Encyclopedia of Ukraine: Volume I: A-F plus Map and Gazetteer 9781442632806

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Encyclopedia of Ukraine

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Encyclopedia of

UKRAINE VOLUME I

A-F Edited by VOLODYMYR KUBIJOVYC

Published for the Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, the Shevchenko Scientific Society (Sarcelles, France), and the Canadian Foundation for Ukrainian Studies UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO PRESS Toronto Buffalo London

© University of Toronto Press 1984 Toronto Buffalo London Reprinted 1985 Printed in Canada ISBN 0-8020-3362-8

Collector's Edition: ISBN 0-8020-3416-0

Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data Main entry under title: Encyclopedia of Ukraine Revision of: Entsyklopediia ukrainoznavstva. Includes bibliographies. Partial contents: Map and gazetteer volume. v. i. A-F ISBN 0-8020-3362-8

i. Ukraine - Dictionaries and encyclopedias. 2. Ukraine - Gazetteers, i. Kubijovyc, V. (Volodymyr), 1900n. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies. in. Naukove tovarystvo imeny Shevchenka. iv. Canadian Foundation for Ukrainian Studies. v. Title: Entsyklopediia ukrainoznavstva. DK5O8.E52 1984

947'. 71 '003

c84-O99336-6

Editorial Staff Volodymyr Kubijovyc Vasyl Markus A r k a d i i Zhukovsky George S.N. Luckyj Danylo Husar Struk

Editor Associate Editor Assistant Editor English-Language Editor, 1977-1982 Managing Editor

CONSULTING

EDITORS

Art Sviatoslav Hordynsky; Sofiia Yaniv Church Bohdan R. Bociurkiw; Vasyl Markus; Arkadii Zhukovsky Diaspora Manoly L u p u l ; Vasyl Markus Economics Bohdan Wynar Ethnography, Folklore Petro Odarchenko Geography Volodymyr Kubijovyc History Oleksander Ohloblyn; Arkadii Zhukovsky Law, Political Science Vasyl Markus Linguistics George Y. Shevelov Literature Ivan Koshelivets; George S.N. Luckyj Medical Science Heinrich Schultz Military History Lev Shankovsky Music Roman Savytsky; Wasyl W y t w y c k y Natural Science Edvard Zharsky Press Sofiia Yaniv Sciences Olexa Bilaniuk; Swiatoslaw Trofimenko Technology Stepan Protsiuk Theater Valerian Revutsky Maps H r y h o r i i Kolodii; A r k a d i i Zhukovsky Illustrations Sviatoslav Hordynsky

OFFICE Halyna H r y n Sonia M a r y n Roman Senkus Roma Yanchinski Taras Zakydalsky Myroslav Yurkevich; Sophia Yurkevich; Daria Zeleney

STAFF Manuscript Editor Project Co-ordinator Chief Manuscript Editor Researcher Translator Editorial

Assistants

Contributors o. A r k h i m o v y c h ; I . Bakalo; V . N . Bandera; Y. Bilinsky; A . Bilynsky; B.R. Bociurkiw; M . Borovsky; V. Borovsky; E. Borschak; O. Borushenko; S. Bozhyk; B. Budurowycz; L . Burachynska; M . Chubaty; D . Chyzhevsky; T.B. Ciuciura; Y u . Fedoriv; J. Fedynskyj; A . Figol; K. Gardetska; Ye. Glovinsky; B. Halaichuk; P. Harbuziuk; M . Hlobenko; V. Hodys; L . Holubnychy; V. Holubnychy; O. Horbach; S. Hordynsky; D . Horniatkevych; A . Hornjatkevyc; B. Hoshovsky; L Kedryn-Rudnytsky; S. Kikta; R. Klymkevych; H . Kolodii; N . Kordysh-Holovko; I . Korovytsky; I . Koshelivets; M . Kovalevsky; I . Kozak; B. Kravtsiv; B. Krawchenko; R. Krokhmaliuk; B. Krupnytsky; V. Kubijovyc; M . Kurakh; Z. Kuzelia; V. Laba; M . Labunka; W. Lencyk; B. Levytsky; B. Luchakovsky; G.S.N. Luckyj; Z. Lysko; J. Madey; P.R. Magocsi; I . Maistrenko; H . Makhiv; D . Markus; V. Markus; V. Maruniak; B. M e d w i d s k y ; M . Miller; I . Mirchuk; R. M i z ; O. Navrotsky; I . Nazarko; L . Nenadkevych; V. Nota; N . Nyzhankovsky; P. Odarchenko; O. Ohloblyn; L . Okinshevych; R. Olesnytsky; Ya. Padokh; Ya. Pasternak; M . Pasternakova; I . Patrylo; V. Pavlovsky; O. Pleshkevych; T. Pliushch; V. Pliushch; V. Polishchuk; A . Popliuiko; V. Popovych; V.J. Pospishil; P.J. Potichnyj; M . Prokop; S. Protsiuk; S. Rabii-Karpynska; J. Radziejowski; V. Revutsky; J.B. Rudnyckyj; I . L . Rudnytsky; V. Savchuk; Y u . Savchuk; H . Schultz; R. Senkus; L . Shankovsky; G.Y. Shevelov; A . Shtefan; V. Shuhaievsky; O. Shulhyn; Ya. Shumelda; V. Sichynsky; M . Stakhiv; Y u . Starosolsky; M . Stasiv; I . Stebelsky; S. Stechishin; Z. Stefaniv; V. Stetsiuk; D . H . Struk; B. Struminsky; I . Svit; O. Subtelny; F. Swyripa; I . Tesla; S. Trofimenko; O. Trofymovska; Tsui Tsien-hua; A . Turchyn; I . Vakulenko; M . Vasylyk; M . Vavryk; A . Velyky; M . Voinar; S. Volynets; I . Vytanovych; S. Vytvytsky; B. Wynar; L. Wynar; B. W y t w y c k y ; W . W y t w y c k y ; A . Yakovliv; S. Yaniv; V. Yaniv; R. Yendyk; O. Yurchenko; E. Zharsky; M . Zhdan; A . Z h u k ; A . Zhukovsky

Contents Preface

ix

Explanatory notes xi THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA

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Preface Encyclopedia of Ukraine is the complement of Entsyklopediia ukraïnoznavstva, a w o r k that was initiated thirty-five years ago by the Shevchenko Scientific Society, the oldest Ukrainian learned association. Founded i n 1873 i n Lviv, the society was dissolved during the first Soviet occupation of Western Ukraine i n early 1940 and was likewise not permitted to exist under the N a z i occupation. The opportunity to revive the society arose after the Second World War i n Germany, where the majority of Ukrainian scholars w h o had left Ukraine after the second Soviet occupation had found refuge. A m o n g them were specialists i n every area of Ukrainian studies. Thus, i n 1948, the Shevchenko Scientific Society resumed its activities, and M u n i c h became its temporary center. Since that time the greater part of the society's h u m a n and material resources has been directed toward preparing and publishing Entsyklopediia ukraïnoznavstva. Prior to the existence of Entsyklopediia ukraïnoznavstva, only one Ukrainian encyclopedia the three-volume Ukraïns'ka zahaVna entsyklopediia (edited by I . Rakovsky and V. Simovych) had been published (Lviv 1930-5). This general reference w o r k was modeled on other encyclopedias and was the first major source of information about Ukraine and Ukrainians. It contained about 8,000 short entries and a long section titled ' U k r a i n e / It was only after the appearance of the first volume that a project to publish a Soviet Ukrainian encyclopedia was initiated under the editorship of M . Skrypnyk, a prominent Soviet political leader. The Stalinist terror and the accompanying campaign to suppress Ukrainian culture prevented the realization of this project. The publication of Entsyklopediia ukraïnoznavstva i n the West played a role i n the appearance of the first Soviet Ukrainian encyclopedia, Ukraïns'ka radians'ka entsyklopediia, seventeen volumes of w h i c h were published i n Kiev between 1958 and 1962 (including an English translation of the seventeenth volume, w h i c h is devoted exclusively to the Ukrainian S S R ) . Subsequently, a number of specialized encyclopedias devoted to such areas as the history and economy of Ukraine were published i n Soviet Ukraine. There is a fundamental difference i n the approach and the spirit of Entsyklopediia ukraïnoznavstva and its Soviet counterpart. The former aspires to be an objective reference w o r k , p r o v i d i n g truthful, comprehensive information about all manifestations of Ukrainian life i n the past and the present; i f there are differing interpretations of some person, subject, or event, Entsyklopediia ukraïnoznavstva tries to present all of them. According to its forew o r d , the Soviet encyclopedia aims to demonstrate i n its content the brotherly unity of the Ukrainian people, the Russian people, and all the other peoples of the 'Soviet Fatherland/ Furthermore, it is directed against Ukrainian bourgeois nationalism (a concept that is applied to even such 17th- and 18th-century figures as I . Vyhovsky, P. Doroshenko, I . Mazepa, and P. Orlyk). The Soviet work thus avoids mentioning many facts and individuals, misrepresents others, and provides no or m i n i m a l and distorted information on the church and on the period of Ukrainian independence (1918-21). Entsyklopediia ukraïnoznavstva consists of t w o parts: a three-volume reference w o r k divided into subjects or themes (history, literature, economy, and so on) and a ten-volume encyclopedia w i t h entries arranged alphabetically. The first part was completed i n 1952. A t that time the offices of the Shevchenko Scientific Society and the encyclopedia editors were moved to Sarcelles, France. While preparation of the alphabetic encyclopedia was underway, the first, thematic part was revised and translated into English as Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopaedia. This translation was funded by the largest Ukrainian fraternal organization i n

X

P R E F A C E

the U n i t e d States, the Ukrainian National Association, and was published by University of Toronto Press i n t w o volumes (1963, 1970; the first volume was reprinted i n 1982). I n 1977 w o r k was begun on an updated, English version of the alphabetic part of Entsyklopediia ukrainoznavsta. The result is the publication of the first volume of Encyclopedia of Ukraine, a w o r k funded by the Canadian Foundation for Ukrainian Studies and the Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies. The publisher is again University of Toronto Press. Encyclopedia of Ukraine w i l l be published i n four volumes, each volume having about 1,000 pages. It w i l l contain close to 20,000 entries, many of w h i c h w i l l be from one to fifteen pages i n length. The entries can be divided into several groups. The first group includes entries o n Ukraine's geography and natural environment (geography, geology, soils, flora and fauna, climate, and hydrography); archeology and history; jurisprudence i n Ukraine (including Ukrainian law); the church i n Ukraine; the Ukrainian language and Ukrainian literature; education, art, theater, and music i n Ukraine; the economy of Ukraine, and the like. A second group includes a number of longer entries surveying the various scholarly disciplines i n Ukraine, i n c l u d i n g disciplines not dealing w i t h Ukraine specifically, but w i t h technical or scientific subjects; for example: anthropology, archeology, botany, chemistry, and economic studies. A t h i r d group consists of long entries, many of them brief surveys, on Ukraine's natural geographical-historical regions. The first volume of Encyclopedia of Ukraine contains the following entries of this type: the Sea of Azov, Bessarabia, the Black Sea, Bukovyna, the Carpathian Mountains, the Chernihiv region, the Crimea, Dobrudja, the D o n Region, and the Donets Basin. These regional entries provide a description of the natural environment and the region's history, economy, and culture; they are accompanied by maps. The entry o n cities and towns and entries on the major cities (Chernihiv, Chernivtsi, Dnipropetrovske, and Donetske) also belong to this group. A fourth group consists of a number of entries dealing w i t h Ukraine's relations w i t h other countries, contacts between the Ukrainians and other peoples and nations i n the past and present, countries to w h i c h Ukrainians have emigrated, and national minorities i n Ukraine. This volume contains such entries i n this group as Albanians, Argentina, Armenians, Australia, Austria, Backa, Belgium, Belorussia, Belorussians, Bohemia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Bulgarians, Canada, Czechoslovakia, the Far East, and France. There are also entries on Ukrainian communities i n Berlin, Chicago, Edmonton, and other cities. Finally, a large part of Encyclopedia of Ukraine consists of a fifth group of entries: brief accounts of individuals; geographical locations; historical, political, juridical, and economic periods, events, and institutions; periodicals and publications; and associa­ tions and organizations. I n general, most longer entries include a bibliography. Illustrations, totaling about 450 photographs and over 150 tables and maps, supplement the text. A chromatic map of Ukraine also accompanies the volume. To conclude, as the editor i n chief I w o u l d like to extend to all members of the editorial board, to the editors responsible for the various subject areas, to the authors and reviewers, and to everyone w h o contributed to the publication of this encyclopedia m y heartfelt gratitude for their co-operation. Volodymyr Kubijovyc Sarcelles, August 1983

Explanatory Notes I n general matters of style, this w o r k follows The Chicago Manual of Style. Spelling conforms by and large to the American variant of English found i n Webster's Dictionary. The editors have 'anglicized' many frequently used Ukrainian words by giving them English plural endings. Such words are not italicized i n the text; for example: zemstvo/s, sobor/s, opryshok/s, kobzar/s, duma/s, hetman/s, and tekhnikum/s. Most words of non-English origin, however, unless they have already been accepted into the English language, are italicized i n the text and retain their original plurals. The editors have striven to find English equivalents for as many Ukrainian, Russian, Polish, and other foreign words as possible. Thus the terms povit, uezd, komitat, zhupa have all been translated as 'county.' The w o r d 'gubernia' is n o w an accepted English w o r d , as is 'voivodeship' (for voievodstvo or województwo). I n most cases, administrative and territorial terms not having English equivalents have been transliterated, but not italicized, and have been given English plurals; for example, stanytsia/s, gmina/s, okruha/s, kurin/s, zemlia/s, palanka/s. First names of individuals are not generally given i n the texts of entries; only the initial and surname are provided. Exceptions have been made for rulers, saints, and ancient historical figures k n o w n by their first names. W i t h rare exceptions, weights and measures are given i n metric forms, and temperatures are given i n centrigrade degrees. Dates are given according to the N e w Style (Gregorian) calendar. Abbreviations i n the text are not usually followed by a period, w i t h the exception of initials of personal names and the abbreviation for 'number' - 'no.' - i n order to distinguish it from the w o r d 'no'. Cross-references are indicated by an asterisk. Generally these have been provided only w h e n the entry referred to contains additional, relevant information on the subject.

TRANSLITERATION Three systems have been used to transliterate words and names from the Cyrillic alphabet: 1. The modified Library of Congress system has been used i n the titles and i n texts of all but the linguistic entries. This form does not use diacritical marks or ligatures. Only i n the case of the w o r d Rus' has the apostrophe been retained to indicate the soft sign. A t the end of surnames ' - H H ' is transliterated as ' y . ' The letters 'e,' ' H , ' ' I O , ' and V i n initial positions i n personal, institutional, organizational, and geographical names are transliterated as 'Ye,' 'Y,' ' Y u , ' and Ya,' respectively. 2. The strict Library of Congress system ( w i t h all diacritical marks) has been used to transliterate all published and manuscript titles. 3. The International Linguistic system has been used to transliterate the phonetic equivalents of non-English entry titles, w h i c h appear i n brackets following the entry titles, and for linguistic terms (but not personal names) i n entries on linguistic topics. Ukrainian surnames transliterated from languages other than English are given i n brackets after the linguistic transliteration. The first names of non-English individuals are never anglicized; for example, Mykhailo does not become Michael, Ivan does not become John. The only exception is for individuals or historical figures w h o have well-established English names.

XÜ

EXPLANATORY NOTES

TRANSLITERATION OF UKRAINIAN

Ukrainian

Modified LC A B V H G D E Ye/ie Zh Z Y I I Y/i K L M N O P R S T U F Kh Ts Ch Sh Shch Yu/iu Ya/ia [omit]

-y

Strict LC A B V H G D E le Zh Z Y I Ï I K L M N O P R S T U F Kh Ts Ch Sh Shch lu la •>

-yi

Linguistic A B V H G D E Je Z Z Y I Ji J K L M N O P R S

T U F X

c

e s

Se

Ju la ;

-yj

GEOGRAPHICAL ENTRIES

Geographical names in the Ukrainian SSR and on historically Ukrainian ethnic territories have been transliterated from the Kharkiv orthography using the modified Library of Congress system. Places in the Ukrainian SSR whose names end in 'sk' according to the Kiev orthography thus appear in the encyclopedia with the ending 'ske/ For technical reasons, maps in the encyclopedia occasionally have names in the linguistic form of transliteration. Entries on cities, towns, and villages provide, after the entry title, the relevant co-ordinates on the map of Ukraine accompanying the encyclopedia. Doubling of consonants has been suppressed; for example, the forms Tolisia/ Todilia/ and 'Zaporizhia' are used. The full transliteration of names with double consonants appears only in the linguistic transliteration that follows the main entry title. Certain places have acquired generally accepted English names; these have been retained. Thus, the reader will find the names Sea of Azov, Bessarabia, Black Sea, Carpathian Mountains, Caucasia, Crimea, Danube, Dnieper, Dniester, Galicia, Kiev, Odessa, Podlachia,

E X P L A N A T O R Y

N O T E S

and Volhynia i n the text. The only exceptions are the use of the Ukrainian transliterated name 'Bukovyna' instead of 'Bucovina' or 'Bukovina,' and of the Ukrainian name 'Donbas' instead of the Russian form 'Donbass/ Entries on population centers indicate whether they are cities, towns, or villages. A place that has been designated i n the U S S R as 'urban-type settlement' (selyshche miskoho typu) is designated here as a t o w n and has the acronym of the Ukrainian term - ' s m f - following the word 'town.' Names of places outside Ukrainian ethnic territory are given i n the accepted English form or are transliterated from the language of the country where they are found. Thus, for example, Belorussian names are transliterated from the Belorussian; Russian names, from the Russian; Polish names, from the Polish. Names of places on historically Ukrainian ethnic territory are transliterated from the Ukrainian (for example, K h o l m instead of the Polish Cheim). ORGANIZATIONS AND INSTITUTIONS Descriptive names of organizations and institutions have been translated; for example, Tnstytut botaniky' appears as 'Institute of Botany.' Ascriptive names have not been translated, but transliterated. Usually a qualifier has been added. For example, 'Ruska Besida' appears i n texts as the 'Ruska Besida society/ Entry titles for all names, both descriptive and ascriptive, include the linguistic translitera­ tion from the original Ukrainian name i n brackets at the end. Names of organizations and institutions i n the West are given i n the official English form, if one exists, or are translated into English. If such organizations are k n o w n under other foreign names, these names are included only as cross-reference entry titles. For example, 'Ukrainska Natsionalna Yednist u Frantsii' and 'Alliance Nationale Ukrainienne en France' are both cross-reference entry titles; the text of the entry appears under the English translation 'Ukrainian National Alliance i n France.' M a n y organizations that are popularly k n o w n by the short forms of their name appear i n the text under the short forms. 'Tsentrosoiuz,' for example, is a main entry title. The longer, descriptive name is translated and appears as a cross-reference entry title only. Factories, plants, and educational and cultural institutions usually appear under the name of the place where they are located. Institutes of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian S S R all appear under the title 'Institute of ...'

ABBREVIATIONS The following abbreviations are used i n the entries: ed Anno Domini AD edn approximately approx born eds b Before Christ BC eg est Celsius, centigrade C et al circa ca etc Captain Capt cm centimeter g Gen company (business) Co Gov Colonel Col ha compiler, compiled by comp ie cubic cu died d kg km Doctor Dr

editor, edited by edition editors for example established and others and so forth gram General Governor hectare that is kilogram kilometer

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xiv

E X P L A N A T O R Y

kW L

Lt m Maj mg ml nd no., nos np O S

P> PP

N O T E S

kilowatt liter Lieutenant meter Major milligram milliliter no date number, numbers no place O l d Style page, pages

P H D

Prof repr Rev Sen sgt smt sq St, ss t vol, vols

Doctor of Philosophy degree Professor reprinted Reverend Senator Sergeant urban-type settlement square Saint, Saints metric ton volume, volumes

ACRONYMS The following acronyms are used i n the text. Many acronyms are based on the original language but the full name is given i n English translation. Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian S S R A N U R S R Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic A S S R Central Committee C C Extraordinary Commission to Fight Counterrevolution, Sabotage, and Cheka Speculation Comecon Council of M u t u a l Economic Assistance Comintern Communist International Communist Party C P Communist Party (Bolshevik) of Ukraine C P ( B ) U Communist Party of the Soviet U n i o n C P S U Communist Party of Ukraine C P U Donets Basin Donbas Displaced Person D P State Planning Commission for Agriculture and Industry of the Council of Gosplan Ministers of the U S S R State Political Administration G P U M a i n Administration of Labor Camps G U L A G Committee for State Security K G B collective farm kolkhoz Komsomol Communist Youth League Communist Youth League of Ukraine L K S M U M i n i s t r y of State Security M G B Ministry of Internal Affairs M V D N o r t h Atlantic Treaty Organization N A T O N e w Economic Policy N E P People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs N K V D Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists O U N Political Bureau Politburo Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic RSFSR Soviet Socialist Republic SSR Telegraph Agency of the Soviet U n i o n T A S S Ukrainian Academy of Sciences U A N Ukrainian National Republic U N R Ukrainian Insurgent A r m y U P A United States, United States of America US, U S A All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences V U A N

EXPLANATORY NOTES

The following acronyms of periodicals are used in bibliographies: Akty otnosiashchiesia k istorii luzhnoi i Zapadnoi Rossii AIZR Analecta Ordinis S. Basilii Magni (Rome) AOBM Annals of the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the United States AUA Chervonyi shliakh ChSh Canadian Slavonic Papers CSP Ekonomika Radians'koï Ukraïny ERU Etnohrafichnyi zbirnyk (Lviv) EZ Harvard Ukrainian Studies HUS Istoricheskii zhurnal (St Petersburg) IZh Journal of Ukrainian Studies jus Kievskaia starina KS Literaturno-naukovyi vistnyk LNV MUE Materiialy do ukraïns'koï etnolohiï Narodna tvorchist' ta etnohrafiia NTE Naukovi zapysky Ukraïns'koho viïnoho universytetu NZUVU RA Russkii arkhiv Revue des études slaves RES Russkii istoricheskii zhurnal RlZh RL Radians'ke literaturoznavstvo Russian Review RR Rocznik slawistyczny (Cracow) RS SEEJ Slavic and East European Journal SEER Slavic and East European Review SO Slavia Orientalis SR Slavic Review TKDA Trudy Kievskoi dukhovnoi akademii UCE Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopedia UI Ukrams'kyi istoryk UlZh Ukraïns'kyi istorychnyi zhurnal UKh Ukraïns'ka khata ULH Ukra'ins'ka literaturna hazeta UQ Ukrainian Quarterly UR Ukrainian Review URA Ukrams'ko-rus'kyi arkhiv URE Ukraïns'ka radians'ka entsyklopediia VAN Visnyk AN URSR VDI Vestnik drevnei istorii ZChVV Zapysky Chyna sv. Vasyliia Velykoho ZhMNP Zhurnal Ministerstva narodnogo prosveshcheniia ZhR Zhyttia i revoliutsiia ZIAN Zapiski Imperatorskoi akademii nauk ZIFV Zapysky Istorychno-filolohichnoho viddilu YUAN ZNTK Zapysky Naukovoho tovarystva v Kyievi ZNTSh Zapysky Naukovoho tovarystva im. Shevchenka ZSP Zeitschrift fur slavische Philologie

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A Abashev, Dimitrii [Abasev, Dimitrij], b 1829, d 22 January 1880 in Odessa. Chemist. Abashev graduated from the universities of St Petersburg (1851), Moscow (1858), and Kharkiv (1868). He was a lecturer at Kiev University (1858-62) and a docent and a professor at Odessa University, where he taught agricultural chemis­ try (1865-79). In 1875-9 he was vice-president of the Imperial Agricultural Society of Southern Russia. His pioneer works, which concerned the mutual dissolubility of liquids and the thermochemistry of non-aqueous solutions, were 'Issledovaniia o iavleniiakh vzaimnogo rastvoreniia zhidkostei' (Studies on Phenomena of the Mutual Dissolubility of Liquids, M se thesis, 1858) and 'O teplovykh iavleniiakh, obnaruzhivaiushchikhsia pri soedinenii zhidkostei' (On Heat Phenomena Manifested in the Mixing of Liquids, Zapiski Imperatorskogo Novorossiiskogo universiteta 1, 1868). Abazyn, Andrii, 7-1703. A colonel in the Bratslav Regiment and leader of the restored Cossack formations in Right-Bank Ukraine. In 1684 he settled in Bratslav and began to colonize the region. From 1691 to 1696 he participated in the military campaigns of the Right-Bank Cossacks against the Turks and the Tatars. During S. *Palii's anti-Polish rebellion (1702-4) Abazyn took the city of Nemyriv, then barricaded himself in Ladyzhyn and courageously defended it with his 2,000 Cossacks. Over­ powered by the army of the Polish hetmán A. *Sieniawski on 20 February 1703, Abazyn was taken prisoner and executed. Abbot. See Hegumen. Abbreviations. Used in the Ukrainian language (espe­ cially after the 1917 revolution) as substitutes for the names of institutions, states, official positions, and the like, whose names in full are phrases developed in Ukrainian since the beginning of the 20th century. The main types are (1) initials of the component words read each as a sound: S § A (pronounced ssa) = Spolúceni átáty Améryky (United States of America); (2) initials of the component words read as letter names: U N R (pronounced uenér) = Ukrajíns'ka Naródnja Respúblika (Ukrainian National Republic); (3) syllabic, with a syllable (and usually the first consonant of the next syllable) from each component word: liknép = likvidácija nepys'rnénnosty (elimination of illiteracy); (4) mixed: Dniprohés = Dnipróvs'ka Hidroelektrycna Stáncija (Dnieper Hydroelec­ tric Station); (5) partial, with only the first word com­ ponent abbreviated as in syllabic abbreviations: medsestrá = medycna sestrá (hospital nurse). The last type functions as a compound word without a linking vowel. ABN Correspondence. The English bulletin of the *Anti-Bolshevik Bloc of Nations ( A B N ) , issued bimonthly

in Munich since 1950, under the editorship of V. Oreletsky (1950-4), M . Borys (1954), D. Osinsky (1954-7), and S. *Stetsko (since 1957). It publishes articles by Ukrainians and non-Ukrainians about the conditions in Ukraine and other captive countries of Eastern Europe and Asia and about international communism, transla­ tions of samvydav documents, and reports on the activi­ ties of A B N and the World Anticommunist League. The ABN Correspondence was also published irregularly in German (1949-58) and French (1952-4). Abortion. A n artificial termination of pregnancy. The criminal codes that were in force in Ukrainian territories up to the First World War regarded the fetus as the beginning of human life and treated its artificial expulsion as an attempt on the child's life which called for severe punishment. Abortion without the woman's consent was punished with even greater severity. Codes introduced in the interwar period provided for legal abortions in certain exceptional circumstances. The Polish Criminal Code of 1932, for example, permitted abortion if the pregnancy threatened the mother's health or life or if the pregnancy was due to rape. On 4 June 1921 the people's commissariats of justice and of health of the Ukrainian S S R issued a decree modeled on the 1920 decree of the Russian S F S R legalizing abortions provided that they were carried out free of charge in state hospitals by competent phy­ sicians. Unqualified abortionists and physicians who performed abortions privately and under improper condi­ tions were prosecuted. Legalization brought about an increase in the number of abortions. In the county towns of Ukraine abortions amounted to 14.3 percent of all births in 1923-4, 32.3 percent in 1924-5, and 55.2 percent in 1925. This problem was considered at the First AllUkrainian Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, which was held in Kiev in 1927. Faced by a catastrophic decline in the birth rate and an enormous loss of life during the famine of 1932-3, the government prohibited abortion in 1936 and made it punishable by up to two years' imprisonment. A n exception was made for abor­ tions on medical or moral grounds. This policy led to an unprecedented increase in illegal abortions. The Soviet government was forced to revoke its decision of 1936 and on 8 February 1955 issued the decree 'On the Repeal of the Prohibition against Abortion.' On 29 February 1956 the U S S R Ministry of Health published instructions on carrying out abortions. Thus, the law reverted to that of the 1920s. Since 1955 abortions performed outside of hospitals under unsanitary conditions and by unqualified personnel have been considered illegal. For reasons of the woman's health, abortion after 12 weeks of pregnancy is prohibited. The health of the woman, rather than the survival of the fetus, is protected by law. A. Bilynsky

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Abramov, Fedir, b 21 March 1904 in Lysychanske in the Donbas, d 5 December 1982 in Kiev. Mining specialist, corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian S S R . After graduating from the Dnipropetrovske Mining Institute in 1930, he taught there. From 1962 he worked at the Institute of Geotechnical Mechanics of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian S S R . His main works deal with the problem of ventilation in mine shafts and the air and gas dynamics of shafts. Abramovych, Dmytro [Abramovyc], b 26 July 1873 in Hulevychi, Volhynia, d 4 March 1955 in Vilnius. Literary scholar, specializing in Old Ukrainian literature; corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the U S S R from 1921. Abramovych graduated from the St Petersburg Theological Academy in 1897 and in 1903 became head of that institution's faculty of Russian and Old Slavonic languages. In 1909 he was dismissed from his position for alleged unreliability. During the Soviet period he was a professor at the University of Leningrad and the Smolensk Pedagogical Institute, and in the later years of his life at the University of Vilnius. His major works were Issledovanie 0 Kievo-Pecherskom Paterike (A Study of the Kievan Cave Patericon, 1902) and K voprosu ob ob"eme i kharaktere literaturnoi deiateVnosti Nestora Letopistsa (On the Scope and Character of Nestor the Chronicler's Literary Activity, 1902). Several editions of the Kievan Cave Patericon were published under Abramovych's editorship, including an edition in the series Pamiatky movy ta pys'menstva davn'oï Ukraïny, vol iv, Kiev 1930. He also edited Zhitie sviatykh muchenikov Borisa i Gleba (The Lives of the Holy Martyrs Boris and Gleb, 1916). Several of his articles on Old Ukrainian literature appeared in the serials of the Ukrainian Scientific Society in Kiev and the All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, as well as in the journal Ukrai'na. Abramovych also conducted research on the history of 19th-century Russian literature. I. Koshelivets

Metropolitan Nykanor Abramovych

Abramovych, Nykanor [Abramovyc], b 27 July 1883 in Mizovo in the Kovel area, Volhynia, d 21 March 1969 in Karlsruhe, Germany. A prominent figure and metropolitan of the ^Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church. He studied at the Volhynian Theological Seminary and at the Kiev Theological Academy and, following his ordination in 1910, served as a priest in Volhynia. During the struggle for Ukrainian independence he was inspector of schools for the Zhytomyr region and Volhynia. Under Polish rule between 1920 and 1930 Abramovych was active in the Ukrainianization of the Orthodox church in

Volhynia, served as president of the Brotherhood of the Holy Savior, and was active in the Volodymyr church administration. In 1942-3 he was archbishop of Kiev and Chyhyryn and participated in organizing the restored Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church. In 1947 he became vice-metropolitan under Metropolitan P. *Sikorsky, and after the latter's death in 1953 he was made metropolitan. From 1946 he lived in Karlsruhe, Germany. Abramovych was the author of various articles and books, including Dohmatychno-kanonichnyi ustrii Vselens'koï Pravoslavnoï Tserkvy (Dogmatic and Canonical System of the Ecumenical Orthodox Church, 1948), Istoriia Dermans'koho manastyria (History of the Derman Monastery), and Stari tserkovni zvychaï na Volyni (Old Church Customs in Volhynia). He was editor of the journal Bohoslovs'kyi visnyk and of the texts of Sluzhebnyk (Missal, 1949) and Chasoslov (Breviary, 1950). Abramovych also served as president of the Theological Institute of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church from 1948. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dublians'kyi, A . Ternystym shliakhom: Zhyttia Nykanora Abramovycha (London 1962)

Mytropolyta A . Zhukovsky

Academic Brotherhood (Akademichne bratstvo). A student self-help and educational organization in Lviv (1882-96) with a socialist orientation. The brotherhood organized vacation lecture tours and professional groups. Together with the *Vatra society it formed the * Academic Hromada society in 1896. Academic Circle (Akademicheskii kruzhok). A Russophile student society in Lviv founded in 1870. In 1876 it merged with the Galician populist circle Druzhnyi Lykhvar, but a year later reverted to a Russophile orientation. Among its leading members were I . Franko, M . Pavlyk, and O. Terletsky. The society's organ was *Druh (1874-7). Academic Gymnasium of Lviv (Akademichna Himnaziia). The oldest Ukrainian gymnasium in Galicia and Ukraine. It was established in 1784 along with the university of which it was a part. The gymnasium was a continuation of the Jesuit Academic Gymnasium founded in 1591. In 1774 this school became the Royal Gymnasium, and from 1776 to 1784 it was called the Theresian Royal State Gymnasium. Until 1849 Latin was the language of instruction, with German as an auxiliary language. Then German became the language of instruction. In 1867 Ukrainian came into use in the four lower grades, and in 1875 it became the language of instruction in all grades. At first the school had five grades, then six, and by 1849 the eight grades that constitute a classical gymnasium. Afterwards parallel departments of the humanities (eg, foreign languages) were added. After the reforms of 1932 the school was reorganized into a four-year general gymnasium and a two-year lyceum. Although the Polish government abolished the name 'academic gymnasium,' it remained in common use. The gymnasium had a reputation as the best Ukrainian high school. Its principals were prominent pedagogues: Rev V. Ilnytsky, E. Kharkevych, I. Kokorudz, M . Sabat, and others. Among its teachers were authors of textbooks, scholars, writers, and public figures. At the beginning of the 20th century over 1,000

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students attended the school. Between 1921 and 1931 the number of students varied from 500 to 800. There were also about 100 part-time students. The school produced hundreds of church and secular leaders in various fields of Ukrainian life. Under Soviet rule the Academic Gymnasium was turned into a 10-year school in 1939. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Androkhovych, A . 'Iz mynuloho akademichnoï himnaziï u L V o v i / Ukra'ins'ka shkola, 1926, nos 7-9 Derzhavna himnaziia z ukraïns'koiu movoiu navchannia u Vvovi. Zvidomlennia za skhkiVni roky 1921-31 i 1931-32 (Lviv 1932) Shakh, S. Vviv - misto moieï molodosty. Vol 3, Tsisars'koKorolivs'ka Akademichna Himnaziia (Munich 1956) luvileina knyha Ukraïns'koï Akademichnoï Himnaziï u Vvovi, 2 vols (Philadelphia-Munich 1978, 1982) P. Polishchuk

Academic Hromada (Akademichna hromada). A student organization in Lviv (1896-1921), formed from the union of the ""Academic Brotherhood and the *Vatra societies. Its groups and scientific sections were well developed; its organ was *Moloda Ukrai'na. Its activity ceased for some time following the ^secession of Ukrainian students from Lviv University in 1901-2. Beginning in 1908 the Academic Hromada society conducted largescale educational activity among peasants and townspeople (giving lectures, courses, and assistance to reading rooms, and publishing a book series, the 'Desheva biblioteka'). It was disbanded by the Polish authorities in connection with their reprisals against the Ukrainian underground university in Lviv. Académie Internationale Libre des Sciences et des Lettres. See International Free Academy of Arts and Sciences. Academism. Art movement based on ancient Greek esthetics and on the dogmatic imitation of classical art forms. Academism first arose in the art academies of Italy in the 16th century and then in France; later it spread to other countries. Such art schools were founded in Rome, Paris, Vienna, Berlin, St Petersburg, Munich, Cracow, and other cities. Many Ukrainian artists graduated from these schools; for example, A. *Losenko, I . Buhaievsky-Blahodarny, H . Vasko, I . *Soshenko, T. *Shevchenko, D. *Bezperchy, V. *Orlovsky, A. *Mokrytsky, I . *Aivazovsky, P. Orlov, K. Ustyianovych, T. Kopystynsky, and K. *Kostandi. As advanced schools of art theory and practice, the academies played a positive role, but eventually their conservatism and dogmatism, their restriction of artistic freedom, and their narrow limits on the selection of theme and formal means (composition, color, technique) called forth a strong reaction among progressive artists, beginning in the 18th century. These artists organized their own art groups with antiacademic programs, such as the romantics, the *Peredvizhniki, the impressionists, and the Secessionists. Ukrainians - for example, T. Shevchenko, N . *Ge, I . *Kramsky, O. *Lytovchenko, M . Bodarevsky, M . *Pymonenko, and M . Yaroshenko, and in time the Ukrainian impressionists - participated in this reaction too. Academism has been revived in Soviet art in Ukraine and has primarily manifested itself in socialist realist portraiture, which is photographically accurate and conforms to officially approved models. S. Hordynsky

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Academy of Construction and Architecture of the Ukrainian SSR (Akademiia budivnytstva i arkhitektury Ukrainskoi R S R ) . Established in 1956 in Kiev on the basis of the Academy of Architecture of the Ukrainian S S R (founded in 1945) and of a number of other research institutes. From 1956 to 1964 the academy co-ordinated all research conducted in Ukraine in the field of construction and architecture, and trained research personnel. Many of the results of this research were applied in the Ukrainian S S R postwar reconstruction plans. The academy was headed by a presidium. Its presidents were A. Komar (1956-9) and P. Bakuma (1960-4); the permanent secretary was I . Litvinov, who also edited its journal, *Visnyk Akademix budivnytstva i arkhitektury URSR. In 1964 the academy was replaced by a number of other architectural research institutes.

