Engineering with Polymers, 2nd Edition 9780748739875, 9781003420255, 0748739874

Table of contents :
Cover
Half Title
Title
Copyright
Contents
Preface to second edition
Preface to first edition
1 Introduction
1.1 Engineering with polymers
1.1.1 Examples of engineered products
1.1.2 Engineering the making of polymeric products
1.2 Predicting performance
1.2.1 Extruded plastics pipes
1.2.2 Extrusion of pipe through a die
1.2.3 Melt flow in an injection mould
1.2.4 Fibre-plastics composites
1.2.5 Rubber springs
1.3 Functionality of products
1.4 Concluding remarks
2 Aspects of polymer physics
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Linear and network polymers
2.3 Names of polymers
2.4 Thermoplastics
2.5 Microstructure
2.6 Molecular mobility
2.6.1 Amorphous polymers
2.6.2 Partially crystalline polymers
2.6.3 Molecular movement below Tg
2.7 Crosslinked plastics
2.8 Crosslinked rubber polymers
2.9 Molecular orientation
2.10 Some broad generalizations
Problems
Further reading
3 Plastics and rubber components and compounds
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Polymers as a class of materials
3.2.1 Plastics pipes and fittings
3.2.2 Radial tyres for car wheels
3.2.3 General properties of polymers
(a) Properties of polymers
(b) Some special features of rubber polymers
(c) Some special features of plastics
3.3 Detailed properties of polymers
3.3.1 Thermoplastics
3.3.2 Crosslinked plastics
3.3.3 Vulcanized rubber compounds
3.4 The need for compounds
3.4.1 Processing into a form-stable shape
3.4.2 General survival properties
3.4.3 Mechanical and load-bearing properties
3.4.4 Examples of compounds
(a) Rubber
(b) Plastics
Problems
Further reading
Plastics and rubber materials
Compounds
4 Important polymer processing methods
4.1 The main concepts
4.2 Batch mixing process
4.2.1 Internal mixer
4.2.2 Two-roll mill
4.3 Extrusion processes
4.3.1 Screw extrusion
(a) Extruder
(b) Mixing and mixing elements
(c) Extrusion dies
4.3.2 Calendering
4.4 Moulding processes
4.4.1 Injection moulding
4.4.2 Reaction injection moulding (RIM)
4.4.3 Compression moulding
4.4.4 Transfer moulding
4.4.5 Moulding glass mat thermoplastic (GMT) products
4.4.6 Extrusion blow moulding
4.4.7 Thermoforming
4.5 Contact moulding techniques
4.5.1 Hand lay-up
4.5.2 Spray-up
4.5.3 Resin transfer moulding (RTM)
4.5.4 Matched-tool moulding
4.6 Continuous fibre techniques
4.6.1 Filament winding
4.6.2 Pultrusion
Problems
Further reading
5 Stiffness of polymer products
5.1 Stiffness of plastics: elementary concepts
5.1.1 Modulus from the conventional tensile test
5.1.2 Effect of composition on modulus
5.1.3 Long-term loading of plastics
(a) Creep tests and data for plastics
(b) Representation ol creep data
(c) Stress relaxation in plastics
5.1.4 Prediction of long-term stiffness of plastic products under constant load or deformation
(a) Principle of correspondence
(b) Sample stillness calculations
(c) Need for improved stiffness
Problems
5.2 Stiffness of plastics: a more general approach
5.2.1 Viscoelasticity
5.2.2 Superposition
(a) Superimposed load
(b) Recovery from creep
(c) Integral form of superposition
(d) Dynamic modulus; relation to creep modulus
5.2.3 Models for viscoelastic behaviour
(a) Spring and dashpot models
(b) Exponential function of time
5.2.4 Deviations from viscoelastic behaviour
(a) Non-linear stress-strain curve
(b) Physical aging
5.2.5 Time-dependent buckling
5.2.6 Temperature-dependent stiffness
(a) Time-temperature equivalence
(b) Modulus as a function of temperature
Problems
5.3 Stiffness of vulcanized rubber
5.3.1 Mechanical properties
(a) Stress-strain relationships for short-term loading
(b) Effect of reinforcing fillers
(c) Creep and stress relaxation
(d) Dynamic properties of rubber
5.3.2 Rubber springs
(a) Shear stiffness of bonded rubber spring units
(b) Compressive stiffness of bonded rubber spring units
Problems
Further reading
Stiffness of plastics
