English Complex Words: Exercises in Construction and Translation 9027213933, 9789027213938

Table of contents :
Table of contents
List of abbreviations
Acknowledgements
Introduction
I. Prefixation
II. Suffixation
III. Compounding
Glossary of terms and concepts
References
Index of languages (alphabetical)

Citation preview

English Complex Words Exercises in construction and translation

Piotr Twardzisz

John Benjamins Publishing Company

English Complex Words

English Complex Words Exercises in construction and translation Piotr Twardzisz University of Warsaw

John Benjamins Publishing Company Amsterdam / Philadelphia

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TM

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences – Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ansi z39.48-1984.

doi 10.1075/z.242 Cataloging-in-Publication Data available from Library of Congress: lccn 2023016701 (print) / 2023016702 (e-book) isbn 978 90 272 1393 8 (Hb) / isbn 978 90 272 1392 1 (Pb) isbn 978 90 272 4970 8 (e-book)

© 2023 – John Benjamins B.V. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, or any other means, without written permission from the publisher. John Benjamins Publishing Company · https://benjamins.com

Table of contents

List of abbreviations

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Acknowledgements

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Introduction1 Chapter I Prefixation7 a-   7 anti-   8 arch-   13 circum-   16 co-   17 counter-   21 de-   24 dis-   27 down-   33 en-/em-   35 ex-   36 extra-   39 fore-  42 hyper-   44 in- (il-/im-/ir-)   47 inter-   52 intra-   54 mal-   54 mega-   57 micro-   58 mid-   61 mini-   63

mis-   65 multi-   69 neo-   72 non-   74 out-   77 over-   80 pan-   87 post-   89 pre-   93 pro-   98 pseudo-   101 re-   103 semi-   109 sub-   112 super-   116 supra-   118 trans-   120 ultra-   122 un-   125 under-   133 up-   139

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Chapter II Suffixation141 -able/-ible   141 -acy   148 -age   151 -al/-ar (adjectival)  153 -al (nominal)  157 -an   158 -ance/-ence   159 -ancy/-ency   163 -ant   166 -arian   169 -ary   172 -ate (verbal)   175 -ate (adjectival/nominal)  179 -ation   181 -dom   188 -ed   189 -ee   192 -en   196 -er/-or   198 -ery   203 -ess   206 -ette   209 -free   211 -ful (adjectival)  215 -ful (nominal)  218 -hood   223 -ic(al)   225

-ician   229 -ie/-y   231 -ify   234 -ish   237 -ism   245 -ist   249 -ite   253 -ity   255 -ive   259 -ize/-ise   265 -less   271 -like   282 -ly   294 -ment   297 -monger   301 -ness   302 -ory   316 -ous   319 -ship   324 -some   328 -ster   330 -th   332 -ward(s)   333 -wise   335 -worthy   337 -y   339



Table of contents vii

Chapter III Compounding347 Noun-noun compounds  347 Noun-verb-ed/-en compounds  355 Noun-verb-ing compounds  359 Noun-verb-er compounds  360 …-…-er compounds  362 Adjective-verb-ed/-en compounds  364 Adjective/adverb-verb-ing compounds  368 Adverb-verb-ed/-en compounds  368 Quantifier-verb-ed/-en compounds  369 Noun-verb compounds  369 Phrase-/clause-/sentence-like compounds  371 Blends  375 Reduplicative compounds  377 Reduplicative compounds with consonant alternation  377 Reduplicative compounds with vowel alternation  378 Glossary of terms and concepts

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References386 Index of languages (alphabetical)

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List of abbreviations

BA BNC COCA COCA200322 EC GT I-E NG NG1298 NG0101 NS NS? NT NW NW070800 NY OED SD TE TS TS181220 UCSDG CIT143 Wright_1993_115

British Association for Slavonic and East European Studies, The British National Corpus, The Corpus of Contemporary American English, The [Davies (2008–)] search conducted by means of COCA on 20th March 2022 Economist, The Google Translate Indo-European (languages) National Geographic obtained from National Geographic issued in December 1998 obtained from National Geographic issued in January 2001 native speaker’s judgement native speaker’s doubt/hesitation National Geographic Traveler Newsweek obtained from Newsweek issued on 7th August 2000 New York Times, The Oxford English Dictionary, The San Diego Union Tribune, The Time Times, The obtained from The Times issued on 18th December 2020 University of California at San Diego Guardian, The obtained from Wright (1993), page 115

Acknowledgements

After collecting complex words and researching English word formation for as long as I can remember, I decided to synthesize those experiences into an advanced, comprehensive and empirical study of relevant language, with a practical twist. My cumulative exposure to word formation through constant teacher-student interaction at my home institution has significantly contributed to the present project. For years, I have taught Word Formation and Morphology to undergraduate and graduate students in the Faculty of Applied Linguistics, University of Warsaw. The probing questions and nuanced interpretations of complex words which I encountered in class often led me to rethink and reformulate some of my earlier assumptions. To all those students who attended my Word Formation and Morphology classes and seminars, enlightening me morphologically, I would like to express my sincere gratitude. Numerous editorial and specific tasks were actively and generously supported by an impressive number of people who can, and should, be named. I would like to express my deepest appreciation for the participation of a few patient helpers. As always, I am indebted to Sylwia Frankowska-Twardzisz – my personal 24/7 helpline service over the last 27 years – who (pre-/post-/re-)read the manuscript, each time finding convincing arguments for my continuous improvement of the text. Lorne Liesenfeld – friend and neighbour-linguist – served bowlfuls of his Zwiebelsuppe, patiently explaining to me the subtleties of German Wortbildung. Anne Dykstra generously provided me with so much detailed information about Frisian and Dutch morphology that I could barely absorb it at the time. I have been privileged to work with a small and informal research team called Writing Research Group, based at the Institute of Applied Linguistics. My colleagues and team members, Alisa Mitchel Masiejczyk, Dariusz Skotarek and Alasdair Cullen helped with endless but needful chores. Alisa (re)read, and never misread, drafts of the entire manuscript, suggesting lexical and stylistic modifications, ranging from subtle improvements to substantial changes. Thanks to Alisa’s pair of sharp eyes and unparalleled writing skills, the quality of this text has been markedly improved. Dariusz, my doctoral student, conducted a worldwide Internet search for native-speaker language consultants of various languages, with extremely good results. He also helped with various automated cross-checks of the manuscript, without which I would have scrolled hundreds of pages for hours on

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end. Alasdair read all Introduction parts, providing me with practical suggestions and valuable comments. This volume would not have assumed its present form, with the inclusion of hands-on activities involving forty-two languages, without the help of many. In order to guarantee the correctness of the content, at least one native speaker of each language was consulted. In most cases, two or three, and sometimes even four informants contributed their native-speaker judgements. The Translation parts in each section constitute the results of unprecedented collaborative work, involving four score and five fellow linguists from all over the world. Despite their own deadlines, teaching loads, research and administrative duties, they promptly responded to my often-baffling queries. Not only did they grade the acceptability of the translations earlier conducted by Google Translate, but they also offered their own constructive suggestions, provided alternate options and pointed out ambiguities or not-obvious translation traps. There were many email exchanges, generously offering detailed explanations of linguistic intricacies littering their languages. Knowing how easy it is to delete an unexpected email, I would like to sincerely thank the following colleagues (in alphabetical order): Erjon Agolli, Nargiz Akhundova, Bistra Andreeva, Hanna Marie Solberg Andresen, Ana Ostroški Anić, Hediye Esra Arcan, Reili Argus, Xabier Artiagoitia, Miren Azkarate, Mirosław Bańko, Olga Baranova, Ergys Bezhani, Thomas Biermeier, Jekaterina Bliźniuk-Biskup, Peter Bojo, Vincenzo Nicolò Di Caro, Ken Ramshøj Christensen, Abril Velázquez Coca, Marta Pérez Diaz, Vladimir Dosev, Aidan Doyle, Adina Drago­mirescu, Ina Druviete, Jakub Dunin-Borkowski, Edin Dupanović, Anne Dykstra, Katrine Rosendal Ehlers, Martin Everaert, Þórhallur Eyþórsson, Maciej Falski, Danil Fokin, Costas Gabrielatos, Peter Gilles, Elżbieta Górska, Daniela Hasa, Turo Hiltunen, Irena Hůlková, Haya Hussein, Sigita Ignatjeva, Violeta Januševa, Nejla Kalajdžisalihović, Renata Kamenická, Monika Kavalir, Shahla Kazimova, Jeong-Seok Kim, Claudine Kirsch, Ida Marie Thomsen Krarup, Naděžda Kudrnáčová, Péter A. Lázár, Vesna Lazović, Harold Lesch, Carsten Levisen, Lorne Liesenfeld, Jadwiga Linde-Usiekniewicz, Frančiška Lipovšek, Ove Lorentz, Tomasz Łuszczek, Christine Martinez, Annagiorgia Migliorini, Diana Miteva, Kenji Miura, Luca Molinari, Janina Mołczanow, Magdalena Nigoević, Atsuko Nishiyama, Renáta Panocová, Dilek Peçenek, Zorana Perić, Cristina Procentese, Jelena Redli, Iwan Wyn Rees, Carlos Romualdo, Inesa Šeškauskienė, Fatma Shijaku, Hindrik Sijens, Eric Stachurski, Aneta Stefanova, Anders Steinvall, Eirik Tengesdal, Heli Tissari, Renáta Tomášková, Miklós Törkenczy, Dubravko Vencl, Liping Wang and Simone van Weteringen. The translation tasks which I disseminated to language informants may have been perplexing and confusing at times, possibly causing misunderstanding or misinterpretation of the imperfect input. A few of the respondents expressed doubts or hesitation, requesting additional context. Being aware of the constraints accidently imposed on

Acknowledgements xi

my informants, I wish to state here that any inaccuracies or possible mistakes resulting from these unavoidable limitations are solely my own responsibility. That is why I do not associate the language consultants with the translations in the text. In sum, I am to blame for any remaining flaws or errors. I gratefully acknowledge the financial support which I received from the University of Warsaw’s Office for the “Excellence initiative – research university” (IDUB) Programme. Towards the end of my work on the manuscript, an “IDUB micro-grant” supported the completion of last-minute editorial and proofreading tasks.

Introduction

This academically stimulating handbook addresses a niche, as the field of applied morphology has lacked resources which seamlessly combine indispensable morphological concepts with educational and creative activities. This two-in-one review guides the reader through the largely-uncharted waters of applied morphology, by systematizing often-puzzling, complex word-formation patterns (affixed/derived and compound), both in English and across other languages. It takes a practical approach, helping users develop their word-formation skills; however, this does not imply that the tasks in this volume are simple or obvious. In fact, many of the activities may be considered challenging though very constructive, as they involve linguistically-demanding tasks that rely on intricate lexical processes which are not often explicated in other textbooks. As defined in Laurie Bauer’s A Glossary of Morphology, A complex word is one which has morphological structure, and thus is made up of more than one morpheme. The opposing term is simplex. Some writers distinguish between complex and compound, such that complex does not include compounds, and is thus more narrowly defined than here. (Bauer 2004: 32)

In this collection, complex words are understood as affixed and compound structures, as both affixation and compounding rely on simple(r) input words and result in morphologically (more) complex output words. The numbers and varieties of English complex words are stunning, particularly to non-native speakers. As these items are characteristic of written language, their mastery through a comprehensive, structured, and user-oriented approach can facilitate text comprehension and writing skills across genres and disciplines. Complex words may pose difficulties for (human and electronic) translators and interpreters, for instance, while the development of analytical and translation skills across numerous morphological systems may serve the growing needs of the computational linguistics environment. To address such areas, activities throughout this text have been designed to help multilingual users improve their translation techniques and strategies, in the face of global demand for specialists with an awareness of word-formation mechanisms in the language of the media, fiction, and academic texts.

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The textbook is divided into three long chapters, each focusing on a different wordformation process. Chapter I covers prefixation, namely the addition of a prefix which comes before the main part of a word. Chapter II deals with suffixation, or the addition of a suffix which comes after the main part of a word. Finally, Chapter III addresses compounding, that is, the construction of complex words consisting of two or more simpler words. Those three chapters are conveniently organized into sections, each dealing with an individual affix (prefix or suffix) or compound type. In all, there are 43 prefixes, 53 suffixes and 13 compound types. This volume does not cover conversion (zero-derivation), as in many cases, this phenomenon involves only simple inputs and outputs (milkN ~ milkV). More importantly, conversion does not change the form of the input, as nothing is being added or subtracted (cf. Twardzisz 1997). The prefixes and suffixes have been alphabetized in their respective chapters, to make the volume easier to consult. Alternative inventories are also possible, such as affixal clusters determined by either syntactic or semantic criteria. However, syntactically- or semantically-driven lists of prefixes and suffixes would eclipse the actual affixes. Compounds are harder to arrange due to their internal (and often irregular) composition. In this book, they are clustered under their more general, structural patterns, and are ordered according to their presumed frequency of use. Most sections consist of three parts: Introduction, Construction and Translation. In the Introductions, details concerning the origin, history, roles, functions and meanings of the affixes are systematically provided. The syntactic and semantic categories under which the individual affixes are discussed are based on those generally adopted in the morphological literature. Depending on the affix, the Introductions may vary in length and content. After the Introduction, the larger portion of each section is divided into two major components called Construction and Translation. Construction covers creative and challenging activities which explore relevant aspects of English word formation. For example, readers are asked to recreate missing components (affixes or derivational bases), choose the right element from lists of (un) related items, build complex constructions bearing a given affix (or a few affixes), conduct the segmentation of complex sequences, and so on. There are also analytical tasks involving the interpretation of random statistics, quantitative data, and frequencies obtained from the Corpus of Contemporary American English. The reader’s subsequent corpus search for missing data is encouraged. The latter part, Translation, uses English complex words as the source (and sometimes as the target) in the translation process, and explores possibilities of rendering them in several indicated languages, as well as in a language of the reader’s choice. In some exercises, translation with Google Translate (GT) is conducted first and its results are compared with alternative (or corrected) equivalents proposed by over eighty native speakers of more than forty languages. Native speakers’ suggestions for improvement (which are not always easily arrived at) are provided in cases where the GT translations appear flawed.

Introduction 3

All native speakers’ opinions were taken into consideration and have been presented synthetically. In most cases, the language consultants expressed similar views, resulting in fairly homogeneous equivalents. However, in some cases, individual opinions differed substantially, generating more than one translation option. Whenever the native speakers expressed uncertainty about the GT proposal or could only provide a tentative translation (e.g., the English source was not clear enough), the symbol (NS?) was added. At any rate, the comments and suggestions provided by the native speakers serve as food for thought and ideas for further consideration, rather than as simple solutions to ongoing translation dilemmas. Besides English, the following forty-one, predominantly Indo-European languages are involved: Afrikaans, Albanian, Arabic, Azerbaijani, Basque, Bosnian, Bulgarian, Chinese, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, Estonian, Finnish, French, Frisian, German, Greek, Hungarian, Icelandic, Irish, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Latvian, Lithuanian, Luxembourgish, Macedonian, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovenian, Spanish, Swedish, Turkish, Ukrainian and Welsh. The language material is authentic, engaging and frequently baffling, while the contexts are often unpredictable. Students may easily choose which parts are relevant to their needs, according to whether readers are more interested in translation or word-formation tasks. The number of activities in a section depends on the productivity of a particular affix, or compound type, and the amount of data available. The end-of-the-section key with recommended or suggested answers is provided where it may be needed. Alternatives are suggested where appropriate, but these may not exhaust all the possibilities. Other tasks, for which a key is not provided, may constitute the starting point for further explorations of construction and translation options. The saturation of data from diverse languages found in this book responds to the needs of multilingual classrooms, as it is increasingly common to have speakers of several languages in a single group (e.g., Erasmus or exchange students, immigrants, refugees etc.). This trend is not expected to diminish. If used in a classroom setting, this collection can serve as a core text for Word Formation and Morphology courses; as a supplemental source, it may suit a range of courses, such as Introduction to Linguistics, Descriptive Grammar of English, Translation, Interpreting, Comparative/Contrastive Linguistics/Grammar etc. The materials, data and ideas included for consideration are intended to help teachers design and/or to further develop their own tailor-made courses for specific groups of end-users. Debatable theoretical issues disputed by morphologists are sidelined or avoided in this volume, which does not intend to compete with existing morphological analyses, such as Marchand (1969), Aronoff (1981), Szymanek (1989), Adams (2001), Bauer (2003), Lieber (2008), Štekauer et al. (2012), Bauer et al. (2013), Lieber (2013), Körtvélyessy et al. (2022), and many others. The reader of this book will not pursue

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theoretical considerations concerning the exact morphological status of a given string of characters. For example, in the section devoted to -like, the reader will not be asked to decide whether it is a suffix (semi-suffix, quasi-suffix, pseudo-suffix) or a compound(ing) element. These are issues which do not have much relevance to the actual usage of -like. Similarly, elements such as mini-, over- and super- are treated as prefixes, no matter whether they “have sufficient lexical content to be considered bound roots” (cf. Bauer et al. 2013: 18), that is, as something word-like. What is relevant here is that a given element regularly comes before or after a word, or an element that approximates a word. On this basis, it is classified as either a prefix or suffix, respectively. The element to which an affix attaches is referred to as a (derivational) base, rather than a root, stem, or free morpheme. So, the (derivational) base, which is commonly an independent word, is this element which is modified formally and semantically in the course of a word-formation process, i.e., affixation or compounding (cf. Bauer 2003). The use of the term (derivational) base reduces the gravity of another theoretical problem, namely whether it is a fully-fledged word that undergoes further affixation or compounding. Problems with the concept of word (be it a word-form, lexeme, citation form, grammatical word, orthographic word, phonological word, lexical item etc.) and its numerous definitions in the literature are raised by morphological theorists (Bauer et al. 2013: 7–12). The gathering of language data has been going on and off for nearly a quarter of a century, and is nowhere near completion yet, given the somewhat dynamic nature of English word formation. At the beginning, it was primarily a pencil-and-paper matter, though the original tools and sources were soon replaced (to an extent) with digital resources. Data retrieved from digital repositories were elicited by means of search substrings, for example, *ish for all words ending in the suffix -ish. In the case of corpus searches, initially-obtained, raw frequency lists also contained numerous instances of misspelled words or unwanted proper names. Those “raw” lists were subsequently subjected to standard, manual data cleaning. As a result of the cleaning procedures, the remaining lists still contained some irrelevant items whose orthography incidentally included a sequence of characters matching the affix in question. Therefore, some perplexing cases may remain unresolved. Though extremely efficient with regular cases, corpus searches do not guarantee the procurement of very interesting instances which often can only be found manually. Close reading, although selective and time-consuming, allows for spotting the mostly-unpredictable word types. In the case of compounds and other multiply-complex structures, systematic digital searches are in fact pointless, as it is impossible to produce an exact search substring. In other words, it is impossible to state fully what one is looking for before something is actually found.

Introduction 5

Almost a hundred individual affixes are explored. Some items are regarded as affixal variants rather than affixes, per se. For example, each of the following clusters holds variants of one functional affix: en-/em-, in-/il-/im-/ir-, -able/-ible, -al/-ar, -ance/-ence, -ancy/-ency, -er/-or, -ic/-ical, -ie/-y, -ize/-ise and -ward/-wards. On the other hand, a few affixes are split into and explored as separate functional exponents: -al (adjectival) & -al (nominal), -ate (verbal) & -ate (adjectival/nominal), and -ful (adjectival) & -ful (nominal). Although the vast majority of affixes are explored here, the reader will still find some affixes missing from the list. One of the two main themes of this volume – construction – requires that the affixes be susceptible to word-formation processes in contemporary English. Therefore, affixes which are no longer active or constitute unproductive elements in current word-building processes have largely been avoided. Since the following affixes have been considered too dormant, if not morphologically moribund, they are not employed for construction here: -ana, ante-, auto-, back-, be-, by-, -cide, contra-, -crat, crypto-, -een, -eer, -ese, -esque, -ine, -ing, -kin, -let, -ling, meta-, -nik, peri-, retro-, sur-, -trix, -(it)ude, -ure and vice-. At the opposite end of this (un)productivity continuum is the prefix e-, which is considered to be very productive nowadays. It has been excluded due to the fact that by the time the book has been published, numerous novel formations will have been recorded and no corpora can currently keep up with the rapid development of e- formations. More importantly, there is no need for the translation of numerous e- derivations, as they are somewhat universal. Several other affixes are too narrow in scope, too specialized, and too obscure for this general account. There is no need to mix up all affixes, general and specialized, in one volume. The following technical affixes have not been included: astro-, bio-, dys-, electro-, endo-, geo-, hydro-, hypo-, leuko-, -logy, neuro- and proto-. Similarly, other mostly specialized exponents, conveying numbers, amounts or measurements, have been excluded: ambi-, bi-, centi-, deca-, deci-, demi-, di-, hecto-, hemi-, milli-, nano-, octo-, omni-, pico-, poly-, tri- and uni-. Finally, there are a few affixes not considered here, unless in passing, despite being promising candidates for future research: after-, -gate, giga-, macro-, maxi-, off-, on-, para-, -phobe, quasi- and turbo-. While they can be considered borderline cases, despite a few quirky examples littering newspapers, there is not enough convincing language material for analysis. This collection contains only authentic language material, which necessitates prior use somewhere in written English. In the vast majority of cases, the sources of the sentences have been identified and marked with a special source code. In a few cases, the origin of the data could not be traced, either due to the passage of time or the loss of key information. Where there is no indication of the source, the original sentence has been significantly abridged and additionally edited. Also, in many cases, the

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original sentences have been shortened – marked with […] – particularly where the whole source sentence appears redundant. All language examples obtained from various sources retain their original spellings, orthography, punctuation and hyphenation, without any standardization. Where possible, though not always, the writing system characteristic of a given language complements it, at least to some extent.

Chapter I

Prefixation

aIntroduction The prefix a-, which is used to form adjectives and adverbs, carries a weak locative sense. It may be paraphrased as ‘on’ or ‘onto’. For example, the derivative atop is based on the noun top, preceded by the so-called “reduced remnant” of the former component on-. This may have been the Old English (ad)verbial prefix on- (acknow, awaken), or the preposition on in Old English and early Middle English. Many complex adverbs designating place, time and manner were formed from nouns (atop, astream, abeam). In early formations (afloat, alive, asleep), the derivational base was a deverbal nominalization, which was later interpreted as a verb and served as a template for constructing other deverbal formations (abask, ablow). Most formations prefixed with a- are now lexicalized. Novel formations in a- are rare, resulting in a very low productivity of this prefix in contemporary English. Sources: Bauer (1991: 217); the OED

Construction I. Complete the gapped a- formations with the following words: flutter, float, foot, glow, ground, loft, top, wash. 1. A new conspiracy was a……. 2. A friend took the teenage Nixon a…… in his Cessna. 3. Hushed classrooms were a…… with students debating in sign language. 4. Some families tried to save their babies by putting them in 10-gallon buckets and setting them a……. 5. The country ceased to exist last November on a night a…… in smoky moonlight. 6. All was a…… with gingerbread houses and twinkling trees. 7. The Yeltsin they see is the Yeltsin who stood a…… the tanks in 1991. 8. The fleet of some 20 vessels began to run a…….

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Translation II. Translate the a- formations in the sentences below into the language of your choice. 1. I was glad to see my mother. She was much better, though still abed. (Wright_1993_115) 2. I had not really intended to set the house afire. I had just wanted to see how the curtains would look when they burned. (Wright_1993_5) 3. Then, looking at Tom’s safe, he sees the door ajar, and finds the lock forced, and the money gone. (Dickens_1987_182) 4. He blew my hairs aside to take a better view of my face. (Swift_1964_74)

Key I. 1 foot; 2 loft; 3 flutter; 4 float; 5 wash; 6 glow; 7 top; 8 ground

antiIntroduction The prefix anti- is added to nouns (anti-war), personal names (anti-Chomsky), or adjectives (anti-American), to express opposition to what is associated with the base word. In medical usages, anti- is added to adjectives (antifungal) and nouns (anti-body), to convey a target which is being attacked. The prefix may also be repeated, in order to express a sense of opposition to opposition (anti-anti-abortion). This prefix is very productive in present-day English. The origins of the prefix anti- are found in multiple sources, such as: – Greek ἀντι-, meaning ‘opposite’, ‘in opposition to’, ‘mutually’, ‘in return’, ‘instead of ’, ‘equal to’, ‘like’, ‘corresponding’, ‘counter’ – Sanskrit anti – classical Latin ante In Latin, a number of Greek words in ἀντι- occurred as loanwords. In Old French and Middle French, there were borrowings from Latin, but new formations in French were rather rare before the 18th cent. In Old English, the forms anty-, ante-, anti- were used. In Middle English, there were some borrowings from Latin or French, mostly originating in Greek (antipodes, antidote, antithesis). New formations in English were coined in the second half of the 16th cent. (anti-Calvinist, anti-Catholic), and became frequent in the early 17th cent. (anti-natural, anti-god). Nominal derivatives from the 17th cent. developed the senses ‘rival’, ‘pretended’, ‘spurious’ and ‘counter’ (anti-priest).



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

Major meanings and functions: – – – – – –

the opposite, contrary, or antithesis of opposed, hostile, antagonistic to, or directed against a form of art, literature, cinema etc., seemingly opposed to the basic conventions in relation to a noun, meaning ‘against’ a person opposed to the action, practice, policy equipment, measures etc., intended to defend against specific weapons, types of attack etc. – (with reduplication of the prefix) the idea of opposing the opposition to something – [biology, chemistry, immunology] names of antiparticles, atomic nuclei, chemical elements, agents, antibodies or antisera

Source: the OED

Construction I. The forty most frequent formations with anti- (COCA200322): antibody(-ies) antitrust anti-Semitism antidote anti-Semitic anti-American anti-war anti-abortion antioxidant(s) antisocial

antichrist antidepressant(s) antithesis anti-gay anti-inflammatory anti-government antiwar antimicrobial antivirus antigen

antimatter antithetical antiviral anti-immigrant antiseptic anti-aircraft anti-Communist anti-Muslim antibacterial anti-drug

anti-Americanism antigens anti-terrorism anti-discrimination anti-social anti-aging anti-choice antifreeze anti-Israel antidumping

Analyse the above forty most frequent formations with anti- obtained from COCA. Propose your own semantic categories for dividing these derivations, according to their base words. II. Complete the gapped sentences with phrases containing anti- formations, used attributively. Construct the phrases based on the paraphrases given in square brackets. Example: The ministry has announced no concrete ………… [measures against fraud] so far. → The ministry has announced no concrete anti-fraud measures so far. 1. ………… [protesters who are against abortion] who harass women outside hospitals and clinics may be fined or jailed under the new law. 2. President Cardoso unveiled a $1.2 billion ………… [campaign against crime] last week.

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3. On the island, where two marines raped a 15-year-old girl, an organized ………… [movement against the base] is growing. 4. He is now regularly flying from France to New York to join ………… [protests against Beijing]. 5. Schröder promised to add gays to the list of minorities protected by Germany’s ………… [law against discrimination]. 6. In the 1990s, Robson reverted to a more traditional ………… [attitude against inflation]. 7. Yesterday’s conjunction of Iraqi ………… [fire directed at aircraft] and terrorism aimed at the allied forces. 8. Some ………… [campaigners against racism] claim that the term is unacceptable because it had its origins in the slave trade. 9. The stolen weapons included three ………… [launchers of rockets used against tanks]. III. Complete the gapped sentences with anti- formations, based on the paraphrases in square brackets. Example: George’s dutifulness stands in stark contrast to his brother’s willful rebellion. Mark is seen as the ………… [one that is against George], even by his own parents. → George’s dutifulness stands in stark contrast to his brother’s willful rebellion. Mark is seen as the anti-George, even by his own parents. 1. My mother is not ………… [against doctors], and she has good relationships with hers. 2. Mao Zedong was ………… [against fashion] by trying to equalize all people through what they wore. 3. George Jr., by his own description, is “………… [against elites]”. (NW070800) 4. Barb Ellison is the latest ex-wife of Larry Ellison – the Valley’s most celebrated, mediagenic womanizing rogue, the ………… [opposite of Gates] […]. (NW140699) 5. One ………… [against monarchism] suggested that honours should be awarded by the Speaker of the House of Commons. (TS070421) 6. Says Hudig of the environment department: “They may not be ………… [against business], but they are pro-Green.” (NW1198) 7. He still exudes the kind of nationalist Malay spirit that brought him so far under Mahathir, who rose to power as a fierce ………… [opponent of colonialism]. (NW140998) 8. My own mother, as militant an ………… [opponent of racism] as you can imagine, might easily have said something like that. (TS110321)



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

9. The CDR [=the Committee for the Defense of the Revolution] was on the watch for ………… [those opposed to society] – “those who don’t work or study […].” (NG0699) 10. It will be interesting to see with the ………… [opponents of vaccination] whether their minds will change the more people get the vaccine […]. (TS181220) IV. Some, not all, of the anti- formations below are in the wrong phrases. Put them in the right places. 1. his anti-abortion views 2. the anti-Semite approach 3. the anti-land-mine movement 4. against taking anti-Putin medication 5. a noted anti-HIV 6. an anti-market protest V. Complete the anti- formations with the right ending which makes sense in the phrase given. 1. a typical well of anti-American… 2. antimicrob…-resistant diseases 3. a long-time DEA anti-narcotic… and anti-Marx… informant 4. a shift from anti-Naz… to anti-commun… 5. training in anti-radical… and fire drills 6. antisemit… incidents in Europe 7. a new wave of anti-Semit… in Russia

Translation VI. Randomly selected English phrases (COCA200322), containing four different anti- formations, have been translated (GT & NS) into four languages. Indicate the languages of the translations in A, B, C and D. There are four different bases used across all languages below. The same base is kept in all contexts (1–4) in each language. Spell out the four bases of the gapped anti- formations in the English source phrases in A, B, C and D. A. 1. 2. 3. 4.

their ability to fund anti-…… initiatives in the context of recent anti-…… tumult in the Muslim world a strange and anti-…… party yet another anti-…… protest

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English Complex Words

A.… 1. ihre Fähigkeit, antiamerikanische Initiativen zu finanzieren 2. im Zusammenhang mit den jüngsten antiamerikanischen Tumulten in der muslimischen Welt 3. eine seltsame und antiamerikanische Partei 4. noch ein weiterer antiamerikanischer Protest B. 1. 2. 3. 4.

an anti-…… candidate a truly anti-…… movie the domestic anti-…… sentiment an anti-…… rally in San Francisco

B.… 1. un candidat anti-guerre 2. un vrai film anti-guerre 3. le sentiment anti-guerre au niveau national 4. une manifestation anti-guerre à San Francisco C. 1. 2. 3. 4.

the anti-…… movement involvement in anti-…… efforts other anti-…… Democrats hard-line anti-…… candidates

C.… 1. ruch antyaborcyjny 2. zaangażowanie w działania antyaborcyjne 3. inni antyaborcyjni Demokraci 4. twardogłowi antyaborcyjni kandydaci D. 1. 2. 3. 4.

its anti-…… properties new anti-…… therapies strong anti-…… medication an anti-…… component

D.… 1. anti-inflamatuar özellikleri 2. yeni anti-inflamatuar tedaviler 3. güçlü anti-inflamatuar ilaç 4. anti-inflamatuar bir bileşen



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

VI. Translate the anti- formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. the world’s most over-the-top anti-gay tabloid 2. anti-Jewish things 3. the next generation of antimissile missiles 4. the basis of antibody studies 5. the most anti-European of Britain’s newspapers 6. anti-new world order conspiracists 7. the anti-money-laundering supervisor of companies 8. opposition and anti-status-quo candidates 9. the anti-war movement … massively anti-veteran 10. an anti-sleaze committee in the Parliament

Key II. 1 Anti-abortion protesters; 2 anticrime campaign; 3 anti-base movement; 4 anti-Beijing protests; 5 antidiscrimination law; 6 anti-inflation attitude; 7 antiaircraft fire; 8 anti-racism campaigners; 9 anti-tank rocket launchers III. 1 anti-doctors; 2 anti-fashion; 3 anti-elitist; 4 anti-Gates; 5 anti-monarchist; 6 anti-business; 7 anti-colonialist; 8 antiracist; 9 antisocials; 10 antivaxxers IV. 1 OK; 2 market; 3 OK; 4 HIV; 5 Semite; 6 Putin V. 1 ism; 2 ial; 3 s / ist; 4 ism / ism; 5 ization; 6 ic; 7 ism VI. A German: American; B French: war; C Polish: abortion; D Turkish: inflammatory

archIntroduction The non-native prefix arch- attaches to nouns (archbetrayer), and these typically designate people. It is a locative prefix, conveying a sense of spatial relationship, though figuratively rather than literally. More specifically, the prefix adds the metaphorical sense of up-ness, superiority, high position, high status to the meaning of the whole word. This prefix shows a fair degree of productivity in contemporary English. The prefix arch- originates in Greek, where the ἀρχι-, ἀρχ’- combining form (ἀρχιδιάκονος ‘chief-minister’) was cognate with ἄρχειν ‘to begin, take the lead’. The prefix is found in Latin (archangelus), Old French (arce-, later arche-), Italian (arce-, arci-), Spanish, Portuguese (arce-), German (erz-) and Dutch (aarts-). In Old English, it was first translated as héah- ‘high’ (héah-biscop), but the Latin prefix was also adopted as arce-, ærce-, ęrce- (ęrce-biscop). In Middle English, ęrce- was shifted to erche-, and

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English Complex Words

arce- to arche-. In the 16th cent., arch- became a popular affix, added to nouns designating names of offices. Major meanings and functions: – – – – –

one who occupies a position or rank above those who bear the simple title greatest, chief, leading, prime first in time, original, initial extreme, the worst of prefixed to words with a pejorative sense (arch-traitor, arch-enemy)

Source: the OED

Construction I. The sixteen most frequent formations with arch- (COCA220322): arch-angel(s) arch-bishop(s) arch-enemy(-ies) arch-diocesan

arch-rival(s) arch-conservative(s) arch-deacon arch-druid

arch-dukes arch-villain(s) arch-priest arch-criminal(s)

arch-merchant arch-fiend arch-liberal arch-terrorist(s)

Suggest other names of functions or roles with a pejorative sense, and add the prefix arch- to them. II. Based on the paraphrases given in square brackets, complete the gaps with arch- formations. 1. This was “a profanation of the Eucharist,” said Cali’s ………… [one above bishop], Isaías Duarte, who suggested the kidnappers might be excommunicated. (NW140699) 2. The final shots of a shaken Cruise and Kidman are moving, and suggest the courage that allowed them to spend nearly two years of their lives with the ………… [superior controller] Kubrick. (NW260699)

Translation III. Four randomly selected English contexts with arch- formations (COCA220322) have been translated (GT & NS) into four languages: Dutch, Spanish, Czech and Hungarian. A. 1. 2. 3. 4.

the deformed corpse of his arch-enemy This predator remains the arch-enemy of cattle and sheep. one of his orations against his arch-enemy the hideout of my arch-enemy



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

A. Dutch 1. het misvormde lijk van zijn aartsvijand 2. Dit roofdier blijft de aartsvijand van runderen en schapen. 3. een van zijn oraties tegen zijn aartsvijand 4. de schuilplaats van mijn aartsvijand B. 1. 2. 3. 4.

his arch-rival based in rural Pennsylvania forced to turn to arch-rival Microsoft for a rescue Adam’s former business partner and arch-rival their arch-rival’s conspicuous advantage

B. Spanish 1. (GT) su archirrival con sede en la zona rural de Pensilvania; (NS) archienemigo 2. forzado a recurrir a su archirrival Microsoft para un rescate 3. ex socio comercial y archirrival de Adam 4. la conspicua ventaja de su archirrival C. 1. 2. 3. 4.

an arch-villain of Republican campaigns obsessed with a rival, an arch-villain superfoe an arch-villain computer hacker called Crazy Horse There are no male saviour or arch-villain roles.

C. Czech 1. (GT) úhlavní darebák republikánských kampaní; (NS) (hlavní) padouch republikánských kampaní 2. (GT) posedlý rivalem, arcipadouchem supernepřítelem; (NS) posedlý rivalem, úhlavním nepřítelem / posedlý rivalem, arcipadoušským supernepřítelem / posedlý rivalem, arcipadouchem a úhlavním nepřítelem / posedlý rivalem, arcipadouchem a nepřítelem číslo jedna 3. (GT) počítačový hacker arci padoucha jménem Crazy Horse; (NS) arcipadouch a počítačový hacker jménem Crazy Horse / počítačový hacker, a arcipadouch jménem Crazy Horse / počítačový hacker a arci padouch zvaný Crazy Horse 4. (GT) Neexistují žádné role mužského zachránce nebo arci-padoucha.; (NS) Neexistují žádné role mužského zachránce nebo (arci)padoucha. / Muži nehrají roli spasitele ani arci-padoucha. D. 1. 2. 3. 4.

placed under the picture of the arch-criminal confronting the arch-criminal on his own grounds There’s no arch-criminal behind it all. This was done by some arch-criminal.

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English Complex Words

D. Hungarian 1. a főbűnös képe alá helyezve 2. saját indokai alapján szembesül a főbűnözővel 3. Az egész mögött nincs főbűnöző 4. Ezt valami főbűnöző tette Spell out the methods of rendering arch- formations in Dutch, Spanish, Czech and Hungarian. IV. Translate the arch- formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. He was made into a broken-down beast by his masters, the arch-beasts. (London_1982_392) 2. Now, we might suppose that this murdered man – this Douglas, whose approaching fate was known by one of the arch-criminal’s subordinates – had in some way betrayed the chief. (Doyle_1987_367) 3. […] her note of ill-concealed fear and obstreperous defiance, when she saw her arch-enemy, a neighbor’s cat, on the top of the high fence […]. (Hawthorne_1961_136) 4. All that day the sergeant and the young soldier marched together; and the former, who was an arch fellow, told the latter many entertaining stories of his campaigns […]. (Fielding_1909_291) 5. It’s not simply Ultramontanism, it’s arch-Ultramontanism! It’s beyond the dreams of Pope Gregory the Seventh! (Dostoevsky_1991_118)

Key II. 1 archbishop; 2 arch-controller

circumIntroduction The non-native prefix circum- attaches to nouns (circumstance), adjectives (circumpolar) and verbs (circumnavigate). It can also be seen on bound bases (circumcise). As a locative prefix, conveying a sense of spatial relationship, it adds the sense of ‘going around’ or ‘encircling’ something. The prefix exhibits low productivity in contemporary English. The prefix circum- originates in Latin, where it was used as an adverb and preposition meaning ‘around, round about’. It was used to form verbal compounds (cir­ cumambulāre ‘to walk about’), some of these passing into Old French (circonscrire ‘to circumscribe’), and then into English (with circon-, circun-, circum-). Other



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

circum- derivations have been formed in modern French and English by analogy, by affixing circum- to native or naturalized verbs (circumflow). Source: the OED

Construction I. The prefix circum- adds the sense of ‘going round, encircling something, along or around its border’. In the following example, this sense is intensified by the fact that the object of the activity (lake) is a round(ish) entity: a well-practised circumambulation of the lake With the help of the OED, spell out as precisely as possible what the semantic contribution of the prefix circum- is, in the following nominal formations: circumstance, circumcision, circumference, circumspection, circumnavigation, circumvention, circumscription, circumlocution, circumambulation, circum­horizon

Translation II. Translate the circum- formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. They were keeping tabs on company cargo vessels by means of e-mail that whistled back and forth through the circumambient cyber seas. (NG1298) 2. Swedish adventurer Per Brandt has made four attempts to circumnavigate the globe in a balloon. 3. Circumambulate the city of a dreamy Sabbath afternoon. (Melville_1967_12) 4. That night – I am still speaking of the first day of our circumnavigation of the plateau […]. (Doyle_1960_93)

coIntroduction The non-native prefix co- attaches to nouns (co-pilot), adjectives (co-ethnic) and verbs (co-produce). As both a spatial and temporal prefix, it conveys a sense of ‘spanning’ or ‘joining’ two entities or activities. Its major meanings are ‘together’, ‘in company’, ‘in common’, ‘joint(ly)’, ‘equal(ly)’, ‘reciprocally’, or ‘mutually’. The prefix co- is fairly productive in contemporary English. The prefix originates in Latin, where it was used as the preposition com- (written separately as cum in classical Latin). It was shortened to co- before vowels, h and

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English Complex Words

gn- (coalescere, cohærēre, cognātus). In English, it is sometimes added to words of Latin origin which are already compounded with com-/con- (co-connection, -conspirator, -constituent). The prefix is used in legal English, in the sense of ‘joint’ or ‘fellow-’ (coheir, co-executor, co-defendant). Source: the OED

Construction I. The forty most frequent formations with co- (COCA220322): co-host(s) co-founder(s) co-worker(s) co-author(s) co-owner(s) co-found co-op co-star co-chair(s) co-write

co-operation co-pilot co-chairman co-exist co-anchor co-editor co-conspirator(s) co-ed co-sponsor(s) co-writer

co-operative co-pay co-occurring co-produce co-teaching co-president co-producer co-payment(s) co-opting co-sleeping

co-starring co-existence co-defendant(s) co-production co-occurrence co-captain co-counsel co-create co-operate co-executive

Search the Internet for other formations with co-. Add them to the above list. II. Complete the gaps by adding the most appropriate base to the prefix co-. There is one word too many: head, curator, husband, conspirator, founder. 1. So how long did it take her to get old Hal declared legally dead so she could marry her co…………? (Hillerman_1996_28) 2. My negative impression was confirmed last October, when the works of a Hong Kong artist, Zunzi, were removed from the Singapore Art Museum before an exhibition for which I was a co-…………. (NW211298) 3. “That’s where we come in,” said Fontes, co-………… of a volunteer group that calls itself the Order of Underwater Coral Heroes. (NG0101) 4. Katherine Kent, co-………… of analysis for the ONS’s Covid-19 infection survey, said: “[…].” (TS181220) III. Complete the gaps with appropriate bases. Explain the meanings of the derivatives. 1. Kissinger told Die Welt that the US and China should seek co-………… on artificial intelligence technology rather than trying to beat each other. (TS030521) 2. Two years later he set up his own animation business, Studio Meala, based at the Spool Factory, a co-………… hub in Boyle, Co Roscommon. (TS170621)



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

Translation IV. Randomly selected English phrases (COCA220322), containing four different coformations, have been translated (GT & NS) into four languages. Indicate the languages of the translations in A, B, C and D. There are four different bases used across all languages below. The same base is kept in all contexts (1–5) in each language. Spell out the four bases of the gapped co- formations in the English source phrases in A, B, C and D. A. 1. his female co-…… Alisyn Camerota 2. as co-…… of her own radio shows 3. the seldom-used co-…… debate format 4. the co-…… of a fantasy sports radio show 5. some kind of co-…… kinda job A. … 1. hans kvinnliga medvärd kollega Alisyn Camerota 2. som programledare för sina egna radioprogram tillsammans med … 3. det sällan använda debattformatet med två värdar 4. värd för ett radioprogram för fantasysport tillsammans med … 5. något slags job som värd tillsammans med … B. 1. a web developer and co-…… of Rahvalor Interactive 2. after the exit of co-…… Peter Wells 3. a Syrian-Canadian co-…… of the group 4. president and co-…… of Valve Corporation 5. the co-…… and CEO of Tesla Motors B… 1. uno sviluppatore web e co-fondatore di Rahvalor Interactive 2. dopo l’uscita del co-fondatore Peter Wells 3. un co-fondatore siriano-canadese del gruppo 4. presidente e co-fondatore di Valve Corporation 5. il co-fondatore e CEO di Tesla Motors C. 1. the co-…… of the article 2. as a co-…… of this article 3. the author and co-…… of 105 separate titles 4. a co-…… of the new study 5. a UNM psychologist and co-…… of the study C. … 1. spoluautor článku 2. ako spoluautor tohto článku

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English Complex Words

3. autor a spoluautor 105 samostatných titulov 4. spoluautor novej štúdie 5. psychológ UNM a spoluautor štúdie D. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Brick Alley Pub co-…… Matt Plumb the Dynamo’s high profile co-…… a co-…… of the enterprise president and co-…… Richard Kullson the co-…… and CEO of Berg Associates

D. … 1. Brick Alley pubi kaasomanik Matt Plumb 2. Dünamo kõrge profiiliga kaasomanik 3. ettevõtte kaasomanik 4. president ja kaasomanik Richard Kullson 5. Berg Associatesi kaasomanik ja tegevjuht V. Translate the co- formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. He cut his engines, and he and his co-pilot leapt out of the plane. 2. They tried to silence him after he co-founded a group called the KGB Alliance. 3. They frequently co-invest with Chinese funds. 4. There are statistics to prove that more and more people are abusing their co-workers than before. VI. Translate the co- formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. He had now seen the full deformity of that creature that shared with him some of the phenomena of consciousness, and was co-heir with him to death […]. (Stevenson_1979_ 95) 2. That gets Nez on the witness stand, which makes Elisa an accessory after the fact but probably indicted as coconspirator. (Hillerman_1996_293) 3. He dipped his hand into the dish with that great trader when Mahbub and a few co-religionists were invited to a big Haj dinner. (Kipling_1987_216) 4. At the end of the first six weeks a new and rare face entered the school as a co-teacher. (Washington_1965_94) 5. Whatever property may have been given by her father to a wife (who has co-wives of different castes) […]. (Laws_1991_287)

Key II. 1 conspirator; 2 curator; 3 founder; 4 head; [husband – out] III. 1 existence; 2 working IV. A Swedish: host; B Italian: founder; C Slovak: author; D Estonian: owner



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

counterIntroduction The non-native prefix counter- attaches to nouns (counterargument), adjectives (counter-productive) and verbs (counteract). It can also be seen on bound bases (countervail). As a locative prefix, conveying a sense of spatial relationship, it adds the sense of acting against another active entity, or performing an activity in the opposite direction, in relation to another active entity. It may be appended to almost any noun which expresses action (counter-motion, counter-current), or to any word which implies activity or incidence (counter-measure, counter-poison). It may be treated as an independent element, an adjective written separately. The prefix is quite productive in contemporary English. It originated in Latin as the adverb and prefix contrā, meaning ‘against, in return’. Later, it appeared in French (contre-) and Italian (contra-). In Middle English, the prefix countre- is recorded, and becomes a frequent formative, also combining with words of Germanic origin. In formations originating in Romance languages, the consolidation of the complex word is usually greater than among those derived in English, and they are typically written as single words (counterbalance), or with a hyphen. In derivatives formed in English, the two elements are less consolidated. Major meanings and functions: – performing an activity in the opposite direction or sense, with a contrary effect, or in opposition – rivalling or outdoing – (actor or action) against or in opposition Source: the OED

Construction I. The twenty most frequent formations with counter- (COCA240322): 1. counter… 2. counter… 3. counter… counterpoint counterinsurgency counterintuitive counterattack(s) countermeasure(s) counterintelligence counterbalance

counterclockwise counterweight counter-productive counter-intuitive counterfactual countercultural counterargument counterrevolutionary counterpunch counteroffensive

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English Complex Words

In the first three most frequent formations, the derivational bases have been removed. Establish the frequency list of formations beginning with counter-, using counter* as a search substring in COCA, and find the missing bases. II. Complete the gapped sentences with couter- formations, based on the hints given in square brackets. 1. This was not passed to the ………… [police fighting extreme acts] who were meant to monitor him in the community or his probation officers. (TS280521) 2. “The disaster caused by sexual freedom is everywhere,” bemoaned the Beijing Youth Daily in July. The ………… [opposing revolutionaries] aim to start by creating obstacles to hasty weddings. (NW240898) 3. ………… [opposition to terrorism], this official says, will top the agenda when Chinese President Jiang Zemin visits Tajikistan for a summit of leaders from China, Russia, […] this week. (NW100700)

Translation III. The following four English phrases containing counter- formations have been translated (GT & NS) into Norwegian, Portuguese, Russian and Finnish: gifts and counter-gifts / mount a counter-demonstration / a long-awaited counter-attack / a counterpolitics to existing politics Arrange the English phrases in the order in which they have been rendered in each language. 1. … 2. … 3. … 4. … Norwegian: 1. (GT/NS) et etterlengtet motangrep; (NS) et lenge ventet motangrep / et motangrep man har ventet lenge på 2. (GT) sette i gang en motdemonstrasjon; (NS) gå til motdemonstrasjon 3. en motpolitikk til eksisterende politikk 4. (GT/NS?) gaver og motgaver Portuguese: 1. um contra-ataque esperado 2. (GT) montar uma contra-demonstração; (NS) montar uma contrademonstração 3. uma contrapolítica à política existente 4. (GT/NS?) presentes e contra-presentes



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

Russian: 1. долгожданная контратака / dolgozhdannaya kontrataka 2. устроить контрдемонстрацию / ustroit’ kontrdemonstratsiyu 3. контрполитика существующей политике / kontrpolitika sushchestvuyushchey politike 4. (GT) подарки и встречные подарки / podarki i vstrechnyye podarki; (NS) подарки и ответные подарки / podarki i otvetnyye podarki Finnish: 1. kauan odotettu vastahyökkäys 2. järjestää vastamielenosoitus 3. vastapolitiikka olemassa olevalle politiikalle 4. lahjat ja vastalahjat Spell out the methods of rendering counter- formations in Norwegian, Portuguese, Russian and Finnish. IV. Translate the counter- formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. […] there was a yell of ‘Question!’ from a hundred voices, and an answering counter-cry of ‘Order!’ and ‘Shame!’ from as many more. (Doyle_1960_44) 2. And there will be counter-palace revolutions of the oligarchs […]. (London_ 1982_468) 3. Its [=The French Secret Service’s] duties are both those of espionage outside France and counter-espionage within […]. (Forsyth_1971_20) 4. Twenty thousand dollars, he had decided. They would make a counteroffer. (Hillerman_1996_122) 5. An argument may be refuted either by a counter-syllogism or by bringing an objection. (Aristotle_1991_195) 6. As I reached the limit of my swing and prepared to rush back on the counter-swing, a great gong struck and thundered. (London_1964_15)

Key I. 1 part(s); 2 terrorism; 3 productive II. 1 counterextremism police; 2 counterrevolutionaries; 3 Counterterrorism III. 1 a long-awaited counter-attack; 2 mount a counter-demonstration; 3 a counterpolitics to existing politics; 4 gifts and counter-gifts

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deIntroduction The prefix de- participates in the formation of complex words from two categories: reversative and privative verbs. Reversatives are deadjectival causative verbs which end in one of the suffixes -ize, -ate or -ify, for instance: de…ize: centralize > decentralize, humanize > dehumanize, militarize > demilitarize de…ate: activate > deactivate, regulate > deregulate de…ify: classify > declassify, Nazify > de-Nazify Privative verbs in de- consist of short, usually monosyllabic nouns, and denote the removal of something unwanted or detrimental, for instance: bug > debug, flea > deflea, grease > degrease, salt > desalt etc. The productivity of the above patterns is fairly high in contemporary English. The prefix de- has a dual origin. It is partly a borrowing from French (dé-) and partly from Latin (dē-). In Latin, some senses of the prefix dē- included ‘down’, ‘down from/to’ (dēscendere ‘descend’). Some others conveyed the notion of undoing or reversing the action of the base verb (dearmāre ‘to disarm’). In classical Latin, a similar concept was usually conveyed with the prefix dis- (disconvenīre ‘to disagree’), which became the preferred variant in post-classical Latin. Many Latin words in dē- were used in the Romance languages with the prefix des- (Latin dearmāre > disarmer in Old French). In French, des- became dé-, in which form it was identical with the dé- of high register words from Latin dē-. English words in de- probably followed a few paths. Earlier, words taken from Old French with des- retained this form, and altered back to dis- under Latin influence (disarm, disjoin). Verbs in de- were adapted directly from Latin, or formed from Latin elements, without an intermediate French stage. Later, formations carried de-, and while deriving from the French dé-, the prefix was usually treated as identical with the Latin dē- (debauch, defile). Major meanings and functions: – (privative) to deprive, free from, or rid of the thing in question – (reversative) to undo the action of the simple verb Sources: Szymanek (1989: 294–295, 299); the OED



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

Construction I. Combine all of the forms below with the prefix de- and one of the suffixes: -ize, -ate, or Ø (no suffix). 1. … human … 2. … hydr … 3. … frost …

4. … cipher … 5. … popul … 6. … personal …

7. … throne … 8. … moral … 9. … code …

Translation II. Provide glosses for the following de- privative verbs: to debug to dehorn

‘…’ ‘…’

   

to degas to delouse

‘…’ ‘…’

   

to degrease to deworm

‘…’ ‘…’

III. The following English phrases with de- formations removed have been translated into Danish, Romanian, Ukrainian and Greek. Complete the gaps with appropriate de- verbs listed on the right. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

to ………… marijuana to ………… the region to ………… U.S. documents to ………… tensions to ………… the suburbia

declassify destabilize decriminalize decongest de-escalate

Danish 1. at afkriminalisere marihuana 2. at destabilisere regionen 3. at afklassificere amerikanske dokumenter 4. at deeskalere spændinger 5. at aflaste forstaden Romanian 1. pentru a dezincrimina marijuana 2. pentru a destabiliza regiunea 3. să declasifice documentele din SUA 4. pentru a reduce tensiunile 5. pentru a decongestiona suburbia Ukrainian 1. декриміналізувати марихуану / dekryminalizuvaty marykhuanu 2. дестабілізувати регіон / destabilizuvaty rehion 3. розсекретити документи США / rozsekretyty dokumenty SSHA

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English Complex Words

4. для деескалації напруженості / dlya deeskalatsiyi napruzhenosti 5. для розвантаження передмістя /dlya rozvantazhennya peredmistya Greek 1. για την αποποινικοποίηση [noun] της [genitive case] μαριχουάνας /gia tin apopoinikopoíisi tis marichouánas 2. (για) να αποσταθεροποιήσει την περιοχή / na apostatheropoiísei tin periochí 3. (για) να αποχαρακτηρίσει τα έγγραφα των Η.Π.Α / na apocharaktirísei ta én­grafa ton I.P.A 4. για την αποκλιμάκωση [noun] των εντάσεων [accusative case] / gia tin apo­ klimákosi ton entáseon 5. (για) να αποσυμφορήσει τα προάστια / na aposymforísei ta proástia Spell out the methods of rendering de- formations in Danish, Romanian, Ukrainian and Greek. IV. Translate the following into (a) Danish, (b) Romanian, (c) Ukrainian and (d) Greek: 1. to demilitarize the region a.   b.   c.   d.   2. to demobilize troops a.   b.   c.   d.   3. to decentralize the economy a.   b.   c.   d.   V. Translate the phrases with de- formations into the language of your choice: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

military de-escalation the mechanics of dehumanization resistance to demagnetization the rate of deforestation policies on denuclearization deradicalisation measures major deregulation

… … … … … … …



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

VI. Translate the key formations in contexts into the language of your choice. 1. Now, travellers can board on one coast and detrain on the other. 2. When tourists wander off in the desert, they wind up dehydrated. 3. They were instructed to decolonise as soon as possible. VII. Translate the de- formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. […] I assisted a young Jewish doctor in slitting the vocal cords of a fresh batch of dogs from the city pound. The object was to devocalize the dogs so that their howls would not disturb the patients in the other parts of the hospital. (Wright_1993_358) 2. The country is a standing reproof to those who argue that decarbonisation is only possible through a kind of economic crash diet. (TS210421) 3. And then there is the rest of the work, the destruction of stockpiles, de-mining, victim assistance. (NW080399)

Key I. 1 dehumanize; 2 dehydrate; 3 defrost; 4 decipher; 5 depopulate; 6 depersonalize; 7 dethrone; 8 demoralize; 9 decode III. 1 decriminalize; 2 destabilize; 3 declassify; 4 de-escalate; 5 decongest

disIntroduction The prefix dis- is a negative (negating) formative, affixed to adjectives and nouns. It is weakly productive in contemporary English. There are mostly lexicalized forms, like loyal > disloyal, obedient > disobedient, similar > dissimilar etc. The prefix dis- also produces reversative verbs, such as arrange > disarrange, charge > discharge, join > disjoin, qualify > disqualify etc. Furthermore, the prefix dis- participates in the formation of unproductive privative verbs from nouns. Consider pairs like arm > disarm, bar > disbar, courage > discourage, honour > dishonour etc. The prefix dis- originates in Latin, being related to bis, originally *dvis = Greek δίς ‘twice’ < duo, δύο ‘two’. In Old French, dis- was usually retained in high register words adopted from Latin. By analogy, dis- was often substituted for (or used alongside of)

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English Complex Words

des- in inherited words. In English, early Old French words exhibited the prefix in two forms: des- prevailing in popular words, and dis- (dys-) in those of learned origin. All words taken from Latin in the modern period have dis-. Major meanings: – to undo or reverse the action or effect of the simple verb – to strip of, free or rid of, to bereave or deprive of … Sources: Szymanek (1989: 272–273, 294); Bauer (1991: 220); Bauer et al. (2013: Ch. 17); the OED; see other negative prefixes: in-, non-, un-

Construction I. The thirty most frequent formations with dis- (COCA240322): disagree disappear disability disorder disable discharge disagreement dislike discomfort displace

disappearance disbelief disadvantage disregard disgrace dishonest distrust disconnect displacement dissatisfaction

disproportionate discount disrespectful discredit discontent 26. dis… 27. dis… 28. dis… 29. dis… 30. dis…

In the last five most frequent formations, the derivational bases have been removed. Establish a frequency list of formations beginning with dis-, using the dis* search substring in COCA, and find the missing bases. Compare your results with those obtained by others. II. Combine the gapped phrases on the left with the appropriate dis- formations on the right: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

a 15 per cent permanent … a look of poignant … in her face a range of levels of … of journalists civil … … small groups of fighters … the phone fall into … in … doubt in … terms in total … marital … Mexico’s … for time

disobedience disconnect disuse dishonest dispassionate disability disbelief disharmony disarm disproportion disorder discomfort

Chapter 1.  Prefixation 29

13. 14. 15. 16.

public … shaking his head in … the … of milk production the … of forces

disapproval discontinuation distrust disregard

III. Complete the gapped dis- derivations with the following verbs: arrange, believe, claim, establish, organize, prove. 1. Children dis…… your life, just as they redistribute your sleep and your leisure. 2. The scientific community welcomes those who can dis…… age-old “truths”. 3. If you choose to dis…… this, then the conclusion of your eternal life is in your own hands. 4. If we dis…… public education, many will not be educated. 5. I did not want to dis…… anything until you got there. 6. All contributing authors expressly dis…… all liability to any person with respect to the contents of this website.

Translation IV. The following English phrases containing dis- formations have been translated into German, French, Slovenian and Lithuanian. Unfortunately, the translations (below the table) are all mixed up. Identify which translations belong to each of the four target languages. English German French Slovenian Lithuanian

1. some disagreement between the parties 1. 1. 1. 1.

English German French Slovenian Lithuanian

2. a disproportion of women in management roles 2. 2. 2. 2.

English German French Slovenian Lithuanian

3. the discontinuity of the particular phases of development 3. 3. 3. 3.

English German French Slovenian Lithuanian

4. his displeasure with our form of government 4. 4. 4. 4.

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English Complex Words English German French Slovenian Lithuanian

5. a sign of disloyalty of the worst sort 5. 5. 5. 5.

English German French Slovenian Lithuanian

6. another disadvantage in negotiations 6. 6. 6. 6.

Mixed-up translations: un signe de déloyauté de la pire espèce jo nepasitenkinimas mūsų valdymo forma ein Zeichen von Untreue der schlimmsten Sorte diskontinuiteta posameznih razvojnih faz ein weiterer Nachteil bei Verhandlungen quelques désaccords entre les partis moterų disproporcija vadovaujančiose pareigose son mécontentement envers notre forme de gouvernement dar vienas trūkumas derybose sein Unmut über unsere Staatsform nekaj nesoglasja med strankama blogiausio pobūdžio nelojalumo ženklas einige Meinungsverschiedenheiten zwischen den Parteien nesorazmerje žensk v vodstvenih vlogah še ena pomanjkljivost pri pogajanjih ein Missverhältnis von Frauen in Führungspositionen njegovo nezadovoljstvo z našo obliko vladanja un autre désavantage dans les négociations znak nelojalnosti najhujše vrste die Diskontinuität der einzelnen Entwicklungsphasen tam tikri nesutarimai tarp šalių une disproportion de femmes dans les postes de direction konkrečių vystymosi fazių pertrūkiai la discontinuité des phases particulières de développement

V. Translate the dis- formations in the following phrases into the language of your choice. 1. the disproportion of size 2. both continuity and discontinuity at different levels



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

3. being satisfied, dissatisfied, or some combination of the two 4. a critical or disrespectful word 5. a suspicion of disbelief VI. Translate the dis- formations in the following sentences into the language of your choice. 1. The passenger ferry owned by the Chinese shipping company was unable to disembark. 2. He is the one who brought dishonor on the office of the presidency. 3. Before the Russian Empire disintegrated in 1917, the people were demoralized and cold. 4. We need new words. Dis-honoured perhaps? De-knighted? Dis-ordered? Apparently when the monarch removes one of our Ruritanian honours from a misbehaving individual the formal term is “cancelled and annulled”. (TS070421) VII. In Spanish, the prefix des- plays a role comparable to that partly performed by the English formative dis- and partly by de-. Analyse the fifteen Spanish complex words below, each beginning with the sequence des. Decide which of the words can be divided into the prefix des- and a meaningful and segmentable derivational base. Translate the Spanish bases and their respective prefixed derivations into English, using prefixed (dis-, de-) equivalents, if possible. Example: deshonorar ‘to dishonour’; des- + honorar ‘to honour’ (Moliner 1994). 1. desacuerdo 2. desaparecer 3. desaprovechar 4. desarmar 5. desconectar 6. desconfiar 7. desestimar 8. deshumanizar 9. desilusionar 10. desorganización 11. despedir 12. despertar 13. después 14. destruir 15. desvalorizar

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English Complex Words

Key II.

1 disability; 2 discomfort; 3 distrust; 4 disobedience; 5 disarm; 6 disconnect; 7 disuse; 8 dishonest; 9 dispassionate; 10 disbelief; 11 disharmony; 12 disregard; 13 disorder; 14 disapproval; 15 discontinuation; 16 disproportion III. 1 organize; 2 prove; 3 believe; 4 establish; 5 arrange; 6 claim IV. German 1 einige Meinungsverschiedenheiten zwischen den Parteien; 2 ein Missverhältnis von Frauen in Führungspositionen; 3 die Diskontinuität der einzelnen Entwicklungsphasen; 4 sein Unmut über unsere Staatsform; 5 ein Zeichen von Untreue der schlimmsten Sorte; 6 ein weiterer Nachteil bei Verhandlungen French 1 quelques désaccords entre les partis; 2 une disproportion de femmes dans les postes de direction; 3 la discontinuité des phases particulières de développement; 4 son mécontentement envers notre forme de gouvernement; 5 un signe de déloyauté de la pire espèce; 6 un autre désavantage dans les négociations Slovenian 1 nekaj nesoglasja med strankama; 2 nesorazmerje žensk v vodstvenih vlogah; 3 diskontinuiteta posameznih razvojnih faz; 4 njegovo nezadovoljstvo z našo obliko vladanja; 5 znak nelojalnosti najhujše vrste; 6 še ena pomanjkljivost pri pogajanjih Lithuanian 1 tam tikri nesutarimai tarp šalių; 2 moterų disproporcija vadovaujančiose pareigose; 3 konkrečių vystymosi fazių pertrūkiai; 4 jo nepasitenkinimas mūsų valdymo forma; 5 blogiausio pobūdžio nelojalumo ženklas; 6 dar vienas trūkumas derybose VII. 1. desacuerdo ‘disagreement’; des- + acuerdo ‘agreement’ 2. desaparecer ‘to disappear’; des- + aparecer ‘to appear’ 3. desaprovechar ‘to fail to take advantage of ’; des- + aprovechar ‘to take advantage of ’ 4. desarmar ‘to disarm’; des- + armar ‘to arm’ 5. desconectar ‘to disconnect’; des- + conectar ‘to connect’ 6. desconfiar ‘to distrust’; des- + confiar ‘to trust’ 7. desestimar ‘to have a low opinion of ’; des- + estimar ‘to appreciate’ 8. deshumanizar ‘to dehumanize’; des- + humanizar ‘to humanize’ 9. desilusionar ‘to disillusion’; des- + ilusionar ‘to deceive (give false hopes)’ 10. desorganización ‘disorganization’; des- + organización ‘organization’ 11. despedir ‘to see off (say goodbye)’; ? des; pedir ‘to ask for (request, order)’ 12. despertar ‘to wake up (awaken)’; ? des; pertar – does not exist



Chapter 1.  Prefixation



13. después ‘later (afterwards)’; ? des; pués – does not exist; pues ‘well, well then’ 14. destruir ‘to destroy (ruin)’; ? des; truir – does not exist 15. desvalorizar ‘to devalue’; des- + valorizar ‘to value’

downIntroduction The native prefix down- attaches to nouns (downstairs), adjectives (downlow) and verbs (download). It is a locative prefix, conveying a sense of spatial relationship. More specifically, the prefix adds the sense of a lower position or (imagined) movement towards a lower location. The prefix down- is weakly productive nowadays. It originated in English, by conversion. In Old English, it was attested early as being prefixed to verbs. Meaning: – in a downward direction, down

Construction I. The prefix down- adds the sense of ‘a lower position or (imagined) movement towards a lower location’. In the following example, this sense is intensified by the fact that the second element (river) of the derivative is an entity which naturally moves between its higher and lower point. We fell asleep in the boat and floated downriver. (COCA) With the help of the OED, spell out as precisely as possible what the semantic contribution of the prefix down- is within the following formations: downtown, downstairs, downhill, downside, downturn, downstream, downfall, downplay, downtime, downgrade, downpour, downsize Check if it is possible to replace down- with up- in the above derivatives. II. Complete the gapped down- derivatives with bases of your choice. 1. his down…… and subsequent imprisonment 2. a sudden down…… of rain 3. credit down…… and massive accumulated national debt 4. the down…… in the economy 5. one small down…… to this recipe 6. with his eyes down……

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English Complex Words

Translation III. Choose the best element from among (a-d) to complete the down- formations. Translate the completed sentences into the language of your choice. 1. Gypsies have regularly been undercounted, both by regimes anxious to down…… their profile and by Gypsies themselves, seeking to avoid bureaucracies. (NG0401) a. act b. count c. play d. grade 2. Only a week earlier a container ship had run aground near where we were, costing its owners six days of down…… while it was refloated. (NG1199) a. money b. time c. period d. week 3. Without its high-tech sector, Taiwan could face rising unemployment – and the specter of an economic down…… (NW140800) a. turn b. pour c. fall d. slide 4. It was necessary for Joe to hold on heavily to the table with his left elbow, and to get his right leg well out behind him, before he could begin, and when he did begin, he made every down-…… so slowly that it might have been six feet long, while at every upstroke I could hear his pen spluttering extensively. (Dickens_1965_474) a. move b. strike c. turn d. stroke

Key II. 1 fall; 2 pour; 3 grade; 4 turn; 5 side; 6 cast III. 1 c; 2 b; 3 a; 4 d



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

en-/emIntroduction The prefix en- (like its spelling variant em-) produces causative verbs, alongside the suffixes -ize, -ify and -ate. Its productivity is very low in present-day English. It can be seen in several lexicalized formations, such as: bitter > embitter, dear > endear, gross > engross, large > enlarge, rich > enrich etc. English prefixed words are partly adaptations of French (and occasionally Spanish) words and partly original formations in English. From the 14th cent. onwards, the prefix in-/im- was frequently substituted for en-/em-; and, conversely, en-/em- was replaced with the prefix in-/im- in words of Latin or Italian origin. Nearly every derivation now spelled with en- was at some point also written with in-. In the 17th cent., the variants in-/im- were generally preferred. Now, the prevailing tendency is to use en-/em- in English formations, and where the prefix represents the French en-. In a few cases (ensure, insure), the alternative forms have been established to express different senses. Sources: Szymanek (1989: 286–287); the OED

Construction I. In modern orthography and pronunciation, en- changes to em- before b and p, and occasionally before m. Fill in the gaps with either m or n. 1. to feel e…bittered 2. to e…dorse a candidate 3. so e…grossed in playing the games 4. the revolution that had so recently e…gulfed France 5. an e…raged young woman 6. racial segregation was e…shrined in law 7. to e…large his readership 8. to e…slave others 9. to e…trap others

Translation II. Translate the en-/em- formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. The company’s goal is to embed itself wherever it does business. 2. The hate groups have clearly been emboldened by that kind of rhetoric and the economic crisis. 3. The Central Prison, like the rest of Macau, is engulfed by lawlessness six months before the Portuguese colony is to be returned to China. (NW160599)

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English Complex Words

4. The pained littleness of her steps reinforces his illusion that her hips are encased in a plaster cast. (Updike_1964_121) 5. All the articles shared the neglected appearance of this last item: each enshrined a sentimental memory which no one bothered to recall […]. (Lodge_1993_45) 6. Alice crouched down among the trees as well as she could, for her neck kept getting entangled among the branches […]. (Carroll_1988_41) 7. Why was it that whenever you did someone a good turn, they entwined you with their tentacles […]? (Lodge_1993_62)

Key I. 1 m; 2–9 n

exIntroduction The non-native prefix ex- attaches to nouns (ex-husband). It can also be seen on bound bases (expose). It is a temporal prefix, conveying a sense comparable to that of former. It is prefixed indiscriminately to nouns designating persons with respect to their calling, standing, character etc. (ex-wife). Typically, the base noun denotes a temporary function/position, title of office or dignity, which is not given to a person for ever or has been formerly held. In a narrower sense, prefixed formations denote the immediate predecessor (when still living) of the present holder of the position. The prefixed base noun can be preceded by a possessive pronoun (my ex-girlfriend), in which case exrelates to the temporary state of possession, rather than to the temporary state of girlfriendhood. The prefix ex- is highly productive in contemporary English. Occasionally, it can be spotted as a noun, e.g., I bumped into my ex yesterday. In Latin, two spelling forms were used, ex- and ē. The Latin formations with exbelong to the following classes (all of which are represented by English derivatives): – deverbal verbs; in some of these, ex- has its primary sense of ‘out’, ‘forth’ (exclūdĕre ‘exclude’); in some, the prefix means ‘upward’ (extollĕre ‘extol’); in others, it has the sense ‘thoroughly’ (excruciāre ‘excruciate’) – deadjectival verbs with the sense ‘to bring into a certain state’ (exacerbāre ‘exacerbate’) – denominal verbs with the senses ‘to remove, expel, or relieve from’ (expatriāre ‘expatriate’), and ‘to deprive of ’ (excoriāre ‘excoriate’/‘criticize’) – denominal adjectives with the sense ‘deprived of something’ (exsanguis ‘exsanguineous’/‘bloodless’) Sources: Bauer (1991: 219); Bauer et al. (2013: 335–339, 347–348); the OED



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

Construction I. The forty most frequent nouns combining with ex- (COCA260322): wife(s) husband(s) girlfriend(s) boyfriend(s) con(s) president(s) cop marine military lover(s)

gay convict(s) partner CIA offender(s) spouse(s) Soviet governor fiance fiancee

navy employee slave(s) pat felons mayor boss smoker(s) post communist

soldier(s) member(s) friend army FBI KGB football player(s) senator dividend

Given the high productivity of ex- in present-day English, make a list of further twenty or so formations with this prefix, adding particularly novel formations. II. Complete the gaps with the most appropriate base in the correct grammatical form. There is one word too many: wife, Nazi, despot, chancellor, novelist, employee, skinhead, congressman, religious 1. The conservative daily Die Welt contended that the coalition was already so badly fractured that the SPD might dump the Greens and hook up instead with the liberal Free Democrats, the junior partners in ex-………… Helmut Kohl’s government. (NW220299) 2. Al Gore’s advisers include Tom Downey, an ex-………… who lobbies for clients like Microsoft. (NW301000) 3. Guarded by loyal members of the Serbian secret police, the ex-………… and his equally unpopular wife, Mirjana Markovic, still dwell in splendor in a hilltop villa in Belgrade’s Dedinje neighborhood. (NW150101) 4. Hass is a disgruntled ex-………… seeking revenge because he felt shafted by Smith & Wesson. (NW250199) 5. The ex-………… was furious at such stinginess. She said his payments to her were already “a mere plate of lentils” (to the tune of roughly $860,000 a year). (NW161198) 6. Since leaving the convent she had suffered from a kind of spiritual numbness which, she knew, was a common malady of religious, and probably ex-…… …… too. (Lodge_1993_37) 7. Under secretive programs, hundreds of ex-………… were spirited to the United States to work in intelligence, administration and technology. (NW141298) 8. Madeleine Albright phoned Adem Demaci, an obscure ex-………… with coke-bottle glasses who last year emerged as the political power behind the ragtag Kosovo Liberation Army. (NW080399)

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Translation III. Provide English ex- equivalents of the translations in bold. O’Connor is divorced, and her children have different fathers, the former by an były mąż (1), the latter by an były chłopak (2). (TE120600) IV. Provide the missing South Slavic equivalents of the ex- formations denoting people:  

Bulgarian

Slovenian Croatian

Serbian Macedonian Bosnian

ex-girlfriend бивше гадже/ bivshe gadzhe*; bivsha priyatelka/ бивша приятелка

 

 

 

poranešna devojka

 

ex-boyfriend  

bivši fant

 

 

 

bivši momak

ex-wife

 

 

bivša žena bivša žena

 

 

ex-husband

бивш съпруг/ bivsh sŭprug

 

bivši muž

bivši muž

poranešen soprug

 

 

 

bivši predsjednik

ex-president  

bivši   predsednik

* In Bulgarian, bivsha priyatelka/ бивша приятелка is ‘ex-girlfriend’; bivshe gadzhe/ бившо гадже (coll.) means ‘an ex of either sex’.

Spell out the methods of rendering ex- formations in the above South Slavic languages. V. Translate the ex- words in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. A year later, Blair is getting his own small taste of what an ex-aide calls “the soap-opera part of politics” […]. (NW250199) 2. Unlike the flashy cabaret boss, ex-banker Sasaki approaches art history with an accountant’s precision. (NW040900) 3. The conviction of Raúl for the murder of Ruiz Massieu, the PRI president and his ex-brother-in-law, was welcomed by many Mexicans but dumfounded legal experts. (NW161000)



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

4. The prosecutor who slapped Kevorkian with a murder-one charge last week won office on a promise that he wouldn’t waste time hauling the ex-pathologist into court. (NW071298) 5. Brown, while bargaining, had a sort of grim enjoyment in thinking of his wretched schooner, with nothing but a heap of dirt in her hold, that stood for an armed ship, and a Chinaman and a lame ex-beachcomber of Levuka on board, who represented all his many men. (Conrad_1949_276) 6. “I’ve been tailing the Deacon case suspect.” “Ex-suspect, Harry.” “OK … I’ve been tailing the ex-suspect in the Deacon case.” (Rock_1977_118) 7. The ex-prizefighter McMurdo had, I found, been arrested as an accessory, and both he and Mr. Sholto had been marched off to the station. (Doyle_1951_124) 8. […] and he laughed to think that for a few moments he, Passepartout, the ex-gymnast, ex-sergeant fireman, had been the spouse of a charming woman, a venerable, embalmed rajah! (Verne_1991a_99)

Key II. 1 chancellor; 2 congressman; 3 despot; 4 employee; 5 wife; 6 religious; 7 Nazis; 8 novelist [skinhead – out] III. 1 ex-husband; 2 ex-boyfriend

extraIntroduction The non-native prefix extra- attaches to nouns (extra-mission) and adjectives (extramarital). It is a locative prefix, conveying a sense of spatial relationship. More specifically, the prefix adds the sense of going out of/beyond a given scope. Thus, a nuance of excess is involved. Moreover, extra- appears in affixed words expressing quantification (extra-large, extra-long). Nowadays, the prefix extra- is moderately productive on adjectives. The prefix is of Latin origin. In the classical period, the Latin adverb and preposition extrā did not occur in complex formations. However, the adjective extraordinārius ‘extraordinary’, derived from the phrase extrā ordinem ‘outside the regular order’, appeared in this period. In post-classical Latin, a few verbs were formed (extrāclūdĕre ‘to shut out’, extrāvagārī ‘to wander outside’). Late Latin had extrāmūrānus (cf. extramural) from extrā mūrum (or mūrōs). In medieval Latin, many similar adjectives were formed and used in phrases in which extrā functioned as a preposition. Some of these were adopted in English (extra-provincial). Sources: Bauer et al. (2013: 335–339, 345–347); the OED

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Construction I. The thirty most frequent formations with the prefix extra- (COCA260322): extraordinary extravagant extracurricular extraterrestrial extramarital extra-virgin extravagance extracellular extrapolation extrasolar

extra-large extraversion extrajudicial extraterritorial extra-base extra-long extralegal extragalactic extra-wide extra-special

extrasensory extramural extratropical extra-firm extra-point extra-credit extra-inning extra-constitutional extra-strength extramusical

Propose ten more formations with the prefix extra-. Check their availability and frequency in COCA. II. Add the correct prefix, either ex- or extra-, and translate the prefixed words into the language of your choice. 1. Many experts in the field argue that Pinochet can be held to account for the 2,095 ……judicial executions and deaths under torture […]. (NW071298) 2. She spent Christmas with her family in West Sussex and reportedly flew to Morocco with ……boyfriend Tarka Cordell […]. (NW250199) 3. “The message to ……dictators is: don’t move,” says Vivanco of Human Rights Watch. “Maybe you are untouchable where you are, but as soon as you cross borders, you could be caught.” (NW021198) 4. She said that she had known nothing about his ……marital sex life but reflected that at the time she had been in a state of denial. (TS260521) 5. I thought maybe he had what the accidental-insurance people might call an ……hazardous polish (“policy” – joke, but not above mediocrity) on his boots, and wished to protect them […]. (Twain_1966_288) 6. One of the best illustrations of this which I know of is in the case of an …… slave from Virginia whom I met not long ago in a little town in the state of Ohio. (Washington_1965_ 23) 7. One summer’s day he saw poor Anne Askew and three men burned at the stake in Smithfield and heard an ……bishop preach a sermon to them which did not interest him. (Twain_1964_18) 8. […] for it is only women who manage to put at times into their love an element just palpable enough to give one a fright – an ……terrestrial touch. (Conrad_1973_209)



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

9. “……Lieutenant Karamazov, it is my duty to inform you that you are charged with the murder of your father, Fyodor Pavlovitch Karamazov, perpetrated this night […].” (Dostoevsky_1991_780) III. Complete the gapped extra- formations with: cellular, constitutional, curricular, judicial, marital, solar, terrestrial, territorial. 1. Taiwanese firms now prohibit their senior managers from having long-term extra…… affairs with local women. 2. This was what might be described as an extra-…… crisis. 3. There was no disclosure of extra…… life visiting our world. 4. During our experiments, extra…… spiking was recorded from multiple sites simultaneously. 5. There continued to be reports of extra…… killings and disappearances. 6. Congress has granted the FBI extra…… jurisdiction. 7. You have to keep your extra-…… affairs in check. 8. That’s one of the main ways by which extra-…… planets have been detected.

Translation IV. Four English phrases containing extra- formations have been translated (GT & NS) into four languages: Icelandic, Spanish, Polish and Latvian. 1. long-term extramarital affairs 2. an extra-constitutional crisis 3. disclosure of extraterrestrial life 4. your extra-curricular affairs Icelandic 1. langtímasambönd utan hjónabands 2. (GT) kreppa utan stjórnarskrár; (NS?) 3. uppljóstrun um geimverulíf 4. (GT) utanskólamálin þín; (NS) þátttaka í félagslífi / viðfangsefni utan skólans Spanish 1. relaciones extramatrimoniales a largo plazo 2. una crisis extraconstitucional 3. descubrimiento de vida extraterrestre 4. tus asuntos extracurriculares Polish 1. długotrwałe romanse pozamałżeńskie 2. (GT) pozakonstytucyjny kryzys; (NS) kryzys pozakonstytucyjny 3. ujawnienie życia pozaziemskiego 4. (GT) twoje zajęcia pozalekcyjne; (NS) twoje sprawy pozaszkolne / twoje dodatkowe zajęcia

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Latvian 1. ilgstoši ārlaulības sakari/ ilgstošas ​​ārlaulības attiecības 2. (GT) ārpuskonstitucionālā krīze; (NS) krīze, par kuru nekas nav teikts kon­ stitūcijā / konstitūcijā neparedzēta krīze 3. ārpuszemes dzīvības atklāšana 4. (GT) jūsu ārpusskolas *lietas; (NS) jūsu  ārpusskolas nodarbības / nodarbes/ aktivitātes Spell out the methods of rendering extra- formations in Icelandic, Spanish, Polish and Latvian.

Key II. 1 extra; 2 ex-; 3 ex-; 4 extra; 5 extra; 6 ex-; 7 ex-; 8 extra-; 9 ExIII. 1 marital; 2 constitutional; 3 terrestrial; 4 cellular; 5 judicial; 6 territorial; 7 curricular; 8 solar

foreIntroduction The native prefix fore- attaches to nouns (forefather) and verbs (foresee). As a locative prefix, conveying a sense of spatial relationship, it adds the sense of a position preceding that occupied by the referent to the meaning of the whole word. The position may be either spatial or temporal. The prefix fore- is weakly productive nowadays. In Old English, the adverb fore (like its equivalent in various Germanic languages) was used as a prefix, and was added: – to verbs, giving the additional sense of ‘before’ (either in time, position, order, or rank) – to nouns either forming names of objects or parts of objects occupying a front position, or expressing anteriority in time. Compare: Old English forecweðan, Gothic fauraqiþan, Old High German foraquedan ‘to predict’; Old English foregangan, Gothic fauragaggan ‘to precede’; Old English foretóð, German vorzahn ‘front tooth’ etc. Sources: Bauer (1991: 218); Bauer et al. (2013: 340–346); the OED



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

Construction I. Complete the gapped fore- formations with an appropriate noun: arm, cast, father, finger, head, leg, lock, paw. 1. the sins of my fore… 2. beads of sweat on his fore… 3. behind the horse’s left fore… 4. the tangled woolly fore… 5. its remaining hair in her fore… 6. marking the points with a lean fore… 7. a fore… for the further development of platforms 8. a tattoo on his fore…

Translation II. Provide the missing equivalents of the English fore- formations denoting bodyparts in Germanic languages. Search for any morphological relations, if there are any, between the English formations and their Germanic equivalents.   1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

forearm forefinger forehead foreleg forepaw

German

Dutch

Swedish Norwegian Danish

  Zeigefinger     Vorderpfote

onderarm         panna   framben voorpoot  

  pekefinger panne    

underarm     forben  

Icelandic framhandleggur   enni   framlappir

III. Translate the key formations in contexts into the language of your choice. 1. Many banks overextended credit to farmers and then had to foreclose on those not able to pay back their loans. 2. Neighbors of Betty Brown, a poor widow, came to the foreclosure auction and forbade anyone to bid more than ten cents for any item. 3. In the late 1980s, hardly anyone foresaw the boom in mobile telephony. IV. Translate the fore- formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. The prisoner had been placed in the fore-cabin, where he remained quiet, silent, apparently deaf and dumb. (Verne_1991b_475) 2. I spent my days perched up there on the extreme fore-end of that roof, before the door. (Conrad_1973_79) 3. Among us you can create yourself fore-fathers; you can always find relations. (Aristophanes_1991_63)

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4. I found Uriah reading a great fat book, with such demonstrative attention, that his lank forefinger followed up every line as he read. (Dickens_1958_160) 5. So they began solemnly dancing round and round Alice, every now and then treading on her toes when they passed too close, and waving their forepaws to mark the time […]. (Carroll_1988_71) 6. When the storm was over, we set foresail and main-sail, and brought the ship to. Then we set the mizen, main-top-sail, and the fore-top-sail. (Swift_1964_70)

Key I. 1 father; 2 head; 3 leg; 4 lock; 5 paw; 6 finger; 7 cast; 8 arm

hyperIntroduction The non-native prefix hyper- usually attaches to nouns (hypercar), adjectives (hyperactive), or verbs (hyperaccelerate), carrying the sense of augmentation or excess. It is synonymous with the prefix super- (however, a hypercar is faster and more expensive than a supercar). The prefix hyper- is very productive in contemporary English. The prefix is of Greek origin. The preposition and adverb ὑπερ- ‘over, beyond, over much, above measure’ combined with verbs in the locative sense ‘over, above, beyond’ (ὑπερβαίνειν ‘to step over’, ‘overstep’, ‘cross’, ὑπερβάλλειν ‘to throw over or beyond’). It also combined with nouns (ὑπερβατός ‘going across’). In denominal adjectives, formations implied that the thing or quality was present beyond the expected amount (ὑπέρκαλος ‘exceedingly beautiful’). In adjectives combining prepositions with nouns, the prefix carried the sense of ‘lying or going beyond’, ‘surpassing’ (ὑπερβόρεος ‘that which is beyond the north’). Only some of these were adopted in English (hyperbole, hyperborean), but since the 17th cent. onwards, hyper- has been used extensively, usually on Greek analogies, in many new formations. Sources: Bauer et al. (2013: 404–405); the OED

Construction I. The thirty most frequent formations with the prefix hyper- (COCA280322): hypertension hyperbole hyperactivity hyperbolic hyperactive hyperinflation

hypersensitive hypertensive hyperplasia hypersensitivity hypertrophy hypersonic

hyperbaric hypertrophic hyperthermia hyperventilation hyperlocal hyperglycemia



Chapter 1.  Prefixation hyperspace hypertext hyperventilating hyperlink(s)

hyperdrive hyperventilate hypermedia hyperloop

hypermasculinity hyperkinetic hypervisor hyperlinked

Propose ten other derivations with the prefix hyper-. Specifically, look for novel formations. II. Complete hyper- formations with the most appropriate base (a-d). Translate these formations into the language of your choice. 1. With so many powerful forces in play, technology could hyper………………… to the stars with stunning rapidity, or it could stall completely. (TE190600) a. stimulate b. precipitate c. accelerate d. deteriorate 2. Today’s hyper……………….. has improved the social climate. Almost all indicators of confidence have increased. (NW300899) a. stability b. prosperity c. propensity d. rapidity 3. The team reflects the angular assurance and will of its modern-day shaman – the hyper………………, idiosyncratically authoritarian coach, Phil Jackson. (NW190600) a. successful b. careful c. stressful d. wrongful

Translation III. Three English phrases containing hyper- formations have been translated (GT & NS) into four languages: Swedish, Italian, Serbian and Albanian. 1. a new, useful drug against hypertension 2. the presence or absence of hyperactivity 3. in the context of hyperinflation Swedish 1. (GT) ett nytt, användbart läkemedel mot högt blodtryck; (NS) ett nytt, användbart läkemedel mot hypertoni 2. närvaron eller frånvaron av hyperaktivitet 3. i samband med hyperinflation

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Italian 1. (GT) un nuovo, utile farmaco contro l’ipertensione; (NS) un nuovo farmaco, utile contro l’ipertensione 2. la presenza o l’assenza di iperattività 3. (GT) nel contesto dell’iperinflazione; (NS) in un contesto di iperinflazione Serbian 1. нови, користан лек против хипертензије / novi, koristan lek protiv hiper­tenzije 2. присуство или одсуство хиперактивности / prisustvo ili odsustvo hiper­aktivnosti 3. у контексту хиперинфлације /u kontekstu hiperinflacije Albanian 1. një ilaç i ri, i dobishëm kundër hipertensionit 2. prania ose mungesa e hiperaktivitetit 3. në kushtet e hiperinflacionit Enumerate all three equivalents of the above English hyper- formations in Swedish, Italian, Serbian and Albanian. 1. Swedish: 2. Italian: 3. Serbian: 4. Albanian: IV. Translate the underlined fragments into the language of your choice. 1. This huge influx of hyperachieving techno-migrants has transformed Silicon Valley into a “majority minority” microcosm of America’s racial future. (NW180800) 2. Are you becoming hyper-aware of someone else’s toenails, whether attached to their host or not? (TS291020) 3. Many women, desperate to conceive and daunted by the high cost of treatment, pressure their doctors into letting them go ahead – even if their ovaries have been “hyperstimulated.” (NW110199) 4. In our age of tabloid politics and hyperventilating 24-hour political talk, when good will is gone and Larry Flynt shares air time with the Founding Fathers, can the Senate bring a dignified end to the trial (and trials) of Bill Clinton? (NW110199) 5. Karen Hughes, Bush’s hypervigilant press secretary, was hunkered down in Austin, working on speeches and a promotional book. (NW300899)

Key II. 1 c; 2 b; 3 a



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

in- (il-/im-/ir-) Introduction The prefix in- (and its allomorphic variants il-, im-, ir-) is a negative (negating) formative, affixed to adjectives, and to nominalizations derived from these. The variants are distributed in the following way: im- before m, p, b il- before l ir- before r in- elsewhere

mobile > immobile, possible > impossible, balance > imbalance legible > illegible regular > irregular apt > inapt, calculable > incalculable, flexible > inflexible

The prefix in- can be found in numerous formations, though it participates in relatively few new derivational processes. The prefix is a borrowing from Latin or Romance languages. In classical Latin, in- was prefixed to adjectives and their derivatives, expressing negation or privation (infēlix ‘unhappy’, indoctus ‘unlearned’). In earlier Latin, in- was used before all consonants, but later, it was subject to assimilations, such as illitterātus ‘illiterate’, immensus ‘immense’ and irregulāris ‘irregular’. In a few Old French words, Latin in- became en(Latin inimīcus > Old French enemi ‘enemy’). Most French words containing this prefix are high register items, and retain Latin in- (il-, im-, ir-), as is also the case in English with words adopted either from French, or directly from Latin. In English, apart from formations ultimately of Latin or Romance origin, a few exceptions, as early as the 16th cent., were of Germanic origin (inspeakable, intellable, infree). Sources: Szymanek (1989: 271–272); Bauer (1991: 219); Bauer et al. (2013: Ch. 17); the OED; see other negative prefixes: dis-, non-, un-

Construction I. Consider the following construction patterns: in…able The Russian Ministry of Health still classifies severely retarded children as “idiots” – those worst off – and “imbeciles” – children who are judged “ineducable.” (NW211298) in…able-ness The insufferableness of life at home had overcome him and he had returned to New York two days early. (O’Connor_1983_370)

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in…able-ity And only in the 19th century, after Darwin, was the supposed irreconcilability between “God” and “science” elevated to the status of cultural myth. (NW270798) Divide the following in-/im- formations into their basic components. Certain modifications of the bases may be required. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

imperishable incompetence inequality intolerable incomprehensible inconsequence invincibility inaccessible inconvenience impenetrable insubordination insurmountable inextinguishable

………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… …………

II. Construct complete in-/ir- formations by appropriately modifying the base (given in italics) and suffixing it with a suffix (or two suffixes) of your choice. Example:

gradations of in-……… (exact)

→

inexactitude

1. express the in-……… (express) 2. photographs of in-……… (express) victims 3. his in-……… (able) to become emotionally involved 4. her original faith in his in-……… (fall) 5. an in-……… (dispute) intensification of colonialism 6. a period of in-……… (act) 7. a manuscript is ir-……… (replace) 8. the point of in-……… (civil) 9. in-……… (glory) history 10. a drunken, in-……… (effect) failure III. Match each gapped phrase on the left with the best adjectival in- formation on the right: 1. 2. 3. 4.

a raging, … desire the … weaknesses a simple, … man an … part of the universe

inadequate incautious inexpugnable inscrutable

Chapter 1.  Prefixation 49

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

… parental authority fourteen … travelers … images Singapore’s … justice system Karen’s … eyes several … employees his … admiration of his younger sister … examples

intolerable innumerable insubordinate inarticulate incoherent inanimate inflexible inordinate

IV. Match each gapped phrase with the best nominal in- formation on the right: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

the … of capitalism a moment’s … the possibility of … English … a general … of government policy mental … regular … his youth and …

infidelity inhospitality inevitability incapacity inattention inexperience incoherence indiscipline

Translation V. Five English phrases containing negated in- formations have been translated (GT & NS) into four languages: Norwegian, Portuguese, Croatian and Welsh. infertile land / infrequent practices / inhuman cruelty / insecure way / infinite capacities Arrange the above English phrases in the order in which they have been translated into each language. 1. … 2. … 3. … 4. … 5. … Norwegian 1. umenneskelig grusomhet 2. sjeldne praksiser 3. (GT) uendelige kapasiteter; (NS?) 4. ufruktbart land 5. usikker måte

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Portuguese 1. crueldade desumana 2. (GT) práticas pouco frequentes; (NS) práticas infrequentes 3. capacidades infinitas 4. terra infértil 5. maneira insegura Croatian 1. (GT) neljudske okrutnosti (pl); (NS) neljudska okrutnost (sg) 2. rijetke prakse 3. (GT) beskonačni kapaciteti; (NS) neograničeni kapaciteti 4. neplodna zemlja 5. nesiguran način Welsh 1. creulondeb annynol 2. arferion anaml 3. galluoedd anfeidrol 4. tir anffrwythlon 5. ffordd ansicr Spell out the methods of rendering negated in- formations in Norwegian, Portuguese, Croatian and Welsh. VI. Complete the gapped formations with the right spelling variant of the in- prefix and appropriate ending. Next, translate the key formations into the language of your choice. 1. their mystique and …compare… glory 2. an …decipher… Morse code of heels and toes against wooden floorboards 3. a muscular, apparently …destruct… Irishman 4. basketball fans …distinguish… from football hooligans 5. …measure… devastation 6. an air of …perturb… capability 7. the most …repress… optimist 8. the …sensit… overdevelopment of the jagged coastline VII. Translate the key formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. There was one other object in the garden which Nature might fairly claim as her inalienable property […]. (Hawthorne_1961_82) 2. Yet there was a remarkable gentleness and childishness about these people, a special inaptitude for any kind of sharp practice […]. (Dickens_1987_46) 3. Madame Merle had made him a present of incalculable value. (James_1963_323) 4. The lawn and drive had been crowded with the faces of those who guessed at his corruption – and he had stood on those steps, concealing his incorruptible dream, as he waved them goodbye. (Fitzgerald_1974_160)



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

5. There was an indescribable something in his tone that made both the other two look at him curiously. (Christie_1940_54) 6. The book is indestructible. (Orwell_1986_144) 7. His clothes differed in no respect from a “wharf rat’s,” except that they were raggeder, more ill-assorted and inharmonious […]. (Twain_1961_323) 8. […] wherein the justness of their similes, and the minuteness, as well as exactness of their descriptions, are indeed inimitable. (Swift_1964_262) 9. […] he had rendered subservient the illimitable forces of electricity, which, extracted from inexhaustible sources, was employed for all the requirements of his floating equipage as a moving, lighting, and heating agent. (Verne_1991b_774) 10. […] only a year ago others had stood in their place when these were nothing more than germs and inorganic particles. (Hardy_1975_202) 11. I have taken to the sofa with my staylace cut, and have lain there hours, insensible, with my head over the side […]. (Dickens_1965_115) 12. As a talker, he is bound to clog his narrative with tiresome details and make himself an insufferable bore. (Twain_1961_89) 13. The inutility of her best efforts, however, palsied the poor old gentlewoman. (Hawthorne_1961_197) 14. Now, aware of my invisibility, I live rent-free in a building rented strictly to whites […]. (Ellison_1972_5)

Key I. 1 im/perish/able; 2 in/compet(ent)/ence; 3 in/equal/ity; 4 in/toler(ate)/able; 5 in/ comprehen(d/s)/ible; 6 in/consequ(ent)/ence; 7 in/vincib(i)l(e)/ity; 8 in/access/ible; 9 in/conveni(ent)/ence; 10 im/penetr(ate)/able; 11 in/subordinat(e)/ion; 12 in/sur/ mount/able; 13 in/extinguish/able II. 1 inexpressible; 2 inexpressive; 3 inability; 4 infallibility; 5 indisputable; 6 inactivity; 7 irreplaceable; 8 incivility; 9 inglorious; 10 ineffectual III. 1 intolerable; 2 inexpugnable; 3 inarticulate; 4 inanimate; 5 inadequate; 6 incautious; 7 incoherent; 8 inflexible; 9 inscrutable; 10 insubordinate; 11 inordinate; 12 innumerable IV. 1 inevitability; 2 inattention; 3 infidelity; 4 inhospitality; 5 incoherence; 6 incapacity; 7 indiscipline; 8 inexperience V. 1 inhuman cruelty; 2 infrequent practices; 3 infinite capacities; 4 infertile land; 5 insecure way VI. 1 in- / -able; 2 in- / -able; 3 in- / -ible; 4 in- / -able; 5 im- / -able; 6 im- / -able; 7 ir- / -ible; 8 in- / -ive

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interIntroduction The non-native prefix inter- attaches to nouns (interdependence), adjectives (interracial) and verbs (intermarry). The prefix can also be seen on bound bases (interdict). It is a locative prefix, conveying a sense of spatial relationship. More specifically, the prefix usually adds the sense of an imaginary (fictive) link associating two (separate) entities. Also fictively, the link may connote a temporal relationship between events/activities. The prefix inter- is quite productive nowadays. Usually by analogy, inter- has been freely used to form new derivations with verbs, nouns and adjectives. The Latin preposition and adverb, meaning ‘between, among, amid, in between, in the midst’, was used with verbs, adjectives, and nouns (intercēdĕre ‘to go between’, intercipĕre ‘intercept’, intercilium ‘the space between the eyebrows’, interregnum ‘the time between two reigns’). These formations were taken over and developed in late Latin and the Romance languages. English has inter- formations borrowed from French (earlier), and directly from Latin (later). The French form of the prefix was entre(entrechange) or enter- (entercourse). Between the 15th and 17th cent., entre- and enter- gradually yielded to the Latin inter-. In some cases, English received from Latin and French both the simple word and its inter- derivation (change ~ inter-change, commune ~ inter-commune). Apart from complex words of Latin and French origin, English also exhibits some native formations (inter-twine, inter-talk, inter-tidal); cf. the prefix intra-. Sources: Bauer (1991: 220); Bauer et al. (2013: 335–339, 346); the OED

Construction I. Based on a frequency analysis in COCA, the most frequent words beginning with inter can hardly be analysed as prefixed in contemporary English. Out of the thirty most frequent word types, the following are only very weakly recognized as prefixed: international, interest, interesting, internet, interview(s), interested, interests, internal, intervention(s), interpretation(s), interaction(s), interior, interviewed, interactive, interact, interface, interpret(ed), interviewing, interrupted, interstate, interference, interfere, interestingly, interim, intersection Even if the formal separation of inter from the rest of the word is possible, e.g., inter + net, the whole word is hardly ever perceived as prefixed. Contrary to interview or interface, formations such as: an international celebrity, inter-tribal fighting and bloodshed, smoother inter-Korean relations are understood as prefixed. Using COCA, compile a list of twenty inter- derivations which are segmentable into the prefix and a free base (non-bound), carrying a composite meaning.



