes, the concept of a “generalized cell” is introduced. It

includes features from all cell types. A cell consists of three parts: the cell membrane, the nucleus, and between the two, the cytoplasm. Within

the

Ny

67

Mitochondrion

]

er

Lysosome em —

Ce

Centrioles emmy |

4

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Ne

Cell membrane

Cytoplasm

Pi i: in

Nucleolus

Microtubules em

w m (Chromatin

—

Ribosomes

Golgi apparatus

CL Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Nuclear membrane

Figure 7-1.

arrangements of fine fibers and hundreds or even

cytoplasm lie intricate

thousands of miniscule but distinct structures called organelles.

Cell Membrane

Every cell in the body is enclosed by a cell (plasma) membrane. The cell membrane separates the material outside the cell, extra cellular, from the material inside the cell, intracellular. It maintains the integrity

of a cell and

controls passage of materials into and out of the cell. All materials within a

cell must have access to the cell membrane (the cell’s boundary) for the needed exchange. The cell membrane is a double layer of phospholipid

molecules.

Proteins in the cell membrane provide structural support, form channels for passage of materials, act as receptor sites, function as carrier molecules, and provide identification

Nucleus

markers.

and Nucleolus

The nucleus, formed by a nuclear membrane around a fluid nucleoplasm, is »

68

the control center of the cell. Threads of chromatin in the nucleus contain

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the genetic material of the cell. The nucleolus is a dense region of ribonucleic acid (RNA) in the nucleus and is the site of

ribosome formation. The nucleus determines how the cell will function, as well as the basic structure of that cell.

Cytoplasm The cytoplasm is the gel-like fluid inside the cell. It 1s the medium for

chemical reaction. It provides a platform upon which other organelles can operate within the cell. All of the functions for cell expansion, growth and replication are carried out in the cytoplasm of a cell. Within the cytoplasm,

materials move by diffusion,

a physical process that can work only for short

distances.

Cytoplasmic Organelles Cytoplasmic organelles are “little

organs” that are suspended in the

cytoplasm of the cell. Each type of organelle has a definite structure and a

specific role in the function of the cell. Examples of cytoplasmic organelles are mitochondrion, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, and lysosomes. The structural and functional characteristics of different types of cells

are determined by the nature of the proteins present. Cells of various types have different functions because cell structure and function are closely

related. It 1s apparent that a cell that 1s very thin 1s not well suited for a protective function. Bone cells do not have an appropriate structure for nerve

impulse conduction. Just as there are many cell types, there are varied cell

functions. The generalized cell functions include movement of substances across the cell membrane, cell division

to make new cells, and protein

synthesis. »

69

Movement of Substances Across the Cell Membrane The survival o f the cell depends on maintaining the difference between

extracellular and intracellular material. Mechanisms of movement across the cell membrane include simple diffusion, osmosis, filtration, active transport,

endocytosis, and exocytosis. anatomy

Adapted from: http://training.seer.cancer.gov/module

I. Comprehension Exercise Read the following

sentences and decide whether they are true,

false, or not mentioned.

Write

“T” for true and “F”

for false

for statements that have not been

statements; also put “NM”

mentioned in the text. Finally,

write the true sentence for those

you selected as false. 1. Cells function as simple membranous sacs containing fluid and a few floating particles. LR

BE EN I

LI I

I

I

a

LR

I

I

a

I

I

L I C E I NE

I I

A

I

RN I I SE

I

a

I I

Ra I

a

BE RE EE BE REE NL

A

I

TE

a a

a

a

I I

I

I

LL

I

RE RE I

NR I

A A I I

I

SN A NEI

I IE A I

IE RE

A I

I SI

RE I

I

I

I

NE IE

SE A A I I E SE TE I I

a a a

I OS II

I

A I

RE I I I

I

A

I

AO I I

a

RR

A A I

A A I

RN I

a I I

A

RE RE

I

I

RE A

RR I N

OE

I II

I RN I a a a a

a I I

a

I I

I

RI

A

RR BY A

I

I

A

a

OE RY NAN BE A BN REE EE NE NE BE OE BERE ON IE NL AE RY NN BY RE NN IN IN IE RN IE AE IN NE I RE

RR IN

I

I

NY NE

SIR

R E N RR

A

A

A EN

A IE I

AI

RRA

I

I

I

I

NERY BE RCA E E I

NE I

RC

I

RC RTE IIE

BE I

BNA

A

a

RE I IS

NR I

AR RR

SRR

A

BER I

a a A a

BE S Y

EEE

ERE RE NN NY BC NER RY BY IE A

NE NE RE R a

ENN)

I

6. The survival of extracellular and intracellular material depends on maintaining the difference between the cells. CEL

70

EE

BEBE

SE

NE BSE

BE ACRE

BE

ZC

RE IE RE I

I

I

I

OE

NE

RE NE NE OE NE IE

NE IE

BENE

BE NE IE I

BE I

IT

I

BE

I

BE RE RC I

RN BE RE I

A

NE BE TE I

IE

EE

I

NL BE

CRE

BE RE NY BE RE NY)

Il. Reading Comprehension Choose the best choice which completes the following

sentences.

1. New biologists believe that cells . a. have the same structure traditional biologists mentioned b. have a very complex structure c. are completely different from what they were supposed to be

d. are the most essential part of human body 2. Organelles are those ..........

which are inside cytoplasm.

a. fibers

b. generalized cells

C. structures

d. miniscules

3. The gel-like fluid is called ......... :

a. nucleus

b. cytoplasm

C. egg

d. protoplasm

4. The underlined word appropriate means .......... :

III.

a. definite

b. clear

C. suitable

d. distinct

Grammar

in Context

Past Participles

Past participles are formed by adding —ed to the end of irregular verbs or

they are the third part of irregular verbs. For example, invite/invited; go/ |

gone.

They have several functions:

® They

can be used in

passive

sentences:

® They can be used in conditional

type III:

So many buildings have been built to solve housing problems. If had been more sensible, I would

have studied

something more

practical.

71

e They can be used as adjectives.In

I was really excited by the new

this

developments in

sense, contrary

participle

which

to present is

used

in

the field

of

medicine.

subjective form, it will be used as objective:

IV. Exercise Read the text and find all the past participles

and decide which

group they belong to. CELE

4

BEE

FPR

BE

NE

FEF

NE

LE

AREER

IE

IE

BE

BY I

I

FAR

EO

BE NC RY I

PE

SY I

SERENE

BE RE AE I

BRE

NFER

RE BE BE

ESE

RE

EERE

BE

A

ASRS

EE AE BE RE IE

BE

EFE R S E

RE A

A BL BE BE R E

E

EERE

ARE

BCA

SERRE

BEE

RY BER

ESAS

SE R E

ESF

RE AE A

A NE BEE

SE

RT BY SE NE A

EEE

REESE

NE BRE

BE BE BE BE

AARP

ACN I )

EES

V. Word Cluster

Write the related words to the topic provided in the diagram.

= Cell

AN VI. Vocabulary Training Fill

in the blanks

words.

72

with

the words

from

the list.

There

are extra

management

eukaryotic

genome

plasma

motivation

interested

diffusion

nucleus

transform

function

synthesis

. Simple .......... of higher

is the movement of particles (solutes) from a region

solute concentration to a region

of lower

solute

concentration. . The cytoplasm of a cell is surrounded by a cell membrane, also called

eereeans membrane. . In humans, the nuclear .......... is divided into 23 pairs of linear DNA molecules called chromosomes.

. The cell nucleus is the most conspicuous organelle found in a/an as structural

. Proteins that are synthesized in the cytoplasm ..........

materials, enzymes that regulate chemical reactions, hormones, and other vital substances.

6. DNA in the nucleus directs protein ..........

in the cytoplasm.

7. Messenger RNA carries the genetic information from the DNA in the Coen. . . . to the sites of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm.

VII. Cloze Test Complete the following

the following

passage with the appropriate

words from

list.

Cell division is the process by which new cells are formed for growth,

repair, and replacement in the body. This process includes division of the

nuclear .....1..... and division of the cytoplasm. All cells .....2..... the body (somatic cells), except those that ..... 3..... rise to the eggs and sperm

(gametes), reproduce .....4.....

mitosis. Egg and sperm cells are produced by

a/an .....5..... type of nuclear division called meiosis in .....6.....

the number

Le 3

73

of chromosomes is halved. Division ..... 7...

the cytoplasm is called

cytokinesis. Somatic cells .....8..... by mitosis, which results in two cells .....9..... to

the one parent cell. Interphase is the .....10..... between successive cell

divisions.It is the longest .....11..... of the cell cycle. The successive stages of mitosis are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Cytokinesis,

.....12..... of the cytoplasm, occurs during telophase. Meiosis 1s a special type of cell division

that .....13..... in the

production of the gametes, or eggs and sperm. ..... 14..... cells have only 23 chromosomes, one-half the .....15..... found in somatic cells, so that when ....16..... takes place the resulting cell will again have 46 chromosomes, 23 from the egg and 23 from the sperm.

1. a. category C. series

b. set d. material

2.a.1n

b. at

C. on

d. of

3. a. pay

b. do

C. give

d. have

4. a. from

b. for

c. to

d. by

5. a. special

c. original 6. a. where c. when 7. a. of C. in 8. a. revise c. reduce

74

b. direct

d. authentic b. which d. whether b. for d. that b. react d. reproduce

b. ideal

9. a. specific

d. spatial

c. identical

b. category

10. a. level

d. section

c. period

b. part

11. a. direction

d. fault

c. classification

b. separation

12. a. division

c. edition

d. revision

13. a. occurs

b. begins

d. calls

C. ruins

b. These

14. a. Many

d. The

c. More

15. a. number

b. group

c. digit

d. series b. determination

16. a. categorization

d. fertilization

C. enumeration

VIII.

Translation

Task

Translate the following text into Persian.

Movement

of Substances

Across the Cell

Membrane The survival of the cell depends on maintaining the difference between extracellular and intracellular material. Mechanisms of movement across the cell membrane include simple diffusion, osmosis, filtration, active transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis.

Simple diffusion is the movement of particles (solutes) from a region of

75

higher solute concentration to a region of lower solute concentration. Osmosis is the diffusion of solvent or water molecules through a selectively permeable membrane. Filtration utilizes pressure to push substances through a membrane. Active transport moves substances against a concentration

gradient from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration. It requires a carrier molecule and uses energy. Endocytosis refers to the formation of vesicles to transfer particles and droplets from

outside to inside the cell. Secretory vesicles are moved from the inside to the outside of the cell by exocytosis. Adapted from: http://training.seer.cancer.gov/moduleanatomy/unit2

76

1 cell functions 2.html

Lesson Eight: The Nervous System Word Study adjacent /3'd3zersnt/: next to or near something Theplanes landed on adjacent runways.

conduct /kon'dakt/:

to allow heat or electricity to pass along or through it

Copper conducts electricity well. eventually /r'ventfuali/:

at the end of a period of time or series of events

She hopes to get a job on the local newspaper and eventually work for “The Times”.

maintain /mein'temn/: to make something continue at the same level The two countries have always maintained good relations. membrane

/'membrein/:

a thin layer of skin or tissue that connects or

covers parts inside the body

Some cells in the body have veryfragile membrane. myelin /'maidlin/:

a mixture of proteins and fats that surrounds many nerve

cells, increasing the speed at which they send signal

propagation

/pra:pa'geifn/:

producing new plants from a parent plant

Thepropagation of plants in such conditions is impossible. ed

77

refractory /r1'fraektori/: difficult to treat or cure During the refractory period, the cells should be able to rest.

a change of something so that it is the opposite of what

reversal /r1'v3irsl/: it was

The city council has shown a complete reversal of policy.

sheath /{i:0/:

any covering that fits closely over something for protection

The storm has damaged the sheath around the electric cable.

transmit

/traens'mit/:

to send an electronic signal, radio, or television

broadcast

The ceremony was transmitted live by satellite to over fifty countries.

The Nervous System Nervous tissue is composed of two main cell types: neurons and glial cells.

Neurons transmit

nerve messages. Glial cells are in direct contact with

neurons and often surround

Figure

them.

8-1. Nerve cells and astrocyte (SEM x2,250). This image is

copyright from Dennis Kunkel at http://www.denniskunkel.com/,

with permission. »

78

used

The neuron is the functional unit of the nervous system. Humans have about 100 billion

neurons in their brain alone! While variable in size and

shape, all neurons have three parts. Dendrites receive information

from

another cell and transmit the message to the cell body. The cell body

contains the nucleus, mitochondria and other organelles typical of eukaryotic

cells. The axon conducts messages away from the cell body. Apical dendrites

Cell body Basal dendrites

Synaptic terminals

The pyramidal cell —-a commonneuron

Figure 8-2. Structure of a typical neuron.

(Source: http://eleceng.ukc.ac.uk/~sd5/pics/research/big/neuron. gif’)

Figure

8-3. Structure of a neuron and the direction of nerve message

transmission. (Source: Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th

Edition,

by Sinauer Associates (http://www.sinauer.com/)

and WH

Freeman (http://www.whfreeman.com/), used with permission.)

79

Wo

8-4. Cross section o f myelin

Figure

sheaths that surround axons

(TEM x191, 175). (This image is copyright from Dennis Kunkel at http.://www.denniskunkel.com/, used with permission.)

Connective tissue

Ew Axons Blood vessel 8-5. Structure of a nerve bundle. (Source: Purves et al., Life:

Figure

4th Edition,

The Science of Biology, (http://www.sinauer.com/)

by Sinauer

Associates

and WH Freeman (http://'www.whfreeman.

com/),used withpermission.) Three types of neurons occur. Sensory neurons typically have a long dendrite and short axon, and carry messages from sensory receptors to the

central nervous system. Motor neurons have a long axon and short dendrites and transmit messages from the central nervous system to the muscles (or to glands). Interneurons are found only in the central nervous system where they connect neuron to neuron.

80

>

Some axons are wrapped in a myelin sheath formed from the plasma membranes of specialized glial cells known as Schwann cells. Schwann cells serve as supportive, nutritive,

and service facilities for neurons. The

gap between Schwann cells 1s known as the node of Ranvier, and serves as

points along the neuron for generating a signal. Signals jumping from node to node travel hundreds of times faster than signals traveling along the

surface of the axon. This allows your brain to communicate with your toes in of a second.

a few thousandths

The Nerve Message The plasma membrane of neurons, like all other cells, has an unequal distribution

of ions and electrical charges between the two sides of the

membrane. The outside of the membrane has a positive charge, inside has a

negative charge. This charge difference is a resting potential and is measured

in millivolts.

Passage of ions across the cell membrane passes the electrical

charge along the cell. The voltage potential is -65mV (millivolts)

of a cell at

rest (resting potential). Resting potential results from differences between

sodium and potassium positively charged ions and negatively charged ions 60

Action

Potential

40 1

z ©

3 C

20% 0 208

QL

a

g

-40 +

g

-60-

[1D]

= -100

Time / ms

Figure 8-6. Transmission of an action potential. (Source: http://eleceng.ukc.ac.uk/~sd5/pics/research/big/actpot.gif.) »

81

in the cytoplasm. Sodium ions are more concentrated outside the membrane, while potassium ions are more concentrated inside the membrane. This

imbalance is maintained

by the active transport of ions to reset the

membrane known as the sodium potassium pump. The sodium-potassium pump maintains this unequal concentration by actively transporting ions against their concentration gradients. Changed polarity propagation

of the membrane, the action potential, results in

of the nerve impulse along the membrane. An action potential

is a temporary reversal of the electrical potential along the membrane for a

few milliseconds. Sodium gates and potassium gates open in the membrane to allow their respective ions to cross. Sodium and potassium ions reverse positions by passing through membrane protein channel gates that can be

opened or closed to control ion passage. Sodium crosses first. At the height

of the membrane potential reversal, potassium channels open to allow potassium ions to pass to the outside of the membrane. Potassium crosses

second, resulting in changed ionic distributions, which must be reset by the continuously running sodium-potassium pump. Eventually

enough potassium

ions pass to the outside to restore the membrane charges to those of the original resting potential. The cell begins then to pump the ions back to their

original sides of the membrane. The action potential begins at one spot on the membrane, but spreads to adjacent areas of the membrane, propagating the message along the length of the cell membrane. After passage of the action potential, there is a brief period, the refractory period, during which the membrane cannot be

stimulated. This prevents the message from being transmitted backward along the membrane. Adapted from:http://www.becomehealthynow.com/article/bodynervousadvanced/817

82

)

I. Comprehension Exercise Read the following

sentences and decide whether they are true,

false, or not mentioned.

Write

“T” for true and “F”

for false

for statements that have not been

statements; also put “NM”

mentioned in the text. Finally,

write the true sentence for those

you selected as false. 1. Nervous tissues are a mixture of a variety of cells. LR

LE

LE

I

I

I

BE IE EE IE

EEE

IE

I

a

a

a

I

NE I

BE RIE

I

EES

EE

I

A I

EE

LEE

EE

I

I

I

a

A EE I

RE

SE R E BCR

BE NC ICRU

EE

EEE

EEE

EERE

I

EE

I

I

I

IE SE IE IE I

IEEE

a

IE

I

NE EE EE R E

I

I

I

IE I

EE

I

IE I

I

I

I

I

T E IIE

EE EE

a a

RE EE I

EEE

I

A

I

EF

SE

I

IE

EE EE EN

I

IE

I

A

NE

I

EE EE EE IE I

REE

A

BE

A

EE IC

IE I

RC

a

RP

CI

ICI

I

FI

I

I

a

RE

4. The plasma membrane of neurons lacks an unequal distribution

a

of

ions and electrical charges between the two sides of the membrane.