The Academy of Sciences Building in Kiev

Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR (Akademiia nauk U R S R ; known in 1918-21 as Ukrainska akademiia nauk or U A N [Ukrainian Academy of Sciences], in 1921-36 as Vseukrainska akademiia nauk or vu A N [All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences], and then by its present name). The highest institution of learning in Ukraine. The idea of a Ukrainian academy of sciences was proposed by the ^Ukrainian Scientific Society in Kiev in April 1917 but was realized only in 1918 under the independent Ukrainian State. On the recommendation of M. *Vasylenko, the minister of education and art, a special commission was set up, which, from 9 August to 17 September 1918, drew up the law establishing the Ukrainian academy. Hetmán P. Skoropadsky confirmed the law on 14 November 1918. According to its statute the academy was to be located in Kiev and divided into three divisions: historical-philological, physical-mathematical, and social-economic. Its publications were to be in Ukrainian. The statute emphasized the all-Ukrainian character of the academy: not only citizens of the Ukrainian State but also Ukrainians of Western Ukraine, then a part of Austria-Hungary, could be full members. Admission of foreign candidates required approval by twothirds of the academy's full members. The first academicians were appointed on 14 November 1918, the day the academy was inaugurated: D. Bahalii, A. Krymsky, M . Petrov, S. Smal-Stotsky, V. Vernadsky, M . Kashchenko, S. Tymoshenko, M . Tuhan-Baranovsky, O. Levytsky, V. Kosynsky, F. Taranovsky, and P. Tutkovsky. V. ""Vernadsky was elected president, and A. *Krymsky permanent secretary. The academy, 1919-23. When the Bolsheviks captured

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Kiev on i l February 1919, they issued a decree regarding the structure and financing of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. Ignoring its previous activity, they considered this date to mark the academy's origin and themselves as its founders. After the Bolsheviks ousted Denikin's forces and returned to Kiev, Vernadsky retired in December 1919, and the historian O. *Levytsky became the academy's president (1919-21). During this period the associates of the academy lived under difficult economic conditions and experienced their first political persecutions. In 1921 the government refused to recognize the newly elected president of the academy, M . Vasylenko, and in 1923 arrested him along with other associates of the academy. In 1924 they were condemned at the trial of the 'Action Center' (Tsentr dii) but were later granted amnesty. By decree of the Council of the People's Commissars of the Ukrainian S S R on 14 June 1921, the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences was renamed the All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. Its importance for Ukrainians in Poland, Rumania, and Czechoslovakia was thus emphasized. That year the *Kiev Archeographic Commission and the Ukrainian Scientific Society in Kiev were incorporated into the academy. From 1920 to the early 1930s the ""Historical Society of Nestor the Chronicler, with M . Vasylenko as president and S. Maslov as secretary, functioned independently under the first division of the academy. The People's Library of Ukraine in Kiev, which was established in 1918 under the name National Library of the Ukrainian State and is known today as the "Central Scientific Library of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian S S R , was also brought under the academy in the 1930s. In 1922 the printing facilities of the Kievan Cave Monastery were transferred to the academy, and this led to an improvement in the academy's publications. The botanist V. *Lypsky assumed the office of president in 1922. With the introduction of the N E P the academy's budget in hard currency was cut, and the number of its associates was reduced to 149 in 1922 and 118 in 1923. The academy had a considerable number of unofficial unpaid associates, however (over 1,000 in 1921). Development from 1924 to 1928. With the beginning of *Ukrainization and the return of M . *Hrushevsky from abroad in 1924, the academy expanded its work. Having been elected to full membership, Hrushevsky held the academy's chair of modern Ukrainian history and presided over the historical-philological division, with its numerous commissions, and the archeographic commission. Personnel at the academy increased to 160 in 1924. The number of publications increased during the period: the academy published 32 titles in 1923, 35 in 1924, 52 in 1925,75 in 1926, 88 in 1927,90 in 1928,136 in 1929, and 116 in 1930. In 1930 the academy began to decline noticeably in connection with the trial of the *Union for the Liberation of Ukraine. Historical-philological division. During the 1920s the historical-philological division played the leading role in the academy. In 1927-8 it had the following chairs: historical-philological (held by A. Krymsky), history of the Ukrainian language (Ye. Tymchenko), Ukrainian oral literature (A. Loboda), history of modern Ukrainian literature (S. Yefremov, also vice-president of the academy in 1923-9), Old Ukrainian literature (V. Peretts), Old Ukrainian history (D. Bahalii), modern Ukrainian history (M. Hrushevsky), historical geography (O. Hrushevsky),

Byzantology (F. Myshchenko), and history of Ukrainian art (O. Novytsky). The historical-philological division also had 39 other commissions, institutes, committees, and museums under it in 1928, as well as the following learned societies: the Historical Society of Nestor the Chronicler, the Historical-Literary Society, headed by S. Yefremov, and the ^Leningrad Society of Researchers of Ukrainian History, Literature, and Language, headed by V. Peretts. The division published several serials: *Zapysky Istorychno-filolohichnoho viddilu VUAN, edited at different times by P. Zaitsev, D. Bahalii, M . Hrushevsky, and A. Krymsky in 1919-31 (26 vols); the scholarly journal *Ukrai'na, edited by M . Hrushevsky in 1924-30; Naukovyi zbirnyk Istorychndi sektsiï VUAN, which was a continuation of *Zapysky Ukraïns'koho naukovoho tovarystva v Kyievi and was edited by M . Hrushevsky in 1924-9 (vols 19-32); the annual Pervisne hromadianstvo, edited by K. Hrushevska in 1926-30 (6 vols); *Etnohrafichnyi visnyk, edited by A. Loboda and V. Petrov in 1925-32 (10 vols); the collection *Za sto lit, edited by M . Hrushevsky in 1927-30 (6 issues). From 1923 to 1931 a total of 111 numbered collections appeared. Owing to the efforts of the historical-philological division, a number of first-rate historical works were published: D. Bahalii's Narys istorit Ukraïny na sotsiaVnoekonomichnomu grunti (An Outline of the Socioeconomic History of Ukraine), 1 (1928), Narys ukraïns'koï istoriohrafiï (An Outline of Ukrainian Historiography), i - n (1923-5), and Ukraïns'kyi mandrovanyi filosof Hryhorii Savych Skovoroda (The Ukrainian Wandering Philosopher Hryhorii Savych Skovoroda, 1926); K. Hrushevska's Z prymityvnoï kuVtury (On Primitive Culture, 1924) and Ukraïns'ki narodnidumy (Ukrainian Folk Dumas, 1927); M . Hrushevsky's subsequent volumes of Istoriia Ukraïny-Rusy (The History of Ukraine-Rus', 1898-1936) and Istoriia ukra'xns'koi literatury (A History of Ukrainian Literature, 19237); S. Yefremov's monographs on Ukrainian literature in the 19th century and the academic editions of T. Shevchenko's diary and correspondence, edited by Yefremov (1927-8); A. Krymsky's Istoriia Persiï ta il pys'menstva (A History of Persia and Its Literature, 1934), Istoriia Turechchyny (A History of Turkey), i - n (1924-7), Pers'kyi teatr ... (The Persian Theater ... , 1925), etc, often in collaboration with other authors; and jubilee collections, particularly in honor of D. Bahalii (1927) and M . Hrushevsky (1928-9). The division also republished B. Hrinchenko's Slovnyk ukraïns'koï movy (Dictionary of the Ukrainian Language, 1927-8), began the publication of Rosiis'koukraïns'kyi slovnyk (A Russian-Ukrainian Dictionary), edited by A. Krymsky, in 1927-8, which was completed to the letter ' P , ' and published 22 specialized dictionaries. Physical-mathematical division. The division had the following chairs: geology (P. Tutkovsky), applied mathematics (D. Grave), applied physics (B. Sreznevsky), mathematical physics (M. Krylov), pure mathematics (Yu. Pfeiffer), biology of agricultural plants (Ye. Votchal), botany (V. Lypsky), experimental zoology (I. Schmalhausen), chemistry (V. Plotnikov), chemical technology (V. Shaposhnikov), public health (O. Korchak-Chepurkivsky), and clinical medicine (F. Yanovsky). Nineteen scientific institutions belonged to this division, among them the Geological Society (headed by P. Tutkovsky), the Botanical Society (O. Fomin), the Institute of Technical Mechanics (K. Syminsky), the Acclimatization Garden (M. Kashchenko), and the Microbiological Institute (F.

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Omelchenko). The division published *Zapysky Fizykomatematychnoho viddilu in 1923-9 (4 vols), Zoolohichnyi zhurnal, *Ukrai'ns kyi botanichnyi zhurnal, and Heolohichni visti. Social-economic division. The division was organized into the following chairs: history of western-Ruthenian and Ukrainian law (M. Vasylenko), statistics (M. Ptukha), commercial trade and industrial economics (K. Vobly), history of the philosophy of law (O. Hiliarov), Ukrainian customary law (Y. Malynovsky), finance (L. Yasnopolsky), international law (V. Hrabar), civil law (S. Dnistriansky), economic history (V. Levytsky), and political econ­ omy (S. Solntsev). Among the institutions that came under this division were the Demographic Institute (M. Ptukha), the Society of Economists (K. Vobly), and the ^Association of Ukrainian Lawyers (O. Malynovsky). The division set up a number of commissions: for example, the ^Commission for the Study of the History of WesternRuthenian and Ukrainian Law (M. Vasylenko), which investigated the Ruskaia Pravda, the Lithuanian Statute, the legal and political system of the Hetmán state and the Zaporizhia, and the Little Russian Collegium and pub­ lished its Pratsi; and the commission for the Study of the Economy of Ukraine (K. Vobly). From 1923 to 1927 Zapysky SotsiiaVno-ekonomichnoho viddilu was published (6 vols). Various scholarly societies in Kharkiv, Odessa, Pol­ tava, Dnipropetrovske, Kamianets-Podilskyi, Chernihiv, Lubni, Nizhen, Mykolaiv, Shepetivka, and Leningrad were affiliated with V U A N . In Odessa the Commission for Regional Studies was connected with the academy, and in Vinnytsia the Cabinet for the Study of Podilia col­ laborated with the academy. In 1928 V U A N had 63 full members, 16 corresponding members, 111 staff researchers, and 212 non-staff researchers. 1928-39. Beginning in 1928, the authorities increased their control over the academy by interfering directly and even brutally in its organization and scholarly work. Their purpose was to transform it into a Soviet institution imbued with the official ideology of Marxism-Leninism. The plenum of full members, called the General Assem­ bly, was replaced as the governing body of the academy by a council, which included among its members repre­ sentatives of the People's Commissariat of Education. The presidium, consisting of a president, two vice-presidents, a permanent secretary, and five academicians, was the executive body. In 1928 the microbiologist D. *Zabolotny was elected president to appease the authorities. From 1930 to 1946 the pathophysiologist O. *Bohomolets was president. A. Krymsky was replaced as permanent secre­ tary by O. Korchak-Chepurkivsky in 1928. In the fol­ lowing year the authorities had three people's commis­ sars - M. Skrypnyk, V. Zatonsky, and O. Shlilchter - elected to full membership, and a number of party members, among them S. Semkovsky, M. Yavorsky, and V. Yurynets, were accepted as candidates. Shlikhter became the head of the social-economic division. The vice-president of the academy, S. Yefremov, was arrested at the time and in 1930 was sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment in the Union for the Liberation of Ukraine trials. A number of associates of the academy were sentenced with him: Y. *Hermaize, A. *Nikovsky, V. *Hantsov, H. *Holoskevych, and M . *Slabchenko. Several dozen research associates were exiled without trial. In July 1930 the historicalphilological division was abolished, and its institutions ,

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were incorporated into the social-economic division, which henceforth became known as the second (instead of the third) division. The natural science-technical division became the first. In 1931 these two divisions represented 164 scientific institutions with 242 research associates, including 79 academicians. Most of the institu­ tions of the academy that were headed by M . Hrushevsky at the beginning of the 1930s were abolished, and the historian himself was deported to Moscow. In 1930-1 V U A N was 'purged' of many more of its associates, and the most important members of the academy were forced to attend meetings of 'criticism and self-criticism.' At the beginning of the 1930s all the academy's serial publications in the humanities were discontinued. Most of the earlier publications were condemned and taken out of circulation because of their alleged nationalism. Many important works that were approved for publication or already in print disappeared in the first half of the 1930s. The repressions against the academy reached a peak during P. *Postyshev's regime in 1933-4. In 1933 the soil scientist O. *Sokolovsky was imprisoned, and M. *Skrypnyk committed suicide. In 1934 V. *Peretts was exiled to Saratov and died there. F. *Shmit and S. *Rudnytsky died in exile, and M . *Ptukha spent several years in exile. In 1934 the four members from Galicia who had been elected full members in 1929 - M . *Vozniak, F. *Kolessa, K. *Studynsky, and V. *Shchurat - were deprived of the title of academician. Their titles were restored in 1939 when Galicia was occupied by the Soviets. The repressions continued until the beginning of the Second World War. In 1936 S. Semkovsky was imprisoned and later perished, and M. Kravchuk, Ye. Oppokiv, and M . Svitalsky were exiled. A. Krymsky and K. Studynsky died under un­ known circumstances during the forced evacuation at the time of the German invasion of the U S S R . According to the estimates of N . Polonska-Vasylenko, over 250 research associates of the academy, including 22 academicians, were repressed in the 1930s, the largest number being in the humanities: 49 historians, 15 archeologists, 12 art scholars, 18 ethnographers, 5 Orientalists, 43 literary scholars and philologists, 5 pedagogues, 29 jurists, and 29 economists. Nine mathematicians, physicists, and chemists, 14 zoologists and botanists, 19 geologists, 10 medical specialists, and 7 others also suffered political persecution. The reorganization of the academy in 1934 put an end to the divisions. The academy became an association of 36 branch institutes. It was subordinated to the Council of the People's Commissars of the Ukrainian S S R . Since then, the mathematical, technical, and natural sciences have been accorded first place among the activities of the academy. In 1936 the All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences was renamed the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian S S R and became a territorial, rather than a national, institution. It was divided again into three divisions: social sciences, mathematical and natural sciences, and technical sciences. That year the *All-Ukrainian Associa­ tion of Marxist-Leninist Scientific Research Institutes was disbanded, and its institutes were placed under the academy. In 1938 the second division was divided into the physical-mathematical and biological divisions. By 1939 the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian S S R consisted of four divisions: physical-chemical and mathematical sci­ ences, biological sciences, technical sciences, and social sciences. The last encompassed the institutes of eco-

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SCIENCES

Structure of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian S S R , 1981

Institutes of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR K E Y : D = Dnipropetrovske; Do = Donetske; K = Kiev; K h = Kharkiv; L (see Chart) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

Institute of Mathematics (K/I) Institute of Cybernetics (K/I) Institute of Hydromechanics (K/I) Institute of Mechanics (K/I) Institute for Problems of the Strength of Materials (K/I) Institute of Physics (K/I) Institute of Nuclear Research (K/I) Institute of Semiconductors (K/I) Institute of Metal Physics (K/I) Institute of Theoretical Physics (K/I) Institute of Geological Sciences (K/I) Institute of Geophysics (K/I) Institute of Geochemistry and the Physics of Minerals (K/I) Institute of Electric Welding (K/I) Institute for Problems of Materials Science (K/I) Institute of Foundry Problems (K/I) Institute of Superhard Materials (K/I) Institute of Technical Thermophysics (K/I) Institute of Electrodynamics (K/I) Institute of Modelling in Power Engineering (K/I) Institute of Geotechnical Mechanics (D/I) Institute of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics (Do/I)

:

Lviv; O = Odessa; S = Sevastopil. I, II, III = sections

23. Institute of Applied Mechanics and Mathematics (L/I) 24. Physical-Technical Institute (Kh/I) 25. Physical-Technical Institute of L o w Temperatures (Kh/I) 26. Institute of Radio Physics and Electronics (Kh/I) 27. Donetske Physical-Technical Institute (Do/I) 28. Institute of the Geology and Geochemistry of Combustible Minerals (L/I) 29. Marine Hydrophysics Institute (S/I) 30. Physical Mechanics Institute (L/I) 31. Institute of Problems of Machine Building (Kh/I) 32. Institute of Physical Chemistry (K/II) 33. Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry (K/II) 34. Institute of Colloidal Chemistry and Hydrochemistry (K/II) 35. Institute of Organic Chemistry (K/II) 36. Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry (K/II) 37. Institute of Gas (K/II) 38. Institute of Biochemistry (K/II) 39. Institute of Physiology (K/II) 40. Institute of Microbiology and Virology (K/II)

41. Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics (K/II) 42. Institute of Problems of Oncology (K/II) 43. Institute of Botany (K/II) 44. Institute of Zoology (K/II) 45. Institute of Hydrobiology (K/II) 46. Institute of Plant Physiology (K/II) 47. Institute of Physical-Organic and Carbon Chemistry (Do/II) 48. Institute of Problems of Cryobiology and Cryomedicine (Kh/II) 49. Institute of the Biology of Southern Seas (S/II) 50. Physical Chemistry Institute (O/II) 51. Institute of Economics (K/III) 52. Institute of Social and Economic Problems of Foreign Countries (K/III) 53. Institute of History (K/III) 54. Institute of Philosophy (K/III) 55. Institute of State and L a w (K/III) 56. Institute of Archeology (K/III) 57. Institute of Literature (K/III) 58. Institute of Linguistics (K/III) 59. Institute of Fine Arts, Folklore, and Ethnography (K/III) 60. Institute of Industrial Economics (Do/III) 61. Institute of Social Sciences (L/III)

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nomics, Ukrainian history, archeology, Ukrainian literature, linguistics, and Ukrainian folklore. The academy since 1939. With the Soviet takeover of Volhynia and Galicia in 1939, the Soviets abolished the *Shevchenko Scientific Society and transferred its assets to the Ukrainian academy. During the German-Soviet war the academy was evacuated to Ufa in 1941, moved to Moscow in 1943, and returned to Kiev in 1944. The efforts made by Ukrainian scholars who stayed in Kiev during the war to restore at least partially the activities of the Ukrainian academy were prohibited under the German occupation, during which heavy losses were inflicted on the institutions and collections of the academy. In 1946 the biochemist O. *Palladin became president of the Academy of Sciences. In 1945-6 a separate division of agricultural sciences was established. By the 11 April 1963 decree of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the U S S R Council of Ministers, the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian S S R , as well as all the other academies of the national republics, became subordinated to the Academy of Sciences of the U S S R , that is, it became a local branch of the Russian academy, which is called an all-Union academy. In 1962 B. *Paton, a specialist in electric welding, became president of the Ukrainian academy. In the following year the academy was reorganized on the pattern of the U S S R academy. It was divided into three large sections: physical-technical and mathematical sciences, chemical-technological and biological sciences, and social sciences. In 1956 the Donetske Scientific Center of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian S S R was set up. It was followed by other similar centers: the Western (or Lviv), Kharkiv, Southern (or Odessa-Crimean), and Dnipropetrovske centers. By 1980 the academy had 144 full members and 206 corresponding members and about 12,500 research associates. Its three divisions contained 11 departments and 86 scientific institutions, among them 60 scientific-research institutes (see the organizational scheme of the academy). Altogether about 35,500 people were employed by the academy. In 1979 the Central Scientific Library of the Ukrainian academy held over 10 million published items, many in 'special repositories' (spetsfondy) accessible only by special permission. The academy has its own publishing house, Naukova Dumka, and has published Visnyk AN URSR since 1947 and Dopovidi AN URSR since 1939. In 1921-8 Zvidomlennia vu AN was published. By the early 1930s the All-Ukrainian Academy had made important contributions in the humanities, particularly in Ukrainian studies. During the repressions and reorganizations that followed, the humanities were neglected, and some of them completely disappeared from the programs of the scholarly research institutes (eg, classical philology, Orientology, comparative linguistics, comparative literature, pre-1917 Ukrainian history, world history, church history, and psychology). Statistical data reflect the decline of humanistic studies: of the 118 full members of the academy in 1970, only 10 represented the humanities, and these were either writers, such as M . Bazhan and O. Korniichuk, who were not involved in scholarly work, or party ideologists, such as A. Skaba and M . Shamota. Elevated to first place are the physical-mathematical, technical, and natural sciences, which are expected to bring concrete practical results in machine building,

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metallurgy, energy resource use, agricultural productivity, the quality of production, and environmental protection. A number of theoretical schools have emerged at the academy. These schools - the D. Grave school of algebra, the M . Krylov school of non-linear mechanics, the O. Dynnyk school of the theory of elasticity, the L. Pysarzhevsky school of chemistry, and the V. Hlushkov school of theoretical cybernetics - have made important contributions to the development of various scientific areas. The Ukrainian academy is known for its contributions to pathophysiology (O. Bohomolets), physics (K. Synelnykov), botany (M. Kholodny), and medicine (M. Strazhesko, V. Filatov). In the areas of powder metallurgy and electric welding the academy is the leading institution in the U S S R . The academy's chemists were the first in the U S S R to produce heavy water and isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen. The first electronic calculator in the U S S R was built in Kiev. For details on the academy's contributions to the development of various fields (biology, economics, historiography, cybernetics, literary scholarship, mathematics, medicine, technical sciences, physics, chemistry), see the individual articles and entries on the institutes. The lack of normal contacts with scientists and scholars outside the U S S R and the Soviet bloc has degraded the Ukrainian academy to a provincial scientific institution. The emphasis on the technical sciences and the neglect of the humanities have deprived the academy of its national characteristics and given it an increasingly Soviet character. The increasing Russification of the academy's publications indicates that its national distinctiveness is disappearing and that it serves the interests of Russian scholarship. In the 1970s most of the scientific and scholarly works published by the Ukrainian academy were in Russian: of 34 specialized journals only 16 were published in Ukrainian, the rest being in Russian (13) or bilingual (5). The process of Russification advances steadily. Soviet historians today falsify the past of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, omitting any mention of disputes, purges, trials, the liquidation of many of the academy's members and associates, the discrimination introduced by the party authorities, and the increasing Russification of the academy's institutions. Prominent scholars and distinguished members of the academy, such as S. Yefremov, M . Vasylenko, S. Rudnytsky, S. SmalStotsky, F. Myshchenko, K. Kharlampovych, M . Slabchenko, and M . Yavorsky, no longer appear in the membership lists of the academy. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Krevets'kyi, Kh. 'Ukraïns'ka Akademiia nauk v Kyievi/ Literaturnonaukovyi vistnyk, 5-8 (Lviv 1922) Artems'kyi, A . Shcho take Vseukra'ins'ka akademiia nauk (Kiev 1931) Palladin, O. Akademiia nauk URSR, 1919-1944 (Kiev 1944) Marchenko, P. Planirovanie nauchnoi raboty v SSSR na opyte Ukrainskoi akademii nauk (Munich 1953) Polons'ka- Vasylenko, N . Ukraïns'ka akademiia nauk. Nary s istoriï, 1-2 (Munich 1955-8) Vetukhiv, M . 'Osnovni etapy rozvytku A N U R S R / Literaturnonaukovyi zbirnyk UVAN, 1 (New York 1962) Patón, B. (ed.). Istoriia Akademii nauk Ukrains'koï RSR, 1-2 (Kiev 1967) Terlets'kyi, V . AN URSR. 1919-69. Korotkyi istorychnyi narys (Kiev 1969) Vernadsky, V . T h e First Year of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences (1918-19)/ AUA, 11, no. 1-2 (1969)

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Nemoshkalenko, V . ; Novikov, M . ; Pelykh, V . Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR (Kiev 1970) Kumpanenko, V . ' O glubokom krizise v primenenii ukrainskogo iazyka v publikatsii nauchnykh issledovanii i nauchnykh rabot A N USSR V 1969 g / Ukraïns'kyi visnyk, no. 3 (Baltimore-Winnipeg 1971) AN URSR s'ohodni (Kiev 1977) Tonkal', V . ; Pelykh, V . ; Stohnii, B. Akademiia nauk Ukraïns'koï RSR (Kiev 1980) Paton, B. (ed.). Istoriia Akademii nauk Ukrainskoi SSR (Kiev 1982) O . Ohloblyn, B. Struminsky, A . Zhukovsky

A cappella. A choral style marked by the absence of instrumental accompaniment. In the Middle Ages it was the basic style of church music. A cappella singing reached the height of its development during the Renaissance. The choral concertos of M . ^Berezovsky, D. *Bortniansky, and A. *Vedel are examples of Ukrainian a cappella music. The style is widespread in both folk and professional choral art, and the works of M . *Lysenko, M. *Leontovych, A. *Shtoharenko, and P. *Maiboroda are popular in a cappella repertoires. Accent. In the Ukrainian language the accenting of a word is dynamic (expiratory). An accented vowel is both emphasized and lengthened. The intonational characteristics of accentuation in Ukrainian have not yet been studied thoroughly, but it is assumed that in northern and eastern Ukraine the accented vowel has a falling pitch curve, whereas in the southwest the pitch is even or slightly rising (V. Hantsov, O. Kurylo). These differences are phonemically irrelevant. (See ^Intonation for a discussion of the loss of tone accent in Old Ukrainian.) The force of the accent in the Ukrainian language is significantly weaker than in Russian or Bulgarian, and there is, consequently, almost no reduction in the strength of vowels in unstressed syllables. A word consisting of more than three syllables has not only a primary accent, but also a secondary accent, which usually falls on the second syllable (trochaic type) or on the third syllable (dactylic type) following the primary stress: ponàvyzbyruvaly. Particles (enclitics), prepositions, and one-syllable conjunctions (proclitics), as well as personal pronouns preceding verbs, normally lack the primary stress (tút taky, do nohy, i vony, ja berú). Primary accents are retracted to prepositions only in several petrified expressions (ná ruku, ná nie, ná smix). Phrasal emphasis ('logical' accent) on a word is but a strengthening of its usual word accent relative to other word accents in an intonational unit. In other words, qualitatively, phrasal accent does not differ from word accent, and its strengthening is great only under a strong emphasis. The accent can fall on any syllable of a word (free stress) and can change location because of the inflection of a word (mobile stress). Accordingly, accentuation may and often does serve to distinguish otherwise identical words (pótjah - noun [train]; potjáh - verb, past tense [pull]), including appellatives and toponyms (hranky [glowing coals]; hránky [galley proofs]). This device is broadly used in morphology to differentiate singular and plural forms (xáty - gen sing; xaty - nom pi [house]), case forms (stépu - gen sing; stepú - loe sing [steppe]), and aspectal forms (nasypaty- perf; nasypáty- imperf [pour]). Peculiar to the Ukrainian language are its relatively numerous accentual doublets, which do not differ from each other in meaning or grammatical function (zapytannjal zapytánnja

[question]; potík/pótik [stream]; bájduze/bajdúze [indifferent]). The factors that contributed to the rise of such doublets were grammatical analogy, the influence of various dialects, and, in certain cases, the influence of the Russian and Polish languages. They were able to develop as they did, however, only because of the existence of secondary stress, a phenomenon typical of Ukrainian: occasionally the secondary stress alternated in its function with the primary stress. The earliest descriptions of Ukrainian accentuation were made by K. *Hankevych (1877), 1- *Verkhratsky (1879), J. *Hanusz (1883), and V. *Okhrymovych (1900). The most significant studies of modern accentuation are those of Z. Nebozhivna, T. *Lehr-SpIawiñski, P. *Kovaliv, M . *Nakonechny, and E. Stankiewicz. L. *Bulakhovsky provided historical commentaries on the development of accent in the Ukrainian language. Accentuation in Old Ukrainian was studied by Z. *Veselovska, I . *Ohiienko, O. *Horbach, and V. Skliarenko. J. *Rudnyckyj, Z. Veselovska, and A. Biloshtan have examined the accentual doublets. A normative dictionary of Ukrainian accentuation was published by M . Pohribny in 1959 (2nd edn 1964). G . Y . Shevelov

Acheulean culture. An archeological culture of the early Paleolithic period; it succeeded the Chellean culture. The name is derived from the type site of SaintAcheul, now a suburb of Amiens in northern France. Acheulean culture spread throughout Europe, Africa, and Asia. It flourished some 400,000-100,000 years ago. Typical of the Acheulean culture was the use of stone implements (hand axes, flake tools). The Homo erectus and early Homo sapiens of the Acheulean culture lived in primitive communities in caves and in the open. They were hunters and gatherers who had discovered the use of fire. Known Acheulean sites in Ukraine are the *Kiik-Koba, Zhytomyr, and *Luka Vrublivetska. Acrobatics. A n old form of sport that consists of various exercises such as leaps, balancing, back-bends, and pyramids. The sport was practiced in ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome. In Ukraine the *skomorokhy of the Princely era practiced acrobatics. Acrobatics was applied in military training, particularly by the Cossacks. In the Ukrainian S S R there are special organizations devoted to acrobatics. The following Ukrainian acrobats have won the U S S R championship: the brothers A. and V. Tishler and V. Motuzenko (members of Burevisnyk in Kiev), and O. Cherkas (member of Avanhard). In 1976 the first world competitions in acrobatics were held. Among the winners were two women from the Kievan Avanhard - N . Tyshchenko and M . Kukharenko - and a man from Spartak - M . Kukharenko. Acrobatics is also used in the circus. Acrostic. A poem in which the initial letters of each line, read from top to bottom, spell out a word or sentence. The acrostic was one of the most popular poetic forms in Ukrainian baroque literature. Many 18th-century authors recorded their own names in acrostics (eg, in the *Bohohlasnyk and various manuscripts). After the baroque period the acrostic was used infrequently.

ADELPHOTES

Acting hetmán (nakaznyi hetmán). Governing authority who in 17th-18th-century Ukraine temporarily substituted for the hetmán. The acting hetmán was appointed by the hetmán or elected by the "council of officers, consisting of the senior ^general officer staff, or of colonels. The acting hetmán performed the duties of the hetmán in the following circumstances, which gave rise to distinct forms of the office of acting hetmán: (1) during military campaigns in which the hetmán did not participate (the oldest and most-frequent form of the office, which was particularly common in the 17th century), (2) during a prolonged absence of the hetmán from his residence (because of war or foreign travels, particularly visits to Moscow) or his incapacitation (eg, V. *Mnohohrishny became acting hetmán when his brother, Hetmán Demian, fell ill in 1671), and (3) when the hetmán s office became vacant because of his death, resignation, or ouster (eg, V. Borkovsky became acting hetmán in 1687 when Hetmán I . *Samoilovych was ousted). The third form of the office of acting hetmán was particularly important because the acting hetmán retained the powers of the hetmán for an extended period. The following acting hetmans held this form of the office: Ya. *Somko, who was appointed by Yu. *Khmelnytsky in 1660 and retained the office until 1663; D. *Mnohohrishny, who was the acting hetmán of P. *Doroshenko in the northern region in 1668-9; d particularly P. *Polubotok (1722-4), who was appointed by the dying I . *Skoropadsky and confirmed by Peter 1. 7

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O. Ohloblyn

Acting otaman (nakaznyi otaman). Temporary commander of the U N R Army, appointed by the ^supreme otaman to take charge of the military operations at the front. Gen O. *Osetsky and Gen O. *Hrekov were acting otamans. Acts, Books of (aktovi knyhy). Collections of original legal documents (and copies) of the 15th and 16th centuries, issued by or addressed to various institutions (courts and municipalities) of the Polish Kingdom. Books of Acts were introduced in Galicia in 1435, in Podilia, Volhynia, and Kiev in 1529, and elsewhere in Ukraine in 1366. The collections (books) were classified by subjects: current, judicial, criminal ('Black Books'), and civil matters. The colonel's chanceries in the Hetmán state also maintained various documents (acts), including contracts, wills, and executive records. The Books of Acts are an important source for the study of the social, cultural, and legal history of Ukraine. They have been preserved in several regional and city archives. Many of them were published in the 19th and 20th centuries: O. Levitskii, Ob aktovykh knigakh, otnosiashchikhsia k istorii lugo-Zapadnogo kraia i Malorossii (On the Books of Acts relating to the History of the Southwestern Land and Little Russia, Moscow 1900); Piriatinskie aktovye knigi, 1683-1719 (The Books of Acts of Pyriatyn, 1683-1719, Kiev 1908); Aktovye knigi Poltavskogo gorodovogo uriada xvn veka (Books of Acts of the Poltava Municipal Government of the 17th Century, 3 vols, Chernihiv 1912-14); and *Akta grodzkie i ziemskie (City and Land Acts, 25 vols, Lviv 1868-1935). Adam von Bremen, ?-io8i. North German chronicler, author of the chronicle Gesta Hamburgiensis ecclesiae

9

pontificum. The Gesta is a rich source of information about the Scandinavian countries and the Western Slavs; Kiev is mentioned as a rival of Byzantium. Adamant, Samiilo. Engraver in the latter half of the 18th century. Adamant produced engravings for the following books, published in Chernihiv: Akafistnyk (Book of Acathisti), for which he prepared six engravings, including Sviatyi Mykola (St Nicholas), Uspinnia (Dormition), and Sobor sviatykh (Council of the Saints); and Akafist Sviatoï Varvary (Acathistus of St Barbara, 1783), for which he prepared the engraving Sviata Varvara. His monogram was S.A. Adamovych, Serhii [Adamovyc, Serhij], b 2 April 1922 in Rubizhne, now Lysychanske in Voroshylovhrad oblast. Graphic artist. Adamovych attended the Kiev State Art Institute and in 1944-50 studied with O. Shovkunenko. He illustrated I . Franko's Boryslav smiiefsia (Boryslav Is Laughing, 1952), M . Kotsiubynsky's Vybrane (Selections, 1955), O. Kobylianska's Zemlia (The Land, i960), M.Stelmakh's Krov liuds'ka - ne vodytsia (Human Blood Is Not Water, 1970), M . Cheremshyna's Vybrane (Selections, 1973), etc. Adamovych produced a linoprint series (Trerevolutionary and New Donbas') and lithographs (Sedniv, Trees). Since 1954 he has lived in Riga. A monograph on him by L. Vladych, Hrafika S. Adamovycha (The Graphics of S. Adamovych, 1977), was published in Kiev. Adams, Nick, stage name of Nicholas Adamschock [Mykola Adamscuk], b 10 July 1931 in Nanticoke, Pennsylvania, d 7 February 1968 in Beverley Hills, California. Screen and television actor. From 1952, Adams played lead and supporting roles in 31 films and 32 television episodes. Usually he played neurotic or aggressive types. He became popular as the star of the T V series The Rebel' (1959-60). In 1963 he was nominated for an Oscar as best supporting actor in the film Twilight of Honor. Adelheim, Yevhen [Adel'hejm, Jevhen], b 14 November 1907 in Kiev. Literary scholar and critic. He began his literary work in 1929 and wrote numerous articles in journals such as Zhyttia i revoliutsiia and Krytyka. His major works written before the Second World War are Poetychnyi molodniak (Young Poets, 1931) and Dva dramaturhy (Two Playwrights, 1938). He was much criticized during the struggle against so-called rootless cosmopolitanism in the early 1950s. His major postwar works dealing with issues in Ukrainian literature are Poeziia borofby i truda (The Poetry of Struggle and Labor, 1948), Ukraïns'ka radians'ka poeziia (Soviet Ukrainian Poetry, 1948), VasyV Elian (1959), and Mykola Bazhan (1965, 1970, 1974)Adelphotes (AôeX^orTjç). A grammar of the Greek language, published in Lviv in 1591. It was compiled by the students of the Stavropygian School under the guidance of *Arsenii of Elasson. Adelphotes was based on the grammar of Lascaris, and partially on the grammars of Crusius, Clenard, and Melanchthon, but it is most significant in that it provided Old Ukrainian parallels to the Greek material and contributed to the development of grammatical terminology in Ukraine.

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ADELPHOTES

minate in legislative action. The Presidium of the Supreme Soviet revoked on 19 July 1977 its previous resolution of 1967 on publishing a new adminstrative code. As a result of the intensified administrative integration of the USSR, the work plan that was appended to the resolution required merely that the code on administrative wrongdoings be prepared by the Council of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR by December 1980.

Adelphotes: title page of Greek grammar, Lviv 1591

Administrative Code of the Ukrainian SSR (Administra tyvnyi kodeks URSR). For several years the administrative code of 1927 was the basic source of effective administrative law in the Ukrainian SSR. It was one of the few independent manifestations of the Soviet government of Ukraine, for neither the Russian SFSR nor the other republics possessed such a code. The administrative code was drawn up by a legal commission in 1926 and confirmed by the All-Ukrainian Central Executive Committee on 12 October 1927. It came into force on i February 1928. The code consisted of 528 articles organized under 15 sections: (i) principles; (2) administrative acts; (3) administrative sanctions; (4) other administrative measures of compulsion; (5) labor conscription for preventing and combating natural disasters; (6) the people's duties in preserving public order; (7) Ukrainian Soviet citizenship, its acquisition and forfeit; (8) registration and recording of population movements; (9) associations, unions, clubs, conferences, and assemblies; (10) regulations on religious cults; (11) public spectacles, recreation, and sports; (12) the use of the state flag and seals; (13) supervision of administrative bodies in industry; (14) supervision of administrative bodies in trade; (15) appeal procedures against local administrative agencies. Because of legislative changes and strong tendencies towards centralization in Soviet administrative law (introduction of new all-Union state administrative agencies), only a part of the administrative code has remained in force (not more than 150 articles in 1962). The last complete official edition of the code was published in 1935, and selections from it were published in 1956. For several years, and particularly in 1958 and 1959, it was frequently asserted that a new administrative code was needed. A general proposal was quickly prepared and discussed, although the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR adopted a resolution 'On Organizing the Work of Codifying the Legislation of the Ukrainian SSR' only on 24 May 1967. In this resolution the presidium assigned the task of organizing the preparation of proposals for various new codes, particularly an administrative code, to the Commission for Legislative Proposals of the Supreme Soviet. The projected code included sections on administrative wrongdoings, administrative procedure, and judicial control over the legality of state administrative acts. The work on the new and possibly complete administrative code, which was to encompass administrative-procedural norms, did not cul-

BIBLIOGRAPHY Kanars'kyi, S.; Mazurenko, lu. (eds). Administratyvnyi kodeks USRR: Tekst ta poartykuVnyi komentar, preface by V. Balits'kyi (Kharkiv 1928) 'Verwaltungsgesetzbuch der Ukraine von 1927,' introd and trans V. Durdynevs'kyi, Zeitschrift fur Ostrecht Osteuropa Institut in Breslau, 10-11 (Berlin 1928) Pavlovs'kyi, R. 'Rozrobka administratyvnoho kodeksu URSR nevidkladne zavdannia/ Radians'ke pravo, 1958, no. 5 Pakhomov, I. 'Pro systemu administratyvnoho kodeksu/ Radians'ke pravo, 1959, no. 4 lakuba, O. Teoreticheskie osnovy proekta novogo administra tivnogo kodeksa Ukrainskoi SSR/ Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i pravo, 1969, no. i - 'Do pytannia pro zmist i znachennia administratyvnoprotsesuaFnykh norm/ Problem]/ pravoznavstva, 1970, no. 17 T.B. Ciuciura

Administrative law. The part of the state legal system that deals with the norms and modes of operation of the government agencies concerned with internal affairs. This sphere includes various administrative activities apart from the legislative and judicial functions, external relations, and the exclusive fields of the supreme state power. Administrative law regulates public administration, the maintenance of internal order, health care, education, finance and credit, industry, trade, agriculture, etc. The sources of administrative law are the general and special legislative and other acts. Because of their large number and frequent, necessary changes, the codification of administrative law is very difficult. In the Russian and Austrian empires administrative law was only partially codified. In the Ukrainian SSR the following are accepted as sources of administrative law: (i) the constitutions of the USSR and the Ukrainian SSR; (2) the laws of the USSR and the Ukrainian SSR; (3) the decrees of the Presidiums of the Supreme Soviets of the USSR and of the Ukrainian SSR; (4) the statutes and ordinances in the various branches of government; (5) the resolutions and orders of the councils of ministers of the USSR and of the Ukrainian SSR; (6) the orders and instructions of state committees and ministers of the USSR and the Ukrainian SSR; (7) the decisions and instructions of local soviets and their executive committees. The Ukrainian SSR is the only Soviet republic with a partly codified administrative law, contained in the Code of Laws on Public Education in the Ukrainian SSR (1922) and the * Administrative Code of the Ukrainian SSR (1927). In many countries there is a specific system for settling conflicts among various administrative agencies by means of administrative tribunals or by the common courts. The concept of administrative justice became popular in Europe in the middle of the i9th century and was tied to the expansion of individual rights vis-à-vis the state. A system of administrative justice was set up in Austria in 1867, and in 1875 the Administrative Tribunal (Verwaltungsgerichtshof) was established to investigate com-

A D M I N I S T R A T I V E

plaints about administrative bodies. There was no separate administrative justice system under the Russian Empire. Complaints against a ministry were submitted to the First Department of the Senate. This department also settled disputes among judicial bodies and among central judicial bodies and local ones. From 1884 the reorganized Second Department of the Senate, which continued to be known as the Peasant Department, accepted grievances and petitions from peasants about the decisions of lower administrative agencies that were in charge of peasant and land affairs. The concept of administrative justice was quite common in the legal literature, and eventually the Russian Provisional Government issued the law of 30 May 1917 that established a special system of administrative courts. The system had three levels: administrative courts in counties, administrative tribunals in gubernias, and the First Department of the Senate at the top. The powers of these courts were quite limited. Under the Ukrainian National Republic ( U N R ) the *General Court, which was established by the 17 December 1917 law of the Central Rada, had an administrative department. When on 8 July 1918 the General Court was reorganized into the State Senate under the Hetmán regime, this department was renamed the General Administrative Court. The Directory of the U N R returned to the arrangements established by the law of 17 December 1917. The Ukrainian S S R does not have a distinct system of administrative justice. Some elements of such a system can be found in the procurator general's review powers over administrative agencies and the right to prosecute such agencies in court for infractions such as incorrect election lists or the refusal to register property ownership. Yet the concept of administrative justice was quite popular in the 1920s. Some jurists considered the right to grievance a protective device for civil rights and thought it necessary and expedient to preserve some elements of administrative justice in the new system. In 1922 the People's Commissariat of Justice of the Ukrainian S S R even drew up a project for a system of special administrative courts. The concept of administrative justice was, however, later denounced as bourgeois and unnecessary. The discussion on administrative justice was revived only in the 1960s. Jurists and administrators began to insist that better protection of citizens from 'manifestations of bureaucratism' requires not only improvements in the methods of procuratorial review, but also greater judicial control over the activities of administrative agencies. The discussion led to a consensus among the theoreticians of Soviet justice and administration that the courts should have broader powers of review over administrative agencies and that administrative-procedural law should be worked out in greater detail. Such changes would more effectively expose and punish administrative abuses and protect innocent citizens from administrative sanctions. In the discussion the term 'administrative justice' was replaced by 'judicial control.' The participation of lawyers in the administrative process, which so far had been restricted to consultation and the preparation of appeals and grievances, was also to be broadened. Special attention was given to the strengthening of the administrative commissions of the local government agencies that operate under the 15 December 1961 decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian S S R as amended on 26 March 1971.