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

II. Complete the gapped inter- formations with the following bases, adjusting their forms: depend, Korea, marry. 1. In the countryside, there is a degree of inter……… and altruism uncommon in cities. 2. With no inter-……… telephone or postal services, they, and millions of other families like them, still lack the means to keep in touch. (NW231000) 3. Millions of Hispanics are also moving into the middle class, speaking English, inter-……… and spending cash. (NW120799)

Translation III. Translate the inter- formations in contexts into the language of your choice. 1. Poirot and the doctor again interchanged swift glances. (Christie_1963_144) 2. In the absence of any real intercommunication between one part of Oceania and another, this was not difficult to arrange. (Orwell_1986_71) 3. There were courses in comparative religion and inter-faith relations, and centres for the study of Judaism, Islam and Hinduism, as well as courses on every aspect of Christianity. (Lodge_1992_34) 4. Cursed be that mortal inter-indebtedness which will not do away with ledgers. (Melville_1967_392) 5. His “house” […] had a large inter-island business, with a lot of trading posts established in the most out-of-the-way places for collecting the produce. (Conrad_1949_154) 6. They were a close-mouthed and stiff-necked family, who kept strictly to themselves and intermarried with their Carolina relatives […]. (Mitchell_1958_45) IV. The prefix inter- is recognized across languages. Find the best English equivalents of the following complex words in Swedish beginning with the sequence inter, not necessarily the prefix (after Prismas Engelsk Svensk/Svensk Engelsk Ordbok (1995)). 1. interlokutör 2. internatskola 3. internordisk

4. interpellant 5. interpunktion 6. interregnum

Key II. 1 dependence; 2 Korean; 3 marrying IV. 1 interlocutor; 2 boarding school; 3 inter-Nordic; 4 questioner / interpellator; 5 punctuation; 6 interregnum

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intraIntroduction The non-native prefix intra- attaches to nouns (intranet) and adjectives (intra-European). As a locative prefix, conveying a sense of spatial relationship, it adds the sense of an imaginary (fictive) link joining two elements within one entity. Given a base with temporal or eventive connotations, the prefix can also be seen as a fictive temporal link. The prefix intra- is weakly productive in contemporary English. The prefix originated in Latin as intrā ‘on the inside, within’. This use of intra- did not occur in classical Latin, and only a few examples appeared in late and medieval Latin. The prefix is largely used in modern times, esp. in biological terms, where it is often naturally opposed to the prefix extra-; cf. the prefix inter-. Sources: Bauer et al. (2013: 335–339, 346); the OED

Construction Consult COCA and compile a list of twenty intra- formations. Order them according to their frequency of occurrence.

Translation I. Translate the key formations in contexts into the language of your choice. 1. […] a successful rollout of vaccines this summer allows a timely easing of European government travel restrictions on intra-European traffic. (TS170521) 2. He had hoped he would learn something of the motivation behind the witchcraft gossip, detect the sickness, or the intra-family tensions […]. (Hillerman_1970_57) 3. It was some type of intra-abdominal catastrophe. 4. There are many intra- and inter-departmental and societal influences.

malIntroduction The non-native prefix mal- is attached to nouns (malpractice) and verbs (maltreat), resulting as well in past/passive participles (malnourished). The most general semantic import of this prefix is the negation of the base. More specifically, mal- carries negation mixed with the sense of wrongness. In this, the prefixes mis- and mal- are synonymous. However, mal- connotes an extra sense of harm caused by the activity implied in the



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

base, which ties in with the general pejorative meaning of the prefix. The prefix mal- is fairly productive in contemporary English. The prefix originates in French. Earlier, it can be traced as malus ‘bad’, later as male ‘ill, badly’ in classical Latin, and then as mal- in Anglo-Norman and Old French. In English loans, it was used in combinations with verbs (maltreat). In nouns of action, it formed derivations like malfeasance. In combinations with adjectives, the prefix reversed the favourable sense of the base (maladroit, malcontent). English formations are recorded from the16th cent. onwards, or perhaps slightly earlier (malassimilation, malformation) with the sense ‘ill’, ‘wrong’, ‘improper(ly)’. Ad hoc formations with this prefix include mal-accident, mal-hygiene, mal-identification etc. Sources: Bauer et al. (2013: 354–358); the OED

Construction The prefix mal- is hard to distinguish from the sequence of letters mal. In COCA’s frequency check, the first prefixed word type is malpractice (no. 10). The next ones are malnutrition (no. 18) and malfunction (no. 19). This shows that words with the prefix mal- coexist with non-prefixed words beginning with the sequence of characters mal. I. The following words are the result of a COCA search (300322) for items beginning with the substring mal*. Separate derivations prefixed with mal- from those which are non-prefixed but which begin with the sequence of letters mal in their spelling. male malaria malicious malpractice malware

malignant malice malnutrition malfunction malevolent

maltreatment malfeasance malady maladaptive malignancy

malign maleness malcontent maladjustment malformation

II. Complete the gapped mal- formations with two words. One word serves the gaps in (1–3), and the other, those in (4–6). 1. Try this article about a flight computer mal…… in a similar aircraft, for starters. 2. The chances are good that it was just a mal…… of the airspeed indicators. 3. The coating process is specifically designed to prevent operational mal…… caused by exposure to moisture. 4. I still don’t quite understand how such apparent mal…… is being tolerated. 5. Girls are subjected to the harsh mal…… of the genital mutilation. 6. Medical mal…… is negligence on the part of a health care provider.

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Translation III. The following English phrases containing mal- formations have been translated (GT & NS) into Danish, Romanian, Bulgarian and Hungarian. 1. marital maladjustment 2. widespread malnutrition 3. police malpractice Danish 1. (GT) ægteskabelig mistilpasning; (NS) ægteskabelig fejltilpasning / dårlig ægteskabelig tilpasning / ægteskabelig manglende tilpasning / ægteskabelige tilpasningsvanskeligheder 2. (GT) udbredt underernæring; (NS) udbredt fejlernæring 3. politiets fejlbehandling Romanian 1. neadaptare conjugală 2. malnutriție pe scară largă 3. malpraxis al poliției Bulgarian 1. брачна неприспособимост / brachna neprisposobimost; брачна неприспо­ собеност / brachna neprisposobenost 2. широко разпространено недохранване / shiroko razprostraneno nedo­khranvane 3. полицейска злоупотреба / politseǐska zloupotreba Hungarian 1. házassági problémák / nehézségek 2. széles körben elterjedt alultápláltság 3. rendőri túlkapás Indicate all three equivalents of the English mal- formations in Danish, Romanian, Bulgarian and Hungarian. IV. Translate the key formations in the contexts below into the language of your choice. 1. Recovering most of the aircraft debris, investigators found no obvious sign of mechanical malfunction. 2. A week later, Bob’s neighbour brought him badly malnourished. V. Translate the key formations in the contexts below into the language of your choice. 1. To earn foreign currency, now that the plantations have all failed through maladministration, they sell most of their produce to the Russian trawlers that call. (Forsyth_1975_56) 2. Mr. Hyde was pale and dwarfish; he gave an impression of deformity without any namable malformation. (Stevenson_1979_40) 3. Archaeologists examined 600 burials in the Phoenix area from A.D. 1250 to 1450 and found proof of serious malnutrition. (Cheek_1995_89)



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

4. ‘This is the lad, who, being accidentally wounded by a spring-gun in some boyish trespass on Mr. What-d’ye-call-him’s grounds, at the back here, comes to the house for assistance this morning, and is immediately laid hold of and mal-treated, by that ingenious gentleman with the candle in his hand […].’ (Dickens_1949_229) 5. Asian American students vehemently reject the idea that they should suffer in order to create space for underrepresented black and Hispanic groups who suffered no maltreatment or disadvantage at the hands of Asians. (D’Souza_1992_237)

Key II. 1–3 function; 4–6 practice

megaIntroduction The prefix, a borrowing from Greek (μεγα-), is found in a large number of ancient and later Greek formations of μέγας ‘great’. In English, it is attested in loans from French and post-classical Latin (megacosm, megapolis) from the early 17th cent. Later, formations are found from the second quarter of the 19th cent. The prefix forms scientific and technical terms with the sense ‘very large’, ‘comparatively large’, or (esp. in pathology) ‘abnormally large’, often having correlatives beginning with micro-, and sometimes synonyms beginning with macro-. It is also used in the names of units of measurement etc., to denote a factor of one million. Source: the OED

Construction I. The following words are the result of a COCA search (020422) for items beginning with the substring mega*. Divide the derivations into the prefix mega- and the remaining part. As a result of this segmentation, provide expected meanings of these formations. megawatt megaphone megabyte megachurch megalomaniac

megapixel megacity megalomania megastar megamind

megabank megadose megaproject mega-rich megastore

Provide your own examples of novel mega- formations.

megadeal megastorm megabus megatrend megafire

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Translation II. Translate the key formations in the contexts below into the language of your choice. 1. The double-decker megajumbo A380 Airbus will be roomy enough for you to stretch out while flying to Tokyo for a.m. meeting. (NW300401) 2. The creator of a dating app that puts women in charge is among the new names to join the ranks of the mega-rich after becoming the world’s youngest female self-made billionaire. (TS070421) III. Find the best English equivalents of the following mega- formations in Swedish, Polish and Spanish. Swedish

Polish

1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8.

megacykel megahertz megalitisk megafon

Spanish mega cena mega oferta mega jakość mega wybór

 9. 10. 11. 12.

megaciclo megalópolis megavoltio megavatio

Key III. 1 megacycle; 2 megahertz; 3 megalithic; 4 megaphone; 5 mega price; 6 mega offer; 7 mega quality; 8 mega selection / choice; 9 megacycle; 10 super-city; 11 megavolt; 12 megawatt

microIntroduction The non-native prefix micro- carries a sense of diminution. In most cases, it is affixed to nouns. Typically, it is added to names of concretes or abstracts to give them a sense of smallness. Since smallness is gradable, micro- locates the small size it designates below what mini- denotes, at the extreme end of the scale. The prefix micro- is the semantic opposite of macro-. The prefix is highly productive in present-day English and in other languages. It is a borrowing from Greek (μικρο-, μικρός ‘small’), being possibly related to classical Latin mīca ‘grain’, ‘crumb’. The earliest formations recorded in English are parallel loans microcosm and microcosmos. In the 17th cent., there occurred further loans (microscope, micropsychy) and the earliest independent English formations (micrography, microphone and microacoustic). In the 19th cent., most formations were scientific terms, and were either borrowings (from scientific Latin or a modern vernacular) or independent English formations.



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

Especially from the end of the 19th cent. onwards, derivations in micro- have been mostly of non-classical origin, as opposed to earlier formations, which were mainly of Greek or Latin origin. Sources: Bauer et al. (2013: 397); the OED

Construction I. The following micro- formations are all low-frequency items. In a COCA search (040422), each has a frequency of 2 (compared to, e.g., microwave 6,759 or microchip 652), and is fully analysable. This shows that the process of micro- prefixation is very productive in contemporary English. Based on the following list, provide further examples of novel micro- formations, showing that micro- derivation is a living process. microtears microsyringe microuniverse microtool microtunnel

microtheory microtissue microzone micromill micromist

microminidress micrographics micromagic microknee microprocess

microprogram microplant microship micro-hotel microcopy

Translation II. Translate the key formations in contexts into the language of your choice. 1. NHS leaders are being taught that microaggressions can be worse than “overt acts of hate”. (TS100522) 2. We put on surgical masks to filter the dust, odors, and microorganisms. (NG0700) 3. In the dry microclimate beneath rock overhangs they built platforms of stone and wood. (NG0900) 4. This huge influx of hyperachieving techno-migrants transformed Silicon Valley into a “majority minority” microcosm of America’s racial future. (NW180900) 5. A journalist once told me that Milosevic micromanages his control of the media down to the scripts of individual news programs. (NW190499) 6. Matsushita Electric has built a prototype smart toilet with built-in microsensors that can run an automatic, daily chemical analysis of the user’s urine. (TE120600) III. The prefix micro- is recognized universally, as it is used across many languages. This formative is the semantic opposite of the prefix macro-, both being used in predominantly specialist and professional contexts. The following dictionary entries in French (after Petit Robert) contain items beginning with either micro- or macro-, in which the prefixes are removed. First, fill in each gap with the right

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prefix, which makes sense in the context given. Second, translate the completed entries, headwords and their definitions, from French into English. 1. ……analyse – analyse chimique portant sur des masses extrêmement faibles 2. la ……structure (nomenclature ordonnée) et la ……structure (organisation de chaque article) d’un dictionnaire. 3. ……sporange – organe de certaines plantes où se forment les ……spores. 4. ……biologie  – science qui traite des organismes ……scopiques et ultramicroscopiques 5. ……photographie – photographie très rapprochée de petits objects donnant une image plus grande que nature 6. ……économie – étude de l’activité et des comportements économiques des individus 7. ……économie – étude des systèmes, des phénomènes et des relations économiques à un niveau global 8. ……évolution – évolution portant sur des périodes et des échelles très étendues, et qui implique l’apparition de nouvelles familles et de nouveaux genres d’organismes 9. ……circuit – circuit électrique imprimé et miniaturisé 10. ……miniaturisation – réduction maximum des dimensions et de la masse des systèmes électroniques

Key III. 1 micro-; 2 macro-, micro-; 3 macro-, macro-; 4 micro-, micro-; 5 macro-; 6 micro-; 7 macro-; 8 macro-; 9 micro-; 10 micro- (GT) 1. microanalysis – chemical analysis involving extremely small masses; 2. the macrostructure (ordered nomenclature) and the microstructure (organization of each entry) of a dictionary; 3. macrosporangium – organ of some plants where macrospores are formed; 4. microbiology – science that deals with microscopic and ultramicroscopic organisms; 5. macrophotography – very close-up photography of small objects giving a larger than life image; 6. microeconomics – study of the economic activity and behaviour of individuals; 7. macroeconomics – study of economic systems, phenomena and relationships at a global level; 8. macroevolution – evolution over very long periods and scales, involving the appearance of new families and genera of organisms; 9. microcircuit – printed and miniaturized electrical circuit; 10. microminiaturization – maximum reduction of dimensions and mass of electronic systems



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

midIntroduction The native prefix mid- combines with nouns (mid-life) and adjectives (mid-Victorian), both native and non-native bases. The prefix conveys the sense ‘the middle (of)’. It is partially a locative prefix, expressing a spatial relationship (midway). It is also a temporal prefix, conveying a temporal relationship (mid-morning). It seems that the latter sense is primary, as the base often designates an entity which needs to be (mentally) scanned in search of its middle. The search scan itself involves a passage of time, so one gets an impression of the prefix’s prevailing temporal sense. The prefix is very productive in present-day English. This is originally a Germanic prefix, seen in many languages, for example, mæth, met (Old Danish) (Danish med), mäþ, medh (Old Swedish) (Swedish med), með, meðr (Old Icelandic), med (Norwegian), mit (Middle High German) (German mit), mid, mit, met (Middle Dutch) (Dutch met), and mith (Old Frisian). Reportedly, in other I-E languages, the prefix mid- may have had the following equivalents: μετά ‘with’, ‘between’ (ancient Greek) and mjet ‘up to’, ‘among’, ‘between’ (Albanian). Sources: Bauer et al. (2013: 340–341); the OED

Construction I. Complete the mid- formations with one of the following nouns: air, calf, career, century, channel, life, term. 1. […] the drowning must have occurred in mid-……. (Twain_1962_159) 2. He was born again at mid-…… into a world of Artificial Intelligence. 3. […] my hand was in mid-…… when it began to feel funny and empty. (Chandler_1986_175) 4. […] I had soon turned the corner of that hill, and not long after waded to the mid-…… across the water-course. (Stevenson_1960_183) 5. As a practical matter at mid……, that meant praising Allah while making deals with the West. (NW150299) 6. Can mundane, mid-…… memory glitches actually be warning signs of such later-life dementia as Alzheimer’s disease? (NW190600) 7. Ministers are sympathetic to the proposals, which will be considered as part of a mid-…… review of the BBC’s charter next year. (TS210521)

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Translation II. The three English sentences (1–3) have been randomly translated (GT & NS) into several Germanic languages. Indicate the target languages (A-I) and the source sentence of each translation. 1. It was mid-afternoon before he finally came […]. (Lodge_1992_116) 2. It is mid-morning in the high summer season […]. (Lodge_1992_3) 3. It was still sunny when we arrived in mid-October. A. … Es war am späten Nachmittag, als er endlich kam. B. … Het was halverwege de middag voordat hij eindelijk kwam. C. … Det er midt på formiddagen i højsommersæsonen. D. … (GT/NS) Det er midt på morgenen i høysommersesongen.; (NS) Det er formiddag i høysommersesongen. / Det er midten av morgenen i høysommersesongen. / Det er tidlig på formiddagen i høysommersesongen. E. … Det är mitt på morgonen under högsommarsäsongen. F. … (GT) Það er miðnætti á hásumartímabilinu.; (NS) Það er miðnætti um hásumar […]. Það var ennþá sól þegar við komum um miðjan október. G. … Dit was nog sonnig toe ons in die middel van Oktober aangekom het. H. … It wie healwei de middei foardat er einlings kaam. I. … Et ass géint Mëtteg an der Héichsummersaison. / Et ass matzen am Moien an der Héichsummersaison. III. Translate the mid- formations in the contexts below into the language of your choice. 1. It was as though we had plunged suddenly into mid-country peace […]. (Ellison_1972_292) 2. He looked carefully across the plateau, searching the foreground first, then the mid-distance, finally the great green slopes […]. (Hillerman_1970_3) 3. By the mid-fifties, my mother was being visibly worn down. (Kazan_1968_244)



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

4. Kimble yanked harder, and the limb came free in his hands, detaching from the body at mid-humerus, between shoulder and elbow. (Dillard_1993_23) 5. At mid-tunnel, Kimble slipped from the ambulance into the dank, exhaustladen air […]. (Dillard_1993_73) 6. It was rather like the life of a mid-Victorian Oxford don: celibate, male-centred, high-minded, but not exactly ascetic. (Lodge_1992_182) 7. In mid-swallow, gulping down the gristly meat, Sophie nearly choked on these words. (Styron_1979_315) 8. But the hand which I now saw, clearly enough in the yellow light of a midLondon morning […] was lean, corded, knuckly, of a dusky pallor, and thickly shaded with a swart growth of hair. (Stevenson_1979_88) 9. They slipped from their moorings in the night […] and were at length compelled to fight in mid passage. (Thucydides_1991_187) 10. […] the speaker had switched from one line to the other actually in midsentence, […]. (Orwell_1986_147)

Key I. 1 channel; 2 career; 3 air; 4 calf; 5 century; 6 life; 7 term II. A German 1; B Dutch 1; C Danish 2; D Norwegian 2; E Swedish 2; F Icelandic 2, 3; G Afrikaans 3; H Frisian 1; I Luxembourgish 2

miniIntroduction The non-native prefix mini- carries the sense of diminution. In most cases, it is affixed to nouns, but also to compounds and phrases. Typically, it is added to names of concretes or abstracts to give them a sense of smallness, without any further connotations. The prefix mini- is highly productive in English. The prefix was formed within English, by clipping or shortening from, e.g., miniature (probably reinforced by minimum). The earliest record of a prefixed formation in the 20th cent. is minimeter. In subsequent decades, few other formations, such as minicar, minipiano, minicam and miniprinter, are recorded. In the 1960s, new prefixed formations became fashionable (mini, miniskirt). Derivatives in mini- are semantically opposed to those in maxi- (with those in midi- representing an intermediate size), and are less extreme than those in micro-, by being informal and non-scientific. Source: the OED

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Construction I. The words in the two columns below all begin with the search substring mini*. These words were obtained in a COCA search (060422). All of them have been copied with their original entry number on the COCA frequency list and respective frequency. In the left-hand column, the words come from the top of the COCA frequency list (1–10). In the right-hand column, the words have been taken from further positions down the frequency list, beginning with no. 12 and ending with 55. Based on the availability of all these words for segmentation (prefix + base), indicate which of the words are prefixed, and which are not. Do the frequencies of these words somehow correlate with their being (non-)prefixed? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

minister 52,955 minimum 32,968 ministry 21,807 minimal 13,572 mining 13,048 minimize 9,301 mini 8,882 ministers 8,383 miniature 6,456 ministries 3,647

12. 27. 30. 36. 37. 42. 47. 51. 54. 55.

minivan 2,033 mini-series 457 miniskirt 380 minicamp 276 minibar 243 minibus 189 mini-golf 133 minidress 118 mini-mall 92 minicomputers 91

Translation II. Translate the mini- formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. the new Canon mini-camera 2. a minicar invasion from Japan 3. a mini-city of 12,000 people 4. the mini-series “Rich Woman, Poor Woman” 5. a totalitarian mini-state 6. France immediately dispatched an SQR5 minisub designed for such operations. 7. Their minivan slowed for a curve. 8. His brother was sitting on the sofa, glued to the mini-TV.



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

misIntroduction The prefix mis-, possibly of two origins (native or Latinate), is attached to nouns (misbehaviour) and verbs (mismanage), also resulting in past/passive participles (mismanaged). The most general semantic import of this prefix is the negation of the base. More specifically, mis- carries negation mixed with the sense of wrongness. Therefore, the meaning of the prefixed base is something like ‘wrong(ly), bad(ly), mistaken(ly), improper(ly) N/V’. The addition of mis- does not change the syntactic category of the base. The prefix mis- is highly productive in contemporary English. Origin 1: An element inherited from Germanic languages, e.g., mis- (Old Icelandic), misse-, mis- (Middle High German) (German miß-), mis- (Old Saxon), mis-, misse-, mes-, messe- (Middle Dutch) (Dutch mis-), mis- (Old Frisian). Origin 2: A borrowing from Romance languages, e.g., mes- (Old French) (French més, mes, mé), mes- (Occitan), mis- (Italian). In early Middle English, the prefix misbegan to be used with words of native and of foreign origin alike. Some of the new derivations may have been prompted by Anglo-Norman or French formations with mes-, e.g., misbelieve (Anglo-Norman and Old French mescreire, French mécroire). The 17th cent. was reportedly the most prolific period for the formation of mis- derivatives. In present-day English, mis- has two competitors in the form of ill- and mal-. Sources: Bauer et al. (2013: 354–358); the OED

Construction I. Although prefixation in mis- is very productive in contemporary English, there are also lexical areas where mis- does not attach commonly. The following randomly chosen verbs (and verbal forms) are either not recorded in COCA (280722) or are recorded as low-frequency items: miswrite 0 miswrites 0 miswrote 3 miswritten 6

missay 1 missays 0 misaid 1  

misdance 0 misdances 0 misdanced 0  

misgo 0 misgoes 0 miswent 0 misgone 0

misexplain 0 misexplains 0 misexplained 0  

Is there any explanation for such poor performance of the prefix mis- in the above cases? Provide other examples of words resistant to mis- prefixation. II. Complete the gapped mis- formations. The first two letters of the base are given. 1. a misfi… in the gossipy Vatican 2. many misfo… and hazards 3. evident misha… his data

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4. every misju… of the situation 5. misma… issues in the company 6. in the face of dire misru… III. Complete the sentences with the most appropriate base, choosing one of the four given. 1. The terrorists mis-…………. the bomb’s timing device by 15 minutes. When it exploded at 4:45 p.m., most Beit Yisrael residents were indoors, and the blast only slightly injured five people. (NW190201) a. placed b. set c. fixed d. fitted 2. There is fear, in other words, that higher education is being mis-……………..: a waste not just of taxpayers’ money, but of students’ time. (TS030621) a. ruled b. guided c. sold d. carried 3. The Jefferson County sheriff, John Stone, seemed to be continually mis……………….. about the investigation. First he said three students detained during the shooting were suspects; then they weren’t. (NW100599) a. speaking b. calculating c. informing d. behaving 4. “If you indiscriminately attack the record on too many fronts, your good arguments get lost,” warns Kovacic, “and Microsoft is in a position where it can’t afford any more mis……………” (TE190600) a. steps b. deeds c. actions d. moves 5. Shoppers are especially mis………………. of cyberspace when it comes to big-ticket items like travel. (NW240700) a. apprehensive b. guided c. trustful d. informed



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

6. There is some substance behind the catty language and what may be at least one serious mis……………… by Jackson. (TE190600) a. conception b. treatment c. behaviour d. calculation 7. It’s a popular mis………………. that the techheads of Silicon Valley speak with one unified voice. (NW190600) a. conception b. information c. carriage d. take 8. Bush likes to joke about being underestimated, or “mis……………….,” as he puts it, sometimes with a wink. (NW070501) a. credited b. understood c. treated d. underestimated

Translation IV. Five English phrases containing mis- formations have been translated (GT & NS) into four languages. Indicate the target languages (A-D). 1. female misbehaviour 2. serious miscarriage of justice 3. between misbelief or wrong belief 4. dangerous misconception 5. misguided teenager A. … 1. (GT) kvinnligt dåligt beteende; (NS) opassande /olämpligt kvinnligt beteende 2. (GT/NS) allvarligt rättegångsfel; (NS) allvarligt justitiemord 3. (GT) mellan misstro eller felaktig tro; (NS) mellan vantro eller felaktig tro 4. farlig missuppfattning 5. (GT) missriktad tonåring; (NS) vilseledd tonåring B. 1. 2. 3.

… comportamento scorretto femminile grave errore giudiziario (GT) tra credenza sbagliata o credenza sbagliata; (NS) tra falsa credenza e credenza sbagliata / tra falso mito e credenza sbagliata

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4. (GT) pericoloso equivoco; (NS) pericolosa convinzione sbagliata 5. (GT) adolescente fuorviato; (NS) adolescente deviato / adolescente sulla cattiva strada C. … 1. (GT) ženské nesprávne správanie; (NS) ženské nevhodné správanie 2. vážny justičný omyl 3. (GT) medzi neverou alebo nesprávnou vierou; (NS) medzi nepravou vierou a/alebo nesprávnou vierou 4. nebezpečná mylná predstava 5. pomýlený tínedžer D. … 1. naiste väärkäitumine 2. tõsine õigusrikkumine 3. valearusaama ja vääruskumuse vahel 4. ohtlik eksiarvamus 5. eksinud teismeline V. Translate the mis- formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. He was questioned over lurid allegations of sexual misconduct. 2. A possible response to high crimes and misdemeanors may be impeachment. 3. The President evidently misfired in the Oval Office last week. 4. Mexico’s teams are mismanaged because they are run not as businesses, but as nonprofit social clubs. 5. The rumor resulted from a misinterpretation of a Canadian moratorium on deportations of illegal immigrants. 6. North Korea’s farms have seen decades of mismanagement and natural disasters. VI. Translate the key formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. I decided to keep my misadventure secret, that I would tell no one that I had been unwittingly an agent of pro-Ku Klux Klan literature. (Wright_1993_155) 2. Their publications were vapid and amateurish, inadequately researched, slackly argued, and riddled with so many errors, misquotations, misattributions and incorrect dates […]. (Lodge_1978_47) 3. In filling out the papers, the white officer misspelled Grandpa’s name, making him Richard Vinson instead of Richard Wilson. It was possible that Grandpa’s southern accent and his illiteracy made him mispronounce his own name. (Wright_1993_161)

Chapter 1.  Prefixation 69



4. Matters of a much more extraordinary kind are to be the subject of this history, or I should grossly mis-spend my time in writing so voluminous a work. (Fielding_1909_5) 5. It was Cyrus, they say, and not Cambyses, who sent to Amasis for his daughter. But here they mis-state the truth. (Herodotus_1991_262) 6. He inspired uneasiness. That was it! Uneasiness. Not a definite mistrust- just uneasiness- nothing more. (Conrad_1973_50) 7. In ways undreamed of when Dr. Seymour Diamond started his clinic 35 years ago, doctors are starting to make a difference in the lives of what he calls “probably the most misunderstood, misdiagnosed and mistreated group of patients in modern medicine.” (NW110199) 8. “Mobile phones are not just distracting but when misused or overused they can have a damaging effect on a pupil’s mental health and wellbeing,” he said. (TS290621)

Key II. 1 misfit; 2 misfortunes; 3 mishandling; 4 misjudgement; 5 mismanagement; 6 misrule III. 1 b; 2 c; 3 a; 4 a; 5 c; 6 d; 7 a; 8 d IV. A Swedish; B Italian; C Slovak; D Estonian

multiIntroduction The non-native prefix multi- is added to nouns (multimedia) and adjectives (multinational), carrying the meaning of ‘many’. The prefix multi- is fairly productive in contemporary English. The prefix is a borrowing from Latin, and cognate with melior and ancient Greek μάλα ‘very’. The earliest English words containing multi- came through Anglo-Norman and French into Middle English (multiply, multitude). The earliest English borrowings directly from Latin were, e.g., multiplex, multiloquy, multifarious. The first uses of multi- to form words in English date from the early 17th cent. (multivariety, multilateral). The prefix does not become common until the 19th cent. Formations become most frequent in the mid-20th cent. Other languages, by analogy, incorporate the prefix into their own word-formation systems. For example, in German, derivations in multi- become frequent from the 20th cent.

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Major meanings: – more than one, several, many – multiple, manifold – in many ways or directions Source: the OED

Construction I. The twenty most frequent multi- formations in COCA (020422): multicultural multimedia multinational multilateral multivariate multiculturalism multidimensional multifaceted multiplayer multiplicity

multiracial multiplication multidisciplinary multitasking multicoloured multiplier multilevel multibillion multiyear multiethnic

Analyse the availability of the above derivational bases for the prefix poly-, which expresses a similar meaning to that conveyed by multi-. Consult an online corpus, such as COCA. For example, multicultural has a match prefixed with poly-, polycultural (COCA, 27 hits). Can the prefix mono-, with the opposite meaning of ‘single, one’, be attached to the above derivational bases? II. Complete the gapped multi- formations with one of the following words: agency, causal, cultural, currencied, disciplinary, function, lateral, national, page, party. 1. a smaller number of multi…… devices 2. a multi-…… perspective 3. a multi…… Europe 4. the main multi-…… issue 5. working on multi…… projects 6. the multi-…… panel 7. a huge multi…… oil company 8. the cheery, multi…… pageant in Boston 9. multi-…… documents 10. multi-…… advocates



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

Translation III. Three similar English phrases containing multi- formations have been translated (GT & NS) into four languages: Dutch, Spanish, Polish and Finnish. 1. multicultural problems 2. multinational problems 3. multidimensional problems Dutch 1. multiculturele problemen 2. (GT) multinationale problemen; (NS) internationale problemen 3. multidimensionale problemen Spanish 1. problemas multiculturales 2. problemas multinacionales 3. problemas multidimensionales Polish 1. problemy wielokulturowe 2. problemy wielonarodowe 3. problemy wielowymiarowe Finnish 1. (GT) monikulttuurisia ongelmia (part.); (NS) monikulttuuriset ongelmat (nom.) 2. (GT) monikansallisia ongelmia (part.); (NS) monikansalliset ongelmat (nom.) 3. (GT) moniulotteisia ongelmia (part.); (NS) moniulotteiset ongelmat (nom.) Spell out the methods of rendering multi- formations in Dutch, Spanish, Polish and Finnish. IV. Translate the following phrases with multi- formations into Dutch, Spanish, Polish and Finnish. 1. multiracial problems 2. multiethnic problems Dutch 1. … 2. … Spanish 1. … 2. … Polish 1. … 2. …

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Finnish 1. … 2. … V. Translate the multi- formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. Instead of her traditional T-shirt, she wore a silky, multicolored blouse. (Dillard_1993_203) 2. Ethnic cleansing has wrecked forever the dream of a multiethnic Yugoslavia. (NW100599) 3. Peter’s history piles up in rich layers, like a multiflavored parfait. (NG0291) 4. “It’s like a 4.5-tatami room,” marvels one Tokyo-based analyst, referring to the multifunctional spaces in small Japanese homes. (NW110199) 5. The navy will be given a new multi-role ocean surveillance spy ship to protect the critical undersea national infrastructure. (TS220321)

Key II. 1 function; 2 causal; 3 currencied; 4 lateral; 5 disciplinary; 6 agency; 7 national; 8 cultural; 9 page; 10 party

neoIntroduction The non-native prefix neo- attaches to nouns (neofamily) and adjectives (neo-Gothic). It is also found on bound bases (neophyte). As a temporal prefix, conveying a sense of temporal relationship, it adds the sense of newness or revival from an older or previous stage. The prefix neo- is fairly productive nowadays. The prefix neo- is a borrowing from Greek (νεο-, νέος). In English, it was attested the earliest in words of Greek origin in the 14th cent., in several loans directly from Latin (neomeny, neomenia). Later, in the 16th and 17th cent., a larger number of similar formations (neophyte, neoteric) were attested. From the 17th cent., more neo- formations appeared in numerous borrowings and adaptations of foreign words. Formations coined in English are recorded in the mid-17th cent. While derivations of Greek origin generally prevail, complex words of other origins are increasingly frequent starting from the 19th cent. Major functions and meanings: – a new, revived, or modified form of a doctrine, belief, language, style etc., or those who advocate or adopt it – names of chemical compounds, minerals etc.



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

– those who study extant or recent forms of plants, animals etc., or the area of study itself (neobiologist, neo-biology) – [geology] the more recent portion of a geological period (Neocarboniferous); opposed to palaeo– [anatomy] a part of the brain that is considered to be of relatively recent phylogenetic development (neocortex) Sources: Bauer et al. (2013: 336–338, 347); the OED

Construction I. Consider the following derivational pattern based on personal names: Plato Darwin Marx Lenin Stalin

neo-Platonic neo-Darwinian neo-Marxist neo-Leninist neo-Stalinist

neo-Platonism neo-Darwinism neo-Marxism neo-Leninism neo-Stalinism

Provide the missing neo- derivations of the following names, according to the above pattern. Mao Bush Clinton Obama Trump Putin

… … … … … …

… … … … … …

II. Create the name of an unknown political or social system or movement. Provide derivations of this name preceded with neo-, e.g., liberal ~ liberalism ~ neo-liberal ~ neo-liberalism; vegan ~ veganism ~ neo-vegan ~ neo-veganism.

Translation III. Translate the neo- formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. According to Scase, single women – unlike men – tend to live near single friends, forming networks that serve as neofamilies. (NW140800) 2. The neo-fascist Russian National Unity Party says it will field dozens of candidates in the legislative elections scheduled for next December. (NW071298) 3. The building itself was a kind of imitation of an Oxbridge college, a dignified neo-Gothic edifice standing in a small park. (Lodge_1992_182) 4. Two hours after the Soho blast, a caller to a BBC radio station claimed that the White Wolves, a tiny neo-Nazi group, was responsible. (NW100599)

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nonIntroduction The prefix non- is a negative (negating) formative, affixed to adjectives and nouns, which is neutral in evaluation (as opposed to un-), for instance: adjacent > non-adjacent, believer > non-believer, emotional > non-emotional etc. Used to express negation, absence, lack of something, failure to be someone, it is a very productive negativizing prefix in present-day English. The prefix is partly a borrowing from French (Anglo-Norman non-, noun-, nun-), and partly from Latin (nōn ‘not’, used as a prefix). English derivatives are recorded in the late 14th cent., coined after Anglo-Norman or French formations. The prefix is also found in borrowings from Anglo-Norman and Middle French, which follow the earliest English formations. In the 15th and 16th cent., numerous derivatives (mainly nouns of action and gerunds) were in use, most of them being of a legal character. Until about the mid-17th cent., the formations with non- are primarily of a special or technical kind. Later, the prefix became less restricted in its use. The political and religious movements of the 17th and 18th cent. influenced the formation of new derivatives (nonconformist). Major meanings and functions: – – – – –

the person or thing is not that, or not of the sort, specified not really or adequately what is designated by the noun a neutral negative sense (verb) with the sense ‘to refuse, neglect, or fail to do’ the thing specified (adjective) that does not do, undergo, or require the action specified, e.g., non-skid (soles), non-iron (shirt) – that does not …, that has not been the thing specified The use of non- sometimes contrasts with parallel words formed with in-, un-, or a- that have particular connotations, e.g., non-active ~ inactive, non-historical ~ ahistorical ~ unhistorical, non-American ~ un-American. Sources: Szymanek (1989: 270); Bauer (1991: 279–285); Bauer et al. (2013: Ch. 17); the OED; see other negative prefixes: dis-, in-, un-

Construction I. Complete the missing elements removed from the gapped non- formations. Use: adherence, believer, drip, existing, military, monogamy, sensical, skid. 1. dreams about non…… 2. most non…… projects 3. its non-…… to OPEC’s production agreement



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

a firm non-…… the non-…… tap boastful claims about non-…… conquests other non-…… ships a non-…… vinyl sole

II. Complete the sentences with the most appropriate base, chosen from among those in (a-d). 1. With one eye on the polls that show the election could be nail-bitingly close, the men who run Europe’s largest governments are assuming a posture of non…………….. (NW040900) a. appeasement b. management c. engagement d. alignment 2. Nearly 40,000 retailers were in financial distress and potentially facing collapse in the new year even before tougher restrictions forced non-…………… stores to shut over the weekend. (TS231220) a. important b. essential c. crucial d. critical 3. Other NHS trusts outside London have had to postpone non-…………… procedures owing to their toll of coronavirus patients. (TS020121) a. urgent b. essential c. important d. crucial 4. While Kubrick edits the closely guarded film in his London lair, Kidman is hitting the boards like a fireball, scorching the normally non…………….. critics. (NW051098) a. heated b. incendiary c. fiery d. flammable III. Fill in the gap with a word which seems appropriate in the context. If they will only hold their hands until the season is over, he promises them a royal carnival, when all grudges can be settled and the survivors may toss the non-…… ……. overboard and arrange a story as to how the missing men were lost at sea. (London_1964_86)

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Translation IV. Translate into the language of your choice the following Latin legal phrases with non: 1. non facere – … 2. non liquet – … 3. non plus ultra – … 4. non usus – … 5. forum non conveniens –… 6. non compos mentis – … 7. non adimpleti contractus –… 8. non obstante verdicto –… V. Translate the non- formations in the following sentences into the language of your choice. 1. A 2020 CNN poll showed 69 per cent of black people believe they have fewer opportunities to succeed professionally than white people, compared with 49 per cent of non-black minorities. (TS140321) 2. By the year 2005, Latinos are projected to be the largest minority in the country, passing non-Hispanic blacks for the first time. (NW120799) 3. Mrs Von der Leyen said that the EU wanted to go beyond a conventional free trade “non-regression” clause on environmental or social standards to bind Britain to future rules. (TS011220) 4. The days immediately ahead will not be easy for the people of Yugoslavia, Serb and non-Serb alike. (NW091000) 5. The emergence of non-Western Christianity has many converging causes. (NW160401) 6. As the American population becomes increasingly nonwhite and obese, the disease is rapidly spreading. (NW040900)

Key I. 1 monogamy; 2 sensical; 3 adherence; 4 believer; 5 drip; 6 existing; 7 military; 8 skid II. 1 c; 2 b; 3 a; 4 d III. survivors



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

outIntroduction The native prefix out- attaches to nouns (out-fox) and verbs (outgrow), forming either complex nouns (outhouse) or complex verbs (outsource). It is partially a locative prefix, conveying a sense of spatial relationship, in which an entity is understood as located outside of (or removed from) a two- or three-dimensional space. More frequently, it is a quantitative prefix, carrying the sense of excess, surpassing, exceeding, or beating in some action. In this function, it implies that an entity performing a given activity exceeds or performs better than another entity in this respect. The prefix out- is highly productive in present-day English. Some derivatives (outlive, outpass, outrun) appeared during the 15th cent., and they gradually increased in number during the 16th cent. Shakespeare introduced some novel formations with out-, involving verbs converted from nouns (or names), followed by cognate objects (to out-Herod Herod). Earlier, out- derivatives were commonly preceded by a form with over-. Thus, outlive (late 15th cent.) was preceded in the same sense by overlive (in Old English; cf. French survivre); outpass (early 15th cent.) was preceded by overpass (14th cent.; cf. French surpasser); outweigh (16th cent.) was preceded by overweigh (13th cent.). Major meanings and functions: – – – – – –

outwards, away from; out of a position or out of a container (outpour) pass beyond or exceed a defined point, a limit in space, time, degree etc. (outgrow) surpass, excel (a person etc.) (outrun, outswim) get the better of, overpower, or defeat (outbrave, outbalance) outdo (a person or thing) (outnumber) excel, surpass, or outdo in performing the role of or functions connected with the person or agent specified (out-general)

Sources: Bauer et al. (2013: 340–347); the OED

Construction I. Derivations with out- are commonly found in phrases in which the prefixed verb is a cognate of its object. The earliest examples, formed from nouns and verbs, are found in Shakespeare. Some of these are formed on verbs (out-equivocate equivocation), or on verbs converted from nouns (outfish fish). Others are formed on proper names (out-Nero Nero, out-Auden Auden), in the sense ‘to outdo a person, nation etc. in respect of the attribute for which they are renowned’. Still others are formed on common nouns (out-infidel the infidel), in the sense ‘to outdo a person, thing etc. in the sphere of action in which they have particular expertise or aptitude, or for which they are renowned’. Such derivations are frequently constructed ad hoc, in order to attract the reader’s attention to a particular wording.

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Following the out- neologisms below and the construction patterns provided, create your own verbal out- neologisms with cognate objects in relevant and interesting contexts. out-place_name place_name As guide Cathy Vogel admitted to us: “The architect wanted to out-Baghdad Baghdad.” …. out-personal_name personal_name […] acting was about the only thing I was any good at, at school. I gave a terrific audition. I out-Heroded Herod, to coin a phrase. (Lodge_1996_249) … II. Complete the sentences with the most appropriate word from among those in (a–d). 1. Suspected bomber Bill Hayley is still out…………. the FBI in the forests of Minnesota. a. cowing b. horsing c. foxing d. oxing 2. He was late getting to the White House for an Inaugural-morning coffee with out-…………. President Bush. (NW290101) a. going b. coming c. moving d. running 3. If Washington doesn’t play a skillful game of diplomacy, it could be out…………….. by Beijing. (NW240700) a. done b. driven c. maneuvered d. ridden III. Use the following bases (in the correct form) in the gapped contexts below. There is one word too many: count, last, line, live, number, pace. 1. Saddam came to believe last August that he would soon out………… another American president […]. (NW231198) 2. Bin Laden’s fast-moving international network seems to be out…………. international efforts to destroy it. (NW260201) 3. Nepal is one of the few countries left where men still out………….. women. (NG1100)



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

4. […] the queen was reading a speech […] in which she out………….. the government’s program for the coming year. (NW071298) 5. […] supporters of Irish reunification out…………… those who want to stay in the UK by 47 per cent to 46 per cent. (TS230121) IV. Complete the gapped out- formations with appropriate verbs in the correct form. 1. He [=Ramses II] had numerous wives and concubines; he sired scores of children and out…… many of them. (NG0998) 2. It was midsummer 1998, the high tide of Monicagate. Ken Starr was out…… Bill Clinton, and so was Saddam Hussein. At least that’s how the Iraqi president saw it. (NW231198)

Translation V. The following verbal phrases containing out- formations have been translated (GT & NS) into the West Slavic languages Polish, Czech and Slovak: 1. to outdo the other students 2. to outnumber the opponents 3. to outwit the censors 4. to outgun the enemy Polish 1. prześcignąć innych uczniów 2. przewyższyć liczebnie przeciwników 3. przechytrzyć cenzorów 4. porazić wroga siłą ognia Czech 1. (GT) překonat ostatní student; (NS) předčit ostatní studenty / být lepší než ostatní studenti 2. (GT) přečíslit soupeře; (NS) být početnější než soupeř / mít nad soupeři početní převahu 3. přelstít cenzory 4. (GT) porazit nepřítele; (NS) porazit nepřítele palebnou přesilou Slovak 1. prekonať ostatných študentov 2. prevýšiť súperov 3. prekabátiť cenzorov 4. poraziť nepriateľa Spell out the methods of rendering verbal out- formations in Polish, Czech and Slovak.

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VI. Translate the verbal out- formations into the language of your choice. 1. But with only about 12,000 regular fighters, the lightly armed Kosovars are outgunned by Serbian tanks, artillery and infantry. (NW050499) 2. “I got out-countried, and it’s not gonna happen again,” says Bush […]. (NW070800) 3. The Rivas showed them how to outthink and outrun one of the biggest manhunts in Texas history. (NW050201) 4. DNA computers will one day outperform silicon-based machines in performing complex mathematical calculations. (NW220399) 5. He added that the bank had made a “huge outreach” to the Jewish community […]. (NW141298) 6. She pulled a gun and threatened to shoot herself. Eventually she put the weapon away. But Ocalan and his friends had plainly outstayed their welcome. (NW010399) 7. 23-year-old Gustavo Kuerten outtoughed the Swedish powerhouse Magnus Norman for five punishing sets and nearly four hours to win his second French Open. (NW260600) 8. Mike was musing over a scene in a Crocodile Dundee movie in which the Aussie hero, armed with only a knife, bests a big saltwater croc. “Bloody nonsense,” he scoffed. “Outwrestle a big saltie? Can’t be done. They can weigh as much as that four-wheel drive over there.” (NG0191)

Key II. 1 c; 2 a; 3 c III. 1 last; 2 pacing; 3 live; 4 lined; 5 number [redundant: count] IV. 1 lived; 2 maneuvering

overIntroduction The native prefix over- attaches to nouns (over-reaction), adjectives (overpriced) and verbs (oversleep). As a locative prefix, conveying an idea of spatial relationship, it adds a motif of a higher position or a curvy-line movement above something located below. An imagined vertical axis may be involved, on which the location opposite to over- is placed at the extreme end (bottom), namely under-, sub- or down-. The prefix overalso appears in affixed words expressing quantification (overstaffed), hereby modifying the concept of a higher position with a sense of excess. Both formal and semantic



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

similarity to the preposition over is undeniable, making the prefix over- highly productive nowadays. The prefix over- was formed in English by conversion. In Old English, ofer- was used in complex words involving verbs (oferclimban ‘overclimb’, ofercuman ‘overcome’, oferdrincan ‘overdrink’). Some of the Old English formations have survived until today, though most perished before Middle English. The majority of contemporary overderivations were formed at later stages. Sources: Bauer et al. (2013: 340–346); the OED

Construction I. Below, there are four groups (1–4) of four sentences (a-d) each. Two bases are provided for each group. Each base should serve two random sentences in a group. Complete each sentence with one of the two bases that seems to be the best choice. Adjust the final form of each complex over- formation. 1. achieve (x 2) / ambition (x 2) a. “Pittsburgh is the classic over……… among American cities,” writes Franklin Toker of the University of Pittsburgh. (NG1291) b. In a recent book (“Luxury Fever”), Cornell University economist Robert Frank urges that we penalize over……… with a progressive consumption tax. (NW300899) c. American officials blame Castro and his socialist economy, which has been unable to sustain an over……… health-care system without massive Soviet subsidies. (NW140998) d. Last year South Africa’s Sabi Sabi Private Game Reserve allowed a local cellular-phone company to put up an antenna. Now over……… businessmen can keep in touch with the office even as they thunder through the bush in their Land Rovers. (NW030898) 2. grow (x 2) / pay (x 2) a. People on low incomes who are eligible for tax credits can be over……… for many months without realising and then face repayment demands for thousands of pounds. (TS091220) b. The air was heavy with the scent of the wild roses along the over……… banks. (NG0699) c. The Hana Highway, built by pickax in 1927, winds around deep, lushly over……… gulches and across more than 50 bridges. (NT1195) d. That pressure to do deals encourages private equity houses to over……… for the companies they buy and invest in. (TS220521)

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3. promise (x 2) / react (x 2) a. The Office for Students is concerned that given the financial strain universities are under, they will over-……… what is on offer to get the maximum number of students signing up, in order to secure their £9,250-a-head annual tuition fee. (TS180520) b. President Clinton may have debased himself with his behaviour, but we shouldn’t debase the office with an impulsive over………. (NW310898) c. When approached by The Sunday Times this week, Reading claimed that he had “over-………”. (TS080521) d. Maybe I over………, but the simple task of going to the toilet in Singapore can be nerve-racking. What will happen if I forget to flush, or fail to aim accurately and mess up the floor? (NW211298) 4. use (x 2) / zeal (x 2) a. Any number of rescue schemes were put forward, including a suggestion from an over……… Briton, who sought funds with which to tranquilize and radio-collar every single tiger in the Project Tiger reserves so that a satellite could keep track of them all from space. (NG1297) b. There’s also a growing concern about e-mail over………. More and more people are beginning to rely on mail as a substitute for talking to each other. (NW301198) c. Williamson said that the ban would end the “damaging effect” that over……… of mobile phones could have on children’s mental health and wellbeing. (TS290621) d. MacArthur refused to concede that he might have been over………. (NG0392) II. The sentences below employ the participial over…ed pattern. Complete the gapped over…ed formations with bases which appear to be the most appropriate in the contexts given: arch, bank, civilize, dress, graze, heat, joy, medicate, price, protect, represent, staff, stimulate, tourist, value. 1. It has often been written that Kennedy was, if anything, over……….ed by his mother. (NW260799) 2. Some small towns […] have attracted telemarketing operations that haven’t found enough workers in the over………..ed job markets in Lincoln and Omaha. (NG1198) 3. I’m just finishing dinner at Tomo Uno […] where successful businessmen seem to enjoy showing off their elegant over- and under-………..ed wives and daughters. (NT0894) 4. Early one morning we climbed into a small skiff […] and glided through narrow, twisting waterways over…………ed by jungle. (NT1294)



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

5. In Cornwall, fears of monster traffic jams and over….….….ed accommodations have actually scared off some eclipse tourists. (NW090899) 6. Brazil’s central problem had been an over………….ed exchange rate for its currency. (NW250199) 7. If I had to make an unscientific guess, I’d say that African-Americans were slightly over………….ed in the crowd. (NW020899) 8. Look for more such psychodramas as the euro reveals just how over………… ed Euroland really is. (NW0299) 9. I feel over………….ed and humbled to be part of that journey for humankind and to return to some kind of normality. (TS181220) 10. Thousands of tired, nerve-shaken, over………….ed people are beginning to find out that going to the mountains is going home. (NG1198) 11. As every meditator quickly learns, reciting a mantra for 20 minutes a day does relax the body and refresh an over………….ed mind. (NW140501) 12. Much of the land allocated to the Zulus during apartheid was marginal and is now badly over…………ed. (NG0800) 13. Any tour operator worth his salt can find a place that is not over………….. ed. (NT0596) 14. More than once, I found her lying in bed in an over…………ed state. (NW290101) 15. While many industries have already gone through wrenching downsizings, others are just getting started. Germany’s bank and insurance sector, for example, is heavily over…………ed. (NW0299)

Translation III. The following four English phrases (1–4) containing over- formations have been translated into two representatives of four language groups: (a) Germanic, (b) Romance, (c) Slavic and (d) non-Indo-European. Indicate representative languages in each of the four groups (a-d), and link to them the translations in these languages (1–4). 1. over-consumption of beef 2. over-production of toys 3. over-exposure to the sun 4. overflow of emotion a. Germanic 1. overforbruk av storfekjøtt 2. overproduktion af legetøj / legetøjsoverproduktion 3. overeksponering av sol 4. overflod af følelser / overvældet af følelser ‘overwhelmed by emotions’

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b. Romance 1. consumul excesiv de carne de vită 2. sobreprodução de brinquedos 3. sobre-exposição ao sol 4. debordare de emoție c. Slavic 1. prekomerno uživanje govejega mesa 2. prekomerna proizvodnja igrač 3. prekomjerno izlaganje suncu 4. preplavljenost emocijama d. non-Indo-European 1. a marhahús túlzott fogyasztása 2. oyuncakların aşırı üretimi 3. güneşe aşırı maruz kalma 4. az érzelmek túlcsordulása IV. The following over- formations function as nouns in their sentences. The endings of most of these nouns have been removed. Add the right ending or Ø (if no ending is required). Check if the equivalents of these nouns in the language of your choice also have the same grammatical function, or if they have to be rendered differently. 1. Big Oil’s overcapac… problems are so grim that […] the federal government may even give it a pass this time. (NW071298) 2. Overconcentrat… of power and wealth in Java is one thing many Indonesians can agree on. (NG0301) 3. The once high fish yields of American Samoa’s reefs have declined nearly 70 percent in recent years. The culprits: overfish…, pollution, and sediment runoff. (NG0199) 4. Investigators say the system may have been wired to the same circuits as the plane’s cockpit instruments, possibly causing an overload…. (NW091198) 5. “It’s amazing to say, but our problem is becoming overnutrit…,” says Ho Zhiqian, a friendly, talkative nutrition expert […]. (NG1098) 6. The stated aim was to stop “over-recruit…” by some universities as the number of foreign students fell because of Covid […]. (TS030621) 7. I would never say there’s an oversuffici… of Mexican restaurants on the River Walk […]. (NT1195) 8. The flip side of the intense physical and mental work that elite athletes perform is the ever present danger of overtrain… […]. (NG1000) 9. In an organization in Geneva […], budget-watching bosses tried to drive her out with overwork…. (NW140800)



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

V. The following over- formations function as verbs in their sentences. Check if their equivalents in the language of your choice also have the same grammatical function, or if they have to be rendered differently. 1. […] the measurement used for earlier trials was shown to over-estimate the strength of dose in the new larger batches […]. (TS261120) 2. Many banks overextended credit to farmers and then had to foreclose on those not able to pay back their loans. (NG1097) 3. Having overindulged far too long in the city’s cultural and gastronomic generosities, I decided to return to basics […]. (NT0394) 4. Richard Ayre, the BBC’s head of editorial standards at the time of the Diana interview, said today that William might have “overstated” his case against the broadcaster. (TS210521) 5. It also included Theresa May’s attempts to target migrants who were thought to have overstayed student visas. (TS160421) VI. The following over- formations are semantically interpreted as adjectives in their sentences. Check if their equivalents in the language of your choice also have the same grammatical function, or if they have to be rendered differently. 1. As usual Washington is overcorrecting: wrongdoing has hardly disappeared from the capital, yet all the agents of inquiry are in disrepute. (NW141298) 2. Countries became overdependent on foreign capital, which, having entered in huge amounts, is trying to leave the same way. (NW140998) 3. I chose a climb around the corner on an overhanging face. (NG1297) 4. Was Koko using language to be playful, or was researcher Francine Patterson overinterpreting gestures? (NG0392) 5. The boat is light on my shoulders, but I keep bumping into trees like a beetle with an oversize shell. (NT0795) VII. Consider the following over- formations in extended contexts in order to help with understanding their meanings. Propose equivalents of these complex words in the language of your choice. 1. For an example of overclassification, one need look no further than the case of Barbara Robbins, a 21-year-old CIA secretary who was killed by a car bomb in Saigon during the Vietnam war, and whose affiliation with the CIA remains a state secret. (NW301000) 2. “A guy from a public school asked me how I handle drug problems,” Adams says. “I terminate anybody who deals with drugs. ‘Oh!’ he said, ‘that’s not the right way.’ ‘Well,’ I said, ‘you asked how I deal with it.’ People want to overcomplicate it.” (NG0591) 3. Insensitive overdevelopment of the Mediterranean coastline, an abundance of jerry-built hotels, and the sheer crush of overcrowding have acted as barriers to many discerning visitors. (NG0492)

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4. Anyone who uses a personal computer, cares about preserving America’s leadership in technology or is concerned about overreaching government regulation should take a close look at the government’s proposal to break apart Microsoft and saddle it with myriad regulations and restrictions. (NW220500) VIII. Translate the over- formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. Linda: But you didn’t rest your mind. Your mind is overactive, and the mind is what counts, dear. (Miller_1968_3) 2. […] the chaplain seemed so overburdened with miseries of his own that Major Major shrank from adding to his troubles. (Heller_1961_102) 3. Actual happiness always looks pretty squalid in comparison with the over-compensations for misery. (Huxley_1968_150) 4. The only picture was an over-enlarged photograph, apparently a hen sitting on a blurred rock. (Fitzgerald_1974_35) 5. That was no cheerful night; the room being overfull of voices and music. (Kipling_1987_198) 6. He […] went along the disused and overgrown driveway and opened up a wooden garage. (Chandler_1986_181) 7. To relieve the tedium of this untimely day she would overhaul the cupboards containing her grandfather’s old charts and other rubbish […]. (Hardy_1978a_123) 8. Towards nine o’clock he smoothed his ruffled aspect, and, presenting as respectable and business-like an exterior as he could overlay his natural self with, issued forth to the occupation of the day. (Dickens_1987_88) 9. A great deal may be got for sevenpence-halfpenny, quite enough to overload its stomach, and make it uncomfortable. (Dickens_1949_4) 10. For a moment I was sorry I’d ever set foot upon his over-populated lawn. (Fitzgerald_1974_74) 11. They entered upon the turf, and, impelled by a force that seemed to overrule their will, suddenly stood still, turned, and waited in paralyzed suspense beside the stone. (Hardy_1975_545) 12. He had a good eye, but he had over-specialized. He didn’t know enough about women. (Chandler_1986_251) 13. Amish overworked their animals, he knew. (Updike_1964_26) 14. The Medical Man looked into his face and, with a certain hesitation, told him he was suffering from overwork, at which he laughed hugely. (Wells_1966_115) 15. Now, in the reaction, he was running down like an over-wound clock. (Fitzgerald_1974_99)



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

Key I. II.

1. a. achiever; b. ambition; c. ambitious; d. achieving 2. a. paid; b. grown; c. grown; d. pay 3. a. promise; b. reaction; c. promised; d. react 4. a. zealous; b. use; c. use; d. zealous 1 protect; 2 heat; 3 dress; 4 arch; 5 price; 6 value; 7 represent; 8 bank; 9 joy; 10 civilize; 11 stimulate; 12 graze; 13 tourist; 14 medicate; 15 staff III. a. Germanic Norwegian: 1 overforbruk av storfekjøtt; 3 overeksponering av sol Danish: 2 overproduktion af legetøj / legetøjsoverproduktion; 4 overflod af følelser / overvældet af følelser b. Romance Romanian: 1 consumul excesiv de carne de vită; 4 debordare de emoție Portuguese: 2 sobreprodução de brinquedos; 3 sobre-exposição ao sol c. Slavic Slovenian: 1 prekomerno uživanje govejega mesa; 2 prekomerna proizvodnja igrač Croatian: 3 prekomjerno izlaganje suncu; 4 preplavljenost emocijama d. non-Indo-European Hungarian: 1 a marhahús túlzott fogyasztása; 4 az érzelmek túlcsordulása Turkish: 2 oyuncakların aşırı üretimi; 3 güneşe aşırı maruz kalma IV. 1 ity; 2 ion; 3 ing; 4 Ø; 5 ion; 6 ment; 7 ency; 8 ing; 9 Ø

panIntroduction The meaning of this quantitative prefix is ‘all’. It is a borrowing from Greek (παν-). The prefix was freely used in Greek, especially with adjectives, where it functioned adverbially in the sense ‘all, wholly, entirely, altogether, by all, of all’, as in πάνδημος ‘relating to all the people, public’ (cf. pandemic). It also combined with nouns derived from these adjectives, as in πανδέκτης ‘an all-receiver’. Major meanings and functions: – relating to the whole of the universe or mankind, or denoting that the second element exists or operates at a universal level – [science] in every part of, over the whole of … – of, relating to, or including all of a specified national, regional, or ethnic group

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– expressing the notion of, or aspiration for, the political union of … (pan-Slavism) – of or relating to all the members of a religious group or body; forming nouns derived from these (pan-Islamism) Source: the OED

Construction I. A formation such as pan-African (movements) seems to be a typical example of pan- formations. Below is a table with the forty most frequent pan- derivatives with their frequencies obtained from COCA (060422). Analyse the second element of each formation and see what kinds of syntactic categories are involved (e.g., German, Germanism, Germans). Based on the kinds of (mostly) names listed, establish a more general characterization of such names. In other words, define the kind of name which is compatible with the prefix pan-. pan-Arab 212 pan-European 171 pan-African 160 pan-American 150 pan-Asian 108 pan-Arabism 90 pan-Indian 74 pan-Islamic 65 pan-Africanist 58 pan-Africanism 54

pan-German 26 pan-Hellenic 23 pan-Slavism 21 pan-G/galactic 20 pan-Arabist 20 pan-Pacific 19 pan-Indianism 18 pan-national 15 pan-Latino 15 pan-Orthodox 14

pan-Islamist 14 pan-Islamism 13 pan-Arabic 13 pan-Slavic 13 pan-Latin 12 pan-Germanism 11 pan-Slav 11 pan-Oceanic 10 pan-Asia 9 pan-indigenous 9

pan-regional 9 pan-Turkism 8 pan-Canadian 8 pan-Andean 8 pan-Arabists 7 pan-Germans 7 pan-Hispanic 7 pan-tribal 7 pan-Syrian 6 pan-Turkic 6

Translation II. Translate the key formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. Around 1,800 companies with foreign capital have transformed Wrocław into a pan-European manufacturing center. (NW260600) 2. His $15,000 prize for breaking the world 400-meter-freestyle record in the Pan-Pacific championships last year was donated to charities […]. (NW180900) 3. His early years in Vienna during the time of Franz Josef had fed the fires of his pro-Teutonic passion and inflamed him everlastingly with a vision of Europe saved by pan-Germanism and the spirit of Richard Wagner. (Styron_1979_291)

Chapter 1.  Prefixation 89



postIntroduction The non-native prefix post- attaches to nouns (postdoc), adjectives (postmodern) and verbs (postdate). It is also found on bound bases (postpone). It is primarily a temporal prefix, conveying a temporal relationship. More specifically, the prefix adds the sense of occurrence of one event following another event. It is also a locative prefix, conveying a sense of spatial relationship, in which one entity is understood as located “after” another entity. Both senses are evidently intertwined. In either case, an imagined horizontal temporal axis is involved, on which the temporal and/or spatial location opposite to pre- is placed at the extreme right-hand end. The prefix post- is highly productive in contemporary English. The prefix is a borrowing from Latin (post-). In Latin, it was prefixed adverbially to verbs (postpōnere ‘to put off, defer, to place after’); as well as to participles, verbal nouns, and other verbal derivatives (postgenitus ‘begotten after, created after’). In French, formations with post- are recorded from the 14th cent. in Anglo-Norman, Middle French and French (postposer ‘postpose’). In German, post- derivatives taken from Latin are recorded from the 18th cent. (Postskript ‘postscript’). German formations appear in the 20th cent., often influenced by English or scientific Latin. Commonly, the sense of the prefix post- is rendered in German as nach ‘after’. In English, derivatives in post- began to appear in the late 14th cent., and later again from the 16th cent., following Latin formations. In English, the prefix is used in more general senses than in Latin. In specialist terminology, bases of Greek origin are also used from the early 19th cent. onwards. Major meanings and functions: – afterwards, after, subsequently – a contrary of a verb or adjective in pre- (or pro-); also ad hoc formations after verbs or adjectives in ante– subsequent to, following, succeeding, later than, after – prefixed to a date, esp. a year, to form adjectives (or occasionally adverbs) – [anatomy, zoology] situated, produced, or occurring behind, posterior to, or distal to … Sources: Bauer et al. (2013: 336–339, 345–347); the OED

Construction I. Below, there is a group of four sentences (a-d). Two bases are provided to be combined with the prefix post-. One base should serve two sentences out of the four given. Complete each sentence with one of the two bases that seems to be the best choice.

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Brexit (x 2) / pandemic (x 2) a. Only a few hundred lorry drivers were ultimately on hand to witness the new post-……….. trading relationship […]. (TS020121) b. O’Leary is keeping to his predictions for post-………… Europe that Ryanair will be carrying 200 million passengers a year within five years. (TS170521) c. After an outcry from universities (many of which are terrified they will not attract fees from foreign students in the post-………… era) that cap has been lifted. (TS030621) d. A seven-year plan to phase out paying subsidies to farmers based on how much land they own has been laid out as part of a post-………… overhaul of agriculture in England. (TS011220) II. Complete the gapped post- formations with the following bases. There is one word too many. Christian, Christmas, coital, colonial, colonist, independence 1. The male red-back spider, seconds after inseminating a female, does a somersault into her mouth so he becomes her post……… meal. (NW040900) 2. In normal years the divorce calendar has two spikes on it; one after the summer holidays, followed by a much larger one post-………. (TS291020) 3. One of the first generation of post-……… African leaders, Kenneth Kaunda led his vulnerable and landlocked nation through a perilous era in southern Africa. (TS180621) 4. Even in post-……… Europe, the quest for ecstasy continues, with or without God. (NW120799) 5. The combined history of slavery, colonialism and post-……… racism has created a particularly volatile dynamic between black and white […]. (TS140321)

Translation III. The following English phrases containing post- formations have been translated (GT & NS) into Dutch, French, Russian and Greek. 1. post-Homeric concepts 2. post-Renaissance Europe 3. post-war years 4. post-Watergate America Dutch 1. post-Homerische concepten 2. (GT) post-renaissance Europa; (NS) Europa na de Renaissance / Het Europa van na de Renaissance 3. naoorlogse jaren 4. (GT) post-Watergate Amerika; (NS) Amerika na Watergate



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

French 1. concepts post-homériques 2. l’Europe post-Renaissance 3. années d’après-guerre 4. Amérique post-Watergate Russian 1. постгомеровские концепции / postgomerovskiye kontseptsii 2. Постренессансная Европа / Postrenessansnaya Yevropa 3. послевоенные годы / poslevoyennyye gody 4. (GT) пост-уотергейтская Америка / post-uotergeytskaya Amerika; (NS) постуотергейтская Америка / postuotergeytskaya Amerika Greek 1. μετα-ομηρικές έννοιες / meta-omirikés énnoies 2. Ευρώπη μετά την Αναγέννηση / Evrópi metá tin Anagénnisi 3. μεταπολεμικά χρόνια / metapolemiká chrónia 4. Αμερική μετά το Γουότεργκεϊτ / Amerikí metá to Gouóternkeït Spell out the methods of rendering post- formations in Dutch, French, Russian and Greek. Translate the phrase post-revolution months into Dutch, French, Russian and Greek. IV. Complete the gapped post- formations with the following proper names. Translate the sentences into the language of your choice. Hussein, Mahathir, Maoist, Soviet, Tiananmen, World War I 1. On the Ukrainian side, where recovery from the post-……….. collapse has been slow, the trade was a matter of survival. (NW180900) 2. But is Azizah strong enough to harness a disparate opposition movement and build a new, more just post-……….. Malaysia? (NW260499) 3. “After the king announced his illness we began the transitional period to the post-……….. era,” says one of the king’s long-time allies. (NW100898) 4. Wang is a sassy voice of the post-post-………… generation, which is rarely heard in the West. (NW080299) 5. By 1989 the changes of the post-………… era had put the young in a different mental and material position. (NG0791) 6. Critics belittle the post-………….. faith in “independent counsels,” and the species may soon become extinct. (NW141298) V. Complete the gapped post- formations with the following bases. There is one base too many. Translate the sentences into the language of your choice. cardiac, nasal, pandemic, transplant, traumatic, vote

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English Complex Words

1. He could say we will build on those better school standards but with urgent and massive action on post-……… falling behind. (TS170521) 2. Candling, sometimes called coning, is today’s hottest natural treatment to remove wax from ears and to relieve everything from migraines to sinusitis and post……… drip. (TE190600) 3. They [=the Democrats] want Republican support for a post-……… “censure” resolution, which would condemn Clinton’s conduct without specifically labeling it illegal. (NW150299) 4. Huang still complains of debilitating headaches and other signs of post……… stress syndrome. (NW020401) 5. The drugs also have toxic side effects, which can include kidney damage, cataracts, ulcers and a cancer of the lymph glands called post-……… lymphoproliferative disorder, or PTLD. (NW080299) VI. Translate the post- formations in sentences into the language of your choice. 1. […] all this, expressed by Bunyan in the terms of a tinker’s theology, is what Nietzsche has expressed in terms of post-Darwin, post-Schopenhauer philosophy […]. (Shaw_1946_32) 2. In the teaching of the institutional Church, the Second Coming and the Last Judgement were indefinitely postdated, and emphasis put on the fate of the individual soul after death. (Lodge_1992_190) 3. Christian orthodoxy was a mixture of myth and metaphysics that made no kind of sense in the modern, post-Enlightenment world […]. (Lodge_1992_191) 4. But the brief post-Halloween storm that had whitened the slopes of Ship Rock and the Chuskas proved to be a false threat. (Hillerman_1996_162) 5. They had been given sheets of graph paper and little pieces of cardboard with transparent windows of cellophane to place over the graphs, and recommended […] to keep to the post-ovulatory period. (Lodge_1983_9) 6. Tell’em you are doing the post-trial paperwork. Maybe preparing a false arrest suit or something. (Hillerman_1996_54) 7. Daddy closed his eyes and extended his tongue to receive the host in the traditional manner. He never had any time for the post-Vatican II practice of receiving it in the hand […]. (Lodge_1992_165)

Key I. a. Brexit; b. pandemic; c. pandemic; d. Brexit II. 1 coital; 2 Christmas; 3 independence; 4 Christian; 5 colonial [redundant: colonist] IV. 1 Soviet; 2 Mahathir; 3 Hussein; 4 Tiananmen; 5 Maoist; 6 World War I V. 1 pandemic; 2 nasal; 3 vote; 4 traumatic; 5 transplant [redundant: cardiac]



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

preIntroduction The non-native prefix pre- attaches to nouns (pre-breakfast), adjectives (pre-Christian) and verbs (predate). It is also found on bound bases (preclude). It is primarily a temporal prefix, conveying a temporal relationship. More specifically, the prefix adds the sense of the occurrence of one event preceding another event. It is also a locative prefix, conveying a sense of spatial relationship, in which one entity is understood as located “before” another entity. Both senses are evidently intertwined. In either case, an imagined horizontal temporal axis is involved, on which the temporal and/or spatial location opposite to post- is placed at the extreme left-hand end. The prefix pre- is highly productive in contemporary English. The prefix is a borrowing from Latin (classical Latin prae-, post-classical Latin pre-). Latin and French borrowings and adaptations are found in English from the Middle English period onwards. English derivations were first recorded in the late Middle English period. They appeared more frequently from the 16th cent. onwards. The prefix pre- became more popular than ante- (as the opposite of post-) in new formations, often replacing it (pre-Christian < ante-Christian, pre-reformation < ante-reformation). The hyphen is most often retained before a second element beginning with e, as in pre-eminent, pre-engage, pre-exist etc. Major meanings and functions: – – – – –

before, in front of, anterior to … before the time of, prior to the influence, innovations etc., of … (pre-Obama) [medicine] conditions, symptoms etc., occurring before a disease, disorder etc. [grammar] preceding the phonetic or grammatical feature etc. [anatomy, zoology] situated, produced, or occurring in front of (anterior or superior to), or in the anterior part of …

Sources: Bauer et al. (2013: 336–339, 345–347); the OED

Construction I. Build complex derivatives with pre-. Use the nouns/names listed in the table in combination with the prefix pre- and another prefix/suffix, or other prefixes/suffixes from among: -al, -arian, -ary, counter-, de-, -esque, fore-, -hood, -ial, -ian, -ing, -ion, -ist, -ite, -ive, -ization, -ment, -ship, -ure. Example: Darwin > pre-Darwin-ian > pre-Darwinian

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

appoint apprentice Aristotle authority baptism censor ceremony close

 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

culture deliberate Dickens evolution Kant Marx menopause mother

17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.  

Newton parent regulate Roman school social Thatcher  

II. Paraphrase the following expressions, focusing on the pre- derivatives: a quiet pre-pandemic Britain the old-fashioned, pre-dotcom way the economy’s pre-virus trend a pre-millennium party somewhere ancient, pre-human almost

……………… ……………… ……………… ……………… ………………

III. The following pre- derivatives need to be accommodated within phrases. Propose a preceding and following element to embed each pre- formation. Example: … pre-perestroika … > in the pre-perestroika years. … … … … … …

pre-Google pre-Tiananmen pre-Bolshevik pre-Westphalian pre-Beatles pre-Feminist

… … … … … …

… … … … … …

pre-Watergate pre-Hollywood pre-Taliban pre-Viking pre-Katrina pre-school-age

… … … … … …

IV. Fill in the gaps with the following bases: breakfast, Christmas, Columbian, dawn, departure, pandemic. 1. All journeys are “subject to pre-………… digital registration and 14-day quarantine with no exemptions and no possibility for early test and release, including for the fully vaccinated”. (TS290621) 2. Archaeologists have found possible evidence of visits 600 years ago by pre………….. voyagers. (NG0499) 3. It is feared that delays will emerge this month when pre-………….. stockpiles disappear. (TS080121) 4. Britain’s economy could be back to pre-………….. levels by early next year as the vaccine rollout leads to a sharp economic rebound in the second half of this year. (TS040221) 5. There were pre………….. power walks for fitness fans, and nature hikes led by biologist Jennifer McGill. (NT0795) 6. It was a busy schedule, requiring pre-…………. starts and late-night finishes over 63 days. (TS180621)



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

V. Complete the gapped pre- formations by adding the italicized bases in the appropriate form. 1. Once, he recalls, he “pre-………” to a Time Inc. exec who would be meeting with Berlow staffers, who typically arrive late yakking on phones. (apologize) (NW010101) 2. In a legal clash pre……… the landmark antitrust suit, Jackson had asked Microsoft to remove its Web browser from Windows 95. (date) (NW190600) 3. You don’t need to lobby for pre-……… confessions when markets reward it if you do it yourself, and punish you if you hang back. (empty) (NW140998) 4. Of those who died in hospitals in England, 96 per cent had a pre-……… condition. (exist) (TS260121) 5. The best known site, Cuelap, high above the Utcubamba River, is one of the most impressive pre-……… settlements in South America. (Spain) (NG0900) 6. Nearby is Jabal Burnus, a rock outcrop with pre-……… carvings of dancing figures. (Islam) (NW010101) 7. The lies he [=Bill Clinton] told under oath, in his January 17 deposition in the Paula Jones case and his grand-jury testimony on August 17 were real, and purposeful, and pre………. (meditate) (NW211298)

Translation VI. The following English phrases containing pre- formations have been translated (GT & NS) into German, Italian, Serbian and Albanian. 1. in pre-Christian Greece 2. the pre-1914 frontiers 3. in Homeric and pre-Homeric times 4. this pre-attack celebration 5. the pre-war order German 1. im vorchristlichen Griechenland 2. die Grenzen vor 1914 3. (GT) in homerischer und vorhomerischer Zeit; (NS) zu Homers Zeiten und vor Homers Zeiten 4. diese Feier vor dem Angriff 5. die Vorkriegsordnung Italian 1. nella Grecia precristiana 2. (GT) le frontiere pre-1914; (NS) le frontiere prima del 1914 / le frontiere pre 1914

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3. (GT) in epoca omerica e pre-omerica; (NS) in epoca omerica e preomerica 4. questa celebrazione prima dell’attacco 5. l’ordine prebellico Serbian 1. (GT) у прехришћанској Грчкој / u prehrišćanskoj Grčkoj; (NS) у прет­ хришћанској Грчкој / u prethrišćanskoj Grčkoj 2. (GT) границама пре 1914 / granicama pre 1914; (NS) границе пре 1914. / granice pre 1914. 3. (GT) у хомерско и предхомерско доба / u homersko i predhomersko doba; (NS) у хомерско и претхомерско доба / u homersko i prethomersko doba 4. (GT) ову прославу пре напада / ovu proslavu pre napada; (NS) ова прослава пре напада / ova proslava pre napada 5. предратни поредак/ predratni poredak Albanian 1. në Greqinë parakristiane 2. kufijtë e* para vitit 1914 3. në kohën homerike dhe parahomerike 4. këtë festë para sulmit 5. urdhrin e paraluftës

*The article e is used for the genitive case; it may not be needed here.

Spell out the methods of rendering pre- formations in German, Italian, Serbian and Albanian. VII. On the basis of the following translations (GT & NS), recover the original English noun phrase containing a pre- formation. Specify the target languages within the language families indicated in (1–4). 1. Germanic: … 2. Germanic: …   3. Slavic: …   4. Slavic: …

’n voor-huweliksaandseremonie (GT) eng Pre-Hochzäit-Nuecht Zeremonie; (NS) eng Fir-Hochzäit-Nuecht Zeremonie / Avant-Hochzäitsnuecht-Zeremonie (GT) ceremonija pred bračnu noć; (NS) ceremonija prije bračne noći / ceremonija prije noći vjenčanja / ceremonija koja prethodi bračnoj noći церемонија пред свадбена ноќ / ceremonija pred svadbena noќ

English phrase ………………………………………………………………………..



Chapter 1.  Prefixation

VIII. Complete the following gapped equivalents of the phrase regular pre-natal care with appropriate prefixes in German, Italian, Serbian and Albanian: 1. German: regelmäßige Schwangerschafts……sorge 2. Italian: assistenza ……natale regolare 3. Serbian: редовна ……натална нега / redovna ……natalna nega 4. Albanian: kujdesi i rregullt ……lindjes IX. Complete the following gapped equivalents of the phrase regular post-natal care with appropriate prefixes in Dutch, French, Russian and Greek: 1. Dutch: reguliere ……natale zorg 2. French: soins ……natals / ……-nataux réguliers 3. Russian: регулярный ……родовой уход / regulyarnyy ……rodovoy ukhod 4. Greek: τακτική ……γεννητική φροντίδα / taktikí ……gennitikí frontída X. Translate the following sentences into the language of your choice, focusing on the pre- formations. 1. As for Höss, he seems to be something of an anomaly, inasmuch as his pre-Auschwitz career straddled agriculture and the military. (Styron_1979_183) 2. In the pre-dawn darkness these hamlets were quiet and obscure. (Forsyth_1975_338) 3. Navajos did not kill with cold-blooded premeditation. Nor did they kill for profit. (Hillerman_1970_219) 4. Canfield’s current project involved poking into the burial sites of the Anasazis, the pre-Navajo cliff dwellers. (Hillerman_1970_29) 5. As a boy he had been raised in the Paarl Valley and had spent his pre-school years scampering through the thin and poor vineyards owned by people like his parents. (Forsyth_1975_174) 6. We will put back industry to its pre-trust stage. We will break the machines. (London_1982_419) 7. At the seminary, the young men’s feet were white and smooth, carefully pre-washed and pedicured for the occasion (=the Maundy Thursday mass of the Last Supper). (Lodge_1992_95) XI. In Polish, the prefix przed- is cognate with the temporal and spatial preposition przed conveying the senses of ‘before, prior to, in front of ’. The formative przedcan be affixed mainly to adjectives and nouns. The list below includes ten prefixed adjectives, which are formed in the singular, masculine. Each of these formations can be neatly divided into the prefix przed- and an adjective. In order to clarify the sense of the base adjective, a general gloss is provided, indicating its semantic core. Propose English equivalents of the Polish przed- formations, providing the most appropriate translation, prefixed or unprefixed.

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

przedklasyczny przedkryzysowy przedlodowcowy przedmałżeński przedmeczowy przedobiedni przedostatni przedpołudniowy przedszkolny przedwakacyjny

klasyczny kryzys lodowiec małżeństwo mecz obiad ostatni południe szkoła wakacje

‘classic(al)’ ‘crisis’ ‘glacier’ ‘marriage’ ‘match, game’ ‘dinner’ ‘last, final’ ‘noon’ ‘school’ ‘vacation, holidays’

Key I. (suggested): 1 pre-appointment; 2 pre-apprenticeship; 3 pre-Aristotelian; 4 pre-authoritarian; 5 pre-baptismal; 6 pre-censorship; 7 pre-ceremonial; 8 pre-foreclosure; 9 precounterculture; 10 pre-deliberative; 11 pre-Dickensian; 12 pre-evolutionary; 13 pre-Kantian; 14 pre-Marxist; 15 pre-menopausal; 16 pre-motherhood; 17 preNewtonian; 18 pre-parenthood; 19 pre-deregulation; 20 pre-Romanesque; 21 preschooling; 22 pre-socialization; 23 pre-Thatcherite IV. 1 departure; 2 Columbian; 3 Christmas; 4 pandemic; 5 breakfast; 6 dawn V. 1 apologized; 2 dating; 3 emptive; 4 existing; 5 Hispanic; 6 Islamic; 7 meditated VII. a pre-wedding-night ceremony; 1 Afrikaans; 2 Luxembourgish; 3 Bosnian; 4 Macedonian VIII. 1 vor; 2 pre; 3 пре / pre; 4 para IX. 1 post; 2 post / post; 3 после / posle; 4 μετα / meta XI. 1 pre-classical; 2 pre-crisis; 3 pre-glacial; 4 pre-wedding; 5 pre-match / game; 6 pre-dinner; 7 penultimate; 8 morning; 9 preschool / kindergarten; 10 pre-vacation / holiday

proIntroduction The attitudinal prefix pro- is added to nouns (pro-choice), names (pro-Kremlin) and adjectives (pro-inflammatory). Its semantic element added to the base is something like ‘in favour of ’, ‘in support of ’ etc. The prefix is very productive in contemporary English. The prefix is a borrowing from Latin (prō-, pro-). Numerous Latin pro- formations were copied in or borrowed into French, to be later transferred into English. Many words were adopted or adapted in English directly from Latin, or were built from elements ultimately of Latin origin in English.