5. Changed polarity

of the cells, the action potential,

results in

propagation of the electric impulse along the membrane. L C E EE BEE I

ELE

IE

I

I I

a OE I

IE LI

OE IE BE I I

I

I

I E NE I

NE

I I

RE I RE A I

I

a

I

I

A

ER

R E ER

RR

I A

EE

EN

EE E E E

E E EE EE

Il. Reading Comprehension Choose the best choice which completes the following

sentences.

1. Neurons ......... . .

a. are the most essential kind of nervous cells b. are the functional unit of the nervous system

c. have a very simple biological structure

d. are very typical cells in the body

2. Which of the following sentences is true about sensory neurons? a. They transfer messages to the central nervous system.

b. They have short dendrites and long axons.

c. They are wrapped in a myelin sheath.

83

d. They transfer messages from the central nervous system. :

3. The plasma membrane of the neurons has ..........

a. positive charge outside

b. no electric charge

c. negative charge inside

d. ions unequally distributed

4. The propagation of the nerve impulse is causedby ...... eee a. changed polarity of the membrane

b. transmitting electric charges

c. positive andnegative charges d.aandc 5. The underlined word eventually means. . . . . . . e e

a. at the end

b. finally

¢. potentially

d. customarily

Grammar in Context

II.

Adjectives Adjectives are used to describe nouns.

e If they come together with noun, they

must

He is a very hardworking If was an exciting movie.

appear immediately

I read an interesting book last

|

before the noun:

person.

night.

® Adjectives might appear after the

The movie was really boring.

nouns.In such situations they come

The restaurant I went last night

after the verb “to be”:

was excellent.

1V. Exercise Read the text and find all the adjectives. You can use a dictionary

to decide which ones are adjectives. RR

I

RR

EI

I

[TE

EE NE NE RE NN NE IE NE

ELE

NE NEIE RN BY RE RE NN RY RE IE NE NN S R E

EN

EE

NY RE EN AER NE TE I

I

ET

I

RE

SE

I

RNR

ES

I

I

I

SS

I R EEE BE RE IEE

ST I

SS

a

BE RE RE RE NE EE

SE

EE

SE

RE A BE RE A NE BEE RE OE I

BEE

I

LI

NE I E E I EE

LEE

RO

A EEE

I

ae

V. Word Cluster

Write the related words to the topic provided in the diagram.

NS The Nervous

System

/ \ VI. Vocabulary Training Fill

in the blanks

with

the words from

the list. There are extra

words. mechanisms

functions

neurons

basics

interpreted

nervous

message

axon

extensions

structure

purpose

sensory

1. One of the worlds most “intricately organized” electron .......... 1s the nervous

system.

2. To understand the nervous system, one has to know the tree simple een

that it puts into action: sensory input, integration, motor

output.

3. When the eyes see something or the hands or touch a warm surface,

the .......... cells, also known as neurons, send a message straight to

the brain.

4. Integration is best known as the interpretation of things you have felt, oy

85

tasted, and touched with your sensory cells, also known as ..........

,

into responses that the body recognizes.

5. Once your brain has ..........

all that you have learned, either by

touching, tasting, or using any other sense, then your brain sends a/an rrineen through neurons to effecter cells, muscle or gland cells,

which actually work to perform your requests and act upon your environment.

6. The two kinds of cells in the ..........

sysiemn are: neurons and support

cells.

7. Dendrites are short, thick branched ..........

which extend like the

roots of a tree over other neurons or body cells.

VII. Cloze Test

Complete the following

passage with the appropriate

words from

the following list. The axon is a long cylindrical tube, with the same consistent diameter,

which runs through the body for long or short lengths. For example, the axon of your neuron .....1..... your toe extends all the way from the lumbar

eee2..... area. The axon branches off a cone shaped .....3..... of the cell body called the axon hillock-sound .....4..... diameters differ in many parts of the

body, .....5..... the rule is the thicker the axon, the .....6..... messages it transmits through the neurons. The main purpose of the axon is to send

impulses away ..... Tee. the cell body to neuron dendrite or other .....8.....

cells called effecter cells-sound. A nerve impulse .....9..... from a dendrite, to the cell body, and .....10.....

the axon to thousands o f branches called

telondria which .....11..... at a synapse to dendrites from other neurons.

...12..... the impulse reaches the synapse, neurotransmitters, chemicals, which

.....13..... or calm

effecter

or neurons,

diffuse

into

the .....14.....

cellular space and reach the dendrite, once .....15..... turning into an hed

86

impulse. Protecting and insulating electric fibers from one another is the myelin sheath.

1. a. demanding c. driving 2. a. back

b. controlling

d. supporting b. side

c. right

d. next to

3. a. region

b. section

C. part

d. division

4. a. dendrite c. nucleus

5. a.s0

d. but b. more

few

d. rest

of

b. from

for

d. at

PO

PO

a ©

. much

b. organ

. tissue

d. axon

ef PO

. body

b. passes

. moves

d. transfers

PF OO PO

. travels

b. forward

up

. backward

d. down

a. situate

b. develop

. connect

d. tie

o

11.

d. axons b. then

c. for

10.

b. cells

12. a. Where

b. Who

c. Then

d. Once

13. aa. move

b. make

Cc. excite

d. print

14. a. enough

b. extra

c. little

d. less

Le J

87

b. repeat

15. a. again

d. select

c. perform

VIII.

Translation

Task

Translate the following

text into Persian.

Glial Cells The neuroglia, or nerve glue, have a close relationship with the neurons and

act to support the neurons both structurally and functionally.

|

Two types of astrocytes are found in the central nervous system (CNS).

Fibrous astrocytes form a type of scaffolding throughout the grey matter, Their cell bodies give off many thin processes which pass through and contribute to the neuropil. Protoplasmic astrocytes have shorter, thicker processes and are usually found encircling blood vessels where they form a continuous covering. Both types of astrocyte have extensive cytoplasmic filaments, the | glial

fibrillary

acid protein cytoskeleton. Both

astrocyte are able to divide in response to injury.

In the presence of

appropriate stimuli, astrocytes become phagocytic. The oligodendroglia form

the myelin

types of

|

sheaths around central axons.

Each cell is able to send out processes which wrap around up to twelve axons. Each process myelinates

a short section

o f axon. Nodes

o f Ranvier

are the short naked axon segments between neighbouring myelinated sections. Myelin 1s formed by an oligodendrocyte process wrapping around an axon until several layers have formed. As the process of myelination

develops, the cytoplasm is squeezed out of the layers until the cell membranes touch. By the fusion of inner and outer leaflets of the cell thick

and thin lies alternate in the pattern characteristic of myelin. Adapted from: http://www.med.mun.ca/anatomyts/nerve/neuron.html

88

Lesson Nine: Eye

Word Study amazing /d'meizin/:

surprising

It is so amazing that there are so many medical breakthroughs these days. |

aperture /'&patfur/: an opening that allows light to reach the lens For flash photography, set the aperture at f.5.6. cover /'kavar/:

to place something over or in front of something in order to

hide or protect it

She coveredherface with her hand. nourish /'n3:rif/:

to keep a person, an animal, or a plant alive and healthy

with food

All the children were well nourished and in good physical condition. opaque /ou'peik/:

not clear enough to see through

The windows were too opaque to see something. penetrate /'penitreit/: to go into or through something The sun's radiation penetrates the skin. transparent

/traens'parant/:

allowing you to see through it

The insects’ wings are transparent. »

89

vision /vizn/: the ability to see Some animals have a strong vision. Actually some animals like cats have

night vision.

Eye Anatomy The eye has been called the most complex organ in our body. It’s amazing that something so small can have so many working parts. But when you consider how difficult

the task of providing vision really is, perhaps it’s no

wonder after all.

The Eye, as Seen From Above The eye 1s like a camera. Light comes in through the cornea, a clear cover that is like the glass of a camera’s aperture. The amount of light coming in

is controlled by the pupil, an opening that opens and closes a little. The light focuses on the retina, a series of light-sensitive cells lining the back of the eye. The retina acts like camera film, reacting to the incoming light and sending a record of it via the optic nerve to the brain. Lateral rectus muscle

Lens

Sclera

Posterior chamber

Anterior chamber

Choroid

Retina

Cornea

- Macula Fovea

} i

: Pupil Aqueous humor Iris

Conjunctiva .

\

Suspensory ligament zonules

Ciliary body

i

on l

es

Vitreous body Medial rectus muscle

Figure 9-1. Human eye.

90

Optic nerve

- Optic nerve head

Other parts of the eye support the main activity of sight: some carry

fluids (such as tears and blood) to lubricate or nourish

the eye. Others are

muscles that allow the eye to move. Some parts protect the eye from injury

(such as the lids and the epithelium of the comea). And some are messengers, sending sensory information

to the brain (such as the pain-

sensing nerves in the cornea and the optic nerve behind the retina).

Cornea The cornea is the transparent, the eye. It is a powerful

dome-shaped window covering the front of

refracting surface, providing

2/3 of the eye’s

focusing power. Like the crystal on a watch, it gives us a clear window to

look through. Cornea

Figure 9-2.

Because there are no blood vessels in the cornea, it is normally clear

and has a shiny surface. The cornea is extremely sensitive — there are more nerve endings in the cornea than anywhere else in the body. The adult cornea is only about 1/2 millimeter thick and is comprised of

5 layers: epithelium, Bowman’s membrane, stroma, Descemet’s membrane and the endothelium.

The Layers of the Cornea The epithelium is layer of cells that cover the surface of the cornea. It is only about 5-6 cell layers thick and quickly regenerates when the cornea is Nn

91

injured. If the injury penetrates more deeply into the cornea,it may leave a

scar. Scars leave opaque areas, causing the corneal to lose its clarity and

luster. membrane lies just beneath the epithelium. Because this

Bowman’s

to penetrate, it protects the cornea from

layer is very tough and difficult

injury. The stroma is the thickest layer and lies just beneath Bowman's. It is

composed of tiny collagen fibrils that run parallel to each other. This special formation of the collagen fibrils gives the cornea its clarity. Descemet’s membrane lies between the stroma and the endothelium.

The endothelium is just underneath Descemet’s and is only one cell layer thick. This layer pumps water from the cornea, keeping it clear. If damaged

or disease, these cells will not regenerate. Adapted from: http://www allaboutvision.com/resources/anatomy.html

I. Comprehension

Exercise

Read the following

sentences and decide whether they are true,

false, or not mentioned.

Write

“T” for true and “F”

for false

for statements that have not been

statements; also put “NM”

mentioned in the text. Finally,

write the true sentence for those

you selected as false. 1. It 1s believed that there is not a more complex organ in the body than eye.

92

DR

I I

LIER

EE

NE

I

NE

IE

NN

a

A

EN

I

a

ICE

I

I TE

I

a

A

I

A

I

a

a

ER

LI

NE

ENE

BE EE A

A

NE

IE

IE

I

NE E R E

a

I

EE

I

RE

a

a

I

a

A

NE RE RE

I

I

a

a

EE

I

NE

I

a

A

a

I

EE

a

I

I

BR

I

a

A

I

I

A

EE

BR

EE

I

A

IE

EN

NN

NE I

T E IE

RE

EE

EIS

A I

I

‘ES

NEN

BE

EE A I

SE IE

NE

LE

EE

A I

A

SEER

EB

8

I

NN

LI]

EEN

4. The cornea is the transparent, dome-shaped window located next to retina. LIE

IE

SEE

BAAS

ELIE

IE

BO

ES ARSE

BE OE I

OE

BE RE IE IE

ENTREES

NNN

EEE

BE IE

EE EE BE I

EAE

I

ETRE

IE IE

NE

AAS

EE

EEA

IEEE

EN

AES

ETRE

EEE

EEE

EE

A SE

AES

EEN

ES ETT

OE

IE IE I

I

ENS

EEA

DE

ETT

RSS

NEB

LL

EAA

BE

EEE

EB

BELL

BE

A

AAR

Il. Reading Comprehension Choose the best choice which completes the following 1. Which of the following

sentences.

sentences is NOT true about the eye?

a. There are no more complex organs than eye.

b. Eye is a multi-functional organ of the body.

c. The function of the eye resembles a camera. d. Eye 1s an one-dimensional organ of the body.

2. The pupil......... |

|

a. controls which lights should enter the eye b. is the place for the synthesis of lights

c. controls the amount of light |

d. is like a cover for cornea 3. Which of the following is NOT in the frontal part of the eye?

a. cornea

b. retina

C.Ir1S

d. pupil

4, Which of the following sentences is true about cornea? a. There are blood vessels in cornea.

b. Cornea has five layers. c . It has very little sensitivity.

d. There are some nerve endings in the cornea. 5. The underlined word it refers to ..........

:

a. cornea

b. scar

C. injury

d. epithelium

93

III.

Word Cluster

Write the related words to the topic provided in the diagram.

NA

7 IV. Vocabulary Training Fill

in the blanks

‘with the words

from

the list.

There

are extra

words. acceptable

chemical

properties

radiation

refractive

anatomic

|

optical

focus

cornea

rays

pupil

iris

1. The normal eye can refract or ..........

light without the help of any

other lenses such as glasses or contacts. 2. Eye surgeons who use vision correction procedures are also referred to

as .......... surgeons. 3. Certain eye structures have refractive ..........

similar to water or

lenses and can bend light rays into a precise point of focus essential for sharp vision. 4. Most refraction in the eye occurs when light ..........

travel through

the curved, clear front covering.

5. Light rays from an image traveling through the eye’s ..... ..... System L

94

are refracted and focused into a point of sharp focus that ideally should center on the retina. 6. Just as a camera’s aperture (called the diaphragm) is used to adjust the

amount of light needed to expose film in just the right way, the eye’s

Cerra

widens or constricts to control the amount of light that

reaches the retina.

7. The eye’s ability to refract or focus light sharply on the retina is based

on two main ..........

features: the overall length of the eye and the

curvature of the eye’s surface or cornea.

V. Cloze Test Complete the following the following

passage with the appropriate

words from

list.

The ability to see is dependent on the actions of several structures in

and around the eyeball. When you look at a/an ..... 1....., light rays are reflected from the object to the .....2....., which is where the miracle begins. The light ..... 3 .

are bent, refracted and focused by the cornea, lens, and

...4...... The lens’ job is to make sure the rays .....5.....

the retina. The resulting .....6.....

to a sharp focus on

on the retina is upside-down. Here at the

een7....., the light rays are converted to electrical impulses which are

eee8..... transmitted through the optic nerve, to the brain, .....9..... the image is translated and perceived in an upright .....10.....! Think of the eye

as a camera. A camera needs a .....11..... and a film to produce an image.In the .....12.....

way, the eyeball needs a lens to refract, or .....13..... the light

and a film (retina) on which to .....14..... the rays. If any one or more of these components is not .....15.....

correctly, the result is a poor picture. The

retina represents the film in our camera. 1. a. part Cc. object

b. tool d. device

»

95

“

. a.

eyelid

b. cornea

C.

retina

d. —

3 . a . beam C.

light

. a . vitreous C. . a. C.

. a.

d. radiation

b. courteous

serious

d. various

put

b. divide

bring

d. come

light

b. film

C. image . a,

b. rays

cornea

d. photo

b. retina

. eyelash

d. cell

. then

b. that

. for

d. so

. what

b. who

. whose

d. where

10. . portion . Status

11. . lens . tissues

12. . type . similar 13. a. trade C.

treat

14. a . hope

b. position d. condition b. glasses d. pupils b. same d. kind b. defeat d. focus b. bring

focus

d. separate

15. a. functioning

b. operating

C.

C.

96

dividing

d. calculating

VI. Translation

Task

Translate the following

text into Persian.

What Is a Cataract?

AL Omi nerve treous SEER umor J S S Choroid

Retina

Figure 9-3.

A cataract is a clouding of the lens in the eye that affects vision. Most cataracts

are related to aging. Cataracts are very common in older people. By age 80, more

than half of all Americans either have a cataract or have had cataract surgery.

A cataract can occur in either or both eyes. It cannot spread from one

eye to the other. Although most cataracts are related to aging, there are other types of cataract:

e Secondary Cataract.

Cataracts can form after surgery for other eye

problems, such as glaucoma. Cataracts also can develop in people

who have other health problems, such as diabetes. Cataracts are

sometimes linked to steroid use. eo Traumatic

Cataract. Cataracts can develop after an eye injury,

sometimes years later. e Congenital

Cataract. Some babies are born with

cataracts or

develop them in childhood, often in both eyes. These cataracts may

be so small that they do not affect vision. If they do, the lenses may

need to be removed.

e Radiation Cataract. Cataracts can develop after exposure to some types of radiation. Adapted from: http://www.nei-nih.gov/health/cataract/cataract facts.asp

97

Lesson T e n : Heart

Word Study attach /o'taet{/: to fasten or join one thing to another

They have attached a number of conditions to the agreement. chamber /'tfexmbor/:

a space in the body, in a plant or in a machine that is

separated from the rest Heart hasfour chambers.

contract /'ka:ntrakt/: Glass contracts

to become less or smaller

as it cools.

entrance /in'traens/: a door, gate, passage, etc. used for entering a room, building or place A lighthouse marks the entrance to the harbor.

fist /fist/: a hand when it is tightly closed with fingers bent into the palm

Your heart is as big as your fist.

flow /flou/: to move steadily and continuously in one direction Blood flowed from a cut in his head. squeeze /skwiiz/:

to press something firmly especially with your fingers

He squeezedher hand and smiled at her. »

98

stethoscope /'ste@askoup/: an instrument that a doctor uses to listen to somebody’s heart and breathing Using a stethoscope, the doctor listened to the patient’s heart beat. supply /sa'plar/: an amount of something that is provided or available to be |

used We cannot guarantee

vessel /vesl/:

adequate supplies

of raw materials.

a tube that carries blood through the body of a person or an

animal, or liquid through the parts of a plant Several vessels were cut in the accident and there was blood everywhere.