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These commissions investigate cases of petty administrative abuse, such as infractions of traffic laws, sanitaryhygienic laws, hunting laws, and water-conservation laws. The judgments handed down by the commissions (fines, loss of certain professional rights) can be appealed before the raion or city courts. The resolution of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of the Ukrainian S S R 'On Judicial Practice in Cases Arising from AdministrativeLegal Relations,' adopted on 26 July 1974, has improved the procedures considerably. The new constitution of the Ukrainian S S R of 20 April 1978, which in art 56 states that 'the citizens of the Ukrainian S S R have the right to lay charges against civil servants, state and civic agencies' and that 'functionaries can be taken to court for their actions,' has given a new impetus to the demands for broader judicial control over the administration. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Korf, S. Administrativnaia iustitsiia v Rossii (St Petersburg 1910) Kobalevskii, V . Ocherki sovetskogo administrativnogo prava (Kharkiv 1924, 2 n d edn 1929) Iakovliv, A . Osnovy konstytutsiï UNR (Paris 1935) Morgan, G . Soviet Administrative Legality: The Role of the Attorney General's Office (Stanford 1962) Pakhomov, I. Radians'ke administratyvne pravo (Lviv 1962) Kolosh, Ie. 'Stanovlennia radians'koho administratyvnoho protsesu/ Problemy pravoznavstva, no. 12 (Kiev 1969) Iakuba, O. 'Do pytannia pro zmist i znachennia administratyvno-protsesual'nykh n o r m / Problemy pravoznavstva, no. 17 (Kiev 1970) Pietukhov, H . ' Administra tyvna iustytsiia iak zasib zmitsnennia sotsialistychnoï zakonnosti v derzhavnomu upravlinni,' Problemy pravoznavstva, no. 19 (Kiev 1970) Pakhomov, I. Administratyvno-pravovi pytannia derzhavnoïsluzhby v SRSR (Kiev 1971) Pakhomov, I.; Andriianov, M . ; Dodin, Ie. Radians'ke administratyvne pravo (Kiev 1971) Chechot, D . Administrativnaia iustitsiia (Leningrad 1973) Bondarenko, G . ; Marianov, I. Sovetskoe administrativnoe pravo (Lviv 1977) Barry, D. 'Administrative Justice and Judicial Review in Soviet Administrative L a w / in Soviet Law after Stalin, part 11: Soviet Engineering through Law, ed. D . D . Barry et al (Alphen an den Rijn 1978) T.B. Ciuciura, O. Yurchenko

Administrative territorial division. The beginnings of such a division can be found in the principalities of Kievan Rus': Kiev, Chernihiv, Pereiaslav, Turiv-Pynske, Volodymyr-Volynskyi, and Halych. These principalities were divided into *volosts, which were usually small principalities. One can speak about a definite administrative territorial division of Ukraine within the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth. It was divided into *voivodeships (palatinates), which in turn were divided into ""counties (povity) or lands (zetnli). There were nine Ukrainian voivodeships, of which eight belonged to Poland: Ruthenia (Lviv, Halych, Peremyshl, Sianik, and Kholm lands); Podlachia (Melnytsia, Bilske, and Dorohychyn lands); Belz (Buzke, Hrabovets, and Horodlo counties); Volhynia (Volodymyr, Lutske, and Kremianets counties); Bratslav (Bratslav and Vinnytsia counties); Podilia (Kamianets, Letychiv, and Chervonohorod counties); Kiev (Kiev, Ovruch, and Zhytomyr counties); and Chernihiv (formed in 1630). The Berestia voivodeship (Berestia and Pynske counties) belonged to Lithuania.

12

ADMINISTRATIVE TERRITORIAL DIVISION

In the Cossack state, the administrative territorial units were based on the military formations and were called "regiments (polky), which were subdivided into "companies (sotni). Right-Bank Ukraine was divided into the following regiments: Chyhyryn, Cherkasy, Korsun, Kaniv, Bila Tserkva, Uman, Bratslav, Vinnytsia (until 1653 called the Kalnyk regiment and in the i66os joined with the Bratslav regiment), and Kiev. The regiments on the Left Bank were: Pereiaslav, Kropyvna (in 1658 incorporated into the Pereiaslav and Lubni regiments), Myrhorod, Poltava, Pryluka, Nizhen, and Chernihiv. When Right-Bank Ukraine was annexed by Poland, the LeftBank Hetmán state was divided into ten regiments: Starodub, Chernihiv, Kiev, Nizhen, Pryluka, Pereiaslav, Lubni, Hadiache, Myrhorod, and Poltava (see *Regimental system). *Zaporizhia was divided into eight districts, called *palankas. *Slobidska Ukraine, which belonged to Muscovy, was divided into five regiments: Okhtyrka, Kharkiv, Izium, Sumy, and Ostrohozke. The residence of the Muscovite voivode was Belgorod. In 1765 the regiments of Slobidska Ukraine were abolished and replaced by the Slobidska Ukraine gubernia. In ""Southern Ukraine the Azov gubernia (1708-83) and the *New Russia gubernia (1764-83) were established. After abolishing the Hetmán state and the regimental system, Russia introduced the *vicegerencies (namestnichestva) at the beginning of the 17805. There were five of them: Kiev, Chernihiv, Novhorod-Siverskyi, Kharkiv, and Katerynoslav. When lands on the Right Bank were annexed in 1793, the Bratslav, Podilia, and Vinnytsia vicegerencies were added. According to Paul i7 s edict of 1796 'On the New Division of the State into Gubernias/ the vicegerencies were replaced by *gubernias. The Right Bank consisted of the Kiev, Podilia, and Volhynia gubernias, (together forming the Kiev generalgubernia). The lands of the Hetmán state were organized into the gubernia of Little Russia, which, in 1802, was divided into the Chernihiv and Poltava gubernias (together forming the general-gubernia of Little Russia until 1835). In 1802 the large gubernia of New Russia (17971802) was divided into three gubernias: Mykolaiv (renamed Kherson in 1803), Katerynoslav, and Tavriia (including the Crimea). After the annexation of ^Bessarabia in 1812, the general-gubernia of New Russia and Bessarabia was established. It consisted of the Kherson, Katerynoslav, and Tavriia gubernias and the Bessarabia oblast, which in 1878 became a gubernia. In 1835tne Slobidska Ukraine gubernia was abolished. Most of it became part of the Kharkiv gubernia, but some of it, in the north, became part of the Voronezh and Kursk gubernias. Thus, at the beginning of the i9th century, Ukraine was divided into nine gubernias: Volhynia, Podilia, Kiev, Chernihiv, Poltava, Kharkiv, Kherson, Katerynoslav, and Tavriia. Other Ukrainian lands formed parts of other gubernias: in the west, of the Lublin and Siedlce gubernias, which in 1912 were merged to form the Kholm gubernia; in the southwest, of the Bessarabian gubernia; in the north, of the Hrodna and Minsk gubernias; in the northeast and east, of the Kursk and Voronezh gubernias and the oblast of the Don Cossack Host. In Subcaucasia, predominantly Ukrainian and partly Ukrainian ethnic regions constituted almost the entirety of the Black Sea and the Stavropol gubernias and the Kuban and part of the Terek oblasts. In 1861 the volost (rural district) became the smallest administrative territorial unit in Russian-

TABLE 1 Area and population of Ukrainian ethnic territories in 1914 Area in sq km

Population

11,990 38,330 20,860 13,700 63,390 54,490 70,800 10,460 50,960 10,530 53,160 19,950 42,020 45,890 17,400 35,060 71,740 28,890

788,000 2,235,000 1,197,000 716,000 3,455,000 3,417,000 3,775,000 842,000 4,792,000 780,000 1,764,000 470,000 4,057,000 3,792,000 493,000 1,224,000 4,189,000 1,520,000

659,620

39,506,000

Bukovyna* Galicia* Transcarpathia

5,280 54,580 14,670

460,000 5,379,000 568,000

Subtotal

74,530

6,407,000

734,150

45,913,000

Province IN THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE

Bessarabia gubernia Chernihiv gubernia Don oblast* Hrodna gubernia* Katerynoslav gubernia Kharkiv gubernia Kherson gubernia Kholm gubernia Kiev gubernia Kursk gubernia* Kuban oblast* Minsk gubernia* Podilia gubernia Poltava gubernia Stravropol gubernia* Tavriia gubernia* Volhynia gubernia Voronezh gubernia* Subtotal IN AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

Total *Only a part is considered.

dominated Ukraine (in the Kholm region and Podlachia the smallest unit from 1815 was called a *gmina). The Ukrainian lands belonging to Austria - Galicia and Bukovyna - were recognized as *crown lands and were divided into districts (okruhy) and later into counties (povity). Ukrainian lands belonging to Hungary were part of *komitats: Máramoros, Bereg (Berehove), Ugocsa, Ung (Uzhhorod), Zemplén, Sáros (Saris), and Szepes (Spis). These were subdivided into counties, which were further subdivided into communities (*hromadas). Table i gives the 1914 area and population of each administrative division of the Ukrainian ethnic territories (omitting ethnically mixed areas) according to M. Korduba. In the Ukrainian state of 1917-20 the old administrative division into gubernias and counties continued. The law passed by the Ukrainian Central Rada on 2 March 1918 provided for a new administrative division into 30 lands (zemli), but it was never put into effect. In the Western Ukrainian National Republic the old division into counties remained in force. During the early Soviet period the old administrative division by gubernias was retained, but new gubernias were also formed: the Donets (capital: Bakhmut), Zaporizhia, and Kremenchuk gubernias. The northern part of Tavriia gubernia became parts of the Katerynoslav and Odessa gubernias (the former Kherson gubernia), and the southern part became the Crimean ASSR. In 1923 the counties and volosts (districts) were abolished, and

A D M I N I S T R A T I V E

i . State borders

T E R R I T O R I A L

D I V I S I O N

13

2. Gubernia boundaries

Soviet Ukraine was reorganized into 53 okruhas (re­ gions), 706 *raions (districts), and 9,307 *rural soviets. In 1924 the Moldavian A S S R was created within the bounda­ ries of the Ukrainian S S R . In 1925 the 9 gubernias were abolished, and the number of okruhas was reduced to 41, subdivided into 680 raions, 10,314 rural soviets, 70 city soviets, and 155 town soviets. The Tahanrih and Shakhty okruhas were transferred to the Russian S F S R . On 1 January 1929 the Ukrainian S S R consisted of the following okruhas: (1) in Polisia - Volhynia, Hlukhiv, Konotip, Korosten, and Chernihiv; (2) on the Right Bank - Berdychiv, Bila Tserkva, Vinnytsia, Uman, Kamianets-Podilskyi, Shepetivka, Kiev, Mohyliv-Podilskyi, Proskuriv, Shevchenko, Tulchyn; (3) on the Left Bank - Kremenchuk, Kupianka, Lubni, Nizhen, Izium, Poltava, Pryluka, Romen, Sumy, and Kharkiv; (4) in the south -Zinovivske, Mariiupil, Melitopil, Mykolaiv, Odessa, Pervomaiske, Starobilske, and Kherson, and the Moldavian A S S R ; (5) in the Dnieper Industrial Region - Dnipropetrovske, Zaporizhia, and Kryvyi Rih; (6) in the Donets Basin - Artemivske, Luhanske, and Staline. At the time there were 579 raions (the number changed often) in the Ukrainian S S R . Northern Caucasia was also divided into okruhas, of which the Armavir, Kuban, Maikop, Salske, Stavropol, Sunzha, Tahanrih, Terek, and Chornomore okruhas were in their entirety in Ukrainian ethnic territories, while only part of the Donets okruha, Adygei-Cherkess autonomous okruha, and Kabardino-Balkar autonomous okruha were. The Crimean A S S R had 10 small okruhas. In the Belorussian S S R parts of the Mozyr and Rechytsa okruhas were settled by Ukrainians. The Kursk and Voronezh regions were divided into okruhas only in 1928. By the 1930 and 1932 decisions of the All-Ukrainian Central Executive Committee of the Ukrainian S S R , a new

division into *oblasts (provinces), raions, and rural sovi­ ets was introduced; this is still in effect. The Ukrainian S S R was first divided into five oblasts - Vinnytsia, Dniprope­ trovske, Kiev, Odessa, and Kharkiv - and the Moldavian A S S R and into 358 raions. By 1938 the number of oblasts had increased to 13. Western Ukraine, which was under Polish rule be­ tween the world wars, was divided into voivodeships, counties, and volosts. The territories under Rumania were divided into counties and communities (hromadas). Transcarpathia, which belonged to Czechoslovakia and embraced Subcarpathian Ruthenia and eastern Slo­ vakia, was divided into counties and communities. SubCarpathian Ruthenia formed a semiautonomous unit (Subcarpatho-Ruthenian land). The western Ukrainian territories that were incorpo­ rated into the Ukrainian S S R after the Second World War were organized into eight new oblasts. The Moldavian A S S R was separated from Ukraine in 1940 to form the Moldavian S S R . The last changes in the administrative territorial division of Ukrainian territories within the U S S R occurred in the 1950s: in 1954 Izmail oblast was joined with Odessa oblast; in 1959 Drohobych oblast was joined with Lviv oblast; in 1954 Cherkasy oblast was formed, and Crimea oblast was incorporated into the Ukrainian SSR.

On Ukrainian ethnic territories outside the Ukrainian S S R , Belgorod oblast was formed between the Kursk and Voronezh oblasts in 1954. In the southern part of the Belorussian S S R , which is partly inhabited by Ukrainians, Homel oblast (1938) and Brest oblast (1939) were estab­ lished. In 1982 the Ukrainian S S R had 25 oblasts, 479 raions, 8,579 l soviets, 417 cities (139 of which were under republican or oblast jurisdiction), and 908 r u r a

1 4

A D M I N I S T R A T I V E

T E R R I T O R I A L

D I V I S I O N

h1. Boundaries of the Soviet republics and satellite countries 2. Limits of Ukrainian ethnic territories and of mixed ethnic territories 3. Boundaries of oblasts 4. Boundaries of autonomous republics

5. Boundaries of autonomous oblasts 6. Eastern boundary of the Ukrainian SSR up to 1925, now part of the R S F S R

7. Cities with a population of one million or more

towns (smt). Ukrainian ethnic territories also extend beyond the Ukrainian S S R into the Voronezh, Briansk, Kursk, and Rostov oblasts and the Krasnodar and Stavropol krais of the Russian R S F S R . In 1981 the Ukrainian S S R was divided as indicated in table 2. V. Kubijovyc

Admiralty settlements. Special colonies for state peasants established in the Russian Empire at the end of the 18th century. The inhabitants of the settlements were forced to work in farming and in enterprises of the naval department. In Ukraine such settlements existed near Mykolaiv and Kherson. In i860 the admiralty settlements contained about 17,000 peasants, most of whom came from the central Russian gubernias. The colonies were also inhabited by voluntary settlers from Right-Bank Ukraine and escapees from serfdom. Adriianova-Peretts, Varvara [Adrijanova-Peretc], b 12 May 1888 in Nizhen, d 6 June 1972 in Leningrad. Historian of Old Ukrainian and Old Russian literature, folklore, and theater; bibliographer; wife of V. *Peretts. She studied in the Kiev school of Higher Courses for Women in 1906-10 and taught there in 1911-14. From 1907 she was also active in V. Peretts's seminar in Russian philology and its research expeditions. After studying for her M A at Kiev University in 1912-14, Adriianova-Peretts moved to Petrograd to work in the manuscript division of the library of the Academy of Sciences and the public

Varvara Adriianova-Peretts

library. In 1917 she received the Lomonosov prize of the Academy of Sciences and became a professor of Russian literature at the Petrograd Pedagogical Institute. In 191721 she taught at the Samara Pedagogical Institute. In 1921-4 she was a member of the commission for the compilation of a bibliography on Old Rus' literature of the Russian Academy of Sciences; in 1921-7 she worked in the Institute for the Comparative Study of Western and Eastern Literatures at Leningrad University; and in 1921-30 she taught at the State Institute of Art History, as a full member and later as director of the folklore department. In 1926 Adriianova-Peretts became a corresponding

A F A N A S E V

*5

TABLE 2 Area and population of the Ukrainian SSR, 1981 Area in sq k m

Oblast

Total

Total

Urban

% urban population

Population density per sq km

680,000 650,000 327,000 1,399,000 2,900,000 4,616,000 465,000 2,228,000 674,000 535,000 822,000 2,073,000 634,000 1,323,000 751,000 1,565,000 851,000 367,000 713,000 341,000 420,000 678,000 388,000 2,394,000 1,365,000 675,000

43.8 43.1 36.9 66.8 80.5 89.2 35.3 74.4 59.9 34.2 43.7 100 50.4 52.4 61.1 61.2 49.2 33.4 50.0 29.1 36.7 33.0 38.4 84.9 71.7 42.7

74 47 109 78 113 195 95 95 40 76 137

24,600 21,800 24,600 33,300 28,800 20,100 23,800 13,800 12,800 26,500 20,200 26,700 27,200 29,900

1,552,000 1,508,000 887,000 2,095,000 3,604,000 5,176,000 1,317,000 2,996,000 1,125,000 1,563,000 1,883,000 2,073,000 1,257,000 2,527,000 1,230,000 2,556,000 1,731,000 1,098,000 1,427,000 1,172,000 1,145,000 2,055,000 1,010,000 2,821,000 1,905,000 1,580,000

603,700

49,293,000

29,834,000

53.9

82

20,900 31,900 8,100 27,000 31,900 26,500 13,900 31,400 28,500 20,600 28,900

Cherkasy Chernihiv Chernivtsi Crimea Dnipropetrovske Donetske Ivano-Frankivske Kharkiv Kherson Khmelnytskyi Kiev (excluding City of Kiev) Kiev (City only) Kirovohrad Lviv Mykolaiv Odessa Poltava Rivne Sumy Ternopil Transcarpathia Vinnytsia Volhynia Voroshylovhrad Zaporizhia Zhytomyr

Population

member of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. She was a senior research fellow of the Institute of Russian Litera­ ture of the Academy of Sciences of the U S S R from 1934 to 1954, became a corresponding member of the academy in 1943, and in 1947-34 directed its sector of Old Rus' literature. Adriianova-Peretts was the author and editor of nu­ merous publications in her field of study and is recognized as a leading scholar in Old Ukrainian and Old Russian literary history, particularly of the Kievan Rus' period. Her major works on Ukrainian subjects are Materialy dlia istorii tsen na knigi v Drevnei Rusi xvi-xvin vv. (Materials on the History of Prices for Old Rus' Books in the 16th to 18th Century, 1912), Zhitie Alekseia Cheloveka Bozhiia v drevnei russkoi literature i narodnoi slovesnosti (The Life of Aleksei, a Man of God, in the Literature and Folklore of Old Rus', 1917), Drevnerusskaia povest' (The Narrative Tale of Ancient Rus', coauthor V. Pokrovskaia, 1940), 'Slovo 0 polku Igoreve/ Bibliografiia izdanii perevodov i issledovanii (The Tale of Ihor's Campaign : A Bibliography of Pub­ lished Translations and Studies, 1940), and Ocherki poeticheskogo stilia Drevnei Rusi (Essays on the Poetic Style of Ancient Rus', 1947). 7

R. Senkus

Adventists. A religious community whose dogmas are similar to those of the ^Baptists and which prophesies the Second Coming (adventus) of Christ. The sect was founded in the United States in the 1830s by William Miller. The largest Adventist body is that of the Seventh Day Adventists, whose observance of Saturday as the Sabbath

51 116 50 77 60 55 60 85 89 78 50 106 70 53

has gained them the name Sabbatarians (subotnyky). The doctrines of the Adventists reached Ukraine, and speci­ fically Tavriia gubernia, by way of German colonists in the 1880s. During the Soviet period the Adventists established the Union of Seventh Day Adventists, which encompassed 300 groups and had its headquarters in Mos­ cow. One hundred and fifteen Adventist groups, repre­ senting 9,000 members, were located in Ukraine, primarily in the Crimean, Donetske, and Chernihiv regions, and, after 1945, in Chernivtsi oblast. Some Adventist com­ munities joined the All-Union Council of Evangelical Christian-Baptists; however most of them continued an illegal existence. The Adventists were persecuted during N . Khrushchev's anti-religion campaigns, and many of them (including M . Floreskul and O. Konoviuk) were imprisoned during the 1970s for giving their children religious instruction. Adygei Autonomous oblast. Autonomous region within the borders of the Krasnodar krai with Maikop as its capital city. The oblast includes a part of the Kuban Lowland on the left bank of the Kuban and Laba rivers and a part of the northern Caucasian foothills. It covers an area of 7,600 sq km and had a population of 403,000 in 1980. The oblast is settled by Adygeians (21 percent), Russians, and Ukrainians. Afanasev, Yurii [Afanas'ev, Jurij], b 1848 in Ufa, d 1925 in Belgrade. Historian and political figure of Russian descent. Afanasev completed his studies at the University of Odessa, where he was a lecturer in world history. He

i6

A F A N A S E V

later became director of the State Bank in Kiev. In 1918 he served as state controller in the Hetmán government and as minister of external affairs (in November and December). He lived, as an émigré, in Yugoslavia. Afanasiev, Vasyl [Afanas'jev, Vasyl'], b 1 January 1922 in Kopichenskoe, Kustanai oblast, Kazakhstan. Art historian; graduate of the University of Leningrad in 1949; later on the staff of the Institute of Art History, Folklore, and Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian S S R . Afanasiev'S works include Stanovlennia sotsialistychnoho realizmu v ukrai'ns'komu obrazotvorchomu mystetstvi (The Development of Socialist Realism in Ukrainian Visual Art, 1967); Rysy suchasnosti: Ukrai'ns'ke obrazotvorche mystetstvo s'ohodni (Outlines of the Present: Ukrainian Visual Art Today, 1973); monographs on the Ukrainian artists Yu. Bershadsky, V. Znoba, S. Hryhoriev, K. Kostandi, H . Ladyzhensky, M . Lysenko, and P. Nilus; a book about Odessa artists, Maistry penzlia (Masters of the Brush, i960); and Tovarystvo pivdennorosiis'kykh khudozhnykiv (Society of Southern Russian Artists, 1961). Afanasiev, Viktor [Afanas'jev], b 2 January 1917 in Aktiubinsk, Kazakhstan. Organizer and director of puppet theaters. Afanasiev began his career in 1934 in the puppet theater of the Kharkiv Pioneer Palace. In 1937-40 he organized and worked as the artistic director of the Altai and Karaganda puppet theaters. From 1952 he has been the principal director of the Kharkiv Puppet Theater. Afanasiev has directed Horbokonyk (The Flying Horse), adapted from P. Yershov, in 1933; Zaporozhets' za Dunaiem (Zaporozhian Cossack beyond the Danube), by S. HulakArtemovsky, in 1956; Ukraïns'kyi vertep (Ukrainian Christmas Puppet Show) in 1976; and other shows.

Oleksander AfanasievChuzhbynsky

Afanasiev-Chuzhbynsky, Oleksander [Afanas'jevCuzbyns'kyj] (pseud of Oleksander S. Afanasiev), b 11 March 1816 in Iskivtsi, Poltava gubernia, d 18 September 1875 in St Petersburg. Romantic poet, ethnographer, and belletrist. Afanasiev-Chuzhbynsky graduated from the Nizhen Lyceum. His poems, written in Ukrainian, appeared in the almanacs Lastôvka and *Molodyk and in the journal *Osnova. Some of his poems later became folk songs. A separate collection of poems entitled Shcho bulo na sertsi (What Lay on My Heart) appeared in 1885. In the 1850s Afanasiev-Chuzhbynsky visited Ukraine with an ethnographic expedition and subsequently described his journey in the book Poezdka v luzhnuiu Rossiiu (A Trip to Southern Russia, 1-11,1861). He published a great deal of Ukrainian ethnographic material in Russian journals.

Afanasiev-Chuzhbynsky's dictionary of the Ukrainian language (Slovak malorusskogo narechiia) was published only in part ( A - Z , 1853). His Russian prose dealt, to a great extent, with Ukrainian themes. In 1843-6 AfanasievChuzhbynsky became acquainted with T. Shevchenko and published 'Vospominaniia o T.G. Shevchenko' (Reminiscences of T.H. Shevchenko) in Russkoe slovo, no. 3, 1861. Agitation and propaganda (agitprop). A n important method used by the Communist party to indoctrinate and control the population of the U S S R . It was first used before the revolution by the Bolshevik party to influence the masses and to incite them to revolutionary action. V. Lenin proved to be an able organizer of agitation and propaganda. In a number of pamphlets and articles he expounded the theory and methodology of agitprop, drawing a distinction between agitation (a direct call to action, a simplified argument for the correctness of a position, an appeal to emotion, and even the use of demagoguery) and propaganda (popularization of the Party's goals, exposition of the theoretical foundations of Marxism and communism). In practice, however, the two forms are combined, and the Party relies on one or the other, as the situation demands. Besides oral persuasion and exhortation at meetings and debates, the Party always devoted much attention to the printed word - the press, pamphlets, and leaflets - and to posters, films, and slogans. Within the Party there are special agencies and institutions responsible for agitprop, and each member is bound by the Party constitution to perform such work. In 1924-30 there was a joint Department of Agitation and Propaganda (Department A ) of the Central Committee of the Ail-Union Communist Party (Bolshevik). In 1930 it was split into the Department of Agitation and Mass Campaigns and the Department of Culture and Propaganda. Before coming to power, the Russian Communist party carried on revolutionary propaganda in general; eventually it began to specialize in political, economic, cultural, and *antireligious propaganda. The role of agitation in various political campaigns has been particularly emphasized; for example, in the campaign to democratize the army and the peace campaign before the October Revolution, the campaign for taking over the workers' soviets, the campaign against the Whites and 'bourgeois nationalism' in 1917-20, campaigns against various deviations in the Party, anticapitalist propaganda, then in the industrialization and farm-collectivization drives (agitation against the kulaks and middle peasants), and in election campaigns. Agitation sometimes takes the form of a 'nation-wide discussion,' in the official spirit, of government-imposed projects, Soviet foreign policy (antifascist or anticapitalist campaigns, disarmament propaganda), or a new constitution. As early as the Civil War the Communist party had organized on the local level what were known as agitation points (agitpunkty), which continued to play a role in later years depending on the Party's needs. Agitpunkty were local centers of propaganda work that employed specially appointed agitators. Today propaganda work is conducted by special groups known as agitation collectives (agitkolektyvy), which consist of professional agitators and ad hoc appointees. Agitprop has used the theater and the other arts as auxiliary means. Small theatrical groups - the

A G R I C U L T U R A L

agitbryhady - promote a production plan among workers and peasants and perform agitational skits before factory and collective-farm audiences. Propaganda trains were popular in 1918-21, when collectives and brigades were sent out into certain areas with agitational literature, flags, slogans, and caricatures to organize meetings and mock trials of the counterrevolutionaries or the clergy. In 1920 the Lenin, Bilshovyk, and other agitation trains went through Ukraine. Short propaganda films, mostly on the victories of the Red Army, were also produced in this period. Several such films were produced in Ukraine: Chervona zirka (The Red Star, 1919), Vse dlia frontu (Everything for the Front, 1920), and Serp i molot (The Sickle and Hammer, 1921). Agitation theaters (agitteatry) also operated at the time. Members of the Party and the Communist Youth League participated en masse in agitation and propaganda work, particularly in the struggle against religion and later in the collectivization drive. City-dwellers and workers were drawn in large numbers into agitation and propaganda work in the countryside during the antikulak campaign. Special Party magazines were published for the mass agitator and propagandist. Agitator appeared two or three times monthly in Ukraine in 1925-32 (it was called Agitatsiia i propaganda in 1927-9). In 1932 it was replaced by two magazines - Agitator dlia mista (1932-4), for use among urban workers, and Agitator dlia sela, which in 1933-4 called Partrobota na seli, for use in the village. During collectivization a special form of agitation arose: a network of village correspondents (silkory) to newspapers promoted ^'socialist compétition' and the 'shock work' movement. During the Nazi occupation agitprop was conducted by underground groups directed by the evacuated Central Committee of the C P [ B ] U . A special newspaper, Za Radians'ku Ukraïnu, was published for the occupied territories. Radio propaganda was broadcast by the stations Radianska Ukraina and Partyzanka in Moscow and the Shevchenko radio station in Saratov. After the war the Soviet agitprop agencies organized a particularly vicious campaign in the annexed western-Ukrainian oblasts against the ^Ukrainian Insurgent Army, the Ukrainian Catholic church, the émigrés, and propertied groups in the population. The main theme was 'Ukrainian bourgeois nationalism' and collaboration with the Nazi regime. The agitprop journal Pid praporom leninizmu, a publication of the department for ideology of the cc C P U , has been appearing since 1969. It succeeded Na dopomohu ahitatoru (1941-4) and Bloknot ahitatora (1944-69). Partiine zhyttia was published in Kiev (1946-9) as a continuation of the journals Partrobitnyk Ukraïny (1933-41,1945-6) and Propahandyst iahitator (1944-6). The ideologically authoritative publication for agitation and propaganda work is the monthly of the cc C P U , *Komunist Ukraïny (since 1952), which in 1924-52 was called *BiVshovyk Ukraïny. The biweekly Agitator, with a print-run of one million, has been published in Moscow since 1956 and provides general directives and instructions to the vast agitprop machine of the U S S R . All Soviet newspapers, journals, and publishing houses have an agitprop function. Even scholarly journals such as Ukraïns'kyi istorychnyi zhurnal, Ekonomika Radians'koï Ukraïny, and Radians'ke pravo contain a 'to aid the propagandist' section. A large number of w

a

s

E D U C A T I O N

17

books and brochures published by the State Political Publishing House (Derzhpolitvydav), the Znannia society, and other publishers are propagandist in nature. The Party apparat consists to a large extent of full-time propaganda workers. Agitprop has become a profession for thousands of individuals, most of whom have completed a Party education. The top propaganda cadres are trained at the higher Party schools of the cc C P U and the cc C P S U . The governing agencies of the C P S U examine periodically the state and tasks of agitprop, offer criticisms, and issue resolutions. After J. Stalin's death, and particularly with the introduction of a new Party program in 1961, 'Communist upbringing' has been emphasized. The main agitprop themes have been the formation of the material and technical basis for communism, the molding of the 'Soviet man' by the promotion of a 'moral code of the builder of communism' and the 'socialist way of life,' the strengthening of socialist internationalism, and the propagation of atheism. Because Soviet propaganda has permeated every area of life as an unchallenged state monopoly that utilizes state and public funds, it has alienated public opinion and has lost most of its effectiveness. Nevertheless, it continues to be used because it is one of the cornerstones of the Soviet totalitarian system. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Kalinin, M . Pro politychnu ahitatsiiu (Kiev 1948) Inkeles, A . Public Opinion in Soviet Russia. A Study in Mass Persuasion (Cambridge, Mass 1950) Lenin, V. Pro propahandu i ahitatsiiu (Kiev 1958) V. Markus

Agita tor (Agitator). Mass propaganda magazine, organ of the Central Committee of the Communist Party (Bolshevik) of Ukraine, the Kharkiv Okruha Party Committee, and the People's Commissariat of Education of the Ukrainian S S R . It was published in Kharkiv two or three times a month from 1925 to 1932. Until 1926 Agitator appeared in Russian. In October 1927 it merged with the magazine Propagandyst to become Agitatsiia i propaganda; in 1929 it reverted to the title Agitator. From March 1932 until 1934 it was published in two editions: Agitator dlia mista and Agitator dlia sela, which appeared under the title Partrobota na seli in 1933-4. The magazine was intended primarily for the use of party agitators in industry and agriculture. Agitprop. See Agitation and propaganda. Agrarian legislation. See Land law. Agricultural education Central and Eastern Ukraine. The horticultural courses at the *Nikita Botanical Gardens near Yalta, founded in 1823, and the beekeeping school established by P. *Prokopovych in 1828 on his estates in Mytchenky (Chernihiv region) may be considered the first agricultural schools in Ukraine. In 1844 a secondary school of agriculture and orchard culture was founded in Uman. Agricultural education began to develop rapidly at the end of the 19th century, but it remained backward, particularly for an agricultural country. In 1914 there were 15 higher agricultural schools in the Russian Empire, of which only four were in Ukraine: the Kharkiv Veterinary Institute, the Agronomy Department of the Kiev Polytechnical Institute, and the agriculture departments of Kiev Univer-

i8

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION

sity and Odessa University. An agricultural institute was established in Kharkiv only in 1915 - the Institute of Agriculture and Forestry, which was evacuated from Novo-Aleksandriia (now Pulawy) in Lublin gubernia during the First World War. There were five secondary agricultural schools, including the Uman school, opened in 1844; the Kharkiv school, established in 1890 in Derkachi (now Derhachi); and the Kherson school, founded in 1874. Each of these schools had a six-year program. In the nine gubernias of Ukraine prior to 1917 there were 67 lower agricultural schools, which were either general or specialized (fruit growing, gardening, animal husbandry, viticulture, apiculture, etc). The general schools had programs of three years or more; the specialized schools had one- to three-year programs. Some lower and secondary agricultural schools owned large model farms where students acquired practical training. The agricultural schools were the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture. Besides the schools, exhibitions (24 general and 52 special exhibitions in 1908), courses, and lectures provided some agricultural education. They were usually arranged by the zemstvos and agricultural societies (see * Agronomy, state and social). During the period of Ukrainian independence several new agricultural schools were opened, and an agricultural department was established at the KamianetsPodilskyi Ukrainian State University. In the Soviet period the entire educational system of Ukraine was reorganized according to the model proposed by H. *Hrynko. Several types of agricultural schools were established: institutes, which had four-year programs and graduated specialists with wider training; *tekhnikums, which had three-year programs and produced narrower specialists (agronomist-farmers, landreclamation engineers, zootechnicians, etc); and agricultural vocational schools (agroprofshkoly), which in two years produced qualified agricultural workers. In 1928 the existing special schools were divided into narrower specialties and were made independent of the people's commissariats. These changes together with the political persecution of older, experienced teachers and the promotion of unqualified new teachers brought about a further decline in agricultural education. In the mid-19308 the agricultural educational system of Ukraine was integrated with the ail-Union system. The number of schools was increased, and the quality of education was improved. According to some statistics, the number of agricultural institutes in Ukraine increased from 7 in 1928 to 20 in 1938, and the number of tekhnikums increased from 20 to 123. After the Second World War the system of agricultural education in Ukraine was expanded and reorganized in accordance with a general restructuring on an all-Union scale. The accompanying table shows the development of higher and secondary agricultural education. Between 1960 and 1976 the number of graduates of higher agricultural schools increased from 6,100 to 11,100 and of secondary agricultural schools from 18,900 to 30,800. The number of specialists with a secondary diploma employed in agriculture increased from 105,600 in 1964 to 196,500 in 1973, and the number with a higher diploma, from 32,000 to 73,100. The following higher agricultural schools existed in

Number of agricultural students in higher and secondary special education, 1960-77 Year HIGHER EDUCATION

1960-1 1965-6 1970-1 1976-7

Number of schools

18 17 17 17

SECONDARY SPECIAL EDUCATION

1960-1 1965-6 1970-1 1976-7

148 126 126 113

Number of students 45,600 67,600 65,600 75,200 123,800 112,400 110,400 109,900

Ukraine in 1970: the ""Ukrainian Agricultural Academy in Kiev; agricultural institutes in Bila Tserkva, Voroshylovhrad, Dnipropetrovske, Zhytomyr, Kamianets-Podilskyi, Symferopil, Lviv, Odessa, Poltava, Uman, Kharkiv, and Kherson; veterinary institutes in Lviv and Kharkiv; and institutes of agricultural mechanization and electrification in Kiev and Kharkiv. Almost half of their enrollment consists of night-school students and correspondence-school students. Their program takes four and one-half to five years to complete (six years for correspondence-school students). Higher agricultural schools also conduct some scientific research and publish their results. The Ukrainian Agricultural Academy and the Kharkiv Agricultural Institute have the right to grant doctoral degrees. Graduates of the higher agricultural schools receive the degrees of scientific agronomist, veterinary physician, engineer, etc. Agricultural specialists of an intermediate level are trained at agricultural tekhnikums, state-farm tekhnikums, veterinary tekhnikums, irrigation-drainage tekhnikums, etc. Their program is designed for two to four years. Most of their students are night-school or correspondence students. The system of "vocational-technical education prepares workers such as mechanizers, tractor-machine operators, electricians, farm-brigade leaders, gardeners, and veterinary assistants. In 1971, 58,000 people completed courses in lower agricultural schools in Ukraine. The system consists of one-year agricultural schools, agrotechnical courses at collective and state farms, and special brigades at general secondary schools. Specialists and workersmanagers employed in agriculture improve their qualifications by enrolling at institutions of higher agricultural education. Western Ukraine. Agricultural education was poorly developed in the part of Ukraine that was under AustroHungarian rule. The Farming Academy in Dubliany near Lviv was the sole higher school of agriculture, and the courses were conducted in Polish. In 1919 it became a department of the Lviv Polytechnic. The secondary agricultural school in Kitsman, Bukovyna, directed by Ye. Zhukovsky, was for a long time the only school of its type with courses in Ukrainian. Among the few lower agricultural schools were the school of horticulture at Zalishchyky, the schools organized by the Prosvita society in Myluvannia (Tovmach county) and in Uhertsi Vyniavski (Rudky county), and the Maslosoiuz dairy school in Stryi.