Chapter 1.  Prefixation 99



Major meanings and functions: – deputizing for, standing in place of … – prefixed to the title of an office to denote that the office-holder is acting as deputy to another (pro-rector, pro-vice-chancellor) – favouring, siding with, or promoting … Source: the OED

Construction I. Consider the following sentence combining two pro- formations. Make up your own sentence which also accommodates two other pro- derivatives. Provide enough context for the reader to better understand your sentence. Gore carefully trimmed his youthful liberalism for voters, appealing to pro-life and pro-gun groups and calling homosexuality “abnormal”. (NW210800) II. Use pro-consumer and pro-democracy twice each in the four sentences below. 1. I think everything we’ve done [=at Microsoft] has been ……….., and that will come out very strongly as our witnesses get their chance to come forward. (NW141298) 2. Beijing sanctioned four people working for US organisations allegedly linked to ………… movements in Hong Kong. (TS011220) 3. South Korean President Kim, who spent many years as a ………… dissident in Japanese exile, made improving ties with Tokyo a top priority when he took office in February. (NW071298) 4. The more Microsoft can make its behavior seem …………, the less appropriate the government’s draconian remedy will appear. (TE190600) III. Provide the missing bases of the two pro- formations. 1. Bush is in a far trickier position. A strong gun-rights supporter, he can’t afford to alienate pro-……… voters in Republican-stronghold states by appearing weak on the issue. (NW220500) 2. As a pro-……… Catholic, she appreciates George W. Bush’s appeal for a “culture of life” in America. (NW161000)

Translation IV. The following English phrases containing pro- formations have been translated (GT & NS) into Icelandic, Spanish, Czech and Finnish. other pro-employment measures / her pro-China narration / our pro-government newspapers / his natural pro-European position

100 English Complex Words

Arrange the English phrases in the order in which they have been translated into each language. 1. … 2. … 3. … 4. … Icelandic 1. frásögn hennar sem er hlynnt Kína 2. aðrar ráðstafanir í þágu atvinnulífsins 3. (GT) eðlileg evrópsk afstaða hans; (NS) eðlileg afstaða hans í þágu Evrópu 4. blöðin okkar sem styðja ríkisstjórnina Spanish 1. (GT/NS) su narración a favor de China; (NS) su narración prochina 2. (GT) otras medidas favorables al empleo; (NS) otras medidas proempleo 3. (GT) su posición europeísta natural; (NS) su posición proeuropea natural 4. nuestros diarios oficialistas Czech 1. (GT) její pročínské vyprávění; (NS) její vyprávění nakloněné Číně 2. další opatření na podporu zaměstnanosti 3. (GT) jeho přirozené proevropské postavení; (NS) jeho přirozené proevropské názory / jeho přirozený proevropský postoj 4. naše provládní noviny Finnish 1. (GT) hänen Kiina-mielinen kertomus; (NS) hänen Kiina-mielinen kertomuksensa 2. muut työllisyyttä edistävät toimenpiteet 3. (GT) hänen luonnollista Eurooppa-myönteistä asemaansa (partitive); (NS) hänen luonnollinen Eurooppa-myönteinen asemansa (nom.) 4. (GT) hallitusta tukevissa sanomalehdissämme (inessive); (NS) hallitusta tukevat sanomalehtemme (nom.) Spell out the methods of rendering pro- formations in Icelandic, Spanish, Czech and Finnish. V. Translate the pro- formations into the language of your choice. 1. the pro-German policies of its officials in France (NW141298) 2. pro-independence activists (NW270999) 3. then pro-Indonesian militias (NW200999) 4. their fragile, pro-military policy in El Salvador (NW071298) 5. the pro-Moscow government (NW010399)

Chapter 1.  Prefixation 101



6. proudly isolationist, pro-Soviet and poor (NW071298) 7. several pro-Suharto trouble-makers (NW301198) 8. the group’s pro-veggie radicalism (NW260201) VI. Translate the pro- formations in the contexts given into the language of your choice. 1. Since any Czechs they saw coming or going were clearly agents in the service of the Russians, he and his friends trailed them, traced the number plates of their cars, and passed on the information to the pro-Dubcek clandestine radio and television broadcasters, who then warned the public. (Kundera_1984_141) 2. I decided to keep my misadventure secret, that I would tell no one that I had been unwittingly an agent of pro-Ku Klux Klan literature. (Wright_1993_155) 3. […] His early years in Vienna during the time of Franz Josef had fed the fires of his pro-Teutonic passion […]. (Styron_1979_ 291)

Key II. 1 pro-consumer; 2 pro-democracy; 3 pro-democracy; 4 pro-consumer III. 1 gun; 2 life IV. 1 her pro-China narration; 2 other pro-employment measures; 3 his natural pro-European position; 4 our pro-government newspapers

pseudoIntroduction The non-native prefix pseudo- is attached to nouns (pseudo-science) and adjectives (pseudo-religious). In popular (non-scientific) usage, it conveys the sense of an entity (indicated in the base) of lower quality by being non-genuine or by possessing fewer necessary features. Nouns and adjectives formed with this prefix carry the senses ‘false, pretended, counterfeit, spurious, sham’, ‘apparently but not really, falsely or erroneously called or represented’. Therefore, the prefix is negative in meaning. In scientific usage, it does not carry the pejorative sense (pseudocyst). The prefix pseudo- is almost synonymous with the formative quasi-, the latter sounding perhaps less pejorative. The prefix is ultimately a borrowing from Greek (ψευδο-, ψευδ-), where it attached to nouns (ψευδομάρτυς ‘pseudomartyr’), to adjectives (ψευδολόγος ‘speaking falsely’) and to verbs (ψευδοποιεῖν ‘to falsify’). Classical Latin adopted some of these Greek nouns and adjectives, especially terms of natural history (pseudosphēx ‘false wasp’). Post-classical Latin adopted words connected with Christianity (pseudapostolus ‘pseudo-apostle’).

102 English Complex Words

In English, pseudo- first appeared in the early 15th cent., in adaptations of postclassical Latin words of the New Testament (pseudoprophet) and in adaptations of Latin words from Christian texts (pseudo-priest). In the late 16th cent., there were several adaptations of Latin words (pseudo-Christian) and the first native formations (pseudo-prophetical). In the 17th cent., the first adjectival formations appeared (pseudoreligious). The second half of the 18th cent. marks the appearance of scientific formations and adaptations from Latin (pseudelephant). In the 19th cent., numerous scientific terms were recorded. Sources: Bauer et al. (2013: 414–416); the OED

Construction I. According to COCA (280722), the following pseudo- formations occupy top positions on the frequency list (1–200). Analyse the second elements of these formations and indicate the prevailing lexical categories preferred by pseudo- in contemporary English. The numbers of occurrences are provided. Hyphens in parentheses indicate both spelling standards summed up under one entry. pseudo(-)science 638 pseudo(-)scientific 310 pseudo(-)intellectual/s/ism 135 pseudo(-)scientist/s 39 pseudo-Arabic 35 pseudocapitalism 34 pseudopopulation 34 pseudo-religious 31 pseudo-democracy/tic 27 pseudo-history/ical 27

pseudo-philosophy/ical 21 pseudo-reality 17 pseudo-Christian 14 pseudo-conservatism 11 pseudoarchaeology 11 pseudo-conservatives 9 pseudo-Christmas 8 pseudo-academic 8 pseudo-scholarly 5 pseudo-marriage 5

Translation II. Translate the pseudo- formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. In all these instances the husband had practically ceded or sold his unfaithful wife, and the very party who, being in fault, had not the right to contract a marriage, had formed counterfeit, pseudo-matrimonial ties with a new husband. (Tolstoy_1991_538) 2. In this state-room the pseudo-wife, slept, of course, every night. (Poe_vol.8_22) III. Although not analysed in this volume, the prefix quasi- fits with the above pseudocategory. Consider the following example. Translate it into the language of your choice. Search COCA for more examples with quasi-. Compare your results with those in activity I above.

Chapter 1.  Prefixation 103



To ensure supplies, the German EU chief warned that Brussels is ready to trigger an emergency treaty clause allowing the commission quasi-wartime powers to confiscate production plants and to tear up patent controls over medicines. (TS170321)

reIntroduction The prefix re- [ri:] participates in the formation of deverbal verbs known as repetitive verbs. In general, they are paraphrasable as ‘… again and anew’ or ‘achieve a certain result again’. The prefix re- attaches to a wide range of base verbs, and therefore the meanings of individual complex re- verbs may differ in minute detail. Typically, transitive verbs serve as bases for re- derivatives, as in: hire > rehire, introduce > reintroduce, open > reopen, read > reread, wind > rewind etc. However, also some intransitives participate in this process: appear > reappear, emerge > re-emerge, enter > re-enter, marry > re-marry etc. The process of deverbal verbalization with the prefix re- is very productive. The prefix is partly a borrowing from French (re-), and partly from Latin (re-). The original sense of re- in Latin is ‘back’ or ‘backwards’, but there are also other shades of meaning: – back from a point reached, back to or towards the starting point (remittere ‘to send back’) – back to the original place or position (resūmere ‘resume’) – again, anew (recreāre ‘recreate’) – implying an undoing of some previous action (resignāre ‘resign’) – back in a place, i.e. from going forward (retinēre ‘retain’). In Romance languages, equivalents of the prefix re- have been very popular (Occitan re-, Catalan re-, Spanish re-, Portuguese re-, Italian re-, ri-). For English early re- formations, French constituted the most direct source (rebuke, recoil, regain, regard, regret, remark etc.). In English, formations in re- first appeared in the 13th cent., and largely increased their numbers in the 14th cent. In the mid-16th cent., another wave of new adoptions of Latin words via French took place. English formations became increasingly numerous towards the end of the 16th cent. The Elizabethan period gave birth to recall, relive, resend, respeak, reword. Numerous new formations in re- entered dictionaries in the 17th cent., and again from the second half of the 19th cent. onwards. Sources: Marchand (1969: 190); Szymanek (1989: 302–304); the OED

104 English Complex Words

Construction I. Prefixation with re- is highly productive in present-day English. A COCA search (200722) of the first 2,000 re- derivatives shows numerous low-frequency items (2–3 hits) at the bottom of the frequency list. High numbers of low-frequency formations prove the productivity of this word-formation process (Baayen & Lieber 1991, 1997). Here is a list of re- verbs based on converted nouns: re-staff / re-Zoom / re-wax / re-stain / re-tailor / re-shelve / re-source etc. Propose your own examples of re- verbs based on converted nouns. There are numerous low-frequency instances of complex re- verbs, such as: re-stigmatize / re-stimulate / re-strategize / re-humanize / re-privatize etc. Propose your own examples of complex re- verbs. Also, among low-frequency items, there are multiply derived re- formations, such as: re-watchable / re-playability / re-privatization / re-hospitalizations etc. Propose your own examples of multiply derived re- formations. II. Consider the following sentence. Make up your own example with extensive context, in which a novel formation with the prefix re- is employed. The harrowing story of policeman Robin Window whose hand was sliced off with a Samurai sword during a struggle three weeks ago shocked the nation. Sgt Window spent almost 12 hours on the operating table while micro surgeons battled to re-attach his hand. III. Propose the same base, adjusting its form, which makes sense in both sentences (a-b) of each pair (1–7). The first two letters of the base are given. 1. a. His basic message is, ‘I’m going to re-cr…….. the state as benefactor and redistribute wealth for all Venezuelans.’ (NW231198) b. Big as a mountain, the Old Faithful Inn’s soaring 76-foot-high lobby re-cr…… the peace of a pine forest […]. (NT1193) 2. a. She and her husband kept Savannah’s heritage in mind during their re-de………… of the inn. (NT1196) b. Following a master plan approved by the various constituencies he serves, Mahadin began by re-de……… the entrance to the site. (NG1298) 3. a. Millions of women and men resign themselves to this reality. But with the chance to plan their families, they are beginning to see a way to re-im……….. their future. (NG1098) b. He believes the state’s Taxsaver travel ticket now needs to be re-im……….. for a post-Covid, blended approach to work. (TS170621)



Chapter 1.  Prefixation 105



4. a. The alma mater of a long list of distinguished women, from Rosalind Franklin and Dame Kate Bingham to Emily Mortimer and Rachel Weisz, is to re-na………. the role of head girl because it is too “binary”. (TS190621) b. Chancellor Gerhard Schröder promptly re-na………. the Agriculture Ministry the Ministry of Consumer protection, and put a prominent green, Renate Künast, in charge. (NW260201) 5. a. The probation service is to be re-na…………, reversing a policy introduced by the former lord chancellor, Chris Grayling. (TS111121) b. Their [=The Clinton administration’s] only consolation is in the idea that the new government will stop short of massive re-na…………. of property now in private hands. (NW191098) 6. a. I’d like to think that the recent shootings could prompt a major re-th……….. by the politicians. (NW260600) b. They’re right about the need for bolder tax cuts, major deregulation and a radical re-th……… of the welfare state to give the economy the bounce it needs. (NW021198) 7. a. However, it has yet to be proven that it can re-in…………. people who have been vaccinated or previously infected […]. (TS160421) b. The prime minister said that he wanted “maximum possible protection against re-in………….. from abroad” to prevent new variants from jeopardising the mass vaccination programme. (TS250121)

IV. Propose derivational bases while adjusting their forms, for the gapped re- derivatives in (1–10). The first two and last letter of the base are given. 1. Teachers will wonder why the secretary of state is talking about mobiles instead of what schools need in order to help students re-ac…………e learning habits. (TS290621) 2. Even with the drugs, says Dr. Warren Breidenbach, who led the transplant team, the odds of his body’s completely rejecting the hand in the first year are about 50–50. If this happens, doctors will be forced to re-am…………..e (NW080299) 3. Soon after we dropped anchor in a nearby creek, the bottom of the boat was alive with flopping, gaping piranhas of different species; we were pulling them in as fast as we could re-ba…………t our hooks. (NT1193) 4. By late last week, wild pigs and dogs were digging up the sandy graves. Soldiers were sent to shoot the scavenging animals, and relief workers say they will have to re-bu…………y the dead in deeper graves. (NW030898) 5. As the war continues, the Administration must re-de…………e its objectives. (NW050499)

106 English Complex Words

6. For example Percy Pig sweets are manufactured in Germany and brought to the UK before being re-ex………….d to Ireland, a journey that is now subject to import taxes. (TS080121) 7. A container ship had run aground near where we were, costing its owners six days of downtime while it was re-fl………….d. (NG1199) 8. Her mother, a laundress in Milan, re-ma………….d when her daughter was a child. (NW161198) 9. Both women have furiously denied the very idea; but authorities have re-op… ……….d an investigation into Fernando’s death. (NW161198) 10. Then, as the pigments re-ra…………e the light energy they have gathered, the algae can use it for photo-synthesis. (NG0101) V. Propose derivational bases while adjusting their forms, for the gapped re- derivatives in (1–6). The first two letters of the base are given. 1. He was kicked out of a high school, a private school, a military academy, a radio academy, a radio announcers’ school, and encouraged not to re-en….……. after a two-year stint in the Marines. (NW110199) 2. The clinic has since secured a larger waiting area and re-sc…………. missed appointments. (TS181220) 3. The plane […] suddenly disappeared from radar screens – then re-ap…………, still losing altitude, then vanished again. (NW140998) 4. Skating, cycling and strolling Romans re-cl………… their cobblestone streets from the automobile yesterday on the capital’s first car-free Sunday. (SD070200) 5. In shallows along the Saudi coast, plants and animals will re-co…………, but here too the healing may never be complete. (NG0891) 6. In the 50’s, customers once felt a special affinity to clubs and bars that offered “signature drinks,” created by their owners and bartenders. […]. Now this trend has re-em………… with a fin de siècle spin to it. (NW161198)

Translation VI. Establish equivalents of the verbal re- formations in the Romance languages.  

French

Spanish

Italian

Portuguese

Romanian

readjust readmit rearrange recharge redirect re-elect re-enforce re-house re-tell

                 

                 

                 

                 

                 



Chapter 1.  Prefixation 107

VII. Complete the gapped re- nominalizations with appropriate endings. Translate the key derivations into the language of your choice. 1. A supervisor confided that she’d be one of 400 staffers terminated in what a spokeswoman later termed “a periodic re-balanc… of the skill sets of our work force.” (NW050201) 2. You can also visit coral reefs, butterfly farms, reforest… projects, medicinal-plant gardens, mangrove swamps. (NT0596) 3. At the extreme high end of the watch business is the re-emerg… of mechanical watches – a category that was all but dead 10 years ago. (NW071298) 4. James Harding […] today refused to answer questions on whether Lord Hall had any role in the rehir… of Bashir in 2016. (TS210521) 5. Since Nixon went to China in 1972, every American administration has encouraged peaceful reunificat…, and provided Taiwan with just enough weaponry to deter an attack. (NW220299) VIII. Add the first two letters of each base, which are missing. Translate the complete re- verbs with their contexts into the language of your choice. 1. The most-talked-about solution is to expand the border of Jerusalem once again, then re…vide it. (NW240700) 2. Driven by the single currency and globalization, European industry is rapidly re-…gineering itself […]. (NW1199) 3. The left may have gone into momentary hibernation after the fall of the Berlin Wall, but it never disappeared, and it is now re-…ergized by an enemy called globalization. (TE220500) 4. The expedition now re…ouped […]. (NG1198) 5. Anti-Semitism is already on the rise […] and European Jews fear that the lawsuits could re…nite the old, vicious stereotype of money-grubbing Jewry. (NW141298) 6. The Habibie government threatened to re-…pose martial law on Aceh. (NW110199) 7. The little city-state [=Singapore] is now feverishly re-…venting itself in the midst of Asia’s crushing economic crisis. (NW211298) 8. […] the channel, re-…unched as a conservative voice in 2017, is setting the tone for the campaign for the presidential elections next spring. (TS080521) 9. Australia […] is not like North America, where every ice age re…de the face of the continent. (NG0700) 10. Having re…dered priorities […], Blair has managed to come up with an additional £40 billion for health and education in the coming year. (NW071298) 11. Mahadin has also turned his attention to the Bedouin vendors inside Petra, decreeing that their medley of souvenir stands, restaurants, and animal rides be re…ganized into cooperative ventures. (NG1298)

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12. The whole notion of SMS is re…volutionizing itself because of the ease of sending messages. (NW020401) 13. A further four battalions will be “re-…lled” and moved into a new 1,000-strong Ranger regiment […]. (TS220321) 14. Experts believe these records of daily life in Petra may hold clues to the demise of the city after the Romans took control in A.D. 106 and re…uted the caravan trade away from Petra. (NG1298) 15. The segregated unit fought one of Italy’s nastiest little battles of 1944 in a doomed attempt to stop the Nazis from re…king Sommacolonia. (NW240700) 16. A new flotilla of movies and books is forcing many Americans to confront and re…ink a clash that […] can seem as distant as Lexington and Concord […]. (NW280998) 17. On Thursday Starr […] was re-…acing his steps, interviewing obscure witnesses for a second and third time. (NW161198) IX. Translate the re- formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. […] six hours after, as I sat looking sadly in the fire, the pangs returned, and the drug had to be re-administered. (Stevenson_1979_ 95) 2. Elizabeth-Jane was standing in the middle of her upstairs parlour, critically surveying some re-arrangement of articles. (Hardy_1978b_404) 3. A little later all three were re-arrested. (Orwell_1986_64) 4. […] all the houses were so racked that the town had to be rebuilt. (Twain_1961_316) 5. Every square inch of the Palladium cinema […] desperately required redecoration. (Lodge_1993_9) 6. They’ve re-done the whole luncheonette section […]. (Updike_1964_12) 7. He sat down on the plank bed […] and set to work deliberately at the task of re-educating himself. (Orwell_1986_219) 8. She folded her arms and re-met Poole’s eyes. (Dillard_1993_113) 9. ‘I know how to chastise children, you see,’ said the scoundrel, grimly, as he stooped to repossess himself of the key, which had dropped to the floor. (Brontë_1965_303) 10. It was classed as a private yacht, but could be re-registered as a coaster. (Forsyth_1975_282) 11. When the first bundle was secreted, Marc began the process of re-sealing the barrel. (Forsyth_1975_310)

Chapter 1.  Prefixation 109



Key III. 1 create/creates; 2 design/designing; 3 imagine/imagined; 4 name/named; 5 nationalised/nationalization; 6 think/think; 7 infect/infection IV. 1 acquire; 2 amputate; 3 bait; 4 bury; 5 define; 6 exported; 7 floated; 8 married; 9 opened; 10 radiate V. 1 enlist; 2 scheduled; 3 appeared; 4 claimed; 5 colonize; 6 emerged VII. 1 ing; 2 ation; 3 ence; 4 ing; 5 ion VIII. 1 di; 2 en; 3 en; 4 gr; 5 ig; 6 im; 7 in; 8 la; 9 ma; 10 or; 11 or; 12 re; 13 ro; 14 ro; 15 ta; 16 th; 17 tr

semiIntroduction The non-native prefix semi- conveys the sense of halfness or incompleteness, or an unspecified lower quantity of something. The quantitative sense overlaps with a qualitative one, as a smaller amount of something may imply its lesser quality. The prefix attaches to both native and non-native bases. The prefix originates in Latin sēmi- (later French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese semi- ‘half ’). Latin sēmi- combined freely with adjectives and participles, and less commonly with nouns. In medicine, and still more in modern Latin, the prefix is extensively employed in technical terminology. The earliest semi- derivatives in English are semicircular, semi-mature, semicircle, semigod. In the 16th-18th cent., the number of semi- formations increased markedly (semidiameter, semilunar, semivowel), many of them adapted or imitated from Latin. In the 19th cent., novel formations became very common, bearing the meaning ‘half, partly, partially, to some extent’. Source: the OED

Construction I. Paraphrase the intended meaning of the following semi- formation. How does it differ from the formations pseudo-science and quasi-science? In the semi-science of campaigns, Gore’s handlers have to raise his “positives” before sending him out on a people’s crusade against Bush. (NW140800) II. Provide the meanings of the following semi- derivatives: semi-conscious semi-divine semi-literate semi-personal

… … … …

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English Complex Words

III. Fill in the gapped semi- formations with the appropriate words: automatic, clad, comic, darkness, independence, liquid, permeable, porcelain, skilled, starvation, tragic. 1. in a semi-………… or droplet form 2. the system’s semi-………… membrane 3. a semi-………… feeder designed for multi-page documents 4. a rich creamy-coloured semi-………… 5. in semi-………… and unskilled manual jobs 6. into a semi-…………, semi-………… list of his nightly sins 7. semi………… men and women 8. on the edge of semi-………… 9. a cycle of semi-………… 10. an atmosphere of semi-…………

Translation IV. The following English phrases containing semi- formations have been translated (GT & NS) into Swedish, French, Ukrainian and Lithuanian. 1. a semi-famous actor 2. a semi-official document 3. a semi-legal action Swedish 1. en halvkänd skådespelare 2. ett halvofficiellt dokumen 3. (GT) en halvrättslig åtgärd; (NS?) halvt legal / halvt illegal French 1. (GT) un acteur semi-célèbre; (NS) un acteur pas très célèbre / peu célèbre / à moitié célèbre 2. un document semi-officiel 3. (GT) une action semi-juridique; (NS) une action à moitié légale / à demi juridique Ukrainian 1. напіввідомий актор / napivvidomyy aktor 2. напівофіційний документ / napivofitsiynyy dokument 3. напівлегальний позов / napivlehalʹnyy pozov Lithuanian 1. pusiau žinomas aktorius 2. pusiau oficialus dokumentas 3. pusiau teisinis veiksmas Spell out the methods of rendering semi- formations in Swedish, French, Ukrainian and Lithuanian.



Chapter 1.  Prefixation 111

V. Translate the semi- formations into the language of your choice. 1. the wide semi-arid Tibetan Plateau 2. the semiauthoritarian rule of the former party apparatchik 3. everything from semiconductors to washing machines and car engines 4. a series of incremental semi-confessions 5. a semi-legal experiment that pushes the boundaries of medical ethics 6. semi-nomadic hunters 7. a semiprivate space, reserved for ceremonies 8. soon in semi-retirement in three years or so 9. the semi-secrecy over child molestation 10. small Turkish high-speed semi-submersible infiltration craft VI. Translate the semi- formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. I had of course been all day in a state of erotic semi-arousal. (Styron_1979_200) 2. […] it seemed easier to do it in the semi-darkness, as if the room had been a confessional. (Lodge_1992_196) 3. The house was old, grimy, with a big bay window, and it was semi-detached. (Lawrence_1963_320) 4. Now he may be soulless and mercenary and semi-illiterate […]. (Lodge_ 1993_79) 5. He had semi-retired, but came to attend certain of his old patients. (Christie_ 1974_29) 6. […] the weight requirement was one hundred and twenty-five pounds and I – with my long years of semistarvation – barely tipped the scales at a hundred and ten. (Wright_1993_327) 7. Most girls are candy, wrapped in semi-transparent stuff, and living in the hope that some man soon will want to unwrap it. (Kazan_1968_495)

Key III. 1 liquid; 2 permeable; 3 automatic; 4 porcelain; 5 skilled; 6 tragic, comic; 7 clad; 8 independence; 9 starvation; 10 darkness

112

English Complex Words

subIntroduction The non-native prefix sub- attaches to nouns (subcategory), adjectives (subtropical) and verbs (subdivide). It is also found on bound bases (submit). As a locative prefix, conveying a sense of spatial relationship, it adds the sense of a lower position or movement towards a lower location. Possibly, an imagined vertical axis is involved, on which the location opposite to sub- is placed at the extreme end (top), namely over- or up-. The prefix sub- is fairly productive nowadays. The prefix is a borrowing from Latin (sub-). The principal meanings found in different formations in Latin are: – – – – – – – – –

beneath (subiugāre ‘subjugate’) underneath, below, down, low, lower (subaerātus ‘having copper underneath’) (of persons) subordinate, subsidiary, secondary (submagister ‘submaster’) near to (subalpīnus ‘subalpine’) incompletely, imperfectly, partially (subabsurdus ‘somewhat absurd’) secretly, covertly (subintrōdūcere ‘subintroduce’) from below, up, (hence) away (subsistere ‘subsist’) in place of another (substituere ‘substitute’) in addition, by way of or as an addition (subiungere ‘subjoin’). 

In Old English, sub- is found in the Latin borrowing subdeacon. Further borrowings and adaptations of words from French and Latin are found from the early Middle English period onwards. Analogy with borrowed words in sub- resulted in new formations in English, including new derivations with native bases from at least the 15th cent. A more rapid increase in the numbers of sub- formations appears in the second half of the 18th cent. Major meanings and functions: – – – –

a subordinate branch or part of a principal business, system etc. a person who follows subsequently from and in a subordinate relation to another [geology] strata that lie beneath the system of rocks specified [geology, geography] lying about the base of or subjacent to mountains; (hence) lower in height than these mountains – [botany and anatomy] a part or layer located underneath – [mathematics] an entity contained in some similar entity, in that each of its elements is also an element of the latter and that it shares the characterizing properties of the latter

Chapter 1.  Prefixation 113



– [with personal names] a person who or thing which is similar to or characteristic of the person in question, but is in some way inferior (sub-Napoleon) – geometrical forms (subcubical, subprismatic) Sources: Bauer et al. (2013: 335–339); the OED

Construction I. Among hyphenated derivations with sub-, there are numerous hapax legomena (once-only occurrences) (COCA300722). Out of a total of 1,947 sub- formations listed on a frequency list, 1,132 (58%) of the word types are hapax legomena. This fact may be indicative of the high productivity of sub- prefixation. Consider the following list of 35 randomly selected hapax legomena with sub-: sub-desk sub-depot sub-dialogue sub-fee sub-fashion sub-file sub-event

sub-flat sub-house sub-gene sub-island sub-kingdom sub-ministry sub-mortgage

sub-operation sub-scandal sub-search sub-pilot sub-prince sub-postage sub-promotor

sub-agenda sub-carpet sub-ceiling sub-car sub-bed sub-roof sub-school

sub-product sub-shop sub-stream sub-territory sub-tenant sub-style sub-swarm

Can any generalization be made regarding the kinds of bases which these formations predominantly carry? Establish the meanings of these derivatives. At the opposite end, the sub- derivation with the highest frequency on this list is sub-Saharan (2,184). Later, the frequencies are much lower, e.g., sub-committee (103), sub-culture (68), sub-continent (59) etc. II. Following the prefixed compound in the sentence below, make up your own examples with such complex sub- formations. She’s agonizing over whether to take a sub-$10-an-hour job, the only kind she can find. (NW050201) III. Complete the following gapped sub- formations with atom, freeze and Sahara, and adjust their forms. 1. After a few hours I share some hard candies with the men, a mix of sub-……… Hausa […]. (NG0399) 2. Scientists who study the smallest units of nature have learned that this vacuum is actually seething with activity at the sub-………… levels […]. (NG1099) 3. The very conditions that create this phenomenon – sub-………… temperatures, frequent storms, winds gusting to 50 knots – make its observation extremely difficult. (NG1000)

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English Complex Words

Translation IV. The following English phrases containing sub- formations have been translated (GT & NS) into German, Italian, Bulgarian and Japanese. 1. a sub-branch of Lloyds Bank 2. the Indian sub-continent 3. a kind of sub-fiction German 1. (GT) eine Filiale der Lloyds Bank; (NS) eine Nebenfiliale der Lloyds Bank 2. (GT) dem indischen Subkontinent; (NS) der indische Subkontinent 3. (GT) eine Art Subfiktion; (NS) eine Art minderwertige Fiktion / eine Unterart der Fiktion Italian 1. una filiale della Lloyds Bank 2. il subcontinente indiano 3. (GT) una specie di sotto-fiction; (NS) un tipo di sotto-fiction / una specie di sub-fiction Bulgarian (GT) 1. подклон на Lloyds Bank / podklon na Lloyds Bank 2. индийския субконтинент / indiǐskiya subkontinent 3. един вид подфантастика / edin vid podfantastika (NS) 1. подразделение на Lloyds Bank / podrazdelenie na Lloyds Bank; клон/филиал на Lloyds Bank / klon na Lloyds Bank 2. индийския субконтинент / indiǐskiya subkontinent 3. един вид сублитература / edin vid subliteratura; един вид литературен жанр / edin vid literature zhanr Japanese (GT) 1. ロイズバンクのサブブランチ / Roizubanku no sabuburanchi 2. インド亜大陸 / Indoatairiku 3. 一種のサブフィクション / Isshu no sabufikushon (NS) 1. ロイズ銀行の出張所 / Roizu Ginkō no shucchōzho / Roizu Banku no subu­ buranchi; ロイズ銀行支店 / Roizu-ginkō shiten 2. インド亜大陸 / Indo-a-tairiku 3. サブフィクションの一種 / Sabufikushon no isshu; フィクションのサブジャンル / Fikushon no sabujyanru

Chapter 1.  Prefixation 115



Spell out the methods of rendering sub- formations in German, Italian, Bulgarian and Japanese. V. Provide the missing elements of the following equivalents of sub- formations in German, Italian, Bulgarian and Japanese.  

German

Italian

Bulgarian

Japanese

lease sub-lease class sub-class theme sub-theme title sub-title group subgroup

Miete   Klasse   Thema   Titel   Gruppe  

locazione   classe   tema   titolo   gruppo  

наем / naem   клас / klas   тема / tema   заглавие / zaglavie   група / grupa  

rīsu   kurasu   tēma   taitoru   gurūpu  

VI. Translate the sub- formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. The RQS Group, the consumer credit reporting agency, sub-contracts the work to five debt collection agencies. 2. The protesters have developed their own subculture. 3. The subducting of seafloor continues to the east beneath the Caspian Sea. 4. Recently, small Russian submarines have been spotted in the East Siberian Sea. VII. Translate the sub- formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. The three of us rode down to the Empire State Building, in the sub-basement of which my father had his safe deposit box. (Kazan_1968_342) 2. He had been appointed to a sub-committee of a sub-committee which had sprouted from one of the innumerable committees […]. (Orwell_1986_233) 3. […] passengers were overcome at the sight, and the cult that knows the brown-reds and the subdivisions of the dark greens of the East expressed shame, pity, horror, in a laugh. (Crane_1965_181)

Key III. 1 Saharan; 2 atomic; 3 freezing

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English Complex Words

superIntroduction The non-native prefix super- attaches to nouns (supercomputer), adjectives (super-sensitive) and verbs (super-add). It is also found on bound bases (supersede). It is mainly a locative prefix, conveying a sense of spatial relationship. More specifically, the prefix adds the sense of a higher position or fictive movement towards a higher location. Possibly, an imagined vertical axis is involved, on which the location opposite to super- is placed at the extreme end (bottom), namely sub-, down-, or under-. Moreover, super- also adds the sense of quantification, a tint of excess (superrich) and augmentation. However, the idea of excess is conceived of positively or neutrally (superrich), as opposed to a negative interpretation of formations with over- (overrich). The prefix super- is mildly productive nowadays. The prefix is a borrowing from Latin (super-). In classical Latin, super- is used chiefly with the sense ‘above, over’ (of place) (supersedere ‘supersede’). In post-classical Latin, super- is used in more figurative senses, such as ‘above or beyond, higher in rank, quality, amount, or degree’. It is also used in the sense ‘in or to the highest or a very high degree, exceedingly, excessively’. The regular equivalent of Latin super- in French was sur-, but many borrowings from Latin in Anglo-Norman, Old French and Middle French preferred super- to sur-. In English, the first formations – not derived from borrowed words or modelled on Latin or Romance words – probably appeared in the 16th cent. The prefix is frequent in scientific and technical language, often as a correlative to sub-. In technical language, it sometimes varies with supra-. Major meanings and functions: – – – – – –

a thing situated over, above, higher than, or (less commonly) upon another things which are higher in quality or degree than something which surpasses in degree or quality another a person, animal, or thing of a higher status, or greater level of authority than … beyond in time, later something possessing the quality expressed by the second element to the highest, a very high, or an excessive degree – [anatomy, botany, zoology] a location above, or on the dorsal side of, or (sometimes) on the upper surface of … – [botany] the geographical distribution of plants – actions done, or conditions obtaining at a higher level of existence Sources: Bauer et al. (2013: 334–339, 345–348, 407–408); the OED

Chapter 1.  Prefixation 117



Construction I. Complete the super- formations with computer, lawyer, market, performer and state, in the correct form. One of these must be used twice. 1. With the advent of super…………, scientists have taken advantage of an alternative method of prediction called climate modeling. (NG0399) 2. We shop in sterile super………… where our meat is wrapped tightly in layers of Styrofoam packaging. (NW231000) 3. The Sun, the most anti-European of Britain’s newspapers, is railing against a “European super………….” (NW0299) 4. I’d pay extra for an onboard super………… able to sense a parking spot 10 blocks away. (TE190600) 5. Numerous factors – genetic, psychological, cultural, and financial – go into making a super……….., but the right genes may be the most critical. (NG1000) 6. Last week the managers took videotaped testimony from Lewinsky, super………… Vernon Jordan and White House spinner Sidney Blumenthal. (NW150299)

Translation II. Both words, (1) computer and (2) super-computer, have been translated into Korean, Chinese (simplified), Japanese and Frisian. Korean 1. 컴퓨터 / khemphyuthe 2. 슈퍼컴퓨터 / syuphe-khemphyuthe Chinese (simplified) 1. 电脑 / Diànnǎo 2. 超级计算机 / Chāojí jìsuànjī

Japanese 1. コンピューター / konpyūtā 2. スーパーコンピューター / sūpākonpyūtā Frisian 1. kompjûter 2. superkompjûter

Spell out the methods of rendering super- formations in Korean, Chinese, Japanese and Frisian. III. Translate the super- formations into the language of your choice. 1. our immense guilt over superconsumption (NG0591) 2. the superfashionable Asian fusion place (NW110199) 3. Bombay’s rich and superrich (NW010299) 4. a laptop containing super-sensitive information (NW301000)

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IV. Translate the super- formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. Now, if to this consideration you super-add the official supremacy of a shipmaster, then, by inference, you will derive the cause of that peculiarity of sealife just mentioned. (Melville_1967_131) 2. You ask, not for a super-apple, but for an eatable apple; not for a super-horse, but for a horse of greater draught or velocity. (Shaw_1946_216) 3. […] a blood-red silk handkerchief enveloped his throat, and fell down, in a dainty manner, upon his bosom, in a fantastic bow-knot of super-eminent dimensions. (Poe_vol.1_25) 4. Ha, Miss Priscilla, the sight of you revives the taste of that super-excellent pork-pie. (Eliot_1906_139) 5. This corner was not popular, we were told, because a new super-highway was being put through along that edge of the cemetery. (Kazan_1968_488) 6. Simultaneously the whole party moved toward the water, super-ready from the long, forced inaction […]. (Fitzgerald_1993_17) 7. The sentiment which lurks more or less in all animate nature […] was lively as a passion in the super-subtle, epicurean heart of Eustacia. (Hardy_1978a_155)

Key I. 1 computers; 2 markets; 3 state; 4 computer; 5 performer; 6 lawyer

supraIntroduction The non-native prefix supra- attaches to nouns (suprachurch) and adjectives (supranational). As a locative prefix, conveying a sense of spatial relationship, it adds the sense of a higher position or location. Possibly, an imagined vertical axis is involved, on which the location opposite to supra- is placed at the extreme end (bottom), namely sub-, down- or under-. The prefix supra- can be confused with the prefix super-. They overlap semantically by expressing comparable locations in space. However, contrary to super-, supra- does not carry the sense of excess. The prefix supra- is weakly productive in present-day English. The prefix is a borrowing from Latin (suprā-). Classical Latin suprā- is attested only in suprāscriptum. It is rare in post-classical Latin before the early modern period (supracaelestis, suprapositio). It has remained rare in most semantic fields in post-classical Latin and scientific Latin (supramundanus ‘supramundane’). The prefix is more common in anatomy and zoology, where it forms specialist adjectives. In English, the prefix was found in borrowings and adaptations of Latin words (supracelestial, supravisor).

Chapter 1.  Prefixation 119



Derivations in supra- begin to appear in the first half of the 17th cent. (supranature, supraordinary). Major meanings and functions: – – – – – – –

a thing situated over, above, higher than, or (less commonly) upon another something which exists at a higher level than … something which exists beyond (or is greater than) … something of a higher status or level, or of a superior rank to … something that exceeds the limit events occurring before a specified point in time something possessing the quality expressed by the second element to the highest, a very high, or an excessive degree – expressing addition or repetition – [anatomy, zoology] a location above or on the dorsal side of … Sources: Bauer et al. (2013: 334–339, 345–349); the OED

Construction I. On the COCA frequency list (010822) of supra- formations, there are 289 items. The first twenty most frequent derivatives (with their frequencies) are as follows: supranational 366 supraglottic 77 supracondylar 57 suprapatellar 46 supraventricular 42 supraspinatus 41 supraclavicular 40 supramental 37 supraorbital 36 supramundane 33

suprathreshold 29 supramolecular 25 suprachiasmatic 22 supranuclear 20 supraocular 18 supranasal 16 supraspinal 16 supralingua 15 suprasegmental 14 suprapubic 14

What kinds of bases are particularly attractive to the prefix supra-? Compared with supra- derivatives, formations with the prefix super- (the first ten most frequent items) appear to attract different bases. Indicate the difference(s). supermarket/s 9,614 superintendent 7,730 superman 7,135 superstar/s 6,871 supernatural 6,260

superpower/s 4,164 superhero 3,763 superfund 1,294 superstorm 1,182 superhuman 1,086

Note that the numerical differences between the most frequent formations in supra- and those with super- are also significant.

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Translation II. Translate the supra- formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. Those also happen to be the kind of social problems that are best tackled on a supranational level. (TE020401) 2. I had hardly expected so dolichocephalic a skull or such well-marked supra-orbital development. (Doyle_1987_207)

transIntroduction The non-native prefix trans- attaches to nouns/names (trans-Sahara), adjectives (transcontinental) and verbs (transfigure). It can also be found on bound bases (transcend). As a locative prefix, conveying a sense of spatial relationship, it adds the sense of an imaginary (fictive) path associating two entities, which is mentally traversed from one point to another. Possibly, the path is a metaphor of a fictive change from one state to another. The prefix trans- is quite productive nowadays. The prefix originates in Latin as a preposition trans, meaning ‘across, to or on the farther side of, beyond, over’. It also appeared in combination with verbs (transīre ‘to go across’), and with denominal adjectives (transfluviālis ‘beyond the river, transfluvial’). Such formations grew in number in medieval Latin (transnoctāre ‘to pass the night’). They are also numerous in the modern Romance languages. In Old French, the inherited form was in tres- (repasser ‘to trespass’). English has received many transderivatives from French. Major meanings and functions: – across, through, over, to or on the other side of, beyond, outside of, from one place, person, thing, or state to another – the region beyond or on the other side of … (trans-Mississippi, trans-Mississippian) – [anatomy] through, across … – [geography] with names of rivers, seas, mountains, territories etc. (trans-Baikal) – [chemistry] a compound in which two atoms or groups are situated on opposite sides of a plane passing through a molecule – [biochemistry, biology] transfer (transacetylase, -amination) – [physics] having a higher atomic number than; beyond … Sources: Bauer et al. (2013: 336–339, 446); the OED

Chapter 1.  Prefixation 121



Construction I. The majority of words beginning with trans- are lexicalized forms which are hardly segmentable. High-frequency items, such as transportation (31,818), transmission (15,827), translation (13,999), or transparency (8,306) (COCA020822), can hardly be analysed as a sequence of the prefix trans- followed by a base. In the same vein, their meanings are non-compositional. In order to present analyzable and compositional trans- formations, one needs to scan the frequency list visually and select clearly prefixed formations manually. A sample list of such high-frequency derivations is as follows: transgender 3,604 transnational 3,175 trans-Atlantic 1,754 transsexual/s 840 transcontinental 634 transpersonal 359 transboundary 328 trans-Pacific 260

transcultural 193 transdisciplinary 153 transborder 128 trans-Siberian 125 transworld 115 transhumanist 99 transwomen 79 trans-Africa 78

Evidently, the above trans- formations exhibit a wide variety of bases, which are hard to categorize. Conversely, low-frequency trans- formations display numerous instances of place names (or their adjectivizations), such as: trans-Carpathian 8 trans-American 8 trans-Appalachian 7 trans-Africa 6 trans-Alaskan 5 trans-Korean 5 trans-Iranian 4 trans-Europe 4

trans-Asian 4 trans-Afghanistan 3 trans-African 3 trans-Amazonian 3 trans-Andean 3 trans-Ecuadorian 3 trans-Mexican 3 trans-Israel 3

Based on either high-frequency or low-frequency trans- derivatives, propose your own examples of trans- formations, arguing for their meaningfulness. II. Complete the gapped trans- formations with the following bases: continental, European, Sahara, shipment. 1. the trans-……… aspect of the struggle 2. the first trans……… railroad 3. a handy trans……… point 4. the trans-……… caravan trade

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English Complex Words

Translation III. Translate the trans- formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. That group opposed Stonewall’s view that trans-women should legally be viewed as women. (TS020621) 2. It is true that on clear days, when the great transcontinental expresses, long lines of swaying pullmans, swept through Fort Romper, passengers were overcome at the sight […]. (Crane_1965_181)

Key II. 1 European; 2 continental; 3 shipment; 4 Sahara

ultraIntroduction The non-native prefix ultra- usually attaches to nouns (ultrasound) and adjectives (ultraclean), carrying the sense of augmentation or a high degree. It can also be appended to compounds and phrases. It is close in meaning to the senses expressed by the prefixes hyper-, mega-, super- and turbo-. The prefix ultra- is quite productive in contemporary English. The prefix originates in Latin ultrā ‘beyond’, employed as a prefix in the post-classical ultrāmundānus ‘ultramundane’, and the later ultrāmarīnus ‘ultramarine’. Major meanings and functions: – – – – –

lying spatially beyond or on the other side of something going beyond, surpassing, or transcending the limits of something signifying an excessive or extreme degree of the quality or condition with nouns (ultraequinoctials ‘those who live beyond the equinox’) with adjectives (ultra-Martian, ultra-stellar, ultra-terrestrial)

Sources: Bauer et al. (2013: 409); the OED

Construction I. Among (hyphenated and non-hyphenated) derivations with ultra-, there are numerous hapax legomena (COCA060822). Out of a total of 2,000 ultra- formations listed on a frequency list, 1,175 (58.75%) of the word types are hapax legomena. This fact may be indicative of the extreme productivity of ultra- prefixation. Consider the following list of 30 randomly selected adjectival hapax legomena with ultra-:

Chapter 1.  Prefixation 123



ultra-abrasive ultra-alternative ultra-anal ultra-annoying ultra-aromatic ultra-attractive ultra-authentic ultra-authoritarian ultra-available ultra-black

ultra-blonde ultra-boring ultra-British ultra-broadband ultra-calm ultra-capable ultra-Catholic ultra-cheesy ultra-chewy ultra-choppy

ultra-classic ultra-classy ultra-dominant ultra-erotic ultra-evil ultra-experienced ultra-extravagant ultra-extremist ultra-fabulous ultra-fashionable

Given the fact that basically any type of adjective can append ultra-, can a generalization be made regarding the kinds of bases which these formations predominantly carry? Provide your own examples of novel ultra- formations. II. Complete the gapped ultra- formations with appropriate adjectives. The first letter is given. 1. the ultra-m……… city of Tokyo 2. these ultra-o……… Jews 3. Israel’s ultra-r……… parties 4. Japan’s ultra-f……… trains

Translation III. Match the language with its equivalent of the phrase ultra-modern. hochmodern / ultra moderní (also: hypermoderní) / ofur-nútímalegur (also: framúrstefnulegur ‘avant-garde’) / ultra müasir / ultramoderan / ultramoderne / ultramoderné / ultramodern(i) / ultramoderno / ultramodernoa / ultramo­ derns / ultramodernus / ultramoodne / ultranowoczesny / fíornua-aimseartha / uwch-fodern Azerbaijani: Basque: Bosnian: Croatian: Czech: Danish: Estonian: Finnish:

German: Icelandic: Irish: Latvian: Lithuanian: Polish: Slovak: Welsh:

IV. Translate the ultra- formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. The green credentials of “ultra-clean” buses are being called into question. (TS020521)

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2. Today most of Afghanistan is in the hands of the Taliban, or “religious students,” dominated by ultraconservative leaders. (NG0501) 3. Haller is an ultra long termer who started working the phones 12 years ago. (NG1198) 4. […] ultra-loose monetary policy will lead to a burst in inflation. (TS190521) 5. The storage vaults are protected by ultramodern security systems. (NG0491) 6. […] at the headquarters of the ultranationalist Liberal Democratic Party volunteers signed up for service in Serbia. (NW050499) 7. The conflicts between Arab and Israeli in Jerusalem sometimes obscure other tensions, like the ongoing struggle between Haredi, or ultra-Orthodox Jews, and their secular compatriots. (NW240700) 8. Many secular Israelis regard their ultrareligious compatriots […] as strange or dangerous zealots. (NW240700) 9. Jefri allegedly used the ultrasecretive state investment firm […] like a personal bank account. (NW170898) V. Find the best English equivalents of the following ultra- formations in Swedish, German and Polish. Swedish

German

Polish

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

 6.  7.  8.  9. 10.

11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

ultrakortvåg ultraljud ultraröd ultraviolett ultraradikal

ultrarot Ultraschall Ultraschalltherapie Ultraschallwellen Ultrastrahlung

ultraczuły ultraklerykalny ultrakrótki ultranowoczesny ultrareakcyjny

Key II. 1 modern; 2 orthodox; 3 religious; 4 fast III. Azerbaijani: ultra müasir / Basque: ultramodernoa / Bosnian: ultramoderno / Croatian: ultramoderan / Czech: ultra moderní (also: hypermoderní) / Danish: ultramoderne / Estonian: ultramoodne / Finnish: ultramodern(i) / German: hochmodern / Icelandic: ofur-nútímalegur (also: framúrstefnulegur ‘avant-garde’) / Irish: fíornua-aimseartha / Latvian: ultramoderns / Lithuanian: ultramodernus / Polish: ultranowoczesny / Slovak: ultramoderné / Welsh: uwch-fodern V. 1 ultrashort wave; 2 ultrasound; 3 infrared; 4 ultraviolet; 5 ultraradical; 6 infrared; 7 ultrasound; 8 ultrasound therapy; 9 ultrasonic waves; 10 ultraradiation; 11 ultrasensitive; 12 ultraclerical; 13 ultrashort; 14 ultramodern; 15 ultrareactionary

Chapter 1.  Prefixation 125



unIntroduction The prefix un- is a negative (negating) formative, affixed to adjectives and nouns. It is a native element, but it is productive with native and Latinate bases. It is the most productive means of deriving negative adjectives, on both Latinate and non-Latinate simplex bases, such as: able > unable, clear > unclear, fair > unfair, just > unjust, kind > unkind, true > untrue etc. And on complex bases: acceptable > unacceptable, attractive > unattractive, predictable > unpredictable etc. Normally, un- is not prefixed to lexical adjectives which have lexical antonyms, such as: big > *unbig (small), long > *unlong (short), old > *unold (young), soft > *unsoft (hard) etc. However, counterexamples to the above constraint can be found in COCA (e.g., un-big, undead, ungood, unpoor, unsick etc.), especially that an adjective like ungood is not the same thing as bad, and so on, according to Bauer et al. (2013: 382–383). Also, on principle, un- is not attached to basic colour terms, for example: brown > *unbrown, green > *ungreen, red > *unred, yellow > *unyellow etc. Yet, again, there are counterexamples to this principle, which can be found in COCA or on the Internet (e.g., unblue, unyellow) (Bauer et al. 2013: 383). As opposed to non-, un- (similarly to dis-) can add a depreciatory nuance to an adjective, which can be detected in the classic pair: un-American vs. non-American (Bauer et al. 2013: 372). The prefix un-, appended to verbs, also produces reversative verbs, as long as reversal is conceived of as possible at all, for example: bind > unbind, cover > uncover, do > undo, learn > unlearn, roll > unroll, wind > unwind etc. beat > *unbeat, hit > *unhit, kill > *unkill, sing > *unsing, swim > *unswim etc. But, in conditional sentences, imaginary settings or counterfactual contexts, the following could be accepted: unbreak my heart, unsay all the bad things, unsend this message etc.

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So, such seemingly unacceptable verbs can be found in “contexts that cancel the seemingly anomalous interpretation of the verb” (Horn 2002: 16, after Bauer et al. 2013: 375). The prefix un- is very productive in the formation of both negative adjectives and reversative verbs. It is highly productive with adjectival participles, and with adjectives suffixed with -able, -ous, -ic, -al and -ive. Furthermore, the prefix un- participates in the formation of privative verbs, expressing the sense ‘deprive of …’ or ‘free from …’, for instance: burden > unburden, cap > uncap, lead > unlead, mask > unmask etc. The base is a noun, and the process itself is only weakly productive. The prefix has a Germanic origin. In Old English, the number of derivations in un- is very large. The prefix was applied freely with a purely negative force to several parts of speech. In early Middle English before 1300, new formations from native elements appeared. Also, derivations with Scandinavian and French bases were coined. In Middle English after 1300, there was a marked increase in the number of new formations, particularly, those based on past participles and present participial adjectives. Variation between words showing un- and (borrowed) in- (and its variants il-, im-, ir-) is found from at least the 14th cent., with synonymous pairs (immoderate ~ unmoderate, imperfect ~ unperfect), with further pairs established in the 15th cent. (immovable ~ unmovable). By the late 16th cent., the phenomenon was extremely widespread, with further pairs (inability ~ unability, incapable ~ uncapable), or in the 17th cent. (inadequate ~ unadequate, inarticulate ~ unarticulate), or in the 18th cent. (inattentive ~ unattentive). The culminating period of the double forms lies in the 17th cent. Since that time, one or the other form has entered regular use. The derivations with in- are preferred when the whole word has a distinctly Latin character (inadequate, inarticulate). Though, there are still some doublets in use (in- or un-advisable, in- or un-alienable). Formations of Latin or Romance origin with in- (im-, il-, ir-) tend to coexist with one in un- (immoral ~ unmoral). Sources: Szymanek (1989: 268–270, 292–294); Horn (2002); Bauer et al. (2013: Ch. 17); the OED; see other negative prefixes: dis-, in-, non-

Construction I. Provide one suffix common to all the un- derivatives below. 1. for some unaccount… reason; 2. the unavoid… order of things; 3. an unbear… amount of guilt; 4. uncontrol… exclamations; 5. unforesee… risks; 6. the ungovern… hostility of baser men; 7. something unknow…; 8 acts of unspeak… destruction; 9 absolutely unthink… 30 years ago



Chapter 1.  Prefixation 127

II. Provide one suffix common to all the un- derivatives below. 1. quiet, unevent… lives; 2. unfaith… husbands; 3. an ungrace… bow; 4. an ungrate… neighbour; 5. by unlaw… means III. Provide one dual suffix (a sequence of two suffixes) common to all the un- derivatives below. 1. the book boring to the point of unread……; 2. the unbelieve…… of violence on such a massive scale; 3. the unwork…… of the complex native title laws IV. Complete the gapped un- formations with the correct forms of the past participial suffix. 1. the unbury… dead; 2 unforesee… circumstances; 3 an unidentify… assailant; 4 its unquestion… acceptance of life; 5 the unsee… labyrinth V. Use all or some of the un- formations below, in a story or dialogue of your own. to unbolt (the front seats), to unbutton (one’s dress), to unclasp (one’s hands), to unclench (one’s fists), to undo (one’s belt), to unfasten (one’s buttons), to unglue (one’s feet), to unlace (the shoes), to unroll (the socks), to unpack (the suitcase), to unzip (one’s zip) VI. Use all or some of the un- formations below in a speech on a topic of your choice. to unfreeze (foreign bank accounts), to unlearn (an unwanted pattern of behaviour), to unmake (the past), to unmask (a tendency to develop …), to unteach (someone some new words before pre-school), to unveil (one’s economic plan) VII. All six occurrences of the prefix un- have been combined with the wrongly chosen bases. Rearrange the bases in (1–6). 1. Out in the wilds there clearly is a degree of interdependence and altruism unready in cities. (NG1191) 2. Perhaps animals, too, knew this was not a human realm – which would explain why the birds we found at the topmost platform were so uncommon. (NT1193) 3. Prince Harry is now unafraid with more people than he is popular with, while the ratings for Meghan have fallen to their lowest level ever after the interview this week. (TS120321) 4. At Bronx Science, where “it was considered very unflamboyant not to have learned calculus on your own,” he began to blossom as a physics student. (SD090200) 5. Just out of college and beginning a new job in San Francisco, the 22-year-old felt unpopular for a baby. (NW091000) 6. It was appropriately uncool, a family affair presented by hotel staffers and neighbors. (NT1195)

128 English Complex Words

VIII. Complete the following gapped un…able patters with the following bases, adjusting their form: alien, chew, climb, deliver, employ, fathom, fly, impeach, navigate, survive, touch, win. 1. The scheme went bad when the letter […] was returned to Bliss’s mailbox as un………able. (NW170898) 2. No matter which route you choose, you have to traverse the mountain’s steep slopes, many of which are gouged with deep, un……….able erosion gullies. (NG1100) 3. Emily’s wound was “un……….able” and she died a short time after. (TS261120) 4. […] Jiang amiably said he was open to talks once the Dalai Lama had publicly declared that Tibet and Taiwan are un………..able parts of China. (NW190499) 5. I make the sporting mistake of ordering “hunch of pork” one night at U Sixtů, a leading restaurant. I was served just that, a real, un……….able haunch. (NT0593) 6. Both rivers include rapids rated Class VI in the Russian system, meaning un……….able by all but the most experienced boaters. (NG1197) 7. Ruth was a beloved rogue, whose drinking and womanizing inflated his legend, but made him un……….able after he left baseball. (NW051098) 8. Maybe you are un………..able where you are, but as soon as you cross borders, you could be caught. (NW021198) 9. The river zigzags through pocky Florida limestone, picks up clear water from un……….able, jade-colored springs, and empties finally in a grassy estuary […]. (NG0492) 10. We faced an enemy that could be bent but not broken. As a result, the war was essentially un……….able. (TE070501) 11. I have the option of turning down a rescue flight if the weather’s un……… able […]. (NG1092) 12. The cover’s shrewd timing reminds Wintour’s constituents that Hillary Clinton, at 49, is still the un………..able first lady of fashion. (NW071298) IX. Complete the following gapped un…ed/en/Ø [passive participle] patterns with the following bases, adjusting their form: bear ‘give birth’, cook, fit, identify, name, pollute, schedule, school, send, supervise, support, vaccinate, write. 1. The duchess also claimed that an un………ed member of the royal family voiced concerns about the colour of their un……… baby’s skin. (TS100321) 2. Dumping fuel is standard procedure before un……….ed landings. (NW140998) 3. We followed the un……….en rules of an un………..ed expedition. The only “support” we got was a whiff of perfume from the woman copilot. (NG0391)



Chapter 1.  Prefixation 129

4. Soldiers […] forced him to act as their mule, carrying backbreaking loads through the jungle for nothing but a bowl of un………..ed rice. (NW210501) 5. She later wrote in an un……….. letter to him. (NW210998) 6. The general has been so depressed by the turn of events since his arrest that he is mentally un……….. to stand trial for extradition. (NW071298) 7. In Indonesian West Timor, aid workers reported finding un…………ed corpses […]. (NW270999) 8. Portugal has today imposed new quarantine rules on un……….ed British travelers […]. (TS210621) 9. In the un………ed air […], the colors are Fujichrome intense, almost unreal. (NT0694) 10. The trail was the school of life for un………..ed Kit. (NG0391) 11. The rise of two-income households where both parents work has left more children un………..ed and isolated. (NW210699) X. Complete the gapped un- formations with suffixed bases. The following suffixed bases should be used: bearlike, communicative, ethical, godly, ladylike and sportsmanlike. One of these suffixed bases should be used twice. 1. An outside developer sold him a cow pasture at the un………. price of a thousand dollars an acre. (NG0492) 2. Company researchers had also discovered the alarming fact that women flush the toilet repeatedly to cover up un………… noises. (NG0194) 3. If we clearly and honestly believe that using animals in research will, in the end, reduce massive human suffering, it would be difficult to argue that doing so is un……….. (NW070501) 4. The animal stands on all fours, stretches fore and aft in very un……….. fashion, and runs off. (NG0799) 5. Some British visitors complain of grouchy shop assistants and un………… taxi drivers. (NW141298) 6. The sporting establishment decries drugs as the product of an un………… win-at-all-costs mentality. (NW120799) 7. Oscar nominations will be revealed unto the world on Feb. 13, at some un……….. hour, Pacific time. (NW050201) XI. Complete the gapped un- formations with the following proper names (or derived adjectives): Christian, Hillary, Persian, Russian, Spanish, Swedish, Swiss and Yeltsin. 1. She wore a tight, royal blue dress that spectacularly violated the Islamic dictum against showing curves. Dancing around the room, she showed a lack of inhibition that seemed, well, un-………… (NG0799) 2. Yet evidence abounds that Russians adore this un-………… city. (NG0291)

130 English Complex Words

3. Laura Bush paints herself as the Un-………..; “I’ll never run for Senate,” she’s said. (NW290101) 4. So do Catalans feel un-……….? “It is Spanish not to want to be part of Spain. In that sense, Catalonia is very Spanish.” (NG0492) 5. “Some of it is just Putin being the un-…………,” says Stephen Sestanovich, U.S. ambassador at large to the former Soviet states. (NW010101) 6. “I can’t think of another problem that has caused such difficulty for the political system,” says Bo Andersson of the Swedish Trade Union Confederation. “It’s very un-………….” (NG0891) 7. The ELN’s [=the National Liberation Army] decidedly un-………… deeds are only part of the country’s kaleidoscope of terror. (NW140699) 8. The clock, I noticed, was running a very un-………… five hours slow – perhaps the work of some sardonic local iconoclast. (NT0993) XII. Why can the noun believer be negated morphologically by means of un- (unbeliever) and non- (non-believer), as well as lexically with a- (atheist)? Provide contextual examples of the three formations which would clarify potential semantic nuances between them. Consider the following sentence with un-: Islam, he said, needed to go back to its roots, to a jihad against the unbelievers. (NW010399)

Translation XIII. The odd phrase Bernard’s rather un-Shakespearean helicopter has been translated (GT & NS) into three representatives of three language families: (a) Germanic, (b) Romance and (c) Slavic. Indicate the target language of each translation. a. Germanic 1. …: Bernards eher unshakespearischer Helikopter 2. …: Bernards nogal on-Shakespeareaanse helikopter 3. …: (GT/NS?) Bernards ganska o-Shakespeariska helikopter b. Romance 1. …: (GT) l’hélicoptère peu shakespearien de Bernard; (NS) l’hélicoptère (plutot) non shakespearien de Bernard / l’hélicoptère pas shakespearien de Bernard 2. …: el helicóptero poco shakesperiano de Bernard 3. …: (GT) l’elicottero piuttosto poco shakespeariano di Bernard; (NS) l’elicottero molto poco shakespeariano di Bernard c. Slavic 1. …: (GT) raczej nie Szekspirowski helikopter Bernarda; (NS) raczej nie­ szekspirowski helikopter Bernarda / raczej mało szekspirowski helikopter Bernarda 



Chapter 1.  Prefixation 131

2. …: (GT) Bernardov prilično neshekspirovski helicopter; (NS) Bernardov prilično nešekspirovski/neshakespearovski helikopter 3. …: (GT) dovol’no ne shekspirovskiy vertolet Bernara; (NS) dovol’no neshekspirovskiy vertolet Bernara Spell out the means of rendering un- formations in the three language families. XIV. Translate the following into the language of your choice, focusing on the prefixed verbs. 1. It has secured a further 100 million doses of the Astrazeneca-Oxford vaccine, which will be unaffected by the EU order […]. (TS260121) 2. After nearly a month of halfhearted apologies, Bill Clinton unburdened himself at a prayer breakfast in the White House last Friday […]. (NW210998) 3. Daphne Foster, 88, queuing in her wheelchair, was undaunted as it started to rain. (TS181220) 4. […] those close to the prime minister […] say that he is undecided. (TS020121) 5. The government’s critics […] sensibly demand that Japan unfreeze its banking system and stimulate its economy. (NW121098) 6. We know already that deforestation and sweeping agricultural changes can unleash epidemics. (NG0191) 7. “Solitude that unmakes me one of men,” Jeffers wrote […]. (NT0393) XV. Translate the following into the language of your choice, focusing on the un…able derivatives. 1. sheets and tablecloths bearing uncharitable messages (NG0492) 2. the undetectable drug (NW150299) 3. the legacy of the revolution’s single most unforgettable revelation (NG0998) 4. an unguessable distance (NT0595) 5. the unmentionable word “impeachment” (NW110199) 6. the reef ’s unreproduceable colors (NT0193) 7. my unshakeable conviction (NW140998) 8. the normally unstampedeable English drama critics (NW141298) 9. the image of Alzheimer’s as an unstoppable disease (NG1197) 10. unwearable or unaffordable designs by European couturiers (NW071298) XVI. Translate the following into the language of your choice, focusing on the participial adjectives. 1. the unscheduled call (TS170321) 2. the unbroken roof of the rain forest (NT1193) 3. the undignified status of frontage roads (NT0396) 4. animals living undisturbed (NT0795) 5. unexplored and unmapped canyons (NT0395)

132

English Complex Words

6. unneeded farmhouses and barns converted into holiday cottages (NG0492) 7. splendidly unpeopled barrier islands (NT1195) 8. in unplanned haste (NW100898) 9. thousands of plant species still unstudied by Western scientists (NG0600) 10. The reef is as magnificent as ever, “untouched and unpolluted and un-dived out,” as one scuba diver told me. (NT1193) XVII. Consider the clusters of sentences (1–2), (3–4) and (5–7), each containing the same un-…-able derivation. Translate the sentences into the language of your choice. 1. It was as unreachable as the moon. (Hillerman_1970_256) 2. Plunged like some writhing sea-shape into my gaping maw, it all but overpowered my senses as it sought some unreachable terminus near my uvula. (Styron_1979_200) 3. Officer Manuelito’s expression had become unreadable. (Hillerman_1996_108) 4. He had lowered his hand from his face and leaned forward in the unyielding wooden chair, peering first into Kelly’s unreadable face. (Dillard_1993_28) 5. He was filled with a feeling of unutterable bliss at the thought that he had found her at last and could be there with her. (Kundera_1984_238) 6. There was nothing I could say, except the one unutterable fact that it wasn’t true. (Fitzgerald_1974_186) 7. I was supposed to do a lot of different things […] and paint an expression of unutterable bliss upon their faithful features as they gaze deep, deep into the Boss’s eyes. (Warren_1973_26) XVIII. Translate the key formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. But her attitude was refreshingly unacademic and relaxed. (Styron_1979_151) 2. Linda looked on, vaguely and uncomprehendingly smiling. (Huxley_1968_135) 3. It was unethical. Or at least unprofessional. (Hillerman_1996_59) 4. […] he seemed to discern in her something that was familiar, something which carried him back into a joyous and unforeseeing past […]. (Hardy_1975_192) 5. They are passing the housing development this side of the golf course, […], the un-grandest landscape in the world […]. (Updike_1964_104) 6. After all, a celebrated film star is a celebrated film star and elderly ladies, […], are aware of their complete unimportance in the world of celebrities. (Christie_1974_32) 7. But as for that intolerable humbug, I declare I think his conduct unmanly, unsailorly, and downright un-English. (Stevenson_1960_63) 8. But Syme was not only dead, he was abolished, an unperson. (Orwell_1986_128)

Chapter 1.  Prefixation 133



9. Rabbit can’t think of much to say to him off the golf course and, […], pulls another magazine off the table, making sure it’s unreligious, the Saturday Evening Post. (Updike_1964_159) 10. […] he could wear lightweight trousers and slimline shirts without displaying unsightly bulges like cysts all over his torso. (Lodge_1978_180) 11. Did it not symbolize the eternal, unvarying triumph of Good over Evil? (Orwell_1986_229) 12. But he was also hungry, with a gnawing, unwholesome kind of hunger. (Orwell_1986_179)

Key I. -able II. -ful III. -ability IV. 1 unburied; 2 unforeseen; 3 unidentified; 4 unquestioned; 5 unseen VII. 1 uncommon; 2 unafraid; 3 unpopular; 4 uncool; 5 unready; 6 unflamboyant VIII. 1 undeliverable; 2 unclimbable; 3 unsurvivable; 4 unalienable; 5 unchewable; 6 unnavigable; 7 unemployable; 8 untouchable; 9 unfathomable; 10 unwinnable; 11 unflyable; 12 unimpeachable IX. 1 unnamed…unborn; 2 unscheduled; 3 unwritten…unsupported; 4 uncooked; 5 unsent; 6 unfit; 7 unidentified; 8 unvaccinated; 9 unpolluted; 10 unschooled; 11 unsupervised X. 1 godly; 2 ladylike; 3 ethical; 4 bearlike; 5 communicative; 6 sportsmanlike; 7 godly XI. 1 Persian; 2 Russian; 3 Hillary; 4 Spanish; 5 Yeltsin; 6 Swedish; 7 Christian; 8 Swiss XIII. a. Germanic: 1 German; 2 Dutch; 3 Swedish b. Romance: 1 French; 2 Spanish; 3 Italian c. Slavic: 1 Polish; 2 Croatian; 3 Russian

underIntroduction The native prefix under- attaches to nouns (underbelly), adjectives (underdressed) and verbs (underlie). As a locative prefix, conveying a sense of spatial relationship, it adds the sense of a lower position, or movement towards a lower location. Possibly, an imagined vertical axis is involved, on which the location opposite to under- is placed at the extreme end (top), namely over-. Moreover, under- appears in affixed words expressing quantification (understaffed). The prefix under- is very productive nowadays.

134 English Complex Words

The prefix originates in Germanic languages. In Old English, about eighty words with this formative are recorded, but only several of these are of frequent occurrence. Some of these were suggested by Latin forms with sub- (suc- etc.) and occurred only as their renderings (underberan, undercerrende, undercuman). The Elizabethan period hosted numerous new formations with this prefix. Major meanings and functions: – position – action (or continuance of a state) carried on under or beneath something – the action of moving so as to be or to get under something – names of garments worn under other articles of clothing (undercap, -frock, -garment) Sources: Bauer et al. (2013: 340–345); the OED

Construction I. Finish the gapped under- formations. The first two letters of the base are given. 1. through the underbr… 2. a definite undercu… of eroticism 3. an exciting silk underga… 4. the undergr… at the side of the path 5. an underha… insult 6. a fierce underto… 7. involved in the underwo… II. Complete the gapped under- formations with achieve, fund and represent, adjusting their final forms. Use two of the bases twice. 1. Two decades of legal aid cuts and under……….. has left the criminal justice system in a state of near collapse. (TS111121) 2. Asian American students, […], vehemently reject the idea that they should suffer in order to create space for under…………. black and Hispanic groups […]. (D’Souza_1992_237) 3. […] the very talented young knights of the Los Angeles Lakers have watched the NBA finals on television, stewing in a funk of recriminations and vexing under………….. (NW190600) 4. In a scene from the 1999 movie “Notting Hill,” a group of London friends at a dinner party discuss who among them is the biggest under………….. (NW161000) 5. If you’re like the overwhelming majority of boomers, your career has hit a brick wall, you haven’t saved enough, your pension is under………….., your health is deteriorating, […]. (TE120600)



Chapter 1.  Prefixation 135

III. Choose one of the three potential bases in (a-c) to complete the gapped underformations. 1. Arabia, which is moving north slightly faster than Africa, hit first, and when it shoved into the under………… of Eurasia, it thrust up not only Nemrud Dagh but also the Caucasus Mountains. (NG0700) a. tummy b. belly c. stomach 2. Until recently, Renault was an under………… itself, suffering through a 15-year slump before turning in record profits of $1.5 billion last year. (NW290399) a. performer b. artist c. actor 3. They dismissed the dog-bite theory, since they found no under………… on Gerardi’s skull. “A dog can’t bite with one jaw,” says U.S. detective Jack Palladino. (NW261098) a. teeth b. jaw c. bite 4. Low wages, hazardous working conditions and blatant union-busting have meant that many workers are trapped in a permanent under…………. (NW260201) a. system b. class c. category 5. The blast, concentrated by the confined space of the under…………, blew off her shoes and peppered her feet and side with glass shrapnel. (NW210800) a. pass b. passage c. path

Translation IV. The English sentences in (1–3) containing under- formations have been translated (GT & NS) into two representatives (a-b) of four language families: (A) Germanic, (B) Romance, (C) Slavic and (D) Turkic. Indicate the target language of each translation. 1. The kitchen is understaffed. 2. The workers are underpaid. 3. The students are underdressed.

136 English Complex Words

A. Germanic a. … 1. Die Küche ist unterbesetzt. 2. Die Arbeiter sind unterbezahlt. 3. (GT) Die Schüler sind underdressed.; (NS) Die Schüler sind nicht konform gekleidet. / Die Schüler sind nicht passend gekleidet. b. … 1. Køkkenet er underbemandet. 2. (GT) Arbejderne er underbetalt.; (NS) Arbejderne er underbetalte. 3. (GT) Eleverne er underklædte.; (NS) Eleverne har ikke så fint tøj på som det er forventet. / Eleverne er for uformelt klædt. / Eleverne er ikke pænt nok klædt på. / Eleverne er ikke klædt fint nok på. / Eleverne er underdressed. B. Romance a. … 1. La cucina è a corto di personale. 2. I lavoratori sono sottopagati. 3. (GT) Gli studenti sono sottovestiti.; (NS) Gli studenti sono poco vestiti. / Gli studenti sono vestiti in modo inadeguato. b. … 1. (GT) A cozinha é insuficiente.; (NS) A cozinha tem pessoal a menos. 2. Os trabalhadores são mal pagos. 3. Os alunos estão mal vestidos. C. Slavic a. … 1. V kuchyni je nedostatek personálu. 2. (GT) Zaměstnanci jsou nedostatečně placení.; (NS) Zaměstnanci jsou platově podhodnocení. / Zaměstnanci jsou nedostatečně placeni. 3. (GT) Studenti jsou nedostatečně oblečení.; (NS) Studenti jsou nevhodně oblečení. / Studenti (Studentky) jsou spoře odění. / Studenti jsou oblečení ne dost formálně. / Studenti jsou nedostatečně oblečeni. b. … 1. V kuhinji je premalo osebja. 2. Delavci so premalo plačani. 3. Učenci so premalo oblečeni. D. Turkic a. … 1. (GT) Mutfak yetersiz.; (NS) Mutfak personeli yetersiz. 2. İşçiler düşük ücret alıyor. 3. Resmi/uygun giyinmemiş.



Chapter 1.  Prefixation 137

b. … 1. Mətbəxdə işci çatışmır. 2. İşçilər az maaş alırlar. 3. Tələbələr az geyindirilir. Spell out the mechanisms of (and potential similarities in) rendering under- formations in the four language families. V. Translate the key formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. Gypsies have regularly been undercounted, both by regimes anxious to downplay their profile and by Gypsies themselves, seeking to avoid bureaucracies. (NG0401) 2. […] at Tomo Uno, […] successful businessmen seem to enjoy showing off their elegant over- and under-dressed wives and daughters. (NT0894) 3. […] an underfinanced group of dedicated scientists […] work at the only research institution in the archipelago. (NG0499) 4. On Friday Transport Scotland […] admitted that a retrofit of buses in Glasgow […] was paused after it identified “under-performing” vehicles operated by First Bus. (TS020521) 5. This is an opportunity expressly denied to women and contributes to the gross under-representation of women at the top of the legal profession. (TS020121) VI. Translate the key formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. At irregular intervals they presented him with a dirty slip of paper which they said was the bill, but he had the impression that they always undercharged him. (Orwell_1986_229) 2. Yet I venture to assert that the several almost square meals lost by underfed William Buggles, and underfed Mrs. Buggles, and the underfed Buggles kiddies, was a greater tragedy than the £10,000 lost by Mr. Fremlin. (London_1982_99) 3. Board meetings were rare, and usually consisted of the chairman […] who was the younger brother of Sir Ian’s former under-manager. (Forsyth_1975_206) 4. You are right, young man. Labor is dreadfully underpaid. (London_1982_451) 5. She’d served up a cracking good dinner, apart from the avocados, which were underripe and rather hard. (Lodge_1989_236) 6. Many of the most important things were never openly said; they were understated and left to seep through to one. (Wright_1993_201) 7. Industry Year is certainly a lot of balls. On the other hand, the idea that society undervalues its engineers is not. (Lodge_1989_25)

138 English Complex Words

VII. In Polish, the prefix pod- is cognate with the spatial preposition pod conveying the senses ‘under, below, underneath’. The formative pod- can be affixed to verbs (podkreślić ‘to underline’), adjectives (podkreślony ‘underlined’) and nouns (podregion ‘subregion’). The prefix pod- attached to a participial adjective may also add a sense of a small amount of something, physical proximity to something, or an incomplete result of a process implied in the base. The list below includes ten prefixed adjectives, which are given in their basic forms (i.e., singular and masculine). Each of these formations can be neatly divided into the prefix pod- and an adjective. In order to clarify the meaning of the adjectival base, a general gloss is provided, indicating its semantic core. Propose English equivalents of the various Polish pod- formations, providing the most appropriate translation, prefixed or unprefixed (Słownik Języka Polskiego (1998)). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

podbiegunowy podbrzuszny podczerwony poddźwiękowy podgazowany podgrzany podirytowany podleczony podleśny podmiejski

biegun brzuch czerwony dźwięk gaz grzać irytować leczyć las miasto

‘pole’ ‘abdomen, belly’ ‘red’ ‘sound’ ‘gas’ ‘to warm, to heat’ ‘to irritate’ ‘to cure, to treat’ ‘forest, woods’ ‘town, city’

Key I. II.

1 brush; 2 current; 3 garment; 4 growth; 5 handed; 6 tone; 7 world 1 underfunding; 2 underrepresented; 3 underachievement; 4 underachiever; 5 underfunded III. 1 belly; 2 performer; 3 bite; 4 class; 5 pass IV. A. Germanic: a German; b Danish B. Romance: a Italian; b Portuguese C. Slavic: a Czech; b Slovenian D. Turkic: a Turkish; b Azerbaijani VII. 1 polar / near the pole; 2 hypogastric; 3 infrared; 4 subsonic; 5 (slightly) gassed / fig. tipsy / (a bit) drunk; 6 heated up; 7 (slightly) irritated; 8 (partially / not fully) cured; 9 near / in the vicinity of the forest; 10 suburban

Chapter 1.  Prefixation 139



upIntroduction The native prefix up- attaches to nouns (upstream), adjectives (upright) and verbs (upgrade). As a locative prefix, conveying a sense of spatial relationship, it adds the sense of a higher position or movement towards a higher location. Possibly, an imagined vertical axis is involved, on which the location opposite to up- is placed at the extreme end (bottom), namely down-. The prefix up- is weakly productive nowadays. The prefix originates in Germanic languages, where some form of up- was widespread, for example, op- (Middle Dutch and Dutch), ûf- (Old High German and Middle High German) (German auf-), up-, upp- (also op-, opp-) (Middle Swedish), upp- (Swedish), and op- (Middle Danish and Danish). In the later and modern forms of these languages, the use of the prefix has increased, as in English, and parallel formations are very common. In contemporary English, there are only a limited number of lexicalized formations with the prefix up-. The majority are novel formations or low-frequency derivatives. Sources: Bauer et al. (2013: 340–345); the OED

Construction I. The majority of up- formations are lexicalized words with established meanings. The following words are thirty randomly selected up- formations from the top of the frequency list (COCA060822). Despite their diverse bases, the semantic contribution of the prefix is visible. Provide other examples of up- formations. update/s/d 54,227 upstairs 19,791 upcoming 15,323 upgrade 11,481 upright 7,449 upscale 3,935 uphill 3,837 upload 3,704 upstate 3,477 upstream 3,252

upbringing 3,194 uptown 2,621 uproar 2,033 upfront 1,969 uptake 1,647 uptight 1,339 upstart 1,142 uplift 1,107 upkeep 1,085 upshot 1,053

upland 1,024 upriver 807 upswing 733 upsurge 582 uproot 494 upwind 459 upturn 356 upstage 347 upslope 142 upmarket 130

II. Finish the gapped up- formations. The first two letters of each base are given. 1. a bad upbr… 2. the upke… of your new shade 3. an upsu… in Jewish nationalism 4. the economic uptu…

140 English Complex Words

Translation III. Translate the up- formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. The more sedate and older sections of the South looked down their noses at the up-country Georgians […]. (Mitchell_1958_8) 2. Ethnic Albanians say they are treated as second-class citizens and demand that the Macedonian Constitution be rewritten to upgrade their minority position […]. (NY060501) 3. The war in Bosnia uprooted 2 million people. (NW120499) 4. We were told that a teacher had been searching this boy’s phone for something unrelated and discovered several pictures of up-skirting of different girls […]. (TS240521) 5. Was looking after the upkeep of the road, he declared. (Conrad_1973_48) 6. The coiling uprush of smoke streamed across the sky […]. (Wells_1966_98) 7. […] he made every down-stroke so slowly that it might have been six feet long, while at every upstroke I could hear his pen spluttering extensively. (Dickens_1965_474) 8. At the lip of the wash bank, a few yards upstream from the road, two small junipers had managed to get roots deep enough to live. (Hillerman_1970_52)

Key II. 1 bringing; 2 keep; 3 surge; 4 turn

Chapter II

Suffixation

-able/-ible Introduction The suffix -able (and its spelling variant -ible) attaches almost indiscriminately to verbal bases, producing deverbal adjectivizations (or objective/potential adjectives), paraphrased as ‘fit for being V-ed/liable to be V-ed’. Such formations carry the concept of ‘passive possibility’, leading to an extremely productive word-formation process. Derivations in -able/-ible are legion in contemporary English, across its numerous varieties. The suffix is partly a borrowing from French (< Anglo-Norman and Old French, Middle French) (-able), and partly from Latin (-ābilis). In English, the suffix is found in large numbers, from the Middle English period onwards, in adjectives borrowed from French (beginning in the early 13th cent.). Adjectives borrowed directly from Latin are less numerous. On the basis of these borrowings, the suffix was soon extended to the derivation of deverbal adjectives within English on bases ultimately of Germanic origin (speakable, doable, takable), though bases of Romance origin were also employed. In the 16th cent., the suffix was also attached to nouns to form denominal adjectives (marriageable, carriageable). Since the late 17th cent., the suffix has also been added to prepositional verbs (come-at-able, get-at-able). Interestingly, some of the negative counterparts in un- of adjectives with -able are attested much earlier than their positive counterparts (unthinkable). Sources: Aronoff (1981: 48, 91); Szymanek (1989: 257–261); Bauer (1991: 224); Bauer et al. (2013: 292–297); the OED

Construction I. The forty most frequent formations with -able (COCA060822): comfortable reasonable valuable remarkable vulnerable

inevitable affordable sustainable unbelievable suitable

profitable desirable predictable memorable portable

understandable honorable unpredictable incapable formidable

142 English Complex Words acceptable uncomfortable considerable variable reliable

comparable accountable miserable notable favourable

applicable renewable questionable unacceptable charitable

enjoyable adorable knowledgeable respectable unreasonable

Add further -able formations, especially less frequent ones. II. Propose the truncation (deletion) of a final element of the verbal base (where necessary), before the attachment of the suffix -able. Spell out the truncated element. Provide the complete -able formation. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

achieve advise agree believe change charity cure demonstrate dispense estimate irritate live navigate negotiate separate service

…… …… …… …… …… …… …… …… …… …… …… …… …… …… …… ……

able able able able able able able able able able able able able able able able

> > > > > > > > > > > > > > > >

………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… …………

III. Derive -able formations on the basis of the following verbs and negate them with an appropriate negating prefix, either un- or in- (or spelling variant il-, im-, ir-). Apply any necessary spelling changes to the final form. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

…plant… …define… …console… …decipher… …trace… …assail… …calculate… …inhabit… …suffer… …describe… …reason… …value…

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32

…employ… …impeach… …win… …elect… …sink… …love… …treat… …pardon… …deliver… …repeat… …test… …drink…

41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52

…recover… …resist… …kill… …redeem… …grasp… …do… …limit… …publish… …catch… …listen… …admit… …determine…

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 143

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

…rely… …dispense… …think… …mistake… …deny… …desire… …sustain… …imagine…

33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

…say… …hit… …name… …lock… …contain… …falsify… …market… …decide…

53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

…warrant… …move… …trade… …climb… …wear… …allow… …find… …hack…

IV. Combine the -able derivations on the left with appropriate nouns on the right: adaptable affordable danceable crushable fashionable flammable flexible programmable renewable teachable unstoppable workable

circles energy methods disease material moment solution beats plastic teachers medical care devices

V. Complete the gapped sentences with -able/-ible adjectives, based on the paraphrases provided in brackets. 1. Whales are most ……… [can be approached] when socializing. (NT1196) 2. The validity of the contracts is ……… [can be challenged]. (NW150299) 3. The Sun’s Euroskepticism is ……… [can be traced] to its owner, Rupert Murdoch, the Australian-American media mogul. (NW210501) 4. Tenby, in Pembrokeshire, is Britain’s most ……… [ideal for Instagram] seaside town. (TS270321) 5. The doubling time of this infection with a new variant is quite fast. It is more ……… [can be transmitted]. (TS211220) 6. In my experience anyone with a ……… [can be diagnosed] mental health condition is not only willing but eager to explain precisely what they think is wrong with them. (TS120321) 7. Psychologists say Clinton’s apparent problems are ……… [can be treated] – if he genuinely wants to solve them. (NW280998) 8. The money has already yielded ……… [can be demonstrated] benefits. (TS210421)

144 English Complex Words

VI. Recover the missing -able/-ible adjectives on the basis of the context. The first three letters are provided. 1. When an asset changes hands the taxman likes to know if it has risen in value during ownership. If it has, this is what the taxman calls a cha……… event and capital gains tax can be charged on your profit. (TS130621) 2. Ministers also disclosed that a new coronavirus strain from South Africa that was “yet more tra………” had been found in Britain. (TS231220) 3. While the government’s guidance says that people should stay in their “local area”, it does not define any boundaries or distance and is not legally enf………. (TS120121) 4. Student loans are only rep……… above a certain salary level and it’s becoming clear just how many graduates will never pay back all that they borrow. (TS030621) 5. Her comments came as it was reported that a 17-year-old boy in Minsk had killed himself just hours after he was charged with taking part in the protests, a charge pun……… by up to 15 years in prison. (TS260521) 6. Rudolph Giuliani’s zero-tolerance approach to law and order is credited with making the city more liv………. (NW220299) 7. With no road access, the Selway Lodge is rea……… only by river and by air. (NT0796) 8. Obesity will soon rival smoking as a cause of pre……… death. (NW030700) VII. Provide your own paraphrases of the -able adjectives in the contexts given. 1. Many Victorian churches were made to be “big and showy” rather than durable. (TS050121) ……………………………………………………………….. 2. Consider Smart Quill, a networkable, “inkless fountain pen on steroids” that creates computer-processable text from standard handwriting. (NW301198) ……………………………………………………………….. 3. In Maori mythology the fiords are the workmanship not of brawny rivers of ice but of an adze-wielding superman who sliced indentations into the wave-battered coastline to make it habitable. (NG1200) ……………………………………………………………….. 4. […] Mahathir proclaimed to the crowd of foreign and local journalists. And that was among the more printable of his charges. (NW051098) ……………………………………………………………….. 5. Whether I was in my bedroom or in the lounge car with its panoramic view, the real world was just too watchable. (NT1195) ……………………………………………………………….. 6. The double-hulled Kursk was designed to be as survivable as a submarine can be. (NW280800) ………………………………………………………………..



Chapter 2.  Suffixation 145

VIII. Complete the following gapped sentences with pawnable, salable and tolerable. 1. They usually involved one or two hard-up families whose boys considered the ……….. items left in tourist cars a legitimate harvest. (Hillerman_1996_63) 2. One of the few ……… features of life at McGraw-Hill had been my view from the twentieth floor […]. (Styron_1979_21) 3. It was throbbing now, but the pain was ………. (Hillerman_1970_155) 4. By sundown when the stores were closing, their pockets were filled with cash and the car was heaped with ………, ……… wares. (Capote_1965_117) 5. But the driver of the Porsche was making a lot more than ……… mistake. (Hillerman_1996_7) IX. Add the first two letters of the gapped -able formations in their contexts. 1. ‘You people make me sick, you’re like vultures.’ ‘That’s …tionable,’ said the lawyer calmly. ‘Take it easy, lady,’ said the policeman. (Lodge_1992_102) 2. Stonewall has backed transgender activists in a legal challenge to the …aritable status of a rival campaign group that is accused of “denigrating trans people”. (TS020621) 3. He and his staff had spent the past week taking delight in tormenting the new recruit; the hazing was more …joyable than usual because Newman was so eminently …rmentable. (Dillard_1993_62) 4. He detested New York only for what he called its “barbarity,” its lack of courtesy, its total bankruptcy in the …timable domain of public manners. (Styron_1979_229) 5. The theory was that men, whose sex instincts were less …ntrollable than those of women, were in greater danger of being corrupted by the filth they handled. (Orwell_1986_107) 6. Unit meetings are held on certain nights which are kept secret for fear of police raids. Nothing …easonable transpires at these meetings […]. (Wright_1993_387) X. On the basis of the paraphrases provided in brackets, recover the missing -able/ible adjectives. The first two letters are given. 1. I remembered a time when, in an effort to make life on the west coast be………, I bought a ranch in the Ojai. (Kazan_1968_412) [difficult or unpleasant, but can be dealt with] 2. With gentle, practised skill, they eased Mr Walsh on to a wheeled, co……… stretcher, which they then slid into the back of the ambulance. (Lodge_1992_104) [can be folded so that it uses less space] 3. […] the chances were less than one in ten thousand that I would find a pu……… manuscript […]. (Styron_1979_6) [sufficient or good to be published]

146 English Complex Words

4. Blanche, I’d forgotten how ex……… you are. You’re making much too much fuss about this. (Williams_1974_63) [becoming excited too easily] 5. Together we went toward the rear of the house to what was plainly the dining room, where the de……… vision […] caught the last slant of summer light. (Styron_1979_204) [extremely pleasant to taste or smell] 6. She was through the doors before I recognized her, which was pa………, for Holly and libraries were not an easy association to make. (Capote_1958_57) [can be forgiven]

Translation XI. Find equivalents of the -able formations in Romance languages.  