Heart The heart 1s a muscle about the size of your fist. It works like a pump and beats 100,000 times a day. The heart has two sides, which are separated by an inner wall called the septum. The right side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs to pick up oxygen. Then, oxygen-rich blood returns from the lungs to the left side of

the heart, and the left side pumps it to the body. The heart has four chambers and four valves and is connected to various blood vessels. Veins, which are the blood vessels, carry blood from the body to the heart. Arteries, which are the blood vessels, carry blood away

from the heart to the body.

|

A Healthy Heart Cross-Section The illustration

shows a cross-section of a healthy heart and its inside

structures. The blue arrow shows the direction in which oxygen-poor blood

flows from the body to the lungs. The red arrow shows the direction in which oxygen-richblood flows from the lungs to the rest of the body. L

99

Superior vena cava

SA node

-

AV node

Inferior vena cava

Figure 10-1.

Heart

Chambers

The heart has four chambers or “rooms”.

|

e The atria, which are the two upper chambers, collect blood as it comes into the heart.

e The ventricles, which are the two lower chambers, pump blood out of the heart to the lungs or other parts of the body.

Heart Valves Four valves control the flow of blood from the atria to the ventricles and from the ventricles into the two large arteries connected to the heart.

e The tricuspid valve is in the right side of the heart, between the right atrium and the right ventricle. eo The pulmonary valve is in the right side of the heart, between the [

100

right ventricle and the entrance to the pulmonary artery, which carries blood to the lungs.

eo The mitral valve is in the left side of the heart, between the left atrium and the left ventricle. e The aortic valve is in the left side of the heart, between the left ventricle and the entrance to the aorta, the artery that carries blood to the body.

Valves are like doors that open and close. They open to allow blood to

flow through to the next chamber or to one of the arteries, and then they shut

to keep blood from flowing backward.

When the heart’s valves open and close, they make a “lub-DUB” sound, which a doctor can hear using a stethoscope. e The first sound — the “lub”

— is made by the mitral and tricuspid

valves closing at the beginning of systole. Systole is when the ventricles contract, or squeeze, and pump blood out of the heart.

e The second sound — the “DUB”

— is made by the aortic and

pulmonary valves closing at beginning of diastole. Diastole is when

the ventricles relax and fill with blood pumped into them by the atria.

Arteries

The arteries aremajor blood vessels connected to your heart. e The pulmonary artery carries blood pumped from the right side of the

heart to the lungs to pick up a fresh supply of oxygen.

eo The aorta is the main artery that carries oxygen-rich blood pumped

from the left side of the heart out to the body. e The coronary arteries are the other important arteries attached to the

heart. They carry oxygen-rich blood from the aorta to the heart muscle, which must have its own blood supply to function. fe]

101

Veins The veins are also major blood vessels connected to your heart. e The pulmonary veins carry oxygen-rich blood from the lungs to the

left side of the heart so it canbe pumped out to the body. e The vena cava is a large vein that carries oxygen-poor blood from

the body back to the heart. Adapted from: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Browse/Heart.html

I. Comprehension Exercise sentences and decide whether they are true,

Read the following

for false

“T” for true and “F”

Write

false, o r not mentioned.

for statements that have not been

statements; also put “NM”

write the true sentence for those

mentioned in the text. Finally,

you selected as false.

1. Heart is the most active organ in the body. SE NE

LEE IEEE

LE

EE

ST A

LI

LI

SE A I

I

LEE RE BY BEE

ERLE

LE

102

I

I

BE IN BE I

I

A

a

I

IE

A

A

A

a

a

A

I

NE I

SNC

NE I

A IE

NE NY

A

I

EEE

I

a

RE I

A I

a

RN I Y IE

I

I

A

a

EE

a

a

A I

I

a

a

A

A

A

A

I

RE RR

I

I

EE A

NR

I

A

AE IE

A IE

AC RE IE

NE I

I

IE I

I

I

A

I

EE EE

NE I

I

OE I

A

BE R E A EE SE NE RE BE R T RY NY RE IE

a

a

a

a

a

a

IE RE IN IN CO I

I

I

a

I

BE BEE NNEC CO INE REE TN

EE

CE

IEE

IE

IE IE

AN BE RY NE NN SY REE

I

IE

A I

I

IEE BN BEE

BE a

I

I

I

I

IE

a

ON BENE

A

SLE

IE

BRE

A TE CN ER

OE LIE

NE R E

EN

NI

BR

RL IE

I

I

I

EE E E E

RA EE BEN E I N E

A

BE

BE

A

BRE

IE

I

I

I

I

I

I

NE

NE

ERA

I]

I

I

RE

BE BE L R

BE

RE BE IE BE RE BE BE RE

IE

NE

BE RE EE

NRE

OE BLE

LE

A

EE

NE NE

I

RCA

EB

BEE

ON BE RE RE BE

R E RE RE NE NE EE OE BEE

EE

IE

I

BL

EO

RE RET

RI

BB

I

EL

LI

A

BB

EE

EE L E

RE IE I N NY NE RE NE NE NE NE NE NE NE BE

IERIE

EI

I

NE BE BEI

BE RE OE NE NE AU RCE

AE BE OE BE RENE

IER

RE R E

LE

RE

EEE

RRR

A

a

I

a

A

EE

NE NE A

RE

A

IE IE

CEE

AE I

RC RC R E BE BE R E BE NN NE

A

BERIT

IE

A IE

a

a

a

a

I

A

A

I

I

a

I

IE I

IE

I

I

NE BE NY BNE

a

RE

EL

IE

A

I

BC I

BE IE

A

RE

BE ER

NE I

BE I

LEE

BE

IE

BE

BE BN

Il. Reading Comprehension Choose the best choice which completes the following 1. Septum is ..........

:

a. a vessel that carries blood

b. the wall that divides

c. one of the chambers

d. the scientific

2. Veins are ..........

the heart

name of heart

:

a. blood vessels

b. chambers

c. heart walls

d. arteries

3. The atria ..........

sentences.

the blood as it comes into the heart.

a. pump

b. suck

c. gather

d. refine

4. The artery responsible for picking up the blood with fresh oxygen is the ..........

a. vena cava

b. pulmonary

C. coronary

d. aorta

5. The underlined word it refers to ...

Eda

BR

a. body

" b. heart

c. blood

d. fist

-

III. Grammar in Context Non-Defining

Relative Clauses

e Non-defining

placed

after

relative clauses are

nouns

which

are

definite already: e They do not therefore define the

That block, which cost $5 million to build,

has been empty for

years. He gave me the book, which he

noun, but merely add something to

had bought the year before.

it by giving

The city, which was built into a

tion about it:

some more informa-

cliff, wasfounded by the Spaniard

in the 1400s.

103

e Unlike defining relative clauses, My friend, who I introduced last they

are not

essential in

sentence and

can

be

the

night, is a great musician.

omitted

without causing confusion: ® They

are

also

separated by

My

commas:

teacher, who

is

scholar in the field,

a great

is respected

by everyone.

IV. Exercise Read the text and underline LEE

LEE

A

NE BE

EE

EE I

EL

EE IE L E OE NE I

EEE

I

EE

NE RE ERE

EE

I

A

EE

BE

EE

EE

EE

EE

R E RN BE NE EEE

NCR

EE

EE

BE SN A

the non-defining EE

EE

BE EE RE I

EEE

ETE

RN BE RE NE BE NE

EE

EE

CIE

EE

EE

NY NE RE RE RE SE I

EE

RE R E

relative clauses. EE

I

EEE

IE

RE R E

EE

EE

EE

EE

EE

EE

NE RE NE BE E E NN SE RE RN SN EE AE I

EE

LBL

EN

Ea

RE

AN

I

RIE

V. Word Cluster Write the related words to the topic provided in the diagram.

\PEY ZA

104

A

aay

IE NE M S

VI. Vocabulary Training Fill

in the blanks

with

the words

from

the list. There are extra

words.

cardiologist

congenital

situation

vessels

diagnosing

conditions

chamber

breath

underlying

symptoms

decreased

aorta

pressure 1. The doctor will ask if the patients or others in their family have or

have had any of the diseases and ..........

that can cause heart failure.

2. A clinical diagnosis of heart failure is usually made when .......... appear. 3. When symptoms of heart failure start, the patient may feel tired and

shortof ..........

after routine physical exertion.

4. Children with .......... heart defects can also have heart failure. 5. Congenital heart defects happen when the heart, heart valves, and/or blood ..........

near the heart do not develop correctly in babies when

they are in the womb.

A/An

.......... is a doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and

treatment

o f heart disease.

. An echocardiogram is the most useful test for .......... heart failure. . A stress echocardiogram is usually done to find out if the patient has Ce reerenan blood flow to his/her heart.

. During exercise stress testing, the blood ..........

and EKG readings

are monitored while the patient walks or runs on a treadmill or pedals of a bicycle. 10. The goal of treatment is to treat the ..........

cause of heart failure.

105

VII. Cloze Test Complete the following

the following

passage with the appropriate

words from

list.

Heart failure is a condition in which the heart can’t pump enough blood throughout the body. Heart failure does not mean that your ..... l . . . . . has stopped or is about to stop .....2.....

. It means that your heart is not .....3.....

to pump blood the way that it ..... 4..... . The heart can’t fill with enough blood or .....5..... with enough force, or both. Heart .....6.....

time as the pumping .....7.....

develops over

of the heart grows weaker. It .....8.....

affect

the left side, the right side, or .....9..... sides of the heart. Most cases involve the .....10.....

side where the heart can’t pump enough .....11..... -rich blood

to the rest of the .....12.....

. With right-sided

failure, the heart can’t

...13.....pump blood to the lungs where the bloodpicks up oxygen. 1. a. body Cc. nutrition 2. a. working c. producing

3. a. logical c. able 4, a. is c. should 5. a. work

b. life d. heart b. searching d. making

b. facilitative d. complete b. has d. will b . send

C. pulse

d. pump

6. a. problem

b. failure

Cc. stroke 7. a. action Cc. operation 8. a. can

C.1S

d. stop b. test d. function b. should

d. will be

b . all

9. a. several

d. most

c. both

b. internal

10. a. left

d. most

c. external

11. a. plasma

b. blood d. oxygen

c. cell

12. a. organs

b. body d. vessels

C.parts

b. absolutely

13. a. generally

d. effectively

c. directly

VIII,

Translation

Task

Translate the following

text into Persian.

What Are the Signs and Symptoms of Heart

Failure?

The most common signs and symptoms are: e Shortness of breath or difficulty breathing, e Feeling tired, e Swelling in the ankles, feet, legs, and sometimes the abdomen.

Shortness of breath and feeling tired are caused by the buildup of fluid in the lungs and around the lungs. When symptoms start, you may feel tired and

short of breath after routine physical exertion. Climbing two flights of

stairs makes you feel winded. As heart failure progresses, the symptoms get worse. You may begin to feel tired and short of breath after simple activities,

like getting dressed or walking across the room. Some people have shortness

of breath when lying flat. LJ

107

Fluid buildup in the lungs can also cause a cough. The cough 1s worse at night and when you are lying down. Excessive fluid in the lungs can cause

a life-threatening condition called acute pulmonary edema. This condition requires emergency treatment. The swelling is from the buildup of fluid in your body (edema). Other signs of fluid buildup are: eo Weight gain, e Frequent urination.

Adapted from:http://www.medic8.com/healthguide/articles/heartfailurehtml

108

Liver

Lesson Eleven:

Word Study abdomen /'@bdoman/:

the part of the body below the chest that contains

the stomach, bowels, etc. He felt a great pain in his abdomen and went to the doctor.

bile /bail/:

the greenish brown liquid with a bitter unpleasant taste that is

produced by the liver to help the body to deal the fats we eat, and that can come to your mouth when you vomit with an empty stomach

capillary

/'kapoler1/:

any of the smallest tubes in the body that carry blood

Lots of his eyes capillaries were torn and his eyes were completely red.

a pipe, channel or tube which liquid, gas or electrical

conduit /'ka:nduit/: wire can pass through descending /di'sendin/:

coming down

The results were announced in descending order. excrete /1k'skri:t/:

to pass solid or liquid waste matter from the body

He was so sick and he could not control the excretion of the waste material. locate /'loukeit/:

to find the exact position

Rescueplanes are trying to locate the missing sailors. -

109

originate /o'ridzmert/:

to happen or to appear for the first time in a

particular place or situation The disease is thought to have originated in the tropics.

synthesis /'sinBQasis/: the artificial production of a substance that is present

naturally in animals and plants The synthesis of penicillin

was a very interesting process for the medical

students.

Anatomy

of the Liver

The liver is the largest organ of the human body (Figure 11-1), weighs approximately 1500 g, and is located in the upper right corner of the

abdomen.

The organ is closely associated with

the small intestine,

processing the nutrient-enriched venous blood that leaves the digestive tract. The liver performs over 500 metabolic functions, resulting in synthesis of products that are released into the blood stream (e.g. glucose derived from

glycogenesis, plasma proteins, clotting factors and urea), or that are excreted to the intestinal tract (bile).

Also, several products are stored in liver

parenchyma (e.g. glycogen, fat and fat soluble vitamins). Almost all blood

that enters the liver via the portal tract originates from the gastrointestinal tract as well as from the spleen, pancreas and gallbladder. A second blood supply to the liver comes from the hepatic artery, branching directly from the celiac trunc and descending aorta. The portal vein supplies venous blood

under low pressure conditions to the liver, while the hepatic artery supplies high-pressured arterial blood. Since the capillary

bed of the gastrointestinal

tract already extracts most O,, portal venous blood has a low O, content. Blood from the hepatic artery on the other hand, originates directly from the »

110

aorta and 1s, therefore, saturated with O,. Blood from both vessels joins in the capillary bed of the liver and leaves via central veins to the inferior caval vein.

Coronary ligament

Caudate

Left

ic vein _ Inferior vena cava

flciform | | Portal vein Round ligament

Gallbladder

Com Hepatic oon Quadrate lobe bile duct Ghllblad gp Hilus

Figure 11-1. The liver.

Basic Liver Architecture The major blood vessels, portal vein and hepatic artery, lymphatics, nerves

and hepatic bile duct communicate with the liver at a common site, the hilus.

From the hilus, they branch and rebranch within the liver to form a system that travels together in a conduit structure, the portal canal. From this portal

canal, after numerous branching, the portal vein finally

drains into the

sinusoids, which is the capillary system of the liver. Here, in the sinusoids,

blood from the portal vein joins with blood floow from end-arterial branches

of the hepatic artery. Once passed through the sinusoids, blood enters the collecting branch of the central vein, and finally

leaves the liver via the

hepatic vein. The hexagonal structure with, in most cases, three portal canals

in its corners draining into one central vein, is defined as a lobule. The

lobule largely consists of hepatocytes (liver cells) which are arranged as interconnected plates, usually one or two hepatocytes thick. The space between the plates forms the sinusoid. A more functional unit of the liver

forms the acinus. In the acinus, the portal canal forms the center and the central

veins the corners.

The functional

acinus can be divided

into three

L

111

zones:1) the periportal zone, which is the circular zone directly around the portal canal, 2) the central zone, the circular area around the central vein, and 3) a midzonal area, which is the zone between the periportal and pericentral zone.

Sinusoids

|

Sinusoids are the canals formed by the plates of hepatocytes. They are approximately 8-10 um in diameter and comparable with the diameter of normal capillaries. They are orientated in a radial direction in the lobule. Sinusoids are lined with endothelial cells and Kupffer

cells, which have a

phagocytic function. Plasma and proteins migrate through these lining cells via so-called fenestrations (100-150 nm) into the Space of Disse, where direct contact with the hepatocytes occurs and uptake of nutrients and oxygen by the hepatocytes takes place. On the opposite side of the hepatocyte plates are the bile canaliculi situated ( 1 pm diameter). Bile produced by the hepatocytes empties in these bile

canaliculi

and is

transported back towards the portal canal into bile ductiles and bile ducts, and finally to the main bile duct and gallbladder to become available for digestive processes in the intestine. The direction of bile flow is opposite to the direction of the blood flow through the sinusoids. Adapted from: http://dissertations.ub.rug.nl/FILES/faculties/ medicine/2005/a.van.der.plaats/ ¢2.pdf

I. Comprehension Exercise Read the following false,

sentences and decide whether they are true,

or not mentioned.