AGRICULTURAL

These schools offered courses of several months7 duration. In the 19205 and 19305 the level of agricultural education in Ukraine under Poland was low. In 1939 there was i higher school, 2 lyceums, i secondary, and 27 lower agricultural schools. Among them were scarcely four schools that offered lectures in Ukrainian. One of these was the state agricultural lyceum in Chernytsia near Stryi, which opened in 1934. Agricultural education outside the school system was organized by the *Silskyi Hospodar society and developed rapidly. In Bukovyna agricultural education declined under Rumanian rule and was completely Rumanianized. In Transcarpathia under Czechoslovakia, however, agricultural education, especially on the lower level and of short duration, developed satisfactorily. Between the wars the * Ukrainian Husbandry Academy and the ^Ukrainian Technical and Husbandry Institute in Podëbrady, Czechoslovakia, had agronomy and forestry departments. Their graduates worked for the most part in Western Ukraine. Agricultural education developed rapidly in the Generalgouvernement. The Agronomy Institute in Dubliany had lectures in German, Ukrainian, and Polish. There were 10 secondary and 14 lower agricultural schools. After finishing elementary school, all peasant children were required to complete an agricultural course in one of 200 vocational schools. BIBLIOGRAPHY Siropolko, S. Istoriia osvity na Ukraïni (Lviv 1937) Ivanovich, K. Sel'skokhoziaistvennoe obrazovanie v SSSR (Moscow 1958) Shul'ha, I. Vyrobnyche navchannia z siVs'kohospodars'koho profiliu (Kiev 1962) Borovs'kyi, M. Narys istori'i sirs'ko-hospodars'koho shkil'nytstva na zakhidn'o-ukrams'kykh zemliakh 1900-1944 (Winnipeg 1974) O. Arkhimovych

Agricultural machine building. A branch of 'machine building that specializes in agricultural machinery and equipment. Farm machines were first produced in Ukraine in the 18405 when D. Kandyba set up a farmmachine factory on his estates in Dmytrivka in Chernihiv gubernia in 1842. The industry expanded rapidly in the 18705, so that from the end of the i9th century to 1914 it was the leading branch of the machine-building industry. This vigorous growth can be attributed to the strong demand for farm machinery resulting from a labor shortage in the farming regions of the steppe as well as to the availability of raw materials and fuel in the metallurgical centers. By 1912 there were 138 medium-sized and large farm-machine factories in Ukraine, producing about 40 percent of all the machines built in Ukraine and about 60 percent of all farm machines built in the Russian Empire. Their gross production was valued at 23.5 million rubles, and they employed about 17,000 workers. The main centers of farm-machine building were Odessa, Kharkiv, Yelysavethrad (now Kirovohrad), Bila Tserkva, Oleksandrivske (now Zaporizhia), and Berdianske. The factories were usually owned by foreign industrialists. The industry could not satisfy Ukraine's demand for farm machinery, however, and over 40 percent of farm machines had to be imported from abroad, mostly from Germany. After suffering a decline in 1917-21, the farm-machine building industry in Ukraine began to expand and returned to its

ORGANIZATIONS

*9

Farm machines produced in Ukraine

Tractor plows Tractor sowers Row harvesters Sugar-beet harvesters Feed blenders Automatic cattle feeders

1940

1965

1975

1979

19.8 (51.6) 11.0 (51.5)

72.0 (43.5) 78.9 (30.2) 26.3 (27) 11.0 (62.8) 6.2 (34.6) 1,354.9 (35.4)

126.3 (61.6) 90.9 (50) 75.3 (81.8) 17.1 (100) 27.5 (74) 710.1 (13)

115.4 (54.2) 86.6 (41.9) 74.4 (70.5) 10.6 (100) 22.8 (81.4) 313.5 (6.4)

prewar level by 1925. By 1937 the industry had grown by a factor of 3.4 compared to 1913 and accounted for 50 percent of the USSR'S production of farm machines. This growth was largely the result of the mechanization of agriculture and the increasing demand for machinery from the collective and state farms; for example, compared to horses, tractors accounted for 3 percent of the draft power in 1927-8 and 82 percent by 1932. Because the growth rate of the farm-machine building industry has been slower than that of other branches of machine building, the proportion that farm machinery represents in the general machine-building industry has decreased. Devastated in 1941-4, the farm-machine building industry returned to its prewar level of production by 1948 and grew rapidly from then on. Yet the industry's growth rate was lower in Ukraine than in other parts of the Soviet Union. In 1940-73 the production of farm machinery in Ukraine grew by a factor of 15, yet Ukraine's share in the total USSR production of farm machinery fell to 23 percent. However, the assortment of farm machines built in Ukraine increased; for example, in the second half of the 19605 133 new types of machines were introduced. The main types of farm machines (in thousands of units) produced in Ukraine are given in the accompanying table (percentages of the USSR production are given in parentheses). In 1973 the value of the farm machinery produced in Ukraine including spare parts was 1,020 million rubles at 1967 prices. Today the largest enterprises of the farmmachine building industry are located in Odessa (established in 1854), Kirovohrad (Chervona Zirka plant, 1874), Kharkiv (Serp i Molot plant, 1875), Lviv (Lvivsilmashyn plant, 1945), and Orikhiv (Orsilmashyn plant, 1929). Sugar-beet harvesters have been built in Kherson since 1909. The building of grain harvesters has been transferred from Dnipropetrovske to Rostov-na-Donu. Agricultural organizations. The aim of agricultural organizations is to develop and improve agriculture in its various aspects, to organize agricultural labor, to publish professional books and journals, to develop agricultural education, and to help members in the rationalization of agriculture. Agricultural organizations have existed in Europe since the second half of the i8th century. The Imperial Free Economic Society, founded in 1765 in St Petersburg, can be considered the first agricultural organization in the Russian Empire. Its activities, like the

20

A G R I C U L T U R A L

O R G A N I Z A T I O N S

activities of the Imperial Moscow Agricultural Society, founded in 1819, embraced central and eastern Ukraine. The Philotechnical Society of Kharkiv (1811-18), founded by V. *Karazyn, may be considered to have been the first agricultural organization in Ukraine. It emphasized the need to introduce new agricultural methods in Ukraine. The first purely agricultural organization in Ukraine was the ""Society of Agriculture of Southern Russia, founded in Odessa in 1828. A similar society was established in Poltava in 1855. Societies of agriculture and of manufacturers of farm machinery were established in Kharkiv, Kiev, the Kuban, Katerynoslav, Chernihiv, etc. The activities of some agricultural societies encompassed whole gubernias, while the activities of others were only countywide. In the mid-1890s there were close to 20 agricultural organizations (including branches) in Ukraine. Although the agricultural societies were primarily organizations of the gentry, they made an important contribution to the development of agriculture. When the authority to approve the establishment of agricultural organizations was transferred from the minister of agriculture to the provincial governors in 1898, the number of such organizations increased. It increased even further after the revolution of 1905 and the *Stolypin agrarian reforms. In 1900 there were approximately 100 agricultural organizations in Ukraine. By 1905 the number had increased to 513, and by 1915 to 1,020 (4,700 for the Russian Empire). Most of the societies were local in character and almost all of them were co-operative. They were established usually on the initiative of active Ukrainian members of co-operatives or zemstvos. In contrast to the agricultural organizations with a wider scope, the local societies served primarily the needs of the peasantry. Agricultural organizations that were not co-operative declined during the First World War and were eventually abolished by the Soviet government. Agricultural cooperatives grew rapidly in 1917-19 and during the N E P period (after declining under war communism). Western Ukraine. The oldest agricultural organization in Galicia was the Galician Agricultural Society, founded in 1829 in Lviv. It was to serve the needs of both Ukrainian and Polish peasants, but in reality it came under the control of Polish landlords. For a brief period the *Halytsko-Ruska Matytsia fulfilled some functions of an agricultural organization. The *Prosvita society of Lviv fulfilled such functions for a much longer time (until 1909). The Agricultural-Industrial Society of Stanyslaviv, whose aim was to raise the peasants standard of living, was founded in 1882 and existed briefly. The exclusively agricultural society *Silskyi Hospodar was established at the beginning of this century. In the mid-i920s it became a leading organization representing the Ukrainian peasantry. Ukrainian co-operatives (especially *Maslosoiuz) continued to work in the area of agriculture. The *Patrons of Agricultural Associations existed in Galicia until 1921. In Bukovyna the cultural and educational society *Ruska Besida and the co-operative association *Selianska Kasa served some of the purposes of an agricultural organization. In Transcarpathia the Pros vita society played a similar role. 7

V. Kubijovyc

Agricultural periodicals Central and eastern Ukraine until 1920. Before 1919 central and eastern Ukrainians subscribed mostly to journals published by Russian agricultural societies, primarily in St Petersburg. The first agricultural journal published in Ukraine was Zapiski Imperatorskogo obshchestva seVskogo khoziaistva Iuzhnoi Rossii (1832-1915), a monthly that appeared in Odessa. Various agricultural societies and associations of the farm industry published their own periodicals: the Kiev society published its Trudy (1882-4) and then the weekly Zemledelie (18841904); the Kharkiv society published the biweekly *Khliborob (1907-18) for the peasants. Agricultural periodicals in Ukrainian appeared only at the beginning of the 1910s, and their number was very small: the biweekly *Rillia (1911-14 and 1917-18); Ukrai'ns'ke bdzhiV nytstvo (190610); and Ukraïns'ke pasichnytstvo (1917-18). The last two were edited by Ye. *Arkhypenko, and all three were published in Kiev. Agricultural matters received much attention in the general periodical press in Ukraine, particularly in the various Gubernskie vedomosti. When the ban on Ukrainian publications was lifted in 1905, almost all Ukrainian periodicals devoted much space to agricultural questions, especially periodicals intended for the peasants, such as *Svitova zirnytsia (1906), *Selo (1909-11), the biweekly Nasha kooperatsiia (1913-14), and *Slovo (1907-9). From 1917 to 1920 co-operative periodicals, particularly *SiVs'kyi hospodar (1918-19), published extensively on agricultural matters. Ukrainian S S R 1920-41. The number of agricultural periodicals increased rapidly between 1920 and 1930, especially from 1922. From 1921 to 1940 about 360 such periodicals appeared in Ukraine; about 90 of them were journals. In 1920 there were no more than 9 periodicals and no journals. In 1925, 44 periodicals came out, and 12 of them were journals; in 1930, 74 periodicals (25 journals); in 1935, 25 periodicals (8 journals); in 1940, 33 periodicals (6 journals). The largest increase in agricultural periodicals occurred in the period of the New Economic Policy. Their number declined during collectivization and increased slightly at the end of the 1930s. From 1923 to 1932 agricultural periodicals were numerous but short-lived. They came out infrequently, in small printings, and changed titles often. With few exceptions these periodicals were in Ukrainian. Many of them were bulletins, reports, and newsletters. The publications of agricultural institutes, tekhnikums, scientific research institutes, and research stations had a scientific and practical significance. Their average duration of publication was 2.3 years, and their average frequency was 3.1 issues per year. The publications of (or financed by) the People's Commissariat of Agricultural Affairs, of its scientific research stations, and of the * Agricultural Scientific Committee of Ukraine received better support. The most important and long-lived among them (omitting journals) were Materiialy doslidzhennia gruntiv Ukrainy (13 vols, 1917-31), Pratsi Polis'koï siVs'ko-hospodars'koï doslidnoï stantsiï (61 issues, 1928-36), Trudy Ukraïns'koho naukovo-doslidnoho instytutu zernovoho hospodarstva (1935), Trudy Ukraïns'koho naukovo-doslidnoho instytutu sadivnytstva (30 issues, 1931-41), and Trudy Naukovoho instytutu svynovodstva (30 issues, 1930-40). The transactions of the agricultural research stations of Poltava (73 issues, 1920-

AGRICULTURAL PERIODICALS

30), Sumy (30 issues, 1920-31), and Myronivka (1924-31) were printed in Russian. Journals, which were mostly monthlies, varied in character: some were scientific, some practical, some popular. Many of them were specialized. The more important scientific journals were Agronom (20 issues, 1923-6), published by the Agricultural Scientific Committee of Ukraine; the monthly Visnyk sirs'ko-hospodars'koï nauky (1922-9); Agrotekhnika (1922-32); and Biuleten' Kharkivs'koï kraiovoï siïs'ko-hospodars'koï stantsïï (1925-9). Among professional scientific monthlies the following should be mentioned: Ukrams'kyi agronom and Ukrains'kyi zemlevporiadnyk, both published in Kharkiv in 1925-9 and replaced by Spetsiialist siPs'koho hospodarstva Ukramy (1930-2). Among the popular journals devoted to the mechanization of agriculture were Mashyna na sell (Kharkiv 1930-4) and Za mekhanizatsiiu siVs'koho hospodarstva (Kiev 1935-7). Popular agricultural journals of a general nature included the biweekly Poltavs'kyi selianyn (Poltava 1925-9) and the monthly Zernove hospodarstvo (Kiev 1936-40). The cultivation of industrial crops was discussed in the popular monthlies: Kolektyvni lany buriakosiiannia (Kharkiv 1930-4, with title changes), Buriakivnytstvo (Kiev 1936-8), Za radians'ku bavovnu (Kherson 1931-3), Za tekhnichnu kulturu (Kharkiv 1931-3), and Tekhnichni kultury (Kiev 1938-40). Two scientific practical journals were devoted to fruit-growing and gardening: Visnyk sadivnytstva, vynohradnytstva ta horodnytstva (192530, with title changes) and Sad ta horod (Kiev 1937-49). Monthlies dealing with animal husbandry were Sotsialistychne tvarynnytstvo (Kharkiv, Kiev 1931-49, with title changes and interruptions), Ptakhivnytstvo Ukramy (19304); and Kolhospne bdzhïïnytstvo (Kharkiv 1925-41, with title changes). Ukraïns'kyi myslyvets' i rybalka (Kharkiv 1925-32) was devoted to hunting and fishing. Western Ukraine until 1944. Before Ukrainian agricultural periodicals appeared in Galicia, German and Polish agricultural periodicals were widely read. Agricultural problems were constantly discussed in general Ukrainian periodicals such as *Pys'mo z Prosvity and the co-operative press, especially *Ekonomist. The biweekly *Hospodar (1869-72) and *Hospodar i promyshlennyk (1879-87), which became *Hospodar (1898-1913), were the first professional agricultural periodicals. The most widely read agricultural journal in the 19105 was the biweekly Hospodars'ka chasopys' (1910-18), published by the Silskyi Hospodar society. The central office of farmers7 clubs published Providnyk riPnychykh kruzhkiv (Lviv 1886-1914) three times a month. The "Patrons of Agricultural Associations published monthly the bilingual (Polish and Ukrainian) Chasopys alia spilok riPnychykh (1904-14) and a separate Ukrainian edition (1915-21). In Bukovyna agricultural information was published in Vistnyk Soiuza ruskykh khliborobs'kykh spilok na Bukovyni, Selians'ka kasa (19038), Narodne bohatstvo (1908-11), and particularly Dobri rady (1889-1914). After 1918 no periodicals devoted solely to agriculture appeared in Galicia until the *Silskyi Hospodar society began to flourish and revived its biweekly .*Sz7Yfa/z hospodar (1926-44). This association also published more specialized monthly journals: *Ukrams'kyi pasichnyk (192839 and 1941-4) and Praktychne sadivnytstvo (1933-8), both edited by M. *Borovsky; *Khliborobs'ka molod' (1934-9); and Sad i horod (1939). *Ukrains'kyi agronomichnyi visnyk

21

Agricultural periodicals of the Ukrainian SSR

No. of publications No. of issues per year No. of copies per year Average no. of copies per issue

All periodicals

Journals

52 (315) 231 (2,065) 2,275,000 (48,258,000) 9,800 (23,400)

6 (79) 66 (872) 222,000 (2,664,000) 33,600 (30,100)

(1934-8) was a scientific quarterly. From 1923 to 1932, besides the journals of the Silskyi Hospodar society, *SiVs'kyi svit was published in Lviv, Peremyshl, and Lutske. Transcarpathia had the monthly Hospodar (19235), edited by M. *Tvorydlo, and Podkarpats'ke pcholiarstvo (1923-6). Ukrainian SSR after the Second World War. There is a paucity of agricultural periodicals in the Ukrainian SSR, as is evident from the accompanying table for 1973 (figures in parentheses represent the RSFSR). The agricultural journals are monthlies published in Kiev; all are in Ukrainian. Among them is one scientific journal, Visnyk siïs'kohospodars'koï nauky, published since 1962 by the Ministry of Agriculture of the Ukrainian SSR and previously by the Ukrainian Academy of Agricultural Sciences. It has a printing of 5,100 (1973). The popular *Khliborob Ukramy, which has a printing of 55,800, contains little agricultural information and mostly propaganda. The main specialized journals are: Tvarynnytstvo Ukramy, with a printing of 62,400; Mekhanizatsiia siVs'koho hospodarstva, which has been published since 1950 by the Council of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR with a printing of 27,800 (cf the Moscow journal Sel'skii mekhanizator, which has a printing of over 700,000); and *Siïs'ke budivnytstvo, with a printing of 27,800. Most of the other periodicals (serialized works, thematic collections, and bulletins) are published by agricultural institutes and scientific research institutes and do not appear frequently (3.7 times per year on the average). Their average printing is 1,244. Although the number of agricultural periodicals and their print runs have increased (in 1950 there were 24 periodicals with an annual print run of 700,000), they do not meet the needs of Ukrainian farmers. This can best be demonstrated by the above statistics and the following comparison: in Ukraine there is one agricultural periodical for every 137,000 individuals employed in agriculture (and one journal for every 1.2 million employees in general), while in the RSFSR there is one periodical for every 39,000 agricultural employees (and one journal for every 155,000 general employees). Thus, in Ukraine each person employed in agriculture would receive 0.24 copies of an agricultural periodical, while in the RSFSR each employee would receive 0.52 copies. Ukraine is a more agricultural country than Russia, yet its farmers are obliged to use Russian agricultural periodicals, the more so since the latter are more attractive, better illustrated, and more readily available. A. Kachor, V. Kubijovyc, S. Yaniv

22

AGRICULTURAL PROCUREMENT

Agricultural procurement. Compulsory, regulated deliveries of agricultural products and raw materials to state agencies for centralized distribution and redistribution among the population, industry, and other sectors, and for export. Deliveries of farm products are the state's means for expropriating without compensation a portion of the production of "collective and *state farms. In the Soviet economy the deliveries form one of the main sources of capital formation, not only in agriculture, but also in industry and government (see 'National income). The quotas to be delivered and the prices paid for them by the state are determined by state planning. Any surplus that remains after the state and collective farms have met their delivery quotas is purchased by co-operative organizations, commercial enterprises, municipalities, and manufacturing concerns. After the revolution farm products were procured by what was known as the 'surplus appropriation system (prodrozkladka) (see 'War communism). According to the government decree of 12 February 1919, the peasants were allowed to keep the seed and 14.5 poods (237.5 kg) of grain per person per year, while the rest of the harvest was requisitioned without compensation by the state. Because of peasant resistance to this policy in Ukraine and numerous peasant uprisings, the surplus appropriation system was replaced by the 'tax in kind (prodpodatok) in 1921 (see 'New Economic Policy). According to the new system only a part of the farm production was subject to compulsory delivery to the state. In 1924-7 the state purchased farm products largely on the open market, but in 1927 the advance contract system, under which peasants contracted to deliver certain amounts of farm products to the state in exchange for manufactured goods, was introduced. With the introduction of 'collectivization in 1929-32, compulsory grain deliveries, which had the force of taxation, were instituted and were implemented according to the strict quotas set in Moscow for all the republics, including Ukraine. At the same time the government introduced payment in kind - 20 percent of the harvest for work performed by the 'machine-tractor stations. The quotas for these compulsory grain deliveries were very high: in 1931 the state took 7 million t (38.5 percent) of the 18.2 million t harvested, and in 1933 it planned to take 6.6 million (50 percent) of the 13.2 t harvested. As a result of these high exactions 'famine broke out. Consequently a new law on compulsory deliveries of farm products was issued on 19 January 1933, which set forth somewhat more reasonable delivery quotas - 3.1 centners per ha of land planned for cultivation for collective farms that were not served by machine-tractor stations and 2.5 centners per ha for collective farms that did use the stations. In 1935 the quotas were lowered to 2.4 and 2.3 centners per ha respectively, and in 1936 to 2.4 and 2.0 centners per ha. On i April 1940 the delivery quotas in Ukraine began to be calculated on the area of actually tilled or cultivated land. Deliveries of industrial crops and certain other farm products were conducted under the advance contract system. The grain delivery quotas differed in each raion, ranging from 20 to 210 kg per ha. For the 510 raions in Ukraine the average quota was 137 kg per ha. With certain modifications these quotas remained in force until 1955On 9 March 1955 the law 'On Changing the Agricultural Planning Procedure' was introduced. By the end of 1958

procurement prices for farm products were increased sharply, private subsistence plots farmed by individual households were freed from compulsory deliveries, and payments in kind for the services of machine-tractor stations were abolished. In 1961 the advance contract system was reintroduced. At first two- to three-year contracts were signed between procurement organizations and collective and state farms, and then, beginning in 1965, one-year contracts. Since 1965 the prices on deliveries have been raised several times to provide greater material incentives for the farmers and to deal with recurring agricultural crises and crop failures. Not only grain but all farm products have been subject to compulsory deliveries. In 1940-57, for example, collective farms had to deliver 4.5 kg of meat per ha per year. In 1976-8, 2,260,0001 of meat were delivered to the state. In 1933-40 the milk delivery quotas were 470 L per collectivefarm cow and no L per private cow. In 1966-70 the average annual delivery of milk to the state was 9,881,000 t; in 1976-8 it was 13,837,000 t. The statistical data in the accompanying table are based on official information from the annual Narodne hospodarstvo Ukraïns'koï RSR (The National Economy of the Ukrainian SSR), and do not always reflect the full extent of the expropriation of Ukraine's farm production by the Soviet state. According to the estimates of some Ukrainian economists, particularly K. Kononenko, Ukraine's grain deliveries exceeded by 50 percent the deliveries of other parts of the USSR and especially of the Russian SFSR before the Second World War. In 1933-8 Ukraine delivered to the state 353.7 million centners of grain (deliveries, purchases, payments in kind to machine-tractor stations) out of a harvest of 778.6 million t (ie, 45.4 percent of its harvest), while the rest of the USSR delivered only 1,184,000,000 centners out of a total harvest (actual, not biological) of 3.791 billion centners (ie, only 32.1 percent). Moreover, this took place when Ukraine had a lower hectare/peasant ratio and productivity than did the rest of the USSR. It should be pointed out that the state paid very low, monopoly prices, unrelated to the real value of the products, for deliveries and then resold the products to consumers at much higher prices (see 'Prices). Thus, both the farmers and the consumers were exploited. The excessive profits of this legalized speculation, which sometimes reached 1,000 percent, were turned over to the state treasury in the form of the turnover tax (see 'Taxation) and were used for industrialization, armaments, and maintaining the government bureaucracy. Until 1958 surplus farm products (after obligatory quotas had been met) were sold to the state at so-called abovequota incentive prices, which were much higher than the obligatory delivery prices. In 1939, for example, the obligatory delivery and above-quota prices per kilogram were 0.06 and i.oo rubles for rye (ie, the above-quota price was 16.7 times higher), o.io and 1.20 rubles for wheat, 2.50 and 28.00 rubles for butter, and 0.15 and 2.10 rubles for milk. The difference between the two prices was considerably reduced after the war. In 1955-7, for example, the two prices per centner were 25 and 120 rubles for wheat, 55 and 135 rubles for milk, 905 and 1,450 rubles for butter, and 20 and 45 rubles for eggs (per 100). State farms delivered their products at the state-farm procurement prices (zdavalni tsiny), which were also considerably lower than the above-quota incentive prices.

AGRICULTURAL

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

INSTITUTIONS

23

Production and state purchases of basic farm products in Soviet Ukraine* (in thousands of tonnes and percentages) Grains

Wheat as part of grains

Sugar beets

Year

Total harvest

Purchased by state

purchased

Total harvest

Purchased by state

%

Total harvest

Purchased by state

%

1940 1946-50 1951-5 1956-60 1961-5 1966-70 1971-5 1976-80

26,420 16,908 23,328 23,936 29,348 33,362 40,012 43,190

9,368 7,728 9,148 6,950 11,010 11,118 13,970 14,030

35.5 45.7 39.2 29.0 37.5 33.3 34.9 32.5

8,407 5,408 11,161 10,816 11,923 16,405 19,821 21,967

3,831 3,028 5,632 4,481 5,271 7,440 9,276 8,994

45.6 56.0 50.5 41.4 44.2 45.4 46.8 40.9

13,052 8,776 16,884 28,221 34,131 46,731 45,957 53,563

12,669 8,261 16,705 26,840 32,194 42,850 40,785 45,828

97.1 94.1 98.9 95.1 94.3 91.7 88.7 85.6

01

/o

*For period 1946-80 figures denote average for each 5-year period.

In 1958 the delivery and above-quota prices were replaced by uniform prices (yedyni tsiny), which were much higher than the general level of above-quota prices and especially obligatory delivery prices. In 1978 the government decided to establish a uniform, centralized delivery plan, beginning with the nth Five-Year Plan in 1981. The compulsory deliveries of farm products have a detrimental effect on the development of agriculture. In spite of the various reforms, including the 1978 reform, the state continues to make very high and economically unjustified profits from reselling farm products. These profits are in fact a peculiar kind of rent that the collective and state farms must pay to the state for using the land. BIBLIOGRAPHY Na fronte sel'sko-khoziaistvennykh zagotovok (1928-35) SWs'ke hospodarstvo Ukraïns'koï RSR (Kiev 1958) Kononenko, K. Ukra'ina i Rosita: SotsiiaVno-ekonomichni pidstavy ukraïns'koïnatsionaVnoï ideï, 1917-1960 (Munich 1965) Istoriia selianstva Ukmïns'koï RSR, 2 vols (Kiev 1967) Mishchenko, O. Derzhavni zahotivli sirs'kohospodars'kykh produktiv (Kiev 1968) Panchenko, P. Razvitie seVskogo khoziaistva Ukrainskoi SSR, 1959-1980 (Kiev 1980) V. Holubnychy, B. Wynar

Agricultural sciences. See Agronomy.

Agricultural Scientific Committee of Ukraine

(Silsko-hospodarskyi naukovyi komitet Ukrainy). The committee was the center of scientific agricultural studies in Ukraine in the 19205. It was formed in 1918 in Kiev out of the agricultural section of the Ministry of Agriculture of the Ukrainian National Republic and assumed prominence in 1922 when it became a key institution in the framework of the People's Commissariat of Agricultural Affairs of the Ukrainian SSR. The committee initiated and co-ordinated research in various branches of the agricultural sciences and supervised practical and educational work in agronomy. When the central office of the committee was moved to Kharkiv, some of its work (particularly publishing) continued to be done in Kiev. The committee was responsible to the presidium, whose first chairman was S. *Veselovsky and whose scientific secretary was O.*Yanata, and to the scientific council. Its work was divided among special committees and among sections such as those on farming, soil study, botany, animal husbandry, amelioration, meteorology, agricultural economics, and environmental protection. The committee

headed a network of branches in Kiev, Vinnytsia, Poltava, etc. It set up a chain of agronomic research stations, observation stations for migratory birds, etc. New scientific institutions such as the Ukrainian Institute of Applied Botany, the Ukrainian Institute for the Protection of Plants, and the Ukrainian Institute of Animal Husbandry were established with the committee's support. Some institutes of the All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences and some individual scientists were supported by the committee in their theoretical research in agriculture. Outstanding contributions were made by the section on soil study, directed by H. *Makhiv, which published the first comprehensive map of the soils of Ukraine and ten volumes of Materiialy doslidzhennia gruntiv Ukrainy (Research Materials on the Soils of Ukraine), and by the botanical section, directed by O. Yanata, which issued Botanichnoheohrafichne raionuvannia Ukrainy (Botanical-Geographic Regionalization of Ukraine) in 1925 and began to publish *Flora URSR. The committee published a series of journals: Biuleten' Sirs'ko-hospodars'koho naukovoho komitetu Ukramy (Kiev 1921), Visnyk sirs'ko-hospodars'koï nauky (monthly, 1922-4 and 1927-9), Trudy sirs'ko-hospodars'koï botaniky (2 vols and 6 issues, 1926-9), Agronom (journal of the Kiev branch, 1923-6), Visnyk pasichnytstva (monthly, Kiev 1926-7), Biuleten' borofby z shkidnykamy siUs'ko-hospodars'kykh roslyn (Kiev 1923-4), and others. The committee co-ordinated the research of almost all scientists in agriculture and related fields in Ukraine. Among them were, in addition to those already mentioned, agronomists Oleksander and Oleksii Fylypovsky; soil-scientists V. Krokos and O. Sokolovsky; geologists V. Riznychenko, P. Tutkovsky, and F. Polonsky; botanist Ye. Votchal; entomologist I. Shchoholiv; zoologist M. Sharleman; meteorologists and climatologists M. Danylevsky, A. Ohiievsky, and B. Sreznevsky; and hydrologist Ye. Oppokiv (director of the amelioration section). In 1928 the committee was abolished as an allegedly nationalistic institution. Some of its institutes and researchers, many of whom were eventually politically persecuted, were transferred to the * All-Ukrainian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, founded in 1926. Since then, the Agricultural Scientific Committee of Ukraine has never been mentioned in Soviet publications. V. Kubijovyc

Agricultural scientific research institutions. Experimental fields began to appear in Ukraine in the i88os. The first permanent experimental field was established in

24

AGRICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS

1884 in Poltava. It was followed by the Kharkiv and Derebchyn fields in 1888. Eventually research stations were established: the Plotianska station on Prince N. Trubetskoi's estates in Podilia (1893),tne Ivanivka station on Kharytonenko's estates in the Kharkiv region (1897), and the Poltava station (1910). Stations were also established at Kherson, Odessa, Kharkiv, Sumy, Nosivka, Uman, Smila, Myronivka, Nemerche, and elsewhere. Networks of experimental fields were organized for the investigation of the agronomic problems of larger agricultural areas. The best-known network belonged to the All-Russian Society of Sugar Producers, which consisted of 32 fields, 24 of them in Ukraine. With its center in Kiev, it functioned from 1900 to 1918 under the directorship of S. Frankfurt, O. Dushechkin, and others. Networks of experimental fields were established by gubernia agricultural societies: the societies of Kiev, Kharkiv, Podilia, Kherson, etc. Later the department of agriculture in St. Petersburg organized well-funded research stations in Kiev, Kharkiv, and Katerynoslav. (In the rest of the Russian Empire there were only two more stations.) Each of these stations covered a large region with its network of experimental fields. Furthermore, there was a large number of selection stations of a general or specialized nature (see ""Selection). Some research was done at advanced schools and a few secondary schools (see * Agricultural education). Altogether in nine Ukrainian gubernias there were over 100 scientific research institutions, among them almost 20 research stations and over 40 experimental fields (approximately 50 percent of all fields in the Russian Empire). After the revolution the activities of the scientific agricultural research institutions were revived and expanded. The work of research stations was co-ordinated through a single plan, and the number of stations was increased. A series of special institutes was created: for the study of sugar beets in Kiev, of new legume cultures in Hlukhiv, of grain cultures in Dnipropetrovske, etc. The work of the various agricultural research institutions was co-ordinated and stimulated by the * Agricultural Scientific Committee of Ukraine, and, after its abolition, by the * All-Ukrainian Academy of Agricultural Sciences. During the collectivization period, when Ukrainian scientists were persecuted, agricultural research declined, and the All-Ukrainian Academy of Agricultural Sciences was abolished. Some of its functions were taken over by the Ail-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences. The agricultural scientific research institutions declined again in 1941-5. At present complex research in agricultural production is carried on in most oblasts of the Ukrainian SSR by 20 oblast research stations. Theoretical questions and agronomical problems that are beyond the oblasts in scope fall under the jurisdiction of scientific research institutes: Land Tillage and Animal Husbandry of the Western Regions of the Ukrainian SSR, located in Lviv; Animal Husbandry of the Forest-Steppe and Polisia of the Ukrainian SSR, in Kharkiv; the Steppe Regions of the Ukrainian SSR, in Askaniia Nova. Some scientific research institutes are of Union scope and are responsible to Union agencies: the Institute of Winemaking and Viticulture in Yalta, of Essential-Oil Cultures in Symferopil, of Irrigation Farming in Kherson, of Corn in Dnipropetrovske, of Bast Fiber Cultures in Hlukhiv, of Selection and Genetics in Odessa, and of Sugar Beets in Kiev. Republican scientific research institutes include the Institute of Viticulture and

Agricultural institutions and scientists

1967

1975

No. of No. of No. of No. of institutions scientists institutions scientists

Ministry of Agriculture, Ukrainian SSR Other ministries and agencies of the Ukrainian SSR Ministry of Agriculture, USSR All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences

80

3,211

28

1,285

31

779

28

1,152

31

3,818

28

5,295

17

539

67

3,371

Winemaking in Odessa, the Institute of Soil Research in Kharkiv, the Institute for the Protection of Plants, the Institute of the Economics and Organization of Agriculture, and the Institute for the Mechanization and Electrification of Agriculture in Kiev, the Institute of Vegetable and Melon Growing in Kharkiv, the Institute of Orcharding in Kiev, and the Institute of Hog Raising in Poltava. Scientific research institutes usually have their own research networks. In 1975 there were altogether 151 agricultural scientific research institutions in the Ukrainian SSR. Eleven of these had 11,100 scientists. The accompanying table demonstrates the growth of agricultural institutions and their increasing subordination to Union institutions. The ^Ukrainian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, which directed the work of most of the agricultural scientific research institutions in Ukraine, existed only from 1956 to 1962. In Western Ukraine there were almost no agricultural scientific research institutions until 1950. There were some small research stations attached to agricultural schools (particularly in Dubliany). Until 1914 the Galician Provincial Executive and the Prosvita society established such stations. Between the two world wars research stations were set up by the Lviv Agricultural Chamber in the villages of Zarvanytsia and Shutromyntsi, the *Silskyi Hospodar society, Maslosoiuz, and Ukrainian landowners (A. Terpeliak, M. Lutsky, and M. Malytsky). (See also * Agronomy.) O. Arkhimovych

Agricultural technology. The system of methods or techniques used to control the growth and harvest of domesticated plants and animals in order to obtain the highest yields possible under existing soil and climatic conditions with the least investment of labor and capital. Agricultural technology includes such basic operations as tilling and fertilizing the soil; preparing the seed for sowing; sowing and planting; crop protection; harvesting; the control of weeds, pests, and plant diseases; irrigation; and protective afforestation. The development of agricultural technology is closely linked not only to the development of the natural sciences and to technology in general, but also to the agrarian

AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY

system and the forms of land tenancy. The technological level of the agricultural system based on serf labor that existed in Ukraine at the end of the i8th and the first half of the icth century was very primitive. The agrarian reforms of 1861 did not create the conditions for improved farming: the frequent redistribution of land by the village communes undermined any individual incentive to increase the productivity of the soil. Consequently the peasants maintained the traditional three-field system of cultivation. Thus, until the beginning of the 2oth century most Ukrainian peasants were unaffected by the modern farming methods that were introduced on the large gentry estates or by the improvements in the three-field system that were made by the owners of small, private homesteads. With the development of beet growing, deep autumn plowing was introduced. Mineral fertilizers were used in Ukraine earlier than in any other part of the Russian Empire. At the end of the 18705 A. *Zaikevych studied the effect of fertilizers on farm crops and advocated the introduction of fertilizers into the rows during sowing. A. izmailsky developed farming methods to fight droughts in the south - deep plowing, snow retention, forestation of gullies, and protective afforestation. At the turn of the century modern farming methods came into wider use owing to the efforts of zemstvo agronomists (see 'Agronomy, social and state), who popularized the agricultural sciences, established model crop fields, set up machine and seed-cleaning stations, provided credit for the buying of machinery and equipment, and later organized co-operative societies. After the *Stolypin agrarian reforms (1906-10), which allowed peasants to leave the communes and set up private farms and homesteads, the peasants took advantage of the experience of the zemstvo agronomists and agricultural research stations. Because most of Ukraine's foreststeppe region and the entire steppe region receive little precipitation and have a short, dry spring and occasional droughts, methods of dry-land farming were developed. The work of most research stations, which have departments of plant selection, crop cultivation, and animal husbandry, was and continues to be devoted to the problem of accumulating and preserving moisture in the soil. Primary research was done on early fallow, the depth of plowing, and working the soil after harvesting (Poltava, Odessa, Plotianska, and Kherson agricultural research stations). Much attention was focussed on organic and mineral fertilizers, the accumulation of nitrates in the soil, and the effects of Leguminosae prior to the introduction of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium fertilizers (Plotianska, Poltava, Odessa, Kherson, Nosivka, and Novozybkov stations). The depth of the root systems of various cultures and the moisture retention of the root layer of soil were studied at the Odessa research station. The cultivation methods for various crops - wheat, sugar beet, cotton, and others - were also investigated by these research stations and the experimental fields of the All-Russian Society of Sugar Producers. The application of agricultural technology in peasant farms before the First World War led to an increase in the better varieties of grain (chiefly wheat), the adoption of crop rotation with grass cultivation, the modernization of farming methods and equipment, the improvement of livestock, the wider use of chemical fertilizers, and greater weed control. This progress was arrested by the war and the revolution. The Soviet policy of *War

25

Communism seriously harmed agriculture. Some gains were made during the period of the *New Economic Policy, when co-operatives supplied the peasants with farm equipment and seed and the work of research and selection stations was stepped up. Technological progress in farming continued as long as private farms and individual initiative were permitted, ie, until 1929, when ""collectivization began. Thereafter, agricultural technology was brought under centralized government planning. The network of agricultural research stations and their work have undergone frequent changes, depending on the political aims of the Communist party, which sets the goals and technical norms of research. Since the Second World War the government decrees of 1948, 1953, 1966, 1968, and 1978 have regulated such technical tasks as protective afforestation, crop rotation together with grass cultivation, soil tilling and plant cultivation, the use of organic and mineral fertilizers, seed selection, sowing technique, the mechanization of harvesting, crop irrigation systems, and the improvement of animal husbandry. New farming methods such as vernalization, cross and concentrated planting, the use of granular fertilizer, and the forced ripening of certain cultures are prescribed by decree. Much effort has been spent on improving the techniques of crop cultivation in the natural-economic zones of the Ukrainian SSR. Methods for cultivating the acidic podzolic soils of Polisia and the western oblasts, for draining and utilizing excessively wet soils, and for transforming grazing land of low productivity into cultivated hayfields and pastures have been developed. The techniques of raising lupines, potatoes, flax, winter wheat and rye, hemp, grasses, and other plants that grow in Polisia have been perfected. For the forest-steppe zone new methods of cultivating winter wheat, corn, sunflowers, and other crops and ways to control certain grain fungi have been introduced. A new technology of sugarbeet growing has been applied in Ukraine. In the steppe zone the clean fallow system is used, and the methods of growing rice and winter grains, particularly on irrigated lands, have been improved. The Soviet government uses various incentives (honorary titles, prizes, etc) to raise agricultural productivity. But the Soviet system has deprived individual farmers of any interest in their work by appropriating their land and exploiting them mercilessly. Hence, technological improvements have had little effect on productivity. However, Ukrainian farmers have applied agricultural technology very successfully on their private cottage plots, and they produced in 1967-77, 28.2 percent of the national agricultural product on only 2.6 percent of the arable land. In Western Ukraine contributions to agricultural technology were made by the research station of the faculty of agronomy and forestry of the Lviv Polytechnic (18561939), by the *Silskyi Hospodar society and the Prosvita society, which ran farming schools in *Myluvannia, Uhertsi Vyniavski, and elsewhere. In Bukovyna there was a secondary agricultural school in Kitsman. Outside Ukraine agricultural technology was studied at the ""Ukrainian Husbandry Academy and the ""Ukrainian Technical and Husbandry Institute in Podëbrady, Czechoslovakia. Their graduates helped to improve farming in Transcarpathia, Galicia, and Volhynia.