French

Spanish

Italian

Portuguese

Romanian

drinkable eatable laughable liveable readable taxable

           

           

           

           

           

XII. Translate the -able formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. I found my mind on a traveler’s catechism, never answerable because there are always just too many questions. (NT1195) 2. Bone-marrow transplants can work extremely well, but they are applicable only for a minority of patients; otherwise, standard treatment is the injectable drug interferon. (NW181200) 3. Poor eating habits account for a third of all cancer – roughly the same proportion attributable to smoking. (NW301198) 4. However, the data is based solely on property valuations and doesn’t take account of mortgage debt, so not all owners are bankable millionaires. (TS290121) 5. The president and his lawyer will be spending plenty of quality time – and billable hours – together this week. (NW170898) 6. Our skin condition wasn’t a communicable disease. (NG1200) 7. The world’s available cultivable land per person is declining. (TE190600) 8. As long as the engine can turn over, the plane is flyable. (NW270798) 9. Livingstone believed that the whole Zambezi was navigable. (NG1097) 10. I wanted to look presentable. (NW010399)



Chapter 2.  Suffixation 147

11. It would be regrettable if Americans remained complacent […]. (NW010299) 12. The grants are taxable as if they were regular profits […]. (TS050121) 13. The Sherwoods have 289 acres. Only 50 are tillable. (NG1192) 14. Parkinson’s is highly treatable, even at fairly advanced stages. (NW220500) 15. Code displayed on a screen is endlessly tweakable by users. (TE190600) 16. All those three things should be immediately understandable, immediately searchable and immediately identifiable in order for the system to work well. (TS140421) XIII. Translate the -able formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. Flowers are equivalent in that they are agreeable to smell and are pickable. (Brown_1965_318) 2. The past was alterable. (Orwell_1986_220) 3. Marjorie […] kept proposing to purchase various items of useless gadgetry […] an inflatable neck-pillow for sleeping on aeroplanes […]. (Lodge_1989_175) 4. Life in the real Communist world was still livable. (Kundera_1984_253) 5. ‘I love you.’ ‘Stop it. You can’t. I’m not lovable right now.’ (Updike_1964_198) 6. Mr. Hyde was pale and dwarfish; he gave an impression of deformity without any namable malformation […]. (Stevenson_1979_40) 7. He was a middle-aged child that had never shed its baby fat, though some gifted tailor had almost succeeded in camouflaging his plump and spankable bottom. (Capote_1958_35)

Key II. 1 (e) achiev/able; 2 (e) advis/able; 3 (Ø) agree/able; 4 (e) believ/able; 5 (Ø) change/ able; 6 (y) charit/able; 7 (e) cur/able; 8 (ate) demonstr/able; 9 (e) dispens/able; 10 (ate) estim/able; 11 (ate) irrit/able; 12 (e/Ø) live/able; 13 (ate) navig/able; 14 (ate) negoti/able; 15 (ate) separ/able; 16 (Ø) service/able III. 1 implantable; 2 indefinable; 3 inconsolable; 4 indecipherable; 5 untraceable; 6 unassailable; 7 incalculable; 8 uninhabitable; 9 insufferable; 10 indescribable; 11 unreasonable; 12 invaluable; 13 unreliable; 14 indispensable; 15 unthinkable; 16 unmistakable; 17 undeniable; 18 undesirable; 19 unsustainable; 20 unimaginable; 21 unemployable; 22 unimpeachable; 23 unwinnable; 24 unelectable; 25 unsinkable; 26 unlovable; 27 untreatable; 28 unpardonable; 29 undeliverable; 30 unrepeatable; 31 untestable; 32 undrinkable; 33 unsayable; 34 unhittable; 35 unnameable; 36 unlockable; 37 uncontainable; 38 unfalsifiable; 39 unmarketable; 40 undecidable; 41 irrecoverable; 42 irresistable; 43 unkillable; 44 unredeemable; 45 ungraspable; 46 undoable; 47 illimitable; 48 unpublishable; 49 uncatchable; 50 unlistenable; 51 inadmissable; 52 indeterminable; 53 unwarrantable; 54 immoveable; 55 untradeable; 56 unclimbable; 57 unwearable; 58 unallowable; 59 unfindable; 60 unhackable

148 English Complex Words

IV. adaptable teachers / affordable medical care / danceable beats / crushable plastic / fashionable circles / flammable material / flexible methods / programmable devices / renewable energy / teachable moment / unstoppable disease / workable solution V. 1 approachable; 2 challengeable; 3 traceable; 4 instagrammable; 5 transmissible; 6 diagnosable; 7 treatable; 8 demonstrable VI. 1 chargeable; 2 transmissible; 3 enforceable; 4 repayable; 5 punishable; 6 livable; 7 reachable; 8 preventable VIII. 1 salable; 2 tolerable; 3 tolerable; 4 salable, pawnable; 5 tolerable IX. 1 ac; 2 ch; 3 en / to; 4 es; 5 co; 6 tr X. 1 bearable; 2 collapsible; 3 publishable; 4 excitable; 5 delectable; 6 pardonable

-acy Introduction The suffix -acy belongs to the category of Nomina Essendi (abstract deadjectival nominalizations), conveying the nominal concept ‘quality/state of being A’. The base is a Latinate, underived qualitative adjective in -ate [ǝt], designating either a physical or an abstract quality, for example: accurate > accuracy, delicate > delicacy, intimate > intimacy, literate > literacy etc. Not all adjectives in -ate serve as bases for -acy nominalizations, for example: moderate (A/V) > *moderacy, articulate (A/V) > *articulacy, affection > affectionate > *affectionacy, passion > passionate > *passionacy etc. The suffix is partly a borrowing from Latin (-ācia, -acia), and partly from French (-acie, -atie). Borrowings from Latin appeared in Middle English first. Latin words, which were borrowed into English, can be divided into three groups: i. words ending in -ācia in classical Latin, constituting nouns of quality formed on adjectives (fallācia ‘deceitfulness’); ii. words ending in -ātia in post-classical Latin (often spelt -acia), constituting nouns of quality, state, or condition (abbatia, abbacia ‘abbacy’, primatia ‘primacy’); iii. words ending in -atia in post-classical Latin (sometimes spelt -acia ), constituting nouns of state, formed on nouns in (post-)classical Latin (advocatia ‘advocacy’, legatia ‘legacy’, obstinatia, obstinacia ‘obstinacy’). Functions (not productive in English): – occurring in nouns of quality (contumacy, efficacy)

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 149



– forming nouns of quality, state, or condition (supremacy) – forming nouns of state (accuracy) Sources: Marchand (1969: 232); Szymanek (1989: 166–168); Bauer (1991: 222); the OED; for other Nomina Essendi suffixes, see -ancy/-ency, -ism, -ity, -ness

Construction I. Complete the following gapped phrases with -acy formations: accuracy, aristocracy, intimacy, primacy, profligacy. 1. the central bank’s …… 2. an air of …… in an otherwise busy suburb 3. the …… of the estimate 4. European traditions of monarchy and …… 5. the …… of traditional values II. Derive -acy nouns from their related bases: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

accurate > … adequate > … animate > … aristocrate > … bureaucrat > … candidate > … celibate > … confederate > … degenerate > … delicate > …

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

democrat > … determinate > … diplomat > … effeminate > … illiterate > … immediate > … intimate > … intricate > … kleptocrat > … legitimate > …

21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

obdurate > … obstinate > … pirate > … primate > … private > … profligate > … surrogate > … technocrat > … theocrat > … ultimate > …

Translation III. Complete the table with Germanic equivalents of the English -acy formations. adequaatheid / delicatesse / delikatesse / delikatesse / democratie / demokrati / demokrati / demokrati / finhet / hæfni / lämplighet / lostæti / lýðræði / næði / nákvæmni / nauwkeurigheid / noggrannhet / nøjagtighed / nøyaktighet / ostördhet / privacy / privatliv / privatliv / tilstrækkelighed / tilstrekkelighet   1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

 

Dutch

Swedish

Norwegian

Danish

Icelandic

accuracy adequacy delicacy democracy privacy

         

         

         

         

         

150 English Complex Words

IV. Translate the key formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. The area of advocacy is not limited to immigration cases. 2. The country seems headed for bankruptcy. 3. The countries that had just bombed Iraq convinced some that a new conspiracy was afoot. (NW110199) 4. Shark fin has been considered a delicacy by the Chinese for hundreds of years. 5. She always fought for democracy. 6. His anger ruined his diplomacy. 7. Life expectancy is exceptionally low, illiteracy is high. 8. The government says normalcy is being restored. 9. To attack the papacy with maximum effect it was not sufficient to invent a woman pope. 10. The ancient practice of piracy is one industry that isn’t suffering in the South China Sea. (NG1298) 11. I’m glad to get my privacy and freedom back. 12. The right denounces the profligacy and inefficiency of public services. 13. My generation considered the Mossad a black box, where secrecy and compartmentalization was the first order of the day. (NW140800)

Key I. 1 profligacy; 2 intimacy; 3 accuracy; 4 aristocracy; 5 primacy II. 1 accuracy; 2 adequacy; 3 animacy; 4 aristocracy; 5 bureaucracy; 6 candidacy; 7 celibacy; 8 confederacy; 9 degeneracy; 10 delicacy; 11 democracy; 12 determinacy; 13 diplomacy; 14 effeminacy; 15 illiteracy; 16 immediacy; 17 intimacy; 18 intricacy; 19 kleptocracy; 20 legitimacy; 21 obduracy; 22 obstinacy; 23 piracy; 24 primacy; 25 privacy; 26 profligacy; 27 surrogacy; 28 technocracy; 29 theocracy; 30 ultimacy III. Dutch: 1 nauwkeurigheid; 2 adequaatheid; 3 delicatesse; 4 democratie; 5 privacy Swedish: 1 noggrannhet; 2 lämplighet; 3 finhet; 4 demokrati; 5 ostördhet Norwegian: 1 nøyaktighet; 2 tilstrekkelighet; 3 delikatesse; 4 demokrati; 5 privatliv Danish: 1 nøjagtighed; 2 tilstrækkelighed; 3 delikatesse; 4 demokrati; 5 privatliv Icelandic: 1 nákvæmni; 2 hæfni; 3 lostæti; 4 lýðræði; 5 næði

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 151



-age Introduction Some uses of the suffix -age can be categorized as Nomina Actionis (abstract deverbal action nouns), conveying the nominal concept ‘act(ion)/process of V-ing’. These are nouns (nominalizations) expressing events, states, results etc., each with a clear verbal base. In this function, the suffix is added to several verbal bases, for example: assemble > assemblage, coin > coinage, drain > drainage, leak > leakage etc. In other respects, the suffix shows less clear and idiosyncratic meanings, forming nouns denoting collectives (signage), locations (hermitage), measurements (voltage), and possibly some others. These senses approximate the suffix -age to Nomina Essendi affixes, although, here, the bases are predominantly nominal. The suffix is mildly productive in contemporary English. It is added to either verbal or nominal bases, which is often difficult to determine due to a possible conversion between a verb and a noun (leak > leakage, link > linkage). Rarely, it can be spotted on adjectival bases (shortage). The suffix may have multiple origins. It is partly a borrowing from Latin (-agium), and partly from French (-age); also compare Catalan -atge, Spanish -aje, Portuguese -agem and Italian -aggio. The prefix is found in borrowings and adaptations of French and Latin words from the Middle English period onwards. In English, derivatives are found from the late Middle English period onwards (peerage, mockage). The suffix becomes particularly frequent in early modern English. Major meanings and functions: – something belonging or functionally related to (foliage, leafage, roomage, vaultage) – the function, sphere of action, condition etc., associated with a person’s occupation, office, or situation (orphanage, parsonage, porterage, umpirage, vassalage) – an action or the result of an action (breakage, brewage, spillage, steerage, usage, wreckage) – a charge, tax, or duty levied (ballastage, corkage, housage, poundage) Sources: Szymanek (1989: 151, 208); Bauer et al. (2013: 202, 250–252, 262–264); the OED; for other Nomina Actionis suffixes, see -al, -ance/-ence, -ation, -ment; for other Nomina Essendi suffixes, see -acy, -ancy/-ency, -ism, -ity, -ness

Construction I. Complete the gapped phrases with appropriate -age formations: bondage, brokerage, drainage, footage, linkage, parentage, percentage. 1. the importance of an external …… 2. the …… of HIV-positive women

152

English Complex Words

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

an executive of a stock …… in Manila the …… basin women enticed into …… or prostitution chilling video …… the shattering discovery about Rebecca’s ……

II. Form -age nouns on the basis of the following words and allocate them to the appropriate semantic categories: acre, break, cake, cork, hermit, mile, orphan, parson, spill, ton, use, vicar, volt, yard. a charge, tax, or duty an action or the result of an action associated with occupation, office, or situation measurement

       

Translation III. Establish the missing equivalents denoting names of measurement. Provide equivalents of their English -age derivations in Bosnian, Macedonian, Estonian and Latvian.  

mile ~ mileage

tonne ~ tonnage volt ~ voltage

Bosnian Macedonian Estonian

milja ~ kilometraža    

tona ~ tonaža ton ~ tonaža tonn ~ tonnaaž

Latvian

jūdze ~ nobraukums  

watt ~ wattage

volt ~ voltaža   volt ~ napon/ voltage     vatt ~ võimsus volts ~ spriegums  

IV. Translate the -age formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. […] many of the remaining segments became bypasses for local traffic or were demoted to the undignified status of frontage roads. (NT0396) 2. Ships with teakwood decks carried live monkeys, orangutans, and snakes in the hold, British grandees in first class, and servants in steerage. (NG1298) 3. Many of the bridges along the way had been blown up, and we had to drive on wobbly planks laid across the wreckage. (NG0800) V. Translate the -age formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. She was conscious of some religious ceremony as an assemblage of Jews unveiled a monument commemorating their massacre and their martyrdom […]. (Styron_1979_392)

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 153



2. Poor Pittypat had been quaking in her number-three shoes […] and would be the last to notify Ellen of her own inadequate chaperonage. (Mitchell_1958_169) 3. Lumber workers have also had a hard time, because of conservation measures and a continuing shrinkage of the state’s forests. (Eyewitness_1997_15) 4. It is one of the town’s two “apartment houses,” the second being a ramshackle mansion known, because a good part of the local school’s faculty lives there, as the Teacherage. (Capote_1965_14) 5. Only 1 low-wattage security light illuminated the reception lobby, making it look shabbier than ever. (Lodge_1989_225) 6. I could have driven about in those curving, twisting streets for hours without making any more yardage than an angle-worm in a bait can. (Chandler_1986_55)

Key I. 1 linkage; 2 percentage; 3 brokerage; 4 drainage; 5 bondage; 6 footage; 7 parentage II. a charge, tax, or duty: cakeage, corkage an action or the result of an action: breakage, spillage, usage associated with occupation, office, or situation: hermitage, orphanage, parsonage, vicarage measurement: acreage, mileage, tonnage, voltage, yardage

-al/-ar (adjectival) Introduction The suffix -al (and its allomorphic variant -ar) attaches to common, non-personal nouns, forming relational adjectives. Such adjectives cannot be derived from numerous types of complex nouns, especially those belonging to the categories of Nomina Actionis or Nomina Essendi (-age, -al, -ance/-ence, -ment, -ure, -y). The sense expressed by -al derivatives is usually transpositional, meaning that there is no semantic content added to the base, beyond that provided by a category shift from a noun to an adjective. Examples of -al derivatives: emotion > emotional, continent > continental, nation > national, tradition > traditional etc. Examples of derivatives with the allomorphic variant -ar: capsular, columnar, lunar, polar and vulgar. The suffix is considered to be quite productive in present-day English. The suffix may have multiple origins. It is partly a borrowing from French (-al), and partly from Latin (-ālis), ultimately of Greek origin. Borrowings and adaptations

154 English Complex Words

of French and Latin adjectives appear in Middle English (capital, general, special). Formations in English are found from late Middle English (occasional, opinional, palaestral, professional). Derivations in -alis appeared in post-classical Latin and scientific Latin, and following this model, the suffix became very productive in English (as in French), attaching either directly to Latin nouns or to English nouns of Latin origin (circumstantial, constitutional). In classical Latin, adjectivizations in -ālis were formed on other adjectives (aequālis ‘equal’, annuālis ‘annual’). This process is productive in English, where -al is freely applied to Latin adjectives (aerial, corporeal, funereal, terrestrial). Suffixation in -al is very frequent in English borrowings of Latin adjectives, examples of which are found already in late Middle English (philosophical, poetical, rhetorical). Sources: Aronoff (1981: 53–55); Szymanek (1989: 216–226); Bauer (1991: 117–119, 223); Bauer et al. (2013: Ch. 14); the OED; see other adjectival suffixes, such as -ic(al), -an, -ary, -ory, -ive

Construction I. Derive -al relational adjectives from the following bases. Pay attention to possible spelling changes. accident… addition… circumstance… confidence… constitution… culture… department… difference… education… elector… essence… existence… fiction… finance…

globe… government… herb… incident… instinct… institution… intellect… mathematics music… navy… nutrition… origin… ornament… parent…

physics… president… profession… provident… resident… sense… sex… society… spirit… structure… substance… suicide… text… tropics…

II. Construct -al adjectives from the bases given in brackets. 1. Australia is about as old as any piece of ……… [continent] crust gets. (NG0700) 2. The regime’s task in the years ahead is to ensure that this does not take on an increasingly ……… [funeral] tone. (NW310898) 3. Candling, sometimes called coning, is today’s hottest ……… [nature] treatment to remove wax from ears. (TE190600) 4. Other ……… [sex] assaults were committed by uniformed police and soldiers. (NW140800)

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 155



III. Complete the gapped -al adjectives preceding nouns. 1. 3. 5. 7. 9. 11. 13. 15.

agr……al subsidies ele……al promises ex……al questions he……al treatment na……al method pro……al development sen……al journey su……al thoughts

2. 4. 6. 8. 10. 12. 14. 16.

ed……al system env……al changes go……al intervention ins……al support par……al authority se……al pleasures so……al equality tro……al rainforests

IV. Complete the gapped nouns preceded by adjectives in -al. The first two letters of each noun are given. 1. 3. 5. 7. 9. 11. 13.

agricultural la… confidential ma… continental br… environmental pr… musical in… octagonal to… residential di…

2. 4. 6. 8. 10. 12. 14.

behavioral di… constitutional am… conversational to… global sc… national se… philosophical qu… visual im…

Translation V. The following English phrases containing -al adjectives have been translated (GT & NS) into German, French, Polish and Greek. 1. cultural differences 2. financial crisis 3. fundamental rights 4. historical perspective 5. existential questions German 1. kulturelle Unterschiede 2. Finanzkrise 3. Grundrechte 4. historische Perspektive 5. existentielle Fragen French 1. différences culturelles 2. crise financière 3. droits fondamentaux 4. perspective historique 5. questions existentielles

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Polish 1. różnice kulturowe 2. kryzys finansowy 3. (GT) podstawowe prawa; (NS) prawa podstawowe 4. perspektywa historyczna 5. pytania egzystencjalne Greek 1. πολιτισμικές διαφορές / politismikés diaforés 2. οικονομική κρίση / oikonomikí krísi 3. (GT) θεμελιωδών δικαιωμάτων / themeliodón dikaiomáton; (NS) θεμελιωδη δικαιώματα / themeliodi dikaiómata 4. ιστορική προοπτική / istorikí prooptikí 5. υπαρξιακά ερωτήματα / yparxiaká erotímata Based on the above translations, spell out the methods of rendering -al adjectival derivations in German, French, Polish and Greek. VI. Translate the key formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. Gore carefully trimmed his youthful liberalism for voters, appealing to pro-life and pro-gun groups and calling homosexuality “abnormal.” (NW210800) 2. The treatment relieves everything from migraines to sinusitis and (post)nasal drip while promoting a healthy atmosphere. (TE190600) 3. This enabled us both to have a smooth, trouble-free conversational interchange […]. (Styron_1979_151)

Key I. accidental; additional; circumstantial; confidential; constitutional; cultural; departmental; differential; educational; electoral; essential; existential; fictional; financial; global; governmental; herbal; incidental; instinctual; institutional; intellectual; mathematical; musical; naval; nutritional; original; ornamental; parental; physical; presidential; professional; providential; residential; sensual; sexual; societal; spiritual; structural; substantial; suicidal; textual; tropical II. 1 continental; 2 funereal; 3 natural; 4 sexual III. 1 agricultural; 2 educational; 3 electoral; 4 environmental; 5 existential; 6 governmental; 7 herbal; 8 institutional; 9 natural; 10 parental; 11 professional; 12 sensual; 13 sentimental; 14 social; 15 suicidal; 16 tropical IV. 1 land; 2 disorders; 3 manner; 4 amendment; 5 breakfast; 6 tone; 7 protection; 8 scale; 9 instruments; 10 security; 11 tower; 12 questions; 13 district; 14 impairments

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 157



-al (nominal) Introduction The -al suffix, or its variant, also belongs to the category of Nomina Actionis (abstract deverbal action nouns), conveying the nominal concept ‘act(ion)/process of V-ing’. These are nouns expressing events, states, results etc., each with a clear verbal base. It is seen on a limited number of formations, for example: arrive > arrival, deny > denial, peruse > perusal, refuse > refusal, reverse > reversal etc. The suffix is rather unproductive in contemporary English, but it is fully compositional semantically. It mostly attaches to transitive verbs, with a clear result. Interestingly, burial ( animalian, diocese > diocesan, equator > equatorian, republic > republican, suburb > suburban, utopia > utopian etc. And on proper names: Alaskan, Aristotelian, Canadian, Italian, Newtonian, Nicaraguan etc. The suffix is considered to be fairly productive in present-day English. The suffix is of Latin origin (-ānus, -āna, -ānum ‘of, or belonging to’) (Africān-us, Rōmān-us). In Old French, this ending became -ain, or (after i) -en (chastelain, Italien, payen). It was adopted in Middle English, but subsequently changed to -an after Latin, either in all words formed in English, or those adopted from other Romance languages (Italian, Spanish, Portuguese -ano, and French -ain, -en). Major meanings and functions: – – – –

belonging to a place (American, Chilean, Russian) following a founder (Lutheran, Muhammadan) following a system (Episcopalian, Presbyterian) [zoology] added to names of divisions ‘belonging to a class or order’ (mammalian, reptilian)

Sources: Szymanek (1989: 216–226); Bauer et al. (2013: Ch. 14); the OED; see other adjectival suffixes, such as -al/-ar, -ic(al), -ary, -ory, -ive

Construction I. Derive -an adjectives from the following geographical names, applying all necessary spelling changes: Andalusia > ……… Arabia > ……… Armenia > ……… Assyria > ………

Corsica > ……… Crimea > ……… El Salvador > ……… Ethiopia > ………

Nicaragua > ……… Nigeria > ……… Palestine > ……… Peru > ………

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 159

Belarus > ……… Bohemia > ……… Bosnia > ……… Cameroon > ……… Catalonia > ……… Corinth > ………

Guatemala > ……… Hawaii > ……… Malaysia > ……… Manchuria > ……… Mesopotamia > ……… Morocco > ………

Prussia > ……… Sardinia > ……… Sumatra > ……… Tasmania > ……… Tuscany > ……… Yugoslavia > ………

II. Fill in the gaps with appropriate -an derivations: American, Californian, Churchillian, Palestinian, Russian, Siberian, Singaporean, utopian. 1. satire on ……… valley girls 2. his ……… views 3. the ……… tiger 4. the ……… leader 5. the ……… Far East 6. the current ……… Journal of Public Health 7. a(n) ……… comeback 8. the ingrained ……… habit of courtesy

Key I. Andalusian; Arabian; Armenian; Assyrian; Belarusian; Bohemian; Bosnian; Cameroonian; Catalan / Catalonian; Corinthian; Corsican; Crimean; Salvadoran / Salvadorian / Salvadorean; Ethiopian; Guatemelan; Hawaiian; Malaysian; Manchurian; Mesopotamian; Moroccan; Nicaraguan; Nigerian; Palestinian; Peruvian; Prussian; Sardinian; Sumatran; Tasmanian; Tuscan; Yugoslav / Yugoslavian II. 1 Californian; 2 utopian; 3 Siberian; 4 Palestinian; 5 Russian; 6 American; 7 Churchillian; 8 Singaporean

-ance/-ence Introduction The suffixal variants -ance/-ence constitute one functional suffix. It belongs to the category of Nomina Actionis (abstract deverbal action nouns; nouns expressing an event, state, result etc.), which convey the nominal concept ‘act(ion)/process of V-ing’. The choice of the variant appears to be opaque in present-day English. Sometimes, the pair -ance/-ence is lumped together with another pair -ancy/-ency. Here, these two pairs of suffixal variants are treated separately, due to the different categories of their bases, verbs and adjectives, respectively. The suffixal variants -ance/-ence are added to verbal bases, which are unmodified in many cases, for example:

160 English Complex Words

accept > acceptance, appear > appearance, guide > guidance, diverge > divergence, emerge > emergence, occur [ǝ:] > occurrence [ʌ] In some cases, a stress-shift takes place between a base and a derivative, for example: confer > conference, prefer > preference, refer > reference, preside > presidence, coincide > coincidence, confide > confidence etc. The suffix is weakly productive in contemporary English, showing few novel formations (believance). Most formations are lexicalized. The suffix -ance is a borrowing from French (-ance). In Old French, forms coming from classical Latin -antia, as well as the more common -entia, were levelled under -ance (Old French observance < classical Latin observantia). The suffix -ence, originating in French -ence, was levelled in Old French to -ance, or was formed analogically on the present participle in -ant (complaisance). Borrowings into English from French are recorded in the beginning of the 13th cent. (ignorance, pittance). In some cases, it is unclear whether the borrowing was originally from French or Latin. In other cases, the English word was borrowed from an item derived in French, without a Latin antecedent (quittance, acquaintance). Borrowings from Latin can be found from the beginning of the 15th cent. (significance, quietance), as opposed to earlier borrowings (signifiance, quittance). Variations between forms with -ance and -ence in French were often reflected in English borrowings. Both variants were adopted in Middle English in their French forms, which they generally still retain. However, since 1500, some of those in -ance have been shifted back to -ence after Latin. Sources: Szymanek (1989: 149–150); Bauer et al. (2013: 196–199); the OED; for other Nomina Actionis suffixes, see -age, -al, -ation, -ment

Construction I. Indicate potential verbal bases of the thirty most frequent deverbal -ance derivations, obtained from COCA (120822). ……… > performance ……… > insurance ……… > assistance ……… > appearance ……… > resistance ……… > maintenance ……… > guidance ……… > acceptance ……… > variance ……… > ignorance

……… > compliance ……… > attendance ……… > tolerance ……… > governance ……… > abundance ……… > accordance ……… > dominance ……… > disappearance ……… > reliance ……… > assurance

……… > annoyance ……… > clearance ……… > inheritance ……… > resemblance ……… > endurance ……… > disturbance ……… > acquaintance ……… > avoidance ……… > allowance ……… > defiance

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 161



II. If possible, postulate any derivational bases for the following twenty words ending in -ance. ………… > instance ………… > distance ………… > (im)balance ………… > advance ………… > finance ………… > substance ………… > alliance ………… > entrance ………… > enhance ………… > romance

………… > ambulance ………… > renaissance ………… > freelance ………… > nuisance ………… > semblance ………… > circumstance ………… > ordinance ………… > fragrance ………… > repentance ………… > sustenance

III. Indicate possible adjectival counterparts of the following derivations in -ance. importance ~ ………… significance ~ ………… surveillance ~ ………… arrogance ~ ………… reluctance ~ ………… brilliance ~ ………… elegance ~ ………… vigilance ~ ………… grievance ~ ………… exuberance ~ …………

preponderance ~ ………… extravagance ~ ………… irrelevance ~ ………… ambiance ~ ………… pittance ~ ………… deviance ~ ………… insignificance ~ ………… invariance ~ ………… cognizance ~ ………… consonance ~ …………

IV. Indicate words, along with their syntactic category, which are related to the following most frequent (COCA) derivations in -ence. evidence ~ … difference ~ … violence ~ … conference ~ … influence ~ … audience ~ … presence ~ … intelligence ~ … confidence ~ … silence ~ …

reference ~ … existence ~ … sentence ~ … independence ~ … absence ~ … sequence ~ … patience ~ … essence ~ … residence ~ … consequence ~ …

conscience ~ … preference ~ … convenience ~ … prevalence ~ … coincidence ~ … innocence ~ … interference ~ … excellence ~ … competence ~ … incidence ~ …

emergence ~ … dependence ~ … correspondence ~ … occurrence ~ … persistence ~ … providence ~ … adolescence ~ … insistence ~ … obedience ~ … indifference ~ …

162 English Complex Words

Translation V. Find missing equivalents of the following pairs in Dutch, Spanish, Czech and Finnish. See if there is any word-formation mechanism operating in these pairs. 1. accept > acceptance 2. appear > appearance 3. assist > assistance 4. perform > performance 5. resist > resistance Dutch 1. aanvaarden ~ aanvaarding 2. … 3. … 4. … 5. (GT) weerstand bieden; (NS) weerstaan ~ weerstand Spanish 1. … 2. aparecer ~ apariencia 3. … 4. … 5. resistir ~ resistencia Czech 1. … 2. … 3. (GT/NS) pomáhat ~ pomoc; (NS) asistovat ~ asistence 4. … 5. (GT/NS) odolat ~ odpor ‘opposition’; (NS) odolat ~ odolnost ‘immunity’ Finnish 1. … 2. … 3. … 4. (GT) suorittaa ~ esitys; (NS) suorittaa ~ suoritus ‘carry out (a task)’ / esittää ~ esitys ‘perform (a show)’ 5. (GT) vastustaa ~ vastus; (NS) vastustaa ~ vastustus VI. Translate the key formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. This positive image of American adolescence in 1999 is a little like yearbook photos that depict every kid as happy and blemish-free. (NW100599) 2. Whether it was to everybody’s taste or not is of no importance.

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 163



3. Out in the wilds there clearly is a degree of interdependence and altruism uncommon in cities. (NG1191) 4. He was the embodiment of all that was possible in performance. 5. From the avenue of cedars to the row of white cabins in the slave quarters, there was an air of solidness, of stability and permanence about Tara. (Mitchell_1958_45) 6. Two important areas currently wobbling on the edge of semi-independence are Quebec and Scotland. 7. The target of these shouts was a building manager, a 50ish woman who answered with equal vehemence: “You are not allowed to sit here, to be here!” (NG0291)

Key I. perform; insure; assist; appear; resist; maintain; guide; accept; vary; ignore; comply; attend; tolerate; govern; abound; accord; dominate; disappear; rely; assure; annoy; clear; inherit; resemble; endure; disturb; acquaint; avoid; allow; defy

-ancy/-ency Introduction The suffixal variants -ancy/-ency constitute one functional suffix. It belongs to the category of Nomina Essendi (abstract deadjectival nominalizations), conveying the nominal concept ‘quality/state of being A’. The base is a qualitative adjective, meaning that it designates either a physical or an abstract quality. Some adjectival bases end in -ant, and others in -ent, for example: pregnant > pregnancy, vacant > vacancy, decent > decency, urgent > urgency etc. Some adjectives prefer the suffix -ance/-ence for their nominalizations, for example: important > importance, reluctant > reluctance, innocent > innocence, patient > patience etc. The suffix frequently occurs in contemporary English. The variant -ancy originates in Latin -āntia, while the formative -ency in Latin -entia. Both, -āntia and -entia expressed the sense of quality, state, or condition, which is distinct from the sense of action or process. The suffix -ancy was regularly expressed by the French form -ance (aid-ance, assist-ance), which was subsequently refashioned, and now appears as -ancy (constancy, infancy). When the same word exists in both the

164 English Complex Words

-ence and the -ency forms, the tendency is to restrict the former to action or process (verb), while the latter is used to express quality (adjective) (coherence ~ coherency, persistence ~ persistency). Sources: Szymanek (1989: 163–166); Bauer et al. (2013: 196–197); the OED; for other Nomina Essendi suffixes, see -acy, -ism, -ity, -ness

Construction I. Indicate words, along with their syntactic categories, related to the following most frequent (COCA) derivations in -ancy. pregnancy ~ … expectancy ~ … discrepancy ~ … infancy ~ … vacancy ~ … occupancy ~ … conservancy ~ … redundancy ~ … ascendancy ~ … consultancy ~ …

buoyancy ~ … militancy ~ … constancy ~ … relevancy ~ … malignancy ~ … vibrancy ~ … truancy ~ … poignancy ~ … hesitancy ~ … dormancy ~ …

tenancy ~ … irrelevancy ~ … accountancy ~ … vagrancy ~ … deviancy ~ … brilliancy ~ … sycophancy ~ … flippancy ~ … stagnancy ~ … itinerancy ~ …

II. Indicate words, with their syntactic category, related to the following most frequent (COCA) derivations in -ency. emergency ~ … efficiency ~ … presidency ~ … frequency ~ … currency ~ … tendency ~ … consistency ~ … transparency ~ … urgency ~ … dependency ~ …

fluency ~ … residency ~ … proficiency ~ … decency ~ … deficiency ~ … constituency ~ … contingency ~ … insurgency ~ … competency ~ … delinquency ~ …

inconsistency ~ … potency ~ … complacency ~ … regency ~ … latency ~ … inefficiency ~ … resiliency ~ … clemency ~ … excellency ~ … equivalency ~ …

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 165



III. Complete the gapped words with an appropriate suffix: -ancy or -ency. Consider the possibility of both suffixes filling one gap. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

ascend… conserv… consist… converg… corpul… discrep… expect… expedi… flagr… flamboy…

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

flipp… fraudul… inadvert… incontin… inhabit… insist… malevol… malign… milit… persist…

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

poign… predomin… reluct… repugn… stagn… sycoph… tang… ten… vagr… vehem…

IV. In some cases, the -e or the -y variant can be used without any difference in meaning, for example: abundant ~ abundance/abundancy, relevant ~ relevance/relevancy etc. Apply as many suffixes as possible (-ance, -ancy, -ence, -ency) to a given base. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

ascend… conserv… consist… converg… corpul… discrep… expect… expedi… flagr… flamboy…

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

flipp… fraudul… inadvert… incontin… inhabit… insist… malevol… malign… milit… persist…

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

poign… predomin… reluct… repugn… stagn… sycoph… tang… ten… vagr… vehem…

Translation V. Translate the key formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. There is no way to re-educate consumers within the age-old culture of abundancy, the Siamese twin of the culture of waste. (NW040601) 2. I would never say there’s an oversufficiency of Mexican restaurants on the River Walk, but the Eckerd pharmacy there probably sells more Maalox than any drugstore in the world. (NT1195) 3. Those attacks put the public on edge and boosted Prime Minister Vladimir Putin into the presidency. (NW210800)

166 English Complex Words

Key III. 1 ascendancy / ascendency; 2 conservancy; 3 consistency; 4 convergency; 5 corpulency; 6 discrepancy; 7 expectancy; 8 expediency; 9 flagrancy; 10 flamboyancy; 11 flippancy; 12 fraudulency; 13 inadvertency; 14 incontinency; 15 inhabitancy; 16 insistency; 17 malevolency; 18 malignancy; 19 militancy; 20 persistency; 21 poignancy; 22 predominancy; 23 reluctancy; 24 repugnancy; 25 stagnancy; 26 sycophancy; 27 tangency; 28 tenancy; 29 vagrancy; 30 vehemency IV (after COCA): 1 ascendancy / ascendency; 2 conservancy; 3 consistence / consistency; 4 convergence / convergency; 5 corpulence / corpulency; 6 discrepancy; 7 expectancy; 8 expedience / expediency; 9 flagrance / flagrancy; 10 flamboyance / flamboyancy; 11 flippancy; 12 fraudulence / fraudulency; 13 inadvertence / inadvertency; 14 incontinence / incontinency; 15 inhabitance / inhabitancy; 16 insistence / insistency; 17 malevolence / malevolency; 18 malignance / malignancy; 19 militance / militancy; 20 persistence / persistency; 21 poignance / poignancy; 22 predominance / predominancy; 23 reluctance / reluctancy; 24 repugnance / repugnancy; 25 stagnancy; 26 sycophancy; 27 tangency; 28 tenance / tenancy; 29 vagrancy; 30 vehemence / vehemency

-ant Introduction The suffix -ant (also sporadically -ent) belongs to the broad category of participants. Participants are nouns which can be syntactic subjects or objects, including human agents or inanimate instruments. They may be deverbal or denominal. Most commonly, the suffix -ant is added to non-native verbal bases without any phonological constraints, for example: assist > assistant, attend > attendant, consult > consultant, inhabit > inhabitant etc. It also attaches to Latinate bases with the suffix -ate, which is truncated beforehand: celebrate > celebrant, emigrate > emigrant, litigate > litigant, participate > participant etc. The variant -ent is rare and can be seen in a handful of formations, such as: adhere > adherent, correspond > correspondent, preside > president etc. The suffix is weakly productive in contemporary English.

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 167



Formations in -ant/-ent are commonly classified as either subject/agentive (discussant, resident) or subject/instrumental nominalizations (lubricant, solvent), depending on their interpretation. However, this distinction is debatable and also unworkable at times. The suffix has multiple origins. It is partly a borrowing from French (-ant), and partly from Latin (-ant-, -āns). In Old French, the Latin participial forms -ant, -āns as well as the more common -ent-, -ēns, were levelled under -ant, which became the sole ending of the present participle. Borrowings into English from French are recorded from the beginning of the 13th cent. (sergeant, semblant). In some cases, the actual origin (French or Latin) is not clear. Evidently Latin borrowings can be found from the early 15th cent. (deviant, aggregant). Sources: Aronoff (1981: 90); Szymanek (1989: 180–181, 193–194); Adams (2001: 31); Bauer et al. (2013: 220–221); the OED; for other nouns in the category of participants, see -arian, -ary, -ee, -er/-or, -ess, -ette, -ician, -ie/-y, -ist, -ite, -monger, -ster

Construction I. Add further pairs of (non-)bases and -ant formations, analogically to the templates established: assist > assistant consult > consultant resist > resistant …>… …>… …>…

emigrate > emigrant immigrate > immigrant participate > participant …>… …>… …>…

*pregn > pregnant *relev > relevant *reluct > reluctant …>… …>… …>…

II. Complete tha gapped -ant formations, according to the explanations provided in brackets. 1. ………ant [something that keeps annoying one over a period of time; substance that can make part of one’s body painful or sore] 2. ………ant [substance that one puts on surfaces (parts of a machine) that rub together] 3. a teaching ………ant in psychology [someone who helps someone else in their work, esp. by doing less important tasks] 4. have an ………ant sleep nearby [someone who looks after or helps customers; someone who looks after a VIP] 5. a smokeless ………ant [explosive for firing a bullet or rocket; gas used in an aerosol to spray out a liquid]

168 English Complex Words

6. After five seconds without ………ant, the solder that holds the chips together begins to melt. [liquid/gas used to cool something] 7. An amphetamine-like ………ant derived from a Chinese herb, ephedrine was widely used for weight loss, but it seemed to pose serious health risks. (TE220500) [substance that makes one feel more active; something that encourages more of a particular activity] 8. Bernard knelt to dab the feet dry with a towel. It reminded him of the Maundy Thursday mass of the Last Supper, especially at the parish church in Saddle, where he had often encountered battered, work-coarsened feet like these among the members of the congregation who volunteered to have their feet washed by the ………ant. (Lodge_1992_95) [someone who performs or takes part in a religious ceremony] 9. He was looking up at the dusty windows with a sort of ecstatic fixity of expression, like a hunky ………ant catching his first sight of the Statue of Liberty (Chandler_1986_7) [someone who enters another country to live there permanently] III. The following -ant formations belong to the hundred most frequent words with this ending in COCA. Classify them into nouns (N) and adjectives (A): abundant / accountant / adamant / antioxidant / applicant / assistant / attendant / blatant / brilliant / constant / consultant / contestant / defendant / defiant / descendant / deviant / distant / dominant / dormant / elegant / extravagant / exuberant / fragrant / hesitant / ignorant / immigrant / important / infant / informant / insignificant / instant / irrelevant / lieutenant / malignant / merchant / militant / occupant / pageant / participant / peasant / pleasant / poignant / predominant / pregnant / protestant / radiant / rampant / redundant / relevant / reluctant / remnant / resistant / resultant / sergeant / servant / significant / stagnant / tenant / tolerant / triumphant / tyrant / unpleasant / vacant / variant / vibrant / vigilant / warrant

Translation IV. Find the remaining equivalents of the six -ant names in the Slavic languages. The names provided in the table are masculine/neuter. Keep in mind that morphologically marked feminine forms can also be added, e.g., asistent ~ asistentka, účastník ~ účastnice (Czech), konsultant ~ konsultantka, uczestnik ~ uczestniczka (Polish).

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 169



 

assistant

Russian Ukrainian Polish Czech Slovak Serbian Croatian Slovenian

  asystent   asistent       pomočnik/ asistent Bulgarian   Bosnian

 

consultant immigrant

informant

participant protestant

    konsultant     konsultant konzultant  

  informator           informator/ informant информатор informator  

    uczestnik účastník   učesnik sudionik  

protestant       protestant      

 

 

 

protestant

 

immigrant       prisťahovalec      

имигрант imigrant konsultant  

Key II. 1 irritant; 2 lubricant; 3 assistant; 4 attendant; 5 propellant; 6 coolant; 7 stimulant; 8 celebrant; 9 immigrant

-arian Introduction The minor suffix -arian can form either adjectives or nouns. As a noun-forming suffix, it belongs to the broad category of participants. Participants are nouns which can be syntactic subjects or objects, including human agents or inanimate instruments. They may be deverbal or denominal. Contrary to the verb-driven agentive suffixes -er and -ant, the suffix -arian prefers nominal or adjectival bases. As a result, derived agentive nouns in -arian denote individuals supporting a particular doctrine or idea, for example: antique > antiquarian, égalité > egalitarian, liberty > libertarian etc. The suffix is rather rare and probably unproductive in contemporary English. The suffix is based on Latin -ārius with the addition of the -an suffix. The earliest formations are disciplinarian (the late 16th cent.), and agrarian, antiquarian and proletarian. The numeral adjectives quinquagenarian and septuagenarian are the earliest recorded. The most common use of the suffix is to designate religious or moral tenets of the 17th cent. (Predestinarian, sectarian, Trinitarian, Unitarian). By analogy with these, humanitarian, necessitarian and utilitarian were coined. Some jocular derivations (anythingarian, nothingarian, strictarian) are attested from the 18th cent. and onwards. Sources: Bauer et al. (2013: 226); the OED; for other nouns in the category of participants, see -ant, -ary, -ee, -er/-or, -ess, -ette, -ician, -ie/-y, -ist, -ite, -monger, -ster

170 English Complex Words

Construction I. Derive -arian formations from the following bases or concepts. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

agro antique aqua authority barbaric Bulgaria caesar hundred contract contrary

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

discipline document egalite grammar human Hungary liberty thousand eighty ovary

21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

parliament prole sanitary sect seminary total Trinity uniform unity utility

II. Complete the gapped -arian derivatives. The first three letters are given. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

agr………arian ant………arian aut………arian bar………arian cen………arian com………arian dis………arian doc………arian ega………arian gra………arian hum………arian lib………arian

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

oct………arian par………arian pro………arian sec………arian sem………arian sep………arian tot………arian tri………arian uti………arian veg………arian vet………arian vul………arian

Translation III. Complete the English phrases containing gapped -arian derivations on the basis of their translation equivalents in Swedish, Italian, Slovak and Hungarian. 1. a(n) ………arian state 2. a(n) ………arian ideal 3. a(n) ………arian regime Swedish 1. en auktoritär stat 2. ett jämlikhetsideal 3. en totalitär regim Italian 1. uno stato autoritario 2. un ideale egualitario 3. un regime totalitario

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 171



Slovak 1. autoritársky štát 2. rovnostársky ideál 3. totalitný režim Hungarian 1. tekintélyelvű állam 2. egalitárius eszmény 3. totalitárius rezsim IV. Translate the following phrases containing -arian derivations into Swedish, Italian, Slovak and Hungarian. 1. a humanitarian orientation 2. a utilitarian worldview Swedish 1.   2.   Italian 1.   2.   Slovak 1.   2.   Hungarian 1.   2.   V. Translate the -arian formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. It was just that Yankee stepmother who squalled and said I was a wild barbarian and decent people weren’t safe around uncivilized Southerners. (Mitchell_1958_18) 2. The “No” campaign – though less establishmentarian, it will enjoy the support of most of Britain’s newspapers and the Conservative Party – will probably spend upto £40 million, possibly a lot more. (NW1198) 3. He was a strict disciplinarian but he had never whipped her. (O’Connor_ 1983_339) 4. There was a whole chain of separate departments dealing with proletarian literature, music, drama, and entertainment generally. (Orwell_1986_42)

172

English Complex Words

Key I. 1 agrarian; 2 antiquarian; 3 aquarian; 4 authoritarian; 5 barbarian; 6 Bulgarian; 7 caesarian; 8 centenarian; 9 contractarian; 10 contrarian; 11 disciplinarian; 12 documentarian; 13 egalitarian; 14 grammarian; 15 humanitarian; 16 Hungarian; 17 libertarian; 18 millenarian; 19 octogenarian; 20 ovarian; 21 parliamentarian; 22 proletarian; 23 sanitarian; 24 sectarian; 25 seminarian; 26 totalitarian; 27 Trinitarian; 28 uniformitarian; 29 unitarian; 30 utilitarian II. 1 agrarian; 2 antiquarian; 3 authoritarian; 4 barbarian; 5 centenarian; 6 communitarian; 7 disciplinarian; 8 documentarian; 9 egalitarian; 10 grammarian; 11 humanitarian; 12 libertarian/librarian; 13 octogenarian; 14 parliamentarian; 15 proletarian; 16 sectarian; 17 seminarian; 18 septuagenarian; 19 totalitarian; 20 trinitarian; 21 utilitarian; 22 vegetarian; 23 veterinarian; 14 vulgarian III. 1 authorit; 2 egalit; 3 totalit

-ary Introduction The suffix -ary forms adjectives and nouns. As a minor noun-forming suffix, -ary belongs to the broad category of participants. Participants are nouns which can be syntactic subjects or objects, including human agents or inanimate instruments. They may be deverbal or denominal. Contrary to the verb-driven agentive suffixes -er and -ant, the suffix -ary often appears in internally opaque formations denoting people belonging to or engaged in something, for example: adverse > adversary, dignitary, luminary etc. The suffix -ary also forms relational adjectives. The sense expressed by -ary derivatives is usually transpositional, meaning that there is no semantic content added to the base beyond that provided by the category shift from a noun to an adjective. The suffix is rather rare and weakly productive in contemporary English. The formative is a borrowing from Latin (-ārius, -ārium) (classical Latin contrārius). These were represented in French by -aire (contraire), in Anglo-Norman by -arie, and in Middle English by -arie (contrarie), later to become -arye (contrarye), and now -ary (contrary). Major meanings and functions: – (adjectives) connected with, pertaining to – (nouns) a man (or male) belonging to or engaged in (adversary, antiquary, secretary) – (nouns) a thing connected with or employed in, a place for (diary, dictionary, glossary, rosary, vocabulary)

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Sources: Szymanek (1989: 236–237); Bauer et al. (2013: Ch. 14); the OED; for other nouns in the category of participants, see -ant, -arian, -ee, -er/-or, -ess, -ette, -ician, -ie/-y, -ist, -ite, -monger, -ster; see other adjectival suffixes, such as -al, -ic(al), -an, -ory, -ive

Construction I. Combine an adjective in -ary with the most probable noun: art, associations, circumstances, citizens, committee, condition, confinement, criticism, education, evidence, hearing, housing, policy, risks, school, service, skills, technology, war, world. The suggested pairs are based on the most frequent collocations obtained from COCA. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

military … primary … contemporary … ordinary … elementary … literary … temporary … contrary … revolutionary … monetary …

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

unnecessary … preliminary … necessary … extraordinary … voluntary … judiciary … imaginary … solitary … culinary … proprietary …

II. Complete the phrases containing gapped -ary derivations with the following words: complement, compliment, custom, diet, discipline, evolution, legend, parliament, planet, second. The suggested pairs are based on the most frequent collocations obtained from COCA. 1 2 3 4 5

………ary education ………ary biology ………ary figure ………ary supplements ………ary science

6 7 8 9 10

………ary action ………ary elections ………ary colours ………ary copy ………ary law

III. Put together phrases containing -ary derivations. Fill in the gaps with caution, declining, inflation, knowledge, moment, other, rudiment, stiff, supplement, word. 1. a ……… ………ary silence 2. ……… ………ary information 3. a surprisingly ………ary ……… 4. a one-……… ………ary note 5. ……… ………ary pressures

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Translation IV. Complete the English phrases involving gapped -ary derivations on the basis of their translation equivalents in Danish, Portuguese, Russian and Turkish. 1. ………ary problems 2. ………ary politics Danish 1. budgetproblemer 2. reaktionær politik Portuguese 1. problemas orçamentários 2. política reacionária Russian 1. бюджетные проблемы / byudzhetnyye problemy 2. реакционная политика / reaktsionnaya politika Turkish 1. bütçe sorunları 2. gerici siyaset V. Translate the phrases into the language of your choice. 1 2 3 4 5

binary system interdisciplinary research coronary artery pulmonary disease stationary bike

6 7 8 9 10

honorary degree involuntary manslaughter exemplary service discretionary spending auxiliary aids

VI. Translate the -ary formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. Even if the commissary troop had been more interesting, it would not have helped her situation any. (Mitchell_1958_116) 2. Now he may be soulless and mercenary and semi-illiterate, but I’ve got to admit that he is the least biased of all of us […]. (Lodge_1993_79) 3. The innovation-ary –’ he tasted the coinage doubtfully, ‘– steps, that you will agree are necessary, will cost twenty thousand dollars American. (Fitzgerald_1993_153)

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Key I. 1 military service; 2 primary school; 3 contemporary art; 4 ordinary citizens; 5 elementary education; 6 literary criticism; 7 temporary housing; 8 contrary evidence; 9 revolutionary war; 10 monetary policy; 11 unnecessary risks; 12 preliminary hearing; 13 necessary condition; 14 extraordinary circumstances; 15 voluntary associations; 16 judiciary committee; 17 imaginary world; 18 solitary confinement; 19 culinary skills; 20 proprietary technology II. 1 secondary education; 2 evolutionary biology; 3 legendary figure; 4 dietary supplements; 5 planetary science; 6 disciplinary action; 7 parliamentary elections; 8 complementary colours; 9 complimentary copy; 10 customary law III. 1 a stiff momentary silence; 2 other supplementary information; 3 a surprisingly rudimentary knowledge; 4 a one-word cautionary note; 5 declining inflationary pressures IV. 1 budget; 2 reaction

-ate (verbal) Introduction The suffix -ate [eit] attaches to a limited number of adjectival bases, for instance: active > activate, domestic > domesticate, valid > validate etc. Verbal derivations in -ate belong to the category of causative verbs, conveying senses, such as ‘make …’, ‘make more of …’, ‘cause … to be/become …’. The degree of lexicalization among all verbs terminating in -ate is high. Thus, the analyzability of such forms is rather complex. Still, the presence of the ending -ate is a strong indicator of the verbal status of a given word. The derivation of -ate verbs is a mildly productive process in contemporary English. Evidently, the process of -ate verbalization is less productive than that involving either -ize or -ify. The suffix is a borrowing from Latin (-āt-, -āre). English verbs were formed on Latin past participles by mere analogy, and without the intervention of a participial adjective (fascināre > fascinate, concatēnāre > concatenate). Analogically, English adjectives formed from Latin past participles (16th cent.) produced verbs of identical form (direct ~ to direct, separate ~ to separate, aggravate ~ to aggravate). English verbs in -ate correspond to French verbs in -er (Latin -āre) (separate ~ séparer, create ~ créer, isolate ~ isoler, felicitate ~ féliciter). Sources: Marchand (1969: 258); Aronoff (1981: 91); Szymanek (1989: 286); Bauer et  al. (2013: 274–277); the OED; for other causative verbal suffixes, see -en, -ify, -ize

176 English Complex Words

Construction I. The forty most frequent formations in -ate (COCA200722): separate appreciate graduate indicate participate associate operate estimate demonstrate celebrate

generate communicate investigate eliminate advocate relate evaluate negotiate elaborate concentrate

facilitate educate accommodate locate incorporate translate regulate illustrate dominate cooperate

deliberate tolerate donate violate calculate integrate articulate anticipate navigate manipulate

Provide examples of low-frequency -ate formations. II. Complete the gapped phrases with appropriate -ate verbs: accelerate, accumulate, alienate, alleviate, circumambulate, circumnavigate, collaborate, designate, differentiate, elevate, eliminate, eradicate, exacerbate, generate, incubate, mitigate, motivate, perpetuate, regulate, resonate. 1 ……… the pace of mergers

11

……… the city

2 3 4 5 6

12 13 14 15 16

……… the need for passwords ……… start-ups ……… cycles of abuse ……… the cause of spring floods ……… $1.5 billion a year

17 18 19 20

……… with the younger voters ……… the perilous situation ……… pro-gun voters ……… excessive student loan debt

7 8 9 10

……… acute injuries ……… global financial markets ……… symptoms of depression ……… the globe in a balloon ……… w  ith academic research institutions ……… the trust as beneficiary ……… between competitors ……… the status of the profession ……… students to work harder

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 177



III. The first one thousand word types with -ate (COCA) contain the following bases preceded with prefixes. Combine the bases with prefixes of your choice. Try to predict the prefixed -ate derivations listed in COCA. Some bases have been recorded with two different prefixes. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

…… / ……populate …… / ……activate …… / ……calculate …… / ……hydrate …… / ……regulate ……educate ……animate ……medicate ……ventilate ……formulate

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

……segregate ……invigorate ……evaluate ……date ……integrate ……negotiate ……escalate ……estimate ……generate ……create

IV. Provide one -ate verb that fits the three contexts (1–3) below. The first letter is given. 1. He said that the resumption of the strictest restrictions was needed to give vaccinators a “head start” in a “race to v……… the vulnerable faster than the virus can reach them”. (TS060121) 2. For the eight doctors and nurses trying to v……… one patient every four and a half minutes, it was the biggest challenge of their medical careers. (TS181220) 3. Britain was not quicker to v……… directly because of Brexit. (TS231220) V. Complete the unfinished -ate verbs in the appropriate grammatical form. The first three letters are given. 1. Farmers will be encouraged to par……… and shape science and technology field trials for new technologies and mechanisms. (TS011220) 2. Jokes, curses, whoops of triumph now and again pun……… the air. (NW110199) 3. In return, it wants the UK to agree to set up an independent authority to reg……… state aid spending. (TS061220) 4. Mr Trump rei……… claims of voter fraud in Arizona yesterday […]. (TS011220) 5. Barnier’s team is also prepared to drop demands […] that the EU Commission is granted the power to unilaterally judge what constitutes unfair competition and ret……… with tariffs on UK goods. (TS061220)

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Translation VI. Establish the missing equivalents of the four -ate derivations in selected Germanic, Romance and Slavic languages. Spell out the methods of rendering -ate derivations in these languages. English German Dutch Swedish Danish Norwegian French Spanish Portuguese Italian Romanian Polish

Russian Czech Serbian Slovenian

fabricate fabrizieren     fremstille fremstille/ fabrikkere fabriquer     fabbricare fabrica  

orchestrate   orkestreren   orkestrere   orchestrer   orquestrar     (GT) orkiestrować; (NS) aranżować / organizować / obmyślić     vyrobit   izmišljati, fabrikovati orkestrirati izdelati, fabricirati  

rehabilitate   rehabiliteren rehabilitera   rehabilitere   rehabilitar   riabilitare reabilita  

urinate urinieren   urinera       orinar urinar     oddawać mocz

reabilitirovat’ rehabilitovat    

mochit’sya     urinirati

VII. Translate the key formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. […] Bush can’t afford to alienate pro-gun voters in Republican-stronghold states by appearing weak on the issue. (NW220500) 2. HMRC said that the law allowed it to delegate work to private sector suppliers. (TS091220) 3. Teen prostitution – a social blight Japanese officials pledged three years ago to eradicate – is still on the rise. (NW161198) 4. President Trump […] looks to box in his successor by escalating his diplomatic and economic offensive against Beijing. (TS011220) 5. Farmers will be required to cover all stores of slurry to prevent it evaporating and causing air pollution […]. (TS011220) 6. […] his office had investigated and found no evidence. (TS011220) 7. The Treasury today announced a £4.6 billion package for retail, leisure and hospitality sites to mitigate the latest economic hit from Covid-19. (TS050121) 8. Her time in the city may have also provided her with an insight into the mindset of those with whom she must now negotiate. (TS131220)

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9. This month, Tony Blinken was nominated by Joe Biden as his secretary of state, subject to Senate confirmation. (TS011220) 10. A powerful coalition of environmentalists orchestrated the passage of Proposition 117 […]. (NG0792)

Key II. 1 accelerate; 2 mitigate; 3 regulate; 4 alleviate; 5 circumnavigate; 6 collaborate; 7 designate; 8 differentiate; 9 elevate; 10 motivate; 11 circumambulate; 12 eliminate; 13 incubate; 14 perpetuate; 15 eradicate; 16 generate; 17 resonate; 18 exacerbate; 19 alienate; 20 accumulate III. 1 de- / re-populate; 2 de- / re-activate; 3 mis- / re-calculate; 4 de- / re-hydrate; 5 de- / self-regulate; 6 re-educate; 7 reanimate; 8 self-medicate; 9 hyperventilate; 10 reformulate; 11 desegregate; 12 reinvigorate; 13 re-evaluate; 14 predate; 15 disintegrate; 16 renegotiate; 17 de-escalate; 18 overestimate; 19 regenerate; 20 re-create IV. vaccinate V. 1 participate; 2 punctuate; 3 regulate; 4 reiterated; 5 retaliate

-ate (adjectival/nominal) Introduction The suffix -ate [ǝt] appears on adjectives and nouns. Possessional adjectives constitute a small number of the key derivatives. The suffix is a borrowing from Latin (-ātus). 1. Adjectives Some Latin past participles survived in Old French (content < contentus). About 1400, Latin -ātus gave -at, subsequently -ate (desolātus, desolate). As the French representation of Latin -ātus is -é, English words in -ate were also formed directly after French words in -é (affectionné ‘affectionate’). 2. Nouns In Old French, Latin -ātus, -ātum, became -é. Words of high register, adapted from Latin, took -at (estat, prelat, magistrate). After the 13th cent., many of the popular words were refashioned with -at. All new words were formed in this way (épiscopat, palatinat, professorat, syndicat). After 1400, -e was added to mark the long vowel (estate, prelate), and all later words from French took -ate. Later, English words were formed directly on Latin (curātus ‘curate’). Major meanings and functions: – office or function, or the persons performing it (episcopate, professorate, syndicate)

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– participial nouns (legate ‘one deputed’, prelate ‘one preferred’, mandate ‘a thing commanded’) – [chemistry] salts formed by the action of an acid on a base (acetate, alcoholate, carbonate, nitrate, sulphate) Sources: Szymanek (1989: 244); Bauer (1991: 224); the OED; see other possessional suffixes: -ed, -ful, -ous, -y

Construction I. Complete the gapped phrases with the following -ate adjectives: aggregate, carbonate, corporate, desperate, immaculate, insubordinate, invertebrate, moderate, obstinate, temperate. 1. some ………… rocks 2. her ………… refusal to sign a contract 3. a(n) ………… source of information 4. a(n) ………… conglomerate 5. several ………… employees 6. all ………… animals 7. the mouthpieces of ………… Islam 8. the colder and ………… waters of Australia’s south 9. a certain ………… amount from their investors 10. in ………… need of a technological update II. Divide the following -ate nouns into potential groups with similar meanings and/ or functions: caliphate celibate certificate conglomerate consulate diaconate diplomate directorate doctorate electorate

emirate episcopate governorate inspectorate khanate laureate legate magistrate novitiate patriarchate

pontificate potentate prelate professoriate protectorate rabbinate senate shogunate sultanate syndicate

III. Complete the gapped -ate adjectives. The beginnings are provided. 1. Suburbia will decongest by using bottleneck sensors in cars to suggest al……… ate routes. (TE220500) 2. Police have broken up several prostitution rings of Chinese women, who enter Taiwan as le………ate wives, then decamp with a pimp. (NW140800)

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 181



3. Some mo………ate Arab regimes are already looking shaky and frightened by popular unrest (NW231198) 4. Russians have long been pa………ate about their Mother Volga, a mighty blessing of a river. (NG0291) 5. Saddam’s ul………ate aim, aside from his own survival, is to radicalize the region. (NW231198)

Translataion IV. Translate the -ate pairs into the language of your choice. accurate adequate affectionate appropriate compassionate considerate delicate desperate passionate fortunate legitimate moderate proportionate separate

                           

inaccurate inadequate unaffectionate inappropriate uncompassionate inconsiderate indelicate undesperate dispassionate unfortunate illegitimate immoderate disproportionate inseparate

                           

Key I. 1 carbonate; 2 obstinate; 3 immaculate; 4 corporate; 5 insubordinate; 6 invertebrate; 7 moderate; 8 temperate; 9 aggregate; 10 desperate III. 1 alternate; 2 legitimate; 3 moderate; 4 passionate; 5 ultimate

-ation Introduction The suffix belongs to the category of Nomina Actionis (abstract deverbal action nouns), conveying the nominal concept ‘act(ion)/process of V-ing’. Alternative suffix variants are: -ition (add > addition), -tion (describe > description), -ion (insert > insertion), -sion (decide > decision), -ution (resove > resolution). Other Nomina Actionis suffixes are: -ment, -al, -ance/-ence, -ancy/-ency, -age. The formative is added to verbal bases without any phonological constraints, for example:

182 English Complex Words

adapt > adaptation, declare > declaration, form > formation etc. celebrate > celebration, imitate > imitation, motivate > motivation etc. conceptualize > conceptualization, neutralize > neutralization etc. But: criticize > *criticization, publicize > *publicization, recognize > *recognization etc. amplify > amplification, simplify > simplification, verify > verification etc. The suffix is highly productive and regularly occurs in contemporary English, including numerous neologisms. Verbs ending in -ize and -ify take the suffix variants -ation and -cation, respectively, on a regular basis. The suffix has multiple origins. It is partly a borrowing from French (-ation), and partly from Latin (-ātiōn-, -ātiō). In English, the most usual sense is that of a noun of action, equivalent to the native ending -ing. Sources: Aronoff (1981: 60–61, 84–85); Szymanek (1989: 140–144); Bauer (1991: 221); Bauer et al. (2013: 201–202); the OED; for other Nomina Actionis suffixes, see -age, -al, -ance/-ence, -ment

Construction I. Analyse the following cases and spell out the details of the nominalization processes in question (the base > intermediate stage(s) > nominalization). Over here it feeds into what you might call the piersmorganification of public culture. (TS110321) [Piers Morgan, a co-host on GMB, left the ITV studio after a dispute with another presenter relating to the Oprah interview of the Sussexes] The demographic outlook means that the UK risks “Japanification” and being more like Japan, with its ageing and declining population and slow growth. (TS170722) II. List the verbs from which the following -ation nouns have been derived. …………… > acceleration …………… > combination …………… > compensation …………… > demonstration …………… > formalization …………… > globalization …………… > hibernation …………… > medication

…………… > population …………… > procrastination …………… > radiation …………… > reincarnation …………… > satisfaction …………… > transformation …………… > veneration …………… > verification

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 183



III. A given base can undergo a few word-formation stages before it becomes a Nomina Actionis with the suffix -ation. For example, personalization may have been formed in the following sequence: person > personal > personalize > personalizØ (truncation of -e) > personalization Propose potential intermediate stages for the following bases before they become abstract nominalizations with the suffix -ation. base author Bulgaria character Coca-Cola dollar Egypt ghetto globe horizon Israel Lebanon myth Nippon Palestine Walmart weapon

intermediate stage ………………… ………………… ………………… ………………… ………………… ………………… ………………… ………………… ………………… ………………… ………………… ………………… ………………… ………………… ………………… …………………

-ation nominalization ………………… ………………… ………………… ………………… ………………… ………………… ………………… ………………… ………………… ………………… ………………… ………………… ………………… ………………… ………………… …………………

IV. Add the missing fragments of the -ation derivations. 1. the continent’s economic mar………ization 2. the second serious ………egation of sexual misconduct 3. subjected to int………ation by his staff 4. costly breast ………mentation 5. the femi………ation of the military 6. the poli………ation of the campus 7. another ………rification of the Mafia 8. the most brazen political as………ation 9. an indisputable inten………ation of colonialism 10. the Clinton ………nistration 11. a vis………ation of God 12. a detailed inv………ation into his financial affairs 13. its extensive irr………ation system 14. a history of mol………ation and sexual problems 15. exhaustive sum………ization of the book

184 English Complex Words

16. a(n) ………fanation of the Eucharist 17. an act of ………fication in the sacred river 18. the sec………ation of the West 19. elevated ………mentation of the grape 20. the sat………ation of the market with various kinds of goods and services 21. the causes of mo………rnization 22. the neu………ation of powerful opponents 23. the hist………ation of the past 24. the ………uidation of this imbalance V. Complete the gapped phrases by adding -ization to the following proper names: Balkans, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Finland, Hollywood, Islam, Kadar, Lithuania, Nigeria, Stalin, Taliban. 1. the ………… of Eastern European universities 2. the ………… of Africa 3. the ………… of Mexico 4. the Christian ………… of America 5. a process of ………… in Venezuela 6. the ………… of American publishing 7. concerns about ………… 8. the ………… of MS Windows 9. the ………… of Hungary 10. the ………… of copper 11. the ………… of Vilnius under Soviet rule 12. Taiwan’s sliding towards ………… VI. Complete the gapped sentences with the following -(iz)ation derivations: compartmentalization, containerization, discrimination, hospitalization, informalization, procrastination, victimization. 1. The boy nearly died and required several weeks of ………. (NW210800) 2. I talked to an old London dockhand some time back. He allowed as how in 1970 it took 108 guys about five days to unload a timber ship. Then came ………. The comparable task today takes eight folks one day. (TE220500) 3. Bailey is suing Stonewall and her chambers, Garden Court in London, for ……… and ……… after she helped to set up the alliance. (TS020621) 4. Women pioneered the “………” of employment, through flextime and part-time schedules, and now account for 80 percent of part-time workers in the EU. (NW080101) 5. Last week, after years of ………, Palestinians and Israelis began a large push to arrive at a final settlement to their long conflict. (NW240700) 6. My generation considered the Mossad a black box, where secrecy and ……… was the first order of the day. (NW140800)



Chapter 2.  Suffixation 185

VII. Propose a prefix to complete each of the -ation derivations: 1. a well-practised ……ambulation of the lake 2. a cycle of ……-starvation 3. peaceful ……unification 4. the world’s most effective ……radicalization programs 5. massive ……nationalization of property 6. a willy-nilly ……centralization 7. the ……continuation of milk production 8. one serious ……calculation 9. a(n) ……interpretation of a U.S. moratorium 10. ……forestation projects 11. the ……inflation in Weimar Germany VIII. Provide appropriately prefixed -ation derivations based on the paraphrases given. 1. confinement to, or accommodation in, a hospital after a treatment or medical procedure: ……………… 2. reversal or removal of the process of becoming loyal to one’s tribe (also metaphorical) ……………… 3. the situation following of the act of privatizing something ……………… 4. considering oneself being unfairly treated because of one’s beliefs, race etc. ……………… 5. making, organizing, associating etc. a place to a particular territory again ……………… 6. the action or process of becoming excessively sexual; the fact or condition of being excessively sexual ……………… 7. the use of something for a particular purpose to a degree lower than possible or expected ……………… 8. the action of authorizing a person or thing prior to something; prior formal permission or approval ………………

Translation IX. The following phrases containing -ation nominalizations have been translated (GT/ NS) into Norwegian, Romanian, Croatian and Albanian. 1. future democratization 2. complete demoralization 3. total devastation

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Norwegian 1. fremtidig demokratisering 2. fullstendig demoralisering 3. total ødeleggelse Romanian 1. democratizarea viitoare 2. demoralizare completă 3. devastare totală Croatian 1. buduća demokratizacija 2. potpuna demoralizacija 3. totalna devastacija Albanian 1. demokratizimi i ardhshëm 2. demoralizim i plotë 3. shkatërrim total Spell out the methods of rendering -ation derivations in Norwegian, Romanian, Croatian and Albanian. X. Translate the -ation formations in the following sentences into the language of your choice. 1. Instead we were given the Disneyfication of difference. (TS120321) 2. There is a worrying trend in eastern Europe towards what might be called “Putinisation” […]. (EC161210) 3. Gaegeumaen, which means a comedian, comes from the English term “gag man”. Beobeori, meaning a trench coat, is a Koreanisation of the brand name Burberry. (TS201021) 4. What does this creeping Europeanisation mean for politics? (TS020121) XI. Translate the -ation formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. This increases the dilemmas for democracy indicated above and leads to a peculiar “Argentinization” of that region [=Eastern Europe]. (Staniszkis_1991_220) 2. “Essentially,” the D.H.C. concluded, “bokanovskification consists of a series of arrests development …”. (Huxley_1968_3) 3. That night – I am still speaking of the first day of our circumnavigation of the plateau – a great experience awaited us […]. (Doyle_1960_93) 4. The ‘Czechification’ of the National Committee, which by mid-April was the de facto government of Bohemia, provoked a German backlash. (Armour_2012_138) 5. Germanization as the partial integration of East Central Europe into the EU through a semi-formalized German sphere of influence. (Ágh_1998_42)



Chapter 2.  Suffixation 187

6. De-Germanization was well under way in Bohemia in the 15th century […]. (Sedlar_1994_411) 7. Polish officials worry, in particular, that Kaliningrad’s Baltic Sea access and its historical ties to Germany could lead to the “re-Germanization” of Kaliningrad. (Larrabee_1993_16) 8. During this time, state authorities enforced policies of ‘Magyarization,’ or Hungarization, on these territories. (Stroschein_2012_72) 9. Shushkevich’s main complaint was the Polonization of Belarusian peasants by the Roman Catholic Church. (Snyder_2003_266) 10. It involves ‘Ukrainization’ of a comparable part of non-Ukrainian cultural heritage in the region of Galicia. (Zarycki_2014_240) 11. Yugoslavization is obviously the worst case scenario for the ECE region. (Ágh_1998_43)

Key II. accelerate; combine; compensate; demonstrate; formalize; globalize; hibernate; medicate; populate; procrastinate; radiate; reincarnate; satisfy; transform; venerate; verify III. authorize / authorization; Bulgarize / Bulgarization; characterize / characterization; Coca-colanize / Coca-colanization; dollarize / dollarization; Egyptianize / Egyptianization; ghetto-ize / ghetto-ization; globalize / globalization; horizontalize / horizontalization; Israelize / Israelization; Lebanonize / Lebanonization; mythologize  / mythologization; Nipponize  / Nipponization; Palestinize  / Palestinization; Walmartize / Walmartization; weaponize / weaponization IV. 1 marginalization; 2 allegation; 3 intimidation; 4 augmentation; 5 feminization; 6 politicization; 7 glorification; 8 assassination; 9 intensification; 10 administration; 11 visitation; 12 investigation; 13 irrigation; 14 molestation; 15 summarization; 16 profanation; 17 purification; 18 secularization; 19 fermentation; 20 saturation; 21 modernization; 22 neutralization; 23 historicisation; 24 liquidation V. 1 Stalinization; 2 Nigerianization; 3 Colombianization; 4 Talibanization; 5 Cubanization; 6 Hollywoodization; 7 Islamicization; 8 balkanization; 9 Kadarization; 10 Chileanization; 11 Lithuanization; 12 Finlandization VI. 1 hospitalization; 2 containerization; 3 discrimination, victimization; 4 informalization; 5 procrastination; 6 compartmentalization VII. 1 circumambulation; 2 semi-starvation; 3 reunification; 4 counterradicalization; 5 renationalization; 6 decentralization; 7 discontinuation; 8 miscalculation; 9 misinterpretation; 10 reforestation; 11 hyperinflation VIII. 1 post-hospitalization; 2 de-tribalization; 3 post-privatization; 4 self-victimization; 5 re-territorialization; 6 over-sexualization; 7 under-utilization; 8 pre-authorization

188 English Complex Words

-dom Introduction The native suffix -dom is somewhat related to the category of Nomina Essendi (abstract deadjectival nominalizations), conveying the nominal concept ‘quality/state of being A’. However, it cannot be categorized as a central member of this category. Formations with this suffix express the sense of collectivity or community, as well as status or condition. The bases are predominantly nominal. The suffix -dom is weakly productive in contemporary English. The suffix originates in Old English -dóm (cf. Old Saxon -dóm, Middle Dutch -doem, Dutch -dom, Middle High German -tuom, German -tum). It is an abstract suffix of state, which developed from a noun, originally meaning ‘putting, setting, position, statute’, ‘position, condition, dignity’, or ‘statute, judgement, jurisdiction’. It was commonly used in Old English as a suffix (biscopdóm ‘the dignity of a bishop’, cyningdóm, cynedóm ‘royal or kingly dominion, kingdom’, ealdordóm ‘the position or jurisdiction of an elder or lord’). New derivatives were formed at later stages of English. Nowadays, -dom may be seen on novel formations also with the sense of ‘domain, realm’. Sources: Szymanek (1989: 207); Bauer (1991: 220); Bauer et al. (2013: 248–250); the OED

Construction I. COCA (220722) lists the following -dom formations based on names of humans or animate beings. Identify these bases and propose your own formations deriving from this category of bases. bachelordom dukedom dwarfdom earldom fooldom hippiedom hipsterdom kingdom

martyrdom motherdom nerddom officialdom queendom scholardom serfdom sheikhdom

sisterdom teendom toddlerdom tsardom vassaldom whoredom wifedom writerdom

II. Consider a few groups of derivations with the suffix -dom obtained from COCA. Add other -dom derivations consistent with groups (1–4). Propose other clusters of formations in -dom, which are as yet non-existent, but can be imagined in certain contexts. 1. stardom / megastardom / superstardom / celebritydom … 2. Christendom / Islamdom / Mormondom … 3. computerdom / moviedom … 4. maledom / teenagedom / yuppiedom …

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 189



Translation III. Complete the missing ‘monarch ~ monarch-dom’ pairs in three Germanic languages.   Afrikaans

duke ~ dukedom

earl ~ earldom

hertog ~ graaf ~ graafskap hertogdom Frisian   graaf ~ graafskip/ greef ~ greefskip/ greve ~ greefskip Luxembourgish    

king ~ kingdom

prince ~ princedom

 

 

kening ~   keninkryk Kinnek ~ Prënz ~ Kinnekräich Fürstentum

IV. Translate the -dom formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. What good is long life if it ends in loneliness and boredom. (NG0194) 2. Chase […] was enjoying “special prestige” in German officialdom, reported Niedermann, a Swiss national. (NW141298) 3. Women, it seems, enjoy singledom more than do men. (NW140800) 4. […] an engaging study of the bourgeois bohemians (“bobos”) who made the passage from ’60s cultural radicalism to ’80s Yuppiedom […]. (NW040601) 5. She was conscious of some religious ceremony as an assemblage of Jews unveiled a monument commemorating their massacre and their martyrdom […]. (Styron_1979_392) 6. They learn to associate topsy-turvydom with well-being; in fact, they’re only truly happy when they’re standing on their heads. (Huxley_1968_11)

-ed Introduction Denominal derivatives with the suffix -ed can be categorized as either possessional or similitudinal adjectives. The former can be paraphrased as ‘having …’, ‘being provided with …’. The latter category relates to similarity. Denominal adjectives in -ed can be described as very productive in present-day English. There are some new adjectives formed on concrete nouns, phrases and numerals, for example: key > keyed, roof > roofed, sand > sanded, wood > wooded etc. eye > blue-eyed, lip > tight-lipped, shoulder > broad-shouldered, leg > long-legged etc.

190 English Complex Words

The native suffix -ed originates in Old English -ede. The function of the suffix is identical to that of the Latin participial suffix -tus (caudātus ‘tailed’, aurītus ‘eared’). Nowadays, the suffix -ed is used with any noun from which it forms an adjective with the sense ‘possessing, provided with, characterized by’ (something) (walled, moneyed), and in parasynthetic derivatives (green-eyed, cobble-stoned). Sources: Szymanek (1989: 241–242); Bauer et al. (2013: Ch. 14); the OED; for other possessional suffixes, see -ate, -ful, -ous, -y; for other similitudinal suffixes, see -ish, -like, -ly, -y

Construction I. Complete the gapped -ed adjectives by adding to them appropriate nouns: carpet, dome, flower, hook, money, muscle, pebble, salary, sandwich, soil, staff, tattoo, uniform, wall, window. Adjust the spelling of the derived words. 1. a large heavily ………ed woman 2. a full-time ………ed job with benefits 3. conveniently ………ed between Grand Central and Times Square 4. my already ………ed handkerchief 5. a clinic ………ed only by nurses 6. the most senior ………ed position 7. the surgically ………ed lip liner 8. a long ………ed corridor 9. a heavily ………ed dining room 10. a completely ………ed garden 11. ………ed minarets 12. the ………ed air 13. a huge, ………ed nose 14. a ………ed Victorian woman 15. the ………ed pavement II. Complete the gapped -ed adjectives by supplying missing characters. The first two letters of the base nouns are given. 1. a young, be……ed wild man 2. the entire city is bl……ed in darkness 3. the bu……ed slice of bread at the centre 4. his boots ca……ed with dry mud 5. with soap in her cu……ed hand 6. the first fe……ed dinosaur fossil 7. horrible maple fl……ed syrop imitation 8. the park’s most densely fo……ed region 9. her gl……ed right hand

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 191



10. his nose bl……ed in a brawl 11. a blonde ha……ed, blue eyed fair skin woman 12. a patchily sc……ed, undisciplined student 13. a residentially zo……ed neighbourhood 14. those borrowers sa……ed with the most onorous types of loans 15. a light he……ed approach to understanding inflation III. Establish equivalents of ice, iced, iced tea and iced coffee in various languages.  

ice

iced

iced tea

iced coffee

Dutch Italian Croatian …

ijs ghiaccio led  

gekoeld ghiacciato/-a ledeni/-a  

gekoelde thee tè freddo ledeni čaj  

gekoelde koffie caffè con ghiaccio / caffè freddo ledena kava  

Propose another case of a “derivational chain”, similar to the one above. Starting with a base noun (e.g., butter), derive an -ed adjective from it (buttered), which is finally accommodated in a lexicalized context (e.g., buttered bread). Establish equivalents of all components of this derivational chain in a few languages.

Translation IV. Translate the key formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. Her new green flowered-muslin dress spread its twelve yards of billowing material over her hoops and exactly matched the flat-heeled green morocco slippers her father had recently brought her from Atlanta. (Mitchell_1958_7) 2. I live outside now. Eat on graffiti-ed picnic tables, use dirty gas-station toilets, ask strangers for water. (NG1297)

Key I. 1 muscle; 2 salary; 3 sandwich; 4 soil; 5 staff; 6 uniform; 7 tattoo; 8 carpet; 9 window; 10 wall; 11 dome; 12 flower; 13 hook; 14 money; 15 pebble II. 1 bearded; 2 blanketed; 3 buttered; 4 caked; 5 cupped; 6 feathered; 7 flavoured; 8 forested; 9 gloved; 10 bloodied; 11 haired; 12 schooled; 13 zoned; 14 saddled; 15 hearted

192 English Complex Words

-ee Introduction The suffix -ee belongs to the broad category of participants. Participants are nouns which can be syntactic subjects or objects, including human agents or inanimate instruments. They may be deverbal or denominal. Most commonly, the suffix -ee is added to verbal bases without any phonological constraints. There are two semantic roles in which -ee nominalizations are used. Subject/agentive nominalizations (‘one who V-s’) constitute one category: adapt > adaptee, attend > attendee, escape > escapee, retire > retiree etc. And object/patientive nominalizations (‘one who is V-ed’) constitute the other division: address > addressee, appoint > appointee, detain > detainee, examine > examinee etc. The suffix is mildly productive and regularly occurs in contemporary English, particularly in some of its specialist varieties. The formative is used mainly in the language of the law. It was originally an adaptation of the -é of certain Anglo-Norman past participles, which were used as nouns. Anglo-Norman legal pairs (apelour ‘appellor’, apelé ‘appellee’) served as templates for the formation of agentive nouns in -or (the active party) and patientive nouns in -ee (the passive party) in legal writing. However, derivatives in -ee, unlike the Anglo-Norman nouns after which they were modelled, did not usually have a passive function. Rather, they denoted the indirect object of the verbs from which they were derived (lessee ‘the person to whom property is let’, payee ‘the person who is entitled to be paid, whether he be actually paid or not’). The suffix has also been used in the derivation of humorous (mainly) nonce-words (cuttee, educatee, laughee), denoting the object of the verbs from which they are formed. Sources: Aronoff (1981: 47, 88–89); Szymanek (1989: 181–182, 198–200); Bauer (1991: 242–250, 286–290); Bauer et al. (2013: 226–228); the OED; for other suffixes in the category of participants, see -ant, -arian, -ary, -er/-or, -ess, -ette, -ician, -ie/-y, -ist, -ite, -monger, -ster

Construction I. Form -ee derivatives based on the following verbs: employ address escape return abduct promise advise

> > > > > > >

……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ……… ………

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 193



II. Match an -ee derivative with its expected definition. For example: employee – ‘a person employed for remuneration’ 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

trainee franchisee returnee evacuee signee grantee

7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

detainee designee parolee consultee adoptee awardee

Definitions (after the OED): – a person to whom a grant or conveyance is made – a person detained in custody, usually on political grounds and in an emergency, without or pending formal trial – a person consulted – a person who is or has been adopted, esp. as a child – a person appointed, nominated, or specified for some role or purpose; one who has been designated – a person or (formerly) an animal undergoing training – a holder of a commercial franchise – the recipient of an award; a person to whom a grant or scholarship is given – a prisoner released on parole – a person who is returning or has returned, esp. from war service or exile – a person who has been evacuated – a person who has signed a contract, petition, register etc. III. For each -ee derivation below, provide a short and succinct description of its meaning. 1. deportee 2. advisee 3. promisee 4. retiree 5. appointee 6. attendee 7. addressee 8. nominee 9. pawnee 10. licensee 11. divorcee 12. escapee

194 English Complex Words

IV. For each description (after the OED), propose a matching -ee derivation. 1. a person who is supervised; (originally) spec. a person under police supervision 2. a person to whom property is mortgaged 3. a person to whom goods are consigned 4. a person who has been abducted 5. a person zealously devoted to a particular party, cause, pursuit etc. 6. one who has lost a limb or other part of the body by amputation 7. a person who is absent or away, esp. from a place or occasion where his or her attendance is expected or required 8. a person into whose possession assets, property etc., are put, to be held or administered for the benefit of another 9. one who is appointed to act for another; a deputy, agent, or representative 10. a person who leases something, esp. land or a property, from another 11. one who is appealed against 12. a person to whom a sum of money is (to be) paid. V. Based on the paraphrases given in brackets, provide -ee nouns in the appropriate form. 1. With its [=Angola’s] 25-year-old civil war flaring up again, mines continue to be laid in the country, adding to its 32,000 land-mine ……… [someone who has had an arm or a leg amputated]. (NW080399) 2. Nevertheless, Comdex ……… [someone who is at an event such as a meeting or a course] eagerly lined up at the booth of Iriscan to hold a scanner about three inches from their eyes. (NW071298) 3. I am a black ……… [someone who is divorced] in a mixed-race marriage. (TS120321) 4. A few McDonald’s are directly run by the company, but most of its 4,943 European restaurants are run by 1,700 ……… [someone who is given or sold a franchise to sell a company’s goods or services]. (NW100700) 5. Over the past four years there has been a steady 13 percent annual increase in ……… [a person who returns to their own country after living in another country], according to official Chinese statistics. (NW100700)

Translation VI. Translate the -ee formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. Admit Day 2000 began early Saturday morning with thousands of admittees attending presentations on university life. (UCSDG170400)



Chapter 2.  Suffixation 195

2. Moreover, just because the pool of judges in the appeals court contains more Reagan-Bush appointees than Carter-Clinton appointees doesn’t mean that it will automatically take Microsoft’s side. (TE190600) 3. Over the past few years it has transformed itself into a safe berth for city escapees, downsizers and retirees. (TS270321) 4. The White House was inundating the FBI with the names of dozens of potential pardonees, ordering them to complete criminal-background checks and report their findings. (NW260201)

Key I. employee; addressee; escapee; returnee; abductee; promisee; advisee II. 1 a person or (formerly) an animal undergoing training; 2 a holder of a commercial franchise; 3 a person who is returning or has returned, esp. from war service or exile; 4 a person who has been evacuated; 5 a person who has signed a contract, petition, register etc.; 6 a person to whom a grant or conveyance is made; 7 a person detained in custody, usually on political grounds and in an emergency, without or pending formal trial; 8 a person appointed, nominated, or specified for some role or purpose; one who has been designated; 9 a prisoner released on parole; 10 a person consulted; 11 a person who is or has been adopted, esp. as a child; 12 the recipient of an award; a person to whom a grant or scholarship is given III. (suggested, after the OED): 1 one who is or has been deported; 2 a person who is being or has been advised; a recipient of advice; 3 a person to whom a promise is made; 4 a person who has retired, esp. permanently from employment; 5 a person who is appointed or nominated to an office; (law) a person in whose favour a power of appointment is executed; 6 one who (merely) attends a meeting, conference etc.; 7 a person who is addressed; spec. (a) a person to whom words are directed, esp. orally; (b) the specified recipient of a letter, parcel etc.; 8 a person named as the recipient, or one of the recipients, of an annuity, grant etc.; a person who is nominated to an office or duty; 9 the person with whom something is pawned; 10 one to whom a licence is granted; 11 a divorced person; 12 one who has escaped; esp. (a) an escaped convict from a penal settlement; (b) an escaped military or political prisoner IV. 1 supervisee; 2 mortgagee; 3 consignee; 4 abductee; 5 devotee; 6 amputee; 7 absentee; 8 trustee; 9 assignee; 10 lessee; 11 appellee; 12 payee V. 1 amputees; 2 attendees; 3 divorcee; 4 franchisees; 5 returnees

196 English Complex Words

-en Introduction The verbalizing suffix -en attaches to non-Latinate, monosyllabic adjectival bases, and produces causative verbs, conveying senses, such as ‘make …’, ‘make more of …’, ‘cause … to be/become …’, for instance: black > blacken, bright > brighten, fresh > freshen, loose > loosen, stiff > stiffen etc. There are phonological constraints on the ending of the base, such as a final obstruent, preceded by an optional sonorant (dark > darken, short > shorten). The derivation of -en causative verbs is a weakly productive process in contemporary English. The suffix -en also acts as a minor similitudinal adjectivizing formative on a few nominal bases, such as earth, flax, gold, silk, wax and wood. Otherwise, it seems completely unproductive in this function in present-day English. The formative -en is a native element (cf. Old Saxon -in, Old High German -în (German -en), Old Norse -in) added to nouns to form adjectives with the sense ‘pertaining to, of the nature of ’. In Middle English, the suffix was commonly used to form numerous derivatives. From the 16th cent. onwards, there was a growing tendency to replace -en adjectives with the attributive use of the noun (a gold watch). Those surviving -en adjectives (golden, silvern) are rarely used, unless metaphorically, or with rhetorical emphasis. A few others (wooden, woollen, earthen) are still seen as used in their literal senses. Sources: Aronoff (1981: 63, 82–84); Gussmann (1987: 88); Szymanek (1989: 256, 280–281); Bauer (1991: 224); the OED; for other causative verbal suffixes, see -ate, -ify, -ize; for other similitudinal suffixes, see -ed, -ish, -like, -ly, -y

Construction I. According to COCA (020722), the asterisked formations on the right are not attested as causative verbs, as opposed to those on the left: blacken pinken redden whiten      

*beigen *bluen / *blue-en *brownen *greenen *greyen / *grayen *orangen *yellowen

Explain why the asterisked formations are not found in English, as opposed to those on the left.

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 197



II. Indicate which words (do not) take the suffix -en to form causative verbs: big bright cheap damp dark deaf deep dry fat

flat fresh fright hard haste height large length less

light long loose loud low quick quiet ripe sad

short sick slim small soft stiff straight strength strong

sweet tall thick threat weak wet wide wise wrong

III. Indicate nouns which take the adjectivizing suffix -en, and those which do not: cement / clay / earth / flax / glass / gold / mud / platinum / silk / silver / wax / wood

Translation IV. Translate the key formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. So far this year 180 people are known to have died in Italian waters – often pushed into the sea and left to drown by smugglers trying to lighten their boats to get away from Italian coast-guard patrols. (NW030700) 2. Chee backed the pickup to a rocky place, turned it, and slipped and slid his way back to 5010 in leaden silence. (Hillerman_1996_82)

Key II. *biggen / brighten / cheapen / dampen / darken / deafen / deepen / *dryen / fatten / flatten / freshen / frighten / harden / hasten / heighten / *largen / lengthen / lessen / lighten / *longen / loosen (up) / *louden / *lowen / quicken / quieten / ripen / sadden / shorten / sicken / *slimmen / *smallen / soften / stiffen / straighten / strengthen / *strongen / sweeten / *tallen / thicken / threaten / weaken / *wetten / widen / wisen (up) / *wrongen III. *cementen / *clayen / earthen / flaxen / *glassen / golden / *muden / *platinumen / silken / *silveren / waxen / wooden

198 English Complex Words

-er/-or Introduction The suffix -er (with its variant -or) belongs to the broad category of participants. Participants are nouns which can be syntactic subjects or objects, including human agents or inanimate instruments. They may be deverbal or denominal. Most commonly, the suffix -er is appended to verbal bases, simplex or complex, without any essential phonological constraints, for example: do > doer, drink > drinker, eat > eater, sleep > sleeper, walk > walker etc. apologize > apologizer, popularize > popularizer etc. The spelling variant -or attaches preferably to Latinate bases, such as: act > actor, conquer > conqueror, invest > investor, possess > possessor etc. And it particularly favours those non-native verbal bases ending in -ate, for instance: agitate > agitator, coordinate > coordinator, perpetrate > perpetrator etc. Certain intransitive verbs (belong), modals (may), auxiliaries (be) and quasi-copulas (appear) do not combine with the suffix -er. Otherwise, the suffix is extremely productive and regularly occurs with multiple variants of verbal and nominal bases in contemporary English. Formations in -er/-or are commonly classified as either subject/ agentive (kicker, perpetrator) or subject/instrumental nominalizations (toaster, generator), depending on a given interpretation. However, this distinction is debatable and also unworkable at times (cf. translator – agent/instrument alike). The suffix -er has a distinct Germanic origin (cf. -are (Swedish), -ere (Danish), -er (German)). In its original use, it served to designate persons according to their profession or occupation. English -er derivatives not denoting names of professions are few and far between (bencher, cottager, outsider, villager). Major meanings and functions: – thing or action (header, back-hander, fiver, out-and-outer) – a native of …, a resident in … (Londoner, New Yorker, Icelander) – certain adjectives indicating place of origin or residence (foreigner, northerner, southerner) – material agent, instrument (blotter, cutter, poker, roller) – trade or office (caterer, fruiterer, poulterer)



Chapter 2.  Suffixation 199

The suffix variant -or is a borrowing from Latin (-ōr-, -or). The majority of Middle English words with this ending were borrowed via Anglo-Norman, Old French, or Middle French. The suffix variant represents Latin agentive nouns, in which it was not originally preceded by a vowel (actor, captor, elector, inventor, oppressor, possessor, professor, rector, sculptor, sponsor, tutor, victor). The frequent use of Middle English -our (modern -or) in legal terms denoted the active party, as opposed to the passive party (lessor ~ lessee, grantor ~ grantee). Note: saviour (special sense) vs. saver (purely agentive sense); sailor (one who sails professionally) vs. sailer; in liar, beggar, the spelling -ar is a survival of the occasional Middle English variant -ar(e); in a few cases, both forms are still in use (asserter, assertor), possibly without any difference in meaning. Sources: Aronoff (1981: 50); Szymanek (1989: 176–180, 191–193); Bauer (1991: 285–290); Bauer et al. (2013: 217–220); the OED; for other nouns in the category of participants, see -ant, -arian, -ary, -ee, -ess, -ette, -ician, -ie/-y, -ist, -ite, -monger, -ster

Construction I. Propose likely derivational patterns for the following -er nouns. For example: a low-life sponger spongeN > spongeV-er > sponger The OED: ✓ one who lives meanly at another’s expense; a parasite, a sponge – one who uses a sponge, esp. in order to cleanse the bore of a cannon – one who transfers designs to pottery by means of a piece of sponge – a gatherer of, a diver or fisher for, sponges – a vessel engaged in sponge-fishing 1. a half pint of Guinness chaser 2. the most experienced F-35 flier 3. a deadly finisher 4. noodle hawker 5. plume hunter 6. clothes peddler 7. the swallowers of slogans 8. candy wrapper

200 English Complex Words

II. Fill in the gaps with -er formantions: adviser, backer, manager, seeker, smuggler, speller, spotter, starter, stunner, sympathizer, winner. 1. a Clinton …… 2. the first family’s financial …… 3. a potential match-…… 4. the biggest …… in the Gore camp 5. the campaign …… 6. a job …… based in the UK 7. a drug …… 8. the best …… in the class 9. a forward artillery …… 10. a late …… as a pilot 11. a 28-year-old Australian …… III. Complete the gapped -er nouns in the right form, based on the paraphrases given in brackets. The first two letters are provided. 1. There are seldom boats in the icy water, and I’ve never seen ba……… [someone who is swimming in the sea etc.] or cruise ships. (NG0800) 2. By eight o’clock, guitarists are already strumming for br……… [someone who eats breakfast at a restaurant etc.] as they burrow into indulgent egg, cheese, and bean dishes in the outdoor cafés. (NT0396) 3. The toughening of Johnson’s stance came as Br……… [Brexit supporter] Tory MPs threatened a leadership challenge if he “sells out” to Brussels. (TS061220) 4. In capitals like Stockholm, Rome or Berlin, high rents mean that only big ea……… [someone who earns money for the job that they do] can afford their own housing. (NW140800) 5. Like many other Ho……… [an inhabitant of Hong Kong], they intend to apply for a newly-available British visa, announced last summer by Boris Johnson. (TS290121) 6. Lo……… [an inhabitant of London] next year will, for the first time, elect a mayor. (NW071298) 7. But this village and others like it were abandoned decades ago when cranberrying became a mechanized business that required few pi……… [a person or machine that picks fruit or vegetables]. (NT1094) 8. Intruding on mysteries previously confined to the realms of philosophy, metaphysics, and religious faith, these audacious se……… [someone who is trying to find or get something] seem on the verge of answering fundamental questions […]. (NG1099) 9. Wo……… [someone who takes part in a religious event by praying, singing etc.] in vulnerable groups who are “more at risk” from Covid-19 should stay away from church services this Christmas […]. (TS181220)

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 201



Translation IV. Find equivalents of the four phrases containing -er nouns in multiple languages.  

true believer

average shopper

best footballer

early breakfaster

German

wahrhaftiger Gläubiger  

durchschnittlicher Käufer

bester Fußballer

gemiddelde koper/ klant    

 

früher Frühstückende (NS?) / zeitiger Früh­ stückender (NS?)  