Stiffness of vulcanized rubber
6 Strength of polymer products
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The traditional approach
6.2.1 Short-term tensile strength
(a) Brittle failure
(b) Ductile failure
(c) Influence of tensile speed and temperature
(d) Failure criteria for multiaxial stress
6.2.2 Failure under long-term load
(a) Constant load
(b) Cyclic (fatigue) load
6.2.3 Factors promoting a ductile-brittle transition
(a) Stress and design features
(b) Polymer and compound features
(c) Processing features
(d) Environmental factors
(e) Environmental stress cracking
6.2.4 Designing to avoid failure
(a) Design brief for load bearing
(b) Basis for the calculation
(c) Safety factor
(d) Maximum strain approach
Problems
6.3 The fracture mechanics approach
6.3.1 Introduction
6.3.2 Energy approach to fracture
6.3.3 Stress intensity approach to fracture
(a) Stress intensity factor (opening mode)
(b) Fracture toughness
(c) Relationship between G and K
6.3.4 Time dependence of fracture
(a) Crack growth under constant load
(b) Crack growth under cyclic load
6.3.5 Ductile-brittle transition revisited
(a) Influence of crack depth a
(b) Local yielding near the crack tip
6.3.6 Measurement of fracture parameters
6.3.7 Impact strength
(a) Drop testing
(b) Pendulum impact tests
(c) Pendulum impact tests on cracked bars
Problems
Further reading
Traditional approach
Fracture mechanics approach
7 Fibre-polymer composites
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Approaches to design
7.1.2 Some interesting features of fibre-plastics composites
(a) Unidirectional lamina
(b) Angle-ply laminate
(c) Cross-ply laminate
(d) Chopped strand mat laminate
Problem
7.2 Micromechanics
7.2.1 Vocabulary and assumptions of simple micromechanics
7.2.2 Stiffness
7.2.3 Strength
(a) Longitudinal tensile strength, σ^1T
(b) Transverse tensile strength, σ^2T
(c) In-plane shear strength, τ^12
(d) Compressive strength, σ^1c and σ^2c
(e) Strength under combined stress
7.2.4 Coefficients of thermal expansion
7.2.5 Laminae based on other arrangements of fibres
7.2.6 Prediction of performance
7.2.7 Fibre length
7.2.8 Select database for continuous fibre-reinforced composites
Problems
7.3 Macromechanics of a lamina
7.3.1 Hooke’s law for principal directions
(a) Isotropic material
(b) Anisotropic behaviour
(c) Orthotropic behaviour
7.3.2 Transformation of axes for stress or strain
7.3.3 Stress-strain relationships under off-axis loading
7.3.4 Failure under off-axis loading
7.3.5 Compatibility and equilibrium in a lamina
(a) Strain-displacement relationships
(b) Stress and moment resultants
(c) Lamina stiffness and compliance
Problems
7.4 Stiffness of laminates
7.4.1 Compatibility and equilibrium in a laminate
7.4.2 Laminate stiffness
(a) General stillness relationship
(b) Special cases
(c) Calculation of laminate stiffness matrices
7.4.3 Laminate compliance
7.4.4 Stresses in laminates
7.4.5 Choosing a laminate
Problems
7.5 Strength of wide laminates
7.5.1 First-ply failure
7.5.2 Strength in bending
7.5.3 Edge effects
Problems
Further reading
8 Fluid flow and heat transfer in melt processing
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Unidirectional isothermal Newtonian flow
8.2.1 Simple pressure and drag flows
8.2.2 Simplified analysis of flow in metering zone of an extruder
8.2.3 Lubrication approximation
8.2.4 Flow in tapered channels
8.2.5 Simplified melt flow m a two-roll mill
8.2.6 Spreading disc flow at constant volumetric flow rate
Problems
8.3 Shear viscosity of polymer melts
8.3.1 Measurement of shear viscosity
(a) Drag flow rheometer
(b) Pressure flow rheometer
8.3.2 Presentation of shear viscosity data
8.3.3 True shear viscosity and true shear rate
8.3.4 Melt flow index (MFI)
Problems
8.4 Unidirectional power-law flows
8.4.1 Pressure flows through channels of constant cross-section
8.4.2 Pressure flows through channels of gradually changing cross-section