26

AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Naukovo obhruntovana systema vedennia siVs'koho hospodarstva na Polissi ta v zakhidnykh raionakh URSR (Kiev 1967) Naukovo obhruntovana systema vedennia siFs'koho hospodarstva v Lisostepu URSR (Kiev 1968, 1974) Naukovo obhruntovana systema vedennia siFs'koho hospodarstva v Stepu URSR (Kiev 1968, 1974) Ukraïns'ka siïs'kohospodars'ka entsyklopediia, 3 vols (Kiev 1970-2) Naukovo obhruntovana systema vedennia siFs'koho hospodarstva na Polissi ta v peredhirnykh i hirs'kykh raionakh Karpat URSR (Kiev 1975) Dovidnyk sWs'koho aktyvista (Kiev 1981)

O. Arkhimovych, I. Vakulenko, E. Zharsky

Agriculture. One of the principal branches of the national economy, which includes *crop cultivation and *animal husbandry. It supplies the population with food products and industry with raw materials. Prehistoric times. Agriculture has been practiced on Ukrainian territories since the Mesolithic period. Along with hunting, fishing, and food gathering, animal husbandry and land cultivation expanded in the Neolithic period and particularly in the age of the *Trypilian culture (4500-2000 BC in Ukraine), which was widespread in most of Right-Bank and some of Left-Bank Ukraine. The Trypilians sowed barley, wheat, and millet and broke the soil for seeding with wooden hoes. They harvested the crops using a wooden sickle with a stone blade and threshed the sheaves with a wooden flail. The grain was ground into flour by means of a hand-stone. Only a small plot of land near the settlement could be cultivated by hoeing; hence, hoe cultivation was essentially a horticultural form of agriculture and was left mostly to the women. In the late stage of the Trypilian culture the seeded area increased, and plow cultivation or field agriculture arose. As the primitive wooden plow and draft animals replaced the hoe, men began to play a greater role in soil cultivation. The agricultural *Lausitz culture, which was widespread in the ist millennium BC, testifies to the growth of agriculture. In the middle of the ist millennium BC Scythian tribes settled in the territories of present-day southern and southeastern Ukraine and later in the southern Crimea. The *Scythians were composed of two groups - farmers and nomads. The former, called plowsmen by Herodotus, grew wheat, rye, millet, beans, hemp, onions, garlic, and other vegetable crops. The *longfallow system of cultivation was already prevalent among the Scythians, who cultivated a tract of land for several years and turned to another when the soil became exhausted, returning to the old tract after a lengthy period, of up to 20 years. The principal instrument of cultivation was the wooden plow (ralo). Harvesting was done by means of an iron sickle. With time the farming culture of the ancestors of the Ukrainians grew richer through their absorption of the means of production and the agricultural knowledge of other tribes and peoples. From the Celts they borrowed the iron hoe, from the Goths they learned to build separate shelters for livestock, and from the Germanic tribes they acquired a plow fitted with metal shares. Beginning in the yth century BC, the Greek colonies played an important role in this respect: they brought to the coast of the Black Sea better implements of soil cultivation and a relatively high agricultural culture, with a two-field system, fertilization

of the soil, winter and spring crop varieties, etc. Trade developed between the Greek colonies and the Scythians; wheat, fish, hides, and furs were exported in exchange for manufactured products and woven cloth. At the end of the 3rd century Scythian wheat exports declined considerably because of competition from Egypt and the Sarmatian invasion of Scythian territory. In the 5th-6th century important changes took place in the technology of farming. Innovations and improvements in implements such as the plow were made, raising the productivity of labor and allowing for cultivation of heavier soils. The system of cultivation began to change: the two-field system began to replace the long-fallow system. All these changes in farming took place in the steppe and forest-steppe regions. In the forest belt, however, a primitive method of farming based on tree cutting and burning ('slash and burn7) survived for a long time. Brush and trees were cut down with iron axes, and the roots were pulled out and burned. The seed was scattered on the prepared soil and was then covered by means of a harrow consisting of an evergreen tree with its branches trimmed halfway. After a few years the plots of exhausted land were abandoned, and new ones were cleared. Ancient and Princely eras. Numerous archeological finds, which demonstrate quite fully the level of farming not only of Kievan Rus' but of the earlier Cherniakhiv culture, the Antes, Sclavini, etc, indicate a well-developed system of agriculture among the ancient Slavs. Under Kievan Rus' the development of farming continued, and agriculture constituted the principal foundation of the economy at the time. Most scholars studying the structure and development of agriculture (B. Grekov, V. Dovzhenok, and others) defend the view that the prevalent system of soil cultivation in Kievan Rus' and particularly in Ukrainian territories was the *short-fallow system with two-field and three-field crop rotation which developed out of the long-fallow system as a more intensive form of cultivation. The long-fallow system could not be continued in the densely populated regions of the middle Dnieper where much of the land belonged to private landholders and infractions of land boundaries were punished severely by princely law. It was still retained, however, in the northern forest-belt regions, where slash and burn was used, and in the southern steppe regions. Under the long-fallow system the fallow area of cleared land was always several times larger than the seeded area. Under the two-field system one-half of the cleared land was seeded. Under the three-field system the tract of land was divided into three parts, one of which was left unplowed (called a par); the two other parts were seeded - one with winter wheat or rye and the other with a spring crop (barley, oats, or wheat). Almost all the crops known in the agriculture of the period were grown in the Kievan state: spring and winter grains, beans, hemp, and garden produce. Iron sickles and scythes were used for harvesting. The cereals were stored in barns (humny), and hand-turned millstones were used for grinding the seed into flour. Watermills were first mentioned in historical sources of the i3th century, and it can be assumed that they were built before then. The basic implements for cultivating the land were the hooked plow (sokha) in the north, and, in the south, the wooden plow (ralo) and the metal share plow. Land was privately owned, and state law (see *Ruskaia

A G R I C U L T U R E

Pravdà) protected ownership rights. Most of the peasants (*smerds) were freemen and owned their own land and draft animals (oxen and horses). Animal husbandry was an important branch of farming. Cattle, sheep, goats, hogs, and poultry were raised. According to the calcula­ tions of some scholars (V. Dovzhenok), a single peasant family cultivated on the average about 8 desiatins of land with a yield of about 50 poods per desiatin. Beginning in the n t h century, the princely, boyar, and church estates, using much hired and some slave labor, grew rapidly in Ukraine. Continual internecine fighting among the princes and the invasions of nomadic hordes (see *Pechenegs, *Cumans) made it difficult for the central government to furnish the necessary military protection to the widely dispersed settlements of the farming popu­ lation. To get adequate protection, some peasants were forced to abandon their land and to resettle in more secure areas, frequently obtaining direct protection from a princely or large boyar manor. As a result, the free peasantry became impoverished, and some formerly inde­ pendent farmers were forced to hire themselves out as laborers on the larger estates. The question of the origin of feudal relations, or more precisely of economic feudal­ ism, is connected with this process. After the demise of the Kievan state the beginnings of feudal relations are clearly discernible in the principality of Galicia-Volhynia. The manorial system of agriculture (see *Filvarok), consisting of princely and boyar farms that combined many branches of farming and used hired and often slave labor, arose first in Western Ukraine, where more produc­ tive farming methods such as soil fertilization were in use. Lithuanian-Polish period. In the 16th century, as Western Europe's demand for grain grew, Ukraine's export of farm products, first by land through Lviv and then, beginning in the first half of the 17th century, by sea through Gdansk, increased considerably. The attachment of the peasantry to the land progressed rapidly, and corvée began to play a significant role, first in Galicia and then in the territories under Lithuania. This process of peasant exploitation was accelerated by the *voloka land reform, which was introduced in 1557 and carried out on the estates of the Lithuanian grand prince Sigismund 11 August. As the political ties between Lithuania and Poland grew closer, Polish feudal law and the traditions of the Polish heartland began to spread to all Ukrainian territories. The large landowners were interested in extending their manorial estates and expanding agricul­ tural production; hence, they gradually enserfed the peasants, violating the articles of the Ruskaia Pravda that for a long period had protected the peasantry in the Lithuanian-Ruthenian state. The three-field system continued to be the dominant form of soil cultivation and had an average return of fivefold or sixfold on planted seed for peasants with draft animals and a much higher productivity for the manorial estates. Wheat, rye, oats, and other grains as well as fruits and vegetables mostly for personal consumption were grown. The processing of agricultural raw materials, particularly *flour milling powered by water, was well developed on the manorial estates. Animal husbandry was widely practiced, particularly in the Kiev, Bratslav, and Subcarpathian regions. After the Union of *Lublin in 1569, which unified Poland and Lithuania into one state, the Polish gentry began to acquire large landed estates in Ukraine. The

27

estates of some families, such as the Zamojskis, Zolkiewskis, Koniecpolskis, Potockis, and the polonized Ostrozkys and Vyshnevetskys, encompassed dozens of towns and thousands of villages. The growth in internal trade that resulted primarily from the development of towns and the increasing demand for farm products in Western Europe and the growth of commodity-monetary relations became the direct stimuli for the formation of latifundia, on which, besides soil cultivation, cattle raising, flour milling, liquor distilling, brewing, and saltpetre-making were practiced. The gentry's desire to increase the income from their estates turned their attention to the practical aspects of farming and led to attempts at rational farming and to the publication of works on agronomy. In the second half of the 16th century the settlement of the steppe lands was begun, mostly by peasants from Volhynia, Galicia, Podilia, and the northwestern Kiev region, who wished to avoid corvée. Finding refuge in less-settled areas - in the southern Kiev region (around Cherkasy and Kaniv) and the Bratslav region - these settlers formed a free, armed people known as the *Cossacks. As well as such steppe trades (ukhody) as hunting, fishing, and beekeeping, they also practiced farming. While bringing the virgin steppes under cultiva­ tion, they defended the region from continual Tatar in­ cursions, thus providing large numbers of refugees from the economically more developed parts of Ukraine with the opportunity to settle the new lands. The gentry and the Polish administration followed the Cossacks and refugees and settled in the steppe regions. In 1590 the Polish Sejm permitted the sparsely populated steppe territories to be distributed to the gentry. During this colonization process the magnates seized lands from the former settlers, including Cossacks, who did not have written deeds to the land, and forced the population to pay dues and to perform corvée. The more daring of the settlers escaped to the *Zaporizhia, which to a large degree was independent of the Polish administration. The land was held to be the common property of the Zaporozhian Host. Every member of the host had the right to use the land and received from his battalion a 'passport' or 'deed' to a given tract of land. On numerous farmsteads known as winter quarters (zymivnyky), Cos­ sack farmers specialized in cattle breeding and raised wheat, rye, barley, buckwheat, and vegetables. Because of the vast amount of available land, the long-fallow system and the iron plow were used. Grain was exported to various parts of Ukraine, Muscovy, and in large quantity to the Crimea. At the end of the 17th century there were about 4,000 winter quarters in the Zaporizhia region (according to V. Miakotin's and M . Slabchenko's research), and the larger of these exported about 4,000 poods of grain per year. The Cossack Hetmán state. During the CossackPolish War the socioeconomic order underwent many changes. The position of the peasantry improved as a large proportion of the gentry's, and particularly of the Polish magnates', landholdings were abolished. Mem­ bers of the gentry who recognized the hetmán's authority were allowed to retain their estates. The peasants or common people (pospolyti) could now, with certain re­ strictions, sell and purchase land (see *Common peas­ ants). Their standard of living improved considerably. According to the census books of 1666, 80-90 percent of the peasants in northern Left-Bank Ukraine owned draft

28

A G R I C U L T U R E

animals. As in earlier times the basic grain crops were winter and spring rye and wheat, spring oats, and buckwheat. The increasing demand on the home and foreign market for linen and hemp yarn caused an expansion in the area devoted to flax and hemp. Garden­ ing and orchard growing developed on peasant farms, the largest orchards being located in southern Left-Bank Ukraine and in the vicinity of Kiev. The greatest harvests were obtained in the steppe regions - 8- to 10- or even 12-fold return on planted seed - while in the forest regions the yields were 5- or 6- to 10-fold. Cattle breeding was widely practiced. Ukrainian specialists in animal husbandry often traveled to Muscovy to improve this branch of farming there. As a result of the Khmelnytsky wars, there was an enormous supply of land in Ukraine, consisting of the former Polish crown lands, as well as about 4,000 estates abandoned by the Polish gentry and Roman Catholic clergy who left Ukraine. Most of these lands were transferred to the treasury of the Zaporozhian Host, which was under the hetmán's control. Starting with Khmelnytsky, the hetmán's government granted estates from this land fund on various conditions to Cossack officers, Orthodox churches, towns, and worthy indi­ viduals. Thus, there arose two basic forms of land possession: "rank estates (rangovi maietnosti), that is, lands that were held in connection with an office, and temporary grants or perpetual grants, which amounted to private owner­ ship. At the end of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th century the estates that were not tied to an office were classified into perpetual or secure (spokiine) possession, based on the rights of ownership, and temporary posses­ sion, granted for an indefinite lease 'for the establishment of a house' or 'by favor of the host.' At the end of the 17th century the estates of officers began to expand rapidly at the cost of peasant farms and Cossack holdings. After I . *Mazepa's unsuccessful rebellion the tsarist government prohibited land grants on terms of private ownership, but this had little effect on the trend to convert rank lands into private property. According to the "General Survey of Landholdings (1729-31), in 7 of the 10 regiments 35.2 percent of the land was owned privately, 11 percent were rank lands, 17.2 percent was owned by monasteries, and 35.8 percent belonged to free Cossacks. The Russian government disposed of the confiscated estates of Hetmán Mazepa and his followers as it wished, and many Russian nobles acquired estates in the Hetmán state. Some of these were very extensive, Prince A. Menshikov's, for example. The Russian land­ owners brought their own traditions of serfdom and treated their Ukrainian peasants much more harshly than did the local masters. Ukrainian peasants were essentially freemen prior to that time. Although they were obliged to perform certain types of labor and other services for their masters on the basis of 'obedience' (poslushenstvo), they could leave their masters. As the power of the tsar's government increased at the expense of the hetmán's authority, serf-owning estates appeared and increased in Ukraine. The category of "landless peasants (pidsusidky) increased in numbers. At the same time peasants fled in ever larger numbers to Zaporizhia, Moldavia, Belorussia, and even Right-Bank Ukraine, which remained under Polish control. Gradually the peasants became bound to

the land, and the principle of free movement fell into disuse. After the abolition of the Hetmán state "serfdom was introduced. In May 1782, by manifesto of Catherine 11, all the common peasants (pospolyti) were bound to the land, and on 12 December 1795, by Paul I ' S ukase, serfdom was extended to southern Ukraine. In 1782 the Cossack starshyna were legally given Russian noble status, while the ordinary Cossacks were demoted to a taxable estate, close in its juridical status to that of the "state peasants; thus they were required to pay taxes and to perform certain agricultural services. Ukraine and its agriculture were subordinated to the interests of the Russian Empire. Slobidska Ukraine did not belong to the Hetmán state. Settlement began there in the 16th century, but coloniza­ tion did not reach mass proportions until after Khmelny­ tsky's reign. The settlers made their livelihood principally by farming and cattle breeding. The peasants were free. Large tracts of virgin land were available in Slobidska Ukraine, and the soil was very fertile. Large, heavy plows drawn by four and even eight oxen were used to break the soil. Because so much land was available, much of it was left idle, while some of it was seeded to grain and industrial crops as in other parts of Ukraine. Among the Cossacks of Slobidska Ukraine a stratum of wealthy officers with large landed estates soon arose. In the 18th century newcomers of the Russian nobility began to introduce corvée, and by the end of the century the peasants had to perform one to two days of corvée per week. In 1765 Catherine 11 abolished the Cossack social order and the Slobidska Ukrainian regiments and intro­ duced Russian institutions. From the end of the 18th century to 1917 Central and eastern Ukraine. At the beginning of the 19th century the Ukrainian territory that belonged to the Russian Empire was divided into the following regions: Left-Bank Ukraine (Chernihiv and Poltava gubernias), Right-Bank Ukraine (Kiev, Podilia, and Volhynia guber­ nias), southern or steppe Ukraine (Katerynoslav, Kher­ son, and Tavriia gubernias), and "Slobidska Ukraine (Kharkiv gubernia). Because of historical circumstances each of these regions differed somewhat from the others in its socioeconomic structure. In Left-Bank Ukraine most of the land (about 70 percent) was held by middle and small landowners. Slobidska Ukraine, whose economic life in many respects was reminiscent of the earlier Hetmán state, was in a very similar situation. In RightBank Ukraine, which had been incorporated into the Russian Empire in 1793, most of the land (about 75 percent) belonged to the large estates of the nobles. Steppe Ukraine, which was undergoing vigorous colon­ ization and had a lower population density than the other regions, had the lowest percentage of serfs: before the reforms of 1861 serfs accounted for 31.5 percent of the population of Katerynoslav gubernia, 31.3 percent of Kherson gubernia, and 6 percent of Tavriia gubernia. In contrast, the figures for Right-Bank Ukraine were: 59.5 percent of Podilia gubernia, 57.8 percent of Kiev guber­ nia, and 56.6 percent of Volhynia gubernia. Commercial grain growing developed more rapidly in the south, and hired labor was used. At the beginning of the 19th century there were 5.4 million peasant-serfs (almost 40 percent of the popula­ tion) and 4 million state peasants in the nine Ukrainian

A G R I C U L T U R E

gubernias. The largest number of state peasants was found in Left-Bank Ukraine. Towards the end of the 18th century corvée had reached intolerable proportions often four to five and sometimes even six days a week provoking riots among the peasants and hindering any rise in agricultural productivity. Various manifestos, such as Paul I ' S manifesto of 5 April 1797 limiting corvée to three days, had no practical effect. The three-field system remained the basic form of soil cultivation. Its productivity of four- to five-fold return on planted seed on the average was low in comparison to the productivity of the crop-rotation system used in the countries of Western Europe. The low level of farm productivity was connected with the government's agrar­ ian policy, which favored serfdom and encouraged the growth of the so-called land communities (zemelni hromady), modeled on the Russian *obshchina. Because of its backwardness only a small proportion (about 10 percent) of agricultural activity was commercialized by the mid19th century. With the growth of cities and industry commercial farming began to expand slowly in the second half of the 19th century. Market gardening began to develop more or less successfully in the vicinity of large cities and even acquired a degree of specialization. The peasants grew cabbage in the Kiev region, melons in the Chyhyryn region, and garlic and onions in the Myrhorod region. Commercial melon growing developed in Kharkiv gubernia, and sunflower crops increased noticeably in Tavriia and the Myrhorod region. In the Poltava and Chernihiv regions whole districts raised tobacco, while in the northern part of the Chernihiv region, which had long been famous for its hemp, 5 percent of the cultivated land was devoted to hemp in the mid-i9th century. With the development of the *sugar industry some peasants, particularly in Chernihiv, Poltava, Kharkiv, and Podilia gubernias, began to raise sugar beets for sale. Peasant ^orcharding and fruit growing became quite important commercially: fresh and dried fruit was exported from the Chernihiv, Kharkiv, and Poltava regions to the central provinces of Russia, the Don and Volga regions, and elsewhere. Peasant animal husbandry, particularly sheep raising, began to develop commercial ties. The "cot­ tage industry developed concurrently, particularly those branches that had been important in earlier times tanning, fur dressing, and pottery. The chumak (wagon­ er's) trade prospered, and many impoverished peasants tried to earn a livelihood in this way. The expansion of the internal market (see ""Fairs), the growth of industry and cities, and the increase in foreign trade encouraged the landowners and nobility not only to enlarge their farms at the expense of the peasant lands but also to introduce some agricultural rationalization. A number of prominent civic leaders in Ukraine, such as V. *Karazyn, kept abreast of the latest developments in the agricultural sciences, agronomy, and agricultural tech­ nology. On some estates the antiquated three-field sys­ tem was replaced by the five-field, six-field, or even eight-field system, combined with hired labor and farm machinery. In the mid-i9th century almost 90 percent of the commercial grain, most of which was sold on the foreign market, was produced by the landowners. To increase profits, the landowners increased the land area devoted to industrial crops: more land was assigned to tobacco and hemp in Poltava and Chernihiv gubernias, to

29

flax in Katerynoslav and Kherson gubernias, and, begin­ ning in the 1820s, to sugar beets in Right-Bank, LeftBank, and Slobidska Ukraine. The rising demand on the internal and foreign markets for horses, cattle, and the products of cattle farming stimulated the development of animal husbandry, including *horse breeding - mainly in steppe Ukraine and partly in Left-Bank and Right-Bank Ukraine - and *sheep farming, which developed most successfully in steppe Ukraine. Nevertheless, Ukraine's agriculture remained back­ ward in comparison to that of Western Europe. It was based on serf labor and had a low productivity. Many landowners could not afford to develop their large farms with the help of modern technology and at the same time meet their tax obligations. Tax arrears amounted to a huge sum - 5 million rubles by 1856. Of the 22,700 estates in Ukraine in 1856, 6,600 (29 percent) were mortgaged for a sum of 77 million rubles. Lands of defaulting landowners were sold by public auction. Serfs too were offered as security on loans (1.3 million or 53 percent of the serfs [revizki dushi] by 1856). The contrived preservation of the obsolete system of farming based on serf labor and payment in kind (essentially a barter system) slowed down the development of modern industry and capitalist monetary relations. The unsuccessful ""Crimean War was a dramatic consequence of this state of crisis and served as an immediate incentive to the agrarian reform of 1861 and the abolition of serfdom. As a result of the land reform, of the 48.1 million ha of land in the nine Ukrainian guber­ nias, 21.9 million ha (45.5 percent) were allotted to peasants with suitable compensation, 22.5 million ha (46.8 percent) remained in the possession of landowners, and 3.7 million ha (7.7 percent) belonged to the state or the church. In the Ukrainian gubernias outside of RightBank and Left-Bank Ukraine the land was transferred to 'land communities,' not to individual peasants; the com­ munities then distributed it among the households for their use. The abolition of serfdom was followed by a modifica­ tion of laws governing state peasants on 12 November 1866. In most cases the state peasants received larger shares of land at lower rates than did the serfs. Many peasants who had been employed by landowners as cottage workers or domestic help did not get any land allotments. This circumstance, along with other factors, led to a rising demand for land and a sharp rise in land prices: from 1861 to 1917 they increased fourteen-fold. In 1877 each peasant household had on the average 9.7 des (desiatins, 1 des = 1.09 ha) of allotted land and 0.6 des of purchased land. In 1905 the respective figures were 9.6 and 1.9. Prices and land sales increased after the found­ ing of the ""Peasant Land Bank (1882), which provided loans to the peasants. As a result of the bank's activity the amount of land held by landowners was significantly reduced (by 32.5 percent between 1877 and 1905), par­ ticularly in steppe Ukraine (by 49 percent) and LeftBank Ukraine (by 35 percent). In Right-Bank Ukraine the amount of land possessed by landowners diminished at a much slower rate and by 1905 accounted for 75 per­ cent of all privately owned land. These changes in land ownership did not lead to a significant increase in agricultural productivity and in some cases had a detrimental effect, particularly on animal husbandry. An increase in the seeded area brought about

30

A G R I C U L T U R E

a reduction in the area devoted to animal feed: between i860 and 1887 the hayfield area diminished by a factor of 5 and in the south by a factor of over 11. The increase in the head of cattle fell behind the increase in cropland, and this had a negative effect on soil fertilization. Sheep raising is an apt illustration of the conditions existing at the time: until the 1880s this was one of the most highly developed branches of animal husbandry, particularly in the south, but the appearance on the market of cheap Australian wool and a reduction in the demand for wool on the home market because of frequent economic crises almost wiped out this branch. Between 1866 and 1908 the number of fine-fleeced sheep decreased by 90 percent, and in Kharkiv gubernia they almost completely disap­ peared. The land shortage and the growth in the farm population (86 percent population growth compared to a 41 percent increase in farmland in 1860-1900) led to agrarian overpopulation and mass migrations. At the end of the 19th century the surplus of labor in the villages of Right-Bank and Left-Bank Ukraine rose to almost 2.2 million people. Most of the landowners were in debt and lacked the capital to buy the necessary farm equipment and to hire farm labor (ie, to set up farming on sound business principles). For these reasons the 1905 revolu­ tion assumed a definite agrarian character in Ukraine. The *Stolypin agrarian reform of 1906, which aimed at redistributing peasant lands and raising agricultural productivity, was a partial attempt to overcome this crisis. The reform abolished the compulsory form of the land commune and granted every peasant the right to leave the commune and to make his land into a fully private property. In Ukraine, where the commune was not very popular to begin with, 25 percent of the households that had belonged to farming communities seceded from them (42 percent in southern Ukraine, 16.5 percent in LeftBank Ukraine, and 48 percent in Right-Bank Ukraine), and in 1906-17 peasants purchased, mostly from land­ owners, 7.2 million des of land. As a result of the co-oper­ ative movement, zemstvo agronomy, and greater interest in agricultural technology, farm productivity rose some­ what (20 percent in 1904-12). Although 65 percent of farmland was owned by peasants, the countryside con­ tinued to be overpopulated, and 32 percent of the peasants owned either no land or not more than 1 des of land. Because of the subdividing peasant farms became too small to support their owners and were sold to the rich peasants. Thus, the rural proleteriat increased rapidly. Before the First World War Ukraine had an exception­ ally large area of land under cultivation. The quantity of arable land increased by 60 percent between i860 and 1917 (by 119 percent in the steppe region). Two-thirds of Ukraine's land area was suitable for cultivation. The cultivated land was used in an inefficient manner: most of it (88 percent) was planted in grain crops, 3 percent in industrial crops, 5 percent in vegetable and melon crops, and potatoes, 3 percent in forage crops, and 0.7 percent in other crops (1913 figures). Given the backward state of technology, this concentration on grain crops led to soil exhaustion and a declining productivity. Furthermore, the preference for spring cultures, which occupied 71.0 percent of the grain area, often led to weed infestation and crop failure. Of the land devoted to grains, 23.4 percent was planted in spring wheat, 23.6 percent in barley, 18.3 percent in rye, 12.5 percent in winter wheat, and 11.8 percent in oats. In 1917, 45.5 percent of the

TABLE 1 Distribution of farmland in 1917 (as a percentage of rural population)

Landless Under 1 des 1-2 des 2-3 des 3-4 des 4-6 des 6-9 des 9-15 des 15 des and over

Polisia

Right Bank

Left Bank

Steppe

Ukraine as a whole

9.7 17.7 17.1 14.2 11.3 14.8 9.6 4.6 1.0

13.5 24.8 27.2 15.1 8.3 6.8 2.7 0.9 0.2

18.6 13.6 13.2 11.9 9.8 13.4 10.0 6.5 3.0

19.1 7.1 7.8 7.7 6.8 11.6 12.4 13.6 13.9

16.0 16.2 17.1 12.2 8.5 10.5 8.0 6.4 5.1

peasant farms had no draft animals, and 35.7 percent had no cows. The average peasant farm had 1.6 horses and 0.4 oxen. Only landowners and the richer peasants could afford improved farm implements and machinery; the poorer peasants continued to use primitive implements. In 1910 there were 224,900 hooked plows (sokhy and kosuli), 306,600 wooden plows, and 3,415,200 wooden harrows in Ukraine. An indication of the backward state of agriculture was the low harvests, which, however, were higher in the Ukrainian provinces than in the other regions of the Russian Empire. The average yield of grains (in centners per hectare) was 9.4 in Ukraine (6.9 in the Russian Empire) in 1909-13, and, more precisely, 10.4 for winter wheat, 9.8 for winter rye, 7.0 for spring wheat, 9.3 for spring barley, 10.7 for oats, 9.9 for millet, and 11.2 for corn. In 1913 the total grain harvest was 18.3 million t or 27 percent of the grain harvest of the Russian Empire, in­ cluding 3.6 million t of winter wheat and 400,000 t of legumes. In that year 8.5 million t of sugar beets (75.2 percent of the harvest of the whole empire), 71,000 t of sunflowers, 8.5 million t of potatoes, 577,000 t of fruits and berries, and 79,000 t of grapes were harvested. In general, agriculture was commercialized only to a small extent: the total agricultural output for 1909-13 is esti­ mated at 2 billion rubles, including 833.7 million rubles in grains, 134.6 million rubles in industrial crops, 270.9 million rubles in other crops, and 406.3 million rubles in animal products. Commercial production in this period, on the other hand, amounted to only 694.3 million rubles, including 486.6 million rubles in plant products and 187.4 million rubles in animal products. Thus, almost twothirds of the agricultural output was consumed by the peasants themselves. The landowners and richer peasants were the main exporters of farm products. According to H . Kryvchenko's estimates in 1909-11, the nine Ukrainian gubernias exported annually on the average 257 million rubles' worth of grain (32.5 percent of the total export) and 110.7 million rubles' worth of flour (11 percent), mostly to Western Europe and Russia (about 20 percent). Ukrai­ nian territories held a very important place in the Russian Empire's grain export, particularly in the export of wheat (43 million centners or 98 percent of the empire's export and 20 percent of the world export), rye (6 million centners or 75 percent and 21 percent respectively), barley (27 million centners or 73 percent and 43 percent respectively), oats (7 million centners or 84 percent and 10

A G R I C U L T U R E

percent respectively), and corn (7 million centners or 84 percent and 10 percent respectively). Western Ukrainian territories. In eastern Galicia under Austria 72 percent of the population consisted of serfs. During the first half of the 19th century corvée was increased considerably, and by 1845 it constituted about 83 percent of a serf's obligations. In regions of developed grain farming, particularly in Podilia, corvée amounted to 156 days per year per lan (16.8 or 25 ha, depending on quality), and in regions of developed animal husbandry and forest industries it amounted to 12 days. Besides corvée there were dues in kind, amounting to about 10 percent, and monetary dues for meadows and cattle, amounting to 6 percent of a serfs obligations. The landowners' right of *propination, as it was known, placed a great burden on the peasants and hindered the growth of agricultural productivity. It was not until 1848 that the compulsory purchase of whiskey by the peasants was abolished. The reforms of Maria Theresa and Joseph 11 brought about some improvements in the position of the peasan­ try. The first reform, known as the Urbarial regulation, was put into effect in Transcarpathia in 1766. Its purpose was to provide the peasants with a cottage and an allotment of land 18 to 30 golds (1 gold = 0.57 ha) in area, depending on the quality of soil. In Galicia serfdom was abolished in 1783, and a law passed in 1786 limited corvée to three days per week. Pursuant to the decree of 2 April 1787, land ownership was divided into two categories: domanial (estate owners) and rustic (peasant owners). This law provided that all lands held by the peasants on 1 October 1786 remain in their hands for perpetual use, a provision that was also extended to Bukovyna. The first official cadastre, introduced in 1819, showed that 19.5 percent of all peasant farms possessed less than 2 morgs (1 morg = 0.7 ha) of land and were thus economi­ cally non-viable. The subdividing of peasants farms continued, so that in the cadastre of 1847-59 the number of non-viable farms reached 27.3 percent. In 1844 doma­ nial lands constituted 47.1 percent of the land fund in Galicia; rustic lands constituted 48.9 percent; and free lands belonging to urban communities, churches, etc, 4 percent. The peasants had at their disposal most of the plowed fields (70 percent) and meadows and pastures (66 percent) but only 0.7 percent of the forests. The land­ owners owned almost all the forests (98 percent), 33 percent of the meadows and pastures, and only 25 percent of the cultivated land. Most of the landowners' estates were large: in 1847-59 the average estate con­ sisted of 755 morgs, while the average peasant farm consisted of 8.9 morgs. Three stages may be distinguished in the development of Western Ukrainian agriculture: until 1815, from 1815 to the abolition of corvée, and from 1848 to the outbreak of the First World War. In the first period, during the Napoleonic Wars, the high demand for farm products encouraged attempts to rationalize production on the larger estates. New cultures - potatoes and clover - were adopted, the latter of which was used not only as animal feed but also to improve the soil. The role of hired labor in farming increased, particularly on the large estates. The estates of many absentee landlords were managed by lessees or stewards who sought to increase their profits by intensified peasant exploitation rather than agrotech-

31

nological advancement. Because of the worsening land shortage farm labor became very cheap. Peasants were paid at a scale of about 40 kreutzers a day during harvest and 20 kreutzers in winter, scarcely enough to support one adult. In the second period the large estates found it difficult to sell their grain because of the competition from American and eastern Ukrainian grain on the interna­ tional market. The situation improved only when the demand for meat began to rise as a result of the growth of industry in the western provinces of Austria and particu­ larly in Bohemia. Fodder and industrial crops gradually became the main sectors of farming. In the mid-i9th century Galicia supplied 13 percent of the grain, 23 percent of the flax fiber, 25 percent of the hemp, and 16 percent of the tobacco produced by the Austrian Empire. Potatoes, as the peasants' main staple, became a major crop, covering 13 percent of the cultivated land; Galicia's output accounted for 38 percent of the total output of Austria. Among the grains rye was most important, followed by barley and oats, with wheat only in fourth place. With the abolition of corvée in Western Ukraine in 1848, the large landowners retained 2.4 million ha (44.4 percent), and the peasants received 3.1 million ha (55.6 percent) of the land, for which landowners were compen­ sated from public funds. Forests and hayfields, however, still remained in the hands of the landowners, who no longer recognized the peasants' traditional right of usage (see ^Servitudes). The imperial patent of 5 July 1853 was introduced to regulate the use of forests and pastures. The loss of servitudes was compensated partly with money (1.2 million florins) and partly with the so-called equivalents, by which peasant communities were granted 94,100 ha of forest and 67,000 ha of cultivated land and pastures. In regulating the servitudes, the servitude com­ missions usually shortchanged the peasants. The growth of usury was a severe problem that plagued agriculture. Usurers, who were often local Jews, lent money at very high interest rates an seized lands and cottages from defaulting borrowers. By the beginning of the 1890s usurers had acquired 25 percent of the peasant lands in eastern Galicia and over 50 percent in some regions of Transcarpathia. The taxes on peasant farms rose steeply: by 770 percent in Galicia between 1862 and 1905 and by 470 percent in Bukovyna. Auction sales of peasant properties to recover unpaid taxes became com­ mon: between 1901 and 1910 about 18,000 peasant farms were auctioned off annually. As a result of these proces­ ses agrarian overpopulation and the subdividing of peasant farms increased. Peasant farms with up to 2 ha of land accounted for 42.7 percent of the total land area in Galicia, 56 percent in Bukovyna, and 51 percent in Transcarpathia. Difficult economic conditions sparked a massive ^emigration movement at the beginning of the 1890s to countries overseas and migration to Western Europe for seasonal work (see ^Migrant workers). In these circumstances the level of agricultural produc­ tion was very low, in spite of the fact that the three-field system had been replaced by the crop-rotation system in the mid-i9th century. Using mostly homemade imple­ ments, the peasant farmers produced usually just enough to meet their own needs, and only a few richer individuals sold their small surplus, which was primarily animal products such as eggs, milk, poultry, and meat, in the

32

A G R I C U L T U R E

A G R I C U L T U R E I

Area of dairy and beef cattle, hog, and flax-hemp farming with grain, potatoes, and hops production

IV

1. Dairy and beef cattle, hog, and flax farming with grain, potatoes, and hops production 2. Sugar beet and grain farming with hemp, dairy and beef cattle, and hog raising 3. Flax, sugar beet, and grain farming with dairy and beef cattle and hog raising II

Area of sugar beet-grain farming and hog raising 1. Dairy and beef cattle farming with hog, flax, sugar beet, and grain production 2. Sugar beet and grain farming with dairy and beef cattle and hog raising 3. Sugar beet and grain farming with tobacco growing and dairy and beef cattle and hog raising 4. Sugar beet and grain farming with fruit growing and dairy and beef cattle and hog raising 5. Grain farming with sugar beet and flax, vegetables, dairy and beef cattle, and hog production 6. Grain farming with hemp and vegetables, cattle, and hog production 7. Grain farming with sugar beet, sunflower, and hemp growing 8. Sugar beet and grain farming with sunflower, cattle, and hog production

III

Area of grain farming with sunflower production and districts with sugar beet growing, viticulture, and cattle, hog, sheep, and poultry breeding 1. Grain farming with sunflower growing and cattle, hog, and poultry breeding 2. Grain farming with sunflower and hemp growing and with districts of sugar beet growing and cattle and hog raising 3. Grain farming with sunflower growing, horticulture and viticulture, and cattle, hog, and sheep breeding 4. Grain farming with viticulture and cattle and sheep breeding 5. Grain farming with sunflower production and cattle and hog breeding 6. Grain farming with cattle and hog raising 7. Viticulture, horticulture, grain growing, and cattle, sheep, and poultry raising 8. Viticulture, orcharding, tobacco growing, and cattle, sheep, and poultry breeding 9. Viticulture, tobacco growing, and horticulture

Area of cattle and sheep breeding, viticulture, horticulture, and tobacco and flax growing 1. Cattle and sheep breeding and flax growing 2. Cattle and sheep breeding and potato growing 3. Viticulture, tobacco growing, horticulture, and cattle and sheep raising 4. Horticulture and cattle and sheep breeding

V

Suburban dairy and fruit farming with grain and industrial cultures 1. Suburban cattle breeding and horticulture with grain and industrial-plant growing

LEGEND

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Borders of the Soviet republics and satellite countries Oblast boundaries Natural zones/mountain forests Agricultural areas Irrigation canals (active and under construction)

A B C D E F

Polissia Forest-Steppe Northern and central Steppe Southern Steppe Crimean Mountains and foothills Carpathian Mountains and foothills

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A G R I C U L T U R E

nearest towns. The large farms of the landowners were in difficulties too. They could not adapt to the new market conditions and in most cases were poorly managed and insufficiently mechanized (at the beginning of the 20th century there were only 217,000 farm machines in Galicia, most of them threshing machines). Large landowners carried excessive debts and sometimes tried to save themselves from bankruptcy by selling land to the peas­ ants. Because of the division of the land into lots the proportion of large estates declined from 44.2 percent in the 1850s to 37.8 percent in 1912. The national factor was significant here: from 1857 to 1912 Ukrainian peasants acquired only 38,000 ha, while the bulk of the subdivided estates (237,000 ha) were bought mostly by Polish colo­ nists from western Galicia. For the large landowners the main sources of income were liquor distilleries and feed barns for beef cattle, which supplied central Austria with meat. Trosvita societies, co-operatives, and particularly the *Silskyi Hospodar association contributed to the improvement of the peasant's standard of living through educational work. But in spite of these efforts the level of agriculture in Western Ukraine was the lowest in Austria, and its degree of commercialization was one of the lowest in Europe. Western Ukrainian territories, 1918-39. During the First World War and the war for Ukraine's independence agriculture suffered a significant setback, particularly in Galicia, where in a period of six years about 20 percent of the farm houses and buildings, 38 percent of the work­ horses, 36 percent of the cattle, and 33 percent of the hogs were destroyed. On 14 April 1919 a land reform law was adopted in Stanyslaviv for the Western Ukrainian Na­ tional Republic, but the reforms were not implemented. The Polish occupation of Galicia did not improve the state of agriculture; on the contrary, Polish economic policy noticeably aggravated national and social conflicts and hindered the development of farming. A number of laws regulating the purchase and sale of land that were passed by the Polish legislature promoted Polish agricultural colonization in Western Ukraine. The law of 15 July 1920, for example, encouraged the military colonization of Vol­ hynia and Polisia, and the law of 28 December 1925 restricted the right of Ukrainian peasants to acquire land. In 1919-38 the government redistributed about 800,000 ha belonging to large estates. Most of this land was transferred to Polish colonists, who often resold it to Ukrainian peasants to discharge their debts. In the mid-i930s the peasants owned about 50 percent of the land (84 percent of the arable land); the land­ owners, 23 percent; and the state and church, 18 percent. In Galicia and Volhynia 42 percent of the land was tied up in tiny farms (up to 2 ha); 39 percent in small farms (2-5 ha), 14 percent in middle-sized farms (5-10 ha), and only 5 percent in farms over 10 ha. Similar conditions prevailed in Bukovyna and Transcarpathia, where peasants owned only 36 percent of the land and tiny farms accounted for 45 percent of the land. In spite of the land shortage and their low standard of living the Ukrainian peasants made significant progress in farming as a result of the growth of the co-operative movement (about 3,500 co-operatives, of which 2,000 handled agricultural products), the expansion of agri­ cultural education (organized by the educational society Silskyi Hospodar), and improvements in agrotechnology. Despite the agricultural crisis in the 1930s farmers in­

33

creasingly changed over to industrial and feed crops and adopted more rational methods of cattle raising. The dairy co-operative known as *Maslosoiuz captured the domestic and to some extent the foreign markets. The co-operative network of the *Tsentrosoiuz, which sup­ plied the market with meat and legumes, etc, was also very successful (see "Co-operative movement). As a result of such efforts agricultural productivity rose somewhat in the 1930s. The average yield of wheat per hectare was 9.8 centners (9.8 in 1909-13), of rye 10.3 (7.8), of barley 10.8 (8.0), of oats 8.9 (8.0), and of potatoes 68.5 (67.4). This low productivity (on the average one-third of that in Western Europe) accounts for the inadequate diet of the peasant population and the dearth of surpluses for export. The grain surpluses in 1928-9 amounted to only 450,000 t or 14 percent of the gross farm production (excluding potatoes) and consisted mostly of wheat produced by the large estates. The average annual grain harvest in Western Ukraine in the period 1936-8 was as follows (in millions of tonnes): wheat 1.0, rye 1.5, barley 0.7, oats 0.9, and corn 0.5. Potatoes had the highest production per capita (526 kg) and were the main staple of the peasant diet; 226 kg of wheat and rye were produced per capita, and 198 kg of other grains. In comparison to the per capita production in central and eastern Ukraine, Western Ukraine produced only 54.7 percent of the rye and wheat but 289 percent of the potatoes and 68.7 percent of other kinds of grain. Central and eastern territories, 1918-40. During the period of the U N R the Central Rada passed the land law of 18 January 1918, which emphasized the importance of peasant farms. Because of the war, however, this law was never put into effect. A similar fate befell the land reform projects of the Hetmán government (return to private ownership and the preservation of large estates) and the 8 January 1919 land law of the Directory of the U N R . The Peace Treaty of "Brest-Litovsk bound Ukraine to provide Germany and her allies with agricultural products and had an important influence on the agricultural policy of the period. When Soviet troops occupied Ukraine and the Ukrai­ nian S S R was formed, agricultural policy in Ukraine became completely controlled by Moscow. During the period of "War Communism agricultural production de­ clined by more than 50 percent, and grain was requisi­ tioned with the assistance of the army in order to feed the population of Russia. Under the "surplus appropriation system (prodrozkladka) the Ukrainian peasants were to retain sowing seed and 14.5 poods of grain per capita per year. But the Soviet authorities did not respect this provision and in fact robbed the peasants of all dis­ covered grain. Hence, when a drought hit Ukraine in 1921, the peasants were faced with "famine. During the period of the "New Economic Policy the surplus appropriation system was replaced by the "tax in kind (prodpodatok), and the compulsory grain deliveries constituted only a part of the agricultural production. On 29 November 1922 the Land Code of the Ukrainian S S R was ratified. It granted the peasantry the right to use the land in perpetuity in parcels of 15-45 ha and abolished large landed estates. About 5-6 percent of all the land (1.4 million ha) belonged to the state. Collective farms in the form of "artels, "communes, and "associations for the joint cultivation of land ( T S O Z ) (see "Collectivization) began to be organized.