Write

statements; also put “NM” mentioned in the text. Finally, you selected as false. 112

*

“T”

for

true

and “F”

for

false

for statements that have not been write the true sentence for those

1. Liver is the most active organ of the body. BESS

8

R A RES E E R A T S

8 EBS

E EERE

ESS

NNSA

EEE

EE EE

EEDA

SEAN

AS ESSERE

ER EN EEE

EERE

EES

TESS

ENE

EST

FEA

SESE

S OU E EEN

ESPN

SSPE

EASES

AEE

SESE

ENE

ES

ES EES

SE ICE

SEERA

EARLE

ESE

EERE.

aR

UNEASE

3. The portal vein supplies venous blood under very high pressure

~ conditions to the liver, just like the hepatic artery which supplies highpressured arterial blood.

4. Blood enters the collecting branch of the central vein, and eventually

leaves the liver through what is called the hepatic vein. CRETE

BN BE RE NE IE

4 F 0

EF

NE RE BY RE NN NN

THEE

IE

EE NEES

RY A

RE REECE

ESTES

EE R N

EAE

RE RN NN RY RY S E CR RE RE I

EE EEE

RE NE BN BE RY NE RE RE RN IR

FASE

EFT

BY BE RN RE BN RE RN

RE RE NN BY ONE NY NY BRE

E REARS

EEE

ES

SNE

LASSE

I

RE NE NN RE BN RN EE RN NE RE NE NE BE SE RE BE BY RN NN RENE

SESE

EEE

EEE

FEA

EEE

Il. Reading Comprehension Choose the best choice which completes the following 1. Which of the following

sentences.

sentences is NOT true about the liver?

a. It performs metabolic functions. b. It provides some biological products.

c. It is right above the abdomen. d. It is the biggest organ of the body.

2. The underlined word branch means .......... :

a. divide

b. complete

c. break

d. stick

3. When blood passes through the sinusoids, it ..........

:

a. leaves the liver via the hepatic vein b. enters the liver through the central vein c. leaves the collecting branch of the liver d. enters the collecting branch of the central vein ~

113

4. The canals formedby theplates of hepatocytes are called ........... a. Space of Disse

b. Kupffer

Cc. sinusoids

d. acinus

5. The underlined word they refers to .......... : a. sinusoids

b. plates

c. capillaries

d. canals

111. Word Cluster

Write the related words to the topic provided

in the diagram.

AN SINE Liver

1V. Vocabulary Training in the blanks

Fill

with

the words from

the list.

There

are extra

words.

demonstrated

represents

vascular

portal

incorporated

nutrients

structure

vessel

subdivided

delivery

triggers

liver

1. Total human liver blood flow .......... approximately 25% of the

cardiac output; up to 1500 ml/min.

114

~

2. Hepatic flow is ..........

in 25-30% for the hepatic artery (500 ml/min)

and the major part for the portal vein (1000 ml/min).

3. The hepatic artery also plays an important role in liver blood .......... wall and connective tissue perfusion.

4. The blood from the portal vein is full of ..........

derived from the

intestine and allows the hepatocytes to perform their tasks. 5. Blood

from the hepatic artery and the .......... vein joins in the

sinusoids.

6. The hepatic artery perfuses the liver ..........

bed in a “spotty” pattern,

while the portal vein perfuses the liver uniformly. 7. One of the most important ..........

for sphincter function is the need

for constant oxygen supply. If the rate of oxygen ..........

to the liver

varies, the sphincters will react and the ratio of arterial: portal blood flow alters.

V. Cloze Test

Complete the following the following

passage with the appropriate

words from

list.

Blood pressure in afferent vessels and pressure distribution inside the

liver is essentially similar for most species. Pressure in the hepatic artery, originating

..... l.....

the descending aorta and the celiac trunc, ..... 2.....

considered to be the same as aortic .....3.....

. This includes a high pulsatile

pressure between 120 ..... 4..... 80 mmHg with a frequency equal to the

_—5..... rate. Vessel compliance causes a gradual decrease .....6..... pulsation as the hepatic artery branches and rebranches ..... 7..... the liver.

Once at the sinusoidal level, pulsation .....8..... decreases to virtually zero and pressure drops to .....9..... 2-5 mmHg. On the other hand, pressure in the

.....10..... vein, originating from capillaries of the digestive tract, .....11..... no pulsation and a pressure of 10-12 mmHg. .....12.....

the sinusoids, both

115

portal venous and hepatic arterial .....13..... pressure drop .....14.....

is 3-5 mmHg. Consequently, the

the liver is much less in the portal .....15.....

system

than in the arterial system. The pressure drop from the collecting central veins to the vena cava is then approximately 1-3 mmHg, fluctuating slightly

with respiration. 1. a. from

c. of

2. a. be

c. being

3. a. part C. operation

4. a. and C. SO 5. a. kidney

Cc. heart

6. a. out

c. of 7. a. inside

c. outside

8. a. pressure

C. recursion 9. a. approximately c. clearly

10. a. divisible c. portal 11. a. is

c. be

12. a. On c. Of

b. for

d. after

b. is

d. was

b. pressure d. selection

b. then d. therefore b. liver

d. brain

b. in

d. for b. next

d. back

b. altitude

d. amplitude b. definitely d. moderately

b. recyclable d. removable b. was

d. has

b. In d. For

b. destination

13. a. pressure

d. creation

. rehabilitation

b. outward

14. a. outside

d. inward

>.Inside

b. artery

15. a. vein

d. venous

. vessel

VI. Translation

Task

Translate the following

text into Persian.

Liver

Function

Tests

Liver function tests represent a broad range of normal functions performed by the liver. The diagnosis of liver disease depends upon a complete history, complete physical examination, and evaluation of liver function tests and

further invasive and noninvasive tests. Many patients become confused

regarding the meaning of a liver function test. The hepatobiliary tree represents hepatic cells and biliary

Inflammation

of the hepatic cells results in elevation in the ‘alanine

aminotransferase (ALT), bilirubin.

tract cells.

Inflammation

aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and possibly the of the biliary tract cells results predominantly in an

elevation of the alkaline phosphatase. In liver disease there are crossovers between purely biliary disease and hepatocellular disease. To interpret these, the physician will look at the entire picture of the hepatocellular disease and

biliary tract disease to determine which 1s the primary abnormality. Adapted from: http://www.indiasurgeons.comy/liver.html

117

Lesson Twelve:

Alzheimer

Word Study depression /di'prefn/:

a medical condition in which a person feels very sad

and anxious and often has physical symptoms such as being unable to sleep, etc.

She sufferedfrom severe depression after losing her job. diagnose /darag'nous/: to say exactly what an illness or the cause of a problem is

The test is used to diagnose a variety of diseases.

disorder

/dis'a:rdar/: an untidy state; a lack o f order or organization

His financial

affairs were in complete disorder.

exclude /1k'sklu:d/: to deliberately not including something in what you are doing or considering

The cost of borrowing has been excludedfrom the inflation figures.

impair

/im'per/:

to damage something or make something worse

The accident impaired his hearing. He can’t hear as well as he did before.

rotate /'routert/: to move or turn around a central fixed point Stay well away from the helicopter when its blades start to rotate. »

118

shrink /frigk/:

to become or to make something smaller in size or amount

The tumor had shrunk to the size of a pea. steady /'stedi/:

firmly fixed, supported, or balanced; not shaking or likely to

fall down

He held the boat steady as she got in. symptom /'stmptam/: a change in your body or mind that shows that you are not healthy

Symptoms include a headache and sore throat.

Alzheimer’s

Disease

Alzheimer’s disease is a degenerative disorder

of the brain in which nerve

cells die over time. Many areas of the brain shrink and lose function. As a result, a person with Alzheimer’s has a steady loss of memory and other thinking abilities (cognitive skills) and gradually loses independence.

Diagnosis of Alzheimer’s

Disease

No single test can detect Alzheimer’s. Instead, the disease is diagnosed by

symptoms, findings on neurologic examination, and results from diagnostic tests. These tests help exclude other conditions that might cause the signs and symptoms. A diagnosis of Alzheimer’s may be “probable,” meaning that

other causes of the symptoms have been ruled out and the most likely cause is Alzheimer’s disease. First, the patient will have a complete physical exam,

along with a detailed history of symptoms and medical history, including medications. Examination by neurology specialists will help identify signs of Parkinson’s disease, strokes, tumors and other medical conditions that may impair memory and thinking, as well as physical function. Tests may include: My

119

Mental Status and Neuropsychological

Assessments

To determine which thinking and memory functions may be affected and to what degree, the patient will

be asked questions to measure cognitive

functions for attention, learning, recall, language and visuospatial abilities.

The tests are compared to the tests of other patients of similar age and ‘education.

The patient and people familiar with the patient will be interviewed

about the patient’s emotional state and day-to-day routines. They will also be asked about possible alcohol or drug abuse, head trauma and other causes for memory loss. Family

members or close friends can provide

valuable

information about how the patient’s behavior and personality have changed.

Psychiatric

Assessments

In addition, the patient may have a psychiatric assessment to uncover possible depression or other mental illness.

Blood

Tests

The patient’s blood will be checked for infections or conditions such as vitamin

deficiency, anemia, medication levels, disorders of the thyroid,

kidneys or liver, and other factors that can cause memory loss.

Brain Imaging

Internal images of the brain help detect strokes, tumors or other conditions

that may have affected the brain. Brain

images can show changes to

structures in the brain that are associated with memory, such as the hippocampus. Brain imaging techniques are: eo Computed

Tomography

(CT Scan). In this test, an X-ray machine

rapidly rotates around the brain while taking a series of thin X-ray

beams that produce two-dimensional images. e Magnetic

120

»

Resonance Imaging

(MRI).

This test uses powerful

magnets and radio waves to produce a detailed, three-dimensional

view of the brain. Most patients are asked to undergo an MRI scan. Depending on the individual,

another scan technique may be

performed.

eo Positive Emission Tomography Computerized

(PET) or Single-Photon Emission

Tomography

(SPECT).

These two

techniques may be needed for clinical-related

fairly

new

or research-related

study. For both tests, a small amount of radioactive material is injected into the patient and emission detectors are placed on the brain. PET provides visual images of brain activity. SPECT is used to measure blood flow to various regions of the brain.

Other Tests Other tests that sometimes provide important diagnostic information include electroencephalogram (EEG), electromyogram (EMG), urine tests, and tests on cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) obtained by a lumbar puncture. Physicians discuss with the patient and family

which tests are most appropriate to

establish the correct diagnosis. Adapted from: http://www.mayoclinic.org/alzheimers-disease/

I. Comprehension Exercise Read the following false,

sentences and decide whether they are true,

or not mentioned.

Write

statements; also put “NM”

“T”

for

true

and

“F”

for

false

for statements that have not been

mentioned in the text. Finally,

write the true sentence for those

you selected as false. 1. In Alzheimer, cells die gradually. AES

"SERS

ERE

EES

FAA

NESSIE

ERSTE

EERE

EER

SEER

ERNE

E DNASE

ERNE

ERASERS

PEAS

ES

SENSES

SRP

OPPOSE

EERE

APES

AEE

SEER

E EERE

EEF

DPD

EEA

EOD

IN

FEATS

SPI

EERE

IPE

SST

REE

ETERS

RR SN

SE

Ea

3. Questions are asked to learn about the cognitive conditions of patients with Alzheimer. LE

EE

EE

LA

EEE

EE

NEN

EEE

BE I

BN EE OE I

BE ILI

LER I

LAL

a

OE

IE I

I

EE

EE

I

a

I

EEN

I

I

SL

I

a

REE

BY

I E IEE

I

IE NE RE AE I E I E

EE

NE

I

EE

EI

ET

BE BE DE

EN IE

RE EIEN

I IEEE

EE

NE EE A

LE

I

I

EE

A

NE

NE R E

I I

BE BE RE I

NE NE BEE

I

OE I

BRE

A

BN EE

ERE

RE

REE

NE EE NE EE

BE BENE I

IE BN BE RE C N RE I

I

I

BE DE RE BC RE BE RE CIE IE IE EE

I

Ar

IE

EE EE

LEE

I

NF A

EE I

I

IE

A

I

A

I

OE I

NE

CNN C N N E RE INE CNN TA I Y TI

NE

I

a

NE I

BE I

IEE

RE

I

a

A

I

RR

OE I

RE REE

OE BF BC RE RE T C BCC

BE BE EE BE I

IE

AE

RE NR

IE IE I

RE RE SE 2

IE

BE RE OE BE RC BE BE

IEA

IE

RE RC NTB E N

TAY DEE ON NE NE NC INE TNE NN RAY BAY BNE ON NN NA BA INE NNN RAY RY BEE NE T C BN INE RN N N

NE RE I

I RE NE RC IC IC

RIE

I

I TB

I

TI

RE AE RE IE IE

RE

I

A

a

OE ERR

RLS

BE AN

TE

Il. Reading Comprehension Choose the best choice which completes the following 1. People who are suffering from Alzheimer ..........

sentences.

:

a. try hard to memorize information

b. should visit a psychologist to improve their memory c. have a gradual loss of memory d. prefer reading books at home because they get lost

2. In order to diagnose the disease, doctors pay attention to the ........... a. symptoms

c.cells

b. conditions

|

d. memories

3. The underlined word recall means .......... a. remind

b. memorize

c. divide

d. remember

4. Which of the following is NOT a test for diagnosing Alzheimer?

122

a. blood test

b. psychologists help

c. brain imaging

d. physical examination

I

5. The underlined word they refers to .......... :

III,

a. the patients

b. people familiar with the patients

c. doctors

d.aandb

Grammar

in Context

Passive Voice

The passive form of an active tense is made by putting the verb to be into

the same tense as the active verb and adding the past participle of the active verb. The subject of the active verb becomes the ‘agent’ of the passive verb. The agent is very often not mentioned. When it is mentioned, it is preceded by by and placed at the end of the clause.

The passive is used: e When it is not necessary to mention

the doer of the action as it is obvious

® When

who he is/was/will

we don’t

know

The

rubbish

has

not

been

collected.

be:

who did the

The minister was murdered.

action:

e When the subject of the active verb would be ‘people’:

stolen goods.

e When the subject of the active verb would be the indefinite é

one

2

He is suspected of receiving the

pronoun

This sort of advertisement is seen everywhere.

.

e® When we are more interested

in the

action than the person who does it:

The house next door has been

bought.

123

1V. Exercise Read the text again and find the passive sentences. #48

PR

EE EES

RN

EEE

RR

ES

EE SES

WEARS

EASE

SEEN

SEES

ETE

EEE

EET

TEAS

ETERS

EE

RE

HS

RR

FEA

EEE

EAE

GES

EE

EE

EE

EEE

EEE

EE

EE

SET

ELAS

EEN

EEF

EE

EEE

EN

ET ASE

RET

EY

are

ES awe

V. Word Cluster Write the related words to the topic provided in the diagram.

NS Alzheimer

JAN VI. Vocabulary Training in the blanks

Fill

the words

with

from

the list.

There

are extra

words. = transmits

common

cynical

symptoms

confused

chemical

critical

depression

classical

definite

genetic

fundamental

1. In the brains of people with Alzheimer’s, there 1s a dramatic drop in the level of the chemical acetylcholine, which ..........

messages in

the brain. 2. Glutamate 1s a .......... NMDA receptors. Le

124

in the brain that acts on receptors known as

3. Some medications help treat ........ .. and anxiety in patients with Alzheimer’s. 4. As Alzheimer’s

progresses, a .......... behavior is to become

increasingly agitated, ..........

and restless toward the end of the day,

which is often called “sundowning”. 5. If one person has early-onset Alzheimer’s and a blood-related relative

shows signs or ..........

of dementia, it may be useful for the relative

to have ........ . . testing to make an accurate diagnosis. 6.1t is .......... for patients who have Alzheimer’s disease and their families

to be educated and informed

about the disease.

VII. Cloze Test Complete the following

the following

passage with the appropriate

words from

list.

The first step in treating Alzheimer’s is an accurate diagnosis. It’s

important to rule out other causes of dementia,particularly .....1..... that can be treated and potentially

reversed. If

Alzheimer’s

1s ..... 2 . . .

medications and other care may improve the patient’s daily .....3.....

quality of life, as well as potentially slow disease .....4.....

early, and

. The second step

in treating Alzheimer’s is for the patient, and .....5....., to prepare for and

manage the disease as it progresses.

Numerous ..... 6..... are intended to reduce the symptoms of Alzheimer’s,

by helping

to .....7.....

problems, or improve sleep.It is .....8.....

memory loss, control

behavior

to work with physicians who have

considerable knowledge and .....9..... In using these medications. In addition, clinics are involved in .....10.....

might

trials to determine if new drugs

alleviate the .....11..... of Alzheimer’s,

prevent its .....12..... radicals, .....13.....

slow its progress or even

. In a process called oxidant stress, cells produce free reactive molecules that can overwhelm and damage

normal

cells.

..... 14..... E and other

patients who .....15..... Alzheimer’s

antioxidants

have

been

studied

disease. The use of Vitamin

controversial. A physician will determine if Vitamin E is appropriate. 1. a. situations

C. positions

b. conditions

d. suggestions

2. a. diagnosed

b. realized

c. treated

d. refined

3. a. clearing Cc. promoting

4. a. progression C. position

5. a. school c. work 6. a. meditation c. planning 7. a. slow

c. clear

b. functioning d. pushing

b. profession d. demonstration

b. family d. friends b. exercise d. medications b. gradual

d. absolute

8. a. professional

b. important

c. determined

d. notorious

9. a. knowledge C. experience 10. a. clinical c. medical

11. a. symbols

c. directions

12. a. familiar

Cc. onset 13. a. importantly

c. seriously

126

b . expertise d. information b. hospital d. spatial

b. symptoms

d. categories

b. middle

d. gradual b. highly

d. harshly

in

E is

b. Substance

14. a. Vitamin

d. Protein

¢c. Mineral 15. a. be

b . have

c. do

d. may

VIII.