 

 

Dutch Swedish Norwegian Danish

  sann troende  

Icelandic Frisian

   

meðalkaupandi     bêste fuotballer

French Spanish Italian

     

  mejor futbolista miglior calciatore

Portuguese

vrai croyant   vero credente  

tidlig morgenmadsspiser   betide iter/ betide ontbiter/ iere moarnsiter      

 

 

Romanian

 

 

 

Russian

 

comprador médio cumpărător mediu  

 

Ukrainian

 

 

 

       

najlepszy piłkarz nejlepší fotbalista najlepší futbalista  

rano zavtra­ka­yushchiy lyudyna, kotra rano snidaye        

 

 

 

Polish Czech Slovak Serbian

      istinski vernik Croatian pravi vjernik Bosnian   Macedonian   Bulgarian  

bästa fotbollsspelare      

prosječan kupac          

  rano pojadok chovek, koyto zakusva rano; zakusvasht rano; rano zakusvasht

202 English Complex Words  

true believer

average shopper

Slovenian Finnish Estonian Lithuanian

povprečen kupec    paras jalkapalloilija   parim jalgpallur    

       

 

 

 

Hungarian Greek

      tikras tikintysis patiess ticīgais    

legjobb labdarúgó  

   

Albanian Japanese

   

  mésos agorast-ís/-ria blerës mesatar  

  saikō no sakkā senshu

Chinese

 

 

Arabic

mumin haqiqi inançlı  

zuì jiā zúqiú yùndòngyuán  

  hayame no/ni chōshoku o toru/ taberu hito zǎo cān chī dé zǎo de rén*  

mutasawiq mutawasit ortalama müşteri     ilun achimsiksa-ca***   choykouy chwukkwu-senswu**

Latvian

Turkish Korean *

best footballer

early breakfaster

早餐吃得早的人

** 최고의 축구 선수 *** 이른 아침 식사자

V. Translate the -er formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. Drinking a glass of red wine, he [=Kim Dzong Il] joked about the South Korean press’s portrayal of him as a boozer. (NW280800) 2. The reluctant downsizer will be sad to leave the house where she raised her three sons, but is looking forward to having some spare cash after the move. (TS290121) 3. In most cases, students said their harasser was another student. (TS170621) 4. Like many East Palo Alto residents, Jenny Torres, 17, was working her way through high school as a “hasher” in a Stanford dining hall. (NW180900) 5. In all, about 80 boats are licensed to carry tourists. A few take half a dozen scuba divers; a few carry a maximum of a hundred hikers, birders, and snorkelers. (NG0499) 6. Days here are drenched in sunlight, making it the ideal weather for a winter getaway – especially for golfers. (NW071298)

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 203



7. Like many other mainlanders, he eventually married a local woman, and they had four children. (NW140800) 8. A hundred Northerners and a hundred Southerners visited Seoul and Pyongyang last week for emotional reunions. (NW280800) 9. Pittsburgh is the classic overachiever among American cities. (NG1291) 10. Another cabinet remainer said: “I’d much rather we had a deal but he’s got a no-deal mandate if that is his judgment.” (TS061220) 11. How did the president, a champion schmoozer and manipulator, wind up so friendless and powerless in his own capital? (NW281298) 12. The contemporary big-money athlete is less a shooter or passer than a corporate conglomerate. (NW190600) 13. Our arrival caused a sensation: The villagers had never seen Westerners before. (NG0800) VI. Translate the -er formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. He’s trying to get them to loosen up, the way you see an auctioneer spinning jokes to loosen up the crowd before the bidding starts. (Kesey_1976_17) 2. Because the gossipers around Mancos say Edgar Breedlove bought the ranch more because his prospectors had found molybdenum deposits on it than for its grazing. (Hillerman_1996_100) 3. Farming is always a chancy business, but in western Kansas its practitioners consider themselves “born gamblers,” for they must contend with an extremely shallow precipitation and anguishing irrigation problems. (Capote_1965_14)

Key II. 1 sympathizer; 2 adviser; 3 winner; 4 backer; 5 manager; 6 seeker; 7 smuggler; 8 speller; 9 spotter; 10 starter; 11 stunner III. 1 bathers; 2 breakfasters; 3 Brexiteer; 4 earners; 5 Hongkongers; 6 Londoners; 7 pickers; 8 seekers; 9 Worshippers

-ery Introduction The suffix -ery is somewhat related to the category of Nomina Essendi (abstract deadjectival nominalizations), conveying the nominal concept ‘quality/state of being A’. However, it cannot be categorized as a central member of this category. Formations with this suffix express the sense of state, condition, or place, but they are mostly based on (personal and impersonal) nouns. Perhaps the best concept that describes

204 English Complex Words

derivatives with -ery is ‘collectivity (of people or things)’. The suffix is considered to be reasonably productive in contemporary English. In Middle English, the nominalizing suffix -erie first occurred in words adopted from French. By analogy, it was later used as an English formative. In French, many nouns in -ier, -er are designations of (1) persons according to occupation or office; (2) the class of goods in which these persons deal (draperie ‘drapery’); (3) their employment or art (archerie ‘archery’); (4) the place where their occupation is performed (boulangerie ‘bakery’). In English, some words ending in -ery are adoptions from French (battery, bravery, cutlery, nunnery, treachery), and some others are formed on nouns in -er, and are properly examples of the suffix -y. Major meanings and functions: the place where one’s employment is carried out (bakery, brewery, fishery) classes of goods (confectionery, ironmongery, pottery) a general collective sense (crockery, machinery, scenery) a state or condition (slavery) a general sense ‘that which is characteristic of, all that is connected with’, in most cases with contemptuous implication (knavery, monkery, popery) – the place where certain animals are kept or certain plants cultivated (piggery, rookery, swannery, vinery) – [chiefly US] a place where an indicated article or service may be purchased or procured (breadery, boozery, cakery, carwashery, drillery, drinkery, eatery, hashery, lunchery)

– – – – –

Sources: Szymanek (1989: 206–207); Bauer et al. (2013: 250–252); the OED

Construction I. Divide the following -ery formations into semantic groups under similar senses. You can suggest your own senses, or you can rely on some of the following: ‘a place for … / an establishment for …’, ‘the art / practice / science of …’, ‘the action / making of …’, ‘the art or occupation of a …’, ‘the collectivity of …’, ‘a place of residence for a community of …’ etc. adultery archery artery bakery battery bitchery bribery butchery cakery cannery

cemetery chancery coppery creamery cutlery distillery eatery embroidery fishery forgery

fruitery gallery greenery grocery gunnery hatchery hawkery hosiery joinery lottery

monastery nunnery nursery perfumery periphery piggery pottery presbytery shrubbery slavery

snobbery sorcery surgery tannery thuggery treachery upholstery usery winery witchery

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 205



II. According to the OED, piggery has three senses: – a place where pigs are kept or bred; a pigsty or pig farm; (fig.) an extremely dirty or untidy house or room – pigs collectively – the condition, attitudes, or behaviour of a boorish or slovenly person. Propose your own examples of related (possibly non-existing) nouns ending in -ery, based on names of animals. Provide potential senses of such novel nouns. For example: cat > cattery.

Translation III. Consider the -ery nouns fruitery, grainery and winery, in their shared sense of ‘a place, establishment for making, storing or growing the thing named’, i.e., fruit, grain and wine, respectively. Given this, there is a lexical relation between the derivational base (fruit, grain, wine) and the output -ery derivation (fruitery, grainery, winery). Establish equivalents of these bases and their -ery derivations in various languages, and check if there is a similar lexical relation between them, or a lack thereof.  

fruit

fruitery

grain

grainery

wine

winery

French Spanish Italian Portuguese Romanian German Dutch Swedish Polish Russian Slovenian Greek Hungarian Turkish Japanese

                             

                             

                             

                             

                             

                             

IV. Translate the -ery formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. On the last [=expedition] he had been awarded the Albert Medal for bravery when he trekked 35 miles alone through snow. (NG1198) 2. The fishery is open all-year and night fishing is allowed.

206 English Complex Words

3. Today’s sea robbers use speedboats, radar, and ship-to-shore radios. Most stop at thievery, grabbing cash from the captain’s safe or stealing videotape recorders. (NG1298) 4. The BBC has rejected a complaint against Laura Kuenssberg for using the phrase “nitty-gritty”, in the latest sign of the corporation’s shift away from so-called wokery. (TS230121) V. Translate the -ery formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. At first it was a lark and I honestly enjoyed the bitchery and vengeance I was able to wreak upon these manuscripts. (Styron_1979_4) 2. Marjorie was reading […] a mail-order brochure that had come with her credit-card account and kept proposing to purchase various items of useless gadgetry. (Lodge_1989_175) 3. Sunset and spring and new-fledged greenery were no miracle to Scarlett. (Mitchell_1958_28) 4. The ease with which he accomplished this disturbed him – he worried he was getting a little too good at petty thievery. (Dillard_1993_85)

-ess Introduction The suffix -ess belongs to the broad category of participants. Participants are nouns which can be syntactic subjects or objects, including human agents or inanimate instruments. They may be deverbal or denominal. Contrary to the verb-oriented agentive suffixes -er and -ant, the suffix -ess is added to agentive nominal bases. As a result, derived nouns in -ess denote marked female equivalents of the individuals mentioned in the base noun, for example: actor > actress, god > goddess, manager > manageress, poet > poetess etc. The suffix is quite frequent and fairly productive in contemporary English. Social changes have influenced the traditional use of language involving gender-based naming conventions. The suffix -ess originates in French -esse (late Latin -issa < Greek -ισσα, πανδόκισσα ‘female innkeeper’). A few Greek formations (notably διακόνισσα, Latin diaconissa ‘deaconess’) were adopted in Latin along with their masculine equivalents. New derivatives based on the same pattern were formed in Latin, and subsequently spread across the Romance languages (abbātem ‘abbot’ ~ abbātissa > abbesse ‘abbess’ (French)). In

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 207



Middle English, many words in -esse were adopted from French (countess, duchess, hostess, lioness, mistress, princess) and several were formed on nouns in -ëor, -ier (enchantress, sorceress). In the 15th cent., formations in -er followed by -ess gradually superseded the older English feminine nouns in -ster (Old English -estre). As a result, derivations in -ster (except spinster) were regarded as masculine. In later centuries, new formations in -ess were derived quite productively, but many of these became obsolete in modern times. In English, the suffix is not used to form feminines of names of animals (lioness, tigress being adoptions from French). When -ess is added to a noun in -ter, -tor, the vowel preceding the r is usually elided (actress, doctress, protectress, waitress). Sources: Szymanek (1989: 209–212); Bauer (1991: 221); Bauer et al. (2013: 230); the OED; for other nouns in the category of participants, see -ant, -arian, -ary, -ee, -er/-or, -ette, -ician, -ie/-y, -ist, -ite, -monger, -ster

Construction I. Derive female forms in -ess based on the following names: actor, arbiter, author, count, governor, heir, lion, mister, poet, priest, protector, sorcerer. Fill in the gaps with appropriate female derivations. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

the ……… of Ulster 7. the ……… of Europe a(n) ……… with magic healing powers 8. the ……… Sappho in Greece as ……… to her daughters 9. a professional ……… the great Neville family ……… 10. a distant ……… a young and gifted ……… 11. a long-term ……… the Sibyl, a(n) ……… of Apollo 12. their patron saint and ……… against an eruption of Mount Etna

II. Provide -ess formations compatible with their definitions. 1 2 3 4 5 6

………………….. a married woman who has sex with a man who is not her husband ………………….. a female teacher in the past, who lived with a rich family and taught their children at home ………………….. a woman at a party, meal etc. who has invited all the guests and provides them with food, drink etc. ………………….. a female hunter ………………….. a female being who is believed to control the world or part of it ………………….. a female who teaches a sport or practical skill

208 English Complex Words

Translation III. Consider the masculine/neuter and feminine forms: actor ~ actress, author ~ authoress, teacher ~ teacheress, respectively. Establish equivalents of the masculine/ neuter bases and their feminine derivations, if any, in various world languages, for example:  

actor

actress

author

authoress

teacher

teacheress

Albanian Arabic Basque Bosnian Chinese Danish Estonian Greek Hungarian Irish Icelandic Japanese Korean Latvian Macedonian Mongolian Romanian Slovak Turkish Welsh

                                       

                                       

                                       

                                       

                                       

                                       

IV. Translate the -ess formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. Sexuality has long been a theme in Indian art, which often portrays naked Hindu gods and goddesses. (NW220399) 2. Sinclair […] is heiress to much of the fortune of the art dealer Paul Rosenberg, her grandfather. (TS260521) 3. Her mother, a laundress in Milan, remarried when her daughter was a child. (NW161198) 4. It is worth considering why, say, a black Londoner doing two jobs to cover the rent might sympathise with an American millionairess. (TS140321) 5. The school denied suggestions that the webinar’s approach was at odds with the “neutral stance” outlined in a letter by Sarah Fletcher, the high mistress […]. (TS190621)

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 209



6. The cause was the self-styled prophetess Alice Lenshina, whose campaign to free people from fear of witchcraft was used by Kaunda’s opponents for their own purposes. (TS180621) 7. An adult Bengal tigress on her own eats an average of 13 pounds every day. (NG1297) V. Translate the -ess formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. ‘Stand easy!’ barked the instructress, a little more genially. (Orwell_1986_35) 2. Three black youths […] lean against the plateglass window of the shoppingprecinct café […] until shooed away by the manageress. (Lodge_1989_75) 3. After being a highly-prized mistress she was now little better than a common prostitute. (Lodge_1993_115) 4. Down by the depot, the postmistress […] presides over a falling-apart post office. (Capote_1965_14) 5. […] Hartman’s Café, where Mrs. Hartman, the proprietress, dispenses sandwiches, coffee, soft drinks, and 3.2 beer. (Capote_1965_14) 6. She is very tactful and asks the right kind of questions, and being a sculptress they respect her, especially as she doesn’t just carve animals or children’s heads. (Christie_1965_9) 7. Molly, the sympathetic waitress, greeted Mr. Bonnington as an old friend. (Christie_1963_158)

Key I. 1 countess; 2 sorceress; 3 governess; 4 heiress; 5 actress; 6 priestess; 7 arbitress; 8 poetess; 9 authoress; 10 lioness; 11 mistress; 12 protectress II. 1 adulteress; 2 governess; 3 hostess; 4 huntress; 5 goddess; 6 instructress

-ette Introduction The suffix -ette belongs to the broad category of participants. Participants are nouns which can be syntactic subjects or objects, including human agents or inanimate instruments. They may be deverbal or denominal. Contrary to the verb-oriented agentive suffixes -er and -ant, the suffix -ette is added to agentive nominal bases. As a result, derived nouns in -ette denote marked female equivalents of the individuals mentioned in the base noun. Also, the suffix -ette adds the sense of diminution, smallness, or endearment. The suffix is infrequent and unproductive in contemporary English.

210 English Complex Words

The suffix -ette is a borrowing from French (-ette) (< Middle French, French -ette, the feminine form corresponding to the masculine diminutive suffix -et). Borrowings of French words formed with the feminine suffix -ette are found from the Middle English period onwards (musette, planchette). Rare new formations in English spelt with -ette are found in Middle English, but these could simply be regarded as formations in -et, given the degree of spelling variation found in this period. From the 17th cent., new borrowings of French words in -ette are typically spelt with -ette in English. Major meanings and functions: – women or girls (majorette, suffragette, usherette) – small or brief examples (diskette, essayette, kitchenette, towelette) – names of fabrics etc., intended as imitations (flannelette, leatherette, suedette) Sources: Szymanek (1989: 212); Bauer (1991: 119–121); Bauer et al. (2013: 230, 395); the OED; for other nouns in the category of participants, see -ant, -arian, -ary, -ee, -er/-or, -ess, -ician, -ie/-y, -ist, -ite, -monger, -ster

Construction I. The following words ending in -ette (COCA060822) have been ordered according to their descending frequency. Analyse the potential constituent structure of each word; check if the element preceding -ette constitutes its base. If it does, what partial meaning does it contribute to the meaning of the composite whole? cigarette palette gazette silhouette etiquette cassette vinaigrette brunette bachelorette baguette omelette

kitchenette marionette statuette toilette banquette diskette luncheonette majorette novelette launderette professorette

Provide a few examples of your own formations with the suffix -ette. Create some context in which your novel formations sound convincing.

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 211



Translation II. Translate the -ette formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. Then came the flags and banners and the cards bearing slogans; and the squad of drum majorettes, the best-looking girls we could find. (Ellison_1972_371) 2. The sun was low across the new-plowed fields and the tall woods across the river were looming blackly in silhouette. (Mitchell_1958_13) 3. Once again Mr Mallory thought how easy it would be to buy the cheapest tickets, and show the usherette inside the torn portions of dearer ones which you had saved from a previous occasion. (Lodge_1993_16)

-free Introduction The suffix -free attaches to nominal bases, forming privative adjectives. Numerous common nouns, both concrete and abstract, combine with -free, without any phonological constraints. Adjectives in -free are similar in meaning to those in -less. However, those with the suffix -free express the absence of something considered unwanted, undesirable, detrimental etc. Contrary to this, the suffix -less carries a neutral connotation. Given the ‘liberating’ force of -free, the bases to which it attaches must bear the sense of something that can be removed, discarded, kept aside etc. Such a sense can be either lexicalized in a given word or unexpectedly created in a specific context. Therefore, ironic senses can also be generated in the course of -free adjectivization. The suffix -free has been and continues to be very productive in present-day English. The word free is inherited from Germanic (cf. frī (Old Frisian), frij (West Frisian), vrī, vrīe, vrijch, vrijg (Middle Dutch), vrij (Dutch), frei (German), frí (Icelandic, 16th cent.), frir (Old Swedish), fri (Swedish, Old Danish, Danish)). The sense ‘free, not in servitude’ appears to be a peculiarity of Germanic and Celtic. Presumably, the distinction was made between those members of the household who were ‘one’s own blood’, ‘connected by ties of kinship with the head’, as opposed to the unfree slaves. Sources: Szymanek (1989: 247–248); Bauer et al. (2013: 363, 367); the OED; see the privative suffix -less; see privative prefixes: de-, dis-, un-; also see possessional suffixes: -ate, -ed, -ful, -ous, -y

212

English Complex Words

Construction I. Complete the gapped -free derivations with the following nouns: acid, alcohol, browser, car, care, child, crime, debt, dust, error, fat, frill, guilt, ice, interest, pain, pollution, stress, tax, weed. 1. the capital’s first ……-free Sunday 2. a relatively ……-free life 3. the ……-free lawns of Lincoln 4. an apparently ……-free society 5. ……-free markers 6. Snack Well’s ……-free cookies 7. Southwest’s ……-free flights 8. one ……-free version of MS Windows 9. a new form of ……-free savings account 10. the ……-free corridor 11. ……-free loans 12. ……-free propulsion technology 13. a ……-free lifestyle 14. in your new ……-free house 15. ……-free breast cancer examination 16. better at repetitive, ……-free routines 17. a ……-free low carb breakfast 18. alternative ……-free activities for students 19. living ……-free by choice 20. a highly reflective, ……-free surface II. Choose the best noun (a-d) to complete the gapped -free formations. 1. The Pakistan Hackerz Club has been making regular runs against American and Indian Internet sites. Its cause: a(n) ………-free Kashmir. (TE220500) a. Internet b. India c. Kashmir d. Pakistan 2. Britain will remain bound “over time” by the European Union’s single-market rules as the price of a tariff and ………-free trade deal […]. (TS011220) a. quota b. EU c. import d. export

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 213



3. McDonald’s franchises have fired dozens of union activists and workers’ representatives, the union says, claiming that managers earn bonuses if they keep their restaurants ………-free […]. (NW100700) a. cash b. worker c. union d. activist 4. You may be fighting in defense of human rights, but you are fighting a war. And wars are never ………-free. (NW140699) a. war b. rights c. cost d. defence III. Provide the most probable missing noun to complete the -free derivations. 1. Living like this enables old people to have freedom and it’s a great relief for people’s children – they are free of a lot of guilt. ………-free families? (NW140800) 2. When a husband or wife dies, their entire estate can be passed on to their partner ………-free, and their allowance passes on too. (TS130621) 3. Meanwhile, mobile-phone companies are promoting so-called ………-free devices aimed at making cell-phone users safer drivers. (NW140501) 4. Once they join the EU, new members will be able to travel ………-free in Western Europe, but will have to demand visas from former Soviet allies to the east. (NW180900) 5. […] and because some of the injections are cultured in hens’ eggs we normally use the ………-free variety in those with serious egg allergies. (TS280920)

Translation IV. Consider the two phrases: lead-free paint and unleaded petrol. Both designate substances which do not contain lead. Establish equivalents of these two phrases in various languages and see if there are any emerging word-formation patterns among them.  

lead-free paint

unleaded petrol

German Dutch Danish Swedish Norwegian Frisian French

bleifreie Farbe     blyfri färg blyfri maling leadfrije ferve peinture sans plomb

bleifreies Benzin loodvrije benzine blyfri benzin     leadfrije benzine essence sans plomb

214 English Complex Words  

lead-free paint

unleaded petrol

Spanish Portuguese Italian Romanian Russian Polish Czech Hungarian Turkish Arabic Korean Japanese Lithuanian Finnish Estonian Irish

  tinta sem chumbo vernice senza piombo   bessvintsovaya kraska farba bezołowiowa (GT) bezolovnatý nátěr; (NS) bezolovnatá barva ólommentes festék     mwu-yen pheyinthu* namari-furī peinto/ penki/ muen toryō** dažai be švino lyijytön maali    

gasolina sin plomo     benzină fără plumb       ólommentes benzin kurşunsuz benzin albanzin alkhali min alrasas         pliivaba bensiin peitril gan luaidhe

* 무연 페인트 ** 無鉛塗料

V. Translate the -free formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. Perhaps people will pay a premium to live in “advertising-free zones,” just as, perhaps, they will be willing to pay a premium to live in cell phone-free zones. (TE220500) 2. Avalanche experts agree that no matter how safe the mountains become, they will never be disaster-free. (NW080399) 3. Now he attributes his survival to being drug-free. (NW280800) 4. The British Association for Slavonic and East European Studies is dedicated to providing a harassment-free conference experience for everyone regardless of […]. (BA290621) 5. Married couples can transfer assets without inheritance tax (IHT) liabilities. Anything left to a spouse or civil partner after death is IHT-free. (TS130621) 6. Schools will become mobile phone-free zones […]. (TS290621) 7. Two hours after taking 50 milligrams of sumatriptan orally, 61 percent of patients have improved significantly and 31 percent are pain-free. (NW110199) 8. The transport secretary warned last week that […], denying that the government was close to adding more countries to the “green list” for quarantine-free travel. (TS130621)

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 215



9. A deal will also mean that British companies will continue to have tariff and quota-free access to European markets. (TS241220) 10. He has since led a scandal-free career as a principled, low-profile politician. (NW041200) VI. Translate the -free formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. A climb up the 145 steps to the top of the lighthouse provides a stunning view of the coastline – the effort is particularly worthwhile on fog-free days. (Eyewitness_1997_442) 2. Now, aware of my invisibility, I live rent-free in a building rented strictly to whites […]. (Ellison_1972_5) 3. This enabled us both to have a smooth, trouble-free conversational interchange. (Styron_1979_151)

Key I. 1 car; 2 care; 3 weed; 4 crime; 5 acid; 6 fat; 7 frill; 8 browser; 9 tax; 10 ice; 11 interest; 12 pollution; 13 stress; 14 debt; 15 pain; 16 error; 17 guilt; 18 alcohol; 19 child; 20 dust II. 1 (b) India; 2 (a) quota; 3 (c) union; 4 (c) cost III. 1 Guilt; 2 tax; 3 hands; 4 visa; 5 egg

-ful (adjectival) Introduction Denominal derivatives with the suffix -ful can be categorized as possessional adjectives, paraphrasable as ‘full of …’ or ‘having …’. Adjectives in -ful convey the maximum in lexical meaning. The suffix attaches freely to different kinds of bases, preferably to abstract nouns, for example: beauty > beautiful, colour > colourful, faith > faithful, hope > hopeful etc. Denominal adjectives in -ful can be described as very productive in present-day English. The suffix -ful is inherited from Germanic (cf. -ful (Old Frisian), -vol (Old Dutch, Middle Dutch, Dutch), -voll (German), -fullr (Old Icelandic), -full (Norwegian), -full (Swedish), -fuld (Old Danish, Danish)). In Old English, the adjective full was frequently used as a suffix in combination with a noun, forming adjectives in which the sense ‘full of…’ was often weakened, so that the resulting words meant ‘having’, ‘characterized by’. In Middle English, some formations appeared in which the suffix had the sense

216 English Complex Words

of ‘possessing the qualities of ’ (masterful, manful, lordful). Also, in Middle English, several derivatives were based on existing adjectives both of inherited origin (strongful) and French origin (proudful). In the 16th and 17th cent., similar formations were based on Latin adjectival bases (grateful, sweetful). Adjectives in -ful were sometimes formed directly on verbs, with the sense ‘apt to’, ‘able or accustomed to’ (forgetful, wakeful). Sources: Marchand (1969: 292); Aronoff (1981: 63); Szymanek (1989: 242–243); Bauer (1991: 224); Bauer et al. (2013: Ch. 14); the OED; for other possessional suffixes, see -ed, -ate, -ous, -y

Construction I. Form adjectives in -ful with the sense ‘full of…’ or ‘having’, ‘characterized by’, based on the following words: boasting / care / cheer / delight / duty / fear / fruit / grace / hope / joy / law / mercy / mind / power / respect / rest / right / sin / sorrow / tear / truth / watch / wonder II. Form prefixed negated adjectives with the suffix -ful having the sense ‘full of…’ or ‘having’, ‘characterized by’, based on the following words: grace / respect / duty / event / faith / grace / law / success / truth / taste III. Complete the gapped -ful derivations with the following words: doubt, harm, health, mourn, pain, peace, shame, success, truth, watch, youth. 1. immediately ……ful to their health 2. his ……ful eye 3. a ……ful professional criminal 4. ……ful eyes 5. with ……ful sincerity 6. a ……ful memory 7. his ……ful liberalism 8. ……ful sounds 9. ……ful secrets 10. a ……ful reason 11. promote ……ful alternatives IV. Four of the five -ful derivations below have been misplaced. One is in the correct sentence. Put the misplaced -ful adjectives back into their original contexts. 1. For the freshly arrived visitor, the notion of tucking into dinner at an hour normally associated with pajamas and willful slumber takes some getting used to. (NG0492) 2. His tuneful tone was tempered, however, by a warning that the aftermath will come with its own challenges. (TS181220) 3. Shoppers are especially mistrustful of cyberspace when it comes to big-ticket items like travel. (NW240700)

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 217



4. She knew the whole drivelling song by heart, it seemed. Her voice floated upward with the sweet summer air, very hopeful, charged with a sort of happy melancholy. (Orwell_1986_126) 5. Gore’s dutifulness stands in stark contrast to his sister’s healthful rebellion. (NW210800) V. Complete the gapped -ful formations with one base in all three sentences. The first letter is given. 1. The b………ful feeling of being alone with the forbidden book, in a room with no telescreen, had not worn off. (Orwell_1986_159) 2. Almost in the same instant a b………ful, healing warmth spread all through his body. (Orwell_1986_200) 3. Winston, sitting in a b………ful dream, paid no attention as his glass was filled up. (Orwell_1986_236)

Translation VI. Translate colourful, fruitful and painful into five Romance languages, taking into account the grammatical gender of the derivatives.  

colourful

fruitful

painful

 

masc

fem

masc

fem

masc

fem

French Spanish Portuguese Italian Romanian

coloré     colorato  

colorée     colorata  

    frutífero   rodnic

    frutífera   rodnică

  doloroso   doloroso dureros

  dolorosa   dolorosa dureroasă

VII. Translate the -ful formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. But the dreariness, the frightful struggle of life, the indifference of people, the troublesomeness of children – he did not want to be reminded of them at that moment. (Lodge_1993_130) 2. Chief White Halfoat settled back in the staff car with an ebullient, prideful chuckle. (Heller_1961_140) 3. He looked up from the folder and shook his head, overwhelmed by the sorrowful anger. (Dillard_1993_215) 4. Probably it had been tactful to leave Daisy’s house, but the act annoyed me […]. (Fitzgerald_1974_161) 5. Kimble moved back, unseen, and listened to the sounds of the scuffle, and the younger man’s high-pitched, tearful wailing. (Dillard_1993_130)

218 English Complex Words

Key I. boastful; careful; cheerful; delightful; dutiful; fearful; fruitful; graceful; hopeful; joyful; lawful; merciful; mindful; powerful; respectful; restful; rightful; sinful; sorrowful; tearful; truthful; watchful; wonderful II. disgraceful; disrespectful; undutiful; uneventful; unfaithful; ungraceful; unlawful; unsuccessful; untruthful; distasteful III. 1 harmful; 2 watchful; 3 successful; 4 mournful; 5 doubtful; 6 painful; 7 youthful; 8 peaceful; 9 shameful; 10 truthful; 11 healthful IV. 1 healthful; 2 hopeful; 3 mistrustful (OK); 4 tuneful; 5 willful V. bliss

-ful (nominal) Introduction This is a noun-driven suffix which also forms nouns. Given the meaning of the base noun, the derivative in -ful conveys the idea of a (literal or figurative) container, or an amount of something to be held in such a container, for example: box > boxful, crate > crateful, ear > earful, mouth > mouthful, plate > plateful etc. The suffix -ful is inherited from Germanic. In the Germanic languages, the syntactic combination in which a noun denoting a container is followed by the adjective full (a hand full of corn) was used, not only in its original sense, but in the transferred sense of ‘the quantity that fills or would fill’ (the container). The resulting ambiguity is partly obviated by a differentiation of form. When the sense is extended, the noun and full are written as one word, rather than a phrase. In modern English, -ful has become a suffix, forming derivatives with the general sense ‘quantity that fills or would fill’ (something) and can be affixed to any noun denoting an object that can be regarded as holding or containing a more or less definite quantity of anything (bottleful, cupful, canful, spoonful). The pattern is very strong, and the concept of ‘container’ is often obtained due to semantic extension for nouns which are not primarily thought of as containers (bookful, busful, churchful, houseful, worldful). Major meanings: – full of, or (more generally) having or characterized by … – the amount that fills or would fill, or (more generally) could be held or contained by … Source: the OED

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 219



Construction I. The following 60 nouns (in descending order in terms of their frequency) are listed in COCA (130622) as bases of -ful formations in the sense of ‘container’. mouth spoon fist room ear arm eye fork house pocket

lung teaspoon plate cup bucket bag shovel belly basket bowl

ladle cap box sack glass trunk head tank palm chest

drawer truck spade barrel pot sink ship tray cart pail

pawn barn boat wagon warehouse teacup tree desk boot church

bus jaw sock city bed train town choir door gym

Which of the above nouns are ‘typical’ containers, and which ones can be seen as ‘atypical’ containers? How would you grade the the container-hood of the following poetic case? An estateful of washing …  (Philip Larkin, Afternoons from The Whitsun Weddings) II. Complete the following gapped phrases with nouns which make the phrases comprehensible: a chestful of … a shipful of … a treeful of … a bedful of … a …ful of …

a headful of … a barrelful of … a bootful of … a doorful of … a …ful of …

III. Complete the gapped -ful derivations with the following ‘container’ nouns: bus, car, cup, glass, hat, house, mouth, plane, plate, room, tray. 1. half a ……ful of whiskey 2. a ……ful of slaves 3. a small ……ful of dust 4. a ……ful of fajitas 5. a ……ful of top scientists 6. a ……ful of tasteless pap 7. a ……ful of white, poisonous mushrooms 8. a ……ful of representatives of the press 9. a ……ful of multinational hostages 10. a ……ful of murderous thugs 11. one ……ful of fresh milk

220 English Complex Words

IV. COCA (130622) lists the following expressions with their frequencies: a cup of coffee (5,394) a cup of tea (2,305) a cup of water (483) a cup of sugar (146) a cup of milk (110) a cup of wine (96) a cup of hot chocolate (73) a cup of soup (55) a cup of vinegar (24) a cup of batter (12) a cup of blood (11) a cup of love (5) a cup of ketchup (3) a cup of blackberries (3) a cup of oats (3) a cup of whiskey (1) a cup of dirt (1) a cup of sand (1) a cup of snow (0)

a cupful of coffee (1) a cupful of tea (0) a cupful of water (5), a cupful of hot water (1) a cupful of sugar (1), a cupful of brown sugar (0) a cupful of milk (0), a cupful of fresh milk (1) a cupful of wine (1) a cupful of hot chocolate (0) a cupful of soup (1), a cupful of tomato soup (0) a cupful of vinegar (1) a cupful of batter (1) a cupful of blood (2) a cupful of love (1) a cupful of ketchup (1) a cupful of blackberries (1) a cupful of oats (0) a cupful of whiskey (1) a cupful of dirt (1) a cupful of sand (0) a cupful of snow (1)

Based on the above data, what can you say about different lexical behaviours of cup and cupful? Do the data indicate certain tendencies? V. Propose the same base for the three gapped -ful formations. 1. He looked into Jake Roberts’s flushed, grinning face and coughed as he caught a(n) ……ful of cigar smoke. (Dillard_1993_2) 2. Kimble lay flat on his back and struggled to catch his breath, at last sucking in a(n) ……ful of dust. (Dillard_1993_44) 3. Kimble sagged as if kicked in the chest and released a(n) ……ful of air as he recoiled from the window. (Dillard_1993_129) VI. Propose the same base for all four gapped -ful formations. 1. The spoon trembled in his unsteady grip as he took a(n) ……ful of chicken noodle. (Dillard_1993_91) 2. He bit hungrily into his bread and swallowed a couple of ……fuls […]. (Orwell_1986_43) 3. The stuff grew not less but more horrible with every ……ful he drank. (Orwell_1986_233) 4. He drank another ……ful of gin, picked up the white knight and made a tentative move. (Orwell_1986_234)

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 221



VII. Propose the same base for the two gapped -ful formations. 1. He began swallowing ……fuls of the stew, which, in among its general sloppiness, had cubes of spongy pinkish stuff […]. (Orwell_1986_43) 2. […] steadily they spooned the watery stuff into their mouths, and between ……fuls exchanged the few necessary words in low expressionless voices. (Orwell_1986_93) VIII. Propose the same base for the two gapped -ful formations. 1. He went into the kitchen and swallowed nearly a(n) ……ful of Victory Gin. (Orwell_1986_83) 2. Winston poured out nearly a(n) ……ful, nerved himself for a shock, and gulped it down like a dose of medicine. (Orwell_1986_8) IX. Propose the same base for the two gapped -ful formations. 1. He favours female vocalists, slow tempos, lush arrangements of ……ful melodies in the jazz-soul idiom. (Lodge_1989_29) 2. Her voice floated upward with the sweet summer air, very ……ful, charged with a sort of happy melancholy. (Orwell_1986_116)

Translation X. What is the target language into which the following English -ful ‘container’ nouns have been translated? English mouth ~ mouthful spoon ~ spoonful fist ~ fistful room ~ roomful cup ~ cupful plate ~ plateful bus ~ busful

… mûle ~ mûlfol/ mûlefol (NS?) leppel ~ leppelfol fûst ~ fûstfol keamer ~ keamerfol kop ~ kopfol plaat ~ plaatfol/ board ~ boardfol bus ~ busfol

XI. Provide three remaining Korean equivalents of -ful ‘container’ nouns based on the three names of objects. mouth ~ mouthful spoon ~ spoonful fist ~ fistful room ~ roomful cup ~ cupful plate ~ plateful bus ~ busful

입 ~ 입에 가득/ ip ~ ip-eykatuk 숟가락 ~ 숟가락에 가득 / swutkalak ~ swutkalak-eykatuk 주먹 ~ 주먹에 가득/ cwumek ~ cwumek-eykatuk 방 ~ 방에 가득/ pang ~ pang-eykatuk 찻잔 ~ 찻잔에 가득/ chascan ~ … 접시 ~ 접시에 가득/ cepsi ~ … 버스 ~ 버스에 가득/ pesu ~ …

222 English Complex Words

XII. Fill in the gaps with: boat, ladle, room, table. Translate the -ful formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. She and a ……ful of locals were replacing marker buoys encrusted with marine growth. (NG0101) 2. Add a ……ful of the vegetable broth to the pan and let everything simmer for 5 min […]. (TS240321) 3. In a ……ful of Chinese university students […], I discover that I am the only person present who has not seen the movie “Titanic”. (NW141298) 4. At a rooftop restaurant, a ……ful of locals talk about the depressing proximity of crime and drugs. (NT0596) XIII. Translate the -ful formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. At the edge of the heath stood a clump of hoary juniper bushes. He flung himself against them, he embraced, not the smooth body of his desires, but an armful of green spikes. (Huxley_1968_171) 2. The Big Nurse gets up from behind her window and comes out into the day room, carrying the log book and a basketful of notes. (Kesey_1976_40) 3. Swallow is the man chatting up that rather dishy girl who just came in, the one in the black dress, or should I say half out of it? Swallow seems to be getting an eyeful, doesn’t he? (Lodge_1985_8) 4. Mammy stood beside the table, watching every forkful that traveled from plate to mouth […]. (Mitchell_1958_61) 5. I returned home with a pocketful of money that melted into the bottomless hunger of the household. (Wright_1993_161) 6. Then the whole restaurantful was revealed, suddenly without the protection of their clothing, all sitting there in corn-fed majesty. (Kazan_1968_27)

Key III. 1 glass; 2 house; 3 mouth; 4 plate; 5 room; 6 tray; 7 hat; 8 bus; 9 plane; 10 car; 11 cup V. lung VI. mouth VII. spoon VIII. teacup IX. tune X. Frisian XI. chascan-eykatuk; cepsi-eykatuk; pesu-eykatuk XII. 1 boat; 2 ladle; 3 room; 4 table

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 223



-hood Introduction The suffix -hood can be tentatively ascribed to the category of Nomina Essendi (abstract deadjectival nominalizations), conveying the nominal concept ‘quality/state of being A’. However, the most common base for this suffix is a noun designating a person. As a result, the composite formation carries the sense of state, condition, or collectivity, for example: boy > boyhood, girl > girlhood, mother > motherhood etc. Other kinds of nouns that have been attested with the suffix -hood are animal names (anthood), concrete nouns (planethood) and abstract nouns (genderhood). Moreover, it is possible to find verbs (danglehood) and adjectives (falsehood), as well as compounds. The suffix is fairly frequent and productive in contemporary English. The formative has a Germanic origin (cf.-hod (-hode) (Middle English) < -hád (Old English)). Originally, the suffix constituted an independent noun, meaning ‘person, personality, sex, condition, quality, rank’. In Old English, it freely combined with other nouns (cild-hád ‘child-condition’, mægð-hád ‘virgin state’, pápan hád ‘papal dignity’). Later, it ceased to be used as an independent word, and survived as a suffix. In Middle English, the suffix had the form -hôd with open ô. In the 15th cent., it became closed ō, which led to modern English hood. Sources: Szymanek (1989: 170); Bauer (1991: 221); Bauer et al. (2013: 249–250); the OED; for other Nomina Essendi suffixes, see -acy, -ancy/-ency, -ism, -ity, -ness

Construction I. Complete the gapped -hood formations with appropriate nouns: adult, baby, boy, brother, child, girl, lady, man, mother, parent, priest, sister, victim, warrior. Allow for multiple possibilities. 1. to grant ……hood to women 2. his cute ……hood 3. a(n) ……hood of corruption 4. the earliest ……hood memories 5. the end of ……hood 6. remain narcissistic into ……hood 7. the instinct of ……hood 8. the moral capital of ……hood 9. the curse of ……hood

224 English Complex Words

10. a classic account of ……hood 11. the southern ideal of ……hood 12. to prove their ……hood 13. the other responsibilities of ……hood 14. call themselves the ……hood II. Complete the gapped -hood formations with the most appropriate bases. The first letter is given. 1. […] in western Zambia, the youngsters go into seclusion for a month as elders prepare them for m……hood and a life of fishing and farming. (NG1097) 2. Stateless in a state where s……hood is itself a tenuous thing, Lebanese Kurds have thrown their support to the Kurdistan Workers Party, or PKK. (NG0892) III. Propose the same base for the three gapped -hood formations. The middle letter is given. 1. She was presently enjoying the only young-…m…hood she had ever known, talking freely to other young women like herself. (Kazan_1968_443) 2. McKee considered this small lie, now gracefully retracted, not as an indication of a Navajo secrecy but as a further demonstration of the mystery of …m… hood. (Hillerman_1970_62) 3. The freeing of English …m…hood from its enforced restrictions has allowed something much more electric to emerge. (Paxman_1998_243)

Translation IV. Establish equivalents of family-related -hood derivations in Slavic languages.  

childhood

parenthood

brotherhood sisterhood

fatherhood motherhood

Russian Ukrainian Polish Czech Slovak Serbian Croatian Slovenian Bulgarian Bosnian Macedonian

  dytynstvo dzieciństwo       djetinjstvo        

    rodzicielstwo   rodičovstvo         roditeljstvo  

bratstvo   braterstwo     bratstvo         bratstvo

  bat’kivstvo ojcostwo     očinstvo   očetovstvo      

sestrinstvo       sesterstvo           sestrinstvo

      mateřství     majčinstvo   maǐchinstvo    

Spell out the methods of rendering -hood derivations in various Slavic languages.

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 225



V. Translate the -hood formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. Scarlett, whose room lay across the hall from her mother’s, knew from babyhood the soft sound of scurrying bare black feet on the hardwood floor in the hours of dawn […]. (Mitchell_1958_39) 2. It seems that any successful candidate in Republican primary elections will now need to join in perpetuating a complete falsehood: that Joe Biden stole the presidential election. (TS240521) 3. But Scarlett, child of Gerald, found the road to ladyhood hard. (Mitchell_1958_54) 4. The trend to singledom isn’t going to reverse. As we head towards more of it, either inevitably through widowhood or by semi-choice as relationships end, the question is how to prepare for it. (TS020720)

Key I. 1 priest; 2 boy; 3 brother; 4 child; 5 warrior; 6 adult; 7 parent/mother; 8 victim; 9 baby; 10 girl; 11 lady; 12 man; 13 mother/parent; 14 sister II. 1 man; 2 state III. woman

-ic(al) Introduction The suffix -ic(al) (two variants: -ic and -ical) attaches to common, non-personal nouns, forming relational adjectives. Such adjectives cannot be derived from numerous types of complex nouns, especially those belonging to the category of Nomina Actionis or Nomina Essendi (-age, -al, -ance/-ence, -ment, -ure, -y). The sense expressed by -ic(al) derivatives is usually transpositional, meaning that there is no semantic content added to the base beyond that provided by a category shift from a noun to an adjective. Examples of -ic(al) derivatives: acid > acidic, organ > organic, period > periodic(al), symbol > symbolic(al) etc. Numerous adjectives exhibit alternating suffixal variants (-ic ~ -ical) without any semantic difference between the two forms (geographic ~ geographical). There are cases, however, where either one or the other variant is preferred, or actually available. Detailed lexical analyses are needed in order to diagnose such cases. The affix

226 English Complex Words

is particularly visible on bases ending in -ite and -ist. Also, it commonly attaches to proper names, both personal and place names. The suffix demonstrates some productivity, with the variant -ical probably less productive than -ic. The formative is of Latin and Greek origin (< French -ique < Latin -ic-us < Greek -ικ-ός). In Greek, it was one of the most common suffixes forming adjectives with the sense ‘after the manner of ’, ‘of the nature of ’, ‘pertaining to’. In Latin, its use was more restricted to compounds suffixed with -āticus, and to words formed from Greek, or on Greek types. In English, before 1500, words were usually written, after French, with -ique, -ike (musike, logike (-ique), mathematique (-ike, -ik)). From the 16th cent. onwards, they were taken directly from Greek, or formed on Greek elements, and on words from Latin or other sources (artistic, carbonic, Byronic). In specialist English (chemistry), the suffix -ic is employed in two senses. It forms the following: – names of oxygen acids and other compounds with a higher degree of oxidation than those whose names end in -ous (chloric acid HO3Cl, chlorous acid HO2Cl, sulphuric acid H2SO4, sulphurous acid H2SO3) – adjectives from the names of polyvalent metals, indicating the higher degree of valency, as opposed to adjectives in -ous (ferric vs. ferrous) Sources: Szymanek (1989: 226–234); Kaunisto (2007); Bauer et al. (2013: Ch. 14); the OED; see other adjectival suffixes, such as -al/-ar, -an, -ary, -ory, -ive

Construction I. The fifty most frequent formations in -ic (COCA150622): economic specific democratic academic scientific Catholic magic classic electric ethnic

dramatic Islamic electronic genetic historic strategic organic fantastic romantic olympic

dynamic athletic chronic comic artistic realistic automatic toxic diplomatic graphic

demographic tragic optimistic aesthetic authentic symbolic magnetic characteristic systematic exotic

pathetic problematic geographic epidemic ironic static atomic sympathetic psychiatric enthusiastic

Check if the above adjectives can be used with the alternative suffix -ical. Check the availability of the above adjectives for any of the negative prefixes (in-, non-, un-).

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 227



II. -ic vs. -ical A comparative analysis of alternative adjectival forms in -ic and -ical has produced the following frequencies (COCA150622): economic specific democratic academic scientific Catholic magic classic electric ethnic dramatic Islamic electronic genetic historic strategic organic fantastic romantic

172,187 101,297 95,069 58,415 57,561 54,008 45,296 40,444 32,971 32,881 30,573 29,630 29,074 28,037 27,802 26,107 25,301 23,691 22,788

economical specifical democratical academical scientifical Catholical magical classical electrical ethnical dramatical Islamical electronical genetical historical strategical organical fantastical romantical

2,612 4 15 35 22 0 12,550 16,229 15,228 59 12 0 12 32 55,043 60 3 1,001 19

Interpret suffixal preferences among the above alternate pairs. III. Alternative adjectival forms in -ic and -ical have been found in a few selected names of disciplines (COCA150622). astronomic biologic geographic geometric historic mathematic philosophic psychologic

46 537 9,970 2,986 27,802 129 660 67

astronomical biological geographical geometrical historical mathematical philosophical psychological

4,694 26,441 6,254 502 55,043 10,200 12,324 28,754

How can the above frequencies be interpreted? IV. Complete the gapped phrases with the following -ic(al) adjectives: agnostic, analytical, bucolic, democratic, eclectic, geographic, heretical, narcissistic, problematic, rustic. 1. such ……… setting 2. an island of ……… charm

228 English Complex Words

3. the ……… position of religion in the welfare states 4. deeply ……… about religion 5. new ……… forms of socialized welfare provision 6. remain ……… into adulthood 7. his ……… education 8. the ……… work 9. a wider ……… setting 10. a(n) ……… statement V. Complete the following sentences with the following adjectives: domestic, futuristic, logistical, technological. 1. A government source confirmed that the policy was unlikely to be introduced for two to three weeks while ……… issues were dealt with. (TS250121) 2. Some of the marriages are happy – but others are buffeted by ……… problems (including physical abuse) arising from big age differences and social friction. (NW140800) 3. Beijing, determined to move up the ……… ladder, welcomes Taiwanese investment. (NW140800) 4. ……… “smart guns” could prevent anyone but the owners from firing them. (NW260600)

Translation VI. Establish equivalents of the -ic/-ical variants in representatives of Germanic, Romance, Slavic and other languages.  

geographic

geographical

biologic

biological

historic

historical

German Swedish French Spanish Russian Polish Greek

geographisch     geográfico   geograficzny  

geographisch     geográfico   geograficzny  

    biologique     biologiczny viologikí / viologikós  

    biologique     biologiczny viologikí / viologikós  

  historisk     istoricheskiy historyczny  

  historisk     istoricheskiy historyczny  

 

 

Hungarian földrajzi

földrajzi

VII. The following pairs of -ic/-ical alternative adjectives have been combined with their characteristic noun collocates. According to COCA, each noun either collocates with the -ic or the -ical variant, but not with both. Check if this distribution of -ic/-ical alternative adjectives with their noun collocates produces different translations in a language of your choice.

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 229



1. a. theoretic politicians b. theoretical physicist 2. a. historic summit b. historical narrative VIII. Translate the key formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. He was looking up at the dusty windows with a sort of ecstatic fixity of expression […]. (Chandler_1986_7) 2. Beneath his choleric exterior Gerald O’Hara had the tenderest of hearts. (Mitchell_1958_30) 3. […] they had their heads together in the endless genealogical and obstetrical discussions that made such gatherings very pleasant and instructive affairs. (Mitchell_1958_89) 4. The red furrows and the gashed red road lost their magical blood color and became plain brown earth. (Mitchell_1958_ 28) 5. I thought; and thought in my mind moved with a kind of sluggish stealthiness, as if it was being watched by bitter and sadistic eyes. (Chandler_1986_206)

Key IV. 1 rustic; 2 bucolic; 3 problematic; 4 agnostic; 5 democratic; 6 narcissistic; 7 eclectic; 8 analytical; 9 geographic; 10 heretical V. 1 logistical; 2 domestic; 3 technological; 4 Futuristic

-ician Introduction The suffix -ician (or its clipped form -(i)an) belongs to the broad category of participants. Participants are nouns which can be syntactic subjects or objects, including human agents or inanimate instruments. They may be deverbal or denominal. Contrary to the verb-oriented agentive suffixes -er and -ant, the suffix -ician is added to nominal bases. As a result, derived nouns in -ician denote individuals performing an activity related to the base noun, for example: beauty > beautician, magic > magician, music > musician, politics > politician etc. The suffix is quite common in contemporary English, though it is rather unproductive today. A potential area of limited productivity for -ician, similarly to the suffix -ist, might be the spontaneous suffixation of personal names, producing the sense of ‘a follower or supporter of ’.

230 English Complex Words

The formative is of Romance origin, -icien (French). It consists of -ian (Middle English and French -ien). It is added to names of arts or sciences in Latin -ica, French -ique, English -ic, -ics, to denote a person skilled in an art or science (arithmetic-ian, logic-ian, magic-ian, music-ian, optic-ian, physic-ian, rhetoric-ian, statistic-ian). Also, it is added by analogy to names not ending in -ic (academ-ician, algebr-ician, geometr-ician, Hebr-ician). Sources: Szymanek (1989: 186); Bauer et al. (2013: 224–225); the OED; for other nouns in the category of participants, see -ant, -arian, -ary, -ee, -er/-or, -ess, -ette, -ie/-y, -ist, -ite, -monger, -ster

Construction I. Provide nouns with the suffix -ician, denoting individuals performing an activity related to the base noun (given on the left side of the arrow). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

academia > … acoustics > … aesthetics > … beauty > … clinic > … cosmetics > … diagnosis > … dialect > … econometrics > … electricity > … geometry > …

12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

geriatrics > … logic > … logistics > … magic > … mathematics > … metaphysics > … mortality > … music > … obstetrics > … optics > … paediatrics > …

23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33.

phonetics > … physics > … politics > … prognosis > … pyrotechnics > … rhetoric > … statistics > … stylistics > … syntax > … tactics > … theory > …

Translation II. According to COCA (030722), the following -ician nouns, ordered by frequency, have their respective German equivalents (on the right). Provide -ician equivalents in your L1, other than German. physician politician musician technician magician mathematician electrician clinician statistician obstetrician patrician

Arzt Politiker Musiker Techniker Zauberer Mathematiker Elektriker Kliniker Statistiker Geburtshelfer Patrizier

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 231

mortician tactician beautician paediatrician dietician theoretician academician aesthetician optician diagnostician logician geriatrician metaphysician

Leichenbestatter Taktiker Kosmetikerin Kinderarzt Ernährungsberater Theoretiker Akademiemitglied / (NS?) Kosmetikerin Optiker Diagnostiker Logiker Geriater Metaphysiker

Key I. 1 academician; 2 acoustician; 3 aesthetician; 4 beautician; 5 clinician; 6 cosmetician; 7 diagnostician; 8 dialectician; 9 econometrician; 10 electrician; 11 geometrician; 12 geriatrician; 13 logician; 14 logistician; 15 magician; 16 mathematician; 17  metaphysician; 18 mortician; 19 musician; 20 obstetrician; 21 optician; 22 paediatrician; 23 phonetician; 24 physician; 25 politician; 26 prognostician; 27 pyrotechnician; 28 rhetorician; 29 statistician; 30 stylistician; 31 syntactician; 32 tactician; 33 theoretician

-ie/-y Introduction The minor suffix (variously spelled) -ie/-y belongs to the broad category of participants. Participants are nouns which can be syntactic subjects or objects, including human agents or inanimate instruments. They may be deverbal or denominal. The suffix -ie/y attaches to nominal bases (mainly personal names). As a result, derived nouns in -ie/-y constitute diminutive designations of agentive individuals, pets (or their names) etc., for example: aunt > aunty/auntie, dog > doggy/doggie, John > Johnny/Johnie etc. The formative is used to construct pet names and familiar diminutives. The forms ending in -y and -ie are now almost equally common in proper names. The suffix is fairly frequent and quite productive in contemporary English. Source: Bauer et al. (2013: 191, 388–394); for other nouns in the category of participants, see -ant, -arian, -ary, -ee, -er/-or, -ess, -ette, -ician, -ist, -ite, -monger, -ster

232 English Complex Words

Construction I. Provide diminutive forms, each ending in -ie, for the following given names. There may be more than one diminutive form. Abigail > … Adrian > … Alfred > … Alison > … Ann(e) > … Barbara > … Bernard > … Catherine > … Charles > … Charlotte > …

Christine > … Chuck > … Constance > … Deborah > … Donovan > … Edward > … Elizabeth > … George > … Georgia > … Hellen > …

Herbert > … Howard > … Hugh > … Jack > … James > … John > … Kathryn > … Laura > … Louis > … Maddison > …

Margaret > … Maria > … Morgan > … Roberta > … Roxanne > … Sarah > … Scott > … Susan > … Sylvia > … Victoria > …

II. Starting with the -ie diminutives of certain given names, provide actual given names. There may be more than one variant. Archie < … Arnie < … Beckie < … Dottie < … Jessie < … Jimmie < … Josie < … Julie < … Kirstie < … Laurie < …

Mikie < … Nickie < … Ollie < … Paulie < … Ralphie < … Reggie < … Richie < … Rickie < … Robbie < … Ronnie < …

Rosie < … Sammie < … Stevie < … Teddie < … Tommie < … Vergie < … Vinnie < … Winnie < … Wessie < … Willie < …

III. Beginning with the basic forms listed below, progress by adding one formation ending in -y and another one ending in -ie: aunt bald big bird cook dog fat food girl group hot

>…>… >…>… >…>… >…>… >…>… >…>… >…>… >…>… >…>… >…>… >…>…

junk kid left pink quick rook smooth sweet trans veg yup

>…>… >…>… >…>… >…>… >…>… >…>… >…>… >…>… >…>… >…>… >…>…

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 233



IV. Propose adjectives (attributively used) which rhyme with the following names ending in -ie. For example: smelly Ellie. … Bertie … Bonnie … Carrie … Fannie … Frankie … Katie

… Kylie … Leslie … Lonnie … Rosalie … Ruthie … Sophie

Key I. Abigail > Abbie, Abie; Adrian > Adie; Alfred > Freddie, Alfie; Alison > Allie; Ann(e) > Annie; Barbara > Barbie; Bernard > Bernie; Catherine > Katie; Charles > Charlie; Charlotte > Lottie, Charlie; Christine > Christie; Chuck > Chuckie; Constance > Connie; Deborah > Debbie; Donovan > Donnie; Edward > Eddie; Elizabeth > Lizzie, Bessie, Elsie; George > Georgie; Georgia > Geordie; Hellen > Nellie / Elenie; Herbert > Herbie; Howard > Howie; Hugh > Hughie; Jack > Jackie; James > Jamie; John > Johnie / Johnnie; Kathryn > Katie; Laura > Laurie; Louis > Louie; Maddison > Maddie; Margaret > Maggie, Maisie; Maria > Marie; Morgan > Maggie; Roberta > Bobbie; Roxanne > Roxie; Sarah > Sadie; Scott > Scottie; Susan > Suzie / Susie; Sylvia > Sylvie; Victoria > Vickie II. Archie < Archibald; Arnie < Arnold; Beckie < Rebecca; Dottie < Dorothy; Jessie < Jessica; Jimmie < James; Josie < Josephine; Julie < Juliana; Kirstie < Kirstin; Laurie < Lawrence; Mikie < Michael; Nickie < Nichola / Nichole; Ollie < Oliver / Olivia; Paulie < Paul; Ralphie < Ralph; Reggie < Reginald / Regina; Richie < Richard; Rickie < Richard; Robbie < Robert; Ronnie < Ronald / Veronica; Rosie < Rose; Sammie < Samuel / Samantha; Stevie < Steven / Stephen; Teddie < Edward / Theodore; Tommie < Thomas; Vergie < Virginia; Vinnie < Vincent; Winnie < Winifred; Wessie < Wesley; Willie < William III. aunt > aunty > auntie; bald > baldy > baldie; big > biggy > biggie; bird > birdy > birdie; cook > cooky > cookie; dog > doggy > doggie; fat > fatty > fattie; food > foody > foodie; girl > girly > girlie; group > groupy > groupie; hot > hotty > hottie; junk > junky > junkie; kid > kiddy > kiddie; left > lefty > leftie; pink > pinky > pinkie; quick > quicky > quickie; rook > rooky > rookie; smooth > smoothy > smoothie; sweet > sweety > sweetie; trans > tranny > trannie; veg > veggy > veggie; yup > yuppy > yuppie

234 English Complex Words

-ify Introduction The Latinate suffix -ify (and its variant -fy) can be found on adjectival bases of a limited number. Nominal bases can also be discerned among -ify formations. Verbal derivations in -ify belong to the category of causative verbs, conveying senses such as ‘make …’, ‘make more of …’, and ‘cause … to be/become …’. Among adjectival bases, there are the following: false > falsify, humid > humidify, pure > purify, solid > solidify etc. Among nominal bases, one can find these: acid > acidify, gentry > gentrify, person > personify etc. Besides, the suffix appears to be attractive to many other bases, simplex and complex. Formations with such bases may not show an isolable suffix or, by the same token, a segmentable base (ratify < ?rat). Similar to -ize verbalization, the attachment of -ify is dependent on certain phonological constraints, usually complementary with those conditioning the attachment of -ize. The derivation of -ify verbs is a mildly productive process in contemporary English. Relatively numerous neologisms and low-frequency items in -ify are reported as occurring in COCA and the BNC. Derivatives in -ify are evidently related to those in -ize, their meanings being almost identical. Older English verbs in -fy are adoptions of French verbs in -fier, which are either adapted from Latin verbs in -ficāre or formed analogically to such verbs (saintefier ~ sanctificāre). Adapted formations in English represent three classes of Latin verbs in -ficāre: (1) < nouns, with the sense ‘to make, produce’ (pācificāre ‘pacify’); (2) < adjectives, with the sense ‘to bring into a certain state’ (santificāre ‘sanctify’); (3) < verb-stems, with causative sense (horrificāre ‘horrify’). Nowadays, the suffix -ify is used as the regular rendering of Latin -ficāre in new words adopted from Latin or formed on presumed Latin words. It is also added to English adjectives and nouns to derive verbs, mostly of a jocular or trivial nature (speechify, Frenchify). Sources: Szymanek (1989: 284–286); Bauer (1991: 222); Plag (1999); Bauer et al. (2013: 269– 274); the OED; for other causative verbal suffixes, see -ate, -en, -ize

Construction I. The following excerpts have been obtained from COCA (150622). Paraphrase the -ify formations. 1. You may need to acidify your soil with pH-lowering sulphur to grow acid-loving blueberries.



Chapter 2.  Suffixation 235

2. As black neighbourhoods gentrify, often, there’s a racial change, and they become whiter often […]. 3. Sometimes I think I have to pretty it up, girlify it, make it more – make it a little sweeter. 4. […] leave well enough alone, so I figured we’d Greekify the whole Labour Day experience, OK? 5. Wisely, these collaborators don’t try to hip-hop-ify Houston. The beats are more insistent than in the past … 6. […] the dinosaurs cannot Lilliputify fast enough. They become extinct […]. 7. I had to mouse-ify my rat. In this business. It’s always something. 8. They hoped to Russify the Moldovans, a rough people who were the natural inhabitants of the province. 9. They’re trying to “sexify” their findings this way to generate more interest. 10. And to really silkify yourself, apply your exfoliator on dry skin to create more friction and blast […]. 11. Finally, it may require some imaginative measures to “uglify” unwed teenage motherhood […]. II. Consider the following excerpts obtained from COCA (150622). Complete the gapped derivations with appropriate prefixes and the suffix -ify. Adjust the final form of each formation. Example: …fort… > refortify. The derivational base is given. 1. some effort on the part of the suspect to …person… the victim; 2. to …cod(e)… the categories that allow such concealment in the ancient texts; 3. Patton’s reluctance to …Nazi… Bavaria; 4. to …solid… Japanese elites’ control over the domestic economy; 5. which can …pur(e)… as fresh water flows in and contaminated water flows out; 6. something like 80% of Americans …ident(ity)… as Christians; 7. fans might …ident(ity)…, which would result in lower fanship scores; III. Complete the gapped sentences with certify, justify, ratify, rectify. Adjust their grammatical forms. 1. Another EU source said: “They’re just coming up with things to ……… a crisis.” (TS061220) 2. If it goes beyond Thursday, it is extremely unlikely the EU could ……… it in time. (TS061220) 3. Mr Trump had promised legal action even before the recount concluded. The state ……… its result last night. (TS011220) 4. It said that safeguards were in place to ensure that they were monitored and complied with rules and that it had a “robust complaints process” and “will always work to ……… any mistakes”. (TS091220)

236 English Complex Words

Translation IV. Complete the gapped equivalents of a few -ify verbs in Danish, Portuguese, Serbian and Lithuanian.  

certify

classify

glorify

identify

intensify

Danish Portuguese Serbian Lithuanian

attestere / certificere certificar overiti patvirtinti

klassific… classifi… klasifikova… klasifikuo…

forherl… glorif… veliča… šlovin…

identif… identi… identifiku… nustaty…

intens… intens… intenzivir… sustiprė…

Identify potential methods of rendering -ify verbs in Danish, Portuguese, Serbian and Lithuanian. V. Translate the -ify formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. […] Clinton returned exhausted to his suite after a day of glorifying at the United Nations […]. (NW201100) 2. Bitter divisions have intensified over whether the church should relax its opposition to gay marriage […]. (TS181220) 3. Parliament is expected to be recalled after Christmas to ratify the agreement before December 31. (TS241220) 4. Pledging to simplify regulations, he said: “If we can get some of these things right […], we can prove the doubters wrong.” (TS011220) 5. The medical director at Grovelands Priory may be asked by Pinochet’s lawyers to testify that the general has been so depressed by the turn of events since his arrest that he is mentally unfit to stand trial for extradition. (NW071298) VI. Translate the key formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. Tall as a door, buffalo-shouldered, Will Harris had once had his throat eaten out by a mad dog; the scars were bad enough, but his damaged voice was worse: it sounded giddy and babyfied, like a midget’s. (Capote_1961_49) 2. One egg, one embryo, one adult – normality. But a bokanovskified egg will bud, will proliferate, will divide. (Huxley_1968_3) 3. “If we could bokanovskify indefinitely the whole problem would be solved”. … “But, alas,” the Director shook his head, “we can’t bokanovskify indefinitely.” (Huxley_1968_4)

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 237



Key II. 1 depersonify; 2 decodify; 3 denazify; 4 re-solidify; 5 self-purify; 6 self-identify; 7 dis-identify III. 1 justify; 2 ratify; 3 certified; 4 rectify IV. Danish: klassificere; forherlige; identificere; intensivere; Portuguese: classificar; glorificar; identificar; intensificar; Serbian: klasifikovati; veličati; identifikuju; intenzivirati; Lithuanian: klasifikuoti; šlovinti; nustatyti; sustiprėti

-ish Introduction The native suffix -ish forms two, slightly different kinds of adjectives: similitudinal and attenuative ones. Similitudinal adjectives are derived from nominal bases, preferably personal nouns and names of animals, simplex or complex, for example: amateur > amateurish, ape > apish, fool > foolish, hawk > hawkish, sheep > sheepish etc. Similitudinal adjectives are paraphrasable as ‘resembling …, similar to …’, ‘having characteristics of …’. Numerous metaphorical meanings can be found among such formations. Attenuative adjectives, or adjectival diminutives, express the sense of ‘nearing …’, ‘somewhat …’. They are derived from simplex (monosyllabic) adjectives, such as basic colour terms and primary qualitative adjectives, for example: big > biggish, brown > brownish, old > oldish, red > reddish, tall > tallish etc. Moreover, some attenuative -ish adjectives can also be based on nouns (waterish) and numerals (40ish). Adjectives in -ish are extremely productive in present-day English. The formative is of Germanic origin (cf. -isch (German, Dutch), -isc (Old High German, Old Frisian, Old English), -iskr (Old Norse), cognate with Greek -ισκ-ος diminutive suffix of nouns). In Old English and the cognate languages, the suffix formed adjectives from national names (British, Scottish). When appended to other nouns, the suffix later added the senses ‘of or belonging to a person or thing, of the nature or character of ’ (boyish, girlish), ‘having the (bad or objectionable) qualities of ’ (babyish, clownish, devilish, sluttish), and ‘of the nature of, tending to’ (bookish, feverish, hellish). Other parts of speech can also attract -ish (stand-offish, uppish). In the 19th cent., in colloquial and journalistic use, -ish became a popular affix for forming adjectives (esp. of a depreciatory nature) on proper names of persons, places, or things, and even on phrases (Mark Twainish, West Endish, all-over-ish, at-homeish, how-d’ye-doish, merry-go-roundish, out-of-townish). Moreover, the suffix -ish is seen on certain verbs,

238 English Complex Words

which is a remnant of French -iss-, an extended stem of verbs in -ir (périr ‘to perish’). At their first adoption, these verbs ended in English in -is, -ise (abolish, accomplish, cherish, demolish, establish, flourish, garnish, impoverish, languish, nourish, perish, relinquish, replenish, tarnish, vanish, varnish etc.). Sources: Marchand (1969: 306); Aronoff (1981: 82); Szymanek (1989: 263–266); Bauer et al. (2013: Ch. 14); the OED; for other similitudinal suffixes, see -ed, -like, -ly, -y

Construction I. Frequency list: -ish formations based on colour(-related) terms (COCA160622). reddish 1,712 bluish 937 greenish 918 yellowish 747 brownish 545 pinkish 474

grayish 473 purplish 374 whitish 349 blackish 158 darkish 70 blondish 67

greyish 57 blueish 21 white-ish 9 palish 4 orangeish 3 yellow-greenish 2

orange-reddish 2 orangish-reddish 2 red-yellowish 2 amberish 2 crimsonish 0 violetish 0

Explain the staggering differences in the frequency of occurrence of particular colour adjectives. II. Frequency list: -ish formations based on animal(-related) names or names of fictive creatures (COCA160622). sluggish 2,742 bullish 1,410 sheepish 688 bearish 616 dovish 211 wolfish 136 piggish 57 kittenish 56 waspish 50

mulish 49 swinish 33 apish 27 puppyish 26 goatish 22 elfish 21 tigerish 18 ogreish 10 hoggish 9

doggish 7 sharkish 3 snakish 3 wasp-ish 3 wormish 3 froggish 3 larkish 3 cattish 3 dove-ish 3

doveish 3 bull-ish 2 bulldoggish 2 bee-ish 2 skunkish 2 monkeyish 2 elephantish 1 lionish 0 fishish 0

Explain the staggering differences in the frequency of occurrence of particular adjectives related to animal/creature names. Does figurative language play any role in the formation of the above derivations? III. Here are a few low-frequency items with -ish based on heterogenous bases (COCA160622): tabloidish 5 hipster-ish 4 soap-opera-ish 3

lesbianish 3 loserish 3 Hollywoodish 3

troll-ish 3 Kennedy-ish 2 uniformish 2

Mormonish 1 mother-in-lawish 1 Mussoliniish 1

Propose your own, unpredictable -ish formations of varied complexity.



Chapter 2.  Suffixation 239

IV. Complete the gapped -ish formations by supplying missing letters. 1. a dramatically bul……ish attitude 2. three ……dish men 3. a bi……ish animal 4. something ……oltish in his movements 5. a coq……ish response 6. a ……obbish restaurant 7. his shr……ish mate 8. views on ……oyish behaviour 9. her gir……ish figure 10. a goa……ish beard and horns 11. a ……ellish omniscient and omnipotent monster 12. more ba……yish ways of behaviour 13. to turn who……ish 14. a fiercely independent ……annish woman 15. his mon……ish robes 16. its ……iggish snout V. Complete the gapped -ish derivations with their potential bases: child, clown, cold-water, dandy, hawk, mule, owl, sheep, shrew, slave, slut, wolf. 1. between ……ish bites 2. ……ish handwriting 3. the ……ish voice 4. a faint, ……ish grin 5. through ……ish spectacles 6. their ……ish welcome 7. a ……ish Democrat 8. a gloriously ……ish black garter 9. his ……ish self-assertiveness 10. playfully winging ……ish punches 11. a ……ish adherence to older versions 12. ……ish gentlemen VI. Complete the gapped -ish formations with the following bases: cartoon, clique, dove, hawk, kitten, thug. Explain their meanings. 1. Even after their victories in the elections they remained as secretive and …… ish as before. (NW140501) 2. Bush and his advisers seemed downright eager to prove there’s a new sheriff in town, ready to take a more ……ish, assertive posture on foreign policy. (TE020401)

240 English Complex Words

3. Girls might wear unlaced white tennis shoes instead of the standard black cloth Mary Janes. The more chic braided their hair loosely, to achieve a …… ish look. (NW200999) 4. Since Alan Parker has no feeling for any of his ……ish pawns, neither do we. (NW141194) 5. Even the normally ……ish Israeli President Ezer Weizman joined in the outrage, declaring that peace talks with the PLO should be suspended. (TE060195) 6. The ancient Jewish sources suggest Pilate was tactless, ……ish and stubborn, and never liked the Jews. (NW050499) VII. Paraphrase the following -ish derivations in their contexts. 1. For Mr Mbeki, trained in Moscow and at Britain’s leftish-leaning Univeristy of Sussex, this is less an ideological than an exercise in arithmetic. (EC051194) 2. He [=Buster Keaton] had the would-be heroic pose of a little fellow who is asked by a prankish sculptor to pose for a city-park statue. (TE100495) 3. Japan had its own Korea boom in the 1980s, when Korean singers and food became faddish. (NW191098) 4. Tucked between steep hills, Bilbao is a nightmarish sprawl of gray apartment blocks and dark, smoky factories. (NG0492)

Translation VIII. Establish possible equivalents of basic colour terms and their -ish derivations in Arabic, Chinese, Japanese and Korean.  

Arabic

Chinese

Japanese

Korean

blue bluish brown brownish green greenish pink pinkish red reddish white whitish yellow yellowish

‘azraq muzraq                 ‘abyad mubyad    

        lü`sè piān lü` de*             huángsè piān huáng de**

    chairo chairo gakatta         aka akami gakatta        

phwulunsayk1 phwulunsayk-uy2         pwunhongsayk3 pwunhongsayk-uy4            

*  偏绿的;  **  偏黄的; 

1 

푸른색; 

2 

푸른색의; 

3 

분홍색; 

4 

분홍색의

Spell out the mechanisms of forming equivalents of -ish derivations in Arabic, Chinese, Japanese and Korean.

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 241



IX. Provide the English equivalents of the following colour terms and their -ish derivations in Frisian. 1. 2. 3. 4.

English

Frisian

… … … …

blau blauwich / blau-eftich rôs rôzich / rôzcih

X. Translate the -ish formations into the language of your choice. 1. longish hikes (TS180621) 2. Southwest’s frill-free flights, mostly shortish hops (EC051194) 3. smiling, stylish young women (NG0391) 4. a 50ish woman (NG0291) 5. a 20-ish computer user in Beijing (TE100495) XI. Translate the -ish derivations into the language of your choice. Compare your translations across a few cases grouped together. 1. a. Their publications were vapid and amateurish, inadequately researched, slackly argued, and riddled with so many errors, misquotations, misattributions and incorrect dates […]. (Lodge_1978_47) b. A heavy black volume, amateurishly bound, with no name or title on the cover. (Orwell_1986_149) 2. a. Like Kimble, he was in his mid-forties, but still boyish, trim, and athletic. (Dillard_1993_6) b. At thirty-five he was already putting on rolls of fat at neck and waistline, but his movements were brisk and boyish. (Orwell_1986_47) c. Her short hair and boyish overalls merely added to the effect. (Orwell_ 1986_116) 3. a. Oh, it was a wonderful day – more like a holiday – and it would be so foolish to go home. (Capote_1961_169) b. It was all confessed in that single foolish cry. (Orwell_1986_223) 4. a. The kitchen sink was full nearly to the brim with filthy greenish water which smelt worse than ever of cabbage. (Orwell_1986_20) b. In the trucks little yellow men in shabby greenish uniforms were squatting, jammed close together. (Orwell_1986_94) 5. a. And the sagging cheeks, with those purplish blotches. (Huxley_1968_79) b. Tonight, it seemed he had two purplish half-moons under each eye. (Dillard_1993_12) c. He had on a blue suit that was glare-blue in the day time, but looked purplish with the night lights on it […]. (O’Connor_1983_63)

242 English Complex Words

6. a. Renfro graced him with a sheepish half smile and shook his head. (Dillard_1993_68) b. And Vincent, setting the suitcase in the hall, grinned sheepishly. (Capote_1961_194) c. ‘Well, we’re almost the last to-night,’ said one of the men sheepishly. (Fitzgerald_1974_58) 7. a. A wiry little girl in a starched, lemon-colored party dress, she sassed along with a grownup mince, one hand on her hip, the other supporting a spinsterish umbrella. (Capote_1961_119) b. The proprietress, a spinsterish, smothered-looking invalid, ruled from an upstairs room, where she stayed locked away rocking in a rocking chair […]. (Capote_1958_116) 8. a. This was a delightful family – a youngish mother, part owner of a decrepit, ghost-town hotel, with five sons and two daughters. (Kerouac_1991_41) b. Winston sprang to attention in front of the telescreen, upon which the image of a youngish woman, scrawny but muscular, dressed in tunic and gym-shoes, had already appeared. (Orwell_1986_28)



XII. Translate the derived -ish colour terms into the language of your choice. 1. I deduce from your attitude that this woman was about five feet five, slim, with long blackish hair and wearing … a sort of funny-colored suit. (Hillerman_1970_28) 2. Her hair, parted in the middle and rolled up neatly on the sides, was rich blondish-brown […]. (Capote_1961_206) 3. Looking down through the window in the floor, the Savage could see Lenina’s upturned face, pale in the bluish light of the lamps. (Huxley_1968_115) 4. Now its flickering light gave the face of Luis Horseman a reddish cast. (Hillerman_1970_6) 5. With the tip of his finger he picked up an identifiable grain of whitish dust and deposited it on the corner of the cover […]. (Orwell_1986_26) 6. Beneath the overalls his body was looped with filthy yellowish rags, just recognizable as the remnants of underclothes. (Orwell_1986_215) XIII. Fill in the gaps with the following names of roles: clerk, coquette, interior decorator, preacher, schoolmaster, schoolteacher, slut, woman. Translate the resultant -ish derivations into the language of your choice. 1. Blanche: “[…] I don’t want you to think that I am severe and old maid ……… ish or anything like that”. (Williams_1974_91) 2. Gerard began to wander around the room, absorbing the details. There were few. The office was too sterile, too ………-ish. (Dillard_1993_120) 3. The third file had been marked for his attention by the office of the UnderSecretary, and the same ………ish hand had written on the cover-sheet ‘Assess and Instigate Necessary Action’. (Forsyth_1975_188)



Chapter 2.  Suffixation 243

4. To begin with, let us examine the evidence carefully. We first hear of this man – the small dark man with a ………ish voice – from the man Hardman. (Christie_1940_121) 5. He put his head on one side, his smile became almost ………ish. (Huxley_1968_169) 6. He sat down in the ………ish arm-chair and undid the straps of the brief-case. (Orwell_1986_149) 7. Sententious he might occasionally be, but never pompous, never ………ish in tone […]. (Styron_1979_18) 8. When he spoke it was in the ………ish manner that he sometimes affected. He looked thoughtfully into the distance, as though he were addressing an audience somewhere behind Winston’s back. (Orwell_1986_225) XIV. Fill in the gaps with the following names of features or qualities: fat, new, round, sour, square, stout, sweet, tall, thick. Translate the resultant -ish derivations into the language of your choice. 1. The linoleum mat was ……ish, and the colors were still bright – reds and tans and blues slick and varnished-looking […]. (Warren_1973_25) 2. From the Hopi mythology McKee recognized Chowilawu, the spirit of Terrible Power, with four black-tipped feathers rising vertically from his ……ish head […]. (Hillerman_1970_236) 3. He was a ……ish but active man of paralysing stupidity […]. (Orwell_1986_21) 4. A bald, ……ish white man went into the store and pulled off his coat. (Wright_1993_310) 5. […] and in a moment the ……ish figure of a woman blocked out the light from the office door. (Fitzgerald_1974_31) 6. Her breath had a vividly ……ish gin smell. (Capote_1961_208) 7. It [=the face] was faded now and partly missing where chips of plaster had fallen away. A ……ish outline with a topknot, long ears, and a collar. (Hillerman_1970_236) 8. […] and a ……ish, composite smell of bad gin and bad coffee and metallic stew and dirty clothes. (Orwell_1986_50) 9. […] a quite ordinary-looking man, a Party member, aged thirty-five or forty, ……ish and thin, carrying a brief-case. (Orwell_1986_54) XV. Translate the -ish formations based on numbers into the language of your choice. 1. She filled his coffee cup, smiling at him with hard, fortyish beauty. (Dillard_1993_90) 2. He was sixtyish, gray-haired, and thick-waisted. (Dillard_1993_52) 3. And then he picked up the photo of a thirtyish man dressed in a Chicago Police Department uniform. (Dillard_1993_173)

244 English Complex Words

XVI. Fill in the gaps with the following names: clan, fever, freak, Humpty-Dumpty, linen, liver, monkey, vapor, X-ray. Translate the resultant -ish derivations into the language of your choice. 1. Asian workers are very ………ish, he said, and very stubborn. (Lodge_1989_155) 2. I think that voice held him most, with its fluctuating, ………ish warmth […]. (Fitzgerald_1974_103) 3. If there was no rain at all, there were ………ish, inexplicable phenomena like the epidemic of diarrhea […]. (Heller_1961_130) 4. There is something ………ish about the way the English language is used; words can mean whatever the user wants them to mean. (Paxman_1998_236) 5. A lighted green clock swam in the ………ish depths of Jiffy Jeff Laundary. (Nabokov_1955_297) 6. The ………ish skin under her eyes lifts and the corners of her mouth pull down in an appraising scowl. (Updike_1964_124) 7. […] with the ………ish nimbleness that was so typical of that American nymphet, she snatched out of abstract grip the magazine I had opened. (Nabokov_1955_61) 8. The setting moon was like the early moon of dusk, a ………ish cartwheel, and the sky, draining of dark, was washed with gray. (Capote_1961_191) 9. You’ve got to be hurt and upset; otherwise you can’t think of the really good, penetrating, ………ish phrases. (Huxley_1968_125)

Key IV. 1 bullish; 2 oldish; 3 biggish; 4 coltish; 5 coquettish; 6 snobbish; 7 shrewish; 8 boyish; 9 girlish; 10 goatish; 11 hellish; 12 babyish; 13 whorish; 14 mannish; 15 monkish; 16 piggish V. 1 wolf; 2 child; 3 shrew; 4 sheep; 5 owl; 6 cold-water; 7 hawk; 8 slut; 9 mule; 10 clown; 11 slave; 12 dandy VI. 1 clique; 2 hawk; 3 kitten; 4 cartoon; 5 dove; 6 thug IX. 1 blue; 2 bluish; 3 pink; 4 pinkish XIII. 1 schoolteacher; 2 interior decorator; 3 clerk; 4 woman; 5 coquette; 6 slut; 7 preacher; 8 schoolmaster XIV. 1 new; 2 square; 3 fat; 4 stout; 5 thick; 6 sweet; 7 round; 8 sour; 9 tall XVI. 1 clan; 2 fever; 3 freak; 4 Humpty-Dumpty; 5 linen; 6 liver; 7 monkey; 8 vapor; 9 X-ray

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 245



-ism Introduction The Latinate suffix -ism belongs to the category of Nomina Essendi (abstract deadjectival nominalizations), conveying the nominal concept ‘quality/state of being A’. Ideally, the base is a qualitative adjective, which means that it designates either a physical or an abstract quality, for example: cynical > cynicism, erotic > eroticism, romantic > romanticism etc. The suffix frequently occurs in contemporary English. It is also productive, as it appears in numerous novel and low-frequency formations. It regularly attaches to common nouns as well as proper names, personal names and place names, simplex or complex. The resultant derivations designate doctrines, scientific and pseudo-scientific disciplines, or abstract characterizations of certain individuals. The suffix -ism represents the French formative -isme and Latin -ismus (< Greek -ισμός, forming nouns of action from verbs in -ίζειν, e.g., βαπτίζειν ‘to dip, baptize’, βαπτισμός ‘the action of dipping, baptism’). The suffix -ίζειν was affixed to national names, with the sense to act or ‘play’ the people in question, and hence to act like, do after the manner of, practise the habits, customs, or language of those people. Hence, nouns in -ισμός carried the sense of acting or doing like, siding with, or speaking like the people in question (Ἀττικίζειν ‘to Atticize, to side with the Athenians, to use the Attic dialect’ > Ἀττικισμός ‘Atticism, a siding with Athens, Attic style of language’). As a result, the suffixes -ισμός and -ismus became the typical formatives for names of religious, ecclesiastical, or philosophical systems. Major meanings and functions: – the process, or the completed action, or its result (exorcism, volcanism) – the action or conduct of a class of persons (despotism, heroism); and the more colloquial (busybodyism, scoundrelism); nonce-words (devil-may-care-ism, well-todo-ism) – the name of a system of theory or practice, religious, philosophical, political, social etc., (Machiavellism, Presbyterianism); more contemporary terms (Jeremy Bentham­ ism); others designating the cult of a person or family (Bronteism, Salisburyism, Stuartism) – doctrines or principles (fanaticism, hedonism, scepticism); nonce-formations, often humorous (can’t-help-myself-ism, know-nothingism) – a peculiarity or characteristic, esp. of language (Devonshirism, Scotticism, South­ernism) Sources: Aronoff (1981: 57–58); Szymanek (1989: 169); Bauer (1991: 120); Bauer et  al. (2013: 253–255); the OED; for other Nomina Essendi suffixes, see -acy, -ancy/-ency, -ity, -ness

246 English Complex Words

Construction I. The forty most frequent formations in -ism (the first and last frequency given) (COCA160622): criticism 32,198 terrorism racism mechanism journalism capitalism autism tourism communism optimism

socialism nationalism feminism skepticism activism realism liberalism organism conservatism metabolism

Judaism patriotism sexism Catholicism atheism baptism symbolism alcoholism anti-Semitism cynicism

extremism Fascism Buddhism counterterrorism professionalism pluralism imperialism individualism modernism colonialism 2,559

Provide further examples of -ism derivatives which can be considered to be frequent. Later, confirm their frequencies in COCA. II. The fifty most frequent formations in -ism based on personal names (COCA170622): Marxism 1,914

Maoism 105

Parkinsonism 39

Kantianism 28

Spinozism 14

Darwinism 880 Confucianism 431 McCarthyism 428 Stalinism 331 Calvinism 286 Keynesianism 144 Leninism 138 Peronism 122 Reaganism 116

Thatcherism 99 Thomism 94 Trumpism 89 Fordism 49 Clintonism 48 Kemalism 46 Freudianism 44 Wilsonianism 39 Taylorism 39

Machiavellianism 38 Nasserism 37 Aristotelianism 35 Hitlerism 33 Trotskyism 31 Homerism 29 Epicureanism 28 Hegelianism 28 Mohammedianism 28

Cartesianism 25 Victorianism 23 Mahdism 22 Putinism 21 Buchananism 20 Copernicanism 18 Hamletism 18 Obamaism 18 Fayyadism 15

Straussianism 14 Newtonianism 13 Poujadism 12 Nietzscheanism 11 Bushism 11 Bergsonism 10 Romneyism 9 Baathism 8 Khomeinism 8

Construct your own -ism formations based on further personal names. Provide contexts which motivate the construction and use of such formations. III. Complete the gapped phrases with the -ism derivations: alcoholism, colonialism, ecotourism, individualism, liberalism, metabolism, ostracism, Presbyterianism, tribalism, triumphalism, volcanism. 1. …… coincident with a growth of nationalist tendencies 2. master’s degrees in …… 3. the irresistible momentum of …… 4. his lifelong …… 5. jeering …… 6. his youthful …… 7. a very slow ……

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 247



8. the epoch of …… 9. targets of …… 10. a pre-Civil-War branch of Southern …… 11. that Balkan-style …… IV. Complete the sentences with the following -ism nouns: activism, altruism, capitalism, cronyism, idealism, pacifism, symbolism. 1. Beyond that, she must tackle the twin peaks of corruption and ………. (NW050201) 2. The ……… of these young people is directed mainly toward the practical task of building ………. (NW250900) 3. This kind of political ……… is the driving force behind the world’s emerging hacker hotbeds. (TE220500) 4. I loved the ……… of the opening of the first McDonald’s in Moscow in 1990. (NW260201) 5. Out in the wilds there clearly is a degree of interdependence and ……… uncommon in cities. (NG1191) 6. Schools were made to teach ………, a philosophy that still holds sway in classrooms across Japan. (NW290399) V. Complete the gapped -ism derivations by supplying the missing letters. 1. The pandemic has forced traditional businesses to become more nimble and he is a passionate advocate for ent……urialism, in spite of admitting that his father was a “failed entrepreneur time and time again” […]. (TS070521) 2. Taipei’s electorate ignored the paroc……lism of the campaign, which focused on local issues, and voted for stability – including peace with China. (NW141298) 3. So maybe Russia isn’t on the brink of slipping into anarchy, revolt and the a……tarianism that so many outsiders now worry about. (NW281298) 4. Along with its c……politanism and tolerance, London’s surging economy is drawing a new wave of migrants. (NG0600) 5. In the 16 months since William Clay Ford Jr., 43, became chairman of the auto company his great-grandfather founded, he has been on a mission to merge indu……lism with envi……ism. (NW220500) 6. Lionel Jospin’s government huffed and puffed about the British group’s sh… …-termism and lack of consultation. (EC280401) 7. In 1986 Corazon Aquino came to power with the backing of a similarly broad coalition – and her government soon collapsed into bitter fac……alism. (NW050201)

248 English Complex Words

Translation VI. Five English words with the suffix -ism have been translated into four languages spoken in Europe. Recover the four target languages (A-D) and indicate the English -ism words (1–5).  

 

A

B (-a = art.)*

C (indef., def.)

D

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

… … … … …

ferðaþjónusta aðgerðastefna; aktívismi raunsæi kynjamismunun fjölhyggja

turismo/-a aktibismo/-a errealismo/-a sexismo/-a pluralismo/-a

turiz/ëm, -mi aktiviz/ëm, -mi realiz/ëm, -mi seksiz/ëm, -mi pluraliz/ëm, -mi

turasóireacht gníomhaíochas réalachas gnéasachas iolrachas

* A native speaker, when asked to say tourism in B, will say turismoa, but a dictionary cites (only) turismo.