34

A G R I C U L T U R E

The agricultural policy at the time emphasized the middle-sized farmer (seredniak) as the most productive unit and restored, within certain limits, market relations. The peasants were able to sell a part of their production. During this period the prewar level of agricultural pro­ duction was almost attained. The area under cultivation expanded from 22.8 million ha in 1913 to 24.6 in 1928, with the area devoted to industrial crops, sugar beets, corn, and sunflowers increasing particularly rapidly: from 4 percent in 1913 to 9 percent in 1928. The main system of cultivation was four- and five-field rotation. As a result of the work of research stations the level of agricultural technology improved. Agricultural education on the secondary and higher level expanded rapidly. The land fund of the peasantry increased to 23.5 million ha (15.7 in 1913) and encompassed 5.2 million individual peasant farms (3.5 in 1913). Machine building was not well developed in the N E P period, but the availability of farm implements slowly improved. In this respect co­ operatives played an important role in Ukraine by orga­ nizing collective ways to use modern farm machinery (8,000 tractors in 1928). They also promoted the develop­ ment of animal husbandry: in 1928 there were 5,607,500 horses, 7,611,000 head of cattle, 4,161,200 hogs, and 7,030,800 sheep and goats. In spite of these efforts the commercial production in 1925-8 amounted to only about 21-25 percent of the total output (33.7 percent in 1913), nor was the former level of export to foreign markets resumed. Before the war 80 percent of Ukraine's agricul­ tural exports went abroad; now over half was shipped to other parts of the Soviet Union. A basic change in the structure and development of agriculture was brought about by forced Collectiviza­ tion, which was approved by the Plenum of the Central Committee of the Ail-Union Communist Party (Bolshevik) on 17 November 1929 and by the agencies of the Ukrai­ nian S S R on 25 December 1929. The ruthless measures used by the authorities in carrying out collectivization provoked stubborn resistance from the Ukrainian peas­ antry and even some opposition from the government of Ukraine. The campaign caused a major decline in agricul­ ture and finally a famine of mass proportions in the spring of 1933. By means of the collectivization the Soviet authorities intended not only to destroy the economic independence of the peasantry but also to consolidate the government's power in the countryside, previously con­ fined to cities, and to channel the income earned in agriculture into industrialization. To accelerate the collec­ tivization process and to break the resistance of the peasantry, the Soviet government issued a series of laws such as the law 'On the Protection of Socialist Property' (17 August 1932), which permitted capital punishment for pilfering collective-farm property or grain, and the law 'On Strengthening the Collective Farms' (30 January 1933), which allowed the authorities to confiscate the property of peasants who refused to join collective farms and to exile them to Siberia. At the same time political departments were set up at ^machine-tractor stations and were given full administrative and political control over the countryside. As a result of these measures, by 1 June 1934,78 percent of all peasant farms and 90.6 percent of the land was collectivized. The collectivization drive actually ended in 1937 with 96.1 percent of the peasant farms and 99.7 percent of the land having been collectivized. In 1940 the

average collective farm in Ukraine had 141 peasant households (81 for the U S S R ) , 768 ha of arable land (500 for the U S S R ) , and 122 head of cattle (107 for the U S S R ) . In spite of the larger dimensions of the collective farms in Ukraine in comparison to those in the U S S R as a whole, Ukrainian agriculture suffered much greater losses from collectiviza­ tion. In Ukraine the compulsory deliveries of farm prod­ ucts to the state were 50 percent higher than in other parts of the U S S R , and the Ukrainian peasantry suffered proportionally greater losses because of its resistance. One of the more dramatic forms of resistance consisted of the mass slaughter of privately owned cattle to avoid its transference to the collective farms. As a result, the number of head of cattle in Ukraine declined between 1928 and 1932 from 8.6 million to 4.8 million, ie, by 44.2 percent. In 1933-40 agricultural land increased by 1,201,000 ha while the area devoted to grain crops decreased by 3,232,000 ha. In 1928,19.4 million ha or 78.9 percent of the sown land was devoted to grain, while in 1940 only 16.8 million ha or 66.4 percent of the sown land was devoted to grain crops. The area seeded to winter wheat, corn, and buckwheat was sharply reduced. Between 1928 and 1940, 1,117,000 fewer hectares were seeded with grist crops (millet and buckwheat), while the area devoted to indus­ trial crops, vegetables and melons, and potatoes remained unchanged (17.3 percent in 1928 and 17.8 percent in 1940). Much more of the arable land, however, was assigned to feed crops - 2.7 percent in 1928 and 15.6 percent in 1940 - in order to expand animal husbandry that had been undermined by collectivization. Because of peasant apathy and the reduction in grain production, these efforts did not bring the desired results. In 1928 there were 8.6 million head of cattle, while in 1940 there were 7.7 million. The number of sheep and goats fell from 8.1 million in 1928 to 4.7 million in 1940. The collective farms owned only 31.2 percent of the cattle, 31.4 percent of the hogs, and 50 percent of the sheep and goats. The rest of the livestock was raised by peasants on their small ^private plots, which constituted only 0.5 percent of the land belonging to collective farms. The *state farms, which arose in the first years of the Soviet regime, mostly on the former estates of land­ owners, also played a role in agriculture. At the begin­ ning of the First Five-Year Plan the state farms controlled 687,000 ha of arable land (2.8 percent), and by 1938 they possessed 4.3 million ha (9.7 percent), the average farm owning 5,500 ha. In spite of large capital investments the profitability of the state farms not only failed to grow but constantly declined. The great progress in the mechanization of farming that was made possible by the collectivization and the five-year plans (88,500 tractors, 31,000 combines, and 50,000 trucks in Ukraine on the eve of the Second World War) was not matched by agricultural productivity and gross harvests, which increased only slightly or even declined in some cases, as in the case of the sugar beet. These low harvests were due not only to the excessive bureaucratization of agricultural management, which undermined any private initiative, but also to the im­ proper implementation of agrotechnical measures, such as the use of poor-quality seed, shallow tilling, inefficient crop rotation (in 1940 one-fifth of the arable land was left fallow), and insufficient application of mineral fertilizer (300,000 t in 1934 and 760,000 t in 1938). In 1938-40 the

A G R I C U L T U R E

TABLE 2 Agricultural productivity and gross harvests, 1913 and 1940 Yield, centners/ha 1913 Grain crops Winter wheat Spring wheat Wheat harvest Sugar beets

9.4 11.8 7.5 167

1940 12.4 12.1 8.4 159

Harvest, 1,000 t 1913

1940

23,157

26,420

7,970 9,337

8,407 13,052

Ukrainian S S R produced 25 percent of the U S S R ' s total grain harvest (21 percent of the wheat and 50 percent of the barley) and had an average productivity 3.7 centners/ ha above that of the U S S R . The proportion of commodity production to the total output in agriculture also declined significantly, from 21-25 percent in 1925-8 to 18-20 percent in 1938-40. Farm goods were exported from Ukraine to urban centers in Russia and other republics, while exports to foreign markets stopped almost com­ pletely. The total agricultural output of the Ukrainian S S R (at 1926-7 prices) amounted in 1917 to 12.6 billion rubles; in 1937 to 20.1 billion rubles, and in 1940 to 23.2 billion rubles, ie, about 20-22 percent of the U S S R production. 1941-80. With the occupation of Galicia and Volhynia by the Soviet army in September 1939, and of northern Bukovyna in June 1940, the large landed estates in these territories were confiscated, and collectivization was be­ gun. This process was arrested by the military develop­ ments in 1941, which brought all Ukrainian territories under German control. In 1941-4 agriculture in Ukraine suffered a severe setback owing to Soviet evacuation measures and to the German occupation. Fifteen and a half million centners of grain (mostly from Left-Bank Ukraine), about 59 percent of the cattle, 82 percent of the sheep, 28 percent of the hogs, and 14 percent of the horses were shipped to the east from Ukraine. A large proportion of farm equipment was destroyed, and much of it (about 30 percent of the tractors and 15 percent of the combines according to Soviet statistics) was shipped out. German efforts to restore farm production were not very successful: in 1943, for example, grain production amounted to only 36 percent of prewar production. Preserving the collectivefarm and state-farm system (renamed community farms and state estates) did not give the expected results, because the Ukrainian peasants wanted the reinstate­ ment of private ownership. Using force, the German authorities exploited the farming population mercilessly. They imposed high delivery quotas (known as kontingent) for farm products in spite of the food shortages that were afflicting the local population. In 1941-3 about 12 million t of grain and other farm products, 7.8 million head of cattle, 7.3 million sheep, etc were shipped to Germany. Over a million farm workers were taken to Germany to do forced labor. After the restoration of Soviet control in Ukraine in 1944 most branches of agriculture, and particularly grain growing, returned to their prewar level of production only at the beginning of the 1960s. Because of the chronic shortage of farm equipment and low work productivity, a policy of collective-farm consolidation was introduced in 1950-5. The number of collective farms decreased from

35

19,295 in 1951 to 13,395 *958, while the average allotment of land per collective farm increased from 2,644 ha to 3,272 ha. In order to prevent soil loss from dry winds, some efforts were made in 1948-52 to plant shelterbelts. Likewise, construction of canals and water reservoirs for the irrigation of the southern steppes was initiated (*Kakhivka Reservoir, 1956). The irrigation plan was only partly fulfilled: by 1967 there were only 598,700 ha of land under irrigation. More attention was devoted to this question in the 1970s, and, by 1980, 2,014,000 ha were under irrigation. The introduction of irrigation systems led to needless experiments in the cultivation of *cotton (455,400 ha in 1951), which proved a failure because of the unsuitable climate and were soon halted. With N . Khrushchev's rise to power a number of reforms were made in agriculture, particularly by the law 'On Changing the Policy on Agricultural Planning' (9 March 1955) and the law 'On the Statute of the Agricul­ tural Artel and the Means for Further Promoting the Initiative of the Collective Farmers in Organizing Agricul­ tural Production and Managing the Affairs of the Artel' (6 March 1953). The collective farms received the right to determine, in the light of compulsory delivery quotas, the amount of land they would devote to each crop, the productivity of animal husbandry, and the number of animals of each species that they would raise. In 1958 the machine-tractor stations were replaced with tractor-repair stations. This decentralization of agricultural planning coincided with Khrushchev's decentralization of indus­ try and the introduction of ""regional economic councils. As a result of these reforms the land seeded to wheat in Ukraine diminished by 35.6 percent, in favor of larger plantings of feed corn and of certain industrial crops, particularly of sugar beets, long-fiber flax, hemp, and oil-yielding plants. Khrushchev's experiment in wheat growing on the virgin lands of Kazakhstan brought disappointing results and starting in the second half of the 1950s, the emphasis was again placed on expanding in Ukraine the land seeded to wheat by drastically reducing the area of fallow land (to 0.4 percent compared to 12.3 percent of the arable land in steppe Ukraine in 1940). This policy led to considerable soil erosion and to dust storms, which carried away the topsoil. After Khrushchev's downfall in 1964 the usual propor­ tion of fallow land was reinstated, and the corn plantings were reduced to a more rational size. Beginning in the latter half of the 1950s, large tracts of arable land were lost to industrial expansion, particularly to mining, to the construction of hydroelectric dams and highways, and to urban growth. Between 1955 and 1965 arable land in Ukraine diminished by 1.3 million ha. In 1980, of the 42.1 million ha of arable land, 34.2 million ha were under cultivation, 1.2 million were hay fields, and 4.8 million were pasture. Agricultural enterprises possessed 48.7 million ha, while the state controlled 0.18 million ha (including forest farms); that is, there is practically no unused arable land in Ukraine. The expansion of seeded land from 31.2 million ha in 1940 to 33.6 million in 1980 was achieved only by the reduction of the area of clear fallow from 3.9 to 1.1 million ha. Some increase in arable land is attributable to the amelioration of infertile soils, the drainage of wetlands (from 1,031, 000 ha in 1956 to 2,539,000 ha in 1980), and the irrigation of arid lands. The chernozem, which has been until now the principal agricultural resource of Ukraine, requires chemical fertim

36

AGRICULTURE

lizers. In 1965 it was fertilized at the rate of 38 kg of mineral fertilizers per ha; in 1975, 109 kg per ha; and in 1980, 112 kg per ha. Compared to the levels used in Western Europe, the United States, and Canada, this level of fertilization is still inadequate. To centralize agricultural planning, Soviet authorities have experimented to some extent with *agrotowns and since the second half of the 19605 have devoted much attention to organizing agroindustrial complexes, ie, to the territorial integration of certain branches of agriculture with the industrial processing and sale of the agricultural production. This kind of integration is realized most widely in those branches whose output must be processed or sold quickly. With integration transportation costs are minimized. Since 1965 the most common agroindustrial complexes in Ukraine have been the sugar-beet, grape-winemaking, hemp-alcohol-starch-hemp-products, and dairy complexes. In 1965 there were 488 such complexes, and in 1980 there were 1,549. The largest agroindustrial complexes are the winemaking complex *Masandra in the Crimea and the canning complex in the Kherson region. Demographic changes in Ukraine's population (the farm population declined from 66 percent of the total population in 1940 to 37 percent in 1980) have a direct impact on the farm labor force, which is steadily decreasing both in absolute and relative terms. In 1965, 7.2 million people (38.9 percent of the total work force) were employed in agriculture in Ukraine: 6 million on collective and state farms and 1.2 million on private plots. For 1975 the corresponding figures were 6.4 million (26.2 percent), 5.0 million, and 1.4 million; and for 1980 they were 5.8 million (22.5 percent), 4.3, and 1.5 million. Thus, from 1965 to 1980 the farm work force fell by i .4 million workers (20 percent) or almost 100,000 workers per year (particularly young people), who migrated to the cities or regions outside Ukraine. The reduction of the collectivefarm work force has been particularly dramatic: in 1965 each collective-farm household provided i. 15 workers for work on the collective farm, while in 1980 each household provided only 0.94 workers. Today there are 8.3 workers per 100 ha of farmland, and each worker tills 5.8 ha (105 ha in the United States). In 1965, 3.9 workdays were required by the collective farms to produce i centner of wheat; in 1980 only 1.4 workdays were required to produce the same amount. For sugar beets the corresponding figures are 2.5 and 1.1 workdays and for potatoes 7.3 and 5.3 workdays. Labor productivity is increasing but is still too low because of insufficient mechanization, irrational capital investment (preferential treatment for state farms), and relative agrarian overpopulation in Right-Bank Ukraine, Western Ukraine, and Transcarpathia. In the steppes and Left-Bank Ukraine, on the other hand, there is a slight shortage of farm labor, particularly at harvest time. Because of the seasonal nature of farm work the average collectivefarm member works no more than 200-225 days per year (275 days for state-farm workers). This problem of underemployment is met to some extent by the agro-industrial complexes, which in 1970 employed 15,800 people, and in 1980, 156,300 people. A large part of the farm labor force has received little training: in 1980 only 218,200 collectivefarm members (3.7 percent of the labor force) had obtained a higher technical education. Wages in agriculture are low, as is evident from the comparison in table 3. In

TABLE 3

Average monthly wages in Ukraine (in rubles; % of national average in parentheses)

1965 1970 1980

All workers

Workers on collective farms

Workers on state farms

93.9 115.2 155.1

48.9 (52.0) 66.6 (57.8) 103.6(66.7)

71.8(76.4) 95.6 (82.9) 133.7(86.2)

1933-7 collective-farm members received on the average 33-75 kopecks and 1.3-3.5 kg of grain per workday. An important part of a farmer's income and the bulk of food for his family were derived from the private plot which was cultivated by the farmer in his spare time. In 1965 the wage for a workday was 2.69 rubles; in 1975, 4.11 rubles; and in 1980, 4.93 rubles. In spite of this rise in wages and the introduction of a small old-age pension after the war, farm workers continue to be the lowest-paid workers in the economy and continue to rely on their private plots (1.8 million ha or 0.4 ha per family in 1979) and temporary work in the cities to supplement their income. The state purchase prices on agricultural products (see ""Agricultural procurement) are lower in Ukraine than in other parts of the USSR, and this depresses even further the already low standard of living of the Ukrainian farm population. After the war the capital and depreciating production funds (buildings, machines, equipment, livestock) grew somewhat more rapidly in agriculture than in other sectors of the economy. This was the result of the chronic shortage of farm products for the consumer. The production fund at the disposal of the collective farms was valued at 12.4 million new rubles in 1965, 28.3 million in 1975, and 35.2 million in 1980. The growth in capital investments in Ukraine's agriculture (in relative prices) is shown in table 4. Thus, there is some transfer of capital from other branches of the economy, and particularly from construction, into agriculture. Because of a chronic food shortage in the USSR the relative weight of capital investment in Ukraine's agriculture as compared to the agriculture of the USSR as a whole has been increasing rapidly. This was particularly evident in the period from 1956 to the 19705. In order to raise agricultural producTABLE 4 Capital investment in agriculture in the Ukrainian SSR Years of 5-yr plans

In millions of rubles

1929-32 1933-37 1938-41 1946-50 1951-55 1956-60 1961-65 1966-70 1971-75 1976-80

137 355 293 935 2,304 4,495 6,985 10,484 16,597 19,965

Percentage of all capital invested in Ukr SSR

USSR

8.7 10.9 9.9 10.2 15.5 15.7 16.9 18.2 21.1 22.4

8.8 8.4 7.5 15.3 26.5 29.2 28.3 31.2 31.1 25.6

A G R I C U L T U R E

in the 1970s, Ukraine's agriculture is incapable of meeting the demands of the Soviet economy for farm products, and particularly for animal feed. Hence, the U S S R today imports from the United States, Canada, and other countries a large part of its feed as well as other farm products. Depending on the harvest (which decreased in Ukraine by 20 percent in 1979-80), 12-20 percent of Ukraine's agricultural output consists of commodities. Ukraine usually exports farm products to other regions of the U S S R and to the satellite countries, such as Cuba and Poland.

TABLE 5 Growth in stock of farm machinery in Ukraine (in thousands of units) End of year

Tractors

Grain combines

Trucks

1940 1955 1970 1980

94.6 136.4 317.2 408.8

33.4 50.7 81.2 90.0

54.9 102.3 244.2 317.9

tivity, more and more capital must be spent on machinery. About one-third of the capital allocated to agriculture (1,363 million rubles in 1980) is used to purchase and repair tractors and other farm machines. The growth in the stock of farm machinery in Ukraine (in thousands of units at the end of the year) is shown in table 5. On collective and state farms only the harvesting of grain is fully mechanized. The harvesting of sugar beets is 90 percent mechanized; of potatoes, 50 percent; of hay, 55 percent. Cow milking is 81 percent mechanized; cattle feeding, 32 percent; and manure removal, 62 percent. Other types of labor continue to be performed manually, particularly the loading of grain (62 percent manual) and of sugar beets (45 percent manual). There is a shortage of reapers, tractor seeders, and small tractors, as well as storage facilities. Eight to 12 percent of the harvest is lost in transit, and some is lost during harvesting. The gross harvest of the most important agricultural products in Ukraine is presented in table 6 (in thousands of tonnes). Ukraine's contribution to the total agricultural output of the U S S R remains high: in 1966-70 it was 22.7 percent, and in 1976-80 it was 23.5 percent. In 1980 Ukraine produced 24.2 percent of the U S S R ' s grain, 42.2 percent of the com, 60.2 percent of the sugar beets, 27.8 percent of the potatoes, 22.2 percent of the cattle, 28.1 percent of the hogs, and 6.2 percent of the goats. For most agricultural crops Ukraine's crop yield is higher than the average for the U S S R : in 1978 Ukraine's yield in grain crops was 30.3 centners per ha (18.5 for the U S S R ) ; in winter wheat, 35.2 (29.8); in winter rye, 20.6 (17.6); in corn, 32.2 (35.2); in barley, 31.6 (23.5); in oats, 23.0 (15.3); in legumes, 22.2 (15.2); in sugar beets, 310(248); and in potatoes, 140(122). Because of irrational policies and numerous crop failures TABLE 6 Gross harvest in thousands of tonnes 1940

1950

26,420 20,448 Grains 5,989 7,650 Winter wheat 4,334 4,097 Winter rye 2,152 5,662 Spring barley 1,604 2,765 Oats 4,177 2,550 Corn 809 579 Legumes 13,052 14,624 Sugar beets 20,664 20,329 Potatoes Silage corn Livestock (thousands of head) 10,997 11,063 Cattle 6,999 9,186 Hogs 7,325 5,798 Sheep and goats

37

1960

1970

1980

21,790 6,459 1,425 4,329 1,160 5,531 1,003 31,761 19,461 114,079

36,392 15,471 1,176 7,966 1,682 6,337 2,141 46,309 19,726 58,574

38,100 21,278 1,138 6,737 1,179 4,070 2,087 48,841 13,133 75,758

17,040 16,452 11,601

21,352 20,746 8,971

25,368 19,783 9,051

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Budzynovs'kyi, V . Khlops'ka posilisf v Halychyni i novochasni suspiV no-reformators'ki zmahannia (Lviv 1894) Franko, I. Panshchyna ta ii skasuvannia (Lviv 1913) Pavlykovs'kyi, lu. ZemeVna sprava u Skhidnii Halychyni (Lviv 1922) Hermaize, O. 'Z istorii sil's'koho hospodarstva v Livoberezhnii Ukraïni.' Zapysky Istorychno-filolohichnoho viddilu VUAN, 1925, no. 6 Slabchenko, M . Borot'ba za systemy zemlevolodinnia iformy hospodarky v Ukraïni xix-xx st (Odessa 1927) Vol'f, M . SiVs'ke hospodarstvo Ukraïny (Kharkiv 1928) Studynski, G . Le problème agraire en Ukraine (Paris 1930) Khraplyvyi, le. SiVs'ke hospodarstvo Halyts'ko-Volyns'kykh zemeV (Lviv 1936) Matsiievych, K . 'Kolektyvizatsiia selians'koho hospodarstva na Ukraïni/ in Suchasni problemy ekonomiky Ukraïny, 2 (Pratsi Ukraïns'koho Naukovoho Instytutu, XXII) (Warsaw 1936) Domanyts'kyi, V. (éd.). SiVs'ke hospodarstvo Ukraïny (Prague 1942) Baran, S. ZemeVna sprava v Halychyni (Augsburg 1948) Hurzhii, I. Rozklad feodaVno-kriposnyts'koï systemy v siVs'komu hospodarstvi Ukraïny pershoï polovyny xix st (Kiev 1954) Ocherki razvitiia narodnogo khoziaistva Ukrainskoi SSR (MOSCOW 1954) Rubach, M . Ocherki po istorii revoliutsionnogo preobrazovaniia agrarnykh otnoshenii na Ukraine v period provedeniia Oktiabfskoi revoliutsii (Kiev 1956) Kononenko, K . Ukraine and Russia. A History of the Economie Relations between Ukraine and Russia, 1654-1917 (Milwaukee 1958) SiVs'ke hospodarstvo Ukraïns'koï RSR (Kiev 1958) Herasymenko, M . Ahrarni vidnosyny v Halychyni v period kryzy panshchyznianoho hospodarstva (Kiev 1959) Narysy starodavrioï istorii Ukraïns'koï RSR (Kiev 1959) Smith, C . The Origins of Farming in Russia (Paris 1959) Teplyts'kyi, V . Reforma 1861 roku i ahrarni vidnosyny na Ukraïni (60-90-ti roky xix st.) (Kiev 1959) Blum, J. Lord and Peasant in Russia from the 9th to the 19th Century (Princeton 1961) Dovzhenok, V . Zemlerobstvo drevn'o'i Rusi do seredyny xin st (Kiev 1961) Slyn'ko, I. Sotsialistychna perebudova i tekhnichna rekonstruktsiia siVs'koho hospodarstva Ukra'iny, 1927-1932 rr (Kiev 1961) Ivasiuta, M . Narysy istorii kolhospnoho budivnytstva u zakhidnykh oblastiakh Ukraïns'koï RSR (Kiev 1962) Kononenko, K . Ukraïna i Rosiia. SotsiiaVno-ekonomichni pidstavy ukraïns'koï natsionaVnoï ideï 1917-1960 (Munich 1965) Istoriia selianstva Ukraïns'koï RSR, 2 vols (Kiev 1967) Rozmishchennia i spetsializatsiia siVs'koho hospodarstva Ukraïns'koï RSR (Kiev 1967) Rozvytok narodnoho hospodarstva Ukrains''koi RSR 1917-1967, 2 vols (Kiev 1967-68) Sotsialistychna perebudova i rozvytok siVs'koho hospodarstva Ukraïns'koï RSR, 2 vols (Kiev 1967-8) Vytanovych, I. Agrama polityka ukraïns'kykh uriadiv 1917-1920 (Munich 1968) Nahromadzhennia ta spozhyvannia u kolhospakh Ukra'iny (Kiev 1969)

38

A G R I C U L T U R E

Holubuts'kyi, V . Ekonomichna istoriia Ukraïns'koï RSR (Kiev 1970) Horlenko, V . ; et al. Narodna zemlerobs'ka tekhnika ukrai'ntsiv (Kiev 1971) Telychuk, P. Ekonomichni osnovy ahrarnoï revoliutsü na Ukraïni (Kiev 1973) Postnikova, H . Analiz hospodars'koï diiaVnosti siVs'kohospodars'kykh pidpryiemstv (Kiev 1974) Vynar, B. Rozvytok ekonomichnoï dumky u Kyïvs'kii Rusi (Munich ï974) SiVs'ke hospodarstvo Ukraïny za desiaV rokiv, 1965-1975 (Kiev

*975)

Radchenko, A . Ekonomichni pytannia siVs'kohospodars'koho vyrobnytstva (Kiev 1977) Tovstanovskii, A . Razvitie seVskogo khoziaistva USSR (Kiev 1978) Razvitie seVskogo khoziaistva Ukrainskoi SSR. 1959-1980 (Kiev 1980) B. Wynar

Agronomy (agricultural sciences). The scientific foundations of agricultural production, the sum of theoretical and practical knowledge about the cultivation of plants, the raising of animals, the organization of production, and the primary processing of farm products. Agronomic knowledge has accumulated through the history of human activity: in Ukraine since the period of the *Trypilian culture. Practical knowledge on farming has been passed on in the form of technical prescriptions and advice. Agronomic information appears in the earliest written sources of Kievan Rus . The scientific principles of farming were first worked out at the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. At the same time agronomy began to be divided into a number of independent sciences. The earliest scientific research in agronomy in Ukraine was done by individual scholars such as V. *Karazyn, who worked mostly in the Kharkiv region, and by the *Nikita Botanical Garden in the Crimea. Agronomy developed rapidly in Ukraine at the turn of the 19th century and was closely tied to the development of sugar-beet farming and the organization of a network of agricultural research stations by the gubernia and county zemstvos. On the eve of the First World War there were 52 experimental fields and stations and 8 seed stations in Ukraine. A n important contribution to agronomy was made by the Poltava Experimental Field, which was established in 1884, and the "Poltava Agricultural Research Station, which grew out of the former institution in 1910. The methods of tilling and fertilization that were developed at these stations were adopted as the foundations of farming at the time and, along with the classification of fallow land, constituted an important advancement in agriculture. Other experimental fields and research stations were located in Nosivka, Uman, Kharkiv, Drabiv, Chartoryiske, Sarny, Nemerche, Kherson, Katerynoslav, and Odessa. Furthermore, there were two networks of experimental fields with headquarters in Kiev: the All-Russian Society of Sugar Producers and the Kiev Agricultural Society. In 1914 there were over 100 agricultural research institutions in the nine Ukrainian gubernias of the Russian Empire (see "Agricultural scientific research institutions). Two other societies in Ukraine were interested in agronomic research - the Imperial Free Economic Society, founded in 1765, and the Imperial "Society of Agriculture of Southern Russia, which was founded in 1828 and was active in the gubernias of 7

Bessarabia, Katerynoslav, Tavriia, and Kherson. There were also some gubernia agricultural societies, such as the Kiev, Poltava, Kharkiv, and Kherson societies (some of them organized agricultural exhibitions, conducted elementary courses on farming), and county or local societies (1,020 of these by 1915, the largest number of which were in Poltava gubernia). After the revolution these societies, as well as the All-Ukrainian Seed Society and the Ukrainian Central Agricultural Society in Kiev (reorganized in 1918 into the Central Agricultural Cooperative Union), which were active in the revolutionary period, were dissolved. Agronomy was studied at Kiev, Kharkiv, and Odessa universities, at the Kiev Polytechnical Institute, and at the Kharkiv Veterinary Institute. In Western Ukraine agronomy was taught at the higher agricultural school in Dubliany (founded in 1856, reorganized into an academy in 1900, and then into the Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry of the Lviv Polytechnical Institute in 1919) and at the Veterinary Academy in Lviv. Important contributions to agronomy were made at the turn of the century by the following scientists in Ukraine: A. "Zaikevych (a pioneer in sugar-beet research), A. "Izmailsky (drought research in southern Ukraine), L. "Symyrenko (orchard growing), S. Vynohradsky (soil microbiology), B. Rozhdestvensky (agronomy professor at Kiev University), S. "Bohdanov (classification of ground waters), V. "Dokuchaev (chernozem, genesis of the steppe), K. "Gedroits (earth scientist), V. Kolkunov, S. Kulzhynsky (legume cultures and their effect on soil fertility), and A. "Sapiehin and A. "Dushechkin (sugarbeet nourishment). Ukrainian agronomy advanced rapidly in the 1918-29 period prior to "collectivization. The Soviet government recognized the necessity to revitalize farming quickly, and Ukrainian researchers took advantage of the ample opportunities for scientific research. In this period planning was introduced into the various branches of agronomic research. A network of meteorological stations was established. Soil research culminated in the 1920s in the first synthetic map of the soils of Ukraine by H . "Makhiv and 10 volumes of Materiialy

doslidzhennia

gruntiv

Ukraïny

(Research Materials on the Soils of Ukraine). Ukrainian selection specialists produced a number of valuable agricultural plant varieties. The scientific research stations, which by 1927 numbered 35, were governed by a single plan. Several nature reserves were organized: "Askaniia-Nova and the virgin steppe of the Starobilske region and of the Azov coast. The problem of drought in southern Ukraine and the assimilation of many new cultures received considerable attention. The development of agronomy was encouraged by the second division of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, the "Agricultural Scientific Committee of Ukraine, which issued a number of valuable publications, and, after its dissolution, by the "All-Ukrainian Academy of Agricultural Sciences and by the scientific research stations, some of which published reports. The association "Silskyi Hospodar in Lviv was active in practical agronomy and also made some theoretical contributions. It published over 180 books and pamphlets and farmers newspapers. Outside Ukraine agronomy was studied at the "Ukrainian Husbandry Academy in Podébrady, Czechoslovakia. In the second half of the 1920s Ukrainian scholars in Soviet Ukraine began to be politically persecuted. The work of scientific institutions continued to be reorganized 7

AGRONOMY

as farming began to be collectivized. Beginning in 1929, agronomic research institutes in Ukraine were subordinated to the Ail-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences in Moscow, first through the All-Ukrainian Academy of Agricultural Sciences and then directly. Scientific research focused on such practical tasks as producing new varieties of plants, controlling pests and weeds, planting shelterbelts, counteracting drought, increasing crop yields, and acclimatizing and promoting crops new to Ukraine, such as cotton, tea, and citrus fruits. The Party's strict, centralized control over research ruled out any possibility of free development for agronomy. In 1945-6 the division of agricultural sciences under the chairmanship of M. *Hryshko was established at the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR. In 1956 this division was reorganized into the ""Ukrainian Academy of the Agricultural Sciences, which consisted of 5 departments, 21 scientific research institutes, a large network of research stations, and a central agricultural library. The academy published its Dopovidi and Visnyk siVs'kohospodars'koinauky. In 1962 the academy was dissolved, and its scientific research institutes were transferred to the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences in Moscow. Some agronomic research was conducted at the biology departments of universities and at the higher agricultural schools. Today agronomic research in Ukraine is concentrated on developing new varieties of highly productive agricultural crops. V. Yuriev, F. Kyrychenko, and V. Remeslo have produced many valuable varieties of winter and spring wheat, rye, barley, oats, and other grains. P. Harkavy developed varieties of winter and spring barley that are suited to southern Ukraine and Moldavia. V. Kozubenko, B. Sokolov, P. Kliuchko, O. Musiiko, and others have developed highly productive corn hybrids and varieties with sterile seed. A monospermous sugar beet was produced by O. Kolomiiets, V. Zosymovych, M. Bordónos, H. Mokan, I. Buzanov, and others. Many highly productive varieties of grain, legume, oil-bearing, essential-oil-bearing, fiber, feed, vegetable, and melon cultures, as well as potato, have been developed. S. *Melnyk, H. Borovykov, and others have developed the theoretical principles of grapevine grafting. The problems of seed science and agricultural ecology have been investigated by M. *Kuleshiv. T. Strakhov, F. Nemiienko, V. Peresypkin, V. Vasyliev, D. Rudniak, M. Hèlent, and others are developing and improving biological and chemical methods for controlling agricultural plant diseases and pests. (See also * Agricultural education, * Agricultural organizations, ""Agricultural periodicals, * Agricultural scientific research institutions, * Agricultural technology, *Agronomy, state and social, ^Forestry, ^Selection, and *Zootechny.) BIBLIOGRAPHY lur'iev, V. Zahurna selektsiia i nasinnytstvo poVovykh kuVtur (Kiev 1952) Doroshenko, P. 'Dosiahnennia sil's'koho hospodarstva Ukraïny za 30 rr. radians'koï vlady/ Visnyk sWs'kohospodars'koï nauky, 1967, no. 10 Pal'chevs'kyi, V.; et al. Osnovy ahronomn (Kiev 1973) Rudenko, I. Osnovy ahronomn (Kiev 1977) E. Zharsky

39

Agronomy, state and social. The sum of the means used by voluntary civil organizations, agencies of local self-government, or the state to improve the level of agrotechnological culture. In principle these means are of an organizational and educational character, for in the final analysis the subject of agricultural activity is the individual farmer. It is only under the centrally planned economy of the Soviet Union that the measures used by state agronomy have assumed for the most part a coercive nature and have become an integral part of the state's agricultural policy. In tsarist Russia there was sharp opposition between the government bureaucracy and society. As a result, the *zemstvos began to develop a zemstvo agronomy that became known as social or community agronomy and that was distinguished from the agronomic measures taken by the state authorities. In Western Europe there was no such gulf between the government and society; hence, such terms as social agronomy or state agronomy were not used. In Russia the state's interest in agronomy was channeled through the Ministry of Agriculture and State Properties, which carried out its responsibilities by employing government agronomists and instructors. Zemstvo agronomy in Ukraine originated at the end of the i88os, when the Kherson zemstvo set up an institute of county and gubernia zemstvo agronomists. By i January 1914 there were 1,683 community (zemstvo and agricultural society) agronomists in the nine gubernias of Ukraine. Among the purely agronomic measures pursued by the zemstvos priority was given to the purchase of farm machinery and implements and of seed and fertilizer. Relatively little was achieved in the area of formal agricultural education: in 1914 there were only 28 lower schools and one secondary agricultural school. Instead, much attention was devoted to extracurricular agricultural training - lectures, exhibits, visits to the villages by agronomists and instructors. In the final few years preceding the war the first agricultural societies and co-operatives were established in Ukraine. As these societies developed, the task of acquiring the necessary instruments and supplies for farming was removed from the zemstvo agronomic organizations, and the zemstvo agronomist increasingly became an organizer of agricultural activity. This tendency finally asserted itself at the All-Russian Agronomic Congress in Kiev in 1913. Zemstvo agronomists began to devote more and more time to scientific research and to demonstrations of new methods for the farmers. A whole new science of state and social agronomy developed from the zemstvo agronomy. The most prominent representative of this science among Ukrainians was Professor K. *Matsiievych. In the 19205, during the period of the *New Economic Policy, farming in Soviet Ukraine was largely in the hands of individual farmers, and farming co-operatives flourished. Hence, the role of the agronomist was not essentially different from what it was before the revolution. But the collectivization of 1929 radically changed this state of affairs and turned agronomy into an instrument of the state and Party apparat. Social and state agronomy as it is here understood ceased to exist. In Western Ukraine social agronomy took the form of the *Silskyi Hospodar society, which was active in Galicia and under the Polish regime in Volhynia (Lutske branch) as well. The Poles had their separate agricultural socie-

40

AGRONOMY

ties: in Galicia, for example, they had the Little Polish Agricultural Society. Under Austria state agronomy was the responsibility of the Galician and Bukovynian diets and was administered by county executives. There were no state agronomists. Under the Polish state agronomists were employed by provincial and county governments. Furthermore, the voivodeships had agricultural assemblies consisting of elected representatives who played the role of intermediaries between the producer, the farm industry, and the Ministry of Agriculture. They were also responsible for overseeing the activities of the institutions of social agronomy. In the Ukrainian SSR the agronomic organizations have become parts of the state apparatus that governs the whole productive process of farming. The Union-republican Ministry of Agriculture (formerly the People's Commissariat of Land Affairs) directs this apparatus. Only the state farms do not come under this ministry but are the responsibility of a special Ministry of State Farms, which was a Union-republican ministry at first and then became a Union ministry. There are agricultural departments in the oblast (or krai) executive committees and agricultural commissions in the rural soviets. Furthermore, there are agricultural departments of the Central Committee of the CPSU and of the central committees of the various republics, as well as of the oblast and raion Party committees. The Soviet state and the Party machine employ a large number of specialists who have higher and secondary agronomic education. A special role in the implementation of the state's decisions on agriculture was played by the ^machine-tractor stations, which were abolished in 1958. Support for the higher agricultural schools is provided for in the Union budget, while the lower and secondary schools are provided for in the republican budgets. However, almost all the expenditures for basic work in state agronomy - maintenance of research stations, demonstration points, and agronomic and zootechnical networks and workshops; the organization of soil improvement and hydrotechnical projects that do not have a national significance; veterinary care; agroeducational work; and pest-eradication projects - are charged to local budgets. BIBLIOGRAPHY Matsievich, K. (Ashin, K.). Obshchestvenno-agronomicheskie etiudy (Kharkiv 1912) Morachevskii, V. Agronomicheskaia pomoshch' v Rossii (Kharkiv 1914) Dedusenko, A. Agronomicheskaia pomoshch' naseleniiu Ukrainy (Kharkiv 1923) Matsiievych, K. 'Agronomiia hromads'ka/ in SiVs'kohospodars'ka entsyklopediia (Lviv 1930) Khraplyvyi, le. Za khliborobs'ku spravu (Lviv 1932) Ye. Glovinsky

Agrotown (Ukrainian: ahromisto; Russian: agrogorod). One of N. 'Khrushchev's projects that was part of the planned 'transition of the village to Communist social relations/ Khrushchev first proposed the idea in 1949 when he was a secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union responsible for agriculture. The aim was to amalgamate several collective farms into larger economic units and to relocate the collective farmers in large urbanized settlements (rural cities) with socialized services, such as cafeterias and laundries, and cultural amenities. At the same time the

farmers were to give up their private plots and farm animals. The project was never officially approved, but some attempts were made in Ukraine to implement it as an experiment under the collective-farm consolidation plan. In 1957 Khrushchev, now the general secretary of the CPSU and the head of the government, returned to the agrotown project. Plans were made to reduce the number of villages in the Ukrainian SSR from 50,000 to about 15,000, which would have required enormous capital investments and technical reconstruction. The plan was not realized, however, and the limited experiments that were tried turned out to be economic and social failures. The goal of the project - the withering away of private farming - proved to be completely impractical. The agrotown plan was abandoned in the mid-sixties. Ahibalov, Vasyl, b 21 April 1913 in Velyka Hnylusha, Voronezh region. A sculptor of monuments; graduate of the Kharkiv Art Institute (1942). In collaboration with other artists he has executed a series of monuments, primarily in bronze and granite, commemorating Soviet leaders and various events. These include monuments in Voroshylovhrad (Lenin, 1949), Krasnodon (Young Guard, 1954), Dnipropetrovske (Eternal Glory, 1967), Kharkiv (commemorating the proclamation of Soviet rule in Ukraine, 1975), and a number of busts. Ahibalov was awarded the Shevchenko State Prize in 1977. Ahnit-Sledzevsky, Kazimir [Ahnit-Sledzevs'kyj], b 27 May 1898 in St Petersburg, d 6 September 1973 in Kiev. A graphic artist and caricaturist, Ahnit-Sledzevsky obtained his artistic education at the studios of O. *Murashko and I. *Seleznov (1906-16) and at the Polytechnical Institute (1916-22) in Kiev. In 1923 he began work as a caricaturist for the newspaper Proletars'ka pravda and the magazine Hlobus. From 1941 to 1945 he was a caricaturist for military newspapers and, beginning in 1944, worked for the satirical magazine Perets\ He executed graphic series (Hitleriia, 1944; The Black Past, 1957) and designed graphics for books, as well as propaganda posters and windows. Aidar River [Ajdar]. Left-bank tributary of the *Donets, 264 km long, and with a drainage basin of 7,240 sq km. It is used mainly for irrigation.

Aide-de-camp. See Osaul. Aihulske Lake [Ajhul's'ke]. Lake lying near the Perekop Isthmus in the Crimea. The lake is 18 km long, 4.5km wide, and 0.1-0.3 m deep. It is fed by subterranean waters. In summer the lake's salinity reaches 2327 percent, and during droughts the bed is covered with salt deposits. Aiia [Ajja]. A promontory on the southwest coast of the Crimea. The rock rises steeply from the sea and attains a height of 557 m. A protected natural site - a grove of Stankevych pines and woody junipers - is found on the rock. Ai-Petri [ Aj-Petri]. One of the peaks of the main range of the Crimean Mountains. It reaches a height of 1,233 m and has a steep seaward slope. The mountain is located near the city of Alupka.