Translation

Task

Translate the following

text into Persian.

Alzheimer’s

and the Brain

Just like the rest of our bodies, our brains change as we age. Most of us notice some slowed thinking and occasional problems remembering certain

things. However, serious memory loss, confusion and other major changes in the way our minds work are not a normal part of aging. They may be a sign

that brain cells are failing. The brain has 100 billion

nerve cells (neurons). Each nerve cell

communicates with many others to form networks. Nerve cell networks have

special jobs. Some are involved

in thinking,

learning and remembering.

Others help us see, hear and smell. Still others tell our muscles when to

move. To do their work, brain cells operate like tiny factories. They take in supplies, generate energy, construct equipment and get rid of waste. Also,

cells process and store information. Keeping everything running requires coordination as well as large amounts of fuel and oxygen. In Alzheimer’s disease, parts of the cell’s factory stop running well. Scientists are not sure exactly where the trouble starts. But just like a real factory, backups and

breakdowns in one system cause problems in other areas. As damage spreads, cells lose their ability to do their jobs well. Eventually, they die. Adapted from: http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/alzheimersdisease/alzheimersdisease.html

127

and AIDS

HIV

Lesson Thirteen:

Word Study calamity

/ko'lzemati/:

property,

etc.

an event that causes great damage to people’s lives,

AIDS has changed to one of the greatest calamities of human being.

cervical

/'s3:irvikl/:

connected

with the cervix

The disease turned out to be the cervical

cancer.

curb /k3:rb/: control or limit something A range of policies have been introducedaimedat curbing inflation. devastating /'devastertin/: causing a lot of damage and destruction Oil spills are having a devastating effect on coral reefs in the ocean.

exposure /1k'spou3ar/: the state of being in a place or situation where there is no protection from something harmful or unpleasant

Doctors believe that prolonged exposure to harmful radiation is dangerous.

immune system /I'mjuin

'sistom/: the system in the body that produces

substances to help it fight against infection and disease AIDS seriously attacks the immune system and even a very simple illness is difficult to overcome.

128

»

infect /1n'fekt/:

to make a disease or an illness spread to a person, an animal

or a plant It is not possible to infect another person through kissing.

parasite /'parasait/: a small animal or plant that lives on or inside another animal or plant and getting its food from it

There were so many kinds of parasites that threat human being. progression

/pra'grefn/: the process of developing gradually from one

stage to another Doctors were not able to control the rapid progression of the disease.

prone /proun/:

likely

to suffer from something

Working without a break makes you more prone to errors.

sarcoma /sair'kovmad/:

a harmful lump that grows in certain parts of the

body such as muscles or bones

scourge /sk3ird3/: a person or thing that causes suffering or trouble Inflation

was the scourge of the 1970s.

symptom /'simptom/:

a change in your body or mind that shows you are

not healthy

Symptoms include headache and stomachache.

syndrome /'sindrovm/:

a set of physical conditions that show you have a

particular disease or medical problem

This syndrome is associated with frequent coughing.

129

HIV and AIDS HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) infection country in the world

has now spread to every

and has infected more than 40 million

people

worldwide as of the end of 2003. More than 1.1 million people in the United States have been infected with particularly

devastating

HIV.

The scourge of HIV

in Sub-Saharan Africa.

The proportion

has been of adult

women among those infected with HIV is increasing. eo HIV: A lentivirus of a subgroup of retroviruses, HIV causes AIDS. The virus kills or damages cells of the body’s immune system. HIV progressively destroys the body’s ability

to fight infections and

certain cancers. People diagnosed with AIDS may develop lifethreatening diseases from viruses or bacteria that rarely make healthy people sick. These infections

are called opportunistic

infections.

eo AIDS: Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome was first recognized

in 1981 in New York City. The epidemic is growing most rapidly among minority

populations. The virus was identified in 1983. A

diagnostic blood test was developed in 1985. Research on HIV infection includes the development and testing of HIV vaccines and new therapies for the disease and its associated conditions. Currently, 28 HIV vaccines are being tested on humans, and many drugs for HIV-

or AIDS-associated infections are either being developed or tested.

Researchers are also investigating how HIV damages the immune system

and are trying to trace how the disease progresses in different people. e Scientists are testing chemical barriers that can be used during sex to

prevent HIV transmission. There are multiple public health programs

to explain methods to prevent HIV educating the public

transmission. These include

about the dangers of sexually transmitted

diseases and modifying behavioral risks.

130

)

® The present research and preventive efforts are probably

sufficient to curb this modern calamity.

not

A lot more commitment

from the governments of various countries is required to enhance

research efforts and implement the strategies to treat and prevent HIV infection.

HIV/AIDS

Symptoms

Many people do not develop symptoms after getting infected with HIV. Some people have a flu-like

illness within

several days to weeks after

exposure to the virus. They complain of fever, headache, tiredness, and enlarged lymph glands in the neck. These symptoms usually disappear on

their own within a few weeks. eo Following

progression

initial

infection,

you may have no symptoms. The

of disease varies widely among individuals. This state

may last from a few months to more than 10 years. o During this period, the virus continues to multiply

actively and

infects and kills the cells o f the immune system. The immune system allows us to fight against the bacteria, viruses, and other

infectious causes. o The virus destroys the cells that are the primary

| infection

fighters, called CD4+ or T4 cells. oe Once the immune system weakens, a person infected with HIV can develop the following

symptoms:

o Lack of energy, o Weight loss,

0 Frequent fevers and sweats,

o Persistent or frequent yeast infections, ~ o Persistent skin rashes or flaky skin, © Short-term memory loss.

e AIDS is the most advanced stage of HIV infection. The definition of »

131

AIDS includes all HIV-infected people who have fewer than 200 CD4+ cells per microliter of blood. The definition also includes 26

conditions that are common in advanced HIV disease but that rarely occur in healthy people. Most of these conditions are infections caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, and other organisms.

Opportunistic infections are common in people with AIDS. Nearly every organ system is affected. Some of the common symptoms

include the following: o Cough and shortness of breath,

o Seizures and lack of coordination,

O

OO

o Difficult

or painful swallowing,

Mental symptoms such as confusion and forgetfulness, Severe and persistent diarrhea,

O

o Fever,

Vision loss,

© Nausea, abdominal cramps, and vomiting,

Q

o Weight loss and extreme fatigue, Severe headaches with neck stiffness,

o Coma. e People with AIDS are prone

to develop various cancers such as

Kaposi sarcoma, cervical cancer, and cancers of the immune system known

as lymphomas. Kaposi

sarcoma causes round, brown,

reddish or purple spots that develop in the skin or in the mouth. After the diagnosis of AIDS is made, the average survival time has been

estimated to be 2-3 years. Adapted from: http://www.emedicinehealth.com/hivaids/article_em.html

I. Comprehension Exercise Read the following

sentences and decide whether they are true,

false, o r not mentioned. My

132

Write

“T” for true and “F”

for false

for statements that have not been

statements; also put “NM”

write the true sentence for those

mentioned in the text. Finally, you selected as false.

1. No vaccine has been developed for AIDS yet. [CEE

BN BE BENE BN NC A E RY I E NER NY RE NE RN RY NCR RE BE

IIE BE BENE SN IE IE BY SE AY AY RFEEE A BE

RE RN A NY RY NE NN NE BE RE AY RE NE RE RY A NE RE EE IN RY RY BE A RY RE RE RY NRE RY NT NN NE RY BE NERY RE ERE RN NE I RE BE WR I

NE BRE IE EERE BE OY EFEE A A I

BE EE RY BN NRE AN RN RY RN SE

RE RE RY BY RY I

IE EE

IE

NE IE ON OY C E E TR I

RN

I I

RY I I I IC

BN

RR

REE IER

IE NE I RI

I

EN]

3. HIV studies deal with the development and testing of HIV vaccines and new therapies for the disease. LE

ESN

LENE

EERE

EEE

AEE

REE

REAR

ER

EERE

ENREREEEREEERERESAERENE

EBSA

REE I BE EE BN NERY BNE RY NE RE RY NE BY RE RE NE NEY BEI BY NE REE NN BE RE RE BE BEE NE RE

AE RC

ES

EEE

ERE BENE RE NE NE

SEE

RE

NEENEMESEEEENENESENEEES

EE RA

EIS

NE RY RE NN RY RE NEE RE NE RE NE TE

I

EIEN

NEE]

NN

BE BY BE BE RE NE A BEER

5. When a person is infected by HIV, almost all the organs of his/her

body will be damaged. LCE

NE ICI

BC

EE

BE RE IE BE

NY NE BN BN BE RCE RE I

SE RY RE RE RE NE NE RN BY BU RY SY RE NN A NE RY RE NE NY NE RE NE NU RY NER

NE RE NE NE CRE BE RN RE BE RN NE RE

BNE IE RN BN NE BE IE C I

RRR

NN RE

II. Reading Comprehension Choose the best choice which completes the following

sentences.

1. What are opportunistic infections? a. the HIV virus

b. the infected immune system

c. the damaged cells

d. the infections causedby AIDS

2. Research on HIV includes ..........

a. testingnew vaccines b. finding new ways for treatment c. educating people on dangers of HIV d.aandc

3. When the immune system deteriorates, the following observed EXCEPT ..........

syndromes are

:

a. gaining weight

b. lack of energy

c. frequent fevers

d. memory loss

ES

133

. What has NOT been done to prevent HIV infections? a. developingHIV vaccines and therapies b. trace the epidemical processes of the disease

c. introducing chemical antipregnancy drugs d. explain the chemical barriers of HIV transmission

. What are the symptoms of AIDS? a. lack of energy

b. coma

c. severe headaches

d.bandc

. People with AIDS are prone to develop various cancers such as Kaposi sarcoma, cervical cancer, and cancers of the immune system known as lymphomas. What does the word prone mean? a. exposed

b. suceptible

c. likely suffered

d. in danger

. Which statement in NOT true according to the text? a. AIDS is the most advanced stage of HIV infection. b. CD4+ or T4 cells are the cells are most attacked by the virus. c. The average survival time is 2-3 years after the infection. d. The flu-like symptoms vanish sometime after infection.

Grammar

III,

in Context

Comparatives

We use comparative adjectives and constructions in order to compare two things.

e For monosyllabic adjectives we add —er to the end of the adjective:

Taller Nicer Kinder

eo For multi-syllabic adjectives, we use more before the adjectives:

More interesting More informative More rewarding

134

e Comparatives may be used with

He has more books than I do.

nouns too:

I

have participated

in

more

competitions than my brothers.

e Comparatives may be used with

He plays better that hisfriend.

verbs:

He earns more than hisfather.

IV. Exercise

Read

the text and

find

all

the

comparative

adjectives

or

constructions.

LL

I SR

IN

LE

NE I

I

I

EE

BL ILE

BE NE BE NE RN EE ELE

NE IE

RN I

a

BE NE NN NE I

a

RL EE

A

A

BN BY R E

EE

A

AN SE E E E

EE

EE

IE IN NE NC RE IN

EE

EE

A BE RE I

EEE

RN RE RE EE

EEE

EE

B T EE RE IN

EE

RC

EE EEE

TEE

I

EE

RC

EEE

RN BN IE

EE

ENTE

EE EE ON BY BE EE EE A

RE

EN

AE EE EN ON BEEN

NX

A

A

EN

I

RE

BE EN

V. Word Cluster Write the related words to the topic provided in the diagram.

AN HIV/AIDS

VI. Vocabulary Training Fill

in the blanks

with

the words

from

the list.

There are extra

words.

135

development

infectious

function

inhibit

medications

prohibit

defense

divide

weakened

multiply

surface

loses

deepen

1. HIV destroys a type of ........ . . cell in the body called a CD4+ helper

lymphocyte.

2. The lymphocytes are part of the body’s immune system, the defense

system that fights .......... diseases. 3. As the medical community learns more about how HIV

works,

they’ve been able to develop drugs to .......... it. 4. A healthy body 1s equipped with CD4+ helper lymphocyte

cells

(CD4+ cells). These cells help the immune system .......... normally

and fight off certain kinds of infections.

5. HIV attaches to these CD4+ cells, infects them, and uses them as a

place to .......... . In doing so, the virus destroys the ability of the infected cells to do their job in the immune system. The body then

ren

the ability to fight many infections.

6. Because their immune systems are .........., people who have AIDS

are unable to fight off many infections, particularly tuberculosis and

other kinds of otherwise rare infections of the lung, the .......... covering of the brain, or the brain itself.

7. People who have AIDS tend to keep getting sicker, especially if they

are not taking antiviral .......... properly.

VII. Cloze Test Complete the following

the following

passage with the appropriate

words from

list.

With a vaccine for AIDS years away and no cure on the horizon, experts believe that the most effective treatment for AIDS is to prevent the »

136

infection.

occurrence of HIV

Health

officials

...1..... on altering risky behaviors linked unsafe sexual .....3.....

particularly

focus public

.....2..... HIV

education

transmission,

and needle-sharing by intravenous

even4..... users. Safe-sex campaigns sponsored .....5.....

health clinics, social

centers, schools, .....6..... churches encourage sexual abstinence or .....7.....

.

Education programs instruct about the ..... 8..... way to use condoms to

coe9..... a protective barrier against transmission .....10..... sexual intercourse. Needle-.....11.....

HIV

during

programs, which provide clean needles

...12..... drug users, enable intravenous drug .....13..... to avoid sharing HIV-contaminated

needles. Needle-exchange ..... 14..... have been widely

criticized because they .....15..... to condone illicit drug use. However, ..16.....

U.S. government-funded studies have indicated that such

programs reduce HIV transmission without promoting greater drug use. To

reduce the accidental transmission of HIV during medical procedures, both the United States and Canada have established strict guidelines for health-

care settings, including the use of protective clothing and proper instrument disposal.

1. a. books

b. programs

c. directions

d. lessons

2. a. to

b. by

c. for 3. a. beliefs c. guidance 4. a. drug

c. needle

5. a. by c. with

d. with |

b. practices d. behaviors b. medication

d. pharmacy

b. for d. of

6. a. but

b. and

c. for

d. also

137

b. immigration

7. a. monogamy

d. inhibition

c. demonstration

8. a. proper

b. complete d. decisive

c. direct

9. a. produce

b. provide

Cc. cast

d. devise

10. a. of

b. at

c. for

d. in

11. a. production

b. use

c. designing

d. exchange

12. a. for

b. in

c. to

d. at

13. a. abusers

b. producers

c. designers

d. buyers

14. a. demos

b. programs d. shows

Cc. classes

15. a. seem

b. visit

c. show

d. become

16. a. different

b . simultaneous

c. definite

VIII.

Translation

d. numerous

Task

Translate the following

text into Persian.

Revised HIV Classification System for Adolescents and Adults The etiologic agent of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) retrovirus designated human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Me

138

is a

The CD4+ T-

lymphocyte is the primary target for HIV infection because of the affinity of the virus for the CD4+ surface marker. The CD4+ T-lymphocyte coordinates

a number of important immunologic functions, and a loss of these functions results in progressive impairment of the immune response. Studies of the

natural history of HIV infection have documented a wide spectrum of disease manifestations, ranging

from

asymptomatic infection

threatening conditions characterized by severe immunodeficiency,

to lifeserious

opportunistic infections, and cancers. Other studies have shown a strong association between the development of life-threatening

opportunistic

illnesses and the absolute number (per microliter of blood) or percentage of

CD4+ T-lymphocytes. As the number of CD4+ T-lymphocytes decreases,

the risk and severity of opportunistic illnesses increase. Measures of CD4+ T-lymphocytes are used to guide clinical therapeutic management of HIV-infected and antiretroviral

persons. Antimicrobial

and

prophylaxis

therapies have been shown to be most effective within

certain levels of immune dysfunction. As a result, antiretroviral

therapy

should be considered for all persons with CD4+ T-lymphocyte counts of less

than 500/ul,

and prophylaxis

against Pneumocystis carinii

pneumonia

(PCP), the most common serious opportunistic infection diagnosed in men and women with AIDS, is recommended for all persons with CD4+ Tlymphocyte counts of less than 200/ulL and for persons who have had prior episodes of PCP. Because of these recommendations, CD4+ T-lymphocyte

determinations are an integral part of medical management of HIV-infected persons in the United States. Adapted from: http://www.cdc.gov/MMWR/preview/MMWRhtml/00018871.html

139

Lesson Fourteen:

MS

Word Study acute /3'kju:t/:

very serious or severe

There is an acute shortage of water. disrupt /dis'rapt/:

to make it more difficult for something to continue in

the normal way Bus services will be disrupted tomorrow because of the bridge closure.

fatal /'fertl/: causing or ending in death He is suffering from a potentially fatal form of cancer.

impulse /'tmpAls/:

a force or movement of energy that causes something

else to react

There are so many nerve impulses.

intermittent

/intor'mitant/:

stopping and starting often over a period of

time but not regularly

The singer was accompanied by intermittent burst of applause.

remission /ri'mifn/:

a period during which a serious illness improves for a

time and the patient seems to get better Thepatient has been in remission for the past six month. LJ

140

susceptible /sa'septabl/: very likely to be affected, influenced, or harmed Salt intake may lead to raised blood pressure in susceptible adults. wrap /wairp/:

to cover something completely in paper or other material

He spent the evening wrapping up the New Yearpresents.