VII. Translate the -ism formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. For all the snickering, Clinton (or at least Clintonism) is still widely respected abroad. (NW240898) 2. This has provoked a drive to gigantism to secure the best oil fields of the future world-wide. (NW071298) 3. In the grand cosmology of Gingrichism, this was a mere pause in the inevitable march from New Deal statism to a future of digital-based economic liberty. (NW161198) 4. I agree with those who say we must hurry quickly away from Marxism-Leninism, through Socialism, to Reaganism. (NY240690) 5. […] the absence of a state church resulted in a free-market competition among different branches of Christianity for worshippers, a kind of Reaganism for souls […]. (TS020121) 6. Besides secularism, Sukarno’s name also stands for nationalism and for an uncompromising, centralised approach to Indonesia’s territory. (EC280401) 7. The whole issue of separatism is so politicized that it is hard to know the truth. (NG0492) VIII. Translate the -ism formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. It needed also a sort of athleticism of mind, an ability at one moment to make the most delicate use of logic […]. (Orwell_1986_221) 2. However few people can successfully demonstrate a principle in common ethics when their deliberation is festered with emotionalism. (Capote_1965_166)

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 249



3. There was bribery, favouritism, and racketeering of every kind […]. (Orwell_1986_180) 4. Just once Winston caught a phrase – ‘complete and final elimination of Goldsteinism’ – jerked out very rapidly and, as it seemed, all in one piece, like a line of type cast solid. (Orwell_1986_46) 5. Unlike Winston, she had grasped the inner meaning of the Party’s sexual puritanism. (Orwell_1986_109) 6. A scrubby beard covered his face to the cheekbones, giving him an air of ruffianism that went oddly with his large weak frame and nervous movements. (Orwell_1986_183) 7. The real rural life has long gone, to be replaced with suburbanism that affects farmers almost as much as it affects the commuters who live around them. (Paxman_1998_170)

Key III. 1 colonialism; 2 ecotourism; 3 individualism; 4 alcoholism; 5 triumphalism; 6 liberalism; 7 metabolism; 8 volcanism; 9 ostracism; 10 Presbyterianism; 11 tribalism IV. 1 cronyism; 2 idealism, capitalism; 3 activism; 4 symbolism; 5 altruism; 6 pacifism V. 1 entrepreneurialism; 2 parochialism; 3 authoritarianism; 4 cosmopolitanism; 5 industrialism, environmentalism; 6 short-termism; 7 factionalism VI. Languages: A Icelandic; B Basque; C Albanian; D Irish Words: 1 tourism; 2 activism; 3 realism; 4 sexism; 5 pluralism

-ist Introduction The Latinate suffix -ist belongs to the broad category of participants. Participants are nouns which can be syntactic subjects or objects, including human agents or inanimate instruments. They may be deverbal or denominal. The suffix -ist is added to nominal bases, which makes it different from the verb-oriented -er and -ant agentive suffixes, for example: biology > biologist, cartoon > cartoonist, novel > novelist, violin > violinist etc. The suffix -ist appears to be a popular affixal choice for all kinds of formations in the sense of ‘adherent of a particular theory, ideology, religion’. Derivations in -ist can be paired up naturally with their more abstract equivalents in -ism, for instance: ageism > ageist, atheism > atheist, Maoism > Maoist, realism > realist, Stalinism > Stalinist etc.

250 English Complex Words

The suffix -ist combines with already (even multiply) derived bases, such as: abolitionist, Africanist, constitutionalist, historicist, obscurantist, trade-unionist etc. The formative is quite productive and regularly occurs in contemporary English in various novel formations. The suffix -ist corresponds to French -iste, Latin -ista (grammatista, logista, sophista), Greek -ιστής (πολεμιστής ‘warrior’). More formations were introduced by Christian writers through the latinization of scriptural and ecclesiastical terms (agōnista, baptista, exorcista). Later, -ista became a favourite formative of names denoting the observers of a particular rite, the holders of special religious or philosophical tenets, or the adherents of particular teachers. In English, its use has massively expanded. The noun in -ist commonly approximates the native agentive noun in -er, being distinguished only by the more professional sense which it may connote. Major meanings and functions: – a simple agentive noun, often accompanying a verb in -ize (antagonist, apologist, plagiarist) – a person who practises some art or method, or who studies some science, or branch of knowledge (etymologist, metallurgist, polygamist, theorist) – an adherent of some creed, doctrine, system, or art (hedonist, ritualist); derived from personal names (Bonapartist, Spinozist); or formed on an adjective (formalist, pluralist) – someone whose profession or business has to do with the thing or subject in question (linguist, opinionist); derived from names of languages (Germanist, Hebraist, Hellenist) – modern formations of all kinds (billiardist, cocainist, footballist); and nonce-formations (hammerist, truthist) Sources: Szymanek (1989: 185–187); Bauer et al. (2013: 221–224); the OED; for other nouns in the category of participants, see -ant, -arian, -ary, -ee, -er/-or, -ess, -ette, -ician, -ie/-y, -ite, -monger, -ster

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 251



Construction I. The forty most frequent formations in -ist (COCA170622): artist terrorist scientist communist racist journalist specialist feminist socialist activist

economist therapist columnist tourist Baptist capitalist atheist psychiatrist nationalist dentist

protagonist Methodist novelist strategist Buddhist Islamist physicist extremist Marxist papist

fundamentalist lobbyist populist Fascist guitarist pianist Zionist anthropologist modernist receptionist

Provide further examples of -ist derivatives which can be considered to be frequent. Later, confirm their frequencies in COCA. II. Form -ist derivatives based on the following names: Jihad > … Egyptology > … Salafism > … Peron > …

Plato > … fetish > … mural > … masculine > …

monarch > … ethnology > … satan > … agronomy > …

III. Indicate possible derivational bases, if any, for the following words ending in -ist, be it a suffix or a sequence of letters. Adventist < … agonist < … anti-Christ < … blacklist < … co-exist < … Cubist < … czarist < … Dadaist < … deist < … dualist < …

essayist < … extremist < … feminist < … hairstylist < … humorist < … impressionist < … jurist < … nihilist < … oboist < … papist < …

protectionist < … recidivist < … secessionist < … shirtwaist < … shortlist < … subsist < … theist < … tsarist < … typist < … Zeitgeist < …

IV. Complete the gapped -ist formations by adding the missing letters. 1. his le……ist admirers 2. a ter……ist onslaught 3. the prewar colo……ist order 4. Muslim ……mentalist

252 English Complex Words

5. merc……ist trade policies 6. a distinguished ps……iatrist 7. a Chechen sepa……ist 8. their ……ulist rhetoric 9. the moral ……tivist position 10. the strongest, most ala……ist vocabulary

Translation V. Five English words with the suffix -ist have been translated into four languages spoken in Europe. Recover the four target languages (A-D) and indicate the English -ist words (1–5).  

 

A

1. 2. 3. 4.

… … … …

imperiālists reformists revizionists separātists

5.

B

imperialydd diwygiwr adolygiadwr ymwahanwr, ymwahanydd … supremācists* goruchafwr

C

D

imperialisti uudistaja revisionisti separatisti

imperialistḗs/ imperialistria** rephormistḗs/ rephormistria revizionistḗs/ revizionistria autonomistḗs/ autonomistria

ylivallan kannattaja ratsistḗs/ ratsístria

*  Or a descriptive term, e.g., balto [cilvēku] pārākuma sludinātājs ‘promoter of white [person] supremacism’. ** [masc]/ [fem]

VI. Translate the -ist formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. If de Guzman is a hacker with an ideological mission – a “hacktivist,” in cyberlingo – he is not alone. (TE220500) 2. She will not turn back the clock to Indira Gandhi’s rule in the 1970s and 1980s, when India was proudly isolationist, pro-Soviet and poor. (NW071298) 3. While working in Sweden as a family therapist in the 1980s, he noticed that battles on the home front were often the result of high stress at work. (NW140800) 4. They hurled lights in his eyes to see if he could see, rammed needles into nerves to hear if he could feel. There was a urologist for his urine, a lymphologist for his lymph, an endocrinologist for his endocrines, a psychologist for his psyche, a dermatologist for his derma; there was a pathologist for his pathos, a cystologist for his cysts, and a bald and pedantic cetologist from the zoology department at Harvard […]. (Heller_1961_21)

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 253



Key II. Jihadist; Egyptologist; Salafist; Peronist; Platonist; fetishist; muralist; masculinist; monarchist; ethnologist; satanist; agronomist IV. 1 leftist; 2 terrorist; 3 colonialist; 4 fundamentalist; 5 mercantilist; 6 psychiatrist; 7 separatist; 8 populist; 9 relativist; 10 alarmist V. Languages: A Latvian; B Welsh; C Finnish; D Greek Words: 1 imperialist; 2 reformist; 3 revisionist; 4 separatist; 5 supremacist

-ite Introduction As a minor noun-forming suffix, -ite belongs to the broad category of participants. Participants are nouns which can be syntactic subjects or objects, including human agents or inanimate instruments. They may be deverbal or denominal. Contrary to the verb-driven agentive suffixes -er and -ant, the suffix -ite prefers proper (place or personal) names as bases. As a result, derived agentive nouns in -ite denote either inhabitants of the places indicated in the bases or supporters of personas mentioned there, for example: Bronx > Bronxite, Clinton > Clintonite, Moscow > Muscovite, Trotsky > Trotskyite etc. The suffix is rather rare and weakly productive in contemporary English. This Latinate formative corresponds to French -ite, Latin -īta (-ītēs) < Greek -ίτης, forming adjectives and nouns with the sense ‘(one) connected with or belonging to’. In Christian writings, it appeared in the names of sects, styled either after their location, their founder, or some characteristic feature (ἐρημίτης ‘desert-dweller, hermit’). Some of the Greek terms (especially those in Christian use) were adopted in Latin, either unchanged in -ītēs or often in -īta. Hence, the suffix was adapted in French and English in the form -ite, plural -ites. Major meanings and functions: – names (already formed in Greek or Latin) (Canaanite, Israelite) – an inhabitant of a place (Sydneyite) (now rare, and somewhat contemptuous) – a disciple, follower, or adherent of a person or doctrine (Brontëite, Darwinite, Jacobite) – [palaeontology] names of fossil organisms, animals or vegetables (ammonite, calamite)

254 English Complex Words

– [mineralogy] names of mineral species, comprising names of ancient origin (anthracite, chlorite), and names in which -ite is added to an element expressing colour, structure etc., or to the name of a locality, discoverer etc. (azurite, graphite) – [chemistry] names of some saccharine substances, glucoses, and other organic compounds (dambonite); names of explosives (dynamite); names of commercial products (ebonite) – [inorganic chemistry] names of the salts of acids denominated by adjectives in -ous (sulphite ‘a salt of sulphurous acid’) Sources: Bauer et al. (2013: 228); the OED; for other nouns in the category of participants, see -ant, -arian, -ary, -ee, -er/-or, -ess, -ette, -ician, -ie/-y, -ist, -monger, -ster

Construction I. Perform the segmentation of the following -ite formations, where possible. Establish the proper names on which the formations are based. Explain the meanings of the composite formations. Benthamite Blairite Brezhnevite Bronxite Brooklynite Buchananite Canaanite Clintonite Hitlerite Israelite Jacobite Jerseyite

Jerusalemite Manhattanite Mormonite Muscovite Nasserite Portlandite Samsonite Stakhanovite Thatcherite Trotskyite Wisconsinite Yeltsinite

II. Complete the gapped -ite formations by providing missing letters. dyn…ite gra…ite met…ite nit…ite bau…ite cal…ite dol…ite

py…ite mal…ite anth…ite mag…ite sta…ite chl…ite fer…ite

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 255



Translation III. Translate the key formation in the following context into the language of your choice. While Lee and the Singapore model were much admired by free market gurus like Milton Friedman, its attitude to the role of government in the economy has been very different from that of Thatcherite Conservatives. (TS280121)

Key II. dynamite; graphite; meteorite; nitrite; bauxite; calcite; dolomite; pyrite; malachite; anthracite; magnetite; stalactite; chlorite; ferrite

-ity Introduction The suffix-ity originates in French -ité and classical Latin -itāt-, -itās. It belongs to the category of Nomina Essendi (abstract deadjectival nominalizations), conveying the nominal concept ‘quality/state of being A’. The Latinate base is a qualitative adjective, meaning that it designates either a physical or an abstract quality. With certain exceptions, the suffix -ity attaches to various types of already suffixed bases, for instance: …able: acceptable > acceptability, readable > readability etc. …ible: comprehensible > comprehensibility, reversible > reversibility etc. …al: confidential > confidentiality, universal > universality etc. …ar: linear > linearity, peculiar > peculiarity etc. …ic: historic > historicity, specific > specificity etc. …ive: creative > creativity, productive > productivity etc. …ile: fertile > fertility, hostile > hostility etc. …ous: curious > curiosity, simultaneous > simultaneity etc. …Ø: dense > density, false > falsity, stupid > stupidity etc. Some phonological considerations (trisyllabic shortening): divine [ai] ~ divinity [ı] serene, obscene [i:] ~ serenity, obscenity [e] profane [ei] ~ profanity [æ] profound [au] ~ profundity [ʌ] Exceptions: obese [i:] ~ obesity [i:], clear [iǝ] ~ clarity [æ]

256 English Complex Words

The suffix frequently and productively occurs in contemporary English. It competes with the suffix -ness in productivity. The suffix -ity is perceived as a more formal affix than -ness. Sources: Aronoff (1981: 36–45); Szymanek (1989: 157–163); Bauer et al. (2013: 247–248); Arndt-Lappe (2014); the OED; for other Nomina Essendi suffixes, see -acy, -ancy/-ency, -ism, -ness

Construction I. Complete the gapped -ity formations by supplying the first two missing letters. 1. an advocate of overt ……nsuality in dress 2. faith in his ……fallibility 3. the ……nality of the Peasants Party 4. feelings of sexual ……feriority 5. the idea of ……omiscuity as a virtue 6. an abundance of sexual ……tivity 7. the ……versity of work for electronics engineers 8. the ……sticity of the setting 9. the marked ……arcity of cookery books 10. because of their ……hnicity 11. all the excitement and ……stivity 12. the ……pravity of the inner city II. Construct complex -ity formations, consisting of either a prefix or another (preceding) suffix, or both. The prefix/suffix and the base are given in each phrase. Fit the -ity formations within their phrases. 1. a ………… [person-al] trait 2. an air of industrial ………… [muscle-ar] 3. a period of ………… [in-act-ive] 4. English ………… [in-hospital] 5. the ………… [read-able] of the cookery book 6. the ………… [maneuver-able] of the jib 7. the evidence of ………… [adapt-able] 8. her lack of ………… [believe-able] 9. the property’s ………… [sale-able] 10. the ………… [work-able] of the system

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 257



III. Using the following bases (active, afford, convert, mobile, parent, popular, transmit), derive -ity nouns, additionally adjusting them. Complete the gapped sentences. 1. India retained limits on the ………ity of domestic capital to foreign currencies (NW141298) 2. So that the loans can be provided quickly, businesses self-certify their application documents and lenders are not required to perform any credit or ……… ity checks […]. (TS050121) 3. […] this vacuum is actually seething with ………ity at the subatomic levels as particles pop in and out of nothingness. (NG1099) 4. His ………ity is unlikely to slip in the wake of a terrorist onslaught. (NW210800) 5. A loosened economy, a willy-nilly decentralization, and a richer flow of information – all have allowed youth a ………ity unheard of before the 1980s. (NG0791) 6. Professor Andrew Rambaut […] said that it remained extremely hard to assess the variant’s ………ity […]. (TS240521) 7. There is no agreement between the United States and Japan to enforce ……… ity claims. (NW240700)

Translation IV. Three complex -ity words have been translated into representatives of three language families: Romance, Germanic and Slavic. The -ity words are irreplaceability, incomprehensibility and inaccessibility. Establish which word has been translated into which language. French Spanish Portuguese Italian Romanian German Dutch Swedish Norwegian Danish Icelandic Russian Polish Czech Macedonian Slovenian

incompréhensibilité insustituibilidad insubstituibilidade insostituibilità de neînlocuit Unverständlichkeit onbegrijpelijkheid oersättlighet uerstattelighet uforståelighed óskiljanleiki nedostupnost niedostępność nenahraditelnost nerazbirlivost nedostopnost

258 English Complex Words

V. Translate the -ity formations, based on distinct verbal bases, into the language of your choice: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

recyclability renewability wearability flowability manufacturability maintainability transportability marketability approachability recognizability

………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… ………… …………

VI. Translate the -ity formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. He detested New York only for what he called its “barbarity,” its lack of courtesy, its total bankruptcy in the estimable domain of public manners. (Styron_1979_229) 2. He was looking up at the dusty windows with a sort of ecstatic fixity of expression […]. (Chandler_1986_7) 3. And surely, almost cosmic in its incomprehensibility as it may appear, the embodiment of evil with Auschwitz has become remains impenetrable […]. (Styron_1979_265) 4. Charles felt a surge of masculinity such as he had never experienced […]. (Mitchell_1958_95) 5. The O’Haras were a clannish tribe, clinging to one another in prosperity as well as in adversity […]. (Mitchell_1958_45) 6. From the avenue of cedars to the row of white cabins in the slave quarters, there was an air of solidness, of stability and permanence about Tara. (Mitchell_1958_45)

Key I. 1 se; 2 in; 3 ve; 4 in; 5 pr; 6 ac; 7 di; 8 ru; 9 sc; 10 et; 11 fe; 12 de II. 1 personality; 2 muscularity; 3 inactivity; 4 inhospitality; 5 readability; 6 maneuverability; 7 adaptability; 8 believability; 9 saleability; 10 workability III. 1 convertibility; 2 affordability; 3 activity; 4 popularity; 5 mobility; 6 transmissibility; 7 paternity

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 259



IV. French (incomprehensibility); Spanish (irreplaceability); Portuguese (irreplaceability); Italian (irreplaceability); Romanian (irreplaceability); German (incomprehensibility); Dutch (incomprehensibility); Swedish (irreplaceability); Norwegian (irreplaceability); Danish (incomprehensibility); Icelandic (incomprehensibility); Russian (inaccessibility); Polish (inaccessibility); Czech (irreplaceability); Macedonian (incomprehensibility); Slovenian (inaccessibility)

-ive Introduction The suffix -ive forms adjectives and nouns. In the literature, it is not clearly classified, being selective about the phonological form of its bases. It attaches to bases ending in either s (c) or t (amusive, coercive, conducive, denotive), producing few novel formations in present-day English. The suffix -ive originates in Romance languages (< French -if, feminine -ive, Italian, Spanish -ivo). In Latin, the suffix īv-us was added to the participial stem of verbs (act-īvus ‘active’) and to nouns (tempest-īvus ‘seasonable’). In English, the affix adapts Latin adjectives in -īvus, or forms them on Latin analogies, with the sense ‘having a tendency to, having the nature, character, or quality of, given to (some action)’. In Latin, many of these adjectives were already used as nouns. This is seen in modern languages and in English (captive, expletive, explosive, fugitive, incentive, indicative, locomotive, native, nominative, subjunctive). The meaning of the suffix -ive differs from that of participial adjectives in -ing, -ant, -ent, by implying a permanent or habitual quality or tendency (acting ~ active, attracting ~ attractive, coherent ~ cohesive). Adverbs from adjectives in -ive are formed with -ively, and abstract nouns with -iveness and -ivity. With reference to the last point, Aronoff (1981: 37) makes the following comparison: Take one word out of the class Xive, perceptive, and form with the suffixes the two words perceptiveness and perceptivity. Present these two words to native speakers of English and they will almost invariably say that though both words are possible, one of them, perceptiveness, sounds ‘better’. Perceptivity is said to be ‘awkward’ or ‘fancy’. The same will hold for any other pair of words of the form Xiveness and Xivity, provided that neither is an already common word. Sources: Aronoff (1981: 29, 37); Bauer et al. (2013: 296); the OED; see other adjectival suffixes, such as -al/-ar, -ic(al), -an, -ory

260 English Complex Words

Construction I. The sixth and seventh ten most frequent -ive derivatives (COCA250522) consist of the following formations. They have been gapped. Fill in the gaps with two initially missing letters: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

…finitive …scriptive …bstantive …nstructive …clusive …flective …crative …rvasive …effective …usive

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

…aptive …ovocative …formative …mulative …sruptive …vasive …eventive …pressive …corative …rmative

II. Derive -ive adjectives from the following verbs: abuse > … administer > … attract > … compete > … comprehend > … conclude > … construct > … create > … decide > … decorate > … describe > … elude > … evade > …

explode > … express > … extend > … indicate > … innovate > … invent > … permit > … pervade > … produce > … provoke > … redistribute > … represent > … suggest > …

III. Complete the gapped phrases with the following -ive adjectives: adaptive, affective, collective, decorative, disruptive, excessive, exclusive, extensive, pervasive, provocative, seductive, supportive. 1. a more ………… and research-based review 2. a more ………… way 3. the most ………… aspect of his treatment 4. personal and ………… identity 5. a(n) ………… interview from his home 6. a(n) ………… problem in South-East Asia 7. a loving, ………… family

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 261



8. the result of ………… alcohol consumption 9. the intentionally ………… title 10. less ………… than banning fossil fuels 11. my ………… items like candle holders 12. a(n) ………… theory worth mentioning and analysing IV. Complete the gapped -ive derivatives with the following bases: communicate, disrupt, impulse, interpret, investigate, prospect, secrete. Adjustments of form may be necessary. 1. Some British visitors complain of grouchy shop assistants and un…………ive taxi drivers. (NW141298) 2. A(n) …………ive crime reporter and author of controversial books about pro football and the O. J. Simpson case, Moldea is a Clinton sympathizer. (NW110199) 3. But perhaps most worrisome is …………ive environmental change. (NG0191) 4. President Clinton may have debased himself with his behaviour, but we shouldn’t debase the office with a(n) …………ive overreaction. (NW310898) 5. The farmhouse was unremarkable, but what made the trip worthwhile was the …………ive nature walk, a short loop through the woods […]. (NT0995) 6. Jefri allegedly used the ultra…………ive state investment firm, with its $30 billion to $60 billion in wealth, like a personal bank account. (NW170898) 7. Intermediaries who introduce women to …………ive husbands usually demand gifts or cash. (NW140800) V. Based on the results of a COCA search (250522), the following pairs of words in -iveness and -ivity are recorded with their frequencies. First, the search substring *iveness was entered. As a result, the list of word types in -iveness with their frequencies was compiled. Then, the -ivity equivalents of the forms in -iveness (with their frequencies) were individually searched and retrieved. effectiveness forgiveness competitiveness attractiveness responsiveness aggressiveness assertiveness divisiveness distinctiveness cohesiveness inclusiveness defensiveness

17,585 9,049 4,002 1,864 1,802 1,148 820 674 671 642 610 599

effectivity forgivity competitivity attractivity responsivity aggressivity assertivity divisivity distinctivity cohesivity inclusivity defensivity

17 0 4 3 73 31 0 0 0 0 283 0

262 English Complex Words attentiveness inventiveness pervasiveness expressiveness representativeness comprehensiveness decisiveness destructiveness

533 526 461 358 312 304 280 244

attentivity inventivity pervasivity expressivity representativity comprehensivity decisivity destructivity

0 1 0 144 11 0 0 3

The above frequencies clearly show preference for the -iveness variants over those in -ivity. In some cases, there is no variant in -ivity recorded in the corpus. In some other cases, the numbers of occurrences of -ivity formations are comparatively low. However, in two cases (inclusivity and expressivity), the frequencies are markedly higher than those of the remaining -ivity derivatives. Can these higher figures be explained somehow? Provide the statistics of other pairs conforming to Xiveness and Xivity. Comment on the quantitative results obtained. VI. Based on the same search, formations in -iveness from the bottom of the frequency list and their equivalents in -ivity show the following frequencies: conduciveness conclusiveness adhesiveness descriptiveness directiveness festiveness fictiveness provocativeness defectiveness connectiveness aversiveness emotiveness recursiveness naiveness reductiveness normativeness collectiveness discursiveness communicativeness interactiveness

13 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 11 11 11 10 10 8 8 7 7 5 4 4

conducivity conclusivity adhesivity descriptivity directivity festivity fictivity provocativity defectivity connectivity aversivity emotivity recursivity naivety reductivity normativity collectivity discursivity communicativity interactivity

0 0 0 0 1 208 2 0 1 3,191 0 1 4 221 0 189 269 13 3 708

How can these (mostly) varied numerical results be accounted for?

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 263



VII. The fifty most frequent formations in -ive (COCA250522): effective executive negative conservative active expensive alternative representative offensive competitive

defensive sensitive aggressive objective comprehensive impressive attractive extensive cognitive progressive

legislative administrative exclusive productive innovative protective supportive excessive consecutive interactive

cooperative subjective affirmative intensive explosive distinctive passive prospective destructive collaborative

reproductive abusive qualitative selective comparative quantitative investigative inexpensive responsive imperative

How can the above -ive formations be negated morphologically, by means of prefixation?

Translation VIII. Fill in the table with appropriate -ive formations in English and their equivalents in the Romance languages (in either the masculine or feminine), where they are missing.   1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

English

French

Spanish

Italian

Portuguese

Romanian

                   

      concluant         persuasive  

agradecido         corrosiva       redentor

  affermativo           espressiva    

            efusivo      

    autoritar   convulsiv          

IX. Translate the verbal bases and their respective -ive derivations into the language of your choice: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

speculate …………… oppress …………… obsess …………… interpret …………… derive …………… depress ……………

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

speculative …………… oppressive …………… obsessive …………… interpretive …………… derivative …………… depressive ……………

264 English Complex Words 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

intrude …………… digest …………… suggest …………… manipulate …………… assert …………… elect …………… conclude …………… subvert …………… repress …………… exhaust …………… appreciate …………… invent …………… dismiss …………… integrate ……………

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

intrusive …………… digestive …………… suggestive …………… manipulative …………… assertive …………… elective …………… conclusive …………… subversive …………… repressive …………… exhaustive …………… appreciative …………… inventive …………… dismissive …………… integrative ……………

X. Translate the key formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. I found Uriah reading a great fat book, with such demonstrative attention, that his lank forefinger followed up every line as he read […]. (Dickens_1958_160) 2. The Maple Court was large, ill-lit and on the seedy side, with the faint pervasive odor of stagnant water […]. (Styron_1979_220)

Key I. 1 definitive; 2 descriptive; 3 substantive; 4 constructive; 5 inclusive; 6 reflective; 7 lucrative; 8 pervasive; 9 ineffective; 10 elusive; 11 adaptive; 12 provocative; 13 informative; 14 cumulative; 15 disruptive; 16 invasive; 17 preventive; 18 expressive; 19 decorative; 20 normative II. abusive; administrative; attractive; competitive; comprehensive; conclusive; constructive; creative; decisive; decorative; descriptive; elusive; evasive; explosive; expressive; extensive; indicative; innovative; inventive; permissive; pervasive; productive; provocative; redistributive; representative; suggestive III. 1 extensive; 2 adaptive; 3 affective; 4 collective; 5 exclusive; 6 pervasive; 7 supportive; 8 excessive; 9 provocative; 10 disruptive; 11 decorative; 12 seductive IV. 1 uncommunicative; 2 investigative; 3 disruptive; 4 impulsive; 5 interpretive; 6 ultrasecretive; 7 prospective VIII. English: 1 appreciative; 2 affirmative; 3 authoritative; 4 conclusive; 5 convulsive; 6 corrosive; 7 effusive; 8 expressive; 9 persuasive; 10 redemptive

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 265



-ize/-ise Introduction The suffixes -ize and -ise are spelling variants of one formative. The -ize variant will be used here, wherever possible. Verbal derivations in -ize belong to the category of causative verbs, conveying senses such as ‘make …’, ‘make more of …’, and ‘cause … to be/become …’. With causation as the core meaning, minor (and extended) senses such as ornative, resultative, locative or performative can also be detected. The suffix regularly attaches to adjectival bases ending in -al (formal > formalize), -an (American > Americanize), -ar (popular > popularize), -ic (public > publicize) and -ile (mobile > mobilize). Additionally, the suffix appears to be attractive to other undelineated bases. It is commonly attached to proper names, designating known places (Hollywood > Hollywoodize) or persons (Clinton > Clintonize). Occasionally, the suffix -ize is attached to simplex nominal bases (dollar > dollarize). Reportedly, the attachment of -ize is facilitated if bases end in one of the sonorants l, r, m, or n. Phonological constraints regulating the process of -ize verbalization are complementary to those conditioning the attachment of -ify. The derivation of -ize verbs is a very productive process in contemporary English. Relatively numerous neologisms and low-frequency items in -ize are reported as occurring in COCA and the BNC. Derivatives in -ize are evidently related to those in -ify, their meanings being almost identical. The suffix -ize is cognate with French -ise-r, Italian -izare, Spanish -izar, < late Latin -izāre, -īzāre, < Greek -ίζειν, formative of verbs. In Greek, the suffix was used to form verbs on national, sectarian, or personal names (Ἑλληνίζειν ‘to act as a Greek, to speak Greek, to Hellenize’). In modern French, the suffix has become -iser (baptiser, évangéliser). In English, some verbs have used the spelling -ise in words formed in French or in English from Latin elements, retaining -ize for those formed from Greek elements. Major meanings and functions: make or conform to, or treat in the way of … (baptize, canonize, Christianize) do or follow some practice (apologize, dogmatize, philosophize) to make (that which is expressed by the derivation) (authorize, brutalize, secularize) words from later sources (bastardize, foreignize) and nonce-words (cricketize, pedestrianize) – on ethnic adjectives (Anglicize, Russianize) – on names of persons (Calvinize), but usually in the transitive sense ‘to treat like, or after the method of ’ (Bowdlerize, Burnettize, galvanize) – from names of substances, in the transitive sense ‘to charge, treat, affect, or influence with’ (alcoholize, carbonize, ozonize); in nonce-words (Londonize ‘to make like London’)

– – – –

Sources: Gussmann (1987); Aronoff (1981: 59); Szymanek (1989: 283–284); Bauer (1991: 222); Lieber (1998; 2008); Plag (1999); Bauer et al. (2013: 269–274); the OED; for other causative verbal suffixes, see -ate, -en, -ify

266 English Complex Words

Construction I. Construct -ize verbs based on the following names (consider multiple variants). Example: Poland > Polonize. Arabia > … Balkans > … Clinton > … Cuba > … Hollywood > … Hungary > …

Islam > … Italy > … Japan > … Mexico > … Serbia > … Turkey > …

II. Propose different prefixes for the following -ize verbs (consider multiple options): ……humanize ……demonize ……personalize ……visualize ……strategize ……authorize ……sexualize ……mythologize

……globalize ……hypnotize ……politicize ……militarize ……evangelize ……collectivize ……victimize ……commercialize

……digitalize ……privatize ……legalize ……naturalize ……feminize ……industrialize ……traumatize ……intellectualize

Construct simple phrases by adding a direct object to each prefixed verb, for example: …nationalize > renationalize the media. III. Complete the gapped -ize derivations in their contexts: 1. to ant……ize swing voters 2. to bal……ize the academy 3. to cap……ize on the prevailing climate of chaos 4. to cri……ize philanderers 5. to decri……ize marijuana 6. to hom……ize consumption 7. to le……ize gambling in some parts of China 8. to leg……ize the regime’s bad behavior 9. to mi……ize stress 10. to mo……ize the backward country 11. and nat……ize the big, troubled bank 12. to per……ize all new handgun models 13. to pol……ize one’s agenda 14. to rad……ize the region 15. to sta……ize production 16. to sub……ize higher education

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 267



17. to ter……ize one’s young siblings 18. to tra……ize every single tiger 19. to tri……ize the case against Clinton 20. to win……ize the trucks IV. Complete the gapped sentences with finalise, materialise, politicise, prioritise, weaponise – each used twice. Adjust their final grammatical forms. The original -ise spelling is retained. 1. Two French vaccines backed by the EU had failed to ………. (TS310121) 2. Yet Poland is diplomatically isolated after picking a fight with Brussels over the government’s attempt to ……… the judiciary. (TS141121) 3. Vladimir Putin ……… human misery in this new proxy battle in Belarus. (TS141121) 4. The look of many of the regulations and schemes has yet to be ………. (TS011220) 5. The nightmare scenario of huge traffic jams around Britain’s ports has so far failed to ………. (TS080121) 6. Two months ago Johnson and von der Leyen had worked together to ……… a trade deal between Britain and the EU. (TS310121) 7. In a Twitter thread, Habib stated that he had apologised and questioned why some were “still ……… the issue”. (TS120321) 8. During the autumn spike in Covid cases […] the government ……… keeping schools open […]. (TS030121) 9. Yet Lukashenko, 67, has previously made no secret of his intention to ……… migration in retaliation for EU sanctions against his regime over its brutal crackdown on dissent. (TS121121) 10. Astrazeneca […] is bound by a promise to ……… the UK government order. (TS290121) V. Construct -ize verbs, deriving them from the bases provided in brackets. Adjust the final grammatical form. 1. Like Britain, the three ancient Nordic kingdoms ……… [agony] over threats to their sovereignty in a Union growing in power. (NW1198) 2. Even if Straw ……… [authority] extradition proceedings, justice will not be swift. (NW071298) 3. In between these storm surges were steadier but similarly profound tides in which people moved out to ……… [colony] or were captured and brought in as slaves. (NG1098) 4. They are willing to ……… [dollar] even if it means swallowing their national pride and entrusting monetary policy to the U.S. Federal Reserve. (NW260201)

268 English Complex Words

5. None of the vaccine recipients in either group went on to become ……… [hospital]. (TS081220) 6. Piccard, making his third attempt to balloon around the world, was so stressed that he had trouble sleeping – and midway through the trip, he had himself ……… [hypnosis] by radio so he could get some rest. (NW290399) 7. Nine per cent each year will ……… [incentive] improvements in productivity, such as investing in equipment and training. (TS011220) 8. Together, we could strengthen co-operation, further ……… [liberal] and deepen trade ties, and strategically litigate cases against China when it violates WTO law. (TS011220) 9. Cornell University economist Robert Frank urges that we ……… [penal] overambition with a progressive consumption tax. (NW300899) 10. It was a crime of Biblical savagery and one that may further ……… [radical] the relentless cycle of violence in the Middle East. (NW210501) 11. One man charged Anwar with ……… [sodomy] him 15 times, while another said he suspected his sister-in-law of having an affair with Anwar. (NW140998) 12. The two leaders’ contrasting personalities and attitudes to Brussels ……… [symbol] Britain’s uncomfortable 47-year relationship with Europe – and help explain the difficulties it faces in breaking away. (TS131220) 13. Many people would find it hard to ……… [sympathy] with rats, but dogs and cats are part of our lives. (NW070501) 14. As the daughter of a prominent politician, von der Leyen quickly became used to the media spotlight – and also to the bodyguards that protected the family from the far-left Red Army Faction, then ……… [terror] West Germany. (TS131220)

Translation VI. Form short sentences with the following -ize verbs and their suggested objects, and next, translate these sentences into the language of your choice. brutalize (minorities) evangelize (listeners) hospitalize (patients) masculinize (women) motorize (cities) pedestrianize (city centre)

philosophize (life) pictorialize (stories) poeticize (pain) robotize (production) trivialize (education) victimize (students)



Chapter 2.  Suffixation 269

VII. Fill in each gap with two missing letters. Translate the -ize formations into the language of your choice. In one case, the same function is conveyed by the suffix -ify. 1. He previously led a successful campaign against Westminster legislation that would have crimi…lised insulting language. (TS050121) 2. The recent proliferation of affordable, powerful computers and the growth of the Internet might democ…tize the high-tech arts. (NW100799) 3. “We do not know whether Pope is guilty or not of violating any laws,” the English-language Moscow Times editori…ized after the verdict […]. (NW181200) 4. Europeans haven’t bought up the U.S. trade-book industry – they’ll own nearly half of it by the end of the year – because they want to Europ…nize it. (NW100898) 5. Benjamin Franklin once complained about German immigrants, “who will shortly be so numerous as to Germ…ize us instead of our Ang…fying them.” (NW090401) 6. HMRC has passed on 4.5 million personal records to private debt collectors since 2014 without taxpayers’ specific consent and they are incen…vised to max…ise takings. (TS091220) 7. In 1995 U.S. intelligence learned that, seven years earlier, the Chinese had acquired schematic drawings for light, minia…rized warheads. (NW220399) 8. All the candidates listed above have tried to mi…mize differences with incumbents on economic policy. (NW141298) 9. In “Charlie’s Angels,” Drew Barrymore manages to pulv…ize her captors with her feet bound to a chair. (NW181200) 10. EU ambassadors are on standby for a fast-tracked ratification process tonight or tomorrow morning, while officials have already begun to sc…tinise elements of the deal […]. (TS231220) 11. This is why every now and again they insist on sensation…izing her Italian origins. (NW100599) 12. “How many of you,” he asks, “were raped, molested or sex…lized as children?” More than half of the 20 men and three women raise their hands. (NW170898) 13. In the shrine you are given a name. When you come out, people call you by that name. So you are s…gmatized wherever you go. (NW050499) 14. If there is no progress, Johnson’s team is discussing plans for him to announce no-deal in a te…vised address to the nation […]. (TS061220)

270 English Complex Words

VIII. Propose your own translations of the following -ize formations into the language of your choice. Your translations may require paraphrastic constructions, rather than direct, word-for-word rendering. 1. If we can create a democracy that is Iranianized and Islamicized, then this historical experiment can be a model for other countries. (TE120600) 2. An ocean away, Cambridge University, after 800 years of perching above the commercial fray, is now actively leading an effort to Valley-ize its surroundings. Graduates, and even faculty members, are encouraged to go into business, and two of its colleges have opened science parks to incubate start-ups. (NW091198) 3. “They say I’ve been Zemmourised because I use the word civilisation and I love France,” Mabrouk said this month in a vitriolic portrait by Libération. (TS080521) [Eric Zemmour, CNews’s commentator] IX. Translate the -ize formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. When in the process of anatomizing the past or her relationship with Nathan, and the mystery of Nathan himself, she often had the habit of thrusting her face into her hands […]. (Styron_1979_397) 2. They say you can’t compartmentalize life. (Kazan_1968_51) 3. Each Saturday morning I assisted a young Jewish doctor in slitting the vocal cords of a fresh batch of dogs from the city pound. The object was to devocalize the dogs so that their howls would not disturb the patients in the other parts of the hospital. (Wright_1993_358) 4. When black and Hispanic students come to her with problems, which apparently happens on a regular basis, Hernandez-Gravelle said she “helps them to externalize their experience rather than internalize it.” (D’Souza_1992_218) 5. Asphalter was queerly attached to his animals. Herzog suspected that he wanted to humanize them. (Bellow_1961_48) 6. She detested New York subway trains for their grime and their noise, but even more for the claustrophobic nearness of so many human bodies, the rush-hour jam and jostle of flesh which seemed to neutralize, if not to cancel out, the privacy she had sought for so long. (Styron_1979_109) 7. Fitzgerald’s posthumous The Last Tycoon (1941) sentimentalizes the career of Irving Thalberg […]. (Eyewitness_1997_64) 8. Perhaps it’s a word invented by the Government to terrorize the universities. (Lodge_1989_263) X. Construct your own -ize/-ise novel verbs and propose their translations into the language of your choice.

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 271



Key I.

Arabianize; Balkanize; Clintonize; Cubanize; Hollywoodize; Hungarize / Magyarize; Islamisize / Islamicize / Islamize; Italianize; Japanize; Mexicanize; Serbianize; Turkeyize III. 1 antagonize; 2 balkanize; 3 capitalize; 4 criminalize; 5 decriminalize; 6 homogenize; 7 legalize; 8 legitimize; 9 minimize; 10 modernize; 11 nationalize; 12 personalize; 13 politicize; 14 radicalize; 15 standardize; 16 subsidize; 17 terrorize; 18 tranquilize; 19 trivialize; 20 winterize IV. 1 materialise; 2 politicise; 3 weaponises; 4 finalised; 5 materialise; 6 finalise; 7 politicising; 8 prioritised; 9 weaponise; 10 prioritise V. 1 agonize; 2 authorizes; 3 colonize; 4 dollarize; 5 hospitalised; 6 hypnotized; 7 incentivise; 8 liberalise; 9 penalize; 10 radicalize; 11 sodomizing; 12 symbolise; 13 sympathize; 14 terrorising VII. 1 na; 2 ra; 3 al; 4 ea; 5 an / li; 6 ti / im; 7 tu; 8 ni; 9 er; 10 ru; 11 al; 12 ua; 13 ti; 14 le

-less Introduction The native suffix -less attaches indiscriminately to nominal bases, forming privative adjectives. All common nouns, both concrete and abstract, combine with -less, without any phonological constraints. In a way, privative adjectives are the converse of possessional adjectives (doubtless ~ doubtful). The standard paraphrase used for privative adjectives is ‘deprived of …’, but in many cases, -less adjectives express a mere lack/ absence of something, rather than a result of depravation. In this case, the most appropriate paraphrase is ‘not having …’ or ‘having no …’. The suffix -less is extremely productive in present-day English. The suffix (word) is inherited from Germanic (cf. -lās (Old Frisian), -loos (Middle Dutch, Dutch), -los (German), -lauss (Old Icelandic), -lös (Old Swedish, Swedish), -løs (Old Danish, Danish)). In Old English, the adjective lēas ‘lease’, like its cognates in the other Germanic languages, was frequently used as a suffix in combination with a preceding noun, carrying its senses ‘without, free from, devoid of ’. As a suffix, the originally long vowel was liable to shortening (the Middle English spellings -lesse, -less). Early formations with Germanic cognates or parallels include headless, lifeless, sorrowless etc. Formations with nouns are very frequent from Old English onwards (blōdlēas ‘bloodless’, wīflēas ‘wifeless’). They sometimes function as antonyms to derivations in -ful, a suffix with a similar early history.

272 English Complex Words

Major meanings and functions: – the state or quality of not having or being free from (homeless, guiltless) – the capacity of being unaffected by, or not carrying out the action (fathomless, tireless) – the absence of the quality (sickless) Sources: Szymanek (1989: 245–247); Bauer (1991: 224); Bauer et al. (2013: 357, 359, 363, 368); the OED; see the privative suffix -free; see privative prefixes: de-, dis-, un-; also see possessional suffixes: -ate, -ed, -ful, -ous, -y

Construction I. Provide a potential noun which can follow a -less adjective, such as: colourless … doubtless … endless … faultless … fearless … footless … fruitless … hairless … handless … harmless …

headless … humourless … lawless … legless … lidless … lifeless … loveless … merciless … mindless … paperless …

II. Complete the gapped -less derivations with the following nouns: bag, blood, class, commander, face, faith, father, finger, god, heart, help, home, horn, phone, price, road, shape, smoke, taste, tide, tooth, tree, window, wire. 1. a ………less army 2. the ………less idiocy of Kenneth Starr’s entire campaign 3. the ………less, arrogant nations of the West 4. a ………less society 5. the ………less victims of Pyongyang’s cruelty 6. the non-religious ………less civilization of science 7. the world’s first ………less vacuum cleaner 8. a ………less coup d’état 9. the ………less sea 10. another ………less meal 11. the ………less children living on the edge of existence 12. the ………less glove 13. ………less rhino females 14. ………less villages on the San Blas Islands

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 273



15. a ………less room with a desk 16. nearly ………less terrain 17. nearly ………less and skeletal with malnutrition 18. a ………less work of art 19. ………less and broadband communications 20. a ………less death row 21. a shivering, ………less bum 22. the nearly ………less stretches 23. developing ………less cigarettes 24. a completely ………less gesture III. Complete the gapped -less formations with nouns that make sense in the contexts given. The first two letters are provided. Predicative use: someone/something is …-less. 1. […] the world of information is inherently bo……less. (TE220500) 2. There are some 4,000 Amerasian children in Okinawa, most of whom are fa……less. (NW240700) 3. Germany is le……less until a new government takes office […]. (TS141121) 4. At the central railway station, there were chaotic scenes as people tried to shove their way ti……less on to trains […]. (TS260222) 5. Bill Gates told friends […] that his marriage to Melinda was “lo……less” long before the couple went public with their decision to divorce […]. (TS170521) IV. Complete the gapped -less formations with nouns that make sense in the contexts given. Three letters of each noun are provided. 1. Her defenders insist she is bl……eless. (NW280998) 2. She seemed a bit cl……eless when she arrived in Amman in the late 1970s […]. (NW080299) 3. She’s virtually ho……yless; she’s tried signing up for tennis lessons and local clubs, but usually has to cancel. (NW030700) 4. Left pa……tless in Sudan’s brutal civil war 14 years ago, Nai and more than 20,000 other boys were left to flee across the wastes of sub-Saharan Africa. (NW260301) 5. The political process in this country is pi……iless and often vacuous. (NW220500) 6. I’m […] feeling small and po……rless in the face of all the forces the earth shaker represents. (NG0700) 7. The ancient Jewish sources suggest Pilate was ta……tless, thuggish and stubborn […]. (NW050499) 8. Varying from 11 to 42 feet in length, beaked whales are typically to……hless […]. (NG0898)

274 English Complex Words

9. Much of the crime girls commit is “vi……mless”. Teen prostitution […] is still on the rise. (NW161198) 10. By morning the camp is wi……dless, sunny, and warming. (NG0799) V. Complete the gapped -less expressions with the following names of places: area, corridor, cover, forest, lounge, office, terrain, wallet. The plural form may be needed. Attributive use: …-less someone/something. 1. I […] spent two hours blundering yeti-like through a dark and seemingly boundless ………. (NT0393) 2. I braved the cheerless ……… of Prague’s Ministry of Health […]. (NG0691) 3. In 1964 the United States began designating roadless ……… as wilderness. (NG1198) 4. At Mason City I took a back road that ran north and east for miles, string-straight through nearly treeless ………. (NT0593) 5. I remember well the windowless little ……… where previously we’d met in the gay nightclub […]. (TS220521) 6. But the paperless ……… has proved as practical as paperless ………. (TE220500) 7. A seamless ……… of trees smooths the valleys, disguising their jagged contours as gentle swells and curves. (NT0894) VI. Complete the gapped -less expressions with the following nouns which are characteristic of technology: bar, car, fountain pen, shop, system, technology, telephony, version. Plural forms may be required by the context. 1. Microsoft produced one browser-free version of Windows 95 […]. Another browserless ……… was so broken its only feature was an error message. (NW190600) 2. In most cases, a “dockless” ……… is used in which scooters are found by GPS. (TS211020) 3. There have also been investments in driverless ……… start-ups FiveAI and Oxbotica. (TS020521) 4. Murphy also said that the company was planning to expand its “frictionless” ………, which uses cashierless ……… similar to Amazon Go, to another urban location […]. (TS180621) 5. Consider Smart Quill, a networkable, “inkless ……… on steroids” that creates computer-processable text from standard handwriting. (NW301198) 6. Along with the Internet, wireless ……… is exploding as the 20th century draws to a close. (NW220399) 7. My deodorant comes in cardboard tubes, my soap in wrapperless ………. (TS070421)



Chapter 2.  Suffixation 275

VII. Complete the gapped -less expressions with the following nouns characterizing people: boy, bunch, military, peasant, politician, Southerner. Plural forms may be required by the context. 1. Japan’s military leaders are a faceless ……… in their mid-50s […]. (NW290399) 2. Aso’s Japan is hamstrung by its pacifist Constitution, gutless ……… and rudderless ………. (NW290399) 3. The landowners do not question the right of landless ……… to a plot of land. (EC280401) 4. After Diana’s death, nobody wanted to inflict more grief on the two suddenly motherless ……… […]. (NW260600) 5. A new wave of Anglos, slaveless highland ……… for the most part, began moving into other parts of the hills (NG0499) VIII. Complete the gapped -less formations with the most appropriate noun from (a-d). 1. A lot of Russians were especially unhappy to watch their Olympic medalists in Sydney standing in silence during the playing of Glinka’s ………less hymn. (NW181200) a. tune b. word c. song d. music 2. I know that the health secretary is taking steps to get rid of that ………less bureaucracy. (TS030121) a. issue b. matter c. point d. problem 3. […] he spends a(n) ………less hour reading and making phone calls. (NW030700) a. appointment b. phone c. coffee d. work 4. The ………less bond market will zap your country’s interest rates. (TE220500) a. hand b. arm c. head d. face

276 English Complex Words

5. Eating lunch at La Bola […] is a long production […] one more act in the ………less play of life in the capital. (NT0796) a. game b. instrument c. plot d. table 6. During other zero-gravity periods, one of my companions ricochets off the ceiling. Another does ………less gymnastics. (NG0101) a. sport b. weight c. air d. floor 7. Four years of ………less rule by Ernesto Samper had left the country mired in political corruption. (NW140998) a. steer b. brake c. rudder d. clutch 8. […] bearded aides in suits with ………less shirts […] trail him up to Iran’s equivalent of Air Force One. (TE120600) a. tie b. collar c. sleeve d. pocket

Translation IX. Establish the following missing items: (1) kinship terms (corresponding to child, brother, sister, father, mother) and (2) equivalents of -less adjectives derived from these terms in several languages.  

child > childless

brother > brotherless

sister > sisterless

German

Kind > kinderlos

 

Danish

 

Icelandic

 

bror > broderløs (NS?)  

Schwester >   schwesterlos (NS?); ohne Schwester    

Frisian

bern > bernleas

broer > broerleas;   sunder bruorren

 

father > fatherless

faðir > föðurlaus  

mother > motherless  

mor > moderløs móðir > móðurlaus  

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 277

 

child > childless

brother > brotherless

sister > sisterless

father > fatherless

mother > motherless

French

enfant > sans enfant  

 

sœur > sans sœur

 

 

fratello > senza fratelli

 

 

 

soră > fără soră

padre > senza padre  

 

 

Italian

Romanian   Russian

Czech

rebenok > brat > *bezbratbezdetnyy nyy; ne imeyushchiy brata    

Bosnian

 

brate > bez brata

sestra > bez sestry otec > bez otce    

Finnish Chinese

   

   

sisko > siskoton  

Korean

ai > hyengcey >   ai-epsnun1 hyengcey-epsnun2

0 1 2

mamă > fără mamă  

 

majka > bez majke isä > isätön   fùqīn > mǔqīn > méiyǒu méiyǒu mǔqīn de0 fùqīn de    

没有母亲的

아이 > 아이없는 형제 > 형제없는

X. Translate the -less formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. [Most consumers have not yet felt much, if any, impact from Brexit.] However, not everything has been entirely frictionless or cost-free. (TS080121) 2. How did the president […] wind up so friendless and powerless in his own capital? (NW281298) 3. He was now 33 years old, jobless, wifeless, rootless. (NG0301) 4. They looked plenty lively last Saturday, holding the Americans scoreless through 120 minutes of relentless competition. (NW190799) 5. Hero of the “descamisados,” or shirtless ones, he and his wife Evita towered over Argentine politics for almost four decades. (NW140800) 6. Stateless in a state where statehood is itself a tenuous thing, Lebanese Kurds have thrown their support to the Kurdistan Workers Party. (NG0892)

278 English Complex Words

XI. Translate the -less derivations into the language of your choice. Conduct a comparative analysis of your translations of two cases (contexts) paired together under each point. 1. a. […] in the shallow side windows the bodiless mannequin heads in their featherhead hats […]. (Updike_1964_13) b. Like the bodiless heads you see sometimes in circus sideshows […]. (Ellison_1972_3) 2. a. While the Haze woman and I went down the steps into the breathless garden […]. (Nabokov_1955_43) b. When they met again, two days later, it was Gatsby who was breathless […]. (Fitzgerald_1974_155) 3. a. The winter term at Rummidge was of ten weeks’ duration, like the autumn and summer terms, but seemed longer than the other two because of the cheerless season. (Lodge_1989_214) b. She smiled: that cheerless new pinch of a smile. (Capote_1958_109) 4. a. The overnight storm had drifted eastward, leaving the town of Shiprock under a cloudless sky. (Hillerman_1996_80) b. The mystical reverence that he felt for her was somehow mixed up with the aspect of the pale, cloudless sky […]. (Orwell_1986_173) 5. a. A colourless, crushed-looking woman […] was standing outside. (Orwell_ 1986_19) b. When anyone spoke to him he invariably laughed in an agreeable, colourless way. (Fitzgerald_1974_143) 6. a. Two nights later he came home and opened the parlor door and was speared by a shrill depthless laugh. (O’Connor_1983_388) b. His eyes were deep, far too deep. They were the depthless drugged eyes of the somnambulist. (Chandler_1986_131) 7. a. His tone was flat, emotionless. (Hillerman_1970_145) b. Turn around, the first man ordered, in a voice as hard and emotionless as stone. (Dillard_1993_81) 8. a. She began speaking in the same expressionless voice as before […]. (Orwell_1986_95) b. He began asking his questions in a low, expressionless voice […]. (Orwell_1986_139) 9. a. At seventy per cent of normal oxygen you got dwarfs. At less than seventy eyeless monsters. (Huxley_1968_9) b. The eyeless creature with the quacking voice would never be vaporized. (Orwell_1986_51) 10. a. ‘One day,’ said Wilcox, ‘there will be lightless factories full of machines like that.’ ‘Why lightless?’ ‘Machines don’t need light.’ (Lodge_1989_126)







Chapter 2.  Suffixation 279

b. Chee got up, stood beside the door, looking and listening – impressed with how bright the night now seemed outside the lightless living room. (Hillerman_1996_207) 11. a. He moved cautiously out of the wash behind a screen of piñons and stood motionless […]. (Hillerman_1970_4) b. Tom, with his back to us, was bending over it, motionless. (Fitzger­ald_ 1974_145) 12. a. Here the plateau was cut by one of the hundred nameless canyons […]. (Hillerman_1970_5) b. It was only his face but I felt a shudder of nameless horror. (Ellison_1972_84) 13. a. He came back off the two almost paintless wooden steps […]. (Chandler_1986_181) b. But his eyes, dimmed a little by many paintless days, under sun and rain, brood on over the solemn dumping ground. (Fitzgerald_1974_29) 14. a. However glorious might be his future as Jay Gatsby, he was at present a penniless young man […]. (Fitzgerald_1974_154) b. The day-coach – he was penniless now – was hot. (Fitzgerald_1974_159) 15. a. […] the only place in the garden where a single man could linger without looking purposeless and alone. (Fitzgerald_1974_48) b. He came alive to me, delivered suddenly from the womb of his purposeless splendour. (Fitzgerald_1974_85) 16. a. She was underfoot the whole day, and her red, remorseless eyes were seldom shut. (Capote_1958_127) b. A man can smile and smile and be a villain. Remorseless, treacherous, lecherous, kindless villain. (Huxley_1968_89) 17. a. He hated her because she was young and pretty and sexless […]. (Orwell_1986_16) b. And in spite of all her attempts to conceal them, in that sexless get-up, you can still make out the evidence of some rather extraordinary breasts. (Kesey_1976_69) 18. a. Now he may be soulless and mercenary and semi-illiterate […]. (Lodge_1993_79) b. The apartment is either for the rich, somewhere to stay while sojourning in town, or places where the poor are dumped, on vast soulless estates. (Paxman_1998_170) 19. a. Canfield’s mouth was stretched open in some frozen, soundless shout. (Hillerman_1970_174) b. He rose deliberately from his chair and came towards them across the soundless carpet. (Orwell_1986_150)

280 English Complex Words

20. a. She seemed to have become completely spiritless. (Orwell_1986_131) b. He was a blond, spiritless man, anaemic, and faintly handsome. (Fitzgerald_ 1974_31) 21. a. It was a cheap watch […] with a stainless-steel expansion band. (Hiller­man_1970_51) b. A stooped old man was moving a woman’s naked corpse from a gurney onto a stainless steel autopsy table pushed alongside. (Dillard_1993_213) 22. a. The sky was starless, utterly unseen and heavy. (Kerouac_1991_294) b. An hotel’s enormous neon name challenged the starless sky. (Baldwin_ 1965_3) 23. a. A few columns of smoke mounted perpendicularly into the windless air and were lost. (Huxley_1968_71) b. It brought the dead silence of a windless winter night. (Hillerman_1996_203) 24. a. In the labyrinthine Ministry the windowless, air-conditioned rooms kept their normal temperature […]. (Orwell_1986_120) b. He was in a high-ceilinged windowless cell with walls of glittering white porcelain. (Orwell_1986_179) 25. a. Harry sits wordless staring through the windshield […]. (Updike_1964_167) b. He had set up a wordless howling, like an animal. (Orwell_1986_188) XII. Translate the key formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. Predicative use: someone/something is …-less. 1. […] somebody stole the bed. My room is without any […] any […] it’s bedless. I’m gonna be bedless.’ (Fleischer_1989_203) 2. Robyn felt herself growing warm with resentment of his rudeness, mingled with the consciousness that her own conduct had not been entirely blameless. (Lodge_1989_110) 3. He might surprise them, catch them on the ladder – defenseless from a rock dropped from above. (Hillerman_1970_242) 4. Insanely fearless, Copeland hurled himself at the guard and grappled with him for the gun. (Dillard_1993_43) 5. His body was bent and emaciated to the bone, almost fleshless. (Huxley_ 1968_73) 6. The worst part was his hands, gloveless and exposed to the raw cold […]. (Dillard_1993_89) 7. I thought him cold, remote, humorless, with the swollen ego […]. (Styron_ 1979_18) 8. He was shoeless; large, dirty toes were sticking out of the holes in his socks. (Orwell_1986_183)



Chapter 2.  Suffixation 281

XIII. Translate the following -less expressions designating places or locations into the language of your choice. Attributive use: …-less someone/something. 1. […] in a small airless theatre crammed with children […]. (Nabokov_1955_180) 2. […] out from chill, comfortless shadows into the heat of the midday sun. (Styron_1979_18) 3. […] the woodwork of the drawerless desk […]. (Forsyth_1971_270) 4. […] certain perspectiveless and terrible landscapes and figures. (Nabokov_ 1955_271) 5. […] upon those shadeless plains. (Capote_1965_124) 6. […] headed for LA and the snowless southern road. (Kerouac_1991_111) XIV. Translate the following -less expressions designating people, creatures, or body parts into the language of your choice. 1. […] like a grey brainless insect. (Baldwin_1965_102) 2. The eyes of the chinless man […]. (Orwell_1986_186) 3. […] trying to get a patent on a cordless bungee jumper. (Hillerman_1996_167) 4. […] a firm, well-fleshed and almost flawless torso. (Lodge_1993_25) 5. Rollins lifted his formless chin […]. (Dillard_1993_54) 6. His parents were shiftless and unsuccessful farm people […]. (Fitzgerald_ 1974_105) 7. […] I saw the blinking of sightless eyes. Homer A. Barbee was blind. (Ellison_ 1972_131) 8. […] a few thoughtless people commented on his absence. (Orwell_1986_120) XV. Translate the following -less expressions designating various objects into the language of your choice. 1. […] his beltless, once-belted, black, sharp-shouldered raincoat […]. (Lodge_ 1993_20) 2. I had a cup of hot flavourless coffee. (Nabokov_1955_224) 3. The gin was served out to them in handleless china mugs. (Orwell_1986_43) 4. […] a clump of ragged leafless shrubs […]. (Orwell_1986_231) 5. […] a mug of milkless Victory Coffee, and one saccharine tablet. (Orwell_ 1986_43) 6. I cut the noiseless motor, dimmed the lights and sat there, listening. (Chandler_ 1986_56) 7. […] these same oranges and lemons […] in a pyramid of pulpless halves. (Fitzgerald_1974_45) 8. Though he wore rimless glasses and was of but average height […], Mr. Clutter cut a man’s-man figure. (Capote_1965_16)

282 English Complex Words

XVI. Translate the following miscellaneous -less expressions into the language of your choice. 1. I returned home with a pocketful of money that melted into the bottomless hunger of the household. (Wright_1993_161) 2. I had heard Farrell once allude casually and wryly to his “childless state” […]. (Styron_1979_25) 3. Beside the window the enormous bed was made up, with ragged blankets and a coverless bolster. (Orwell_1986_112) 4. […] his voice had been lost in an infinite echoless distance. (Hillerman_ 1970_117) 5. It was believed that the search for the bodies had been a fruitless effort […]. (Twain_1962_159) 6. The highway skirted the immense, lifeless depression […]. (Hillerman_1970_39) 7. She felt towards her religion as she imagined some women felt towards their dreary, loveless marriages. (Lodge_1993_146) 8. Poles on numberless occasions in the near and distant past risked their lives to save Jews from whatever oppressor […]. (Styron_1979_302) 9. He was shocked, bemused, almost physically winded by this sudden acceleration into a tabooless candour of word and gesture. (Lodge_1992_274) 10. Something behind this ridge was making a sound, a tuneless symphony of low notes […]. (Hillerman_1970_83)

Key II.

1 commander; 2 shape; 3 god; 4 class; 5 face; 6 faith; 7 bag; 8 blood; 9 tide; 10 taste; 11 father; 12 finger; 13 horn; 14 phone; 15 window; 16 tree; 17 tooth; 18 price; 19 wire; 20 heart; 21 home; 22 road; 23 smoke; 24 help III. 1 border; 2 father; 3 leader; 4 ticket; 5 love IV. 1 blame; 2 clue; 3 hobby; 4 parent; 5 pity (pitiless); 6 power; 7 tact; 8 tooth; 9 victim; 10 wind V. 1 forest; 2 corridors; 3 areas; 4 terrain; 5 lounge; 6 wallet, office; 7 cover VI. 1 version; 2 system; 3 car; 4 shop, technology; 5 fountain pen; 6 telephony; 7 bars VII. 1 bunch; 2 politicians, military; 3 peasants; 4 boys; 5 Southerners VIII. 1 word; 2 point; 3 appointment; 4 face; 5 plot; 6 weight; 7 rudder; 8 tie

-like Introduction The suffix -like is added indiscriminately to nouns, preferably concrete ones, to form similitudinal adjectives, paraphrasable as ‘resembling …, similar to …’, ‘having characteristics of …’. The suffix -like attaches freely to any common nouns denoting concrete objects/substances, for example:

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 283



blood > blood-like, dog > dog-like, love > love-like, rain > rain-like etc. Marchand (1969: 356) refers to the formative -like as a “semi-suffix”. Adjectives with -like are extremely productive in present-day English. The suffix was formed in English, by conversion. It is attested from the 15th cent. in Middle English, and also in Older Scots at a similar date (cf. earlier Middle English formations with –lik). For many derivatives in -like, there are parallel formations in -ly, which originate at the same time. These typically differ in sense to various degrees, but there is often some semantic overlap. Early examples of such pairs are knightlike ~ knightly, womanlike ~ womanly. Early formations are commonly written as a single word, as is still the case with some established formations (lordlike, nymphlike), but recent formations are typically hyphenated. Major meanings and functions: – similar to or of the nature of …, characteristic of or befitting …; also in formations prefixed with un- (ungentlemanlike, unofficerlike) – in or after the manner of …, so as to resemble … – resembling, characteristic of, a person who/thing which is …; having the appearance of … Sources: Marchand (1969: 356); Aronoff (1981: 63); Szymanek (1989: 249–252); Bauer et al. (2013: Ch. 14); the OED; for other similitudinal suffixes, see -ed, -ish, -ly, -y

Construction I. The forty most frequent bases taking the suffix -like, with their frequencies* (COCA190622): child 1,519 business 725 life 711 dream 580 god 508 war 508 lady 450 earth 325 flu 291 bird 215

Christ 211 unsportsman 211 human 209 sun 197 Zen 191 cat 181 cult 166 ghost 157 workman 157 snake 138

unlady 130 jewel 121 zombie 114 star 114 statesman 113 bird 113 laser 108 doll 106 car 96 trance 90

box 89 animal 89 ape 89 toll 87 stuttering 86 fortress 85 game 82 insulin 81 home 79 park 78

* S ome of these figures may be increased due to occurrences of alternative spelling variants, each with its own frequency. Here, only the higher frequency of a more popular variant has been taken into consideration.

Analyse the above derivational bases of the most frequent -like formations. Can you note any tendencies among these bases?

284 English Complex Words

II. As for frequencies, COCA lists derivatives (word types) in -like whose frequencies are equal to or higher than 11 hits (tokens) from position 1 to 730. Low-frequency types are listed from 731 to 3,500 (the lowest point on the list retrieved from COCA). More detailed frequencies (numbers of tokens) and the positions they occupy on the list are as follows: 1–730 731–813 814–931 932–1,066 1,067–1,249 1,250–1,485 1,486–1,806 1,807–2,279 2,280–2,997 2,998–3,500

11≤ (tokens) 10 (tokens) 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

… How can the above numerical results be interpreted? What are the proportions of high-frequency and low-frequency types on the list from 1 to 3,500? If low-frequency types prevail quantitatively over high-frequency types, what does it tell us about this particular derivational phenomenon (pattern)? Can derivation in -like be considered morphologically productive? Morphological productivity has received considerable attention from numerous linguists (Baayen 1989; Baayen and Lieber 1991; Baayen and Reneuf 1996; Bauer 2006; Plag et al. 1999). It remains a largely vague notion, treated by many intuitively, for the most part. Recently, morphological productivity has become a measurable parameter, leading to the view of “productivity in the narrow sense”. It is claimed that productivity can be calculated by considering the number of hapax legomena with a given affix and the total number of occurrences (tokens) of all words carrying this affix. In a nutshell, the formula for calculating morphological productivity is P = n1aff / Naff, where P (productivity) is “the quotient of the number of hapax legomena n1 with a given affix and the total number of tokens N of all words with that affix” (Plag et al. 1999: 216). In other words, morphological productivity grows when the number of hapax legomena is higher in a given sample. The high number of hapax legomena is, in turn, indicative of higher numbers of new word types which are expected to appear. In view of the above, is the process of -like derivation productive? Conduct a comparative mini-analysis of the productivity of two affixes, one of them being -like. Choose the source(s) of the data, collect data for two affixes, and carry out basic calculations. Compare the results and indicate a more productive morphological process.



Chapter 2.  Suffixation 285

III. Complete the gapped -like formations with names of animals and creatures. The first two letters are given. 1. Deregulating and decentralizing, Japan might finally succeed in prying open its cl……-like economy […]. (NG0194) 2. The sounds we heard in the darkness were the dry rustling of the bush, the huffing of the dogs’ breaths, the soft, ho……like thumping of their footpads on dry earth. (NG0599) 3. “[…] Listen for a chit-chit-tweeeee,” he says, imitating the bird’s short, quick notes and in……-like buzz. (NG0299) 4. Today there were no glass floats, but the spring surf had left crescent windrows of je……like Velella on the beach. (NT0393) 5. Hookworms, little le……like vampires of the intestinal tract, suck the blood of a billion people a year and kill perhaps 100,000. (NG1097) 6. Often called ma……-like reptiles – they looked like a cross between a dog and a lizard […]. (NG0900) 7. His giant company, rather than becoming the oc……like terror of political cartoons, might scarcely draw a shrug from consumers. (NW071298) 8. The court is called to order by a tribal policeman known as Gundane – the Rat – because of his ro……-like appearance. (NG0800) 9. I paddle for a long while wondering just how se……-like a kayak might look to a killer whale patrolling below. (NT0894) 10. Carp rolled their scaly se……-like flanks in the shallows. (NG0201) 11. Life in the city is merely a wo……like biological existence where man lives and dies meaninglessly. (NG1100) IV. Complete the gapped -like formations with names referring to plants. The first two letters are given. 1. Soaring global demand for the suddenly hip liquor [tequila] and a severe shortage of agave, the ca……like plant used to make it, have conspired against the industry. (NW210800) 2. A pile of plastic bags contained objects sifted from excavated earth. One held two stoneware bangle fragments bearing a delicate cl……-like design in red and white. (NG0600) 3. Proteas, leathery-leaved shrubs with flowers the size of soup bowls, he……like ericas, irises, orchids, and succulents all vie for a place in the sun. (NG0299) 4. […] I sat on the top floor of one of Jakarta’s high-rise hotels, watching the city’s dizzying, th……-like skyscrapers […]. (NG0301)

286 English Complex Words

V. Complete the gapped -like formations with nouns referring to people or fictive creatures. The first two letters are given. 1. In the narrow, crooked alleyways where Mogul noblemen once passed like shadows to tryst with ge……-like courtesans, a producer of Punjabi films now stalks, […], watching for new female talent. (NG1097) 2. The figure stood gh……like in a niche at the end of the corridor. (NG0998) 3. The direction is clear: robots are becoming hu……like. (TE190600) 4. Sen. Abraham Ribicoff […] was a st……like legislator whose bipartisan civility left a lasting impact on Lieberman. (NW210800) 5. Rather than backtrack, I struck out in what I guessed might be the right direction, and thereby spent two hours blundering ye……-like through a dark and seemingly boundless forest. (NT0393) VI. Complete the gapped -like formations with the following nouns designating places or constructions: altar, barrack, basilica, campus, castle, cocoon, factory, fjord, hill, tavern, trench. 1. I remember reading as a child about a fantastic ……-like place set on a rock in France. (NT0394) 2. We climbed one of these ……-like elevations. (NG0600) 3. We set about enjoying the meal amid the clink of silverware and subdued, hardly ……like conversation. (NT1196) 4. “This is the first time since their discovery that these objects have been back here,” he says, setting the animal figures on an ……like ledge inside the cave. (NG0700) 5. A similarly impressive building, the academy chapel, is topped by that ……like dome visible from the bay. (NT0694) 6. The dank, ……like Central Prison reflects its society […]. (NW170599) 7. Migrant workers live in ……-like hostels, where they form tight-knit groups […]. (NG0800) 8. We pass over Devon’s precipitous headlands and deep, ……like valleys […]. (NG0799) 9. […] the city spread out from the hulking redbrick warehouses along the riverfront of gleaming, ……-like facilities in the western suburbs. (NG1198) 10. His five years at Eton were ……like, with classmates facing potential expulsion if they talked to reporters about William. (NW260600) 11. There are perhaps a dozen parties on the ……like, muddy trail this morning. (NT1196)



Chapter 2.  Suffixation 287

VII. Complete the gapped -like derivatives with one of the nouns in (a-c) given below. 1. It [=larva] also anchors itself with two ………like hooks sticking out from the mouth. a. tusk b. anchor c. tooth [continuation] Its tail is a breathing tube, which can lift up, ………-like, just above the surface. (NG1298) a. elevator b. periscope c. rocket 2. Even ………like spears, three daggers, and two longer spears also were found in the grave. (NG0700) a. finger b. dart c. stick 3. Two years ago fishermen in the waters off Karmoy […] might have noticed a strange ………-like object swooping above the crests of the waves. (TS210421) a. thing b. gadget c. glider 4. Most so-called jellyfish are either ctenophores (comb jellies) or cnidarians, which typically have the conventional ………-like shape and stinging tentacles. (NG0600) a. bell b. beak c. bean 5. […] her exercise equipment still waits, including a wooden ………-like thing that she climbed to keep her willowy figure. (NT1294) a. rope b. stair c. ladder 6. The paraglider combines an inflated, ………-like wing with a 50-pound motorized backpack. (NG0399) a. parachute b. pillow c. engine

288 English Complex Words

7. A kayak is the perfect way to explore the backcountry of the park. I decide this after just the first few minutes of watching the bow cut a(n) ………like wake across the reflections of mountains on Muir Inlet. (NT0894) a. kayak b. bow c. arrow 8. These exquisite fish, with their ………-like dorsal fins, milled around by the score in deep pools below the waterfalls. (NG1100) a. fish b. sail c. nail 9. Strewn across the forest floor with their long, ………-like stamens waving in the breeze, the fallen blossoms look like sea anemones washed in by a storm tide. (NG0700) a. leg b. tentacle c. toe VIII. Propose one common prefix to complete the three complex words with the suffix -like. 1. I think, good grief, it’s big enough to be a bear; it is a bear. The animal stands on all fours, stretches fore and aft in very …bearlike fashion, and runs off. (NG0799) 2. Company researchers had also discovered the alarming fact, said Ms. Okamoto, “that women flush the toilet repeatedly to cover up …ladylike noises.” (NG0194) 3. The sporting establishment decries drugs as the product of a(n) …sportsmanlike win-at-all-costs mentality. (NW120799)

Translation IX. The following English phrases containing -like formations have been translated (GT & NS) into German, French and Russian. 1. sheep-like faces 2. table-like hills 3. tent-like buildings German 1. schafartige Gesichter 2. tafelartige Hügel 3. zeltartige Gebäude

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 289



French 1. visages (en forme) de mouton / un visage qui rappelle celui d’un agneau 2. collines (en forme) de table / … / … 3. bâtiments (en forme) de tente / … / … Russian 1. ovech’i litsa 2. stoloobraznyye kholmy 3. palatochnyye postroyki Spell out possible methods of rendering -like formations in German, French and Russian. X. The template name-of-flower-like flowers has been instantiated with five concrete phrases, such as: 1. tulip-like flowers 2. rose-like flowers 3. orchid-like flowers 4. carnation-like flowers 5. hyacinth-like flowers The five English phrases can be translated into Polish, using two slightly different expressions, both beginning with kwiaty ‘flowers’: 1. kwiaty przypominające tulipany / kwiaty podobne do tulipanów where przypominające tulipany can be glossed as ‘resembling tulips (nom)’, and podobne do tulipanów as ‘similar to tulips (gen)’. Translate the remaining phrases in (2–5) into Polish, appropriately adapting the above two expressions: 2. kwiaty przypominające ……… / kwiaty podobne do ……… 3. kwiaty przypominające ……… / kwiaty podobne do ……… 4. kwiaty ……… / kwiaty ……… 5. ……… / ……… The five English phrases can be translated into French, where the expression fleurs ressemblant à des X is employed, as in (1): 1. fleurs ressemblant à des tulipes Translate the remaining phrases in (2–5) into French, applying the above template: 2. 3. 4. 5.

fleurs ressemblant à des ……… fleurs ressemblant à ……… fleurs ressemblant ……… fleurs ………

290 English Complex Words

The same English phrases can be rendered in German by means of the pattern Xartige Blumen, as in (1): 1. tulpenartige Blumen Translate the remaining phrases in (2–5) into German, applying the above template: 2. 3. 4. 5.

……… Blumen ……… Blumen ……… Blumen ………

Finally, conduct the translation of the English phrases into Spanish, adapting the target expression used in (1): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

flores parecidas a tulipanes flores parecidas a ……… flores parecidas ……… flores ……… ………

XI. Translate the -like formations describing substances into the language of your choice. 1. An amphetamine-like stimulant derived from a Chinese herb […]. (TE220500) 2. […] embedded in a cement-like matrix of mud and limestone chips. (NG0998) 3. Samoans use gel-like sap from the buds as shampoo. (NG0700) 4. […] comic low-budget props such as paper snowflakes and spurting ketchup-like blood […]. (NW, Jul 17, 2000) 5. […] a coating of plasterlike mud, stones, and grass […]. (NG0900) XII. Propose your translations of the following -like formations with proper names in the language of your choice. 1. […] a free Disneyland-like theme park […]. (NW170898) 2. a heavily guarded “Dynasty”-like villa […]. (NW301000) 3. […] the protests in London […] were “Isis-like” […]. (TS170521) 4. London is a Los Angeles-like sprawl. (NW131100) 5. […] our Marco Polo-like obsession with the Chinese market […]. (NW140998) 6. […] work on a McDonald’s-like model. (NW091000) 7. In the flooded slums outside Port-au-Prince, some families sought to save their babies by putting them, Moses-like, in 10-gallon buckets and setting them afloat. (NW051098) 8. […] set up Nasdaq-like markets for small, high-tech companies […]. (NW301000) 9. Photographs of the dunes depict sweeping, Sahara-like scenes […]. (NT0795)



Chapter 2.  Suffixation 291

10. Outcroppings of huge boulders rise in the fields, glacial erratics that stand in Stonehenge-like groupings. (NT0995) 11. A Titanic-like tragedy was repeated, and the world is shocked. (NW040900) 12. It sounds like Trump-like bluster […]. (TS140321) XIII. Translate three pairs of -like formations into the language of your choice. Compare your translations of both derivatives in their contexts.

1. a. Eventually, a telescope system would be set up on the moon to search for gases, like oxygen and ozone, in the atmospheres of earth-like planets. (NG0194) b. These audacious seekers seem on the verge of answering fundamental questions about the origins, scale, and fate of the observable universe, the nature of its contents, the prevalence of other Earth-like worlds […]. (NG1099) 2. a. One remarkable feature is Spider Rock, a needle-like sandstone monolith shooting 800 feet out of the canyon floor. b. They [adult mites] had tiny claws and needlelike mouthparts for consuming skin cells. (NG1298) 3. a. Standing in parklike grounds in the heart of the city, it is a pretty building of yellow stucco, grand yet not unfriendly […]. (NT0795) b. As I wandered through the parklike grounds, the wavering, hypnotic sounds of traditional Vietnamese musical instruments drifted through the walled complex […]. (NT0596) XIV. Translate the -like formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. […] this barter-like system is hereditary. (NG0600) 2. […] the tall, businesslike blonde who had founded the show. (NT0995) 3. […] a swarm of giant cartoonlike human sperm swimming on a black background […]. (NG1099) 4. It is cult-like behaviour, it is Orwellian […]. (TS020621) 5. […] overcrowding, a lack of ventilation, as well as the “detention-like” setting for the men, who were not meant to be detained. (TS030621) 6. […] an almost familylike sense of security. (NW220299) 7. […] mild flu-like symptoms within 24 to 48 hours […]. (TS280920) 8. Laserlike, a shooting star cuts the sky […]. (NG0191) 9. […] listened to polkalike ranchero music […] and spent money with abandon. (NW040601) 10. Many major-league pitchers go into a trancelike silence in the hours before they take the mound. (NW051098)

292 English Complex Words

XV. Translate the following -like formations referring to different kinds of beings or creatures into the language of your choice. 1. The following morning, going with his soft cat-like tread into the library, the detective startled Owen Trefusis […]. (Christie_1963_148) 2. Dick continued a crab-like retreat toward the nearest door of the hotel. (Fitzgerald_1993_213) 3. Mrs. Macy Wheeler and Mrs. Buster, augmenting the disaster, fell upon them with crow-like cries of distress. (Capote_1961_33) 4. He looked at Susan with a dog-like loving look and sang […]. (O’Connor_ 1983_240) 5. Steve bounds after her with goat-like screeches and chases her around corner. (Williams_1974_82) 6. Kimble wandered through the faint haze of smoke, which writhed serpentlike in the pane of sunlight […]. (Dillard_1993_153) 7. Behind them appeared the shark-like snouts of two Citroën DS 19s in line astern. (Forsyth_1971_97) 8. He had wrenched one shoe off without undoing the laces, and stood now in a stork-like posture […]. (Lodge_1993_86) 9. Her small toad-like face looked even yellower than the day before. (Christie_1940_85) 10. It was a fair-sized room, very plainly furnished in a workmanlike fashion. (Christie_1963_176) XVI. Translate the -like formations referring to different kinds of places into the language of your choice. 1. […] the apartment-like pueblos were built in compact plans […]. (Cheek_ 1995_85) 2. They walked through an empty barnlike hall and silently up a flight of tobacco-stained steps into another barnlike hall. (O’Connor_1983_434) 3. […] narrow, cell-like offices […]. (Lodge_1983_65) 4. We entered a long, shed-like room […]. (Ellison_1972_193) 5. The short, tent-like coat that made her look pregnant […]. (Lodge_1993_25) XVII. Translate the key formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. An aster-like anaemic flower grew out of a remembered chink in the sidewalk. (Nabokov_1955_304) 2. Barbee stood with his arms outstretched now […], his Buddha-like body still as an onyx boulder. (Ellison_1972_131) 3. The claplike sound he had heard had been the fatal shot. (Hillerman_1996_204) 4. She glanced down at her thin, black-clad arms ending in those claw-like yellow hands […]. (Christie_1940_135)



Chapter 2.  Suffixation 293

5. But in the hereness of dusk I am moving toward the doomlike bells through the flowered air […]. (Ellison_1972_108) 6. It was very vague and dreamlike. (Hillerman_1996_210) 7. Asbury opened it [mouth] automatically and the drill-like gaze swung over it and bore down. (O’Connor_1983_366) 8. He could feel it [dust], flourlike, under the soles of his shoes. (Hillerman_1970_235) 9. As he rose the tears fled lava-like into her bandages. (Fitzgerald_1993_162) 10. Closer at hand, a steady monotonous cursing broke the silence around it with a machine-like regularity. (O’Connor_1983_442) 11. You knew that if he had a little glass window in the side of that tall skull, where the one-time thick, dark-red, mane-like hair was thinned out now and faded, you could see inside […]. (Warren_1973_43) 12. His head swayed like a crow’s nest on top of his mastlike spine. (Kesey_1976_215) 13. There was the languor I felt when I heard green leaves rustling with a rainlike sound. (Wright_1993_5) 14. It was as if he were being attacked not by one child but by a pack of small demons all with stout brown school shoes and small rocklike fists. (O’Connor_1983_354) 15. A bowed, grey-coloured, skeleton-like thing was coming towards him. (Orwell_1986_215) 16. There was no sound of a shot, only a whiplike crack through the still air. (Rock_1977_5) XVIII. Translate the following -like formations, clustered around the same base type, into the language of your choice. Compare your translations within the same cluster across different contexts.

1. a. On the far side of the room, sitting at a table alone, a small, curiously beetle-like man was drinking a cup of coffee […]. (Orwell_1986_51) b. The person immediately ahead of him in the queue was a small, swiftly-moving, beetle-like man with a flat face and tiny, suspicious eyes. (Orwell_1986_92) 2. a. There were a lot of business-like papers on the desk […]. (Chandler_ 1986_228) b. She became alert and businesslike, put her clothes on, […] and began arranging the details of the journey home. (Orwell_1986_104) 3. a. Parsons […] was in fact threading his way across the room – a tubby, middle-sized man with fair hair and a froglike face. (Orwell_1986_47) b. His froglike face grew calmer, and even took on a slightly sanctimonious expression. (Orwell_1986_185)

294 English Complex Words



4. a. The forehead was high, partly hidden by a red cloth band knotted at the back, and the nose was curved and thin. Hawklike. (Hillerman_1970_268) b. It was a handsome face, hawklike, and intent. (Hillerman_1970_6) 5. a. […] the elderly American, Mrs. Hubbard, was standing talking to the sheep-like lady, who was a Swede. (Christie_1940_24) b. It resembled the face of a sheep, and the voice, too, had a sheep-like quality. (Orwell_1986_13) 6. a. As the beginning of term approached, the Departmental corridor lost its tomb-like silence, its air of human desertion. (Lodge_1978_69) b. On his first morning, in the tomb-like hotel room he had checked into after driving straight from London airport, he had woken to find steam coming out of his mouth. (Lodge_1978_58)

Key III. 1 clam; 2 horse; 3 insect; 4 jellyfish; 5 leech; 6 mammal; 7 octopus; 8 rodent; 9 seal; 10 serpent; 11 worm IV. 1 cactus; 2 clover; 3 heather; 4 thistle V. 1 geisha; 2 ghost; 3 human; 4 statesman; 5 yeti VI. 1 castle; 2 hill; 3 tavern; 4 altar; 5 basilica; 6 factory; 7 barrack; 8 fjord; 9 campus; 10 cocoon; 11 trench VII 1 tusk, periscope; 2 dart; 3 glider; 4 bell; 5 ladder; 6 parachute; 7 arrow; 8 sail; 9 tentacle VIII. unX. Polish: 2 róże / róż; 3 storczyki / storczyków; 4 przypominające goździki / podobne do goździków; 5 kwiaty przypominające hiacynty / kwiaty podobne do hiacyntów French: 2 roses; 3 des orchidées; 4 à des œillets; 5 ressemblant à des jacinthes German: 2 rosenartige; 3 orchideenartige; 4 nelkenartige; 5 hyazinthenartige Blumen Spanish: 2 rosas; 3 a orquideas; 4 parecidas a claveles; 5 flores parecidas a jacintos

-ly Introduction The suffix -ly is added indiscriminately to nouns and noun phrases, preferably concrete and personal ones, to form similitudinal adjectives, paraphrasable as ‘resembling …, similar to …’, ‘having characteristics of …’. Formations in -ly can be subdivided into those positively-laden (mother > motherly) and those negatively-charged (miser > miserly). As opposed to the purely similitudinal meaning of the suffix -like, the suffix

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 295



-ly may have more of a transpositional function. Adjectival formations in -ly are relational by way of a mere shift from the base noun (mother) to its adjectival derivative (motherly). For a clearly similitudinal effect, it would be preferable to activate the -like formation (mother-like). The suffix -ly is weakly productive in present-day English. The suffix -ly originates in Germanic. The most general senses of the formative in all Germanic languages are ‘having the qualities appropriate to’, ‘characteristic of ’, ‘befitting’. Adjectives formed with -ly are most frequently eulogistic (kingly, knightly, masterly, princely, queenly, scholarly, soldierly). Some words also have a dyslogistic sense (beggarly, cowardly, rascally, ruffianly, scoundrelly). In Old English, as in other Germanic languages, the suffix often had the sense ‘of or pertaining to’. However, as far as this meaning is concerned, adjectives have been superseded by synonyms of Latin or Romance etymology. Another use of the suffix, common to English and other Germanic languages, is to form adjectives denoting periodic recurrence (daily, hourly, monthly, nightly, weekly, yearly). Sources: Aronoff (1981: 63); Szymanek (1989: 252–253); Bauer (1991: 225); Bauer et al. (2013: Ch. 14); the OED; for other similitudinal suffixes, see -ed, -ish, -like, -y

Construction I. Frequencies of -ly formations (COCA190622) are listed below, 1–2000. The number on the left is the position of the derivation on the list. The number on the right is the word’s frequency of use. 265 329 385 490 515 698 765 910 995 1037 1077 1081 1109 1182

scholarly nightly earthly cowardly ghostly godly priestly brotherly motherly fatherly womanly gentlemanly neighborly beastly

6,757 4,717 3,550 2,311 2,194 1,277 1,066 783 619 560 529 525 498 419

1207 1405 1451 1535 1536 1575 1588 1607 1648 1693 1702 1793 1830 1831

drunkenly slovenly masterly matronly kingly sisterly writerly pimply lawyerly wifely lordly knightly grandmotherly grandfatherly

406 285 264 223 222 207 203 198 188 175 173 149 143 143

Adjectival formations in -ly are mixed with regularly derived adverbs in -ly on the frequency list from COCA. What filter(s) should be set up in order to separate a list of -ly adjectives from a list of -ly adverbs in an automatic search by means of the substring *ly?

296 English Complex Words

II. In the category of kinship terms, as bases for -ly formations, the following items are recorded in COCA (060722). Derivations such as brotherly, motherly, fatherly, sisterly, wifely, grandmotherly and grandfatherly are used fairly frequently. However, daughterly and husbandly are rather infrequent. The formation auntly is extremely rare, while potential formations, such as sonly and uncly have not been recorded in COCA (at the time of the search). Is there any explanation for relatively low frequencies of daughterly, husbandly and auntly? Exemplary collocates of these three derivations obtained from COCA have been added in brackets. Provide potential collocates of sonly and uncly which may motivate their use in some context. brotherly motherly fatherly sisterly wifely grandmotherly grandfatherly daughterly husbandly auntly sonly uncly

783 619 560 207 175 143 143 25 24 4 0 0

              (daughter, devotion, duties, feelings, love) (affection, attention, caution, devotion, duties, kiss, manners, rights) (comedy, emanation, neurons, smell)    

Translation III. Translate the key formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. Her attorneys had composed a final statement begging for mercy in careful, lawyerly language. (NW161198) 2. His face at the same time seems fatherly and crafty and stupid. (Updike_1964_24) 3. […] in a niche surrounded by photographs of ice-hockey stars, there is always a large bowl of fresh flowers that Joe Bell himself arranges with matronly care. (Capote_1958_5)

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 297



-ment Introduction The suffix belongs to the category of Nomina Actionis (abstract deverbal action nouns), conveying the nominal concept ‘act(ion)/process of V-ing’. The suffix may be added to verbal bases beginning with eN- and be-, for example: embarrass > embarrassment, employ > employment, entertain > entertainment, bedazzle > bedazzlement, beguile > beguilement etc.; exception: betray > betrayal The attachment of the suffix -ment does not usually trigger stress shift, for example: achieve > achievement, appoint > appointment, attach > attachment, conceal > concealment, employ > employment etc. Paradoxically, the suffix is frequently used in contemporary English, while being virtually unproductive at the same time (cf. the suffix -like). This means that novel formations in -ment are either very rare or unheard of. This commonly expressed assumption may be contradicted by more recent corpus-based research, resulting in quite numerous novel or low-frequency formations, for example, alertment, ceasement, fakement, worriment etc. The suffix has multiple origins. It is partly a borrowing from French (-ment), and partly from Latin (-mentum). The Anglo-Norman, Old French, Middle French and French suffix -ment formed nouns from verbs to denote the result or product of the action of the verb (abrégement ‘abridgement’, accomplissement ‘accomplishment’). Similarly, the Latin suffix -mentum formed nouns from verbs originating in Latin (alimentum ‘aliment’, ōrnāmentum ‘ornament’). English formations based on verbs of Germanic origin (eggment, onement) date from the late 14th and 15th cent. Derivations from the same period in which the verb is of Romance origin (chastisement) may be either borrowings of a Romance form in -ment or new formations in Middle English. English formations based on verbs of Romance origin are attested from the 16th cent. (banishment, enhancement), alongside those from verbs of Germanic origin (amazement, atonement). From the 17th cent. onwards, both kinds are common, often with the prefixes em-, en- and be- (betterment, internment, shipment, embankment, enlightenment, entanglement, bedazzlement). 20th-cent. formations include bemusement, encirclement, upliftment. Deadjectival formations occur sporadically from the 16th cent. onwards (foolishment, funniment, merriment, oddment). Sources: CIT03 Aronoff (1981: 53, 60); CIT027 Szymanek (1989: 144–147); CIT08 Bauer (1991: 76); CIT012 Bauer et al. (2013: 199–200); the OED; for other Nomina Actionis suffixes, see -age, -al, -ance/-ence, -ation

298 English Complex Words

Construction I. Fill in the gapped -ment formations with appropriate verbs: adjust, adorn, amaze, appease, arrange, assess, commit, confine, consign, employ, entertain, harass, imprison, measure. Some of these formations need to be additionally prefixed. 1. ………ment led to a world war 2. the chronic levels of ………ment 3. in solitary ………ment for at least six weeks 4. local events and ………ment 5. marital ………ment 6. the flexibility of a part-time ………ment 7. proper ………ment by a doctor 8. the art of body ………ment through clothing 9. sexual ………ment 10. her open-mouthed ………ment 11. their ………ment to their family business 12. a(n) ………ment of heroin and cocaine 13. his downfall and subsequent ………ment 14. getting accurate ………ment II. Analyse the formation in bold. It has been recorded as a hapax legomenon, which is a word occurring only once. How many prefixes and suffixes can you recognize, and what are their functions? We wanted to make up with this misunderstandment we got a little while ago. (COCA) III. The query of the search substring re*ment performed in COCA (080722) returned the following items (in alphabetical order): readjustment reappointment recruitment redeployment reemployment reenactment refinement refreshment regiment

reinforcement remeasurement repayment replacement requirement resentment resettlement retirement  

Which of the above items have the prefix re- in the sense ‘repeat what the base denotes’? Which of the above are not prefixed at all?