A I R

Ai-Petri in the Crimea

Air transport. The first regular transport flights in Ukraine were introduced by the German military adminis­ tration in the occupied territories in 1918. Planes flew between Vienna and Kiev and Berlin and Kiev, stopping in cities on the way. The planes transported primarily cargo and mail, but also some passengers. After the war, from January 1920, there were irregular but quite frequent flights between Moscow and Kharkiv, using the Illia Muromets airplane, a reconditioned bomber. In the spring of 1923 the Society for the Advancement of Aviation and Aeronautics in Ukraine and the Crimea was founded in Kiev. Several prominent aircraft designers and pilots were among the society's founders: N . Delone, V. Bobrov, F. Anders, and H. *Kasianenko. In addition to its other activities, the society raised funds among the population for purchasing aircraft. Many airplanes were purchased with the funds collected. They were given purely Ukrainian names, such as Chervonyi Vartovyk Podilia, Yuzivskyi Proletar, Nezamozhnyk Odeshchyny, and Aeroplian Sumshchyny. A l l of these planes were foreign-built, mostly in France or in England. In 1924 the society's name was changed to the Society of Friends of the Air Fleet. In 1923 the Ukrainian Airline (Ukrpovitroshliakh) company was established. Its fleet consisted at first of such planes as the Farman F-30, Nieuport-17,24 Bis, 21 Morane, and particularly the Dornier-Komet in-s with Rolls-Royce Eagle engines. In 1923 trial flights between Kharkiv and Kiev were initiated, and on 3 May 1924 more regular flights were introduced on the routes Kharkiv-Polta va-Kiev and Kharkiv-Pervomaiske-Odessa. Eventually, in 1925, new routes were established: Kharkiv-Kursk-Orel-Moscow and Kharkiv-ArtemivskeRostov. In February 1928 the first international route Kharkiv-Baku-Pahlevi (Iran) - was introduced. With the development of a national *aircraft industry during the first two five-year plans, Ukrainian-built planes were traversing Ukraine by the end of the 1920s. At first these were mail and passenger carriers - the G-2 and M-17 (150 km/hr), and then the K-4 and K-5 (designed by K. Kalinin), the KhAI (designed by Y. Neman), and the O K O - i (designed by V. Tairov), which were built at the new Kiev and Kharkiv aircraft plants. The larger airports in Ukraine were also built in the early 1930s: the Kharkiv airport in 1930, the Odessa airport in 1931, and the Kiev airport (in *Brovary) in 1933. Planes built in this period, like the K-5 and KhAI-i, could attain speeds of 330 km/hr. In 1935-8 one of the largest Soviet passenger hydroplane lines (using the two-engine, twelve-passenger M P - I and Stal-3 designed by Putilov in 1933) operated between

T R A N S P O R T

41

Odessa and Batumi. Night flights of mail carriers were introduced, and new regular routes were estab­ lished: Kharkiv-Mariiupil-Berdianske (240 km), KharkivDnipropetrovske-Odessa (625 km), and Kiev-OdessaKherson (445 km). Although in the first half of the 1930s most airplanes usually carried only eight to ten pas­ sengers, as early as 1931-5 K. Kalinin's engineering office worked on a design for a superliner with a capacity of over 100 passengers. The K - 7 , which had its initial flight on 11 August 1933, had a seating capacity of 120. Because there was no real market for such superliners, their production ended in 1935 with the construction of several prototypes. After Western Ukraine was occupied by Soviet forces in 1939, a regular route between Kiev and Lviv was opened. The number of flights on all routes increased steadily: from 188 in 1931 to 586 in 1935. The number of passengers also increased: from 12,000 in 1930 to 19,000 in 1937. During the Second World War air transport was used almost exclusively for military purposes. Air communica­ tions were disrupted by the almost complete devastation of the airfields in Ukraine. Aircraft had to use temporary landing fields. Some air routes were restored in 1945-6. The airports of Kiev, Donetske, Kharkiv, Voroshylovhrad, and Lviv were reopened, servicing 11 interrepublican and 37 interoblast air routes. Air communications returned to a normal state only in the 1950s with the introduction of new, postwar planes like the 8-passenger A N - 2 , the 30-passenger iL-12, and the 20-passenger iL-14, which replaced the fuel-inefficient iL-12. At this time the first helicopters were introduced on the Ukrainian routes: the M I - I and the Mi-4. Long-distance flights to Leningrad, Vladivostok, Murmansk, Alma-Ata, and elsewhere in Soviet Asia were begun. In 1958 a regular civilian helicopter service was introduced between Symferopil and Yalta. In the 1960s air transport continued to develop in Ukraine. Another airport for Kiev was built near *Boryspil, and new air terminals were built in Odessa, Kharkiv, Zaporizhia, Ivano-Frankivske, Uzhhorod, and else­ where. In the late 1960s and early 1970s a number of new liners were introduced in Ukraine: the Tu-104 (for 70 passengers), the Tu-114 (the intercity model for 220 passengers, the trans-Siberian model for 170, and the transcontinental model for 120), a second version of the AN-10 (for 100 passengers), the AN-24 (40 passengers), the TU-124 (68 passengers, and a different version with a first-class section of 44 seats for higher government officials and industrial directors), the T U - H O (a modifica­ tion of the TU-104 and Tu-134), and the Y A K - 4 0 (for 30 passengers). The A N - I O , A N - 2 4 , and Y A K - 4 0 were built in

4*

A I R

T R A N S P O R T

Note that republican and local flights are irregular.

Kiev, using the Ivchenko engine from Zaporizhia. Most new planes have jet engines, but a disproportionately large number of turboprops ( I L - I 8 and A N - I O ) are still used. Besides the M i l helicopters, the larger Kamov helicopters are also used. At the end of the 1970s and the beginning of the 1980s the Tu-104 jet was replaced by the 160-passenger TU-154. The 180-passenger iL-62, one of the largest long-range liners, is being gradually withdrawn from service because of several air accidents, the most recent in Moscow in July 1982. Plans have been made to introduce in the 1980s the short-range, 120passenger Y A K - 4 2 and the 350-passenger airbus IL-86 (for travel to tourist resorts and for communications between large industrial centers). Today all oblast capitals in Ukraine are linked by air routes that are part of the Soviet and the international air networks. Almost 40 percent of air traffic consists of flights within Ukraine. The international airports of Kiev, Odessa, and Lviv are linked with Belgrade, Warsaw, Bucharest, Prague, East Berlin, Vienna, Paris, Copenhagen, and other major world cities. Certain international routes that were used in the 1970s have been closed Development of air transport in Ukraine (percentage of USSR in parentheses)

Passenger volume (in million passengers/km) Passengers carried (in thousands) Cargo volume (in million t/km)

Cargo carried (in thousands of t)

1940

1960

1970

1979

14 (7.0)

675 (5.6)

7,950 (7.8)

13,354 (7.4)

1 (4.3) 4 (6.8)

44 (7.8)

34 (8.5)

1,697 (10.6)

9,049 (12.7)

63 (9.1)

181 (9.8)

161 (8.6)

12,082 (12.7)

212 (7.7) 212 (8.7)

down, however; for example, the Kiev-Zurich and KievLondon routes. Of all the civil-aviation administrations in the U S S R , Ukraine's has the largest number of routes and transports the largest number of passengers and cargo. The Ukrainian Airline company (1923-31) merged in 1925 with the Transcaucasian civil-aviation company Zakavia and served not only Ukraine but all of Soviet Europe. In 1930 all Soviet civil aviation was centralized in the Ail-Union Alliance of the Civil Air Fleet, which in 1932 became the Chief Administration of the Civil Air Fleet (Aeroflot) of the Council of People's Commissars of the U S S R . Since 1964 all civil aviation has been administered by the Ministry of Civil Aviation of the U S S R , under which the Ukrainian Administration of Civil Aviation functions as a semi-autonomous agency. A special journal, KryVia Ukraïny, is published in Russian for the employees of the Ukrainian administration. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Liakhovetskii, M . Nadezhnye kryVia respubliki (Kiev 1962) Vozdushnye trassy Ukrainy (PutevoditeT-spravochnik) (Kiev 1969) Karatsuba, S. Articles on the history of aviation in Ukraine in the journal Narysy z istoriï pryrodoznavstva i tekhniky (1970, 1972, 1974) Iashnyk, M . ; Hurnak, V. 'Rozvytok transportu Ukraïns'koï RSR na suchasnomu etapi/ ERU, 1976, no. 9 Liakhovetskii, M . Votchiki (Kiev 1977) S. Protsiuk

Aircraft industry. The origins of the aircraft industry in Ukraine date back to before the First World War. Just before the war A. Anatra, a wealthy banker, built an airplane plant near Odessa which produced Blériot-xi planes with Anzani engines. The large Third Kiev Aircraft Engine maintenance shops of the Russian army were located in Kiev. During the war these shops were housed in the Citadel Fortress in Pecherske. In 1916 about 2,000 workers were employed there. In 1916 the First Aircraft

AIRCRAFT

Engine shops, which until then had been located in St Petersburg, were moved to Odessa. In 1923-4 all these shops were consolidated with the plant built by Anatra to form the Odessa Aircraft Plant. I n 1925 planes for agricultural use, such as the Horbokonyk, began to be produced at the plant. The chief designer at the plant was V. Khioni. In 1922 the former Third Aircraft Engine shops in Kiev were consolidated into the Rempovitria-6 aircraft plant under the directorship of V. Herasymenko. (He was later transferred to the People's Commissariat of Heavy In­ dustry in Moscow.) In 1924 the K - I planes designed by K. Kalinin began to be produced there. In 1926 Kalinin's group was relocated to Kharkiv, where it set up large new aircraft shops of the Ukrainian Airline (Ukrpovitroshliakh) network. Shortly afterwards the shops were desig­ nated an experimental plant and began building the K-2 and K-3 planes. P. Riabchenko was director of the plant in 1926-36. In 1928-32 the plants began producing rescue (first-aid) and surveillance-cartographic aircraft. When new airports were constructed in Kiev (Brovary, 1933) and Kharkiv (Sokolnyky, 1934), the plant began to produce new and better planes (the K-4 and K-5 models) for civilian use. In 1935-8 the government decided to transform the existing experimental plants into modern new plants that would also build military planes. Thus, the Kharkiv plant began to produce military transport planes of the Shch-2 model as early as 1940. In the late 1930s a plant for cargo airplanes was built in Zaporizhia and a plant for military airplanes in Tahanrih. Plane-assembly plants and repair plants were built in Odessa and Dnipropetrovske. The principal airplane-engine designers were S. Tumansky and A. Shvetsov. After K. Kalinin's transfer to Moscow, Y. Neman's design group, which included S. Zholkovsky, L. Arson, and O. Bening, worked at the Kharkiv plant and produced the fast-flying KhA-i and KhAI-5. These planes were produced in series. At the same time A. Liulka in Kharkiv designed the first turbojet engine in the U S S R . At the Kiev plant the principal designers were K. Makovii and S. Horiunov. During the Second World War the airplane plants in Ukraine were severely damaged or were disassembled by the retreating Soviet forces. I n 1946-50 all the former airplane plants were rebuilt and modernized, and by the mid-1950s new planes began to roll off the assembly lines. O. Antonov's group designed planes for the Kiev plant. O. Ivchenko became the chief designer of the Zaporizhia aircraft-engine plant. The Kharkiv plant produced planes designed by A. Tupolev and A. Yakovlev (YAK-12). The Zaporizhia plant produced engines of the Ai-20, Ai-24, and Ai-25 series. The Kiev plant produced the A N - 2 , A N - 2 4 , A N - 2 6 , A N - 2 8 , and A N - 3 0 airplanes as well as the

AN-10 (which was called 'Ukraine'), and the superplane AN-22 (Antei). The Tu-104, TU-124, and TU-134 were

produced at the Kharkiv plant, which in 1976-80, to­ gether with the Voronezh plant, was supposed to pro­ duce the supersonic plane TU-144. Both plants also began to produce helicopters designed by M. Mil and M. Kamov - M i - i , Mi-3 and KA-18. There are plans to produce the AN-76 and Y A K - 4 2 at the Kiev plant and the IL-86 and iL-76 at the Kharkiv plant in the 1980s. The production of cargo planes and specialized planes is given precedence. Among military planes the emphasis is put on jet fighters with a speed of Mach 2 or higher.

AIRCRAFT

INDUSTRY

43

INDUSTRY

1. Assembly plants for civil and military planes 2. Seaplane construction and repair plants 3. Helicopter construction plants 4. Turbomechanical aggregates plants 5. Electrotechnical and radiotechnical devices plants 6. Aircraft equipment and instruments 7. Rails 8. Plastics 9. Optical and radio-optical instruments 10. Air-conditioning systems 11. Armaments 12. Computers 13. Hydrometeorological and cartographic instruments 14. Other branches of manufacturing Abbreviations CS Czechoslovakia H Hungary

Nch. Novocherkassk Tah. Tahanrih

At the end of the 1970s and the beginning of the 1980s the aircraft industry in Ukraine was reorganized, and huge production complexes were set up. The main ones are in Kiev and Kharkiv. These complexes encompass subdivisions of various plants and factories that special­ ize in the production of different parts, assemblies, and instruments used in airplane building. Some subdivisions of narrowly specialized plants are subcontracted to centers that produce military planes, for example, in Dniprovske, Zhdanov, Odessa, Kherson, and Kirovohrad. The principal airplane subassemblies are produced as follows: parts of nickel-cobalt alloys, in Zhdanov; special parts of nickel or nickel alloys, in Kirovohrad; magnesium parts, in Uman; plastics for planes, in Donetske; gyro­ stats, gyroscopes, and navigational devices, in Khmelnytskyi; cockpit instruments and telemechanical devices, in Sevastopil; electrotechnical parts, in Odessa; radiotechnical communication devices, in Kiev, Lviv, and Zhytomyr; pneumatic pumps, in Sumy; aviational com­ puters, in Kharkiv; automatic controls, in Symferopil and Dnipropetrovske; magnets, in Novocherkaske; semicon­ ductors, in Odessa and Uzhhorod; remote-scanning de­ vices, in Kharkiv; air-conditioning apparatus, in Odessa; optical instruments and radio-optical machines, in Dni-

44

A I R C R A F T

I N D U S T R Y

propetrovske and Kharkiv; weaponry, in Kiev, Donetske, and Dniprodzerzhynske; turbomechanical assemblies, in Poltava; tires for planes, in Bila Tserkva. In many plants, particularly those that build precision instruments and automatic and telemechanical devices, there are special, autonomous shops with top-secret production programs and work regimes that supply only the plane-building plants of the civil and military sector. Most of these plants co-operate closely with the military airplane plants in Moscow, Kuibyshev, Ufa, Novosibirsk, and other centers of the U S S R aircraft industry. The output of Ukraine's aircraft industry is large, but the figures remain un­ published. Besides those mentioned above, the following promi­ nent airplane designers work in Ukraine: A. Penkov, T. Bashta, V. Taranenko, V. Moskaliuk, L. Kerber, Yu. Vasyliv, Ya. Peiko, N . Martyniuk, E. Kuzmych, O. Bolbot, O. Biloshpetsky, V. Dominikovsky, A. Batumov, M. Trunchenkov. V. Yasko, D. Kushchak, M . Tiutiunnyk, and others are specialists in airfleet management. Very many prominent Ukrainian designers work in the Soviet aircraft industry outside Ukraine. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Parker, J. A. (ed). The Soviet Aircraft Industry (Chapel Hill, N C 1955) Shavrov, V. Istoriia konstruktsii samoletov v SSSR, 2 vols (Moscow 1969-78) Shelest, I. Krylo na krylo (Moscow 1977) Obraztsov, I. (ed). Razvitie aviatsionnoi nauki i tekhniki v SSSR: Istoriko-tekhnicheskie ocherki (Moscow 1980) S. Protsiuk

Aiu-Dag [Aju-Dag] (Tatar: Bear Mountain). A mountain and promontory on the southern coast of the Crimea near the town of Hurzuf. Its altitude is 565 m. The mountain is a lacolith consisting of magma strata.

member of the ""Society of South Russian Artists, he exhibited his work in Odessa, Kiev, Kharkiv, Mykolaiv, and elsewhere. Aivazovsky produced some 6,000 paint­ ings, depicting mainly scenes on the Black Sea and turbulent seascapes, including The Ninth Wave, Black Sea, Amid the Waves, Universal Flood, and Storm on the Black Sea. He also painted sea battles and Ukrainian landscapes. During his student years Aivazovsky often traveled in Ukraine with V. Shternberg. Among his paintings depict­ ing Ukrainian scenes are the following: Chumak Caravan, Reed-Bank on the Dnieper near the Town of Oleshia, Ukrainian Landscape, Mill on a Riverbank, Ukraine, and Wedding in Ukraine. In 1880 Aivazovsky established an artists' studio and picture gallery in Teodosiia, which he donated later to the city. The Aivazovsky Teodosiia Picture Gallery houses some 400 of his works, as well as paintings by Crimean seascape artists and a small collection of sea­ scapes by Western artists. A study on Aivazovsky by N . Barsamov was published in Moscow in 1967. Aizenshtok, Yarema [Ajzenstok, Jarema], b 4 March 1900 in Yelysavethrad (now Kirovohrad), d 7 June 1980 in Leningrad. Literary scholar specializing in 19th-century Ukrainian literature. Aizenshtok graduated from the University of Kharkiv in 1921 and lectured in Kharkiv's institutions of higher learning. He devoted much time to the publication of T. Shevchenko's works, especially his Shchodennyk (Diary, 1925). He also published Shevchenkoznavstvo - suchasna problema (Shevchenko Scholarship - A Contemporary Problem, 1922) and lak pratsiuvav Shev­ chenko (How Shevchenko Worked, 1940). A series of works by I . Kotliarevsky, H . Kvitka-Osnovianenko, Ya. Shchoholiv, M . Kotsiubynsky, and others was published under his editorship and with his commentaries. Aizenshtok's articles on 19th-century Ukrainian literature ap­ peared in the journal Za sto lit (1927-30), a collection of essays published by the All-Ukrainian Academy of Sci­ ences, and in Zapysky Istorychno-filolohichnoho viddilu VUAN (1919-31). When the persecution of individuals promoting Ukrainian culture began in Ukraine in the early 1930s, Aizenshtok moved to Leningrad, where, without abandoning his work in Ukrainian literature, he concentrated primarily on research in 19th-century Russian literature. I. Koshelivets

Akademicheskii kruzhok. See Academic Circle. Akademichna hromada. See Academic Hromada. Akademichne bratstvo. See Academic Brotherhood. Ivan Aivazovsky, self-portrait

Naum Akhiiezer

(1873)

Aivazovsky, Ivan [Ajvazovs'kyj], also known as Haivazovsky [Hajvazovs'kyj], b 29 July 1817 in Teodosiia, d 5 May 1900 in Teodosiia. Painter of seascapes. Aivazovsky was descended from a family of Galician Armenians who had settled in the Crimea. He obtained his artistic education at the St Petersburg Academy of Arts, becom­ ing an academician in 1845 d an honorary member of the academy in 1887 (he was also a member of four other academies). In 1845 Aivazovsky settled in Teodosiia. A a n

Akerovych, Petro [Akerovyc]. Metropolitan of Kiev from 1241 to 1245, descendant of a boyar family. Akerovych participated in the synod in Lyons in 1243, where he informed the Catholic West of the Tatar threat. He was hegumen of the Monastery of the Transfiguration in the Berestiv district of Kiev (mentioned in texts as early as 1172) and was employed by Prince Mykhailo Vsevolodovych of Chernihiv in diplomatic service. Nothing is known of Akerovych past the year 1245. Akhiiezer, Naum [Axijezer], b 6 March 1901 in Cherykau, Belorussia. Mathematician, corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian S S R .

A L B E R T A

Akhiiezer graduated from the Kiev Institute of Public Education in 1924 and then taught at the institute. In 1933 he joined the staff of Kharkiv University. He was elected president of the Kharkiv Mathematics Society. His works deal with the theory of functions. Akhiiezer, Oleksander [Axijezer], b 31 October 1911 in Cherykau, Belorussia. Physicist, full member of the Acad­ emy of Sciences of the Ukrainian S S R since 1964. In 1934 he graduated from the Kiev Polytechnical Institute. In 1938 Akhiiezer was appointed a department chairman of the Kharkiv Physical-Technical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian S S R . His works deal with such topics as nuclear physics, electrodynamics, kinetics, and the theory of solids. He is a founder of a school of theoretical physics. Akimenko, Fedir. See Yakymenko, Fedir. Akkerman. See Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi. Ak-Mechet. See Chornomorske. Ak-Mechet burial site. A Scythian burial site of the 5th-4th century B C near Ak-Mechet (now Chornomorske) in the Crimea. Excavations, which began in 1885, ~ covered a Scythian warrior buried in a stone tomb that contained gold ornaments engraved with animal motifs, arrowheads, and other objects. u n

Akordy (Chords). A n anthology of Ukrainian lyric poetry since T. Shevchenko's death. Published in 1903 in Lviv and edited by I . Franko, with art work by Yu. Pankevych, it contains the works of 88 poets from eastern and Western Ukraine. Aksenov, Aleksandr, b 13 October 1929 in Krotovo, Novosibirsk oblast, Russia. Scientist specializing in the study of materials, Soviet civil servant, corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian S S R . Aksenov graduated from the Kiev Institute of Civil Aviation Engineering, where he later taught. He became the institute's rector in 1975. From 1970 to 1975 he was deputy minister of civil aviation for the U S S R . He has written studies on friction and the resistance of metals to fatigue. Aksenteva, Zinaida [Aksent'eva, Zinajida], b 25 July 1900 in Odessa, d 8 April 1969 in Poltava. Geophysicist, corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian S S R from 1951. In 1951-69 Aksenteva served as director of the Poltava Gravimetric Observatory of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian S S R , where she conducted long-term observations of gravitational oscilla­ tion. She took part in the gravimetric survey of Ukraine's territory. Akta grodzkie i ziemskie (City and Land Acts). Collection of historical documents and materials from the Lviv archives of the Bernardines, published from 1868 to 1935 in 25 volumes. It is a valuable source for the study of the social and legal history of Western Ukrainian lands under Poland since the 14th century. Aktovi knyhy. See Acts, Books of.

45

Akty, otnosiashchiesia k istoríi luzhnoi i Zapadnoi Rossii (Documents on the History of Southern and Western Russia). Collected and published by the Archeo­ graphic Commission in 15 volumes in St Petersburg, 1863-92. This collection of documentary materials per­ tains mostly to the history of Ukraine and to some extent Belorussia in the i 3 t h - i 7 t h century (up to 1678). M . Kostomarov edited volumes 1-9 and 11-13 and G. Karpov edited volumes 10, 14, and 15. The documents were selected from the archives of the ministries of foreign affairs and justice (Delà Malorossiiskogo Prikaza) in Moscow as well as from the ^Lithuanian Register. Akty, otnosiashchiesia k istoríi Zapadnoi Rossii (Documents on the History of Western Russia). A collec­ tion of documents on the history of Ukraine, Belorussia, Lithuania, and, partly, Muscovy for the period 1340-1699 but mostly for the 16th to 17th century that was collected and published by the Archeographic Commission in St Petersburg in 5 volumes (1846-53). The materials were selected from Ukrainian, Belorussian, and Lithuanian archives and libraries and were transferred to Russia. I . Grigorovich was the editor of the first four volumes. Alans (also known as Alani). A nomadic, Iranianspeaking *Sarmatian tribe that in the 1st century A D inhabited the lands north of the Black Sea between the Urals and the lower Dnieper River and raised livestock. In the 4th century the Alans joined their conquerors, the *Huns, in their invasion of Europe. In the 7th century they came under the control of the *Khazars. The Alans were the ancestors of the Ossetes living in Caucasia. In the ancient chronicles they were known as Yasi. Albanians. A people numbering 3.8 million in 1980, most of whom live in Albania. There are significant Albanian minorities in Yugoslavia, Greece, Italy, Ru­ mania, Bulgaria, and southern Ukraine. At the beginning of the 19th century the descendants of the Orthodox Albanians who fled to Dobrudja from southern Albania to avoid forced Turkish conversion to Islam settled in southern Bessarabia. They established the village of Karakurt (today Zhovtneve), now in Bolhrad raion of Odessa oblast. In 1862 some Albanians settled along the coast of the Sea of Azov and founded three villages Divnynske, Hamivka, and Heorhiivka - in Tavriia gubernia (now in Pryozivske raion, Zaporizhia oblast). Today there are about 5,000 Albanians in the Ukrainian S S R ; in i960, 75 percent of them still knew their mother tongue. Alberta. One of the three Prairie provinces in Canada, in which the first colony of Ukrainians in the Edna-Star (Beaver Creek) district, east of Edmonton, was located in 1892. Today Alberta contains the largest Ukrainian bloc settlement in Canada, on both banks of the North Saskatchewan River. In 1971 the population of Ukrainian origin was 135,515 (8.3 percent), third in size after the British (761,665 [46.7 percent]) and the German (231,005 [14.19 percent]). The population of Ukrainian origin in the major centres is: ^Edmonton, 62,655 - 6 percent; Calgary, 15,850 or 3.9 percent; Lethbridge, 2,020 or 4.9 percent; and Red Deer, 1,090 or 4.0 percent. Towns with high concentrations of population of Ukrainian origin include Vegreville (1,900 or 51.5 percent), Two Hills (925 o r

12

46

ALBERTA

of 74 percent), and Smoky Lake (670 or 76 percent). The Ukrainian Cultural Heritage Village, with its buildings and artifacts of Ukrainian life in Alberta prior to the 19203, is 25 miles east of Edmonton. Alchevska, Khrystia [Alcevs'ka, Xrystja], b 16 March 1882 in Kharkiv, d 27 October 1931. Poet, translator, and teacher, daughter of O. and Khrystyna Alchevsky. Alchevska completed her higher education in Paris in 1903 and taught French at the Kharkiv women's gymnasium. During the 19205 she was a member of the Ukrainian Society of Playwrights and Composers. She began her literary career in 1903 and published poems in the newspaper Ridnyi krai, in Literaturno-naukovyi visnyk, and in Ukra'ins'ka khata, Alchevska was accused of nationalism by Soviet critics for her collections of lyric poems with patriotic themes - Tuha za sontsem (Longing for the Sun, 1907), Sontse z-za khmar (Sun from behind the Clouds, 1910), Vyshnevyi tsvit (Cherry Blossoms, 1912), Pisni sertsia i prostoriv (Songs of the Heart and Open Spaces, 1914), and Probudzhennia (Awakening, 1917) - and for the dramatic poem Luiza Michel (1930). She translated works by P.J. Béranger, V. Hugo, }. Verne, and L. Tolstoy.

Alchevsky, Hryhorii [Alcevs'kyj, Hryhorij], b 1866 in Kharkiv, d 1920 in Moscow. Son of O. and Khrystyna Alchevsky, voice and piano teacher, singer, and composer. Alchevsky graduated from the Moscow Conservatory of Music and wrote several textbooks for vocalists. He composed the symphony AVosha Popovych (1907), arrangements of Ukrainian and Russian folk songs, and a series of solo pieces to the words of T. Shevchenko, I. Franko, Lesia Ukrainka, and Khrystia Alchevska.

Ivan Alchevsky

Khrystia Alchevska

Khrystyna Alchevska

Alchevska, Khrystyna [Alcevs'ka, Xrystyna], b 16 April 1841 in Borzna, Chernihiv gubernia, d 15 August 1920 in Kharkiv. Eminent pedagogue and organizer of Sunday schools, wife of O. * Alchevsky, mother of the poet Khrystia Alchevska, the composer H. Alchevsky, and the singer I. Alchevsky. She lived and worked in Kharkiv. Beginning in 1862, she maintained the Women's Sunday School (officially accredited in 1870) at her own expense. The school remained in existence some 50 years and was known for its highly developed methods of adult education. (B. Hrinchenko taught at the school as a young man.) In collaboration with the teaching staff, Alchevska compiled a methodological and bibliographical guide, Chto chitat' narodu (What the People Should Read, 3 vols, 1888-1906), which was awarded the grand prize at the Paris International Exhibition, and a teaching manual, Kniga vzroslykh (Book for Adults, 1899-1900). She also wrote a book of memoirs, Peredumannoe i perezhitoe (My Thoughts and Experiences, 1912), and numerous methodological articles on adult education. In the i86os Alchevska's articles appeared in A. Herzen's journal Kolokol, under the pseudonym Ukrainka. A monograph by O. Mazurkevych on the educational work of Alchevska and her colleagues was published in Kiev in 1963.

Alchevsky, Ivan [Alcevs'kyj], b 15 December 1876 in Kharkiv, d 10 May 1917 in Baku, Azerbaidzham. Distinguished opera singer, son of O. and Khrystyna Alchevsky. Alchevsky was soloist with the Mariinsky Opera Theater in St Petersburg (1901-5), the Paris Opera (1908-10), and the Bolshoi Opera Theater in Moscow (1910-14). He performed in Odessa, Katerynoslav, Kharkiv, Baku, and in West European and American cities. Together with M. Donets, he organized, in 1909, and directed, until 1914, the musical and dramatic ensemble Kobzar in Moscow. When the Ukrainian opera theater performed in Moscow, Alchevsky sang the role of Perro in the production of M. Lysenko's Natalka Poltavka. In 1915 he succeeded in staging P. Hulak-Artemovsky's Zaporozhets' za Dunaiem (Zaporozhian Cossack beyond the Danube) at the Bolshoi Opera Theater. In 1916 he staged the same opera at the Odessa Opera, both times performing the role of Andrii. Alchevsky's European and American concerts, in which he promoted Ukrainian composers, especially M. Lysenko and Ya. Stepovy, were a great success. Reminiscences about Alchevsky, his correspondence, and other materials were published in a book edited by L Lysenko and K. Myloslavsky (Kiev 1980). Alchevsky, Oleksii [Alcevs'kyj, Oleksij], b 1835 in Sumy; d 1901 in Kharkiv. Mining engineer, industrialist, and banker, husband of Khrystyna Alchevska, and father of the composer H. Alchevsky, the singer I. Alchevsky, and the poet Khrystia Alchevska. Alchevsky owned the Kharkiv Southern Russia Commercial Bank and financed a number of coal-mining and metallurgical firms in the Donbas, including the Donetsko-Yuriivskyi metallurgical plant, today the metallurgical plant in Komunarske. Alchevsky committed suicide after being refused a government loan to save his bank and firms, which had gone into a slump following the Russian monetary reform of 1897.

A L C O H O L

Alcohol consumption and alcoholism. Beverages of low alcoholic content, such as beer, mead, kvass, and, to a lesser extent, wine have been consumed in Ukraine since the early Slavic period (before the 8th century A D ) . Wine was introduced by the Goths; however, until recent times it was an expensive import that could be afforded only by the upper classes. Whiskey (horilka) came to Ukraine from Western Europe and began to acquire popularity from the end of the 14th century. In the 16th century braha - a weak alcoholic beverage made from barley and rye and invented by the Chuvashes - was brought to Ukraine via Muscovy and Belorussia. The concept of a public drinking place (korchma) appears to have already existed in the early Slavic period. Drinking was so much part of Rus' popular culture that Prince Volodymyr 1 the Great cited this as the reason he rejected the Volga Bulgars' invitation in 986 to accept Islam, which prohibits alcohol. During the Princely and early Polish-Lithuanian periods alcoholic beverages were produced at home to serve the family's own needs. At the end of the 15th century beer brewing began to assume commercial forms and passed into the hands of spe­ cialized guilds, which were granted concessions by the king. The manufacture and sale of whiskey was a privilege reserved for the gentry and sometimes burghers, who usually leased their taverns to Jews (see *Propination). After the establishment of the Cossack state in 1648, Cossack officers took over from the gentry and Jews the right to keep taverns. In the 17th-18th century the Zaporozhian Cossacks and seminarians (known as beer-guzzlers [pyvorizy]) enjoyed a reputation as heavy drinkers. West European writers of the 17th century, such as G. de Beauplan and A. Vimina, noted that the Cossacks drank heavily in peace­ time but abstained from alcohol in wartime. S. Collins, an Englishman who visited Ukraine between 1659 and 1666, commented on the widespread drinking among all classes of the population. A directive of the Little Russian College on the whiskey industry issued in 1764 speaks about the 'unparalleled drunkenness' that prevailed among the common people of the Hetmán state, destroying their 'incentive to work' and causing 'premature' death. O. Shafonsky in 1787 and V. Passek in 1839 testified that among the common people of eastern Ukraine even juveniles drank whiskey. Yet, 'wild drinking' (as I . Pryzhov described it), a practice among the masses in Russia, was not common in Ukraine. In the 1840s drinking took on a humorous, organized form among the nobility of Left-Bank Ukraine, who set up the society *Mochemordy. Members of the society were forbidden to drink ordinary whiskey and could drink only homemade liqueurs. The abolition of serfdom in 1861 led to a decline in alcohol consumption among the peasants of eastern Ukraine. The situation in Right-Bank Ukraine and Galicia was different. Here, after the partition of Poland and the abolition of serfdom (1848 in Galicia, 1861 in Right-Bank Ukraine), the Polish gentry retained the right of propination. In Galicia, for example, the peasants had to accept a certain ration of whiskey from the landlord as payment for their labor. The suppression of the Uniate church in Right-Bank Ukraine by the Russian government in 1839 led to a rise in alcoholism among the people, because the Orthodox church could not mount as energetic a cam­ paign against drunkenness as could the Catholic church

47

C O N S U M P T I O N

(according to V. Dmitriev's data). As a result, by about i860 Right-Bank Ukraine had the highest alcohol con­ sumption in the Russian Empire: 80 units per capita per year as compared to 75 in the former Hetmán state, 50 in Lithuania and Belorussia, 37 in the Don Cossack oblast, 23 in Russia proper, and 21 in Siberia. After the Polish uprising in 1863-4 the Russian government limited the right of the Poles to sell liquor in Right-Bank Ukraine to cities and towns (1864, 1866, 1877) * then established its own monopoly on liquor sales throughout the empire. Again this led to increasing alcoholism among the peasants, as state liquor shops (monopolky), stocked with whiskey, usually with an alcohol content of 45 percent, appeared in almost every village. Reports from the local authorities in Chernihiv, Kiev, Poltava, Kerch, etc show that public drunkenness increased. Beer consump­ tion in Russian-ruled Ukraine was higher (0.35 bucket per capita [1 bucket or vidro = 12.3 L]) than the average for the empire (0.20). In Galicia, after the abolition of serfdom, the Polish gentry could no longer force the peasants to buy whiskey, but it retained ownership of the taverns. In 1876 there were 23,264 taverns in Galicia, or 1 per 233 inhabitants. The per-capita whiskey consumption was 26 L , and 54 million guldens were spent on alcohol annually. In spite of the ^temperance movement, in 1900-8 the Ukrainian population of Galicia still spent 20 million kronen (8.4 million guldens) per year on alcohol. In 1919-39 the Polish government pursued a monopo­ listic liquor policy in Western Ukraine similar to that of the Russian government. Owing to the Ukrainian tem­ perance movement, Ukrainians consumed much less liquor than the Poles; however, the consumption of beer was substantial, as is evident from the accompanying table. During the Second World War a particularly demoral­ izing policy was introduced in the Ukrainian territories under the German occupation: peasants were compen­ sated with whiskey for their compulsory deliveries of food products. The Soviet government continued the traditional Rus­ sian state monopoly on liquor. The population circum­ vented this form of exploitation by moonshining. In 1950-60 alcohol consumption in the Ukrainian S S R doubled, and by 1966 it had risen by another 50 percent. By 1970 it was three times as high as in 1949. Between 1959 and 1967 the number of registered alcoholics increased fivefold. According to statistics for 1970, 20 percent of patients in psychoneurological institutions in Ukraine and 46 percent of the mentally ill found in villages were alcoholics. Treatment for alcoholism is not very effective: only 25 percent of the patients are permanently cured. Fatal accidents are frequently attributable to alcoholism: in 1967, 48.4 percent of fatal poisonings in cities and 49.2 percent of such poisonings in villages were the result of drinking. By 1968 these figures had increased to 56.0 and 52.2 percent. Workers comprise the largest percentage of chronic alcoholics (46.4 percent), followed by the unem­ ployed (18.7 percent). In the Russian S F S R the problem of alcoholism is even more acute than in Ukraine. Alcoholism in the Ukrainian S S R can be attributed to such factors as the lack of opportunity, demoralization, disillusionment with professed ideals, the suppression of self-expression, the impossibility of free participation in public life, and the unattainability of material goods and enjoyments. a n c

m

48

A L C O H O L

C O N S U M P T I O N

Consumption of alcohol (A) and beer (B) in Poland, Western Ukraine, and Western Belorussia (L per capita) 1929 Regions of the Polish Republic Western Poland (Poznan, Pomerania, Silesia voivodeships) Central Poland (Warsaw, -Lódz, Kielce [mostly Poles], Lublin [Poles, Ukrainians], Biaíystok [Belorussians, Poles, Ukrainians] voivodeships) Western Belorussia and Volhynia (Vilnius and Navahrudak [Belorussians], Polisia [Ukrainians, Belorussians], Volhynia [Ukrainians] voivodeships) Galicia and Little Poland (Lviv, Stanyslaviv, Ternopil [Ukrainians], Cracow [Poles, Ukrainians] voivodeships)

1931

1932

1933

1934

1935

1936

1937

A

B

A

B

A

B

A

B

A

B

A

B

A

B

A

B

1.9

17.8

1.2

13.2

1.1

9.5

1.2

7.3

1.2

7.8

1.4

7.1

1.5

6.7

1.6

7.6

1.9

4.8

1.1

3.7

0.9

2.8

1.0

2.0

1.0

2.1

1.2

2.1

1.3

2.2

1.4

2.5

1.4

2.4

0.6

1.4

0.5

1.2

0.5

1.1

0.5

1.0

0.6

1.0

0.7

1.1

0.9

1.3

1.1

12.8

0.5

8.6

0.4

6.1

0.4

4.0

0.4

4.6

0.5

4.2

0.5

4.7

0.6

5.6

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Navrots'kyi, V . P'ianstvo i propinatsiia v Halychyni (Geneva 1862) Pryzhov, I. Istoriia kabakov v Rossii v sviazi s istoriei russkogo naroda (St Petersburg-Moscow 1868) Sikorskii, I. 'Alkogolizm i piteinoe delo,' in Voprosy nervnopsikhicheskoi meditsiny (Kiev 1897) Dmitriev, V . Kriticheskie issledovaniia 0 potreblenii alkogolia v Rossii (Moscow 1911) Alkogolizm: Voprosy patogeneza, kliniki i lechebno-profilakticheskikh meropriiatii (Kiev 1970) Livshits, S.; Iavorskii, V . SotsiaVnye i klinicheskie problemy alkogolizma (Kiev 1975) B. Struminsky

Alder (Alnus; Ukrainian: vilkha). A genus of deciduous trees or shrubs of the birch or Betulaceae family that have dark-green leaves and conelike seeds. The black or European alder (Alnus glutinosa), which attains a height of 25 m, is the most common species in Ukraine. The gray alder (A. incana) grows in the Carpathian Mountains and attains a height of 10 m. Alder wood is soft and reddens on contact with air. It is used for underwater construction, furniture, and veneer. The bark is used in tanning and paint-making. The tree grows in moist soil, particularly in Polisia, where it forms whole groves. The European green alder (A. viridis), which has small leaves similar to birch leaves and which attains a height of 2 m, grows in the subalpine belt together with the mountain pine. Aldridge, Ira Frederick, b 1805 in New York City or Belair, Maryland, d 10 August 1867 in Lodz, Poland. Negro tragedian. In the 1820s Aldridge acted in amateur theaters in New York. After emigrating to England, he made a highly successful debut on the London stage in 1826 in the role of Othello. In the 1850s he performed mostly in Europe and won high acclaim, particularly in Russia. Aldridge's first performance in St Petersburg on 10 November 1858 in the role of Othello was witnessed by T. Shevchenko. Shevchenko and Aldridge became friends. Shevchenko admired the actor's talent and attended all his performances in the capital. He sketched a portrait of Aldridge in 1858. In 1861-6 Aldridge toured several cities in Ukraine - Kiev, Kharkiv, Odessa, Zhytomyr, and Yelysavethrad - and became acquainted with a number of prominent Ukrainians.

Aleksandrenko, H l i b , b 1 January 1899 in St Petersburg, d 22 January 1963. Jurist, son of V. Aleksandrenko. Aleksandrenko taught at various higher schools in Ukraine. From 1957 he worked in the state and law section of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian S S R . He wrote several works on federalism and comparative law, including Marksyzm-Leninizm pro derzhavnu federatsiiu (Marxism-Leninism on State Federation, Kiev i960) and Burzhuaznyi federalizm (Bourgeois Federalism, Kiev 1962). Aleksandrenko, Vasyl, b 11 February 1861 in Nizhen, d 1909. Professor of international law at Warsaw University. Aleksandrenko published works on the history of English institutions and on Russian diplomatic history of the 18th and 19th centuries, as well as a collection of documents from foreign archives on Ukrainian political émigrés after the Battle of Poltava (published in Sbornik Kievskoi komissii dlia razbora drevnikh aktov, 1916). 'Aleksandriia' (also 'Oleksandriia'). Alexander romances - legends and myths about the life of Alexander the Great of Macedonia. The Alexander romances are among the most widespread epics in world literature and have appeared in more than 30 languages. In Kievan Rus' a translation of a later Greek version of the 2nd-century folk epic - the pseudo-Callisthenes - appeared in the 11th century and became a part of various Rus' narratives. In the 13th century the 'Aleksandriia' was modified with Christian elements. In the i 5 t h - i 6 t h century a Serbian redaction of the romance, with an emphasis on the fantastic elements, reached Ukraine. Later, a Croatian redaction of an Italian version appeared but was not widely known. The 'Aleksandriia' had a considerable influence on the description of military events in Old Ukrainian literature and on folk epics. The texts of the romances were published by V. Istrin in Aleksandriia russkikh khronografov (The Aleksandriia of Rus' Chronographers, 1893) and by S. Haievsky in Aleksandriia' v davnii ukraïns'kii literaturi (The 'Aleksandriia' in Old Ukrainian Literature, 1929). Aleksandrov, Ivan, b 1 September 1875 in Moscow, d 2 May 1936 in Moscow. Russian scientist, specialist in energetics and hydrotechnology, full member of the U S S R academy of sciences. Aleksandrov designed the plans for

ALESHKO

and supervised the construction of the ^Dnieper Hydroelectric Station. Aleksandrov, Stepan, b 1790s, d mid-i8oos. Poet, father of V. *Aleksandrov, and village priest in the Kharkiv region. Aleksandrov wrote the poem 'Vovkulaka' (The Werewolf, 1848), in which he imitated the humor and parody of I . Kotliarevsky and P. Hulak-Artemovsky and made use of ethnographic and folkloric material and wedding and religious songs.