What Is Multiple Multiple

Sclerosis (MS)?

sclerosis, or MS, is a disease of the central nervous system, the

main network of nerves that carry electrical impulses throughout the body.

The central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord. Both

have nerve fibers that transport electrical messages from the brain to the rest of the body. The nerve fibers are wrapped

in a fatty tissue called myelin,

which helps transmit the messages.In multiple sclerosis, the myelin sheath

becomes inflamed and gradually is destroyed; leaving patchy scarred areas that disrupt

communication between the brain and other parts of the body.

In addition, the underlying nerve fibers can also be damaged or destroyed. This destruction of the myelin

sheath and the damage to the underlying

nerves can lead to a wide variety of symptoms that include numbness or

tingling, balance problems, weakness, muscle spasms and blurred vision. MS is a complex and unpredictable disease. In some people, it can

cause relatively few symptoms. Others experience intermittent

attacks. In

the worst cases, people who have multiple sclerosis can lose the ability to speak, walk or write. However, the disease does not seem to significantly

shorten a person’s life, and many people with multiple sclerosis are able to remain active.

Anyone can develop MS. But many patients share these characteristics: e The majority experience their first symptoms between the ages o f 20 and 40.

141

e Caucasians are more than twice as likely as other races to develop

MS. e MS is two to three times more common

in women as in men.

e MS is five times more common in temperate climates — like those of

the northern United States, Canada and Europe — than in tropical climates. eo People whose close relatives have MS are more susceptible to developing the disease, but there is no evidence the disease is

directly inherited.

How Does Multiple

Sclerosis Progress?

Scientists don’t know what causes multiple sclerosis. But there is increasing evidence that the body’s immune system plays a prominent role in its development. Some scientists think MS is an autoimmune disease. They believe the immune system, which usually protects the body by fighting germs and foreign bodies, may attack the myelin in the central nervous

system. Some researchers suspect that these attacks may be triggered by

certain kinds of viral infections. Researchers have also observed that some groups of people are much more susceptible to MS than others. This suggests that there may be a genetic component to the disease. The exact course of the disease in individual patients is uncertain, too. MS affects people in a variety of ways. In general, though, the disease follows several known patterns. Doctors group four of the patterns together

under the heading “chronic progressive MS”:

oe Relapsing-Remitting

MS (RRMS):

In this pattern, the patient

experiences MS as a series of actively symptomatic periods, called attacks, exacerbations or relapses. These attacks are followed by quiet periods called remissions during which symptoms become much less severe and no obvious progression of the disease is

observed. Patients may have a period of stability that lasts months or L

142

even years before the pattern of relapses and remissions returns. According

to the National

Sclerosis Society, about 85

Multiple

percent of people with MS are diagnosed with a relapsing-remitting course of the disease.

This pattern begins after a

MS (SPMS):

¢ Secondary-Progressive

course. The disease advances progressively,

relapsing-remitting

punctuated by acute attacks. The National

Multiple

Sclerosis

Society estimates that more than half of patients who start out with relapsing-remitting disease will develop SPMS within 10 years, with the number rising to 90 percent within 25 years.

MS (PPMS):

eo Primary-Progressive

gradual worsening

of

This pattern is marked by a

symptoms. Patients generally

do not

there are no

distinct

experience acute exacerbations. While

remissions, patients with PPMS may have temporary plateaus during which Multiple

symptoms lessen somewhat. According

to the National

Sclerosis Society, about 10 to 15 percent of people with

MS are diagnosed with PPMS. ® Progressive-Relapsing

MS

(PRMS):

In

this pattern, patients

experience gradual progression of disease that is accompanied by

acute exacerbations as well. According to the National Multiple Sclerosis Society, about 5 percent of people with MS have PRMS. In addition, the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke

estimates that up to 20 percent of people with MS have a benign form of the disease. After the initial

attacks, symptoms progress very little over the

course of a person’s lifetime.

A small number of patients have malignant

MS, which is marked by a rapid decline that leads to disability and possibly death. MS is rarely fatal, however, and most people with the disease have a

normal life expectancy. Adapted from: http://www2.healthtalk.com/go/multiple-sclerosis

143

I. Comprehension Exercise Read the following

sentences and decide whether they are true,

false, or not mentioned.

Write

statements; also put “NM”

“T” for true and “F”

for false

for statements that have not been

mentioned in the text. Finally,

write the true sentence for those

you selected as false. 1. MS is a disease that attacks the nervous system. L I T E BE NT EE BN NE BE BLE I

48

Wk EAE

EES

ERE RENE BE NRE I

AAS

SEES

SEY NY BE RE NE IN RY RY IY RN OE RE NE CR RE NE RY RY NE RE NE BE RN NN IN BR

SET

EE

STE

FFE

AREA

EES

ESTE

NCR

SU ER EFA

NE NE RY NE IC A NE RE RE BE RE BE BN RE RE RY CEE BE RE EER NERY NE NN

AES

EE

FE SSE

VETTE

SALES

EERE

BE RE EE ON NN

STFU

A EE NA

3. MS is developed in people whose parents were suffering from the disease. I

I

LE

4

I

I

I

NE EE BN EE BENE

9

7

BF

aE

I

I

A I

I

BN BE IE RE ON RY

E

HF

da

dE

I

NE

EE

BE

ddd

IE

IE

IE

I

NN IEEE

EES

SR

NE

I

TR

BE NE RE IE RN BE C N

REE

EEE

PRES

RN

A

I

EO

Ed

ER

EES

I

IE

EE

BE I

REESE

I

TR

PAS

A

IE

A IEE

I

YEE

I

I

I

RE RE BE A

I

I

IE

das

RE

ER

E

AA

A RA

RN

RAT

I

EES

I

EE

RC

I

I

EAE

RR

SR

A

IES

RB

RC I

RET

FEAR

BN S E A

I

CN

IEE BR

N

SAA

EE

I

RE

I

Eee

Il. Reading Comprehension Choose the best choice which completes the following

sentences.

1. What is multiple sclerosis?

a. brain malfunction to control different organs b. malfunction of the spinal cord fibers c. malfunction of the fatty tissue called myelin

d.-bandc 2. About 85% of the patients .......... : a. suffer from progressing attacks b. suffer from attacks followed by a quiet period c. have progression of symptoms with no obvious attacks

144

)

IN}

d. have frequent violent attack 3. The underlined

word blurred

means ..........

:

a. transparent

b. opaque

c. disturbed

d. obvious

4 , Remissions

are ..........

a. those periods following

the attacks

b. quiet periods before the attacks c. attacks followed silent periods

d. attacks comingbefore periods 5. Which of the following

sentences is NOT true about MS?

a. It i s fatal.

b. People have normal life expectancy.

c. Disability is observed in patients. d. After the initial attacks the progress is not rapid.

III.

Grammar

Reporting

in Context

Clauses in Passives

e To report a claim or opinion, you

It is believed that the cause of

can use a passive form of a

some diseases is not known.

reporting verb and it: eo Notice

that the agent is often

It is claimed that within the next

omitted and understood to be

few years, doctors will find

“some” or “many people”:

cure for the common cold.

the

IV. Exercise Read the passage again and decide which sentences are using

reporting LIL

FR

I

IN

FER

BE I

I

BE

RE R B

AREER SARE

clauses. SN I

CB I

ES ESE

RE

NE RN NE I

EAA

NI

ERASER

OR

IE

FNS

RN RE NE I E RS ONE RE BE NE RN CN RE I

PFA

REBAR

RY R N Y

Asse.

EEE

EE

LIEN E E A

EE

I

EE

A

EEE

A I

EE

INN

I

NR RO

EN

a

I

NFER NNER

a

SRN

RSI

EENEEENNETRERN

NI

I

NEY]

V. Word Cluster Write the related words to the topic provided in the diagram.

NS / \ VI. Vocabulary Training Fill

in the blanks

with

the words

from

the list.

There

are extra

words. protective

replace

blurred

empty

symptoms

conduct

control

loss

devastate

relapse

central

1. MS

is the result of damage to myelin

— a/an .......... sheath

surrounding nerve fibers of the central nervous system. 2. Symptoms vary widely

and include .......... vision, weak limbs,

tingling sensations, unsteadiness and fatigue. 3. For some people, MS is characterized by periods of .......... and remission while for others it has a progressive pattern. For everyone, it makes life unpredictable.

4. Multiple

sclerosis is onc of the most common diseases of the ..........

nervous system (brain and spinal cord).

5. In

146

multiple L

sclerosis, the loss of myelin

(demyelination)

is

accompanied by a disruption in the ability of the nerves to ..........

electrical impulses to and from the brain and this produces the various symptoms of MS.

6. Demyelination

a

is the term used for a/an .......... of myelin,

substance in the white matter that insulates nerve endings.

7. Demyelination is the root cause of the ..........

that people with MS

experience.

VII.

Cloze Test

Complete the following the following

passage with the appropriate

words from

list.

The cause of multiple

sclerosis is not yet known, but thousands of

researchers all over the world are meticulously putting the pieces of this complicated puzzle together. The damage to myelin in MS may be ..... l..... an abnormal response of the body’s immune system, ..... 2..... normally defends the body

against invading

organisms. Many

characteristics of MS suggest an “auto-immune”

..... 3 . . .

the

disease ..... 4..... the body

attacks its own cells and tissues, which ..... Seen the case of MS is myelin. Researchers do not .....6..... what triggers the immune system to attack

myelin, ..... 7..... it is thought to be a combination of .....8..... factors. One theory is that a virus, possibly .....9..... dormant in the body, may play a

major role in the development of the disease and may .....10..... system or indirectly instigate the auto-immune .....11.....

the immune

. A great deal of

research has taken place in .....12..... to identify an MS virus. It is .....13..... that there 1s no one MS virus, but .....14..... a common virus, such as

measles or herpes, .....15..... act as a trigger for MS. This trigger activates white blood cells (lymphocytes) in the blood stream, which enter the brain by making vulnerable the brain’s defense mechanisms (i.e. the blood/brain barrier). LL]

147

because

. since

d. for

. where

b. which

. what

d. whose

in

b. at

. for

d. of

. whereby

b. by which

. due to

d. for the sake of

. on

b . in

. at

d. for

. know

b. judge

. inform

d. review

. since

b. then

. SO

d. but

. much

b. little

. several

d. one

. trying

b. lying

. putting

~~ d. cutting

10. a. disturb

b. ruin

. interrupt 11. a. activity

12.

b. due to

d. damage b. process

. certain

d. phase

a. counting

b. doing

. developing

13. . comparable . divisible

d. accountable

d. during

. that

b. will

15. a. may

148

b. probable

b. whereby

14. . for

C.

d. trying

d. should

could »

VIII.

Translation

Task

Translate the following

text into Persian.

Primary-Progressive

MS

This form of MS is characterized by a lack of distinct attacks, but with slow

onset and steadily worsening symptoms. There is an accumulation of deficits and disability which may level off at some point or continue over months and years. It is impossible to predict accurately the course of MS individual,

for any

but the first five years give some indication of how the disease

will continue for that person. This is based upon the course of the disease over that period and the disease type. (i.e. relapsing-remitting or progressive). The level of disability reached at end points such as five and ten years is thought to be a reliable predictor of the future course o f the disease. However, there are many variables in this scenario:

® A large percentage of people with MS (approx 45%) are not severely affected by MS and live normal and productive lives.

e There is a significant group (40%) which becomes progressive after a period of some years as rclapsing-remitting. Age at onset and gender may also be indicators of the long-term course

of the disease. Some research has indicated that younger age at onset [under 16 years of age] implies a more favorable prognosis, but this must be

tempered by the knowledge that for a young adult living with MS for 20 or 30 years may result in substantial disability

even if the progress towards

disability 1s slow and in the first 10 or 15 years he or she is relatively mildly affected. Other research has indicated that late onset [i.e. over 55 years of age], particularly in males, may indicate a progressive course of the disease. Adapted from: http://www.imaginis.com/multiple-sclerosis/types-of-ms.asp

149

Lesson Fifteen:

Cancer Patients’

Needs

WordStudy coagulation /kouvzgju'leifn/:

becoming thick andpartly solid

The coagulation of the blood around the edges of the wound should be prevented.

complacency /kam'plersnsi/: a feeling of satisfaction with yourself or with a situation Despite signs of an improvement in education, there is no room for complacency.

exquisite /1k'skwizit/:

acute; very serious

He was suffering from an exquisite pain in his chest.

incremental

/inkra'mentl/:

increasing

Last year, the market showedincremental costs. lack /lk/:

to have none or not enough of something

Some houses still lack basic amenities

such as bathrooms.

moral /'md:ral/: concerned with behaviors of right and wrong Students must be taught traditional moral values.

150

”

death

mortality /ma:r'talati/:

Officials should be concerned about hospital mortalities.

nausea /'na:sia/: the feeling that you have when you want to vomit Nausea and vomiting are common symptoms.

nexus /'meksas/: a complicated series of connections between different things

In politics

there are lots of intricacies and nexus that one should be aware

of palliative /'paeliotiv/: a medicine or medical treatment that reduces pain without curing its cause should

Scientists

work

on medicine

and medical

cancer; actually, they should go beyond palliative plague /plerg/:

treatments

that can cure

medicine.

to cause pain or trouble over a period of time

Financial problems are plaguing

spiritual /'spiritfual/:

the company.

connected with human spirit rather than the body or

physical things

The government should also be concerned with the spiritual welfare.

Cancer

Patients’

Needs

Patients diagnosed with cancer have many needs. The news comes as a shock, and maybe for the first time the individual mortality.

must face his or her

So before health service providers even think about the role of

medicine, they must consider patients’ needs for moral be

and spiritual

151

support. At times like this, a close supportive family and membership of a faith community are invaluable. Sadly, there are many cancer sufferers who lack

family

support and have no spiritual

mentor. So perhaps one

explanation for the growth in the interest in complementary and alternative medicine even among cancer patients is the unmet need of the patient when

conventional medical practice fails to fill this aching void.

The next need for cancer subjects is to be free of whatever symptoms

plague their life as a result of the disease. Of course, in the early stages the patients may be symptom-free, but in the later stages suffering is common from pain, nausea and weakness. The science of pain control is well

established and palliative

care for those close to the end is a well-developed

specialty thanks to the British hospice movement. In addition, there may well be a role for interventions such as therapeutic massage, acupuncture and

counseling to help the patient feel better. Relatively new is the discipline of “psycho-social oncology”,

which

aims to identify and manage the more subtle subjective symptoms of cancer,

such as anxiety and depression. This field of activity emerged about 20 years ago with the development of psychometric instruments, and it addresses the psychological, social, spiritual and behavioral dimensions thrown up by the

diagnosis of cancer from both perspectives: those of the patient and those of his or her friends and family members. Furthermore, there exists a mind-

body nexus that, in theory, could be modulated to influence the natural

course of the disease so that if the patient “feels better” it might indirectly help them “get better”. The third need of cancer victims is to be cured, or at

least to have their lives prolonged.

The History

of Cancer Treatment

From the years 200 to 1800 CE, following

the teachings of Aristotle and

Galen, cancer was believed to be a consequence of the coagulation of “black bile”

(melancholia) in the target organ. Black bile was one of the four My

152

metaphysical humors (black bile, yellow bile, phlegm and blood) that needed to be in balance for perfect health. The therapeutic responses to this belief were purgation (enemas), leaching, cupping, bloodletting and extreme diets.

There was never any evidence that the treatments worked, but undoubtedly the patient’s

suffering was increased. Such “ancient wisdom”

is best

confined to the rubbish bin of history. In the past 200 years, we have learnt much about the exquisite mechanisms of the body at molecular, cellular, whole-organ and whole-person levels. These realities are more beautiful,

awesome and mysterious than ever dreamt of in Galen’s philosophy.

In the late nineteenth century, with the development of anesthesia and antisepsis, surgery began to replace irrational nostrums. Not long after this,

radiotherapy was introduced, which increased the chances of local control of cancer. These early successes in functional and symptomatic relief led to a period of complacency in the medical profession, which only began to be

shaken with the development of effective (albeit toxic) medical regimens for treating cancer about 30 years ago.

At the same time, the randomized controlled trial (RCT) was introduced

to evaluate, critically,

combinations of these three modalities, measuring

both efficacy (improvement in survival) and tolerability

(side effects and

quality of life). Using this approach, we have made slow incremental

improvements and can now negotiate with our patients “trade offs” between

increasing length of life and the toxicity/side effects of the treatments with a degree of precision and

individualization

that increases with each trial

completed.