Chapter 2.  Suffixation 299

IV. Consider the word retirement. Can it be understood as ‘a repeated activity of installing a (new) tire’, analogously to reemployment or reappointment? Is there an argument against the suggested interpretation? Despite the lexicalized sense of retirement ‘the period after sb stopped work because of age’, can the new (suggested) sense supersede the established meaning? If so, how might this happen? Similarly, consider the word refinement. Can it be understood as ‘a repeated activity of fining (someone)’, analogously to the above case of retirement? Despite the lexicalized sense of refinement as ‘improvement; process of improving’, can you provide an argument for accepting the novel, more analytical meaning? V. Provide two semantic interpretations of the word government, one of which is more verbal (processual) and the other more nominal (static). VI. Complete the gapped -ment derivatives by supplying a possible base. The first two letters are given. 1. To die in Jerusalem, pious Jews believe, is to be assured of at……ment. (NW240700) 2. “Why is everyone against us?” they ask with genuine at……ment. (NW121098) 3. However, linguists have expressed ba……ment at this alleged etymology. (TS230121) 4. As a result of the co……ment of key facts about her death from the outset, her parents have been left for far too long without a complete, true account of what happened. (TS261120) 5. She continues to breast-feed him today, according to the family’s pediatrician. Her family supports her in this, even though HIV can be transmitted through breast milk and judges have charged mothers in similar cases with child en……ment. (NW280800) 6. For all the ex……ment and festivity, a woman needs to experience the love of being who she is. (NW071298) 7. Insensitive overde……ment of the Mediterranean coastline, an abundance of jerry-built hotels, and the sheer crush of overcrowding have acted as barriers to many discerning visitors. (NG0492)

Translation VII. Analyse the equivalents of selected English formations in -ment with prefixes mis-, mal-, under- and over-. The equivalents in German, French and Polish have been obtained from Google Translate (GT) and verified by a native speaker (NS). Decide whether these equivalents are correct representations of the English words. Propose alternatives should you consider it necessary.

300 English Complex Words

 

German

French

mistreatment

Misshandlung

maltraitance

Polish

(GT/NS) złe traktowanie; (NS) znęcanie się maltreatment Misshandlung mauvais traitement maltretowanie misinvestment Fehlinvestition mauvais (GT/NS) niedoinwestoinvestissement wanie; (NS) chybiona / zła inwestycja malinvestment Fehlinvestition mauvais (GT) błędna inwestycja; investissement (NS?) underachievement Unzureichende sous-performance (GT) niedoskonałość; Leistung (NS) słabe osiągnięcie/-a; wynik(i) poniżej oczekiwań overachievement Übererfüllung (GT) dépassement; (GT) nadmierne (NS) surpassement osiągnięcia; (NS) osiągnięcia powyżej oczekiwań underdevelopment (GT) in Entwicklung; sous-développement (GT) w budowie; (NS) (NS) Unterentwicklung niedorozwój / zacofanie / zapóźnienia w rozwoju overdevelopment Überentwicklung surdéveloppement (GT) przerost; (NS) przesadny rozwój / przesadna rozbudowa

Propose equivalents of the English words in your first language, if it is different from the above three. VIII. Translate the key formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. Nately gaped at him in undisguised befuddlement. “Now I really don’t understand what you’re saying”. (Heller_1961_261) 2. Then everything was normal again, and the old fear, the hatred, and the bewilderment came crowding back again. (Orwell_1986_205) 3. Along the cliff here finding concealment was no problem. (Hillerman_1996_288) 4. It was then he noticed she was wearing an engagement ring – a ring with an impressive diamond. (Hillerman_1970_168) 5. It is the excitement of communication that seizes her, wrinkling the arch of her nose fiercely […]. (Updike_1964_112) 6. It may be burial alive, or death by fire, or by drowning, or by impalement, or fifty other deaths. (Orwell_1986_225) 7. At each stage of his imprisonment he had known, or seemed to know, whereabouts he was in the windowless building. (Orwell_1986_224) 8. He could not see Renfro’s expression, but he saw Poole’s, her dark forehead creased in puzzlement. (Dillard_1993_67)

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 301



Key I. 1 appeasement; 2 unemployment; 3 confinement; 4 entertainment; 5 maladjustment; 6 arrangement; 7 assessment; 8 adornment; 9 harassment; 10 amazement; 11 commitment; 12 consignment; 13 imprisonment; 14 measurement VI. 1 atonement; 2 attachment; 3 bafflement; 4 concealment; 5 endangerment; 6 excitement; 7 overdevelopment

-monger Introduction The minor suffix -monger belongs to the broad category of participants. Participants are nouns which can be syntactic subjects or objects, including human agents or inanimate instruments. They may be deverbal or denominal. Contrary to the verb-driven agentive suffixes -er and -ant, the suffix -monger attaches to nominal bases. As a result, derived nouns in -monger denote agents in the sense of ‘sellers of, traders in’ or individuals who stir up or cause something indicated in the base. The suffix is rather rare in contemporary English. For other nouns in the category of participants, see -ant, -arian, -ary, -ee, -er/-or, -ess, -ette, -ician, -ie/-y, -ist, -ite, -ster

Translation I. The word monger translates as marchand (de) (French), Händler (German), instigador/-a (Spanish), or handlarz (Polish). The words ending in -monger listed below have frequencies higher than 1 (COCA060722). Their French equivalents proposed by Google Translate have been added. Propose equivalents of the -monger words in another language of your choice. warmonger fishmonger hatemonger whoremonger cheesemonger fearmonger hate-monger scaremonger ironmonger fear-monger gossipmonger

(214) (174) (42) (32) (19) (18) (16) (16) (11) (11) (7)

belliciste poissonnier semeur de haine fornicateur fromager semeur de peur semeur de haine alarmiste quincaillier semeur de peur marchand de ragots

302 English Complex Words killmonger guiltmonger costermonger fontmonger rumormonger scandalmonger powermonger horsemonger mediamonger 

(7) (6) (6) (5) (5) (5) (3) (2) (2)

tueur à gages coupable costumier marchand de polices rumeur mauvaise langue powermonger marchand de chevaux médiatiseur

Add a few other potential formations ending in -monger, and provide their translations into the language of your choice. II. Translate the key formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. When shops changed hands there, it was with a view to immediate and intemperate modernization. The fishmonger was unrecognizable with new super windows behind which the refrigerated fish gleamed. (Christie_1974_9) 2. These right-wingers are hoping senators will be shamed into throwing Clinton out of office. It’s almost certainly doomed to fail, but the hard-liners are desperate. Lott’s lieutenants are quietly grumbling about McCarthyism; they fear a trial that will make senators look like scandalmongers. (NW110199)

-ness Introduction The suffix -ness belongs to the category of Nomina Essendi (abstract deadjectival nominalizations), conveying the nominal concept ‘quality/state of being A’. The base is predominantly a qualitative adjective, meaning that it designates either a physical or abstract quality, for example: big > bigness, fresh > freshness, open > openness, short > shortness, small > smallness etc. The bases may be either derivationally simple or complex adjectives, native or non-native alike. Occasionally, the suffix -ness attaches to nominal bases, derivationally simple (birdness) or complex (down-to-earthness), or other categories (aboutness). In some cases, the suffix -ness has a rival suffix, designating roughly the same sense, for instance: false > falseness/falsity, recent > recentness/recency, singular > singularness/singularity etc.

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 303



The suffix is very frequent and highly productive in contemporary English. The formative is inherited from Germanic (cf. -nisse (Old Frisian), -nisse, -nesse, -nis (Middle Dutch), -nissi, -nessi, -nussi (Old Saxon), -nissi, -nessi, -nassi, -nussi (Old High German)). In Old English, -nes was the suffix usually attached to adjectives and past participles to form nouns expressing a state or condition. A large number of these (bitterness, darkness, drunkenness, hardness) survived in Middle English and modern English. Formations from compound adjectives are also common from the 16th cent. onwards (kindheartedness, self-conceitedness). Formations from nouns, though much less common, were derived in all periods from Old English onwards: some were short-lived (lifeness, wonderness); but some achieved more general currency (milkness, womanness, witness), or were recoined in later periods (belongingness 17th and 20th cent., noseness 16th and 20th cent.). Formations on verbs date mainly from Old English and Middle English, but are few and generally rare. Formations on pronouns and adverbs (downness, me-ness) tend to be restricted to specialized use. Derivations from adjectival and adverbial phrases (at-oneness, donothingness, made-to-order-ness) are not uncommon. Sources: Aronoff (1981: 36–45, 48); Szymanek (1989: 155–157); Bauer (1991: 222); Bauer et al. (2013: 245–246); Arndt-Lappe (2014); the OED; for other Nomina Essendi suffixes, see -acy, -ancy/-ency, -ism, -ity

Construction I. Analyse the following contextualized -ness formations regarding their potential constituent structure. Propose construction patterns on which these formations are based, for example: the cleverness of Odysseus the peacefulness of dusk

clever-ness peace-ful-ness

adjective-ness noun-ful-ness

1. a reflection of the flirtatiousness of the woman 2. the give-no-ground defensiveness of Microsoft’s executives 3. a history of lawlessness begun by pirates 4. a moment of wakefulness 5. the strenuousness of his life 6. the feebleness of death 7. a comic over-expressiveness 8. lulled into forgetfulness 9. the shapeliness of her hips 10. in a state of perfect wirelessness 11. his mulish self-assertiveness 12. that air of wild enclosedness

  etc.

304 English Complex Words

13. economic backwardness 14. signs of patchiness or disease 15. its down-at-the-heel easygoingness II. Fill in the gaps with one word at a time. Each word is to be used twice in (1–8): helplessness, hollowness, readiness, wistfulness. 1. the ……… of his small victory 2. her ……… when she talked about vacations 3. a feeling of deadly ……… 4. an untiring ……… to help and pity one another 5. defiant ……… 6. a sort of pleasant ……… 7. the ……… of the empty house 8. their ……… to cooperate III. The suffix -ness in the formations below is preceded by either -less- or -ful-. Complete the gapped formations with the most appropriate penultimate suffix. 1. Body lice, too, are far more scarce; they lay their eggs in our clothing, an elegant adaptation to hair…ness […]. (NG1298) 2. Across East Asia, the toll of the economic crisis is now measured in soaring job…ness, deepening poverty and increasing desperation. (NW030898) 3. Gore’s duti…ness stands in stark contrast to his sister’s willful rebellion. (NW210800) 4. There was healing laughter and the satisfaction of helping one another find thank…ness for another day of life. (NG0391) 5. What they and I are ashamed of are the venality of the Republican Party, the spine…ness of our Congress and the shapeless idiocy of Kenneth Starr’s entire campaign. (NW191098) 6. I find the life…ness unnerving and I’m glad to be paddling back down the bay. (NT0894) 7. Hillary’s sometimes self-righteous duti…ness may seem quaint or hokey, but to her, public service is still a real and urgent obligation. (NW010399) 8. Yet the peace…ness we felt belied the fury of renewal taking place all about us. (NT0694) 9. Like the rest of Macau, it is engulfed by law…ness six months before the Portuguese colony is to be returned to China. (NW170599) 10. Symptoms include sleep…ness, chronic backaches, headaches and palpitations. (NW140800) 11. With typical resource…ness a few citizens have mastered the arcana of international immigration policy. (NG0291)



Chapter 2.  Suffixation 305

IV. The suffix -ness in the formations below is preceded by another suffix. Complete the gapped formations with the most appropriate penultimate suffix of your choice. 1. Traffic jams in Omaha are infrequent and tend to be showpieces of Midwestern agree…ness, with drivers letting each other in with a wave and a nod. (NG1198) 2. I get up and go sit in the cool attent…ness of the small pool at the end of our seventh-floor villa […]. (NT1294) 3. They are outraged by the brut…ness of their government’s arrests and character assassinations. (NW051098) 4. The angular crystals have no cohes…ness. (NW080399) 5. Germany has for too long suppressed the “unprecedented brutality and grue…ness” of its soldiers during the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union […]. (TS180621) 6. One of the group’s 29 directors has written that whites are “superior” to blacks in several areas, including “intelligence”, “law-abid…ness” and “resistance to disease”. (NW010299) 7. When a boy is 15 or 16, his father wants to hear of his sexual exploits, as proof of his man…ness. (NG0891) 8. The bank got $5.35 for its foreclosure, and the successful bidders returned the goods to Von Bonn. Better times haven’t erased this neighbor…ness. (NG1198) 9. There are limits to China’s permiss…ness: translated copies of the Starr Report, for example, were quickly banned as too sexually explicit. (NW161198) 10. He disciplined himself to stand firm on the budget, then skillfully pin blame for pighead…ness on the Republicans. (NW240898) 11. Mick Schwent, the city’s emergency-prepar…ness director, updated everyone on the key numbers […]. (NG0194) 12. Thus far, the English have watched the rest…ness on their borders with a sort of bemused indifference. (NW170599) 13. Jesus emphasized the bless…ness of humility, patience and peacemaking in his crowning Sermon on the Mount. (NW050499) 14. What good is long life, asks Yoshihiro, if it ends in lone…ness and boredom. (NG0194) V. The suffix -ness in the formations below is preceded by another suffix, which is the same in all of the sentences. Complete the gapped formations with this penultimate suffix. 1. As the heat is released, the whole El Niño cycle begins again, with less cloud… ness in the tropics […]. (NG0399) 2. One of those craggy old journalists who quite enjoys their own crag…ness, McNeil turned out to be a brilliant guide to the uncertainties of the corona world. (TS110321)

306 English Complex Words

3. I hope Christopher will discover, after we are gone, how to take all the craz… ness that is our life and make it into his kind of life […]. (NW100700) 4. Tipper, whose own mother was prone to depression, was struggling with spells of gloom…ness. (NW210800) 5. The decaying vegetation seems to give it added surface tension, a quality almost of oil…ness: rainwater seems to bead up on it. (NG0492) 6. But what is kwaito? […] streetsmart lyrics set to strong, danceable beats, adored by young people and spurned by adults for its irreverence and sex… ness […]. (NW061100) 7. There were no sheets, but the blanket they lay on was threadbare and smooth, and the size and spring…ness of the bed astonished both of them. (Orwell_1986_127) 8. The ex-wife was furious at such sting…ness. She said his payments to her were already “a mere plate of lentils”. (NW161198) VI. Add appropriate adjectives designating nationalities. Propose your own examples of the nationality-ness pattern. 1. The trend is moving away from ………ness and toward a Taiwanese identity. (NW170898) 2. The ………ness of French Canada reaches a kind of climax here in Quebec City. (NT0395) 3. The growing sense of ………ness has developed far beyond sloganeering. In the days of martial law it used to be illegal to speak the Taiwanese dialect in public. (NW170898) VII. Complete the gapped -ousness formations. The first two letters are given. 1. So far, most bombing victims have expressed disappointment in what they see as American ca…ousness to their ordeal. (NW120499) 2. The vi…ousness of these crimes prompted one leading weekly to label France’s young criminals the “new barbarians”. (NW280998) 3. Today the newcomers’ grit and in…ousness have secured them a presence from Texas to Mississippi […]. (NG0792) 4. A ne…ousness moves in as thick as morning fog when we pull ashore to scout the way. (NT0796) VIII. Complete the gapped -ness formations with one-syllable bases: alert, even, flat, fond, great, huge, lame, new, open, other, plump, smug, well, white. 1. Long rows of cotton offer no relief from the disorienting ……ness. (NG0499) 2. […] Japan’s march to economic ……ness. (NW270798) 3. […] the “necessary ……ness” in their officers while on duty. (TS170621) 4. […] overwhelmed by the ……ness of his betrayal […]. (NW290399)

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 307



5. Having a good memory is often just a matter of practicing memory ……ness […]. (TE120600) 6. […] grants for measures to reduce animal suffering, such as rubber walkways to cut ……ness in cattle […]. (TS011220) 7. […] a backdrop of skyscrapers of a scale and ……ness that tell you this is a city on the go […]. (NG0800) 8. How long will the ……ness last? (NW161198) 9. As we skied into the ……ness, I glanced back at the island one last time. (NG1298) 10. Fortunately a little beyond Kelheim the ice thins, and we resume a stately …… ness of progress. (NG0892) 11. Beyond this sense of complete ……ness, I also found China fascinating because it was communist […]. (NT1193) 12. Leggy teenage girls (not yet endowed with the Russian ……ness) preened before the boys. (NG0291) 13. On weekends at the home of his aunt Nancy Ellis, who lived in Boston, Bush railed against the “……ness” of Cambridge. (NW070800) 14. […] Bush’s ……ness for jogging. (NW070800)

Translation IX. Formations consisting of adjectival nationality/ethnic names with the suffix -ness are in general use. COCA (220622) lists numerous such names. Within the first 2,000 word types with the final substring *ness, the following are found (number on the frequency list): 426 490 538 674 676 836 853 879 959 1045

Americanness Chineseness Englishness Germanness Britishness Arabness Frenchness Japaneseness Africanness Mexicanness

1164 1183 1246 1328 1505 1533 1590 1799 1895 1923

Danishness Turkishness Scottishness Welshness Spanishness Swedishness Canadianness Greekness Polishness Brazilianness

Consider several translations (both GT and NS) of the phrase the Chineseness of China:

308 English Complex Words

 

GT

French:

la sinité de la Chine

Spanish: Italian: Portuguese: Romanian: German: Dutch: Swedish: Norwegian: Danish: Icelandic: Russian: Polish: Serbian: Hungarian: Turkish: Japanese: Chinese:

NS

la sinité de la Chine / le caractère chinois de la Chine lo chino de china lo chino de china la cinesità della Cina la cinesità della Cina a chinesidade da China a chinesidade da China Chinezitatea Chinei caracterul chinezesc al Chinei die Chinesen Chinas das Chinesenhafte Chinas / das Chinesische an China de Chineesheid van China de Chineesheid van China Kinas kinesiskhet Kinas kinesiskhet Kinas kinesiskhet Kinas kinesiskhet (?) Kinas kinesiskhed Kinas kinesiskhed kínverska Kína kínverskir eiginleikar Kína kitayskost’ Kitaya kitayskost’ Kitaya chińskość Chin chińskość Chin kineskost Kine priroda Kine, kinestvo Kína kínaisága Kína kínaisága Çin’in Çinliliği Çin’in Çinliliği Chūgoku no Chūgoku-sie Chūgoku no Chūgoku-sei / -rashisa Zhōngguó de zhōngguó xìng Zhōngguó de zhōngguó xìng

Using the template the Chineseness of China and its exemplary translation equivalents, work out translations involving any of the above -ness formations with nationalities into languages of your choice. X. Consult colour-term formations in -ish, obtained from COCA (210622). The present query involving the *ness substring returned ten formations based on colour terms with the suffix -ness (in the first 2,000 most frequent items ending in -ness). These are: 38 52 104 325 326

blackness whiteness redness grayness greenness

460 782 939 996 1901

blueness brownness greyness yellowness purpleness

Explore translations of pairs: colour term and its -ness derivation in languages of your choice. Below is a list of pairs: black ~ blackness and white ~ whiteness in Germanic languages (GT & NS).

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 309



German: Dutch: Danish: Swedish: Norwegian: Icelandic:

schwarz ~ die Schwärze zwart ~ zwartheid; (NS) duisternis sort ~ sorthed; (NS?) svart ~ svärta svart ~ svarthet svartur ~ sorti

weiß ~ das Weiße wit ~ witheid hvid ~ hvidhed vit ~ vithet hvit ~ hvithet hvítur ~ hvítleiki

XI. Translate the -ness formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. […] I feel a profound sense of aloneness. (NG0799) 2. We possess the cleverness of Odysseus, the sublimeness of Homer […]. (NG0700) 3. […] his own daily anxiety and claims that “macho-ness is dated” […]. (TS070521) 4. […] this vacuum is actually seething with activity at the subatomic levels as particles pop in and out of nothingness. (NG1099) 5. And because of its narrowness, it’s easily disrupted. (NG0299) 6. […] Iranians depressed by two decades of official somberness. (TE120600) 7. At Madison Square Garden, Doug blindfolds me. Jade begins weaving – to avoid pedestrians, I suppose – and I lose the sense of straightaheadness that sighted people have, and I nearly panic. (NG1192) 8. […] slightly dizzy from the suddenness of empty space […]. (NG0599) XII. Translate the -ness formations with short bases into the language of your choice. 1. He sagged against the kiosk, fighting to keep the bitterness from his tone. (Dillard_1993_102) 2. However, as calmness wasn’t an end in itself, I made an excuse at the first possible moment […]. (Fitzgerald_1974_94) 3. McKee was absolutely certain he would kill Miss Leon and him with the same coolness. (Hillerman_1970_183) 4. Gatsby was overwhelmingly aware of […] the freshness of many clothes […]. (Fitzgerald_1974_155) 5. But in the hereness of dusk I am moving toward the doomlike bells […]. (Ellison_1972_108) 6. ‘Look at him working away in the lunch hour,’ said Parsons, nudging Winsoton. ‘Keenness, eh?’ (Orwell_1986_48) 7. I was terribly afraid that my father would be angry at my lateness. (Styron_1979_297) 8. The rounded pinkness fell apart like a neatly divided apple. (Huxley_1968_131)

310 English Complex Words

9. He preferred his own standards of urban smartness. (Christie_1965_90) 10. […] the nagging sense of wrongness and urgency that had dogged him for days. (Hillerman_1970_214) XIII. Complete the gapped -ness formations with one-word bases: clever, coarse, little, loud, naked, near, one, pale, sore, stiff, vast, weak. Translate the -ness derivations into the language of your choice. 1. “Danke schön!” she said with clumsy, inexcusable ……ness […]. (Styron_ 1979_279) 2. The pained ……ness of her steps reinforces his illusion that her hips are encased in a plaster cast. (Updike_1964_121) 3. With all their ……ness they had never mastered the secret of finding out what another human being was thinking. (Orwell_1986_135) 4. His body seemed to have not only the ……ness of a jelly, but its translucency. (Orwell_1986_159) 5. […] the claustrophobic ……ness of so many human bodies […]. (Styron_ 1979_109) 6. A thing that astonished him about her was the ……ness of her language. (Orwell_1986_100) 7. […] a desert rat raised in the ……ness of the Four Corners […]. (Hillerman_ 1996_232) 8. The feeling of ……ness, with one’s hands behind one’s head and one’s face and body all exposed, was almost unbearable. (Orwell_1986_175) 9. He sat on the bunk again then, felt the bandages around his eye, and decided the ……ness there was abating. (Hillerman_1996_280) 10. I wanted a life in which there was a constant ……ness of feeling with others, in which the basic emotions of life were shared […]. (Wright_1993_328) 11. […] the ……ness of his muscles. (Hillerman_1970_83) 12. The first sign of ……ness was showing at the eastern edge of the night. (Hillerman_1970_146) XIV. Translate the complex -lessness formations into the language of your choice. 1. She sensed an expanse of freedom before her, and the boundlessness of it excited her. (Kundera_1984_116) 2. She had wondered more than once if this breathlessness could be heart trouble. (O’Connor_1983_98) 3. […] the magical effortlessness of the automatic gearbox enhanced the pleasure. (Lodge_1992_125) 4. Once again the sense of helplessness assailed him. (Orwell_1986_206) 5. […] suddenly feeling a surge of hopelessness […]. (Dillard_1993_211)



Chapter 2.  Suffixation 311

6. He realized now that he could never go to prison, could not permit his life and Helen’s death to fade into meaninglessness. (Dillard_1993_69) 7. I overheard the servant discuss his various lady-friends […] who […] shed precious tears over my cheerful motherlessness. (Nabokov_1955_13) 8. […] with a thrusting vigour and a piratical ruthlessness that women found attractive and competitors feared. (Forsyth_1975_40) 9. […] the unquestioning and enthusiastic welcome reducing him to temporary speechlessness. (Dillard_1993_204) 10. […] a hesitancy which seemed connected with the spiritlessness and fatigue that often overtook her […]. (Styron_1979_108) XV. Translate the complex -fulness formations into the language of your choice. 1. […] a horrifying mixture of cold dutifulness and regret. (Dillard_1993_170) 2. […] with the swift purposefulness of an arrow seeking its target. (Dillard_ 1993_69) 3. […] startled into self-forgetfulness. (Orwell_1986_184) 4. […] conscious of complete truthfulness while telling carefully constructed lies […]. (Orwell_1986_31) 5. […] in a moment of wakefulness. (Orwell_1986_210) 6. His […] confident face retained a healthy-hued youthfulness […]. (Capote_ 1965_16) XVI. Complete the gapped -ness formations with bases ending in -y: dizzy, empty, heavy, jaunty, pretty, silly, sorry. Apply a necessary -y > -i spelling change. Translate the complex -ness derivations into the language of your choice. 1. […] grief that translated itself into an aching physical ……ness […]. (Dillard_1993_219) 2. […] her youth and ……ness had frightened him […]. (Orwell_1986_99) 3. A song of sublime ……ness and repetitive melody was in progress […]. (Lodge_1989_287) 4. A sudden ……ness seemed to flow now from the windows and the great doors […]. (Fitzgerald_1974_62) 5. He […] sat for a moment, head down, while the ……ness passed. (Hillerman_1970_159) 6. […] there was a ……ness about her movements […]. (Fitzgerald_1974_57) 7. Terry came out with tears of ……ness in her eyes. (Kerouac_1991_84) XVII. Construct -ness derivations based on balm, milk, rat, silk, stealth. Add a linking element between the base and the suffix. Translate the complex -ness formations into the language of your choice. 1. It [sunshine] has lost the grainy ……ness of morning sun. (Updike_1964_193) 2. […] their sheer ……ness had a certain allure. (Capote_1958_82)

312

English Complex Words

3. […] the ……ness of the April air had tempted him. (Orwell_1986_68) 4. […] thought in my mind moved with a kind of sluggish ……ness […]. (Chandler_1986_206) 5. They were very good cigarettes, very thick and well-packed, with an unfamiliar ……ness in the paper. (Orwell_1986_141) XVIII. Complete the gapped -ness formations with a penultimate suffix from among the following: -ive-, -ous-, -able-, -ish-. Translate the complex -ness derivations into the language of your choice. 1. […] with the martyred smile of sweet reason…ness […]. (Heller_1961_133) 2. […] with sudden attent…ness. (Dillard_1993_7) 3. With a feeling of omin…ness […]. (Dillard_1993_216) 4. […] its peculiar quality of oppress…ness […]. (Fitzgerald_1974_111) 5. My stomach stirred with queasy sick…ness. (Styron_1979_71) 6. […] his alcoholic combat…ness vanished […]. (Fitzgerald_1993_38) 7. […] the impression of fracti…ness he conveyed. (Fitzgerald_1974_13) 8. […] the enforced obsequy…ness that she shared with her mother. (Styron_ 1979_293) 9. […] small cataclysms […] bring out an unnatural communicat…ness among total strangers. (Styron_1979_58) 10. […] summing up the sadness and suggest…ness of life in new tunes. (Fitzgerald_1974_157) 11. She had sensed the audaci…ness, even the brazenness of the letter as she read it. (Styron_1979_276) 12. McKee stood a moment feeling simultaneously weak from the sudden start and foolish at his skit…ness. (Hillerman_1970_84) 13. The insuffer…ness of life at home had overcome him […]. (O’Connor_1983_370) 14. […] they were dressed with a tawdry precoci…ness which allowed no illusions as to their innocence. (Lodge_1993_157) 15. […] unashamed at her pig…ness and the sugary saliva drooling over fingers and chin, she devoured them all. (Styron_1979_317) XIX. Complete the gapped -ness formations with a penultimate suffix which fits with the rest of the word. Translate the complex derivations into the language of your choice. 1. […] nothing of the single-mind…ness that belongs to a fanatic. (Orwell_ 1986_142) 2. A visit […] will give some idea of how deeply rooted is this belief in pseudo-cottage…ness. (Paxman_1998_165) 3. I felt the brusque deliber…ness with which he pulled his arm away from my hand. (Styron_1979_249)



Chapter 2.  Suffixation 313

4. But except for the eyes he had a plain farmer face, with no stagy kind of hand… ness. (Chandler_1986_214) 5. And being contented has none of the glamour of a good fight against misfortune, none of the pictur…ness of a struggle with temptation […]. (Huxley_ 1968_150) 6. […] I was a little shocked at the elabor…ness of the lie. (Fitzgerald_1974_40) 7. […] a strange and terrifying monster of middle-age…ness […]. (Huxley_ 1968_101) 8. […] her very revolt…ness might prove an enormous asset. (Huxley_1968_93) 9. It might do something for the rot…ness dwelling at the core of your selves. (Styron_1979_252) 10. My South…ness was my strongest suit […]. (Styron_1979_207) XX. Translate the complex formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. […] discretion, aloofness, a sort of saving stupidity. (Orwell_1986_47) 2. […] a far cry from her earlier brusqueness. (Dillard_1993_125) 3. A certain franticness entered the Professor’s life. (Styron_1979_292) 4. […] felt a sudden pang of homesickness. (Lodge_1985_71) 5. The Savage obeyed with a disconcerting literalness. (Huxley_1968_170) 6. […] frightening stories about the mercenariness of American medicine. (Lodge_1992_103) 7. […] O’Brien was about to twist the dial out of sheer wantonness. (Orwell_ 1986_201) 8. […] with a sort of restless zeal, an up-to-dateness of information […]. (Orwell_ 1986_47) 9. […] as though my presence marred the sacredness of the vigil. (Fitzgerald_1974_152) 10. […] done with the same thoroughness in the prole quarters as everywhere else. (Orwell_1986_80) XXI. Translate the following -ness derivations into the language of your choice. Compare your translation results focusing on pairs of the same formations.

1. a. […] her mouth had fallen a little open, revealing nothing except a cavernous blackness. (Orwell_1986_57) b. They stood out in his mind disconnectedly, like pictures with blackness all round them. (Orwell_1986_192) 2. a. Because the English do not consume significantly more alcohol that other European peoples, this booziness must be something to do with the way in which they drink. (Paxman_1998_253) b. […] the itching of the skin above the ankle, the blaring of the music, and a slight booziness caused by the gin. (Orwell_1986_10)

314 English Complex Words

3. a. The bulkiness of her body was a monument to the labour of frequent child-bearing. (Lodge_1993_45) b. There was a wholesome bulkiness about his person and his position […]. (Fitzgerald_1974_157) 4. a. The day was mild, certainly, but it had, as autumn days always had, a certain dampness. (Christie_1965_92) b. At the Community Centre you could always tell when he had been playing table-tennis by the dampness of the bat handle. (Orwell_1986_47) 5. a. If the patrols appeared he might plead an attack of faintness […]. (Orwell_1986_72) b. […] the unvarying white light induced a sort of faintness, an empty feeling inside his head. (Orwell_1986_189) 6. a. […] a bright pang of gladness nevertheless pierced her heart […]. (Fleischer_1989_24) b. […] a drunken tenant wailed and sang in the firm grip of either gladness or grief. (Capote_1965_203) 7. a. […] her conversational opening made him realize his desperate loneliness. (Dillard_1993_125) b. At the enchanted metropolitan twilight I felt a haunting loneliness sometimes […]. (Fitzgerald_1974_63) 8. a. […] she had suffered from a kind of spiritual numbness […]. (Lodge_1993_37) b. […] these last eight years of anguish, turned to misery, turned to what now was simply numbness. (Hillerman_1970_77) 9. a. […] an ample but symmetrical roundness which in turn flowed slightly down […]. (Styron_1979_153) b. He had noticed only the roundness of their eyes and their paleness […]. (Hillerman_1970_220) 10. a. […] life is a moment-to-moment struggle against hunger or cold or sleeplessness […]. (Orwell_1986_84) b. […] there were dark signs of sleeplessness beneath his eyes. (Fitzgerald_1974_91) 11. a. The stillness of late afternoon had settled over the eroded waste below him. (Hillerman_1970_4) b. Her large shapely body seemed to relapse naturally into stillness. (Orwell_1986_131) 12. a. […] feeling the tenseness of muscle fiber flooded with adrenalin […]. (Hillerman_1970_119) b. McKee walked slowly toward the screen, feeling a growing tenseness. (Hillerman_1970_172)



Chapter 2.  Suffixation 315

13. a. I felt an unpleasantness in the air […]. (Fitzgerald_1974_111) b. […] the thought of running into some awful indecent unpleasantness. (Nabokov_1955_57) 14. a. The thing was doubly attractive because of its apparent uselessness […]. (Orwell_1986_78) b. […] a kind of astonishment of the biological uselessness of pain and fear […]. (Orwell_1986_83) 15. a. There will be no distinction between beauty and ugliness. (Orwell_ 1986_212) b. He was aware of his ugliness […]. (Orwell_1986_216) 16. a. A feeling of weariness had overwhelmed him. (Orwell_1986_208) b. The weariness of the cell is the vigour of the organism. (Orwell_1986_209) XXII. Translate the sequences of complex formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. There was a kind of abstractedness in her eyes, a wanness about her smile. (Lodge_1996_246) 2. […] I could not help but feel at the same time a slight but real awkwardness over my bony hide and its hereditary paleness. (Styron_1979_150) 3. But the dreariness, the frightful struggle of life, the indifference of people, the troublesomeness of children – he did not want to be reminded of them at that moment. (Lodge_1993_130) 4. Her eyes had a peculiar glassiness. A murderous glassiness. (Chandler_1986_32) 5. All her rebelliousness, her deceit, her folly, her dirty-mindedness – everything has been burned out of her. (Orwell_1986_205) 6. Robyn felt herself growing warm with resentment of his rudeness, mingled with the consciousness that her own conduct had not been entirely blameless. (Lodge_1989_110) 7. The sweetness of the air and the greenness of the leaves daunted him. (Orwell_1986_97) 8. Solitude and safety were physical sensations, mixed up somehow with the tiredness of his body, the softness of the chair […]. (Orwell_1986_159) 9. He was aware of his ugliness, his gracelessness, a bundle of bones in filthy underclothes […]. (Orwell_1986_235) 10. I suddenly realized that all these women were spending months of loneliness and womanliness together […]. (Kerouac_1991_187)

316 English Complex Words

Key II.

1 hollowness; 2 wistfulness; 3 helplessness; 4 readiness; 5 wistfulness; 6 helplessness; 7 hollowness; 8 readiness III. 1 less; 2 less; 3 ful; 4 ful; 5 less; 6 less; 7 ful; 8 ful; 9 less; 10 less; 11 ful IV. 1 able; 2 ive; 3 ish; 4 ive; 5 some; 6 ing; 7 li; 8 li; 9 ive; 10 ed; 11 ed; 12 ive; 13 ed; 14 li V. the suffix -y, realized as: 1 -i-; 2 -gi-; 3–8 -iVI. 1 Chinese; 2 French; 3 Taiwanese VII. 1 callousness; 2 viciousness; 3 industriousness; 4 nervousness VIII. 1 flat; 2 great; 3 alert; 4 huge; 5 well; 6 lame; 7 new; 8 open; 9 white; 10 even; 11other; 12 plump; 13 smug; 14 fond XIII. 1 loud; 2 little; 3 clever; 4 weak; 5 near; 6 coarse; 7 vast; 8 naked; 9 sore; 10 one; 11 stiff; 12 pale XVI. 1 heavy; 2 pretty; 3 silly; 4 empty; 5 dizzy; 6 jaunty; 7 sorry XVII. 1 milkiness; 2 rattiness; 3 balminess; 4 stealthiness; 5 silkiness XVIII. 1 able; 2 ive; 3 ous; 4 ive; 5 ish; 6 ive; 7 ous; 8 ous; 9 ive; 10 ive; 11 ous; 12 ish; 13 able; 14 ous; 15 gish XIX. 1 ed; 2 y; 3 ate; 4 some; 5 esque; 6 ate; 7 d; 8 ing; 9 ten; 10 ern

-ory Introduction The suffix -ory forms adjectives and, to a limited extent, nouns. As for relational adjectives, the meaning expressed by -ory derivatives is usually transpositional. In other words, there is no semantic content added to the base beyond that provided by the category shift from a noun to an adjective. Adjectives ending in -ory express a few senses, such as ‘destined to, serving for, tending to … what is denoted by the base’. The suffix -ory is selective about the phonological form of its bases. It attaches to bases ending in either s or t. The suffix is modestly productive in contemporary English.

Adjectives The suffix is a borrowing from French (-orie) (Anglo-Norman -orie, Old French, Middle French, French -oire < classical Latin -ōrius, -ōria, -ōrium). Loanwords from Latin (sometimes via French) with this ending are first attested from the Middle English period to around 1700 (accusatory, desultory, contradictory). Formations in English on the Latin past participial stem in -t- or -s- appear from the 15th cent. and become increasingly common until the 19th cent. (contributory, applicatory, malefactory, spoliatory, modificatory).

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 317



Nouns The suffix is a borrowing from French (-orie) (< Anglo-Norman, Old French -orie, Middle French, French -oire < classical Latin -ōria, corresponding to classical Latin -ōrium). The earliest examples date from Middle English (purgatory, dormitory). English formations, mainly on the past participial stem of Latin verbs, or the English verb stems derived from them, are found from around 1500 (repertory, manufactory, observatory). Some nouns with this element have doublets in which the Latin form in -orium is retained (auditory, crematory), besides more frequent forms (auditorium, crematorium).  Sources: Marchand (1969: 338); Aronoff (1981: 29); Szymanek (1989: 237–238); Bauer et al. (2013: Ch. 14); the OED; see other adjectival suffixes, such as -al/-ar, -ic(al), -an, -ary, -ive

Construction I. The following forty adjectives in -ory have been obtained from COCA (060722), and are listed according to their frequency of occurrence. Complete the gaps by providing respective verbs that serve as derivational bases. … > regulatory … > mandatory … > advisory … > respiratory … > contradictory … > inflammatory … > satisfactory … > introductory … > exploratory … > discriminatory

… > explanatory … > participatory … > obligatory … > migratory … > preparatory … > supervisory … > celebratory … > compensatory … > conciliatory … > retaliatory

… > defamatory … > confirmatory … > circulatory … > expository … > anticipatory … > promissory … > accusatory … > contributory … > congratulatory … > hallucinatory

… > exculpatory … > investigatory … > emancipatory … > laudatory … > articulatory … > inspiratory … > masturbatory … > vibratory … > expiratory … > classificatory

II. Given the following potential bases, propose -ory adjectives to be derived from the former. confiscate > … dedicate > … improvise > … initiate > … predator > …

reform > … reveal > … sense > … statute > …  

318 English Complex Words

III. Trace the etymology of the following -ory formations. Propose words morphologically related to the ones listed below. accessory ~ … auditory ~ … compulsory ~ … cursory ~ … derogatory ~ … desultory ~ … excitatory ~ … gustatory ~ … illusory ~ … oratory ~ … repertory ~ … valedictory ~ … IV. The following -ory nouns designate places where certain activities are performed, or things are done or made. Provide an informal note clarifying the character of a given place. 1. ambulatory 2. armory 3. conservatory 4. crematory 5. depository 6. dormitory 7. laboratory 8. lavatory 9. observatory 10. promontory 11. purgatory 12. rectory 13. refectory 14. repository Below is a list of the dictionary definitions (obtained from the OED) of the above terms. Match the term with the appropriate definition. A. a place or receptacle in which things are deposited or placed for safe keeping; B. a room, cubicle etc., having a toilet or toilets as well as washing facilities; C. a room used for communal meals or refreshment, esp. in an educational or religious institution; D. a place or establishment for cremation; spec. an erection for the incineration of corpses;

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E. a place or receptacle in which things are or may be deposited, esp. for storage or safe keeping; F. a living room with a glass roof and glass wall panels, often one constructed on the back or side of a house, used as a sun lounge or for growing indoor plants; G. a place designed for walking; esp. a covered walkway or passage, an arcade; H. a building or place set apart for, and equipped with instruments for making observations of natural phenomena, esp. astronomical, meteorological, or geophysical ones; I. the residence of a rector; J. a condition or place of spiritual cleansing and purification; K. a sleeping-chamber; spec. a room containing a number of beds; a building divided into cells or chambers each having a bed or beds in it; a building in which students reside; a suburb; L. a point of high land which juts out into the sea or another expanse of water; M. a place where arms are kept; an arsenal; N. a room or building equipped for carrying out scientific experiments or procedures; one in which chemicals or drugs are manufactured.

Key I. regulate; mandate; advise; respire; contradict; inflame; satisfy; introduce; explore; discriminate; explain; participate; oblige; migrate; prepare; supervise; celebrate; compensate; conciliate; retaliate; defame; confirm; circulate; expose; anticipate; promise; accuse; contribute; congratulate; hallucinate; exculpate; investigate; emancipate; laud; articulate; inspire; masturbate; vibrate; expire; classify II. confiscatory; dedicatory; improvisatory; initiatory; predatory; reformatory; revelatory; sensory; statutory IV. (after the OED): 1 G; 2 M; 3 F; 4 D; 5 A; 6 K; 7 N; 8 B; 9 H; 10 L; 11 J; 12 I; 13 C; 14 E

-ous Introduction The suffix -ous frequently appears on possessional adjectives. The formative is a borrowing from Latin (-ōsus) (< classical Latin -ōsus (-a, -um), forming adjectives, with the sense of ‘abounding in, full of, characterized by, of the nature of ’, e.g., cōpiōsus ‘copious’, fāmōsus ‘famous’, generōsus ‘generous’, glōriōsus ‘glorious’ etc.). In Anglo-Norman, the forms were the same as in early Old French (a diphthong /ou/), but in English, the vowel was soon identified with Old English and Middle

320 English Complex Words

English long ū, and written ou (glorious). The spelling has been retained ever since, though the sound passed through /u:s/, /us/, /ʊs/ to /ʌs/, /əs/. The ending -ous became the established type for later arrivals, whether adaptations of French adjectives in -eus, -eux, or Latin adjectives in -ōsus, or new formations brought from French, Latin, or other elements. In French, new derivatives were formed freely, based on French, Latin or other sources, and many new formations (the 14th and 15th cent.) passed into English. This process continued in English, where new adjectives in -ous were formed on Latin, Greek, and Romance bases, and on native English words. Direct borrowings of classical Latin and post-classical Latin adjectives in -ōsus were also common (numerous, oblivious, ominous). In English, suffixation with -ous became the regular process of adapting Latin adjectives until the 19th cent. (notorious, conscious, capacious, arduous, hilarious). Nouns of quality based on adjectives in -ous, are regularly formed in -ousness. A considerable number of those from Latin -ōsus have forms in -osity. Sources: Aronoff (1981: 38–45); Szymanek (1989: 243–244); the OED; see other possessional suffixes: -ate, -ed, -ful, -y

Construction I. The forty most frequent formations in -ous (with frequencies) (COCA220622): serious 122,341 various 99,846 religious 94,548 previous 79,539 dangerous 64,149 obvious 56,767 famous 53,631 numerous 35,176 nervous 33,773 anonymous 33,539

enormous 31,716 ridiculous 28,197 curious 26,492 tremendous 21,843 precious 18,995 generous 16,111 conscious 15,918 continuous 15,761 delicious 15,515 mysterious 15,513

indigenous 15,143 gorgeous 14,057 anxious 13,735 suspicious 13,233 ambitious 12,300 jealous 12,297 furious 9,913 unconscious 9,345 glorious 8,633 cautious 8,551

outrageous 8,287 hilarious 8,093 vicious 8,090 hazardous 7,126 notorious 7,087 spontaneous 7,065 rigorous 6,769 infectious 6,389 infamous 6,310 prestigious 6,126

The above adjectives ending in -ous are problematic for segmentation. Some of these can easily be divided into the suffix -ous and some kind of base (mysterious > mystery + -ous), while others cannot (obvious > ?obvi + -ous). Check the above -ous formations regarding their compositionality. In cases where the base-suffix division is unlikely, how can you argue that these words are suffixed at all? II. Provide one basic and one more complex form, each of which is derivationally related to the formation in -ous. Sometimes, more than one form can be added (spaces provided). Example: volume > voluminous > voluminousness. …… > anomalous > …… …… > envious > ……

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…… > …… > flirtatious > …… …… > harmonious > …… …… > humorous > …… …… > malicious > …… …… > miraculous > …… …… > monotonous > …… …… > murderous > …… …… > nebulous > …… …… > perilous > …… …… > pompous > …… / …… …… > poisonous > …… …… > scandalous > …… …… > thunderous > …… …… > virtuous > …… / …… III. Fill in the gaps in the following -ous derivations by providing two missing consecutive letters. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

st…endous …pretentious a…rogynous sanc…monious incons…cuous inte…eligious subcut…eous ram…nctious seren…pitous cre…ceous

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

…gnanimous me…torious discont…uous su…eptitious …latinous sa…ilegious per…taneous lo…acious …glamorous pr…ancerous

21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

obs…uious verti…nous cu…aceous in…spicious a…idextrous cartila…nous autoc…onous her…vorous supe…ilious ca…phonous

IV. Trace the etymology of the following -ous derivations in the OED. analogous boisterous dichotomous envious grievous hideous innocuous malicious meticulous mischievous monogamous

nebulous obnoxious ominous onerous pious precarious spurious tedious tenuous victorious zealous

322 English Complex Words

V. Complete the gapped -ous formations. The first two letters are given. 1. I got near enough […] to get a ve……ous view into the greeny depths of the gorge. (NG1097) 2. This relationship is therefore particularly crucial to building a more ha…… ous racial atmosphere. (TS140321) 3. Stateless in a state where statehood is itself a te……ous thing, Lebanese Kurds have thrown their support to the Kurdistan Workers Party. (NG0892) 4. Bush hardly mentions Harvard today. He loathed what he saw as the university’s liberal, intellectually pr……ous atmosphere. (NW070800) 5. Gone are the days of the cl……ous family gathered around a table groaning with home-cooked food. (NW140800) 6. The sky seemed lu……ous as our boat nosed into a passage through the forest […]. (NT1193) 7. […] the organizers had hoped to capture the spirit of last December’s tu…… ous showdown over global trade […]. (NW100700) VI. Further suffixation of formations ending in -ous has received some attention in morphological theory. According to Aronoff (1981: 37–38), formations in -ous prefer the suffix -ness more than the suffix -ity. For example, fabulous is claimed to combine more easily with -ness (fabulousness) than with -ity (fabulosity). The same is argued to be true of dubious and other adjectives with -ous. Furthermore, Aronoff presents cases of -ous adjectives which do not attach -ity at all (acrimonious/ *acrimoniosity, euphonious/ *euphoniosity, famous/ *famosity). Investigations of this kind, based mainly on a native speaker’s linguistic intuition, have a long tradition (cf. Walker 1936). Let us confront these intuitive claims with results of corpus-based analyses. Based on the results of a COCA search (250622), the following pairs of words in -ousness and -osity are recorded with the frequencies given. First, the search substring *ousness was entered. As a result, the list of variants in -ousness with their frequencies was compiled. Then, the -osity equivalents of the forms in -ousness (with their frequencies) were individually searched and retrieved. nervousness ridiculousness viciousness graciousness dangerousness rebelliousness spaciousness deliciousness preciousness religiousness

1,510 354 328 297 291 184 183 176 175 151

nervosity ridiculosity viciosity graciosity dangerosity rebelliosity spaciosity deliciosity preciosity religiosity

0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 1,373

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industriousness pretentiousness deviousness capriciousness sensuousness

147 128 84 80 57

industriosity pretentiosity deviosity capriciosity sensuosity

0 0 1 1 3

The above frequencies clearly show preference for the -ousness variants over those in -osity. In most cases, there is no variant in -osity recorded in the corpus. In some other cases, the numbers of occurrences of -osity formations are very low. However, in one case (religiosity), the frequency is significantly higher than that of its -ousness equivalent (religiousness), and the remaining derivations besides nervousness. Can the above figures be explained somehow? Provide other statistics of other pairs of the form Xousness and Xosity. Comment on the quantitative results obtained.

Translation VII. Indicate the target languages into which the following individual pairs have been translated. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

ambition > ambitious courage > courageous danger > dangerous fame > famous fury > furious glory > glorious glutton > gluttonous harmony > harmonious hazard > hazardous joy > joyous lecher > lecherous poison > poisonous riot > riotous thunder > thunderous traitor > traitorous

16. venom > venomous 17. virtue > virtuous

ambition > ambitiös mod > modig / mot > modig niebezpieczeństwo > niebezpieczny slava > čuven, slavan / slavni bijes > bijesan hiilgus > hiilgav Vielfraß > gefräßig harmónia > harmonikus peligro > peligroso/-a bucurie > bucuros / bucuroasă débauché > lubrique yad > yadovityy isyan > isyankar þruma > þrumandi prodótis [masc] / prodotria [fem] > prodotikós / prodotiki veleno > velenoso/-a hyve > hyveellinen

VIII. Translate the key formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. Winston was gelatinous with fatigue. Gelatinous was the right word. […] His body seemed to have not only the weakness of a jelly, but its translucency. (Orwell_1986_145) 2. Her eyes had a peculiar glassiness. A murderous glassiness. (Chandler_1986_32)

324 English Complex Words

3. […] her note of ill-concealed fear and obstreperous defiance, when she saw her arch-enemy, a neighbor’s cat, on the top of the high fence […]. (Hawthorne_1961_136) 4. There was something so ominous in this realization of my approaching loss that I began to feel a dull nausea. (Styron_1979_370) 5. Mammy’s lips were large and pendulous and, when indignant, she could push out her lower one to twice its normal length. (Mitchell_1958_36) 6. Matters of a much more extraordinary kind are to be the subject of this history, or I should grossly mis-spend my time in writing so voluminous a work […]. (Fielding_1909_5)

Key II. anomaly > … > anomalousness; envy > … > enviousness; flirt > flirtation > … > flirtatiousness; harmony > … > harmoniousness; humour > … > humorousness; malice > … > maliciousness; miracle > … > miraculousness; monotony > … > monotonousness; murder > … > murderousness; nebula > … > nebulousness; peril > … > perilousness; pomp > … > pompousness / pomposity; poison > … > poisonousness; scandal > … > scandalousness; thunder > … > thunderousness; virtue > … > virtuousness / virtuosity III. 1 stupendous; 2 unpretentious; 3 androgynous; 4 sanctimonious; 5 inconspicuous; 6 interreligious; 7 subcutaneous; 8 rambunctious; 9 serendipitous; 10 cretaceous; 11 magnanimous; 12 meritorious; 13 discontinuous; 14 surreptitious; 15 gelatinous; 16 sacrilegious; 17 percutaneous; 18 loquacious; 19 unglamorous; 20 precancerous; 21 obsequious; 22 vertiginous; 23 curvaceous; 24 inauspicious; 25 ambidextrous; 26 cartilaginous; 27 autochtonous; 28 herbivorous; 29 supercilious; 30 cacophonous V. 1 vertiginous; 2 harmonious; 3 tenuous; 4 pretentious; 5 clamorous; 6 luminous; 7 tumultuous VII. 1 Swedish; 2 Swedish, Danish / Norwegian; 3 Polish; 4 Serbian; 5 Bosnian; 6 Estonian; 7 German; 8 Hungarian; 9 Spanish; 10 Romanian; 11 French; 12 Russian; 13 Turkish; 14 Icelandic; 15 Greek; 16 Italian; 17 Finnish

-ship Introduction The suffix -ship is somewhat related to the category of Nomina Essendi (abstract deadjectival nominalizations), conveying the nominal concept ‘quality/state of being A’. However, it cannot be categorized as a central member of this category. Formations with this suffix express the sense of collectivity or community, as well as status or

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 325



condition. The bases are predominantly nominal. The suffix -ship is fairly productive in contemporary English. The suffix originates in Germanic languages (cf. -scipe, -scype (Old English), -skipi, -skip, -schip (Old Frisian), -schap (Middle Dutch, Dutch), -skapr (Old Norse), -skab (Danish), -skap (Swedish)). In Old English, adjectives and past participles with the suffix -ship denoted the state or condition of being what was expressed by the noun (féondscipe ‘hostility, fiendship’, fréondscipe ‘friendship’). Some -ship formations carried the sense of the qualities, character, or accomplishments of the person denoted by the noun (hláfordscipe ‘domination, lordship’, housewifeship, kingship). The suffix used to be added to nouns forming compounds with a collective sense, quite numerous in Old English (burgscipe ‘municipality’, gieldscipe ‘guild’). Township (túnscipe ‘the inhabitants of a tún’) is the one survival from the Old English period. Many derivations lived on (or were recoined) in Middle English, but few were used beyond the 15th cent. The only complex words with this suffix now in common use are hardship and worship. Major meanings and functions: – the office, position, dignity, or rank of the person designated (ambassadorship, captainship, chaplainship, headship, laureateship, sheriffship, stewardship) – mock titles or humorous styles of address, in which -ship is added to the ordinary designation of a person – adjectives (his uglyship), and adjectival phrases (his beyond-sea-ship) Sources: Szymanek (1989: 208); Bauer (1991: 221); Bauer et al. (2013: 249–250); the OED

Construction I. The forty most frequent ‘human’ bases of formations in -ship, with frequencies (COCA260622) are: leader 65,292 champion 26,151 member 20,063 friend 19,053 partner 18,150 owner 18,064 scholar 16,353 citizen 13,240 fellow 6,300 censor 4,562

dictator 4,520 entrepreneur 3,455 sponsor 2,974 steward 2,576 dealer 2,343 reader 2,050 author 2,017 companion 1,903 craftsman 1,319 guardian 860

lord 850 sportsman 846 rider 796 viewer 764 mentor 718 chairman 711 workman 707 governor 675 homeowner 637 king 485

showman 485 penman 428 librarian 423 marksman 396 professor 390 gamesman 336 mother 323 statesman 313 salesman 287 survivor 279

Analyse the above nouns and explain the vast numerical discrepancies between their respective -ship formations. Add further ‘human’ nouns which could potentially serve as bases for novel -ship derivations. They may still be unattested, but their appearance cannot be precluded.

326 English Complex Words

II. As for the frequency of occurrence, the formation judgeship has been recorded 229 times, while tutorship has appeared 7 times (COCA260622). Between them, there are twenty other formations in -ship derived from names of positions/professions. Relying on your intuition, arrange the following twenty names (derivational bases of -ship formations), according to their presumed frequency of occurrence. Argue for your proposed arrangement. judgeship (229) … ambassador, artisan, assistant, chancellor, clerk, co-author, consul, curator, distributor, editor, general, landowner, minister, pastor, queen, rector, secretary, student, trainee, ward … tutorship (7) III. Complete the gapped -ship formations with: champion, companion, dictator, editor, Fellow, governor, guardian, kin, lecture, relation. 1. regain ……ship for her disabled partner 2. a Woodrow Wilson ……ship 3. the ancient sense of ……ship with nature 4. the women’s heavyweight wrestling ……ship 5. for ……ship and solace 6. the love ……ship 7. a university ……ship 8. under a(n) ……ship 9. under Small’s ……ship 10. the ……ship of California IV. Complete the gapped -ship formations with the following bases: leader, partner, seaman, steward, town, wor. One of these should be used twice. 1. The huge ……ship of KwaMashu, just north of the port city of Durban, is the destination of many of Msinga’s job hunters. (NG0800) 2. Even in the hard light of pragmatic politics, it was difficult to believe that the 15-year ……ship between Mahathir and Anwar could explode so lethally. (NW140998) 3. Shackleton chose five men whose ……ship and fortitude he felt he could trust; two of the men – McNish and John Vincent, a bullying sailor who had worked on trawlers […]. (NG1198) 4. The Shembe church, a Zulu version of Christianity whose members wear traditional Zulu dress and mix ancestor ……ship with Old Testament beliefs, is one of the fastest growing religions in the country. (NG0800) 5. On the train from Beijing to Pyongyang, a North Korean official said to me: “If I stop working for our ……ship, I have a vacant feeling in my heart, I don’t know what to do.” (NW310898)

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6. […] Gore advisers think they can still make a convincing case for Democratic ……ship in the White House. (NW140800) 7. Paul Nkabinde, a Zulu high school teacher, has agreed to be my guide around the ……ship, which is home to a million people. (NG0800) V. Kinship terms in combination with the suffixes -ship and -hood have been recorded in COCA (260622) with the following frequencies: fathership mothership sonship daughtership brothership sistership wifeship husbandship grandmothership grandfathership uncleship auntship

1 330 118 0 2 6 0 0 0 0 0 0

fatherhood motherhood sonhood daughterhood brotherhood sisterhood wifehood husbandhood grandmotherhood grandfatherhood unclehood aunthood

1,383 3,813 0 5 7,557 991 21 0 0 4 0 1

Analyse the frequency figures both vertically (within one suffix) and horizontally (across two suffixes). Comment on the quantitative results across the various derivations. Indicate any factors, linguistic or extralinguistic, that can play a role in the above derivational processes. The kinship term mother can be used in a compound kinship term such as mother-in-law, which has a frequency of use 2,941 (COCA110223). Can this compound serve as a derivational base for -ship or -hood derivations? Check the frequencies of these potential formations in COCA. Comment on your numerical results.

Translation VI. Complete the missing ‘persona ~ persona-ship’ pairs in three Germanic languages.  

dictator ~ dictatorship

governor ~ governorship

king ~ kingship

Afrikaans

diktator ~ diktatuur

 

Frisian

 

Luxembourgish

 

goewerneur ~ goewerneurskap gûverneur ~ gûverneurskip  

kening ~ keningskip Kinnek ~ Kinnekräich

328 English Complex Words

VII. The following six -ship formations have been recorded in COCA (260622) as hapax legomena. Their incidental occurrence most probably means that they have not yet been translated into other languages. Propose your own translations into the language of your choice. matronship ministership princeship salespersonship secretary-generalship technicianship VIII. Translate the -ship formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. You will get no comradeship and no encouragement. When finally you are caught, you will get no help. (Orwell_1986_156) 2. My lawyer says that the whole custody thing – conservatorship, he called it – it […] well, it all comes down to what some psychiatrist […] recommends to the court. (Fleischer_1989_129) 3. Nor would they go through the normal and protracted courtships which good manners had prescribed before the war. (Mitchell_1958_184) 4. Said she guessed licker was spoiling his marksmanship. (Mitchell_1958_18)

Key II. (COCA260622) 1 editor; 2 clerk; 3 ambassador; 4 assistant; 5 landowner; 6 general; 7 distributor; 8 minister; 9 chancellor; 10 artisan; 11 consul; 12 queen; 13 co-author; 14 student; 15 ward; 16 curator; 17 trainee; 18 pastor; 19 secretary; 20 rector III. 1 guardian; 2 Fellow; 3 kin; 4 champion; 5 companion; 6 relation; 7 lecture; 8 dictator; 9 editor; 10 governor IV. 1 town; 2 partner; 3 seaman; 4 wor; 5 leader; 6 steward; 7 town

-some Introduction The suffix -some is a minor adjective-forming affix. It attaches to bases of different syntactic categories (nouns, verbs, adjectives), both, native and non-native. The meaning expressed by -some derivatives is usually transpositional. In other words, there is no semantic content added to the base beyond that provided by the category shift from the base to the adjectival derivative. The exact semantic category of this suffix is not clear. It can be classified as a relational or possessional affix. The formative is modestly productive in contemporary English.

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The suffix -some is related to -sum (Old English, Old Frisian), -sam (German), -zaam (Dutch), -samr (Old Norse), -sam (Swedish) and -som (Danish). In Old English, the formative was employed to derive adjectives from nouns and adjectives (friðsum ‘peaceful’, langsum ‘lasting’). A few of the Old English derivatives were found in early Middle English, but only three are now in use (longsome, lovesome, winsome). In Middle English, a number of new items appeared, some of which soon became obsolete (beisome, friendsome, lustsome), while others lived on (cumbersome, gamesome, handsome, noisome, wholesome). Among derivations coined in the 16th cent., one can find awesome, darksome, healthsome, quarrelsome. Later formations are adventuresome, bothersome, fearsome, lonesome, plaguesome, and various nonce-formations (cuddlesome). The Old English element sum was used after numerals in the plural genitive. In Middle English, this inflectional ending fell into disuse, and the pronoun was treated as a suffix attached to numerals, mainly with numbers from two to ten (twosome, threesome). Sources: Bauer (1991: 225); the OED

Construction I. The list contains the thirty most frequent words ending in -some (COCA060722). (1) Provide the meaning of each complex word in -some. (2) After deleting -some, check if the remaining word constitutes a base which can contribute its meaning to the total meaning. adventuresome awesome bothersome burdensome chromosome cumbersome darksome delightsome fearsome frolicsome gruesome handsome irksome liposome loathsome lonesome meddlesome nettlesome noisome quarrelsome

‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’

< < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < <
oldster, young > youngster etc. The suffix is rather rare in contemporary English, though some low-frequency items can be spotted in corpora. The suffix originates in Germanic, representing a West Germanic type -strjōn-, forming feminine agent nouns; cf. schrijfster (fem) ~ schrijver (masc) ‘a writer’ in Dutch. In Old English, -estre was used to form feminine agentive nouns, in the same way in which -ere was used to form masculine agentive nouns. The suffix was added to the present stems of verbs (lǽrestre ‘female teacher’, hoppestre ‘female dancer’), and to certain monosyllabic nouns of action (séamestre ‘seamstress’). In the south, the suffix

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 331



continued to be predominantly feminine throughout the Middle English period. As a feminine agentive suffix, -ster was still used in the 14th cent. for new formations, but was generally replaced by the French -eresse. From the 16th cent. onwards, older words in -ster were regarded as masculines, and several of them gave rise to feminines in -ess (seamstress, songstress). In the 16th cent., two formations on adjectives occurred: youngster and lewdster. Sources: Bauer et al. (2013: 225–226, 235–236); the OED; for other nouns in the category of participants, see -ant, -arian, -ary, -ee, -er/-or, -ess, -ette, -ician, -ie/-y, -ist, -ite, -monger

Construction I. The following list, obtained from COCA (060722), contains words ending in the sequence -ster. (1) Check the meanings of the complex -ster words. (2) Construct the composite meanings by adding the meaning of the potential base to that of the suffix -ster. Compare the two meanings. aimster brewster bumpster buyster dumpster fraudster gangster hamster herbster hipster hulkster jagster jeepster manster mobster napster oldster prankster roadster songster speedster sportster teamster tipster trickster youngster

‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’ ‘…’

< < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < <
depth, long > length, wide > width etc. The suffix is unproductive in contemporary English. It occurs on a handful of adjectives and verbs. In one use, the suffix -th represents the endings of some lexical items which are characteristic of Germanic languages (bath, birth, death, math, oath). Old Norse and Old English remnants carrying the suffix -th are growth and tilth. In another use, the suffix -th forms abstract nouns of state (filth, health, length, strength, truth). In Middle English, formations such as dearth and depth entered the English lexicon. At a later stage, analogical formations such as breadth, sloth and wealth appeared there as well. Sources: Szymanek (1989: 170); Bauer et al. (2013: 575); the OED; for other Nomina Essendi suffixes, see -acy, -ancy/-ency, -ism, -ity, -ness

Construction I. The adjectives on the left form abstract nouns, preferably with the suffix -th (in the middle). Occasionally, the same adjectival bases take the suffix -ness, also resulting in abstract nouns (on the right). The frequencies of either type of noun are given in brackets (COCA060722). The prevalence of nouns in -th is evident. Nevertheless, nouns in -ness can also be spotted occasionally if the right context is met. In order to show possible differences between -th and -ness equivalents, provide two different contexts, one more appropriate for a -th noun, and the other better suited for a -ness noun. deep long strong true warm wide young

> > > > > > >

depth length strength truth warmth width youth

(22,910) (38,592) (58,373) (135,264) (10,377) (12,972) (49,846)

/ / / / / / /

deepness longness strongness trueness warmness wideness youngness

(65) (2) (4) (30) (32) (33) (13)

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 333



II. Provide -th nouns related to the verbs below. breathe > … grow > … die > … be born > …

Translation III. Provide equivalents of the -th adjectives and nouns listed below in the language of your choice. wealthy ………… ~ wealth ………… healthy ………… ~ health ………… filthy …………… ~ filth ………… worthy ………… ~ worth …………

Key II. breath; growth; death; birth

-ward(s) Introduction The suffix -wards (or its equal variant -ward) is attached to prepositions, adverbs, directional adjectives and some nouns, thereby producing adverbs: after > afterwards, back > backwards, in > inwards, out > outwards etc. east > eastwards, north > northwards, west > westwards etc. side > sidewards, sky > skywards, wind > windwards etc. The two forms -wards and -ward are nearly synonymous, the general sense of suffixed adverbs being ‘in the direction indicated by the first element of the compound’. The -ward equivalent can also be used as an attributive adjective, for example, a backward somersault. The suffix -ward(s) appears to be quite productive in contemporary English. The formative -ward(s) originates in Germanic, corresponding to -weardes (Old English), -wardes (Old Saxon, Middle Low German), -waarts (Dutch) and -warts (early modern German). The variant -wards is preferred in contexts where the intended meaning includes the notion of manner as well as direction of movement (to run backwards). Otherwise, the distinction seems to be that -wards is used when the adverb

334 English Complex Words

is meant to express a definite direction as opposed to other directions (it is moving forwards if it is moving at all, but to come forward, not forwards). Of the two variants, -wards seems to carry a nuance of precision. Consider to drive southwards, which implies that the direction is thought of as contrasted with other possible directions. On the other hand, to drive southward implies the general notion of driving in the direction of a southern goal. Sources: Bauer (1991: 225); Bauer et al. (2013: 328); the OED

Construction I. The forty most frequent formations ending in -ward, with their frequencies (COCA110722): toward 180,796 backward 10,812 upward 10,769 downward 7,276 outward 6,308 inward 4,064 onward 2,620 westward 1,930 northward 1,491 eastward 1,372

skyward 1,104 southward 1,023 homeward 433 windward 421 seaward 397 leftward 295 leeward 285 heavenward 283 rightward 282 rearward 213

landward 209 earthward 108 sunward 100 poleward 90 northeastward 73 northwestward 71 southeastward 48 southwestward 24 floorward 6 groundward 6

tailward 6 starward 5 moonward 5 cityward 4 townward 3 noonward 3 yardward 1 phoneward 1 waterward 1 mouthward 1

Indicate the kinds of bases which attract the suffix -ward(s). Propose your own potential formations using -ward(s), which are analogous to the kinds of bases listed above. II. Complete the gapped -ward formations with appropriate prepositions/adverbs: back, down, in, on, out, up. 1. her …ward passions 2. her early life …ward 3. by …ward physical appearances 4. opportunities for …ward mobility 5. a savage …ward tribal ruled country 6. a(n) …ward spiral of budget cuts

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 335



Translation III. Translate the key formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. In prints tacked to the walls, infantrymen storm a hilltop in British Hong Kong and paratroopers float earthward over Sumatra. (NW040900) 2. The mayor of Siofok, a low-rent resort on the southern shore of Hungary’s Lake Balaton, is so worried about looting while people are looking skyward [during the eclipse] that he has asked all stores and banks to close. (NW090899) 3. When Japan bombed Pearl Harbor and sent its forces blitzing southward across the Pacific in 1941, the military began recruiting top painters. (NW040900) 4. Somewhere near the middle of Oahu’s windward coast – as of any windward Hawaiian coast – comes a stretch where rainfall is heaviest and the vegetation most jungly […]. (NT0593)

Key II. 1 in; 2 on; 3 out; 4 up; 5 back; 6 down

-wise Introduction The suffix -wise is formed within English, by conversion (wise). It is commonly attached to nominal bases, for example: age > agewise, computer > computerwise, drink > drinkwise, food > foodwise etc. Formations with this suffix are variously glossed as expressing ‘the manner of …’, ‘in a … spatial relation to’, ‘from the point of view of …’ and some others. The formative -wise is very productive nowadays. It can be seen in commercial spots, where numerous hapax legomena are coined (Moneywise, pricewise). Catchy instances of ambiguity between the adverbial suffix -wise and adjective wise are exploited. Sources: Bauer (1991: 225); Dalton-Puffer & Plag (2000); Bauer et al. (2013: 329–331); the OED

Construction I. The hyphenation of complex words is a tricky business in English. Below is a summary of hyphenated and non-hyphenated variants ending in (-)wise from among the most frequent one hundred items, with their frequencies (COCA110722). Analyse some of the high and low frequencies of individual items, as well as the non-occurrence of certain either hyphenated or non-hyphenated variants. Propose your explanation of the data obtained.

336 English Complex Words

clockwise 2,603 lengthwise 1,631 stepwise 668 pairwise 665 counterclockwise 585 streetwise 270 pennywise 109 careerwise 33 piecewise 90 sidewise 81 healthwise 58 percentagewise 18 moneywise 50 timewise 47 weatherwise 44 wordwise 41 businesswise 12 policywise 11 personalitywise 7 talentwise 14 pricewise 17 familywise 9 sunwise 27 agewise 6 energywise 9 plotwise 15 sizewise 4 stylewise 6 worldwise 9 anticlockwise 22 designwise 5 securitywise 2 widthwise 20 contentwise 1 experimentwise 8 foodwise 11 medicinewise 20 crabwise 19 drivewise 19 coastwise 18 budgetwise 1 waterwise 12 leasewise 17

clock-wise 7 length-wise 17 step-wise 83 pair-wise 114 counter-clockwise 122 street-wise 64 penny-wise 36 career-wise 101 piece-wise 3 side-wise 3 health-wise 77 percentage-wise 61 money-wise 44 time-wise 42 weather-wise 37 word-wise 4 business-wise 46 policy-wise 39 personality-wise 35 talent-wise 37 price-wise 32 family-wise 29 sun-wise 1 age-wise 27 energy-wise 26 plot-wise 25 size-wise 25 style-wise 24 world-wise 24 anti-clockwise 16 design-wise 22 security-wise 22 width-wise 9 content-wise 20 experiment-wise 20 food-wise 20 medicine-wise 2 crab-wise 3 – – budget-wise 18 water-wise 18 –

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 337

costwise 7 jobwise 5 transferwise 15 workwise 14 numberswise 1 lookswise 2 – – saleswise 3 qualitywise 1 timingwise 2 relationshipwise 1 musicwise 4 appearancewise 2 – genderwise 5

cost-wise 15 job-wise 15 – work-wise 14 numbers-wise 14 looks-wise 14 football-wise 14 distance-wise 14 sales-wise 13 quality-wise 13 timing-wise 13 relationship-wise 12 music-wise 12 appearance-wise 12 economy-wise 11 gender-wise 11

Translation II. Translate the key formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. After Afghanistan, the US has effectively stepped back from global interests security-wise. (TS121121) 2. He snuggled up to it [=Hilary’s body] spoonwise, curving himself around the soft cushion of her buttocks […]. (Lodge_1985_95)

-worthy Introduction The suffix is formed within English, by conversion (worthy). It is attested as the second element of compound adjectives as early as the 13th cent. Later Middle English formations (deathworthy, thankworthy) occur from the 14th cent. onwards, while blameworthy is attested in the 16th cent., and praiseworthy, noteworthy, creditworthy, nameworthy in the 17th cent. Major meanings and functions: – deserving of what is specified by the first element (blameworthy, noteworthy, praiseworthy) – in a condition suitable for use in the environment specified by the first element (battle-worthy, roadworthy, seaworthy) Source: the OED

338 English Complex Words

Construction I. Below there is a summary of hyphenated and non-hyphenated variants ending in (-)worthy from among the most frequent items, along with their frequencies (COCA110722). noteworthy 3,675 trustworthy 2,915 newsworthy 919 praiseworthy 324 creditworthy 125 blameworthy 106 buzzworthy 30 roadworthy 24 trailworthy 10 prizeworthy 3 crushworthy 4

note-worthy 13 trust-worthy 14 news-worthy 13 praise-worthy 19 credit-worthy 41 blame-worthy 4 buzz-worthy 33 road-worthy 17 trail-worthy 4 prize-worthy 7 crush-worthy 6

While non-hyphenated variants are generally preferred, when are hyphenated items prominent numerically? II. Fill in the gaps with the appropriate nouns (artworks, body, line, manicure, opera, recipes, shelter, snapshots, species, wines), which collocate well with the following -worthy formations. 1. age-worthy … 2. beach-worthy … 3. chuckle-worthy … 4. garden-worthy … 5. museum-worthy … 6. restaurant-worthy … 7. salon-worthy … 8. stage-worthy … 9. such postcard-worthy … 10. weatherworthy …

Translation III. Translate the formations below into the language of your choice. award-worthy book-worthy fame-worthy headline-worthy movie-worthy

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 339



news-worthy Nobel-worthy Oscar-worthy photo-worthy quote-worthy tabloid-worthy Youtube-worthy

Key II. 1 wines; 2 body; 3 line; 4 species; 5 artworks; 6 recipes; 7 manicure; 8 opera; 9 snapshots; 10 shelter

-y Introduction Derivatives with the suffix -y can be categorized as either possessional or similitudinal adjectives. In the former sense, they are paraphrasable as ‘having …’ or ‘full of …’. In the latter, they can be paraphrased as ‘like …’, ‘similar to …’ or ‘having characteristics of …’. The suffix -y attaches freely to all kinds of nouns and some adjectives (e.g., colour terms), compounds and phrases, for example: bone > bony, dirt > dirty, fur > furry, hunger > hungry, spider > spidery, wealth > wealthy etc. One can expect any short, monosyllabic concrete noun to be able to attract the suffix -y. A unique subcategory of nouns that draw the formative are names of animals (pig > piggy), whose adjectivizations display various metaphorical effects. Adjectives in -y are highly productive in contemporary English. Both the literal (greasy) and figurative (skinny) senses can be detected across numerous -y derivatives. The suffix -y is of Germanic origin; cf. -ig (Old Frisian), -ig, -ich (Middle Dutch, Dutch -ig), -ig, -eg, -ec (Middle High German, German -ig), -igr, -ugr, -agr (Old Norse). In Old English, numerous adjectives with -y were in use, and some continue to be used to this day. The following periods were enriched by new -y arrivals: – (13th cent.) dreary, fiery, hairy, needy, sleepy; deverbal -y adjectivizations in the sense ‘inclined or apt to do something’, or ‘giving occasion to a certain action’; (the 16th cent.) new formations (choky, drowsy, slippy, sticky) – (14th cent.) angry, bushy, earthy, fatty, flowery, heady, hearty, milky, mucky, smoky, sweaty

340 English Complex Words

– (15th cent.) already established adjectives received an extra adjectival sense by means of suffixation with -y (hugy < huge, leany < lean); (the 16th and 17th cent.) more such derivations (bleaky, cooly, plumpy, thicky) – (16th cent.) cottony, frothy, leafy, mealy, saucy, sugary, woolly, yeasty – (17th cent.) measly, peppery, skyey – (later, more colloquial) dumpy, flighty, hammy, lumpy, lungy, messy, oniony, treey, vipery – (19th cent.) nonce-words, with a hint of ridicule, or contempt (beery, churchy, newspapery) Sources: Marchand (1969: 353); Aronoff (1981: 63); Szymanek (1989: 240–241, 253–254); Bauer et al. (2013: Ch. 14); the OED; for other possessional suffixes, see -ate, -ed, -ful, -ous; for other similitudinal suffixes, see -ed, -ish, -like, -ly

Construction I. Analyse the following two lists (A and B) of expressions containing -y derivations. Based on the senses of the -y derivations grouped under A and B, list A can be characterized generally as …, while list B can be described, also generally, as …. Account for your decision. A. ……… senses: her angry screams the brushy dirt-and-boulder track a chilly, windy position a long, creaky stairway large, creamy white, globe-shaped flowers the drizzly day strong fruity flavors a fidgety baby greasy grey hair forced and jerky movements leaky shoes a noisy, crowded place oaky flavors oily hands a pair of stretchy lime green pants it is hot and sunny

B. ……… senses: a beery male atmosphere a bloody awful place a cheeky grin a cheesy face a foxy writer that glassy world a hearty handshake a lousy country a mousy little woman in a black-and-white uniform nosy people peering into your garden two black piggy eyes a shadowy expectation of getting into heaven her spidery writing on an envelope      

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 341



II. Colour terms can take either the suffix -ish or -y, in similar contexts where some approximation to the colour named in the base is made. Consider the frequencies of selected colour terms with either suffix (COCA260622). reddish 1,712 blu(e)ish 958 greenish 918 yellowish 747 brownish 545 purplish 374 blackish 158 orangeish 3 amberish 2 crimsonish 0

reddy 652 bluey 35 greeny 69 yellowy 44 browny 19 purpl(e)y 32 blacky 77 orangey 72 ambery 2 crimsony 1

1. Explain the general preference to append the suffix -ish, rather than -y, to several colour terms. 2. As a special case, explain the higher frequency of orangey than that of orangeish. 3. Account for the comparatively lower frequencies of the bases amber and crimson, with either suffix. III. Names of animals combine with both -ish and -y, resulting in similitudinal senses. Derivations with either suffix are mostly metaphorical in meaning, that is, they derive from the basic name certain conspicuous features, which are mapped onto a different domain not involving animals (for details, see Lakoff & Johnson 1980; Kövecses 2010). Consider the following quantitative results of two COCA (260622) searches of animal names with either suffix. animal name + -ish sluggish 2,742 bullish 1,410 sheepish 688 bearish 616 dovish 211 wolfish 136 piggish 57 kittenish 56 waspish 50 mulish 49 swinish 33 apish 27 goatish 22 tigerish 18

animal name + -y sluggy 46 bully 6,808 sheepy 25 beary 152 dov(e)y 67 wolfy 37 piggy 2,008 kitteny 5 waspy 99 muley 120 swiney 9 apey 3 goaty 17 tigery 0

342 English Complex Words hoggish 9 doggish 7 sharkish 3 snakish 3 wormish 3 froggish 3 larkish 3 cattish 3 doveish 6 bulldoggish 2 skunkish 2 rattish 1 elephantish 1 lionish 0 fishish 0 mouseish 0

hoggy 4 doggy 1,371 sharky 79 snak(e)y 191 wormy 164 froggy 295 larky 23 catty 409 dovey 66 bulldoggy 1 skunky 84 ratty 882 elephanty 0 liony 4 fishy 1,519 mous(e)y 357

1. Explain the general preference to append the suffix -ish, rather than -y, to several animal names. 2. Provide some explanation of higher numbers of formations in -y, such as waspy, snak(e)y, wormy, catty, dovey, ratty, compared to their -ish equivalents. 3. Explain exceptionally high frequencies of bully, piggy, doggy, froggy, catty and ratty, among all -y formations. 4. Account for the stark quantitative discrepancy between fishish (0) and fishy (1,519), as well as mouseish (0) and mous(e)y (357). IV. Complete the gapped -y derivations with the following bases: beer, blue, booz(e), bucket-and-spade, flash, flirt, flour, noodle, steel, syrup, throat, tourist, willow. 1. “Bill was real ……y with the girls, and the girls loved it,” says Addington. (NW191098) 2. But even as we stared into the ……y haze where, 3,000 yards ahead, rose the green hills of the place we had both feared as Red China […]. (NG1298) 3. It was one of those all-night gabfests when graduating students, in ……y camaraderie, bare their deepest feelings. (NW100700) 4. Towns such as Donaghadee, Ardglass, Dundrum and Newcastle – ……y in the best possible way – are a delight. (TS270321) 5. A stout, elderly farmer stood splay-legged at the bar firing ……y broadsides at the English […]. (NT0793) 6. The quintessential Englishman was courteous, reserved, unemotional and ……y. (NW170599)

Chapter 2.  Suffixation 343



7. Unlike the typical ……y Indian tycoon, Infosys executives dress simply and drive locally made cars. (NW270999) 8. In the 1980s, eager music lovers listened raptly to tapes of ……y Cantonese love songs […]. (NW021000) 9. […] Gracie’s chowder is loaded with chunks of clam. […] it’s ……y and tastes like bacon. (NT0795) 10. Her exercise equipment still waits, including a wooden ladder-like thing that she climbed to keep her ……y figure. (NT1294) 11. Another breakfast staple is katong laksa, a spicy ……-y seafood soup […]. (TS040321) 12. Locals often offer out-of-towners a sunset picnic beneath the coconut palms at Magic Island, a park where ……y Waikiki shades into the real Honolulu. (NT1196) 13. With a ……y crescendo from the boiler, the locomotive, a 1907 model, jolts to a gentle start […]. (NT0793) V. Complete the gapped -y derivations with possible bases. The first two letters are given. 1. I must’ve tried a hundred clam chowders. This is the best. I tried it. It really was good – cl……y, well balanced, delicious. (NT0795) 2. Sonoita Creek wanders through a beautiful gr……y valley of horse ranches […]. (NT0394) 3. I got near enough […] to get a vertiginous view into the gr……y depths of the gorge. (NG1097) 4. Somewhere near the middle of Oahu’s windward coast comes a stretch where rainfall is heaviest and the vegetation most ju……y. (NT0593) 5. […] big populations of forest elephants and gorillas, which show themselves in small me……y clearings […]. (NG0301) 6. Shuttling demitasse-size cups of sweet, mi……y tea to the boisterous tables, Khan paused to tell me about himself. (NG1097) 7. The double-decker megajumbo A380 Airbus will be ro……y enough for you to stretch out […]. (NW300401)

Translation VI. The following noun-adjective pairs involve common names of objects encountered in everyday life, all over the world. Therefore, many languages have their equivalents of these names. Establish these names in several languages of your choice. Next, explore the possibilities of translating respective -y adjectives into these languages. Six languages have already been explored (GT & NS).

344 English Complex Words

 

German

French

Polish

cloud > cloudy

Wolke > wolkig

chmura > pochmurny

dirt > dirty dust > dusty

Schmutz > schmutzig Staub > staubig

fat > fatty

Fett > fettig

flower > flowery foam > foamy

Blume > blumig Schaum > schaumig

fruit > fruity hair > hairy

Obst > fruchtig Haar > behaart / haarig

juice > juicy leaf > leafy

Saft > saftig Blatt > belaubt / blättrig / blattartig

unage > nuageux saleté > sale poussière > poussiéreux graisse > grasseux fleur > fleuri mousse > mousseux fruit > fruité cheveu > chevelu; poilu jus > juteux feuille > feuillu

 

Swedish

Spanish

Turkish

leather > leathery meat > meaty milk > milky onion > oniony

läder > läderartad kött > köttig mjölk > mjölkig / mjölkaktig lök > lökaktig / lökig

kösele > kösele gibi et > etli süt > sütlü soğan > soğanlı

rain > rainy sand > sandy silk > silky soap > soapy

regn > regnig sand > sandig silke > silkig tvål > tvålig / tvålaktig

steel > steely water > watery

stål > stålfast / stålartad vatten > vattnig

cuero > correoso carne > carnoso leche > lechoso cebolla > (GT) cebolla lluvia > lluvioso arena > arenoso seda > sedoso jabón > jabonoso acero > acerado agua > acuoso

brud > brudny kurz > zakurzony tłuszcz > tłusty / zatłuszczony kwiat > kwiecisty piana > pienisty / spieniony owoc > owocowy włos(y) > włochaty / owłosiony sok > soczysty liść > liściasty

yağmur > yağmurlu kum > kumlu ipek > ipeksi sabun > sabunlu çelik > çelik gibi su > sulu

German: die belaubten Alleen ‘the leafy avenues’; blättriges Gemüse ‘green leafy vegetables’; French: poilu ref. to body hair; Swedish: lökig exists, but only in the metaphorical sense of ‘lazy, bad’; Spanish: a descriptive phrase such as it tastes like an onion is the most appropriate. The adjective aliáceo covers the smell of both garlic and onion (without distinction).



Chapter 2.  Suffixation 345

VII. Translate the key formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. Compare the translations of both derivations of the same kind. 1. I took a guided walk through this quiet, leafy area with a group from the Atlanta Preservation Center. (NT0193) 2. He was something of a legend at his high school in the leafy suburb of Cedar Grove […]. (NW021000) 3. The most touristy reach of the river had once been the front line in the bush war […]. (NG1097) 4. For a less touristy alternative, try any locally frequented pivnice, or pub. (NT0593) VIII. Complete the gapped -y derivations with grass and milk. Translate these into the language of your choice. 1. Her face had turned a ……y yellow colour against which her mouth stood out redder than ever. (Orwell_1986_87) 2. They had picked the very crest of the high ……y ridge between Red Wash and Little Ship Rock Wash. (Hillerman_1996_110) 3. Catherine, was a slender, worldly girl of about thirty, with […] a complexion powdered ……y white. (Fitzgerald_1974_36) 4. […] he found that they were in a natural clearing, a tiny ……y knoll surrounded by tall saplings […]. (Orwell_1986_98) 5. Sandoval dipped the ceremonial gourd into the pot, filling it with the hot, ……y fluid […]. (Hillerman_1970_92) IX. Complete the gapped -y derivations with: bag, biscuit, chalk, chance, cheese, gossip, pepper. Translate these into the language of your choice. 1. He pushed open the door, and a hideous ……y smell of our beer hit him in the face. (Orwell_1986_72) 2. Her face was ……y with dust. White and strained. (Hillerman_1970_239) 3. It mingled with her own ……y odour, and my senses were suddenly filled to the brim. (Nabokov_1955_17) 4. Charlie went to the lobby and phoned Susanna. Instead of her ……y Italian accent, he got her bland answering machine and hung up. (Fleischer_1989_175) 5. Farming is always a ……y business, but in western Kansas its practitioners consider themselves “born gamblers” […]. (Capote_1965_14) 6. I stand at attention between his legs […] and eye with admiration the ……y substantiality of what overhangs the marble bench upon which he is seated. (Roth_1971_54) 7. And now it seemed that this ……y woman knew more about the witching incidents than she had been willing to admit. (Hillerman_1970_60)

346 English Complex Words

X. Translate the complex formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. Pubescent Lo swooned to Humbert’s charm as she did to hiccupy music. (Nabokov_1955_110) 2. But the hand which I now saw […] was lean, corded, knuckly, of a dusky pallor […]. (Stevenson_1979_88) 3. […] the apprehension aroused by the model-y glamour, the brutish origins, above everything, the sexual recklessness […]. (Roth_1971_208) 4. Except for a few pimpy-looking guys, and a few whory-looking blondes, the lobby was pretty empty. (Salinger_1964_69) 5. The soft, rainwatery glass was not like any glass that he had ever seen. (Orwell_1986_78) 6. Knees rubbery, Kimble leaned against the ambulance’s flank for a few seconds. (Dillard_1993_66) 7. Here were produced rubbishy newspapers containing almost nothing except sport, crime and astrology […]. (Orwell_1986_37) 8. They were mostly old, show-offy-looking guys with their dates. (Salinger_ 1964_69) 9. Do I want people to look down on a skinny little boy all my life, or to look up to a man? (Roth_1971_16) 10. I find that smart-alecky stuff sickening myself. (D’Souza_1992_221) 11. The train was full of proles, in holiday mood because of the summery weather. (Orwell_1986_97) 12. […] there were many false alarms – flashes of tiger-striped fur that, upon inspection, were not him. But one day, one cold sunshiny Sunday winter afternoon, it was. (Capote_1958_110) 13. The instrument wailed and sobbed with a throaty timbre that seemed the very voice of the evening. (Lodge_1992_204)

Key I. A Literal senses; B Metaphorical/ figurative/ non-literal senses IV. 1 flirt; 2 blue; 3 booze; 4 bucket-and-spade; 5 beer; 6 steel; 7 flash; 8 syrup; 9 flour; 10 willow; 11 noodle; 12 tourist; 13 throat V. 1 clammy; 2 grassy; 3 greeny; 4 jungly; 5 meadowy; 6 milky; 7 roomy VIII. 1 milk; 2 grass; 3 milk; 4 grass; 5 milk IX. 1 cheese; 2 chalk; 3 biscuit; 4 pepper; 5 chance; 6 bag(g); 7 gossip

Chapter III

Compounding

Noun-noun compounds Introduction The vast majority of noun-noun compounds in English are endocentric compounds whose constituent structure consists of a modifier noun and a head noun (Bauer 1991: 202–204). Take book cover, for example, where book is a modifier and cover is the head of the compound. As the name suggests, the head is the main element which determines the meaning of the whole compound. The modifier plays an auxiliary role, by making the composite meaning more specific. Book cover primarily designates a kind of cover that protects objects such as books. In endocentric compounds, the positions of a modifier and a head are fixed. Modifiers always precede their heads. Or else, heads are always the rightmost elements of such compounds. Heads may be preceded by a sequence of modifiers.