(a) Example
8.4.3 Drag flow of power-law fluids
Problems
8.5 Mixing and blending of polymer melts
8.5.1 Dispersive mixing
8.5.2 Distributive mixing
8.5.3 Axial mixing
8.5.4 Mixing devices
Problem
8.6 Tensile viscosity
Problems
8.7 Elasticity of polymer melts
8.7.1 Elasticity phenomena
8.7.2 Spring and dashpot model
8.7.3 Elasticity
8.7.4 Post-extrusion swelling
Problems
8.8 Heat transfer in polymer processing
8.8.1 General comments on heat transfer
8.8.2 Thermal properties of polymers
8.8.3 Steady-state heat transfer in static polymers
8.8.4 Non-steady-state heat transfer
8.8.5 Combined melt flow and heat transfer
Problems
Further reading
Unidirectional isothermal Newtonian flow
Shear viscosity of polymer melts
Unidirectional power-law flows
Tensile viscosity
Mixing and blending of polymer melts
Elasticity of polymer melts
Heat transfer in polymer processing
9 Some interactions between processing and properties
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Thermal effects
9.2.1 Residual stress after free shrinkage
(a) Principles
(b) Restraints on free shrinking
9.2.2 Residual stress due to the injection moulding process
9.2.3 Dimensional effects and tolerances
9.2.4 Inhomogeneity
9.2.5 Crystallization
Problems
9.3 Flow effects
9.3.1 Molecular orientation
9.3.2 Short-fibre orientation
9.3.3 Weld-lines
9.3.4 Melt fracture and sharkskin
Problems
9.4 Some combined pressure, flow and thermal effects
9.4.1 Injection moulding
9.4.2 Biaxial orientation
9.4.3 Inhomogeneity
Problem
9.5 Effect of change in processing conditions
9.6 Preferred shapes
Further reading
10 Product design
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Specific plastics elements
10.2.1 Snap-fittings
(a) Maximum strain during mounting
(b) Other designs
(c) Insertion and disconnection forces
(d) Pull-out strength
(e) Tooling aspects
10.2.2 Integral hinges
10.2.3 Detachable connections
10.2.4 Fixed connections
(a) Adhesive joints
(b) Welded joints
Problems
10.3 Designing for stiffness
10.3.1 Increasing modulus E
10.3.2 Adaptation of shape
10.3.3 Foamed structures
10.3.4 Ribs
(a) Stiffness of ribs
(b) Strength of ribs
(c) Stability of ribs
(d) Torsional stiffness of ribbed structures
(e) Ribs in other technologies
10.3.5 Stiffness of laminated beams
(a) Rectangular section laminated beams
(b) Beams under transverse load through thickness
(c) Beam under transverse load in the plane
(d) Parallel axes theorem
(e) Sections of rotational symmetry
(f) Beam deflections by shear deformation
Problems
10.4 Prestressed elements
10.4.1 Stress relaxation in bolted joints
(a) Undeformable flanges
(b) Elastic flanges and packing
(c) Allowable stress in the bolt
10.4.2 Effect of temperature change in laminated structures
Problems
10.5 Tailor-made elements
10.5.1 Design for extrusion blow moulding
(a) Some practical details
(b) Simple parison sag
(c) Parison sag during extrusion
(d) Parison programming
(e) Wall thickness design
10.5.2 Rubber block springs and seals
(a) Design of bonded block springs loaded in the principal directions
(b) Stiffness of blocks loaded in non-principal directions
(c) Other types of rubber springs and coupling units
(d) Rubber seals
10.5.3 Golf club shaft
(a) Torsional stiffness
(b) Torsional strength
(c) Bending stiffness
(d) Bending strength
(e) Incorporating the requirements into the design
(f) Concluding remarks
10.5.4 Coupling effects in symmetrical composite laminates
10.5.5 Case study of a potato tray
(a) Introduction
(b) What must the tray do?
(c) Design approaches
(d) Choice of materials
(e) Concepts for structural design
(f) Stiffness considerations
(g) Prototype
(h) Injection machine and mould
Problems
10.6 Computer-aided engineering with polymers
10.6.1 Finite element method
10.6.2 Structural mechanics
10.6.3 Injection moulding simulations
10.6.4 Conclusion
Further reading
Outline answers
Index

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