We have still a long way to go and once again there is no room for

complacency. The challenge for the oncologists of today is to get the correct

balance between the curiosity (scientific interest in helping patients of the future) and the compassion (helping patients of the present) in order to reach the optimal-efficiency

level of care both in routine clinical practice and for

the patient treated in the context of clinical

research. Against this

be

153

background, let us consider the meaning of needs for complementary and

alternative medicine (CAM). Adapted from: http://www.spiked-online.com/index.php?/site/article/931/

ComprehensionExercise

I.

sentences and decide whether they are true,

Read the following

for statements that have not been

statements; also put “NM”

write the true sentence for those

in the text. Finally,

mentioned

for false

“T” for true and “F”

Write

false, or not mentioned.

you selected as false. 1. Cancer patients have mostly emotional needs to be satisfied. FE

LE

BN BE I

BE ILI

EDR

PEE

BR R A S

NN BE BE BE RIE

RCE

SD IEEE

S SEERA

A

NE BE I

R EES

NE RE BY

BE NE

RY

I

I

I

RE I

RY NE BE

I

EE

NE BE I

REE

SPONSE

EN PRE

E EERE

N NSE

SREP

NE RN BE RIE

I

EES

NE NN BE RN RECN

SS

TA RRP

NE I

NE

RY NY RE RE NEE

BEE

RRS

CERES

PR ASR

IL

NE RE BN

RE

IE

3. “Psycho-social oncology” tries to identify and manage the more subtle subjective symptoms of cancer. @8 8B & BBY

OF

2

0

EEE

UE

ARF R E T

ESSERE

EE

FASS

SSAA

SFE

ET

EEE

EERE

TES

FEES

SEE

ENE

ERE

ASE

AAS

STE

ET

SSAA

EEE

ETS

SE

OEE

SSS

SASS

ASE

HENS

TEESE

EEE

E

ASAE

AETE

ERE

ERRNO

SAREE

EER

ELA

EET

EERE

SEES

5. Cancer patients’ needs have been subject to a lot of controversy for centuries. L C R IE I BE I

BE BE CR BE NE NE NE EEE BERN I BE Be BX PN

NY RE BE NEN SR BE NR

RE AE EN BER

I

NE BE AN BE RE NE BN BNE EE RE

BE EEN I

BE RE RE BE RE SE EE I IE RL RE EE A BL BL IE

IE REE BE

NE

Il. Reading Comprehension Choose the best choice which completes the following 1. Cancer patients’ needs are .......... and spiritual.

154

a. mental

b. physical

¢. ethical

d. emotional

)

sentences.

ER

2. Patients should be free from ..........

:

a. any symptoms that negatively affect their life b. all the treatments that bother them

c. whatever that may cause them to be annoyed

d. any prolonged treatment in the hospital 3. Psycho-social oncology aims at managing ..........

symptoms of

cancer.

a. all

b. minor

c. malicious

d. definite

4. The underlined

a.

word evaluate means ..........

b. manage

examine

d. monitor

C. prioritize

III.

Word Cluster

Write the related words to the topic provided in the diagram.

AN Cancer Treatment

/\ IV. Vocabulary Training Fill

in the blanks

with

the words from

the list.

There

are extra

words.

155

accommodated

developing

consider

definite

deteriorated

proponent

generate

allow

improving

supervise

covered

1. Clinical trials often ..........

results that are not entirely in agreement

with each other. 2. It is misleading to rely on the finding one prefers and to omit the ones

one doesn’t like. In other words, we have to .......... the totality of the available data.

3. If the CAM intervention is aimed at ..........

quality of life or patients’ endpoints and

satisfaction, then these can be defined as primary

measured by one or more of the many psychometric instruments that have already been validated.

4. If the primary

endpoint is not already ..........

by one of the

instruments, for example in the spiritual domain, then the onus should be on its .......... to develop a new instrument, remembering Lord Kalvin’s aphorism, “if it exists then you can measure it”. 5. Another problem that has to be .......... concerns the individualization of treatment often used as an excuse to avoid RCTs. 6. A robust design would .......... randomization of the individualized “intervention” against a non-individualized “one-size-fits-all” treatment, and let the best man win.

V. Cloze Test Complete the following the following

passage with the appropriate

words from

list.

The prevalence of CAM usage in the world can no longer be ignored by the practitioners of evidence-based medicine. This is relevant to medical practice in a number of .....1..... . First of all it must reflect the unmet needs of ....2..... patients. Secondly we have a duty of care to protect ..... 3 . . . L

156

patients from the dangers of remedies that might be toxic,

unfavorably

..... Fons

with our own medications, or be promoted as alternatives

Coen5..... evidence-based treatment.

The massive emotional impact after the disclosure of diagnosis of

....0..... can result in fear, confusion and isolation. The fear can ..... 7..... countered by reassurance and the offer of hope by the ..... 8..... clinician.

Hope 1s not a promise but a state of .....9..... . Confusion can be countered by improvement in the communication skills .....10.....

the practitioner. I

welcome the developments in the undergraduate and .....11..... curricula

designed to teach professional development and communication skills. At ...12..... same time, the negative judgment on the medical profession made .....13..... some CAM

practitioners

and representatives of the media

regarding the .....14..... about the subjective outcomes of medical care must

be challenged. ..... 15..... should be remembered that surgical and medical oncologists were the .....16..... to invent, critically quality-of-life

evaluate and implement

measurement tools. In addition, counseling is well accepted

by the nursing and the medical profession.

1. a. ways

|

C. situations

b. attitudes d. features

2. a. disease

b. cancer

Cc. tumor

d. medical

3. a. your C. our

|

b. their d. his

4. a. interact

b. treat

Cc. purify

d. cure

5. a. for

b. by

c. of

d. to

6. a. treatment c. illness

b. cancer d. prevention

157

7. a. be

b. was

C. is

d. to be

8. a. careful

b. responsible

~ C. conscious

d. curable

9. a. body

b. flesh

c. mind

d. spirit

10. a. for

b. of

c. at

d. in

11. a. teachers

b. postgraduate

c. graduate

~ d. students

12. a. the

b. that

c. this

d. a

13. a. for

b. from

c. of

d. by

14. a. connect

b. suffer

C. concern

d. relate

15. a. That

b. It

c. First

d. Then

16. a. first

b. primary

c. late

d. my

VI. Translation

Task

Translate the following text into Persian.

Chemotherapy The word chemotherapy was once used to mean any medicine used to treat

any disease. Even taking an aspirin was described as chemotherapy. Today, chemotherapy, or “chemo” for short, most often means taking medicines, or be]

158

drugs, to treat cancer. You might take these drugs before or after surgery, with radiation (X-ray)

treatment or you might take the medicines alone.

Cancer chemotherapy is not new. It has been helping people beat cancer since the early 1950s. The chemo drugs your doctor suggests have been tested again and again. Careful research shows they work. Partly because of chemo, many people with cancer live full and happy lives. If your doctor wants you to have chemo, it means something can be done to try to control, or even cure, your cancer. Cancer is a group of cells

that divide quickly and grow out of control. The word cancer is a broad name for many different diseases. Each type of cancer affects your body in different ways. But these diseases have one thing in common: they involve

abnormal cells growing out of control. Everyone’s cancer is different and so is the chemo that is given. You and your doctor will decide on what chemo is best for your situation and your type of cancer. Together, you will plan a schedule that works for you. Adapted from: http://www.cancer.org/docroot/ETO/content/ ETO _1 2X Chemotherapy What It Is How It Helps.asp

159

Lesson Sixteen: Lung Cancer Word Study aggressive /a'gresiv/: angry andbehaving in a threatening way He gets aggressive when he becomes angry.

combat /'ka:mbzaet/: to stop something unpleasant or harmful from happening or from getting worse New measures have been taken to combat

diminished /di'minift/:

the diseases.

made smaller

World resources have reached a diminished stage. invade /1n'verd/:

to enter a place in large numbers, especially in a way that

causes damage or confusion The cancer cells may invade the other parts of the body. recurrence /ri'ksirans/:

happening again

The government is trying to prevent the recurrence of the problem.

remove /ri'muv/: to take somebody or something from a particular place

The surgeon suggested the removal of the tumor as the only treatmentfor the disease.

tumor /'tu:mar/:

160

>

a mass of cells growing in or on a part of the body where

they shouldn’t, usually causing medical problems After the MRI, it turned out that there was a tumor in his brain.

ventilation /ventr'leifn/:

to allow fresh air to enter and move around a

room, building, etc.

The bathroom is ventilatedby means of an extractor fan.

What Is Lung Cancer? Lung cancer happens when cells in the lung begin to grow out of control and can then invade

nearby tissues or spread throughout the body. Large

collections of this out of control tissue are called tumors. Any of the tissues

in the lung can become cancer; but most commonly, lung cancer comes from the lining of the bronchi. Lung cancer is not really thought of as a single

disease, but rather a collection of several diseases that are characterized by the cell type that makes them up, how they behave, and how they are treated. Lung cancer is divided into two main categories: eo Small cell lung cancer (SCLC) — the rarer of the two types (about 20% of all lung cancers), small cell lung cancer is more aggressive than non-small cell lung cancer because it grows quicker and is more

likely to spread to other organs. e Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) — the more common of the two types (80% of all lung cancers), non-small cell lung cancer is

generally slower growing than small cell lung cancer and 1s divided into three different types based on how the cells look that make it up-

‘adenocarcinoma, large cell carcinoma, and squamous cell carcinoma.

What Are the Treatments for Lung Cancer? Surgery For patients with non-small cell lung cancer, surgery is often employed in »

161

cancers up to and including stage IIIA.

The purpose of the surgery is to

remove all of the cancer if possible. If the tumor is small and in a favorable location or the patient has limited lung function, the surgeon may choose to

remove the tumor with a small section of lung; this is called a wedge resection. Most times the surgeon will choose to remove the entire lobe of the involved lung; this is known as a lobectomy. On occasion, the surgeon must remove the entire lung affected by the cancer; and this is known a

pneumonectomy. Not every patient can tolerate these surgeries. Patients with diminished

lung function due to other diseases may not be able to survive

after such a surgery, or they may be severely limited

in their activities.

Preoperative pulmonary function tests (PFT’s) are used to help predict who

is a good candidate for surgery. Sometimes a quantified ventilation perfusion scan will be ordered which shows the amount that each area of lung is currently working. This way the surgeon can predict how much lung function will be lost based on the amount of lung that will need to be removed.

Chemotherapy

Despite the fact that the tumors are often removed by surgery, there is always a risk of recurrence because there may be microscopic cancer cells left that the surgeon cannot remove. Also, some patients are not candidates for surgery or choose not to have surgery. Chemotherapy is the use of anticancer drugs that go throughout the entire body. These drugs may be given through a vein or with pills by mouth. Chemotherapy is recommended after surgery for some stage I patients and most stage II patients. Because current treatment of advanced stage lung cancers (stage III) is often a combination of radiation and/or chemotherapy and/or surgery, the timing and use of chemotherapy is debated and may vary depending on the specifics of the case. Chemotherapy is offered to many patients with stage IV disease and in

patients with small cell lung cancer who have minimal weight loss and good performance status (how well they are living life without symptoms). »

162

Targeted Therapies/Biologic

Therapies

Targeted (also called “biologic”)

therapies are a new class of medications

that have been specifically designed to combat precise pathways in various cancers. Cancers have abnormal genetic pathways and receptors, and recent research has helped characterize the particular molecular pathways that make cells cancerous and resistant to treatment with chemotherapy and radiation. Sophisticated laboratory research and pharmaceutical design have created a

new class of medications, known as targeted therapies. These medications

often produce less significant side effects than standard chemotherapy drugs.

They can be given both through a vein or with pills by mouth. They can also be given in combination with standard chemotherapy. Benefits in stage IV

lung cancer patients have been recently reported using two different targeted therapies: “Bevacizumab (Avastin)”

and “Erlotinib

(Tarceva)”. Clinical

trials are ongoing to determine the benefit of other targeted therapies in this disease.

Adapted from: http://www.oncolink.org/types/article.cfm?c=9&s=76&ss=781&id=8037

I. ComprehensionExercise Read the following

sentences and decide whether they are true,

false, or not mentioned.

Write

statements; also put “NM”

“T” for true and “F”

for false

for statements that have not been

mentioned in the text. Finally,

write

the true sentence for those

you selected as false. 1. There are no treatments for lung cancer. LEE

I

a a A EL I I

LL

LI

a

I

I

a

a

I

A

I

I I

a

I

a

I

I

NN

I

I

I

a a

LI

I

I

RO

I

I

I I

I

I

SL

RT

I a a

EN

EL EE AE IE EE

a

LN

I

IE

RT

LL

EN

LE

I

OE EE I

EE

ES

LE

EL

EES

RB

EE

LEA

A

EE

EEE

LL EL E R

EE EEE EE EE

I

EE

BE

J

4. Surgery 1s the most effective way of treating lung cancer.

5. Targeted therapies are a new kind of treatment for combating lung

cancer. EEE

EE

EE

EEE

EE

EE

EEE

EEE

EN

EN

I

RN I

aN

a

Ea

a

a

a

I

a a I

a

a

A

A A

LE

JE I RAF SFE RCA SE I NF RNY A

SE

SI

SY

Il. Reading Comprehension Choose the best choice which completes the following 1. Which of the following

sentences.

sentences is NOT true about cancerous cells?

a. They attack the neighboring cells. b. They are out of control.

c. They are stopped by medication.

d. They spread throughout thebody. 2. In small cell lung cancer,.......... : a. non-small cell lung cancer is generally slower growing b. they divided into three different types based on how the cells look

c. small cell lung cancer is more aggressive than non-small cell lung

cancer d. they are less likely to spread to other organs 3. Targeted therapies are ...........

a. biologic therapies

b. chemotherapy

c. medicine

d.aandc

4. Chemotherapy is recommended .......... a. before the surgery

b. during the operation

c. after the surgery

d. as an alternative to surgery

5. The underlined

164

:

word benefits

means ..........

a. points

b. medications

c. therapies

d. advantages

III.

Grammar

in Context

Defining Relative Clauses (which, who, that) e Defining relative clauses describe the preceding noun in such a way

as to distinguish it from other nouns of the same class.

e A clause of this kind is essential to the clear understanding of the noun.

Defining Relative Clauses: Person

e Subject: who or that

Only those who had booked in advance were allowed in.

Everyone who/that knew him liked him.

The man whom/who/that

e Object of verb: whom or who or

that

1 saw

told me to come back today.

e With preposition: whom or that

The man to whom 1 spoke was

very angry about you.

Defining Relative Clauses: Things This is the picture

® Subject:

which/that

caused sensation.

e Object of verb:

The car which/that I hired broke down.

® Object of preposition:

The ladder

om which

I

was

standing began to slip.

IV. Exercise Read the text and underline ERE IE RE

IE I

LIE R E I TR

I

A IE RE

NE A

I

I

A Er EE

A I

A

A RA

A

CIE IE NE

A IE

I

A

I

ON I RN

A RI

NI

any defining relative clauses.

BRN A RF EF REA REE SE NE A REE SE A Aa

I RI

TE I

NR RSI

I

TS

IY

EE

EE

EE

EEE

ERE

EE

L C E RENE SE A RE NN BE RE NE A BE A ET

EE

EE

EE

EE

EEE

IE NE RF I NN SER RE

EE

EE

EE

EE

ET

EEE

A A A IE NE I RE BE AE NN NR NI I

EY

NE

V. Word Cluster Write the related words to the topic provided in the diagram.

AN Lung Cancer

/ \ VI. Vocabulary Training Fill

in the blanks

with

the words

from

the list.

There

are extra

words. sophisticated

screening

directing

prevent

developing

seductive

decrease

diet

proportion

imaging

division

risk

. The best way to ..........

lung cancer is to quit smoking, or to never

have started in the first place.

. There has been some suggestion that a/an ..........

high in fruits and

vegetables may decrease the risk of lung cancer. . In fact, large clinical trials have shown an increased ..........

of lung

cancer in patients that take increased quantities of vitamin E, vitamin A, and beta-carotene. . The future of lung cancer prevention will rely on ..........

patients’ genes andmolecular markers for lung cancer risk. 166

»

analysis of

5. It is generally held that there are no good ..........

tests available for

lung cancer.

6. As more data is collected and more sophisticated ..........

techniques

are developed, perhaps one day there will be a good screening test for

lung cancer. 7. In the absence of a good screening tool, the best way we can ..........

the number of lung cancer deaths is to get people to quit smoking.

VII. Cloze Test Complete the following the following

passage with the appropriate

words from

list.

Lung cancer patients commonly are treated with radiation therapy. Radiation therapy uses high energy rays to kill cancer ..... 1..... . It comes from an external source, and it requires ..... 2..... to come in 5 days a week

for up to 6-8 ..... 3..... to a radiation therapy treatment center. The treatment

takes .....4..... minutes, and it is painless. Radiation therapy is often .....5..... with surgery and is important in the treatment of ..... 6..... types of lung

cancer. It may be recommended before .....7.....

to shrink a tumor to make it

easier for the ..... 8..... to remove. Radiation may be used after surgery ....9..... there are worrisome risk factors that make it likely for a 1 0 . . . to come back in the chest. Sometimes radiation is used .....11..... surgery in patients who are not surgical candidates. Radiation can .....12..... used in the palliative

setting to ease the pain .....13..... metastases, stop tumors from

bleeding, and prevent airway obstruction. ..... 14..... is important in reducing

the nisk of local recurrence of .....15..... and is often offered in more

advanced cases to .....16.....

tumor cells that may be living in lymph nodes.

Generally, doctors try to limit the amount of radiation that your vital organs

get, and don’t like to treat large portions of the lungs.