Construction I. Analyse the following pairs of endocentric compounds with constituents in swapped positions. Indicate a modifier and a head in each case. Paraphrase each compound, by focusing on its major element and modifying it appropriately. 1 3 5

sugar cane leather shoe flower garden

…………………… …………………… ……………………

2 4 6

cane sugar shoe leather garden flower

…………………… …………………… ……………………

Translate the above endocentric compounds into the language of your choice. Pay attention to the mechanisms governing endocentric compounds in these languages, such as word order, prepositions, inflectional endings etc. For example, in French, the equivalents of the compounds in (1–6) are as follows: 1. canne à sucre 3. chaussure en cuir 5. jardin de fleurs

2. sucre de canne 4. cuir à chaussure / cuir pour chaussure  6. fleur de jardin

348 English Complex Words

In inflectional languages, features such as the grammatical gender of the head noun are taken into consideration. The modifying element must conform to its head, with regard to any such features. While both constituents are formally nouns in English, the first one is semantically understood as an adjective. In an inflectional language like Polish, this can be shown in the following way: sugar cane ‘trzcina cukrowa’

cane sugar ‘cukier trzcinowy’

In either case in Polish, the head is a noun, that is, the underlined words trzcina and cukier. Also, in each case, the post-head modifier (a denominal adjective) is inflectionally marked for gender, e.g., cukrowa ‘sugarA-FEM’ and trzcinowy ‘caneA-MASC’. In Polish, the grammatical gender of the adjective is dictated by that of the head noun, namely, trzcina ‘cane’ is feminine, while cukier ‘sugar’ is masculine. Propose further examples of compound pairs whose word order can be swapped. Paraphrase these compounds and translate them into the language of your choice. Examples: music shop ~ shop music, beer bar ~ bar beer II. Consider the following groups of endocentric compounds. Provide further examples of compounds conforming to the ones in each line. Pay special attention to the choice of the head noun. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

chess champion rush hour car industry headache bus stop haircut gas station

judo champion lunch hour music industry muscle ache tram stop tax cut train station

world champion contact hour IT industry toothache ferry stop power cut police station

… … … … … … …

… III. Provide short paraphrases of the following compounds, explaining their compressed meanings. Example:

heatwave – a period of high temperatures

school term climate change heating bill vassal state banana republic security chief aircraft carrier road bridge arms expert missile test

stock markets defence giants coalition split risk obsession culture war trade talks court ruling energy strategy death toll food waste

death rate Russian oil ban energy dependence water firms unemployment figures gun control housing emergency sex drive pothole plague safety measures



Chapter 3.  Compounding 349

IV. Compounds are used extensively in journalistic English. An important reason for their use in the press is their compact form, which simultaneously carries a compressed message that needs to be unpacked in order to be processed and comprehended. In the following newspaper headlines (The Times), complete the gaps with missing compounds. The missing compounds are to be recreated on the basis of the paraphrases given in brackets. Pay attention to word order. The number of missing words matches the letters (a, b etc.). 1. Ireland is one of the most expensive ………… (a) ………… (b) in Europe. (TS080722) [destinations chosen by tourists] 2. Italy suffers drought while Spain burns as ………… (a) ………… (b) grips southern Europe (TS200622) [wave of hot weather] 3. Black Death origin: ………… (a) ………… (b) may have come to Europe via Silk Road. (TS160622) [disease that is like a killer] 4. ………… (a) ………… (b) cast a cloud over Europe’s summer season. (TS200522) [shortages of staff] 5. Putin threatens Europe’s ………… (a) ………… (b)  – but backs down. (TS010422) [supply of gas] 6. If you believe in China’s ………… (a) ………… (b), now is the time to buy. (TS090722) [story about growth] 7. Lisbon ………… (a) ………… (b) is bad news for Britain. (TS270622) [boom in the number of talented people] 8. China’s reawakening fuels ………… (a) ………… (b). (TS060622) [upturn of the market] 9. Channel ………… (a) ………… (b) hit by massive ………… (c) ………… (d) in Germany, France, Britain and Netherlands. (TS060722) [gangs operating on boats; raids carried out by police] 10. China to build permanent ………… (a) ………… (b) for Covid. (TS170522) [hospitals providing quarantine] 11. War in Ukraine forces reduction in ………… (a) ………… (b) for Europe. (TS150722) [forecasts that predict growth] 12. ………… (a) ………… (b) ………… (c) ………… (d) may breach European human rights law. (TS170722) [zones that are buffers for clinics that perform abortion]

350 English Complex Words

13. Chancellor Scholz ‘damaging Germany’ over ………… (a) ………… (b) ………… (c). (TS140422) [row over weapons to be sent to Ukraine] 14. ………… (a) ………… (b) ………… (c) fuel anger across Europe. (TS080622) [increases in the price of petrol] 15. Nimbys and ………… (a) ………… (b) blow Germany’s ………… (c) ………… (d) ………… (e) off course. (TS040622) [lovers of birds; campaign promoting clean energy] V. The most frequent noun collocates of coffee and school are table and district, respectively (COCA190722). From the following list of nouns, choose the ones (20) which collocate with coffee and the ones (20) that collocate with school, forming established compounds. Additionally, order the collocates in both groups according to their expected descending frequency of occurrence with coffee and school, respectively. administrator / bar / beans / board / break / bus / cake / children / choice / consumption / counselor / cup / day / diploma / filter / graduate / grinder / house / kid / library / machine / maker / mug / music / official / personnel / place / plantation / pot / principal / production / psychologist / roaster / room / shop / stain / student / system / teacher / year coffee table / … school district / … VI. The compounds below consist of more than two elements. Put the scattered items in the right order to produce expected compounds. Paraphrase these compounds to unpack their compressed meanings. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

…………… …………… …………… …………… …………… …………… …………… …………… …………… ……………

paper / waste / basket cut / tax / gas day / centre / care ranking / toilet / system / public shooter / Texas / school weekend / holiday / bank floor / shop / worker office / head / staff future / growth / population improvement / life / slowdown / expectancy

‘…………’ ‘…………’ ‘…………’ ‘…………’ ‘…………’ ‘…………’ ‘…………’ ‘…………’ ‘…………’ ‘…………’

Chapter 3.  Compounding 351



VII. In English, there are a few dozen names of small fruit that carry the element -berry (Aronoff 1981: 10, 33). According to the OED, the noun berry designates: any small globular, or ovate juicy fruit, not having a stone; in Old English chiefly applied to the grape; in modern popular use, embracing the gooseberry, raspberry, bilberry, and their congeners, as well as the strawberry, mulberry, fruit of the elder, rowan-tree, cornel, honey-suckle, buckthorn, privet, holly, mistletoe, ivy, yew, crowberry, barberry, bearberry, potato, nightshade, bryony, laurel, mezereon, and many exotic shrubs; in Scotland and north of England, it means the gooseberry.

In many cases, complex names with the element -berry are dialectal, and are not widely used, or even recognized. Some of such names may designate either specific fruit or higher-order plants that include several individual instances of this type of fruit. Given their numbers, -berry nouns can be said to form a lexical category. In the table below, there are forty -berry nouns, with their frequencies (COCA190722). All of them are listed in the OED, in the sense of (plants bearing) small fruit. strawberry 4,740 blackberry 4,614 cranberry 2,603 raspberry 2,295 blueberry 1,902 mulberry 909 huckleberry 884 gooseberry 158 elderberry 151 hackberry 124

dewberry 101 thornberry 100 barberry 85 roseberry 68 boysenberry 64 bayberry 60 serviceberry 44 chinaberry 40 bilberry 39 winterberry 38

crowberry 37 lingonberry 32 snowberry 32 dingleberry 32 rowanberry 30 sugarberry 27 bearberry 27 loganberry 20 inkberry 19 salmonberry 19

beautyberry 15 juneberry 15 cloudberry 14 wolfberry 13 teaberry 11 coralberry 9 deerberry 4 brambleberry 2 boxberry 1 groundberry 1

Analyse the names above. First, carry out the segmentation of these names (i.e., divide them into their possible constituents). Second, check which of the initial components (those preceding -berry) are semantically relevant in contemporary English. Third, indicate which initial components contribute their meanings, if any, to the composite name of a given fruit. For example: strawberry > straw + berry strawberry ‘the ‘fruit’ (popularly so called) of any species of the genus Fragaria, a soft bag-shaped receptacle, of a characteristic colour (scarlet to yellowish), full of juicy acid pulp, and dotted over with small yellow seed-like achenes. It is eaten alone or crushed with sugar and cream (or wine)’ straw ‘the stems or stalks (esp. dry and separated by threshing) of certain cereals, chiefly wheat, barley, oats, and rye. Used for many purposes, e.g., as litter and as fodder for cattle, as filling for bedding, as thatch, also plaited or woven as material for hats, beehives etc.’ (the OED)

352 English Complex Words

Forth, list -berry names which are semantically opaque, that is, the addition of the meanings of both components does not result in the composite (lexicalized) meaning of the entire -berry compound. Most noun-noun compounds are endocentric compounds whose constituent structure consists of a modifier noun and a head noun (school building). However, there are some compounds in English which do not show the modifier-head structure. Their internal composition is far less transparent, although two components can usually be segmented, for example: skinhead, greenback, wagtail, buttercup, hammerhead etc. They are called exocentric compounds (Bauer 1991: 203). Many of their meanings are lexicalized and only partially analyzable (skin + head). A note on hyphens in compounds It has been noted by numerous morphologists that the orthography of noun-noun compounds is notoriously inconsistent in English. They can be either hyphenated, written as solid words, or written as two separate words (without a hyphen) (Bauer et al. 2013: 55). Different sources, dictionaries included, disagree with each other. Occasionally, one can find inconsistent orthography of the same compound in the same source. In this chapter, all examples given retain the original orthography as it is used in the original source. VIII. Complete the following noun-noun compounds with appropriate modifying nouns: boy, bullet, child, dot, fuel, gas, jet, man, night, skin, space, spy, steam, street. 1. Through an online service he easily found work at a ……-com company called Capitalnet. (NW021000) 2. […] she participated in a ……time ……hunt in the fields to nail a friend having sex with her ……friend. (NW280800) 3. Israeli ……masters were aghast when they learned of the Mossad’s latest plan to find new recruits […]. (NW140800) 4. French Prime Minister Lionel Jospin capitulated on ……-tax cuts. (NW021000) 5. I am swept along by the boarding passengers, including several ……-age grandparents trying to reassure ……-age grandchildren that this smoking behemoth is a trustworthy conveyance. (NT0793) 6. Opposition supporters stormed the building, seizing ……proof vests, Kalashnikovs and pistols […]. (NW161000) 7. Some 1,000 German truckers will hit the road to Berlin on Tuesday to demand ……-tax cuts […]. (NW021000) 8. ……-corner sociologists deride the stay-at-home-with-mamma phenomenon as il mammismo, or “mamma’s boy syndrome”. (NW140800) 9. The more aggressive organizations include Czech ……heads who regard the IMF as a tool of Jewish bankers. (NW250900)

Chapter 3.  Compounding 353



10. The ……-age factories at the Zhongshan Torch Industrial Area in Guangdong are an almost mirror image of Taiwan’s. (NW140800) 11. Last week they closed all government-run kindergartens and ……-care centers. (NW231000) IX. Complete the noun-noun compounds headed by man/men with appropriate modifiers: head, hench, gun, middle, trigger. 1. He figured the Internet could ax the ……men who each take a cut on fares and bookings down the line. (NW240700) 2. The ……man’s vest was unbuttoned now and he held the pistol in his right hand, close to the body. (Hillerman_1970_254) 3. The villagers had never seen Westerners before. Moore, following her custom, asked for the ……man. (NG0800) 4. The most dangerous man in the room was Georges Watin […] one of the OAS’s most dangerous ……-men. (Forsyth_1971_15) 5. Loyal ……men, surrounded by muscular bodyguards, took their seats in the Yugoslav Parliament’s makeshift headquarters […]. (NW161000)

Translation X. Translate the following compounds into the language of your choice. 1. I want a hard-target search of any residence, gas station, farmhouse, henhouse, doghouse, and outhouse in that area. (Dillard_1993_56) 2. What Chee was looking for in the school bus was some trace of cow manure, or cow hair, or wool, or any other evidence that the vehicle had been used to haul animals other than schoolkids. (Hillerman_1996_11) 3. He took two of the bullets out of the rubber, and using the pliers from the tool-box under the kitchen sink carefully prised the noses off them. […] The case of the now useless cartridges he threw in the ash-can. (Forsyth_1971_364) 4. They were, needless to say, somewhere at the ass-end of nowhere on a really deserted stretch of nothing. (Fleischer_1989_117) 5. He paused, rubbed his shirtsleeve across his forehead. (Hillerman_1996_183) 6. He put his hat on the Formica tabletop and rubbed his hand through his old-fashioned crew cut […]. (Hillerman_1996_15) 7. Just before the lunch-hour struck, Marc Rodin shrugged into his greatcoat and went downstairs. (Forsyth_1971_32) 8. When I brought my schoolbooks home, she would turn the pages slowly, looking at them without reading them, fingering the pages delicately. (Kazan_1968_241) 9. A pulsing headache moved from the back of his skull to the area around Charlie’s eyes […]. (Fleischer_1989_105)

354 English Complex Words

10. He glanced around from the coffeepot, where the hot water was still dripping through the grounds, and hesitated. (Hillerman_1996_15) 11. The bodies were later found hanging from balconies and lamp-posts minus ears and noses. (Forsyth_1971_21) 12. Rumpled sleeves and pantlegs coated with mud, Newman staggered behind him. (Dillard_1993_55) 13. […] a young nurse helped me into a wheel-chair and took me out into the sun. (Kazan_1968_442) XI. Translate the following exocentric compounds into the language of your choice. 1. The tribes in their innocence had no idea that these canvas-topped palefaces might come from a place bursting with restless millions more like them. (NG0900) 2. In one white-knuckle incident 21 years ago a tire blew on takeoff from Washington. (NW070800) 3. White-collar professionals like teachers and architects can expect to make about 2 million lire, or $955 a month. (NW140800) 4. Arms dealing, it seems, is a very cut-throat business. (Forsyth_1971_241)

Key IV. 1 (a) tourist (b) destinations; 2 (a) heat (b) wave; 3 (a) killer (b) disease; 4 (a) staff (b) shortages; 5 (a) gas (b) supply; 6 (a) growth (b) story; 7 (a) talent (b) boom; 8 (a) market (b) upturn; 9 (a) boat (b) gangs; (c) police (d) raids; 10 (a) quarantine (b) hospitals; 11 (a) growth (b) forecasts; 12 (a) Abortion (b) clinic (c) buffer (d) zones; 13 (a) Ukraine (b) weapons (c) row; 14 (a) Petrol (b) price (c) rises; 15 (a) bird (b) lovers; (c) clean (d) energy (e) campaign V. coffee: shop / cup / mug / beans / pot / house / maker / machine / break / cake / bar / grinder / room / filter / plantation / roaster / consumption / production / place / stain school: student / year / board / system / counselor / library / teacher / psychologist / bus / official / day / children / administrator / personnel / principal / diploma / choice / kid / graduate / music VI. 1 waste paper basket; 2 gas tax cut; 3 day care centre; 4 public toilet ranking system; 5 Texas school shooter; 6 bank holiday weekend; 7 shop floor worker; 8 head office staff; 9 future population growth; 10 life expectancy improvement slowdown VIII. 1 dot; 2 night, man, boy; 3 spy; 4 gas; 5 steam, jet; 6 bullet; 7 fuel; 8 Street; 9 skin; 10 space; 11 child IX. 1 middle; 2 gun; 3 head; 4 trigger; 5 hench



Chapter 3.  Compounding 355

Noun-verb-ed/-en compounds Introduction Compounds exemplifying the noun-verb-ed/-en pattern consist of the main element in the initial position and a modifier in the second position. The major component is a noun, while the modifier is a participial -ed/-en derivative, which may be converted (zero-derived) to a verb from a noun. From among numerous noun-verb-ed/-en compounds, it is possible to elicit instances which cluster around a few lexical categories, such as names of plants, names of natural entities or phenomena, animal names, names of entities or parts, place names, and possibly others. The activities below explore such lexical clusters in more detail.

Construction I. Complete the gapped noun-verb-ed/-en compounds, beginning with names of plants, by providing appropriate -ed/-en participial derivatives: clad, covered, fed, filled, flanked, flecked, fringed, scented, shaded, studded, thatched. 1. Here the famed 50-mile Trail Ridge Road climbs above dense pine forests and columbine-………… meadows […]. (NT0394) 2. […] orchid-………… meadows and active volcanoes highlight the 220-mile loop drive encircling Hawaii’s Big Island. (NT0394) 3. […] we suddenly merge onto an imposing palm-………… avenue punctuated by the manicured entrances of high-rise hotels. (NT1294) 4. […] the Talimena Scenic Byway roller-coasters for 54 miles past pine-…… …… peaks, sparkling blue lakes, and woodlands […]. (NT0394) 5. We headed up the sage-………… hills behind the Mosher place […]. (NT0795) 6. East of the Alaska Highway, the wide spruce-………… valleys roll away like some deep green sea […]. (NT0593) 7. Guests stay in three cottages: the drowsy Pond House, by the willow-………… pond. (NT1196) 8. They drink wine from the Andean foothills, eat grass-………… beef from the Pampas and lamb from Patagonia. (NT0894) 9. In a dry spot under a palm-………… shelter I found myself invading the personal space of a tapir […]. (NT0295) 10. […] it is a tranquil and flawless assemblage of mellow golden houses and cottages […] gathered around an old mill and a noble, tree-………… church. (NT0894) 11. We paddled into a stiff, cold head wind and from time to time caught decidedly warm and spruce-………… breezes. (NT0593)

356 English Complex Words

II. Complete the gapped compounds, ending in -ed/-en participles, by providing names of natural entities or phenomena: drought, ice, lightning, rain, salt, snow, spring, sun (x2), weather, wind. 1. …………-scarred, …………-scoured foxtail pines clung to improbable footholds in the cliff above us. (NT0694) 2. Above a(n) …………-fed swimming lagoon, a dilapidated courtyard flanked by fallen columns looked like an illusion […]. (NT1294) 3. […] a scattering of …………-dwarfed piñon, juniper, and creosote bush, a stony surface on which nothing moved. (Hillerman_1970_266) 4. We found our first prehistoric petroglyph a half hour into the hike, a crude, …………-worn outline of a human figure on a rock slab […]. (NT0995) 5. The …………-warmed islands of the Florida Keys unfurl south of Florida City. (NT0394) 6. […] the enormous shadowy dome of the Adler Planetarium looms behind lines of …………-whipped trees […]. (NT0394) 7. A slim, …………-swept dock extends into the bay’s gray waters. (NT0993) 8. Kimble […] began moving again, cautiously making his way over the …………-covered sidewalk to the muddy, …………-strewn hotel entrance. (Dillard_1993_2) 9. I […] was rewarded with a view of …………-washed dunes undulating as far into the distance as I could see […]. (NT0795) III. Complete the gapped animal names, beginning noun-verb-ed/-en compounds. The first letter is given. Two animal names are used twice. 1. It was a remarkable parade down a skinny country track that ran between forested hills on one side and a rushing, t………-filled river on the other. (NT0795) 2. After leaving the f………-infested care center, the counselors said that four children had died during the harvest. (NY060501) 3. Western dude ranches simply ain’t the strictly h………-powered places they used to be. (NT0795) 4. Down on the canyon floor the highway twists along t………-filled Oak Creek […]. (NT0394) 5. The British were not prepared to commit themselves on the Somme offensive as long as the French persisted in pressing this h………-brained scheme. 6. The police are here to help in these cases. The bobby swelled with understanding and e………-eyed vigilance. 7. Streets built for h………-drawn trolleys led me around the impossibly steep hillsides […]. (NT0894) 8. Tall as a door, b………-shouldered, Will Harris had once had his throat eaten out by a mad dog […]. (Capote_1961_49)



Chapter 3.  Compounding 357

IV. Complete the gapped -ed/-en participles, which are parts of noun-verb-ed/-en compounds beginning with names of entities or parts. The first two letters of the participles are given. 1. […] Ellen said in a razor-ed……ed whisper. 2. At the same moment, Biggs was moving toward them, a pair of mud-en…… ed leg irons in his hands. (Dillard_1993_55) 3. The 1704 House seems impossibly old, with its rusty stone walls, small diamond-pa……ed windows, dark-red wood trim, and flat-topped dormers […]. (NT0593) 4. The less formal Widow Bingham’s Tavern offers the same menu amid wainscoted walls and basket-hu…… ceilings. [irregular form] (NT1196) 5. More often than not, it seems, windsurfers are streaking across the bay with candy-co……ed sails. (NT1196) 6. Our hotel, Las Brisas, sat just at the edge of town, its brick-pa……ed poolside patio fronted by small, motel-style rooms. (NT1294) 7. The closed, air-co……ed rooms lacked the open-air charm of other Mexican resorts […]. (NT1294) 8. […] the area functions like a sort of brick-pa……ed town common. (NT0694) 9. There is one kind of female monkey which has a pinkish heart-sh……ed area on the chest […]. 10. He fishes a hand-wr……en score from a black bag and sits back down at the piano. (NT0894) 11. He ran his hand over the silky fabric of her dress; it was dry except for a tennis-ball-si……ed spot. (Dillard_1993_25) 12. Mich. 22 winds north past vineyards before veering south around sailboat-do……ed Grand Traverse Bay to Traverse City. (NT0394) 13. I passed through a statue-fr……ed portal and entered a vast Gothic space. (NT0993) 14. Bowls of appetizers appear followed by the main course (oven-ba……ed steak, Wiener schnitzel) accompanied by heaping side dishes […]. (NT0795) 15. Guests at the Red Lion feel right at home sinking into one of the lobby’s Victorian velvet-co……ed sofas […]. (NT1196)

Translation V. Translate the noun-verb-ed/-en compounds, beginning with names of natural entities or phenomena, into the language of your choice. 1. […] a “Relocation Navajo” – a child of one of those unfortunate families moved off the drought-stricken Reservation to urban centers during the 1930’s. (Hillerman_1970_260)

358 English Complex Words

2. Groups of young tourists sit on the sun-warmed cobbles of the bridge […]. (NT0593) 3. […] looking out through the pines toward the sunkissed Pacific Ocean, I recalled the surfers I’d seen on my first day in La Jolla. (NT1193) 4. A northern land of time-softened mountains and long blue lakes, New York’s Adirondack Park captivates visitors in every season. (NT0394) 5. Our tiny cottage, clinging to a breeze-swept cliff above the sea, had beaded curtains […]. (NT0194) 6. Rain-swept cliffs plunged into the clear blue ocean. 7. […] Mark Twain National Forest, where spring-fed creeks flow through deep, wooded valleys. (NT0394) 8. After snorkeling with rainbow-hued tropical fish […], I drive to Islamorada […]. (NT0394) 9. But it was the ingenious utilitarian objects – an 1889 vacuum cleaner, an antique wheelchair, a book pressed to flatten humidity-warped pages – that intrigued me. (NT1196) VI. Translate the noun-verb-ed/-en compounds, beginning with place names, into the language of your choice. 1. To explore this vast, rolling landscape, drive 180 miles south from the hill-rimmed city of Manhattan toward the Oklahoma border. (NT0394) 2. It’s a circuit that takes in the broad fjords and mountain-lined valleys of the west and north. (NT0694) 3. Gone are the days of the clamorous family gathered around a table groaning with home-cooked food. (NW140800) 4. […] everything from Manhattan-priced suites to $18-a-night backpacker dormitories. (NT0295) VII. Translate the noun-verb-ed/-en compounds, beginning with a mix of names, into the language of your choice. 1. Just breathing the cocoa- and mocha-scented air was enough to set my salivary glands into action. (NT0993) 2. From there I could look out on the orange-tiled roofs of the Old Town. (NT0993) 3. Each morning the couple descend five flights of a graffiti-scarred stairwell […]. (NW050799) 4. The scene is a magical mix of offshore islands and hag-toothed mountains […]. (NT1196) 5. Photographer Tom Bean and I have joined Henington, a baby-faced Texan with a white Stetson and a quick-draw smile […]. (NT0395) 6. Taking a fan-packed train from downtown, I set off for Wrigley Field. (NT0394)

Chapter 3.  Compounding 359



7. The ancient Khmer temple sits on the lawless northern frontier of Cambodia, throttled by malaria-infested jungle. (NG0800) 8. The CIA embarks on a new, public and perhaps permanent role – referee in one of the world’s most complex and vendetta-ridden crisis zones […]. (NW021198) 9. What could have been a greater, sadder ruin than war-torn Beirut in the seventies? (NT1196)

Key I. 1 flecked; 2 studded; 3 flanked; 4 clad; 5 covered; 6 filled; 7 fringed; 8 fed; 9 thatched; 10 shaded; 11 scented II. 1 Lightning, snow; 2 spring; 3 drought; 4 weather; 5 sun; 6 wind; 7 rain; 8 ice, salt; 9 sun III. 1 trout; 2 fly; 3 horse; 4 trout; 5 hare; 6 eagle; 7 horse; 8 buffalo IV. 1 edged; 2 encrusted; 3 paned; 4 hung; 5 colored; 6 paved; 7 conditioned; 8 paved; 9 shaped; 10 written; 11 sized; 12 dotted; 13 framed; 14 baked; 15 covered

Noun-verb-ing compounds Introduction A small cluster of compounds based on the noun-verb-ing pattern can be established. The initial element is a noun, typically an abstract one. The second component is a verb-based participial derivative in -ing. As opposed to noun-verb-ed/-en compounds, which are passive in meaning, noun-verb-ing patterns express active senses.

Construction I. Fill in the gaps in the compounds of the form noun-verb-ing. The following verbs need to be used: inspire, love, pierce, spout, stop. 1. Along the way, the former leftist became a Bible-……ing Baptist. (NW280800) 2. Giving birth is the most awe-……ing and exciting experience you and your partner will ever share. 3. What is most heart-……ing in life can turn to pathos melodrama. 4. […] at the top you can experience the same heart-……ing view that a ski jumper sees just before launching into space. (NT0795) 5. […] I decided to return to basics, to burrow back to the roots of Chicago, to touch the simpler, sports-……ing soul of this sparkling place. (NT0394)

Key I. 1 spout; 2 inspire; 3 pierce; 4 stop; love

360 English Complex Words

Noun-verb-er compounds Introduction Compounds sanctioning the noun-verb-er pattern constitute a very productive category among English complex words. Here are some exemplary lexical clusters: name-of-drink-drink-er: coffee drinker

beer drinker

wine drinker

… drinker

blues singer

… singer

theatre goer

… goer

wheelchair user

… user

name-of-music-genre-sing-er: soul singer

opera singer

name-of-place-go-er: church goer

gym goer

name-of-object-use-er: computer user

drug user

Construction I. Make up your own examples, instantiating the following half-specific templates (the initial nominal element is a variable): noun-killer noun-eater noun-dancer noun-player

… … … …

List your own examples, illustrating your own half-specific patterns, based on the general noun-verb-er schema. II. Provide initial nouns that complete the gapped noun-verb-er compounds below. 1. By the time the party is over, though, the ……goers are gone and the sun is riding the edge of the horizon, sweeping the beach in a lonely purple light. (NT1294) 2. My parents were not ……goers, and observed the Sabbath only to the extent of forbidding me and my brother to play in the street on Sundays. (Lodge_1996_231) 3. The driveway snaked through an endless expanse of green lawns illuminated by powerful floodlights and patrolled by armed ……-handlers.

Chapter 3.  Compounding 361



4. A host of other singles services have sprung up, from ……walkers to alarm systems to agencies that will water your plants or bring you aspirin and coffee when you’re hung over. (NW140800) III. Provide verbs that complete the gapped noun-verb-er compounds. 1. He has tended to be overshadowed this season by the more flamboyant Asprilla, but he’s pacey, skilful and a deadly finisher. A potential match-……er. 2. Then, on a branch overhead, we spied a white hawk – a known snake-…… er. (NT0596) 3. The inveterate woman-……er suddenly realised that it was advantageous to have a wife. 4. By 1994, Canadian politicians were so horrified by the brazenness of the law-……ers that the government rolled back the cigarette taxes to reduce demand for illegal cigarettes. (NW100700) 5. The poverty of a family which lost its wage-……er – such suffering could not be solved by compensation, alone, but conditions could be eased. 6. For many sight……ers crawling along the cliff-top road in pea soup fog […] Big Sur has a terrifying aspect. (NG0800) 7. So what we get is the story of Chili Palmer who comes to Hollywood to chase up a client who has defaulted on a debt he owes to a loan shark, or money…… ers. IV. Analyse the meaning(s) of the noun-verb-er compound, such as eye-opener. Example: This demonstration will be quite an eye-opener for most industry representatives. Compare its meaning(s) with those of compounds, such as can opener, bottle opener, letter opener, door opener, on the one hand, and series opener, conference opener, conversation opener, album opener etc., on the other. Which of the two groups is eye-opener closer to, if at all? Does the division into literal and figurative meaning play a role in analysing the above cases? Imagine the following, not impossible, situation in which a new gadget is used. The small device is called eye-opener, and it is used for lifting the eyelids of a sleepy person who finds it problematic to get up in the morning. In what way is the meaning of this novel compound different from the one which is already lexicalized?

Translation V. Recover the noun-verb-er English equivalents of the translations into three randomly chosen languages. Indicate the three languages involved.

362 English Complex Words

 

English

a. …

b. …

c. …

1

…

theedrinker

2 3 4

… … …

rapzanger feestganger bibliotheekgebruiker

konzument čaju / milovník čaju rapový spevák návštevník párty používateľ knižnice

(GT) çay tiryakisi; (NS) çay çaysever rap şarkıcısı parti müdavimi kütüphane kullanıcısı

Key II. 1 beach; 2 church; 3 dog; 4 dog III. 1 win; 2 eat; 3 hate; 4 break; 5 earn; 6 see; 7 lend V. 1 tea drinker; 2 rap singer; 3 party goer; 4 library user; a Dutch; b Slovak; c Turkish

…-…-er compounds Introduction Complex words ending in -er may assume diverse forms and may instantiate somewhat different word-formation patterns. The most general …-…-er schema is compatible with more concrete templates, as long as they consist of any two elements, the latter ending in -er.

Construction I. Complete the gapped …-…-er compounds consisting of two hyphenated words, whose meanings correspond to the definitions given below each sentence. 1. These …………ers are hoping senators will be shamed into throwing Clinton out of office. (NW110199) ‘person or group supporting the ideas and beliefs of capitalism’ 2. It’s almost certainly doomed to fail, but the …………ers are desperate. (NW110199) ‘a politician who wants political problems to be dealt with in a strong and extreme way’ 3. Here he hired a second-hand 1962 vintage Alfa Romeo sports …………er. (Forsyth_1971_246) ‘a vehicle or a piece of furniture with seats for two people’ 4. What humiliation. Beaten 2–0 by a bunch of …………ers, and probably knocked out of the World Cup in consequence. (Lodge_1996_259) ‘someone who works for only part of each day or week’

Chapter 3.  Compounding 363



II. Consider two …-…-er compounds: rumrunner and drug smuggler in the following context: The Glades have a history of lawlessness begun by pirates, picked up with gusto by plume hunters and Prohibition-era rumrunners, and carried on today by drug smugglers. (NG0792) The compounds rumrunner and drug smuggler can be defined rather straightforwardly as: rumrunner – someone who brings illegal rum from one country to another drug smuggler – someone who brings illegal drugs from one country to another However, there are …-…-er compounds that are less compositional and whose meanings may not be established in a straightforward, linear manner. Analyse and define …-…-er compounds, such as home-aloner, dot-comer and do-gooder, as used in the contexts below: The current generation of home-aloners came of age during Europe’s shift from social democracy to the sharper, more individualistic climate of American-style capitalism. (NW140800) Definition of home-aloner: … Celia’s, a Mexican restaurant in Palo Alto is usually packed with the who’s who of Silicon Valley: young dot-comers in black, venture capitalists and Nobel Prize winners in jeans. (NW240700) Definition of dot-comer: … Even those who disagreed with her ideas had to concede begrudgingly that hers was the work of a genuine do-gooder. Definition of do-gooder: …

Translation III. Complete the following …-…-er compounds, by providing missing elements. Translate these compounds into the language of your choice. 1. The widely reported suicides of two German policewomen in 1997 and 1998 – both were intimidated and ostracized for their go-……er attitudes – heightened public awareness. (NW140800) 2. Instead of saving for their kids’ college education, the home-……ers are prepared to fork out on personal-fitness trainers, seaweed cellulite wraps and stiletto heels. (NW140800) 3. Ikea, the Swedish furniture giant renowned for its clean design and low prices, has become a household name, and more and more Chinese are becoming ……-it-yourselfers. (NW091000)

364 English Complex Words

4. Central Europe’s up-……-comers are too busy rebuilding their battered economies to dwell for too long on the evils of global brands. (NW250900) 5. You got to get people around him with good spirit, and take those damn ……-to-5ers off. (NW201100) 6. Pressed to stretch every dollar when we entertain, locals often offer out-of-…… ers a sunset picnic beneath the coconut palms at Magic Island […]. (NT1196)

Key I. 1 right-wingers; 2 hard-liners; 3 two-seater; 4 part-timers III. 1 go-getter; 2 home-aloners; 3 do-it-yourselfers; 4 up-and-comers; 5 9-to-5ers; 6 out-of-towners

Adjective-verb-ed/-en compounds Introduction There is another large group of compounds which are primarily adjectival. These compounds serve as complex modifying expressions within larger constructions, usually complex noun phrases. The initial element of this type of compound is an adjective, which is followed by a passive participial -ed/-en derivative. The latter may have a conspicuous nominal source, subsequently converted (zero-derived) to a verb, and finally turned into an -ed/-en participle, for example: brimN > brimV > brimmedPart […] he wore cowboy boots and had a wide-brimmed gray felt hat pushed under his chair. (Hillerman_1970_230) From among numerous adjective-verb-ed/-en compounds, it is possible to elicit instances whose meanings cluster around a few lexical categories, such as buildings, scenery and nature, living beings, and possibly others. The activities below exploit and explore such semantic clusters in more detail.

Construction I. The following adjective-verb-ed/-en compounds are used to describe buildings. Complete the gapped -ed parts with beam, brow, ceiling (x3), floor, heat, hue, roof (x3). 1. The car stopped under a high-………ed storm porch. 2. Just beyond lies Pahaska Tepee, a guest ranch whose large, steep-………ed main building was once Buffalo Bill Cody’s hunting lodge. (NT0394)



Chapter 3.  Compounding 365

3. The Eight Bells is a snug, friendly little pub with low-………ed ceilings […] and stone-flagged floors. (NT0894) 4. I […] followed the trail of tourists along a passageway […], first into the austere, low-………ed cells of the early Benedictines. (NT0394) 5. Snowshill is a drowsy, quintessential Cotswold village, a huddled gathering of steep-………ed, golden-………ed cottages ranged around a sloping green […]. (NT0894) 6. My high-………ed bedroom reflected the Marshall touch […]. (NT1196) 7. There’s an alfresco wooden shower stall, with solar-………ed water bags outside. (NT1196) 8. Here the Copper Queen Hotel holds sway, a creaky-………ed Edwardian place with half the world’s supply of leather easy chairs. (NT0394) 9. In the low-………ed canteen, deep underground, the lunch queue jerked slowly forward. (Orwell_1986_46) 10. A man in white stepped down from the verandah of his long low-………ed house and invited us in. II. The following adjective-verb-ed/-en compounds are used to describe scenery and nature. Complete the gapped -ed parts with bark, grass, hue, peak, top. 1. I was […] in the middle of a vast never-never nothingness of spinifex, mulga trees, and black-………ed desert oaks […]. (NT0295) 2. Through thickets of ponderosa pines, you can glimpse the red-………ed desert plateau far below […]. (NT0394) 3. The horizon of flat-………ed hills defines the plateau’s geography […]. (NT0894) 4. And there is always the scenery – that classic, sharp-………ed Alaskan scenery. (NT0894) 5. Two days later, the tall pines became scattered, then sparse, and they came out onto a short-………ed, arid prairie. III. The following adjective-verb-ed/-en compounds are used to describe living beings. Complete the gapped -ed components with names of body parts, converted to the following verbs: cheek, eye, foot, hair, head, heart, leg, neck, shoulder. Some of these names need to be used more than once. Spelling adjustment may be required. 1. A stout, elderly farmer, typically small in stature and red-………ed, stood splay-………ed at the bar firing beery broadsides at the English […]. (NT0793) 2. Birds were everywhere. Some similar, like long-………ed white cranes or a pair of black-………ed swans […]. (NT0894) 3. Forty minutes after taking off, the pontooned plane settles back onto the lake like a big-………ed goose […]. (NT0795)

366 English Complex Words

4. I remember reading as a child about a fantastic castle-like place set on a rock in France. Wide-………ed, I learned how it was encircled twice a day by tides […]. (NT0394) 5. Everybody else was bent over slightly at the hips and walking stiff-………ed with their toes turned out […]. (NT0795) 6. A saucy green-………ed beauty with a sharp tongue, Nancy was seen as the anti-Al [Gore], even by her own parents. (NW210800) 7. A kind-………ed, highly moral and deeply religious woman, she willingly sacrificed herself for her children. 8. A long-………ed young god twists in slow motion within a glowing metal cube framework 30 feet over our heads. (NT0395) 9. Gary is a cheerful, big-………ed man in his early 30s. (NT0795) 10. Yraen turned on the bench to consider him, narrow-………ed and puzzled. 11. Her thumb-nail sketch of George Beer reveals a man of great natural talent, strong-………ed, and clear and sensible in his arguments. IV. Complete the gapped initial elements of the adjective-verb-ed/-en compounds which designate physical qualities of different things. The first letter is given. 1. Spectators, dressed to the nines in w……-brimmed hats and other finery of yesteryear, cheer the teams on. (NT0694) 2. Hands thrust deep into the pockets of his beltless, once-belted, black, s… …-shouldered raincoat, Harry moved alone […]. (Lodge_1993_20) 3. We stomped around the hay barn in our h……-heeled cowboy boots, making a powerful and satisfying noise. (NT0795) 4. The restaurant’s famous double-yolked fried eggs, served in a variety of guises, fly out of the kitchen in little skillets, along with huge glasses of f……-squeezed orange juice. (NT0394) V. Complete the gapped sentences with the following adjective-verb-ed/-en compounds: foreign-funded, hard-hearted, heavy-handed (x2), high-minded, high-pitched, short-lived. 1. As I stepped into the little front hallway, there was an awful crashing sound from the floor above us, followed by a ………… scream and a couple of dull thuds. 2. As a society we take a rather ………… view of recovery in that we think that if a person seems physically well again, then the effects of the accident are over. 3. If you can get past the indifferent food and the ………… use of smoke machines and colored lights, the music can be pretty good. (NT0894) 4. A handful of ………… grass-roots organizations run programs to help women in Kosovo. (NW140800) 5. Most of those ………… resorts ceased to exist decades ago. (NT0593)

Chapter 3.  Compounding 367



6. The ………… style is leaden and often tedious, despite a believable and intelligent performance by Liv Ullman in the title role. 7. Unfortunately, this relief is often ………… and the headache usually returns.

Translation VI. Translate the key formations in the following contexts into the language of your choice. 1. Too many people were vindictive and narrow-minded, capable only of seeing others’ faults. 2. I had supposed her to be one of those strong-minded, masculine women who do not marry but live alone. 3. Small-handed people are much quicker in their responses to life […]. These people will turn their backs on jobs, spouses and friends far more easily than their large-handed colleagues. 4. They can be high-handed in any discussion, believing everyone but themselves to be stupid. 5. They are much more open-handed with their criticism and blame. 6. White-tailed deer, once close to being wiped out of the region, have flourished as well. (NT0993) 7. From the dirt road, Guinn points out a nest of red-tailed hawks in a cottonwood. (NT0295) 8. From beside the west wall two white-helmeted motards gunned their engines into life […]. (Forsyth_1971_13) 9. The Big Man had the face and the frame of a Tuba City Navajo – heavy-boned without the delicacy and softness added by the Pueblo blood mixture. (Hillerman_1970_220) 10. It was even suspected that she used eye makeup to enhance the hollow-eyed look.

Key I. 1 roof; 2 roof; 3 beam; 4 ceiling; 5 roof, hue(d); 6 ceiling; 7 heat; 8 floor; 9 ceiling; 10 brow II. 1 bark; 2 hue; 3 top; 4 peak; 5 grass III. 1 cheek, leg(g); 2 leg(g), neck; 3 foot; 4 ey(e); 5 leg(g); 6 ey(e); 7 heart; 8 hair; 9 shoulder; 10 ey(e); 11 head IV. 1 wide; 2 sharp; 3 high; 4 fresh V. 1 high-pitched; 2 hard-hearted; 3 heavy-handed; 4 foreign-funded; 5 high-minded; 6 heavy-handed; 7 short-lived

368 English Complex Words

Adjective/adverb-verb-ing compounds Introduction The initial element of this type of compound is an adjective, or an adverb, followed by an active participial -ing derivative, which has a strong verbal (processual) sense, for example: long lasting injuries / energy sources / organizations / ramifications etc. low achieving students / children / research groups etc. ugly looking people / mercenaries etc. hard working taxpayers / scientists / immigrant parents etc. …

Translation I. Translate adjective/adverb-verb-ing compounds into the language of your choice: 1. the angry-looking young man 2. far-reaching policy changes 3. many high-earning singles 4. Meagher’s long-standing record 5. popular nude-dancing bars

Adverb-verb-ed/-en compounds Introduction A small category of compounds can be established on the basis of an initial adverb, followed by a passive participial -ed/-en derivative, for example: nicely browned mushrooms nicely coloured packages nicely crafted lies

beautifully browned chicken beautifully coloured eggs beautifully crafted doors

…

Translation I. Translate adverb-verb-ed/-en compounds into the language of your choice. 1. a well-mannered, agreeable and impressive young man 2. a well-worn rug 3. quiet and well-behaved children 4. the well-intentioned general 5. a hundred thousand well-disciplined troops



Chapter 3.  Compounding 369

Quantifier-verb-ed/-en compounds Introduction The initial element of this type of compound is a quantifier, numeral etc., followed by a passive participial -ed/-en derivative, which may have a strong nominal sense. The original noun is subsequently converted (zero-derived) to a verb, which serves as a base for a final participial -ed/-en derivative.

Translation I. Translate the quantifier-verb-ed/-en compounds into the language of your choice. 1. a many-headed brazen cobra 2. the many-sided Soviet Man 3. a two-faced being 4. some bold two-legged thing 5. the restaurant’s famous double-yolked fried eggs 6. a three-bedroomed affair

Noun-verb compounds Introduction Compounds instantiating the noun-verb pattern consist of the main element in the second position and a modifier in the initial position. The focal component is a verb, while its modifier is a noun. The head verb of the compound makes the entire complex word a verb. Of course, there remains the question of whether the rightmost element is syntactically a verb, or a noun (Bauer 1991: 205).

Construction I. Complete the following gapped noun-verb compounds, by supplying the initial noun. 1. They were so ………washed, they would do everything they were told. (NW140800) 2. If you’re ………-training your toddler, these moist tissues will come in very handy. 3. She continues to ………-feed him today, according to the family’s pediatrician. (NW280800) 4. In the past many companies waited until the death of a recession to cut staff, which left victims ……… hunting when unemployment was high and positions scarce. (NW050201)

370 English Complex Words

5. She was ………-schooling the boy on the road. Mother and son were often seen, arms around each other, chatting or going over homework. (NW201100) 6. […] The New York Times – that same morning – had ………-paged a story about Clinton’s exclusion from the campaign. (NW301000) II. Complete the gapped noun-verb compounds by supplying the verbal element, the first letter of which is given. Originally, the missing verbs may have been converted (zero-derived) from nouns bearing the same form. Adjust the grammatical category of the verb to the one which is required by the context. 1. They’ve poll-t……… and focus-g……… every one of the things he [=Al Gore] mentioned in that speech. (NW280800) 2. I sank down to rest on a sand patch, discovered I was maybe a dozen feet from a whitetip reef shark doing the same thing, and finger-w……… over to a wider sand slope. (NG0101) 3. The last time Lee Kuan Yew bad-m……… his neighbors, they called him a “lurking ghost”. (NW280998) 4. “We planned to low-b……… it,” she said, “but with the cheap exchange rate we got to go first class all the way.” (NW271100) 5. Jo hand-d……… a letter from North Korean leader Kim Jong Il, who pledged to join Clinton to reduce tension along the world’s last cold-war frontier. (NW231000) 6. Clinton tried to soft-t……… Moscow into cutting back but failed; the incoming Bush team was eager to act. (TE020401)

Translation III. Translate the noun-verb compounds into the language of your choice. 1. Methodically he listed in his mind the problems. For two hours, chain-smoking before the window until the room became cloudy with a blue haze, he set them up […]. (Forsyth_1971_31) 2. Do you think they’ll court-martial you for desertion in the face of the enemy. (Heller_1961_422) 3. “But I will carry you down in my arms,” Marmora protested intensely. “I will roller-skate you – or I will throw you and you will fall slowly like a feather.” (Fitzgerald_1993_130) 4. Her father, he said, for some unfathomable reason, arranged and stage-managed the whole affair. (Kazan_1968_447)

Key I. 1 brain; 2 potty; 3 breast; 4 job; 5 home; 6 front II. 1 tested, grouped; 2 walked; 3 mouthed; 4 budget; 5 delivered; 6 talk

Chapter 3.  Compounding 371



Phrase-/clause-/sentence-like compounds Introduction English uses very complex compounds whose internal architecture may be that of a complex phrase, clause (simple sentence) or complex sentence, or any part of those. Here is an example of a simple noun phrase-like compound: his ironic, just-aregular-guy manner. And what follows are examples of complex noun phrase-like compounds: state-of-the-art department stores and some wrong-side-of-the-tracks story. The last two compounds consist of complex nouns with embedded prepositional phrases in each. In the following case, namely smart seen-it-all brown eyes, the clause-like compound involves the clipped simple sentence (he/she has) seen-it-all, in the function of an attributively used adjective. Being based on syntactic constructions, this category of compounds is virtually unlimited. It is impossible to enumerate all detailed construction patterns besides general word-order structures typical of phrases, clauses and sentences.

Construction I. Complete the gapped compounds in the form of complex noun phrases with the following words: gays, nose, state, turn, wind. 1. My old image of the jet boat experience as nothing more than a wild and noisy, ………-in-your-face, amusement-park kind of ride through churning rapids was soon dispelled. (NT0795) 2. They work in ………-of-the-art facilities, sleep in dormitories, eat meals tailored to their nutritional needs. (NG1000) 3. Today, […] a coffee shop stands on the site once occupied by a fine ………-of-the-century Italian palazzo. (NG1100) 4. Thirty years ago I lived in Stearns County […] an area full of ………-to-thegrindstone German Catholics […]. (NG1200) 5. At his nomination ceremony, Rumsfeld signaled Bush’s intentions, as well as his own, when he was asked if he planned to revisit the ………-in-the-military issue. (NW080101) II. Complete the gapped phrase-like compounds by supplying missing prepositions. 1. The ……-the-top behavior of the fans was matched only by the ……-the-top swimming. (NW021000) 2. Most ……-a-hurry Americans used it, except when Indian troubles intensified. (NG0391)

372 English Complex Words

3. There’s the pleasure of queuing with old men and mothers for just-……-……-the-oven rolls early in the morning […]. (NW231000) 4. It was a gloomy group of top Gore advisers […] who sat around a slightly down-……-the-heels resort hotel […]. (NW201100) 5. […] the big London stores complain of a drop in sales as ……-……-town shoppers opt to stay at home. (NW181200) 6. Like any good soap opera, this one was full of colorful characters and ……-the-scenes maneuvering. (NW271100) 7. […] I was shocked to be greeted by the high-decibel whine of dirt bikes, four-wheelers, and other ……-road vehicles blasting across the dunes […]. (NT0795) 8. He […] has a 21-inch television that gets a decent ……-the-air signal from NBC and, in daylight hours, from CBS. (NG0301) III. Complete the gapped clause-like compounds with the following verbs: bring, do, fight, get, go, have, pay, stay, win. 1. Sometimes […] sheer numbers of visitors at a popular tourist destination, is enough to bring forth the “Don’t ……!” advice. (NT1196) 2. He dresses, even for the classroom, in khaki and […] a “Frank Buck ……-’em-back-alive” pith helmet. (NG0492) 3. A more telling, and pertinent, illustration of Gore’s ……-to-the-last-breath style is the collapse of his first presidential campaign, in 1988. (NW111200) 4. For now, the ……-it-both-ways strategy gets Gore safe passage in Iowa […]. (NW190499) 5. The sporting establishment decries drugs as the product of an unsportsmanlike ……-at-all-costs mentality. (NW120799) 6. Street-corner sociologists deride the ……-at-home-with-mamma phenomenon as il mammismo, or “mamma’s boy syndrome.” (NW140800) 7. Most European economies struggle with state-run, ……-as-you-go pension schemes that are going broke. (NW271100) 8. After a ……-acquainted dinner and a night in one of the base camp’s communal bunkhouses we loaded into a van early the next morning […]. (NT0995) 9. Some 1,500 women die each year from ……-it-yourself abortions. (NW280800) IV. Fill in the gapped clause-like compounds with appropriate verbs of your choice. 1. But others portray Intel’s success in Costa Rica as a can’t-…… proposition. (NW280800) 2. A largely local crowd […] nibble on the bar’s specialty, empanadas, and all-you-can-…… pizzas that come with $15 entrance charge. (NW131100) 3. You hop a trolley to Mi Tierra Café and Bakery, a we-never-…… Mexican restaurant just west of downtown […]. (NT1195)

Chapter 3.  Compounding 373



V. The compounds below probably constitute remaining parts of clipped sentences (e.g., it is hard to …). Complete the gapped compounds with appropriate verbs of your choice. 1. […] the Reform Party convention had already split into two separate conventions, like parallel universes in some hard-to-…… sci-fi movie. (NW210800) 2. Shoppers at Hong Kong International Airport find a slew of designer brands from Bulgari to Gucci – and hard-to-…… prices. (NW301000) 3. Halfway round the world, shopping is also an impossible-to-…… lure for guests at the Regal Hongkong Hotel. (NW301000) 4. EU rules are clear: by the time Poland joins, Ukrainians will have to apply for hard-to-…… visas. (NW180900) VI. Put together sentence-like compounds from the scattered elements given in brackets. The compounds obtained should complement the gapped sentences. 1. A visiting reporter inquires what it was that Russert got wrong. Imus fixes the reporter with his ……………… stare. (NW110199) [as / I’m / hell / crazy] 2. Woodsiders know how to throw a party. IPO parties, dog parties, helicopter parties, divorce parties, bar mitzvah parties, villa-warming parties, birthday parties for little kids that recreate entire children’s stories in a backyard, Microsoft-bashing parties and parties just because ……………………………… parties. (NW140699) [to / them / an / you / spend / have / $50,000 / extra / on] 3. Underneath all this ………………………… [about / you / more / I / than / it / know] ………………………… [the / Church / of / early / heresies] business he really wants to be told about it […]. (Updike_1964_108) 4. Father Kipling smiled uncertainly, and decided on an ……………………… approach. (Lodge_1993_ 18) [the / you / boat / I’m / fellows / as / same / in]

Translation VII. Translate multiply complex compounds into the language of your choice. 1. What Charlie was after were big fish, a high-stakes game at a high-stakes casino. (Fleischer_1989_160) 2. Yesterday morning it occurred to me she might want to come to your get-well party. (Kazan_1968_159) 3. The sit-down bar for women, across from the bar proper, seemed very small […]. (Fitzgerald_1993_87) 4. He gave the girl a don’t-fuck-around glare and walked over to stand at the bar […]. (Fleischer_1989_180) 5. This declaration, which I read in the modern all-at-one-glance method, said that I was signing away all the equity I had in our community property to Florence. (Kazan_1968_401)

374 English Complex Words

6. Instead of that thoroughly-on-the-ball attention I used to pay, I just schlunked there, thumbing through the research in an absent-minded way […]. (Kazan_1968_122) 7. Poole slipped the file out of her over-the-shoulder briefcase and rifled through it. (Dillard_1993_159) 8. You must understand this is an once-in-a-lifetime job. The man who does it will never work again. (Forsyth_1971_52) 9. There was the daily heads-of-department conference at ten, in half an hour’s time. (Forsyth_1971_221) 10. One of the floor-to-ceiling windows was open, and from the palace gardens came the sound of a wood pigeon cooing among the trees. (Forsyth_1971_173) 11. Charlie smiled at Susanna, a tough, I-don’t-give-a-shit smile […]. (Fleischer_1989_36) 12. Now, Dr. Beattie. I don’t want any more of that as-well-as-can-be-expected shit from you. (Kazan_1968_467) 13. That’s the only time in my life I was gut-scared. Shit-your-pants, can’t-catchyour-breath scared […] I left home. (Fleischer_1989_36) 14. “Richard?” His “this-had-better-be-good” tone changed abruptly to one of concern. (Dillard_1993_29) 15. Harry kept his face straight, not a flicker of an I-told-you-so expression. (Rock_1977_125) 16. […] a glad-to-be-alive exhilaration jolted through me like a jigger of nitrogen. (Capote_1958_87) 17. […] this is the lad, who, being accidentally wounded by a spring-gun in some boyish trespass on Mr. What-d’ye-call-him’s grounds, at the back here, comes to the house for assistance this morning […]. (Dickens_1949_229) 18. Harry looked at him with a who-the-hell-are-you expression written all over his face. (Rock_1977_106)

Key I. 1 wind; 2 state; 3 turn; 4 nose; 5 gays II. 1 over, over; 2 in; 3 out, of; 4 at; 5 out, of; 6 behind; 7 off; 8 over III. 1 go; 2 bring; 3 fight; 4 have; 5 win; 6 stay; 7 pay; 8 get; 9 do IV. 1 lose; 2 eat; 3 close V. 1 follow; 2 beat; 3 resist; 4 get VI. 1 I’m-crazy-as-hell; 2 you-have-an-extra-$50,000-to-spend-on-them; 3 I-know-more-about-it-than-you heresies-of-the-early-Church; 4 I’m-in-the-sam e-boat-as-you-fellows

Chapter 3.  Compounding 375



Blends Introduction According to the OED, the name Oxbridge designates: originally: a fictional university, esp. regarded as a composite of Oxford and Cambridge; subsequently also (now esp.): the universities of Oxford and Cambridge regarded together, esp. in contrast to other British universities.

So, the composite formation Oxbridge consists of two names molded into one so-called blend. With some parts of the original names truncated, this blend is stitched together in the following way: Oxford + Cambridge > Oxbridge A blend is defined as “a new lexeme formed from parts of two (or possibly more) other words in such a way that there is no transparent analysis into morphs” (Bauer 1991: 234). Other examples of blended constructions: breakfast + lunch > brunch motor + hotel > motel channel + tunnel > chunnel dove + hawk > dawk Provide further examples of blended constructions, lexicalized in English.

Construction I. Divide the following blends and retrieve their original constituents. Cross out the parts which are truncated before the remaining elements are put together. 1. Look for more such psychodramas as the euro reveals just how overbanked Euroland really is. (NW1198) 2. Spectators, dressed to the nines in wide-brimmed hats and other finery of yesteryear, cheer the teams on. (NT0694) 3. What is more, on average, capital spending by British companies decreased by about 11 per cent because of the uncertainty that Brexit produced. (TS160722) 4. Palo Alto and Portola Valley, Atherton and Los Altos Hills – these are among the well-known places that the Siliconillionaires call home when they’re not at work counting stock options or sporting about the globe in their Gulfstream 5s. (NW140699)

376 English Complex Words

II. Here are some other blends and their definitions from the OED. Fill in each gap with two missing letters. 1. generi…de: ‘the process by which a brand name loses its distinctive identity as a result of being used to refer to any product or service of its kind’ 2. gloca…zation: ‘the action, process, or fact of making something both global and local; the adaptation of global influences or business strategies in accordance with local conditions’ 3. Reaga…mics: ‘the economic policies of Reagan, associated esp. with the reduction of taxes and the promotion of unrestricted free-market activity’ 4. stag…ation: ‘a state of the economy in which stagnant demand is accompanied by severe inflation’ 5. st…cation: ‘a holiday spent in, or in the neighbourhood of, one’s own home’ 6. Ni…nomics: ‘The economic policies of Richard Nixon’ III. Here are some other blends with their contexts from The Times. Fill in each gap with two missing letters. 1. he…onomics = impact of hot weather on economics (TS160722) 2. “wi…nomics” a sense of coming together and mass collaboration for the greater good (TS130817) 3. Iain Duncan Smith, the work and pensions secretary, praises Denmark’s system of “flexi…rity” (which tries to combine the virtues of America’s free labour market with European security). (TS160214) IV. Complete the gapped blends with missing components. 1. The word “stag………”, defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as the state in which stagnant demand is accompanied by severe inflation, has been around for a long time. (TS200422) 2. Nigel Huddleston encouraged people to think about stay………, with restrictions on foreign holidays expected to remain tight well into the summer. (TS290321) 3. The death of a trademark because it has become a generic term is known (among trademark lawyers at least) as “generi………”. (TS051017) 4. His room for manoeuvre was restricted by the huge budget deficit he inherited after eight years of tax-cutting Reagan………. (TS011218) 5. Discussing Yandex’s future, he coined the neologism “glocal………” – global dominance with localisation of services […]. (TS160813)

Key II. 1 genericide; 2 glocalization; 3 Reaganomics; 4 stagflation; 5 staycation; 6 Nixo­nomics III. 1 heatonomics; 2 wikinomics; 3 flexicurity IV. 1 …flation; 2 …cations; 3 …cide; 4 …omics; 5 …isation

Chapter 3.  Compounding 377



Reduplicative compounds Introduction Compounds of this kind rely on words, or word-like elements, which are repeated and additionally involve either a vocalic or consonantal change. An instance where the word involved is repeated without any internal change is illustrated by hush-hush, as in It was hush-hush, important and exceedingly lucrative. (Christie_1963_61) A formation like zigzag, which involves the doubling of the basic morpheme and a vowel alternation, is not a fully-fledged compound, as neither zig nor zag is an independent word. As such, reduplicative compounds, or ablaut-motivated compounds (Bauer 1991: 213; Bauer 2004: 11) can be treated as minor cases of compounding. Below, they have been divided into those involving consonant alternation and those characterized by vowel alternation.

Reduplicative compounds with consonant alternation Construction I. Complete the gapped compounds by doubling the element given. The added element must involve a consonant alternation, for example: Her lawyer husband, trapped in a humdrum but well-paid job, decides to head into the world of detection. 1. A Mirage security guard uses his walkie-……… to call for reinforcements. 2. I drove through the tunnel at Mule Mountain Pass to catch my first glimpse of Bisbee sprawling ………-skelter along Tombstone Canyon. 3. Right now regulation is a hodge……… of national and local authorities, plus vague intentions from Brussels. (NW1198) 4. As the song says, she’s afraid to come out of the locker – but not because she’s wearing an itsy-………, ………-weeny, yellow polka-dot bikini. 5. A New Orleans piano-playing junkie, James Booker was one of the last of the great boogie-………, left-hand-rolling heroes of the genre. 6. Though an odd thing to say about cars which weigh two tons and carry a five-litre V8, latterly they did become a bit ………-pamby. 7. Delegates from constituency associations […] may imagine that this annual ………-wow is arranged for their benefit. 8. We pass a rag……… group of fishermen, men and boys, who scrounge along the shoreline from morning to night looking for mussels to sell for pittance. 9. This charming picture book takes a humorous look at the ………-burly of family life, cleverly seen from both the children’s and the parents’ opposing points of view.

378 English Complex Words

10. Sewage made its way willy-……… into the river causing outbreaks of disease along the way. 11. It is to the credit of many British companies, dismissed as ……… duddy and old-hat, that they kept the flame of British quality alive. 12. Kate drove me home, and in my kitchen we drank tea and talked into the small hours. No, there was no hanky ………. Translation II. Paraphrase the key formations in the following contexts and then translate them into the language of your choice. 1. Americans don’t want the law – let alone Ken Starr – imposing traditional structure on their increasingly helter-skelter personal lives. (NW010299) 2. She’d dragged her suitcase out of the closet and was throwing her clothing into it helter-skelter. (Fleischer_1989_88) 3. We stumbled over one another to get out of the cab at the roadhouse, a hillybilly roadhouse near the hills, and went in and ordered beers. (Kerouac_1991_5) 4. There was the sound of a whining, tinkling hootchy-kootchy show. (Fitzgerald_1993_165) 5. They get all the gravy. Cops like me live in itty-bitty frame houses on the wrong side of town […]. (Chandler_1986_201) 6. Coaching in the United States has always been based on a hodgepodge of styles and theories […]. (NW021000) 7. […] The whole 90-mile stretch of rocky coastline […] is like a collective monastery of sorts, tucked into the heart of the West – and devoted to solitude, wilderness, silence, and freedom from the hustle-bustle of the everyday. (NG0800) 8. […] people were going around with all these lovey-dovey feelings and wanting to change things. 9. Jong is on Miller’s side, and she defends him valiantly, against accusations of pornography, formlessness and ‘New-Age claptrap’ […]. 10. We don’t like dark streets and clubs tucked away under highways – they give us the heebie-jeebies which might explain why, inside, the club is half-empty.

Reduplicative compounds with vowel alternation Construction III. Complete the gapped compounds by doubling the element given. The added element must accommodate a vowel alternation, involving an i > a spelling change, phonetically realized as /i/ > /æ/, for example: Click-clack goes the gun.

Chapter 3.  Compounding 379



1. […] its vicious mudslinging made Washington’s scandal-mongering look like chit…… at a gentlemen’s club. (NW051098) 2. Thirteen years is a long time to ……-dally in pop punk’s more adolescent quarters […]. 3. Ursula’s third-floor flat was […] furnished in a conventionally ‘pretty’ style, with many knick-……s and ornaments displayed on shelves and occasional tables. (Lodge_1992_92) 4. I asked Desch what sort of inspiring things the follicle mites might be doing on her forehead and by extension on ……raff like me. (NG1298) 5. A new, steel-framed structure was created in the footprint of the old, exploiting its zig…… plan to focus on the views, east and south, over the city. 6. The result so far is an uninspiring ……-mash of people from the Communist Party […]. (NW280998) Attention: wishy-washy involves an i > a spelling change, but it is phonetically realized as /ı/ > /ɒ/, for example: He loves to bully and to unleash his hounds on what he sees as the snooty, wishy-washy liberal establishment. IV. Complete the gapped compounds by doubling the element given. The added element must accommodate a vowel alternation, involving an i > o spelling change, phonetically realized as /ı/ > /ɒ/. 1. A strong man with a quick sense of humor, he too wears ……-flops, crammed on over his socks […]. (NG0900) 2. Add that to the criss-…… of alliances, the multi-lingual labs and the international funding already in place, and biotech truly has become a global industry. (NW301000) 3. Keep hair in ……top condition by continuously moisturizing and conditioning. Translation V. Fill in the gaps with the right vowel letters. Translate the key formations into the language of your choice. 1. Too much furniture had been stuffed in the small room […]. Too many doilies and cushions and kn…ckkn…cks. 2. Suzanne Goodson […] remembers sitting right next to Peterson at a dinner party. They made the usual party ch…tch…t. 3. He could make out the cr…ss-cr…ss lines of the string of the shopping bag where it restrained the melon […]. (Forsyth_1971_138) 4. […] the new season’s clothes from Benpoint which range from natural linen dresses or shorts trimmed with simple r…ckr…ck […].

380 English Complex Words

5. Some may view his fl…p-fl…p on using the reserves as a clear political ploy […]. (NW021000) 6. Down the wall there were other markings – the z…gz…g of lightning, bird tracks, […]. (Hillerman_1970_237)

Key I. 1 talkie; 2 helter; 3 podge; 4 bitsy, teeny; 5 woogie; 6 namby; 7 pow; 8 tag; 9 hurly; 10 nilly; 11 fuddy; 12 panky III. 1 chat; 2 dilly; 3 knack; 4 riff; 5 zag; 6 mish IV. 1 flip; 2 cross; 3 tip V. 1 i/a; 2 i/a; 3 i/o; 4 i/a; 5 i/o; 6 i/a

Glossary of terms and concepts

abstract nominalization, see nominalization adjectivization affix

the formation of adjectives by a word-formation process, or a word which is the result of such a process, e.g., do > doable, teacher > teacherish an item which can only occur attached to a word or base; affixes may be derivational (-ish, post-) or inflectional (-(e)s, -ed ); affixes are divided into prefixes, suffixes, circumfixes, infixes, interfixes etc.; also known as bound morpheme; also locative affix, temporal affix

agentive nominalization, see nominalization allomorph (also allomorphic variant) attenuative adjective

augmentative affix

base (also derivational base) blend (also portmanteau word) blending

causative verb

collocate

compositionality

compound

a surface realization of a morpheme occurring in complementary distribution; for example, the morpheme iN- exhibits four allomorphic variants whose distribution is predictable in-, il-, ir- and iman adjective derived with an attenuative suffix such as -ish, e.g., red > reddish, old > oldish; the function of the suffix is to reduce the strength of the meaning of the base an affix which, when added to a word, expresses a sense of large size or conveys overtones of excess, awkwardness or unpleasantness, e.g., nos ‘nose’ > nochal ‘large, ugly nose’ (Polish) a word, part of a word, or any morphological element to which an affix is attached in a word-formation process, e.g., home is the base in homeless, and homeless is the base for the formation of homelessness a word formed by blending the process of word formation by the combination of arbitrary parts of existing words, e.g., Oxbridge (Oxford + Cambridge), brunch (breakfast + lunch) etc. a verb which conveys senses, such as ‘make …’, ‘make more of …’, ‘cause … to be/become …’; causative verbs take verbal suffixes -ate, -en, -ify, -ize or the prefix en-/ema word that is often used with another word; in corpus research, collocates are word types which are sought as items appearing next to the search item and are arranged on a frequency list according to their frequency of occurrence the degree to which complex structures can be thought of as being assembled from their components in accordance with regular compositional principles a word formed by compounding; also endocentric compound, exocentric compound

382 English Complex Words compounding conversion (also zero-derivation)

corpus (pl. corpora)

denominal

derivation

the process of forming a complex word by combining two or more existing words the process of forming words which retain the same form in a different syntactic category, e.g., milkN > milkV, dogN > dogV; in a broader sense, any process in which a word is shifted from one grammatical category to another, e.g., water (mass noun) > water (count noun), disappear (intr. verb) > disappear (trans. verb) etc. digital repository of written and spoken texts, which is used for studying language use; it is equipped with software which allows the digital search and retrieval of items (e.g., collocates), the compilation of frequency lists, the performance of quantitative analyses etc. denoting a lexical item of another syntactic category derived from a noun or a nominal base, e.g., grassy is a denominal adjective derived from the noun grass the process of obtaining new words by adding affixes to existing words or bases; derivation and compounding are two most frequent means of word formation in English

derivational base, see base

denoting a lexical item of another syntactic category derived from a verb or a verbal base, e.g., seeker is a deverbal noun derived from the verb seek diminutive affix a derivational affix which may be added to a word to express a notion of small size, often additionally a notion of warmth or affection, e.g., gato ‘cat’ > gatito ‘kitten’ (Spanish), nos ‘nose’ > nosek ‘small/cute nose’ (Polish) endocentric compound a compound word in which one of the constituents is the central element called a head, e.g., building in school building which denotes a kind of building; the other element (school) is a modifier, as it modifies the meaning of the head exocentric compound a compound which does not exhibit a clearly-delineated head; a type of compound word in which one constituent modifies or restricts the other and the whole denotes an entity which is a hyponym of an unexpressed semantic head, e.g., bluebell does not denote a kind of bell that is blue, but a kind of plant with blue flowers that grows in woods; also known as bahuvrihi compound hapax legomenon a word type which occurs once only (exhibits one token) in a given text (pl. legomena) or corpus; in corpus research, a high number of hapax legomena (or hapaxes) for a given affix is indicative of the (high) productivity of this affix or word-formation processes with this affix head (of compound) the major element of an endocentric compound locative affix in English, spatial or locative senses are expressed almost solely by prefixes: a-, arch-, circum-, counter-, down-, extra-, out-, over-, sub-, super-, supra-, trans-, under- and up-; the prefixes co-, fore-, inter-, intra-, mid-, post- and pre- are both locative and temporal as they exhibit both spatial and temporal senses; to some extent, a spatial sense is present in formations with the suffix -wise deverbal

Glossary of terms and concepts 383

modifier

any category which serves to add semantic information to that provided by the head of the category within which it is contained; see endocentric

morpheme

the smallest unit of morphological analysis which carries (some) meaning; it cannot be further decomposed for morphological purposes; it is an abstract unit which may or may not be realized by a consistent sequence of phonetic sounds (morphs); also known as a formative the branch of grammar dealing with the analysis of word structure, conventionally divided into derivational morphology (the study of word formation) and inflectional morphology (the study of the variation in form of single lexical items for grammatical purposes) a prefix which negates or opposes what the base denotes; affixed to adjectives and nouns (nominalizations derived from adjectives); negative (negating) prefixes: dis-, in-, non-, un-; the prefix in- exhibits allomorphic variants il- (before l), im- (before m, p, b), ir- (before r) and in- elsewhere; the prefix non- is neutral in evaluation (as opposed to un-); pseudo- is negative (not negating) in meaning; the prefix dis- also participates in the formation of reversative verbs; the prefix un- is very productive in the formation of negative adjectives as well as reversative and privative verbs abstract deverbal action nouns (or nominalizations), conveying a dynamic, processual sense ‘act(ion)/process of V-ing’, realized by the suffixes: -age, -al, -ance/-ence, -ation, -ment abstract deadjectival nouns (or nominalizations), conveying the nominal concept ‘quality/state of being A’, realized by the suffixes: -acy, -ancy/-ency, -ism, -ity, -ness a noun derived from a member of another lexical category, especially from a verb, e.g., seek > seeker (agentive nominalization), European > Europeanization (abstract nominalization) the broad category of derived nouns (or nominalizations) which convey the semantic role of the doer or performer of a given activity; the following suffixes are included in the class of suffixes deriving nouns in this function: -ant, -arian, -ary, -ee, -er/-or, -ess, -ette, -ician, -ie/-y, -ist, -ite, -monger, -ster

compound

morphology

negative (negating) prefix

Nomina Actionis

Nomina Essendi

nominalization

participant

portmanteau word, see blend possessional adjective

prefix privative adjective

a derived adjective, paraphrasable as ‘having …’, ‘full of …’, ‘being provided with …’, ‘covered with …’; many possessional adjectives can be also categorized as similitudinal adjectives, e.g., -ate [ǝt], -ed, -ful, -ous, -y; some possessional adjectives are denominal adjectives, e.g., arch > arched, colour > colourful, sugar > sugary an affix which precedes the base to which it is bound a suffixed adjective derived from a nominal base with either -free or -less; numerous common nouns, both concrete and abstract, combine with the privative suffixes -free and -less; the most neutral paraphrase is ‘not having …’, ‘having no …’ or ‘deprived of …’; the suffix -less carries a neutral connotation; adjectives with the suffix -free express the absence of something considered unwanted, undesirable, detrimental etc.; privative adjectives are the converse of possessional adjectives (doubtful ~ doubtless)

384 English Complex Words a prefixed verb derived with either de- or un-, and to a limited degree with dis-; privative verbs in de- consist of short, usually monosyllabic nouns, which denote something unwanted or detrimental, e.g., flea > deflea etc.; privative verbs in un- express the sense ‘deprive of …’ or ‘free from …’, e.g., mask > unmask etc.; the prefixes de- and un- also participate in the derivation of reversative verbs; the prefix dis- appears in unproductive privative verbs, e.g., arm > disarm, courage > discourage etc. quantification the sense of quantity which appears as an addition to the major meanings of prefixed formations with the prefixes extra-, over-, super- and underreduplication the morphological phenomenon in which some morphological material is repeated within a single form for lexical or grammatical purposes, e.g., hush-hush; a common phenomenon across languages, taking a variety of forms and serving a variety of purposes, e.g., kitab ‘book’ > kitab-kitab ‘(various) books’ (Indonesian) reduplicative compound a compound whose formation involves reduplication relational adjective an adjective derived from a noun; it exhibits no semantic content beyond that present in the base noun; it designates some relation between an unspecified entity and the base noun, e.g., agriculture > agricultural, geography > geographic(al) etc. reversative verb a verb whose meaning indicates a reversal of the process or action denoted by the base; reversative prefixes: de- (regulate > deregulate), dis(qualify > disqualify) and un- (learn > unlearn); the prefix dis- also forms negative verbs; the prefixes de- and un- also participate in the derivation of privative verbs; the negative prefix un- is very common on negated adjectives segmentation the process of dividing a morphologically complex word into its potential components, e.g., misunderestimation > mis / under / estim / at(e) / ion similitudinal adjective an adjective derived with one of the following suffixes: -ed, -en, -ish, -like, -ly, -y, e.g., foolish, dog-like, motherly, dovey etc.; similitudinal adjectives are paraphrasable as ‘resembling …, similar to …’, ‘having characteristics of …’; numerous metaphorical meanings can be found among such formations, e.g., apish, waspy etc.; many similitudinal adjectives can be also categorized as possessional adjectives spatial relationship the conception of some relation obtaining in physical space, expressed by locative affixes through their locative/spatial senses; spatial relations require more than one entity which occupy certain (imagined) positions in space relative to each other (e.g., along, above, under, in front of, behind, between, in the middle of etc.); various affixes express these spatial relations, which can be mixed with other senses and functions suffix an affix which follows the base to which it is appended temporal affix in English, exclusively temporal senses are expressed by two prefixes ex- and neo-; the prefixes co-, fore-, inter-, intra-, mid-, post- and pre- are mixed temporal and locative as they exhibit both temporal and spatial senses privative verb

Glossary of terms and concepts 385

temporal relationship

truncation

word formation

the conception of spatial relationship progressing through time, expressed by temporal affixes through their temporal senses; temporal relations require more than one entity which occupy certain (imagined) positions in space relative to each other and which evolve or progress through time (e.g., before, alongside, after etc.) a morphological process in the course of which a certain string of characters is deleted from a base before an affix is attached, e.g., truncate – -(at)e + -(at)ion > truncation a collective term for the set of processes by which lexical items are derived from, or related to, other lexical items; in many languages, the principal devices for forming words are derivation and compounding

zero-derivation, see conversion Sources: CIT028 Trask (1993); CIT01 Bauer (2004); CIT03 Twardzisz (2010)

References

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388 English Complex Words Capote, Truman. 1961. The Grass Harp and A Tree of Night and Other Stories, 2nd joint printing. New York NY: The New American Library. Capote, Truman. 1965. In Cold Blood. New York NY: The New American Library. Carroll, Lewis. 1988. Alice in Wonderland. London: Holland Enterprises. Chandler, Raymond. 1986. Farewell, My Lovely. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Cheek, Lawrence W. 1995. Arizona. Oakland CA: Compass American Guides. Christie, Agatha. 1940. Murder on the Orient Express, reprinted in 1974. New York NY: Pocket Books. Christie, Agatha. 1963. The Adventure of the Christmas Pudding, reprinted in 1978. Glasgow: Fontana/ Collins. Christie, Agatha. 1965. Murder after Hours. New York NY: Dell. Christie, Agatha. 1974. The Mirror Crack’d from Side to Side, reprinted in 1975. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Conrad, Joseph. 1949. Lord Jim, reprinted in 1968. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Conrad, Joseph. 1973. Heart of Darkness, reprinted in 1989. London: Penguin Books. Corpus of Contemporary American English, The. See Davies (2008–). Crane, Stephen. 1965. The Blue Hotel (in Great Short Works of Stephen Crane). New York NY: Harper & Row. Davies, Mark. 2008–. The Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA). Available online at

Dickens, Charles. 1949. Oliver Twist, reprinted in 1968. London: Oxford University Press. Dickens, Charles. 1958. David Copperfield. New York NY: Dell. Dickens, Charles. 1965. Great Expectations, reprinted in 1976. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Dickens, Charles. 1987. Hard Times. London: Methuen & Co. Dillard, J. M. 1993. The Fugitive. New York NY: Dell. Dostoevsky, Fyodor. 1991. The Brothers Karamazov, trans. by Constance Garnett. Electronically Enhanced Text, World Library. Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan. 1951. Sherlock Holmes. Selected Stories, reprinted in 1963. London: Oxford University Press. Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan. 1960. The Lost World, reprinted in 1964. London: John Murray. Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan. 1987. Sherlock Holmes. The Complete Illustrated Novels, re-issued in 1994. London: Chancellor Press. D’Souza, Dinesh. 1992. Illiberal Education. New York NY: Vintage Books. Eliot, George. 1906. Silas Marner, reprinted in 1958. London: Oxford University Press. Ellison, Ralph. 1972. Invisible Man. New York NY: Vintage Books. Eyewitness Travel Guides: California. 1997. New York NY: DK Publishing. Fielding, Henry. 1909. The History of Tom Jones, reprinted in 1963. London: Dent. Fitzgerald, F. Scott. 1974. The Great Gatsby. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Fitzgerald, F. Scott. 1993. Tender Is the Night. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Fleischer, Leonore. 1989. Rain Man. New York NY: New American Library. Forsyth, Frederick. 1971. The Day of the Jackal, reprinted in 1973. London: Corgi Books. Forsyth, Frederick. 1975. The Dogs of War. New York NY: Bantam Books. Hardy, Thomas. 1975. Tess of the d’ Urbervilles. London: Macmillan Education. Hardy, Thomas. 1978a. The Return of the Native, reprinted in 1979. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Hardy, Thomas. 1978b. The Mayor of Casterbridge, reprinted in 1979. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.

References 389 Harper Collins Spanish Unabridged Dictionary, 5th edn. 1997. Glasgow: HarperCollins/ Barcelona: Grijalbo Mondadori. Hawthorne, Nathaniel. 1961. The House of the Seven Gables. New York NY: The New American Library. Heller, Joseph. 1961. Catch-22. London: Corgi Books. Herodotus. 1991. The History of Herodotus, trans. by George Rawlinson. Electronically Enhanced Text, World Library. Hillerman, Tony. 1970. The Blessing Way. New York NY: Harper Collins. Hillerman, Tony. 1996. The Fallen Man. New York NY: Harper Collins. Huxley, Aldous. 1968. Brave New World. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. James, Henry. 1963. The Portrait of a Lady. New York NY: The New American Library. Kazan, Elia. 1968. The Arrangement. London: Sphere Books. Kerouac, Jack. 1991. On the Road. New York NY: Penguin Books. Kesey, Ken. 1976. One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Kipling, Rudyard. 1987. Kim, reprinted in 1989. London: Penguin Books. Kundera, Milan. 1984. The Unbearable Lightness of Being. London: Faber and Faber. Larrabee, F. Stephen. 1993. East European Security after the Cold War. Santa Monica CA: RAND (National Defense Research Institute). Lawrence, D. H. 1963. Sons and Lovers, reprinted in 1982. London: Heinemann Educational Books. Laws of Manu (Hindu), The. 1991, trans. by G. Buhler. Electronically Enhanced Text, World Library. Lodge, David. 1978. Changing Places. London: Penguin Books. Lodge, David. 1983. The British Museum Is Falling Down. London: Penguin Books. Lodge, David. 1985. Small World. London: Penguin Books. Lodge, David. 1989. Nice Work. London: Penguin Books. Lodge, David. 1992. Paradise News. London: Penguin Books. Lodge, David. 1993. The Picturegoers. London: Penguin Books. Lodge, David. 1996. Therapy. London: Penguin Books. London, Jack. 1964. The Sea-Wolf and Selected Stories. New York NY: The New American Library. London, Jack. 1982. Novels and Social Writings. New York NY: The Library of America. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, The. 2003. Harlow: Pearson Education. Melville, Herman. 1967. Moby-Dick. New York NY: W. W. Norton & Company. Miller, Arthur. 1968. Death of a Salesman, reprinted in 1985. London: Heinemann Educational Books. Mitchell, Margaret. 1958. Gone with the Wind, 2nd printing. [n.d.] The Macmillan Company. Moliner, María. 1994. Diccionario de uso del Espaňol. Madrid: Editorial Gredos. Nabokov, Vladimir. 1955. Lolita. London: Corgi Books. O’Connor, Flannery. 1983. The Complete Stories. New York NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Orwell, George. 1986. Nineteen Eighty-Four, 31st printing. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Oxford English Dictionary, The. 2023. Oxford University Press. Available online at Paxman, Jeremy. 1998. The English. A Portrait of a People. London: Michael Joseph. Petit Robert, Le Nouveau: Dictionnaire alphabétique et analogique de la langue française (nouvelle édition). 2004. Paris: Dictionnaires le Robert. Poe, Edgar A. [n.d.]. The Works of Edgar Allan Poe. New York NY: John Hovendon. Prismas Engelsk Svensk/Svensk Engelsk Ordbok. 1995. Stockholm: Rabén Prisma. Rock, Phillip. 1977. Dirty Harry. London: W. H. Allen & Co. Roth, Philip. 1971. Portnoy’s Complaint. London: Corgi Books.

390 English Complex Words Salinger, J. D. 1964. The Catcher in the Rye, 52nd printing. New York NY: Bantam Books. Sedlar, Jean W. 1994. East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500. Seattle WA: University of Washington Press. Shaw, Bernard. 1946. Man and Superman, reprinted in 1965. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Słownik Języka Polskiego. 1998. Warsaw: Scientific Publishers PWN. Snyder, Timothy. 2003. The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569– 1999. New Haven CT: Yale University Press. Staniszkis, Jadwiga. 1991. The Dynamics of the Breakthrough in Eastern Europe: The Polish Experience, trans. by Chester A. Kisiel. Berkeley CA: University of California Press. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520351882 Stevenson, Robert L. 1960. Treasure Island, reprinted in 1961. New York NY: Washington Square Press. Stevenson, Robert L. 1979. The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde and Other Stories. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Stroschein, Sherrill. 2012. Ethnic Struggle, Coexistence, and Democratization in Eastern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.  https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511793769 Styron, William. 1979. Sophie’s Choice. Toronto: Bantam Books. Swift, Jonathan. 1964. Gulliver’s Travels, reprinted in 1979. London: Heinemann Educational Books. Thucydides. 1991. History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. by Richard Crawley. Electronically Enhanced Text, World Library. Tolstoy, Leo. 1991. Anna Karenina, trans. by Constance Garnett. Electronically Enhanced Text, World Library. Twain, Mark. 1961. Life on the Mississippi. New York NY: The New American Library. Twain, Mark. 1962. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. New York NY: Collier Books. Twain, Mark. 1964. The Prince and the Pauper. New York NY: The New American Library. Twain, Mark. 1966. The Innocents Abroad. New York NY: The New American Library. Updike, John. 1964. Rabbit, Run, reprinted in 1965. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Verne, Jules. 1991a. Around the World in Eighty Days. Electronically Enhanced Text, World Library. Verne, Jules. 1991b. The Mysterious Island. Electronically Enhanced Text, World Library. Warren, Robert Penn. 1973. All the King’s Men, 32nd printing. New York NY: Bantam Books. Washington, Booker T. 1965. Up from Slavery. New York NY: Dell. Wells, Herbert G. 1966. The Time Machine. London: Heinemann Educational Books. Williams, Tennessee. 1974. A Streetcar Named Desire. New York NY: The New American Library. Wright, Richard. 1993. Black Boy (American Hunger). New York NY: Harper Perrenial. Zarycki, Tomasz. 2014. Ideologies of Eastness in Central and Eastern Europe. Abingdon: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315819006

Index of languages

A Afrikaans 63, 98, 189, 327 Albanian  45, 46, 61, 95, 96, 97, 185, 186, 202, 208, 249 Arabic 202, 208, 214, 240 Azerbaijani  123, 124, 138 B Basque  123, 124, 208, 249 Bosnian 38, 98, 123, 124, 152, 159, 169, 201, 208, 224, 277, 324 Bulgarian 38, 56, 114, 115, 169, 172, 201, 224 C Chinese  117, 202, 208, 240, 277, 308 Croatian 38, 49, 50, 87, 123, 124, 133, 169, 185, 186, 191, 201, 224 Czech  14, 15, 16, 79, 99, 100, 123, 124, 138, 162, 168, 169, 178, 201, 214, 224, 257, 259, 277 D Danish  25, 26, 43, 56, 61, 63, 87, 123, 124, 138, 139, 149, 150, 174, 178, 198, 201, 208, 211, 213, 215, 236, 237, 257, 259, 271, 276, 308, 309, 324, 325, 329 Dutch  13, 14, 15, 16, 43, 61, 63, 65, 71, 90, 91, 97, 133, 139, 149, 150, 162, 178, 188, 191, 201, 205, 211, 213, 215, 237, 257, 259, 271, 308, 309, 325, 329, 330, 333, 339, 362 E Estonian 20, 69, 123, 124, 152, 202, 208, 214, 324

F Finnish  22, 23, 71, 72, 99, 100, 123, 124, 162, 202, 214, 253, 277, 324 French  8, 13, 17, 21, 24, 29, 30, 32, 35, 47, 52, 55, 57, 59, 60, 65, 69, 74, 77, 89, 90, 91, 93, 97, 98, 103, 106, 109, 110, 112, 116, 120, 126, 133, 141, 146, 148, 151, 153, 154, 155, 156, 158, 160, 163, 167, 172, 175, 178, 179, 182, 201, 204, 205, 206, 207, 210, 213, 216, 217, 226, 228, 230, 234, 238, 245, 250, 253, 255, 257, 259, 263, 265, 277, 288, 289, 294, 297, 299, 300, 301, 308, 316, 317, 320, 324, 331, 344, 347 Frisian  63, 117, 189, 201, 211, 213, 222, 241, 276, 327 G German  13, 29, 30, 32, 42, 43, 61, 63, 65, 69, 89, 95, 96, 97, 114, 115, 123, 124, 133, 138, 139, 155, 156, 178, 188, 196, 198, 201, 205, 211, 213, 215, 228, 230, 237, 257, 259, 271, 276, 288, 289, 290, 294, 299, 300, 301, 308, 309, 324, 329, 333, 339, 344 Germanic  21, 42, 43, 47, 61, 62, 65, 83, 87, 96, 126, 130, 133, 134, 135, 136, 138, 139, 141, 149, 178, 189, 198, 211, 215, 218, 223, 228, 237, 257, 271, 295, 297, 303, 308, 325, 327, 330, 332, 333, 339 Greek  8, 13, 25, 26, 27, 44, 57, 58, 59, 61, 69, 72, 87, 89, 90, 91, 97, 101, 153, 155, 156, 202, 205, 206, 208, 226, 228, 237, 245, 250, 253, 265, 320, 324

H Hungarian  14, 16, 56, 87, 170, 171, 172, 202, 205, 208, 214, 228, 308, 324 I Icelandic  41, 42, 43, 63, 99, 100, 123, 124, 149, 150, 201, 208, 211, 249, 257, 259, 276, 308, 309, 324 Irish  123, 124, 208, 214, 249 Italian  13, 20, 21, 35, 45, 46, 65, 69, 95, 96, 97, 103, 106, 109, 114, 115, 133, 138, 146, 151, 158, 170, 171, 178, 191, 201, 205, 214, 217, 257, 259, 263, 265, 277, 308, 324 J Japanese  114, 115, 117, 202, 205, 208, 214, 240, 308 K Korean  117, 202, 208, 214, 221, 240, 277 L Latin  8, 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, 24, 27, 28, 35, 36, 39, 47, 52, 54, 55, 57, 58, 59, 69, 72, 74, 76, 89, 93, 98, 101, 102, 103, 109, 112, 116, 118, 120, 122, 126, 134, 141, 148, 151, 153, 154, 158, 160, 163, 167, 169, 172, 175, 179, 182, 190, 199, 206, 216, 226, 230, 234, 245, 250, 253, 255, 259, 265, 295, 297, 316, 317, 319, 320 Latvian  41, 42, 123, 124, 152, 202, 208, 253 Lithuanian 29, 30, 32, 110, 123, 124, 202, 214, 236, 237 Luxembourgish 63, 98, 189, 327

392 English Complex Words M Macedonian 38, 98, 152, 201, 208, 224, 257, 259 N non-Indo-European  83, 84, 87 Norwegian  22, 23, 43, 49, 50, 61, 63, 87, 149, 150, 178, 185, 186, 201, 213, 215, 257, 259, 308, 309, 324 P Polish  13, 41, 42, 58, 71, 79, 97, 123, 124, 133, 138, 155, 156, 168, 169, 178, 201, 205, 214, 224, 228, 257, 259, 289, 294, 299, 300, 301, 308, 324, 344, 348, 381, 382 Portuguese  13, 22, 23, 49, 50, 87, 103, 106, 109, 138, 146, 151, 158, 174, 178, 201, 205, 214, 217, 236, 237, 257, 259, 263, 308

R Romance  21, 24, 47, 52, 65, 83, 84, 87, 103, 106, 116, 120, 126, 130, 133, 135, 136, 138, 141, 146, 158, 178, 206, 217, 228, 230, 257, 259, 263, 295, 297, 320 Romanian  25, 26, 56, 87, 106, 146, 178, 185, 186, 201, 205, 208, 214, 217, 257, 259, 263, 277, 308, 324 Russian  22, 23, 90, 91, 97, 133, 169, 174, 178, 201, 205, 214, 224, 228, 257, 259, 277, 288, 289, 308, 324 S Serbian 38, 45, 46, 95, 96, 97, 169, 178, 201, 224, 236, 237, 308, 324 Slavic  83, 84, 87, 96, 130, 133, 135, 136, 138, 168, 178, 224, 228, 257 South Slavic  38 West Slavic  79 Slovak 20, 69, 79, 123, 124, 169, 170, 171, 201, 208, 224, 362 Slovenian 29, 30, 32, 38, 87, 138, 169, 178, 202, 205, 224, 257, 259

Spanish  13, 14, 15, 16, 31, 35, 41, 42, 58, 71, 99, 100, 103, 106, 109, 133, 146, 151, 158, 162, 178, 201, 205, 214, 217, 228, 257, 259, 263, 265, 290, 294, 301, 308, 324, 344, 382 Swedish 20, 43, 45, 46, 53, 58, 61, 63, 69, 110, 124, 133, 139, 149, 150, 170, 171, 178, 198, 201, 205, 211, 213, 215, 228, 257, 259, 271, 308, 309, 324, 325, 329, 344 T Turkish 13, 87, 138, 174, 202, 205, 208, 214, 308, 324, 344, 362 U Ukrainian  25, 26, 110, 169, 201, 224 W Welsh 49, 50, 123, 124, 208, 253

English Complex Words is a lively, essential companion for multilingual explorations of word-formation processes, both in English and across 40 other languages. It offers today’s broadest available coverage of English prefixation, suffixation and compounding. Comprising a treasury of real language items, this book offers students a unique chance to conduct their own research and analyses, using a goldmine of carefullyselected authentic examples and corpus data. Readers will become familiar with 96 affixes and 13 compound types by working through thought-provoking morphological cases and their construction patterns. Through these challenging and hands-on activities, junior researchers identify morphological nuances among multiple languages. Instructors in multilingual classrooms can find satisfying activities to address the needs of international students. This academically stimulating coursebook can serve as a core text for Word Formation and Morphology courses. As a supplemental source, it may suit a range of Linguistics courses directed at both graduate and undergraduate students.

isbn 978 90 272 1393 8

John Benjamins Publishing Company