1. a. cells

b. organs

C. parts

d. tissues

»

167

b. patients

. staff

d. doctors

. weeks

b. time

. when

d. then

little

b. a little

. much

d. a few

. traded

b. fixed

. combined

d. treated

. most

b. all

. total

d. sum

. surgery

b. treatment

. examination

d. prescription

. doctor

b . nurse

. surgeon

d. intern

Af

b. or

. then

d. so

ov)

. people

10. . cell . tissue

11. . instead of

. in addition

12. . Was . 18

b. tumor

d. gland b. for the sake of d. for example b. be d. were

b. on

. at

d. for

oo

13. . of

14. . Simulation C.

15.

Treatment

b. Radiation d. Injection

a . tumors

b. organs

C.

d. nbs

168

bodies

b. suffocate

16. a. die

d. kill

c. torture

Translation

VIII.

Task

Translate the following

text into Persian.

Lung Cancer Screening Tests It is generally held that there are no good screening tests available for lung cancer. However, this 1s an issue that is hotly debated because some studies have shown that cancers can be picked up in earlier stages if patients are

screened with chest X-rays. Some doctors may choose to screen high risk patients (usually those patients over 50 years old with a significant smoking history)

with annual chest X-rays in an effort to find cancers earlier,

however, no professional society has endorsed this practice. Currently, there is debate about the utility

of screening people with CT scans (3-D X-rays

that are more sensitive than standard chest X-rays). The debate 1s the same as with chest X-rays; no one has demonstrated a decreased mortality

in

patients screened with CT scans thus far. As more data is collected and more

sophisticated imaging techniques are developed, perhaps one day there will be a good screening test for lung cancer. In the absence of a good screening tool, the best way we can decrease the number

of lung cancer deaths i s to get

people to quit smoking. Adapted from: http://www.oncolink.org/types/article.cfm?c=9&s=76&ss=781&1d=8037

169

Lesson Seventeen:

Brain

Cancer

Word Study barrier /bzriar/: a thing that controls movement from one place to another The crowds were kept behind the barriers.

implantation /implan'teifn/:

inserting tissues in a part of the body

The implantation of the new lenses was a very difficult job for the nurse.

multiple

/'maltipl/:

having or involving many individuals, items, or types

Thepatient was suffering from multiple injuries. mutate /'mju:tert/: to change something to change in form or structure The cells had changed their original features because they were mutated by the virus.

nearby /nir'bair/:

near in position

The beach is quite nearby. It is only half an hour's drive. occur /dk3s:r/: happen

A very interesting conference is going to occur in our university.

option /'a:pfn/: choice He did it because he didn’t have any other options.

170

site /sart/: a place where a building, town, etc. was, is, or will be situated The managers were looking for a new site for the construction of the school. skull /skal/:

the bone structure of the brain

There were so many fractures on the skull of the victim. spread /spred/: to become or cause something to be distributed over a large arca

The company gradually spread its branches all over the country.

What

Are Brain

Tumors?

Brain tumors occur when cells in the brain begin to divide out of control and start to displace or invade nearby tissues. Large collections of this “out o f

control”

tissue are called tumors. Occasionally, brain tumors can spread

throughout the body. Tumors that have the potential to spread to other sites of the brain or body are called malignant. When tumors start in the brain,

they are called primary

brain tumors. Any of the various normal cell types

of the brain can mutate and become a primary tumor, and the particular cell ~ type which makes up the tumor controls how the tumor is likely to behave. Brain tumors are not really thought of as a single disease, but rather as a collection of several diseases that are characterized by the cell type that

makes them up, by how they behave, and by how they are treated. One of the special characteristics of brain tumors is that benign (non-cancerous) tumors

in the brain can be just as bad as malignant (cancerous) brain tumors. This is

because the brain is such an important organ. It is locked into place by the skull and can’t move out of the way if a tumor 1s growing near it. Even a benign tumor can cause pressure on the brain, and this pressure can be both symptomatic and life-threatening. ~

171

The brain is also a frequent site of metastases. Metastases are tumors which have spread from a cancer that started in a different body part; they do not start in the brain, but instead take up residence there after traveling from

a separate cancer (like a lung cancer or breast cancer). These are not

classified as primary brain tumors,but instead as brain metastases. What Are the Treatments for Brain Tumors? There are a number of different treatments for brain tumors. Most brain

tumors are treated with a combination of multiple

different types of therapy.

The exact location and type of brain tumor will dictate which treatments are recommended.

Surgery Surgical resection is recommended for the majority of brain tumors. It is rare that a primary brain tumor can be cured without

a surgical resection.

However, the location of the brain tumor will dictate whether or not surgery is an option. Some tumors are seated in places in the brain that are just too dangerous to operate on, and surgery cannot be employed. The risks to the patient from surgery depend on the location and size of the tumor.

Chemotherapy Chemotherapy is the use of anti-cancer drugs that go throughout the entire body. These drugs may be given through a vein or with pills by mouth. One of the special challenges in treating brain tumors with chemotherapy is that there is a natural barrier

between the brain and the blood, which blocks

many medications from entering the brain. Only certain chemotherapy drugs

can cross this blood-brain barrier to treat disease in the nervous system. One ‘ o f the new ways that chemotherapy can be delivered for brain tumors is by

implantation »

172

on a biodegradable wafer that is inserted by the neurosurgeon

into the space left behind after surgery (called the tumor bed). The chemotherapy wafer can then deliver high doses of chemotherapy to a localized area. Chemotherapy wafers are only approved for certain brain tumors, although future research may prove this approach useful for more diseases. Adapted from: http://www.oncolink.org/types/article.cfm?c=2&s=4&ss=25&id=9534

I. Comprehension Exercise Read the following

sentences and decide whether they are true,

false, or not mentioned.

Write

for false

for statements that have not been

statements; also put “NM”

mentioned

“T” for true and “F”

in the text. Finally,

write the true sentence for those

you selected as false.

|

1. All the different kinds of brain tumors are fatal. I

LLL

BE EE I

EE

WEEE

BE BE IEE

BI

I

LIE

BE RET

BE RL BE BE

S

ARS

NE

IE BN

A

BY RN IE

NERY

RCE

A

NCEE

BE NE A I Y

I

IE

INCI

EAE

ESR

SEES

ESE

BE OE BN RY REE

EE

TE I

RN

I

I

RY NE BE BE BE BE RE RE R E

EEA

S

AR

FEE

I

IE I

RE RE RY IE

NER

NE

BY AY BENE

ERE

SENET

BE RE BPR

RE RY R E EEE

EEE

I

BIR

NE BN

BE R E

DE RE R E

BE OE IE

AY BF EERE

AYR

IN R N

ANS

BE BY RE AN BE BEE

BE BN A

BE R E NE BE RE RE EERE

SESSA

EEE

RES

SEER

CRAY RN T T I

BE

NEE

I

ER NE RE NE E E E

IE R E ]

EA

ESAT

EEA

ERATE

SE

4. The threats that tumors cause on the brain can be diagnosed through some tests.

$4

ES

BB

RE

PR

DEE

ESAS

EYEE

FESS

EFS

PERERA

ASD

EE

ERPS

ERPS

SAE

PEPE

NEARY

SERRE

ESRF

EES

SEER

SES

SFA

SETAE

ESAS

AAA

EN

SRE

EES

SES

EE

A YY FEES

SARE

AER

AE

ES

PERE

EYEE

Ee

FESR

EAA

ES

ER

6. Almost all chemotherapy drugs can cross the blood-brain barrier to

treat disease in the nervous system. LL

BE

IE

NE TE IE

BE R E

IE BE NE BY RN IE

I

ETE T E I

RE

EE

IE

BN BE TN I

BN NE RE RE I

EE

I

RN NN IE

RN RCI

CR I

I

CIE

J

IR BE T B

T E IE I

BAC I

RB

TE

I

WI

A

BE RE RE BE NN BN BE

173

Il. Reading Comprehension Choose the best choice which completes the following 1. The underlined

sentences.

word invade means ..........

a. simplify

b. attack

Cc. prevent

d. divide

2. Tumors are .......... : a. a collection of cancerous cells b. tissues made by certain cells

c. organs of the body that are out of control

d. dangerous when they are out of control 3. Which of the following

sentences is true about brain tumor?

a. All kinds of tumor in the brain are dangerous. b. Only cancerous brain tumors are dangerous. c. Non-cancerous brain tumors are not dangerous. d. Some of the brain tumors are dangerous. 4. Which of the following

sentences 1s NOT true about metastases?

a. They start in the brain. b. They are tumors from a cancer.

c. They do not start in the brain.

d. They often happen in the brain.

5. The type of treatment of the brain tumor depends on ........... a. the location ofthe tumor

b. whether the tumor is cancerous or not c. the type of the tumor

d.aandc

III.

Grammar

in Context

“To” as preposition

or infinitive

marker

Word “to” may have two functions. LS

174

e It may be used as infinitive “to” as

I want to improve my person-ality by taking some classes.

in:

I'd like to have a very good life in thefuture. To be able to speak a foreign language, you must find

oppor-

tunities to use the language. I'm

e It may be used as a preposition as

looking forward

to studying

medicine in college.

in:

We are used to using machines. He goes to work every day at Seven.

IV. Exercise Read the text and underline

infinitive "EER

RRR

LEE TE BE I IE NE PN

all “to”s.

Decide whether they are

or preposition. ES

SESS

ENR

A SESE

ASE

ERE

OE SE LEE BE RE RE R E RE ENN NE RE NE NRE RE NE BE NE RE RE

ARPES

BE NE NE AE I

EE

IE IE

ASSEN

BE BE RE A AN O A ]

L C E SN BCE BS

LI

I

AE BER

A

BREE

A IE

IE

I NRE RE RE NY RY R E

BE RE I

BY OE IEE

I

OE

I

NY RE RY BY RY BE BE BN BRN BE RE RE RENE

NE A X

A

IIE.

A

BEE

OE BE IE R E

I

A

EE

EEN

V. Word Cluster Write the related words to the topic provided in the diagram.

NA Brain

Cancer

/ \ 175

VI. Vocabulary Training Fill in the blanks with the words from the list. There are extra words. consequences

definition

common

vessel

transported

majority

deposits

final

superiority

transfer

artery

flow

obstruction

clot

. Ischemic

brain stroke i s more ..........

and occurs when blood

flow to

a part or parts of the brain is stopped by a blockage in a vessel. . Hemorrhagic stroke 1s more deadly and occurs when a weakened een

tears or ruptures, diverting blood .......... from its normal

course and instead leaking or spilling it into or around the brain itself. . Treating an ischemic stroke as though it were hemorrhagic or vice versa could have life-threatening ..........

:

. The vast .......... of strokes — approximately 83 percent — are

ischemic. . Ischemic strokes are either thrombotic

or embolic, depending on

where the ........ . . or clot (thrombus or embolism), causing the blockage. . Thrombotic stroke is caused by a thrombus (blood clot) that develops

in a/an .......... supplying blood to the brain — usually because of a

repeated buildup of fatty .........., calcium and clotting factors, such as fibrinogen and cholesterol, carried in the blood. . In the case of embolic stroke, the .......... forms outside of the brain —

usually in the heart or large arteries of the upper chest and neck — and |

176

through the bloodstream to the brain.

VII. Cloze Test Complete the following the following

passage with the appropriate

words from

list.

Radiation therapy uses high energy rays (similar to X-rays) to kill cancer cells. Radiation can come from an external ..... 1..... (called external

beam radiation therapy), and 1t requires patients to come .....2..... 5 days a week for up ..... 3..... 6-8 weeks to a radiation therapy treatment ....4.....

:

The treatment takes just a few ..... 5....., and it is painless. External beam een6..... therapy is often employed for brain tumors, .....7..... as primary

treatment for unresectable tumors and in addition to .....8...... Radiation therapy can also be given ..... 9..... a much focused area of

the brain .....10..... a technique called stereotactic radiosurgery. Stereotactic ....11..... requires a patient to have a head .....12..... attached, so that a precise map can be .....13..... of the patient’s head. Radiation is then ...14..... from a variety of different angles to .....15..... a large radiation

dose to the tumor or tumor bed. This can be performed using the same machine that delivers external beam radiation or by a special machine called a gamma knife.

1. a. source Cc. target 2. a. at

~

b. material

|

d. supply b. in

Cc. on

d. for

3. a. for

b. of

c. to

4. a. place c. location 5. a. time c. weeks

d. at

b. center d. around b. minutes d. months

be]

177

. radiation

b. treatment

. surgery

d. test

. all

b. both

. with

d. too

. surgery

b. removal

. chemotherapy

d. radiography

. for

b. so

. to

d. of b. using

10. . coming . dealing

d. focusing

11. . radiosurgery

b. chemotherapy d. removal

. surgery

b . frame

12. . panel

d. gate

. door 13. . produced

b. declined

. made

d. divided

14. . treated oO

b. focused d. welcomed

. mentioned

b. provide

®

15. . deliver

d. insert

. direct

VIII.

Translation

Task

Translate the following text inte Persian.

How Are Brain Tumors Diagnosed and Staged? When a patient presents with symptoms suggestive of a brain tumor, the

physician will perform a thorough history and physical examination. After that, the key to making the diagnosis is appropriate imaging. Le

178

Imaging can be performed with either a CT scan or MRI scan. A CT scan is a three-dimensional X-ray, and patients will often be injected with a

contrast agent to help visualize any abnormalities. CT scans are good tests because they are quick and easy to obtain, and will often be used as the first step towards making a diagnosis. However, an MRI scan is a better test for

evaluating abnormalities in the brain. MRI scans utilize powerful magnets to

make a three-dimensional picture. An MRI picks up finer detail than a CT scan.

For many types of brain tumors, the imaging characteristics are distinctive enough to give physicians a pretty good idea of the diagnosis. The primary management of most brain tumors is surgery. If imaging reveals that a mass suspicious for a brain tumor 1s in a surgically accessible spot, the patient is generally scheduled for surgery without any further diagnostic

testing. After surgery, the specimen can be examined under the microscope by a pathologist, and a final diagnosis can be made. However, sometimes,

tumors are not in a safe location for surgery. In those cases, in order to make

a diagnosis, patients will often need a biopsy. A biopsy is a procedure where

a small piece of the tumor is obtained using a needle under image guidance. Adapted from: http://www.oncolink.org/types/article.cfm?c=2&i1d=9534&s=4&ss=25

179

References Alzheimer. In Alzheimer’s Disease. Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and

Research. [World Wide Web site]. Available at

http://www.mayoclinic.org/alzheimers-disease/ Brain

Cancer. In Brain

Cancer:

The Basics. Trustees of the University

of

Pennsylvania. [World Wide Web site]. Available at http://www.oncolink.org/types/article.cfm?c=2&s=4&ss=25&1d=9534 Cancer Patient Needs. In What Role for

in Treating

Complementary Medicine

Cancer? Spiked. [World Wide Web site]. Available at http://www .spiked-nline.com/index.php?/site/article/93 1/

Cell. In Cell Structure. National Cancer Institute. US National Institutes of Health [World Wide Web site]. Available at

http://training.seer.cancer.gov/module In Human

Cloning.

Cloning

anatomy

and Human

Dignity:

An Ethical

The

Inquiry.

President’s Council on Bioethics. Washington D. C. [World Wide Web site]. Available at www.bioethics.gov

|

Eye. In Human Eye Anatomy: Parts of the Eye. Access Media Group LLC. [World

Wide Web site]. Available at http://www allaboutvision.com/resources/anatomy.html Gene Therapy. In What Is Gene Therapy: Genetics Home Reference. [World Wide

Web site]. Available at http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/therapy/genetherapy Heart. In How the Heart

Works. US Department of Health & Human Services:

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. [World Wide Web site]. Available at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Browse/Heart.html and AIDS.

HIV

In HIV/AIDS.

WebMDNewsletter

[World

Available at http://www.emedicinehealth.com/hivaids/article Liver.

180

In

The Groningen ~

Hypothermic

Liver

Perfusion

Wide

Web site].

em.htmL System for

Improved

Preservation in Organ Transplantation. PhD Thesis University of Groningen. [World Wide Web site]. Available at

http://dissertations.ub.rug.nl/FILES/faculties/medicine/2005/a.van.der.plaats/c2 Lung

Cancer. In Lung

Cancer:

The Basics. Trustees of the University

of

Pennsylvania. [World Wide Web site]. Available at http://www.oncolink.org/types/article.cfm?c=9&s=76&ss=781&id=8037 MRI.

In

What Is Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Information

Publications.

[World

Wide

(MRI)?

eHealth MD:

Web

site].

Available

http://www.ehealthmd.com/library/mri/ MS. In What Is Multiple

Health at

|

Sclerosis? Understanding How Different

Sclerosis Affect the Body. Health Talk Staff, Inc. [World

Types of Multiple Wide Web site].

Available at http://www2.healthtalk.com/go/multiple-sclerosis Nervous

System. In BecomeHealthyNow.com, Inc.

[World

Wide

Web site].

Available at http://www .becomehealthynow.com/article/bodynervousadvanced/817

Plastic Surgery. In Dangers of Plastic Surgery. A Board Certified Plastic Surgeon

Resource. [World Wide Web site]. Available at http://www.aboardcertifiedplasticsurgeonresource.com/plastic

_surgery/danger.ht

ml

Robots in Surgery. In Robots in Surgery. CAN Center for Automation in Nanobiotech. [World Wide Web site]. Available at

http://www .nanorobotdesign.com/papers/robotsInSurgery.pdf Stem Cell Basics: Introduction.

In Stem Cell Information.

Bethesda, MD: National

Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. [World Wide Web site].

Available at http://stemcells.nih.gov/info/basics/basics]

181