Volodymyr Aleksandrov

Aleksandrov, Volodymyr, b 2 July 1825 in the village of Buhaivka, Kharkiv gubernia, d 1 October 1894 in Kharkiv. Poet, playwright, translator, and ethnographer. Aleksandrov studied medicine at Kharkiv University and, after graduating in 1853, became an army doctor. In 1861 he began publishing poems in the journal Osnova, the almanac Skladka, the Galician Zoria, and other journals. He published Narodnyi pisennyk z naikrashchykh úkráins'kykh pisen' (A Folk Songbook of the Best Ukrainian songs, 1887), and the tales 'Ivashechko' (Little Ivas), 'Chyzhykove vesillia' (The Finch's Wedding), and 'Kozadereza' (Billy Goat's Bluff). His operettas, Za Neman' idu (Beyond the Neman I Go, 1872) and Ne khody, Hrytsiu, na vechornytsi (Don't Go to Parties, Hryts! 1873), are well known from M. Starytsky's re workings. Aleksandrov also translated works by H . Heine, A. Mickiewicz, M . Lermontov, and others. Aleksandrovsky, Hryhorii [Aleksandrovs'kyj, Hryhorij], b 1873, d 1936? A literary scholar, professor at the school Higher Courses for Women in Kiev and later at the Lysenko Music and Drama School. From 1917 to 1919 Aleksandrovsky worked in the Ministry of Education. He contributed to the newspapers Rada and Nova rada and wrote studies of the Ukrainian theater of 1917-19. Aleksandrovych, Mytrofan [Aleksandrovyc] (pseud Mytro Olelkovych), b ca 1840 in the village of Kalyta, Chernihiv gubernia, d 1881 by suicide. Aleksandrovych was the author of ethnographic tales published in Osnova and separately in 1895 Ükrai'ns'ki pysannia (Ukrainian Writings), edited by I . Franko. He also wrote articles on Chernihiv gubernia and left an unfinished historical work on Oster county (1881). m

Alekseev, Evgenii, b 10 October 1869, d 18 October 1930. Forestry specialist. Alekseev graduated from the Forestry Institute in St Petersburg. In 1914 he began to

49

work in Ukraine as a forest manager of the Kiev forest district. In 1923 he was appointed professor and dean of the faculty of forest engineering at the Kiev Polytechnical Institute. Alekseev was responsible for the establishment of the *Bilovezha Forest reserve. He did research on the types of forest found in Ukraine. Among his published works are Typy ukrai'ns'koho lisu (Types of Ukrainian Forests, 1928), Pro osnovni poniattia lisivnyts'koï typolohiï (The Basic Concepts of Forest Typology, 1927), and the textbook Lesovodstvo (Forestry, 1929). Aleksiienko, Mykhailo [Aleksijenko, Myxajlo], b 1847 in Katerynoslav, d 1917. Lawyer and financial expert. Aleksiienko studied at Kharkiv University and abroad and in 1879 became professor of finance law and later rector of Kharkiv University. He was also active in the Katerynoslav zemstvo and was a deputy to the Third Russian State Duma (1907). Aleksiienko published works on taxation and credit: Vzgliad na razvitie ucheniia 0 naloge u Smita, Zh. B. Seia, Rikardo, Sismondi i D.S. Milla (A Look at the Development of the Theory of Taxation in Smith, J.B. Say, Ricardo, Sismondi, and J.S. Mill, 1870), Gosudarstvennyi kredit (State Credit, 1872), Podokhodnyi nalog i usloviia ego primeneniia (Income Tax and the Conditions of Its Application, 1885), and others. Aleksiiv, Mykola [Aleksijiv], b 19 March 1894 in Kiev, d 2 February 1934 in Leningrad. Graphic artist. Aleksiiv studied at the Kiev Art School under F. Krychevsky (1912-17); he was a master of book art and bookplates, a follower of Yu. Narbut. In 1917-18 he designed bank notes for the UNR and produced several designs for playing cards. In the 1920s he executed illustrations and cover designs for such Kiev publications as M . Rylsky's Synia dalechiri (The Blue Distance, 1922), the selected works of I . Franko (1925), Yu. Yanovsky's Krov zemli (Blood of the Earth, 1927), the works of Lesia Ukrainka (12 vols, 1926-31), and N . Gogol's Mertvyedushi (Dead Souls, 1934)Aleksinsky, Grigorii [Aleksinskij, Grigorij], b 16 September 1879 in Khunzakh, northern Caucasia, d 4 October 1967 in Paris. Russian Social Democrat, member of the Second Russian State Duma from 1907. Aleksinsky wrote articles on economics for the Ukrainian journals Dzvin (eg, 'Khutora ta odruby na Ukraïni' [Farmsteads and Private Plots in Ukraine]) and Literaturno-naukovyi vistnyk (eg, 'Selians'kyi bank na Kyïvshchyni' [The Peasant Bank in the Kiev Region]). During the First World War he opposed the activity of the *Union for the Liberation of Ukraine. In 1919 he emigrated to Paris. In 1953 Aleksinsky became editor of the Russian émigré newspaper Osvobozhdenie, in which he supported the principle of independence for the oppressed peoples in the USSR, particularly the Ukrainians. He translated I . Bahriany's novel Sad Hetsymans'kyi (The Garden of Gethsemane) into French. Alepsky, Pavlo. See Paul of Aleppo. Aleshko, Vasyl [Alesko], b January 1889 in Sumy, d? Poet and prose writer. Aleshko worked during the 1920s as a junior agronomist and on the editorial board of the newspaper Pluh i molot in Sumy. He was a member of the literary organization Pluh. He is the author of the poetry collections Hromodar (The Thunder's Gift, 1920), Poeziï

50

ALESHKO

(Poems, 2 vols, 1920), and Stepy tsvituf (The Steppes Are Flowering, 1928); the anthologies of humor Bozhestvenni repiakhy (Divine Burdocks, 1925), Ternytsia (The Bramble Bush, 1925), and Kyslytsi (Crab Apples, 1927); and the story collections Khlib (Bread, 1930), Motornyi (The Lively Fellow, 1931) and Li boiakh za bavovnyk (In Battles for the Cotton Shrub, 1934). He also wrote the play Pozhar (The Fire, 1935). Aleshko disappeared during the Stalin Terror. Alexander I, b 23 December 1777, d 1 December 1825 in Tahanrih. Russian emperor in 1801-25, son and successor of "Paul i . In the first part of his reign Alexander introduced a number of liberal reforms as a result of the influence of the Englightenment and of his friends and advisers, among whom were a number of Ukrainians (V. Kochubei, M . Speransky, V. "Karazyn, and others). He established government ministries and the Committee of Ministers in 1802, permitted non-nobles to purchase uninhabited lands in 1801, and issued an ukase on 'free farmers' in 1803. decade of exhausting wars with France, Sweden, Great Britain, and Turkey, and particu­ larly the so-called Patriotic War with France in 1812, followed by the European campaigns of 1813-14 and the developing liberal-revolutionary movement within and outside the Russian Empire, turned Alexander towards a despotic, reactionary policy. On the international scene he supported the reactionary forces in Europe (Congress of Vienna, 1814-15), while at home he introduced the so-called "military settlements, particularly in Ukraine, prohibited "Freemasonry in 1822, and introduced reac­ tionary cultural and educational policies. Alexander's policy towards the non-Russian peoples of his empire adhered to traditional Russian imperialism and centralism. Ukraine's autonomy was increasingly restricted, and its distinctive features were increasingly eradicated: the "Little Russia gubernia was abolished, and the former territory of the Hetmán state was divided into two gubernias - Chernihiv and Poltava - although both were governed by the same military governor; elective judicial and administrative offices for the nobles were abolished in 1802; education was Russified (the "Kievan Mohyla Academy was turned into a theological academy); Right-Bank Ukraine was regarded as a Polish land and was tied economically and administratively to the Polish Kingdom, which, through a personal union, became part of the Russian Empire. The Russian wars and conquests (Georgia, Finland, Bessarabia, Azerbaidzhán) drained Ukraine's population and economic resources. The harm that Alexander's policies inflicted on the Ukrainian people could not be compensated for by such favorable measures as permission of transit trade with Western Europe, the opening of the free port of Odessa, the founding of Kharkiv University and the lyceums of Nizhen and Odessa, and the restoration of Magdeburg law to Kiev. The policies of Russian centralism provoked a natural reaction in Ukraine. National consciousness began to rise and found expression in the activities of individual patriots (*Istoriia Rusov), of sociocultural groups, such as the Masons, and of illegal political organizations, such as the "Little Russian Secret Society. Peasant unrest and revolts in the military settlements, as well as the growth of the liberal-revolutionary movement (the "Decembrist and Polish independence movements), led to a very tense political atmosphere. The effects of the a

suppressed tensions became evident soon after Alexan­ der's death, during the reign of "Nicholas 1. O.Ohloblyn

Alexander I I , b 29 April 1818, d 13 March 1881 in St Petersburg. Russian emperpr in 1855-81, son and succes­ sor of "Nicholas 1. Alexander's reign began under difficult conditions: Russia's defeat in the "Crimean War, a crisis in the system of "serfdom, increasing peasant unrest, and social conflict. This forced Alexander to attend to impor­ tant reforms: the emancipation of the peasants (1861), the introduction of limited self-government by the "zemstvos and partial westernization of the court system (1864), the overhauling of municipal government (1870), and the introduction of universal military training (1874). Alexan­ der's foreign policy was based on an alliance with Prussia and Austria-Hungary and continued Nicholas I'S policy of eastward expansion (the Russo-Turkish Wars of 18778, the conquest of Caucasia in 1864 d of Central Asia in 1865-76). After suppressing the Polish insurrection of 1863-4, the Russian government took decisive steps to eradicate Polish autonomy and influence and the power of the Catholic church in Right-Bank Ukraine, Belorussia, and Lithuania. During Alexander's reign the Russification of Ukrai­ nian culture and the suppression of the Ukrainian national movement intensified. In 1863 the Valuev circu­ lar declared that 'there was not, is not, and cannot be a Ukrainian language' and restricted Ukrainian publica­ tions. The Ukrainian Catholic church in the Kholm region and Podlachia was abolished in 1875. The "Ems Ukase of 1876 prohibited the Ukrainian printed word and theater. The growth of radical "populism, particularly in Ukraine, provoked government repressions, which in turn esca­ lated antigovernment terrorism. Faced with this situation, the government prepared administrative and constitu­ tional reforms that aroused hopes among Ukrainian liberal circles. But Alexander's assassination in St Peters­ burg by Narodnaia Volia revolutionaries put an end to these projects and hopes. a n

O . Ohloblyn

Alexander III, b 10 March 1845, d 1 November 1894 in the Crimea. Russian emperor in 1881-94, son and succes­ sor of "Alexander 11. Alexander set himself as his main task the preservation and strengthening of the autocratic control of all areas of life under the Russian Empire, using increased police repression, censorship, religious per­ secution, and Russification. At the beginning of the 1880s Alexander i n was forced by the circumstances that led to the assassination of his father to make minor concessions in favor of the peasantry. He abolished the poll tax and lowered the payments for land. However, it was not long before he began to restrict the liberal reforms of the 1860s-1870s, particularly those pertaining to the court system, zemstvos, municipal government, public edu­ cation, and the universities. Bureaus for zemstvo affairs, comprised of governors and nobles, were introduced and granted wide powers over the peasantry. The Nobles' Land Bank was established to promote land ownership by the nobility. Alexander's foreign policy aimed at safe­ guarding Russia's position in Europe (through an alliance with France), in the Balkans (attempts at making Bulgaria a Russian satellite), in Central Asia, and in the Far East without disruptive conflicts and wars. Alexander i n

ALL-RUSSIAN CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY

continued his father's anti-Ukrainian policy, based on the *Ems Ukase.

O. Ohloblyn

Alexander Jagielloñczyk, b 5 August 1461 in Cracow, d 19 August 1506 in Vilnius. Son of King Casimir iv Jagielloñczyk of Poland; grand duke of Lithuania (14921506), and Polish king (1501-6). During Alexander's reign Ivan i n of Muscovy and the Crimean Tatars encroached on the Ukrainian territories belonging to Lithuania. In 1490-1500 Muscovy invaded and took control of the lands of Chernihiv and Novhorod-Siverskyi. In 1499 the Vilnius treaty was concluded, providing for the military union of Lithuania and Poland, which was then ruled by Alexander's brother, Jan 1 Olbracht, as equal states. During Alexander's rule Ukrainian magnates headed by Prince M . *Hlynsky, a friend of the king, had considerable influence at the Lithuanian court. After Alexander's death the influence of Ukrainian magnates diminished. Algirdas or Olgierd, b ca 1296, d May 1377. Prince of Krevo and Vitsebsk (1341-5) and grand duke of Lithuania (1345-77), son of *Gediminas. With the assistance of his brother Kçstusis, the prince of Zmudz, Algirdas unified the Lithuanian territories and waged war to enlarge his realm, making it one of the largest European states of his day. In 1345, after capturing Vilnius, Algirdas became the grand duke of Lithuania. Thereafter, he gradually annexed the larger part of the Ukrainian territories. At first, in about 1355, Algirdas won the lands of Chernihiv and Novhorod-Siverskyi from the Golden Horde. In 1363 he defeated the Tatar army at Syni Vody and annexed the Kiev land. Soon after he added Podilia and the Pereiaslav land to his domain. Algirdas waged a successful war over Volhynia against the Polish king Casimir i n the Great and left him with only the Belz and Kholm regions in Ukraine. He also annexed the principality of Smolensk and extended his influence over Pskov and Novgorod. Algirdas led campaigns against Muscovy in 1368, 1370, and 1372 and helped his brother Kçstutis in the struggle against the Teutonic Knights. Algirdas succeeded in unifying all of the Belorussian and most of the Ukrainian territories under the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. His respect for Ukrainian culture and the Ukrainian church won him the loyalty of the Ukrainian people as well as of the Ukrainian princes and magnates, who helped to administer the state. Algirdas left some of the Ukrainian territories he annexed under the care of the Ukrainian princes of the Riurykid line; others he granted to his relatives. During his reign the Ukrainian (Ruthenian) language became an official language of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. L . Wynar

Alibei Lake [Alibej]. Salt-water lake in southern Bessarabia near the Black Sea. The lake is 10 km long, 3-10 km wide, and has an area of 72 sq km. Alimony. Legally imposed support payments made by one family member to another who is in need of material assistance. Under the Russian and Austrian law that prevailed in Ukrainian territories prior to the Soviet period (as well as under the UNR, the Hetmán government, and the Polish regime), the principal form of

51

alimony was the support owed by parents to their dependent children, by grown-up children to their aged parents, and by husbands to wives. According to the Code on Marriage and Family of the Ukrainian SSR of 1969, the obligation of alimony arises out of marriage, family relations (parents towards children and vice versa, grandchildren towards grandparents and vice versa, etc), and adoption of children. The obligation also applies to stepparents and stepchildren. Illegitimate children were an exception: from 1944 to 1967 they had no right to support from the father. The mother's right to petition the courts to establish the identity of the father and to exact alimony from him for child support was also revoked; instead, the mother of an illegitimate child received a small allowance from the government. Since 1967 an illegitimate child has the right to alimony from the father who either admits paternity or has it established by the courts. Children can be released from their duty to support their parents if the courts determine that the parents did not fulfill their parental duties. The avoidance of alimony payments for children is punishable by law. O. Yurchenko

Allegory. Sometimes regarded as an extended metaphor, allegory in literature is a representation of abstract or spiritual meaning in concrete form. It evokes an interest on the one hand in events and characters, and on the other in the corresponding ideas and meanings. Many Ukrainian morality plays of the baroque period were either religious allegories or displayed allegorical personages. Some of T. Shevchenko's poems ('Kosar' [The Reaper], 'Velykyi l'okh' [The Great Vault]) are allegorical, as are I . Franko's poems 'Kameniari' (Stone-cutters) and 'Moisei' (Moses). Allegory is frequently used in fables (L. Hlibov). Some modern writers (M. Kulish, O. Berdnyk) also use allegory in their works. Allegory is not to be confused with symbols or personification. Alliance Nationale Ukrainienne en France. See Ukrainian National Alliance in France. Allied Powers. See Entente. All-Russian Constituent Assembly (Vserossiiskoe Uchreditelnoe Sobranie). The highest elected body on the territory of the former Russian Empire after the February revolution of 1917. The assembly was empowered to define the new political structure and to approve the constitution of the federated Russian state that was postulated by the Russian Provisional Government. In March 1917 a special council was created to prepare a law for elections to the assembly. By September the council had worked out its proposals, based on a universal, direct, equal, and secret vote. The Provisional Government designated 25 November 1917 as election day. At first the Bolsheviks demanded that the assembly be convened, but after they seized power in November they were critical of the elections because the lists of party candidates had been selected in September or October. The Bolsheviks took part in the elections, however. Ukrainian political circles expected that the assembly would legislate a democratic-republican political system and the national rights of the non-Russian peoples. In its first proclamation (22 March 1917) the Central Rada stated that the Provisional Government would soon convene a

52

ALL-RUSSIAN CONSTITUENT

ASSEMBLY

constituent assembly. The *A11-Ukrainian National Congress (17-21 April 1917) recognized the right of the assembly 'to establish the political structure of the Russian Republic,' but also called on the Ukrainians to lay the foundations for Ukrainian autonomy before the assembly was convened. The First Universal, issued on 23 June 1917, reiterated that the assembly should pass a law on Ukraine's autonomy. In its Second Universal (16 July 1917) the Central Rada promised to prepare a statute on Ukraine's autonomy and to present it to the All-Russian Assembly for ratification. The Third Universal (20 November 1917) stated that the assembly would determine the new state structure. Beginning in the second half of 1917, the Ukrainian parties and the Central Rada, seeking recognition for the sovereignty of the Ukrainian people, proposed the convening of the ^Constituent Assembly of Ukraine i n addition to the All-Russian Constituent Assembly. Only 54 of the 79 electoral districts reported the results of the voting. In Ukraine the elections to the Russian assembly took place on 10-12 December 1917 in eight districts. The results of the voting in Podilia were not reported. The outcome was a reflection of the political attitudes of the population during the revolution. Out of 36,260,000 votes cast throughout the territory of the former Russian Empire the Russian ^Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs) received 45.5 percent; the Bolsheviks, 24.9 percent; the ""Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries, 9.5 percent; the Constitutional Democratic party (Kadets), 5.1 percent; the ^Russian Social Democratic Workers' party (Mensheviks), 1.8 percent; the Ukrainian Socialists (the name used at the front by the Ukrainian Socialist Revolutionaries and Social Democrats), 1.4 percent; and the Ukrainian Social Democratic Workers' party, 0.26 percent. In Ukraine the 7,580,000 votes cast were divided in the following way: the national groups (non-Russian parties) won 61.5 percent (among them the Ukrainian SRs won 45.3 percent); the Russian SRs, 24.8 percent; the Bolsheviks, 10 percent; and the Kadets, 3.7 percent. Of the 120 deputies elected in Ukraine, 71 were Ukrainian SRs, 2 were Ukrainian Social Democrats, 4 were from the national minorities (1 Pole, 2 Jews, 1 Moslem), 30 were Russian SRs, 11 were Bolsheviks, 1 was a Kadet, and 1 was from the Union of Landowners. In six districts where the bloc of Ukrainian socialist parties (SRs, the ^Peasant Association, and Social Democrats) presented a single list of candidates, it won a clear majority of the votes: 77 percent in Kiev gubernia, 71 percent in Volhynia, 60 percent in Chernihiv gubernia, 60 percent in Poltava gubernia, 52 percent in Katerynoslav gubernia, and 33 percent in Tavriia gubernia. In the Kharkiv and Kherson gubernias the Ukrainian and the Russian SRs ran together; therefore the Ukrainian SRs received only 12 percent of the votes in the former and 25 percent in the latter gubernia. Besides the eight districts in Ukraine, the Ukrainian Socialists had 11 deputies elected at the front. Some of the elected Ukrainian delegates (50 in all) met in Kiev on 24 December 1917 and decided not to participate in the Russian assembly until the Constituent Assembly of Ukraine was convened. The only session of the All-Russian Constituent Assembly took place in Petrograd on 18-19 January 1918. The Bolshevik-dominated All-Russian Central Executive

Committee set forth an ultimatum demanding the ratification of the decrees of the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets on the transfer of all power to the soviets. When the assembly rejected this demand, the Bolsheviks dispersed the deputies and declared the assembly to be dissolved. BIBLIOGRAPHY Sviatitskii, N . 'Itogi vyborov vo Vserossiiskoe uchreditel'noe sobranie,' in God russkoi revoliutsii 1917-1918 (Moscow 1918) Popov, M . Narys istoriï KP(b)u (Kharkiv 1928) Mal'chevskii, I. (ed). Vserossiiskoe uchrediteVnoe sobranie (191 y god v dokumentakh i materialakh) (Moscow-Leningrad 1930) Radkey, O . H . The Election to the Russian Constituent Assembly of 1917 (Cambridge, Mass 1950) A. Zhukovsky

All-Ukrainian Academy of Agricultural Sciences (Vseukrainska akademiia silsko-hospodarskykh nauk). Official Soviet Ukrainian institution established in 1926. The staff of the academy included specialists from the * Agricultural Scientific Committee of Ukraine, which was abolished in 1928. In 1934 the academy comprised 15 scientific research institutes (including institutes of zootechny, veterinary medicine, agricultural chemistry, melioration, mechanization of agriculture, meteorology, forestry, intensive cultivation), 10 research stations, 200 research locations, and 3 land reserves. The president of the academy was O. Sokolovsky. After the founding of the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences in Moscow in 1929, the All-Ukrainian academy was absorbed by the former in the mid-i930S. All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences (VUAN). See Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR. All-Ukrainian Archeological Committee (Vseukrainskyi arkheolohichnyi komitet or VUAK). A scholarly research body formed in 1924 out of the Archeological Commission of the historical-philological division of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, VUAK was active until 1933. It became a separate scholarly institution and the main authority on the preservation of Ukrainian cultural and archeological monuments, VUAK was divided into two departments - archeology and art - and had three special commissions. Most of the archeologists working in Ukraine were associated with it. Its president for many years was the art scholar and academician O. Novytsky. Its vice-president was the archeologist S. Hamchenko. Among its members and associates were M . Biliashivsky, D. Shcherbakivsky, M . Rudynsky, F. Ernst, M . Makarenko, P. Kurinny, I . Morhylevsky, O. Novytska, and V. Korsovska. The most important research projects undertaken by VUAK were excavations of the late Neolithic burial ground near Mariiupil, the Trypilian settlements on the Dnieper and Dniester rivers, the Bilohrudivka culture sites near Uman, the Raikiv fortified settlement near Berdychiv, and the monuments of the Antes in Olbia and Berezan. Its expeditions to new construction sites were important: to the Dnieper Hydroelectric Station (1927-32), led by D. Yavornytsky; to the South Buh Hydroelectric Station (1930-2), led by F. Kozubsky; and to the Mariiupil Azovstal Metallurgical Plant (1930-1), led by M . Makarenko. N . Kordysh-Holovko

A L L - U K R A I N I A N A S S O C I A T I O N OF P R O L E T A R I A N W R I T E R S

All-Ukrainian Association of Consumer Co­ operative Organizations (Vseukrainska spilka spozhyvchykh kooperatyvnykh orhanizatsii or Vukopspilka [VUKS]). A Soviet central association of Ukrainian con­ sumer co-operatives that in 1920 replaced the *Dniprosoiuz central co-operative union and took over its assets. By 1928 the VUKS network encompassed 41 raion unions (raisoiuzy), 351 workers and urban co-operatives with 6,993 stores and 1,719,000 members, and 8,988 rural consumer societies with 14,000 stores and 3,065,000 members, VUKS'S gross sales in the 1927-8 fiscal year amounted to 531. 1 million rubles, VUKS purchased goods from the state trusts and syndicates and supervised the large deliveries of grain and other farm products to the state. In 1928 it ran market outlets for the raion unions in Kiev, Kharkiv, Odessa, and Rostov; purchase offices in Moscow and Baku; 15 mills with an annual production of 151,000 t; and over 20 vegetable-oil plants and other enterprises. The association's own capital in 1928 totaled 8.4 million rubles, and its shareholders' equity was worth 3.6 million rubles. Within its system of co-operatives VUKS conducted important organizational and educational work. By 1933 the system included 23,396 rural trade depots and 7,888 urban stores. In the first half of the 1930s the urban co-operatives were dissolved, and most of their organizers became victims of the Stalinist terror. The assets of these co­ operatives were taken over by the state-run commercial system. The network of rural consumer co-operatives continued to operate, however. By 1941 VUKS represented 9,403 co-operatives (757 of them raion unions), with a membership of 10,506,700 shareholders. It managed 51,926 stores, 8,636 warehouses, and 2,211 manufactur­ ing enterprises. Its annual liabilities amounted to 359 million rubles. Under the German occupation VUKS func­ tioned for a brief period owing to private initiative. The difficult economic conditions after the war compelled the Soviet authorities to restore the entire system of consumer co-operatives. Today the central body of consumer co­ operatives in Ukraine is *Ukoopspilka (Ukrainian Asso­ ciation of Consumer Societies), which is subordinated to the Central Union of Cooperative Societies (Tsentrosoiuz) in Moscow. 7

V. Markus, I. Vytanovych

All-Ukrainian Association of Marxist-Leninist Scientific Research Institutes (Vseukrainska asotsiiatsiia marksystsko-leninskykh naukovo-doslidnykh instytutiv or VUAMLIN). A n association of research insti­ tutes established in 1931 in Kharkiv by the merger of the philosophy-sociology, economics, and history sections of the Ukrainian Institute of Marxism-Leninism (founded in 1922). Like the Russian Institutes of Red Professors, VUAMLIN trained professors and researchers who were loyal to the Party to replace older, independent scholars in institutions of higher learning. Studies for a degree lasted three years, preceded by two preparatory years. There were 625 students in 1932 in six institutes economics, philosophy and natural sciences, history, agriculture, law and Soviet construction and cadres, technology and technical policy - and two chairs literature and arts, and the national question. In Kiev, Dnipropetrovske, and Odessa VUAMLIN branches were founded, each with three departments (philosophy,

53

economics, and history). Affiliated with VUAMLIN were professional associations of Marxist historians, econo­ mists, and other scholars. The Communist Academy in Moscow supervised VUAMLIN'S academic activities, and policy guidance came from the Central Committee of the CP(B)U.

Presidents of VUAMLIN were O. *Shlikhter and, later, 0 . Dzenis; among the noteworthy heads of departments were M . *Skrypnyk, M . *Yavorsky, M . *Popov, S. *Shchupak, Yu. *Mazurenko, and V. *Yurynets. VUAM­ LIN published periodicals - *Prapor marksyzmu-leninizmu (1931-4), Pid marksysts'ko-lenins'kym praporom (1934-6), and Istoryk-biVshovyk (1934) - and monographs. Its pre­ decessor, the Ukrainian Institute of Marxism-Leninism, particularly from 1929, and VUAMLIN exerted pressure on the All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences to adapt its scholarly work to the Party line, and under Party pressure the leading members of VUAMLIN were made acade­ micians. In 1933-8 many VUAMLIN members fell victim to the Stalinist terror. In 1936 VUAMLIN was transferred to Kiev; soon after it was dissolved. Some of its work was taken over by the newly founded Ukrainian branch of the "Institute of Marx-Engels-Lenin, based in Moscow. The VUAMLIN Institute of the History of Ukraine became the Institute of History of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR. M. Hlobenko

All-Ukrainian Association of Proletarian Writers (Vseukrainska spilka proletarskykh pysmennykiv or VUSPP). Writers' organization founded in January 1927 for the declared purpose of a 'decisive struggle for an international-class union of Ukraine's literature against bourgeois nationalism' and the creation of a 'proletarian constructive realism.' Its actual task was to counteract such Ukrainian literary groups as *Vaplite, the *Neoclassicists, Lanka, and ""MARS, in whose work the Party detected 'nationalist' tendencies, VUSPP was a member of the *All-Union Alliance of Associations of Proletarian Writers (VOAPP) in Moscow and had a Russian and a Jewish section, VUSPP published the journal *Hart and Literaturna hazeta, while its branches published the jour­ nals Zoria in Dnipropetrovske, Stapeli in Mykolaiv, Metalevi dni in Odessa, *Zaboi in the Donbas, Krasnoe slovo, published by the Russian section, and Prolit, published by the Jewish section. Among VUSPP' S numerous members (it favored 'mass' participation and in 1931 even called on 'shock workers' to join), the more important writers were 1. Kulyk, I . Mykytenko, I . Kyrylenko, V. Koriak (the leaders of the organization), I . Le, D. Zahul, M . Tereshchenko, Ya. Savchenko, M . Dolengo, V. Sosiura, L. Pervomaisky, Ya. Kachura, K. Hordiienko, N . Zabila, S. Holovanivsky, V. Kuzmych, S. Zhyhalko, Yu. Zoria, V. Chyhyryn, P. Usenko, L. Smiliansky, S. Shchupak, B. Kovalenko, H . Ovcharov, and M . Novytsky. VUSPP's leaders strove to have it recognized as the writers' organization closest to the Party. Hence VUSPP devoted all its energies to the political struggle against other literary groups, and no outstanding literary works were pro­ duced by VUSPP'S members. In 1931, after the forced dissolution of the *Prolitfront and the *Nova Heneratsiia groups, some of the members of these organizations joined VUSPP. The resolution of the Party's Central Committee of 23 April 1932 'On the Reconstruction of

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A L L - U K R A I N I A N A S S O C I A T I O N OF P R O L E T A R I A N W R I T E R S

Literary and Artistic Organizations' abolished VUSPP, as well as VOAPP and other similar literary organizations. In 1937-9 many former VUSPP members, including all its leaders, were arrested and deported to labor camps. M. Hlobenko

All-Ukrainian Central Executive Committee (Vseukrainskyi Tsentralnyi Vykonavchyi Komitet or VUTsVK). From 1919 to 1937 the highest executive body of the Soviet Ukrainian state between sessions of the All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets, which elected the members of VUTsVK. VUTsVK was responsible to the "All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets for legislation and the general running of the state. It appointed members of the "Coun­ cil of People's Commissars (Radnarkom) and of various VUTsVK committees, ratified economic plans and the state budget, and distributed state funds among central and local government agencies. Yet, in accordance with the VUTsVK decision of 14 March 1919 'On the Tempor­ ary Powers of the Council of People's Commissars in Legislative and General Executive Matters,' the Radnar­ kom, not VUTsVK, became the basic legislative and executive body of the Ukrainian SSR. V U T S V K convened at least three times a year, and its work was supervised by its presidium, which functioned as the highest legislative, executive, and administrative body of the Ukrainian SSR between VUTsVK sessions. When the third constitution of the Ukrainian SSR was adopted in 1937, the functions of VUTsVK were taken over by the "Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR. A similar role in the structure of the USSR government was played by the All-Union Central Executive Com­ mittee in 1923-36. It consisted of two chambers: the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of Nationalities. In the latter each Union republic or autonomous republic had five representatives. The work of the presidium of the central executive committee and of the sessions of both chambers was supervised in turn by the chairmen of the committee (four, then seven) who were elected from among the members of the presidium according to the number of Union republics then in existence. H . "Petrovsky, chair­ man of the All-Ukrainian Central Executive Committee, represented the Ukrainian SSR on the Presidium of the All-Union Central Executive Committee. T.B. Ciuciura

All-Ukrainian Church Sobor (Vseukrainskyi Tserkovnyi Sobor). The first session of the sobor convened in Kiev on 7 January 1918 under the auspices of the "All-Ukrainian Orthodox Church Council. It was inter­ rupted on 19 January by the advance of the Soviet army. The second session (20 June to 11 July 1918) was domi­ nated by a Russophile majority, which expelled the initiators of the sobor from its membership (there were 198 votes for expulsion, 108 against). The initiators continued their work in co-operation with the Brother­ hood of ss Cyril and Methodius. Because of opposition by Russian hierarchs to the strivings of nationally conscious Ukrainians, the minister of religion, O. "Lototsky, an­ nounced on behalf of the Hetmán government at the autumn session of the sobor (12 November 1918) that the Ukrainian Orthodox church was to be autocephalous. All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets (Vseukrainskyi Zizd Rad). A n assembly of workers', peasants, and Red

Army deputies, which in 1917-37 was considered to be the highest governing body of the Ukrainian SSR (art 7 and 10 of the 1919 Constitution of the Ukrainian SSR, art 22 of the 1929 constitution). The deputies were elected by gubernia (later okruha and oblast) and city congresses of soviets. The 1919 Constitution of the Ukrainian SSR did not specify the procedure for electing deputies, leaving this to the decision of the "All-Ukrainian Central Execu­ tive Committee (VUTsVK) (art 9). The VUTsVK ruled on 7 April and 26 May 1920 that the gubernia and city congresses could send one deputy for every (1) 1,000 Red Army soldiers (who were usually Russians from outside Ukraine), (2) 10,000 urban workers, and (3) 50,000 peasants. All the powers of the congress, apart from the right to adopt, change, or amend the Constitution of the Ukrainian SSR (art 10 of the 1919 constitution), to change the borders of the Ukrainian SSR, to elect the members of VUTsVK and the representatives of Ukraine to the Soviet of Nationalities of the All-Union Central Executive Committee, or to decide on Ukraine's secession from the USSR (art 7 of the revised 1925 constitution), belonged in the intersessional period to the VUTsVK elected by the congress. Of the 14 congresses held, the following were the most important: the first in December 1917, which set up the first Soviet government of Ukraine; the second in 1918, which tactically declared the 'independence' of Soviet Ukraine; the third in 1919, which adopted the first Constitution of the Ukrainian SSR; the ninth in 1925, which changed the Constitution of the Ukrainian SSR to have it conform more closely to the USSR constitution of 1924; the eleventh in 1929, which adopted the second Constitution of the Ukrainian SSR; and the fourteenth in 1937, an extraordinary congress, which adopted the third Constitution of the Ukrainian SSR. In 1937 the functions of the All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets were taken over by the "Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR. On the all-Union level the Congress of Soviets of the USSR from 1923 to 1936 had a role comparable to that of the All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets. It was the supreme governing body in the USSR, elected indirectly and by unequal vote: one deputy for every 25,000 urban voters or for every 125,000 rural inhabitants. Until 1927 the AllUkrainian congress of Soviets and the All-Union Congress of Soviets convened every year; after 1927 they convened every two years. T.B. Ciuciura

All-Ukrainian Congress of Workers', Soldiers', and Peasants' Deputies (Vseukrainskyi Zizd Rad Robitnychykh, Soldatskykh i Selianskykh Députativ). Con­ gress convened in Kiev on 17-19 December 1917 by the Bolsheviks and other left-wing parties as the supreme organ of the local soviets. However, the overwhelming majority of elected delegates did not endorse the Bol­ shevik line, which aimed at creating out of the congress a government opposed to the "Central Rada. Of the 2,500 delegates less than 100 sympathized with the Bolsheviks. The latter then left Kiev and met in Kharkiv on 24-25 December with the Congress of Soviets from the Donets and Kryvyi Rih basins as the All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets, which proclaimed Soviet rule in Ukraine. The Kiev congress proceeded with its work and expressed its support for the Central Rada. The chairman of the Kiev congress was a Socialist Revolutionary, A. Stepanenko.

ALL-UKRAINIAN

All-Ukrainian Council of Military Deputies (Vseukrainska rada viiskovykh députativ). Elected by the Second *A11-Ukrainian Military Congress (18-23 June 1917), the council consisted of 132 members and a presidium. At the Third All-Ukrainian Military Congress (2-12 November 1917) the number of members was increased to 158. The council was a representative body in the Ukrainian ^Central Rada, together with the councils of peasants' and workers' deputies, party, municipal, and provincial representatives, and others. It worked closely with the Ukrainian General Military Committee, headed by S. Petliura. The council was involved in a constant struggle against the Russian Provisional Government and the soviets of soldiers' deputies. All-Ukrainian Council of Peasants' Deputies (Vseukrainska rada selianskykh députa tiv). Elected by the ""All-Ukrainian Peasant Congress on 10-16 June 1917, the council consisted of 133 members, who became representatives on the Ukrainian ^Central Rada. In the summer of 1917, county peasant congresses discussed the question of electing new members, ie, two representa­ tives for each of the 98 counties. On 5-7 July 1917, the first session of the All-Ukrainian Council of Peasants' Deputies moved that the council direct the Ukrainian peasant movement in its entirety and proceeded to recall Ukrainian peasants' representatives from the Executive Committee of the All-Russian Association of Peasants' Deputies. In late July 1917, 212 peasants' deputies took part in the Central Rada. Fifteen of these members formed the Central Committee of the ^Peasant Association. The second session of the council (15-18 September 1917) demanded that the Russian Provisional Government agree to an increase in the rights of the ""General Secretar­ iat of the Central Rada and to an expansion of that body's jurisdiction to include all Ukrainian ethnic territories. The third session (1-6 December 1917) spoke out against the Bolsheviks' attempts to seize power and, specifically, against their demands to hold a re-election of the Central Rada. The third session acclaimed the proclamation of the Central Rada's Third ""Universal. All-Ukrainian Council of Trade Unions (Vseukrain­ ska rada profesiinykh spilok or VURPS). Formed in Khar­ kiv in 1924 at the second All-Ukrainian Congress of Trade Unions, VURPS encompassed all-Ukrainian industrial trade union committees. The council was established on the foundations laid by preceding central trade organiza­ tions. In May 1918 the All-Ukrainian Central Council of Trade Unions (Utsentrprof) was formed, composed pri­ marily of representatives of anti-Bolshevik parties. At the 1919 trade union congress in Kharkiv the Utsentrprof was dissolved, and the Bolsheviks assumed the leadership of the trade union movement. The movement consequently became subservient to Moscow, which in 1920 created the Bureau for the South of Russia (Biuro Yuga Rossii), soon renamed the Ukrainian Bureau of the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions (VTsSPS). In 1924 VURPS was established. By 1929 it represented over two million trade union members, and its presidium, which was sub­ ordinated to the VTsSPS in Moscow, directed the allUkrainian committees and district union councils. In 1937 the VTsSPS, with the aim of complete centralization, liquidated all republican, krai, and oblast trade union councils, including VURPS. Many VURPS trade union

HIGHER HOLY

COUNCIL

55

leaders had been dismissed and exiled between 1933 and 1937. After the Second World War the central trade union institution, the Ukrainian Republican Council of Trade Unions (URRPS), was reinstated in Ukraine; oblast coun­ cils also resumed their activity. The central republican, oblast, raion, and municipal committees of member unions operate alongside the trade union councils. (See also *Trade union.) All-Ukrainian Council of Workers' Deputies (Vseukrainska rada robitnychykh députa tiv). Elected by the first ""All-Ukrainian Workers' Congress (24-26 July 1917). The council consisted of 100 deputies (70 members from the Ukrainian Social Democratic Workers' party and 30 from the Ukrainian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries) and formed part of the ^Central Rada, together with the *A11-Ukrainian Council of Peasants' Deputies, the *A11Ukrainian Council of Military Deputies, and representa­ tives of the national minorities. All-Ukrainian Evangelical Baptist Fellowship (Vseukrainske Yevanhelsko-Baptystske Bratstvo). As­ sociation of Ukrainian Baptists outside Ukraine that was founded in 1950 at a convention in Cleveland, Ohio, by Ukrainian Baptist congregations in North America. Even­ tually, Ukrainian Baptist congregations in Britain, Aus­ tralia, and South America joined the fellowship. By 1980 the fellowship represented about 10,000 organized Bap­ tists. Ideologically, the fellowship is a continuation of a similar organization founded in 1918 in Ukraine and later dissolved by the Soviets. Today the fellowship supports an unofficial group of Baptists in the Soviet Union known as the 'Initiators' (initsiiatyvnyky), which is represented abroad by Pastor G. ""Vins. The fellowship holds its conventions every five years. Delegates of local congregations, missions, and women's and youth organizations participate in the conventions. The following pastors have been president of the fellow­ ship: P. Kindrat (1949-59), G. Domashovets (1959-62), L. Zabko-Potapovych (1962-72), and O. Harbuziuk (1972-). The fellowship's missionary activities include publishing and radio broadcasting. It has its own publishing house for periodicals and books. Its central magazine is the bimonthly *Pislanets' pravdy (since 1949). The bimonthly Khrystyians'kyi visnyk is published in Canada, and levanheVs'ka zirka is published in Argentina. Ukrainian Bap­ tists have their own local radio programs in Canada and the United States. Since 1966 a radio program has been beamed to Soviet Ukraine. Besides the individuals men­ tioned above, the following have been prominent mem­ bers of the fellowship: I . Dumych, J. Ivaskiv, I . Kovalchuk, A. Harbuziuk, Jr, S. Nishchyk, M. Podvorniak, and Z. Rechun-Panko. The fellowship has contacts with other central Ukrainian organizations and is a member of the "World Congress of Free Ukrainians. (See also ^Baptists.) V. Markus

All-Ukrainian Higher Holy Council (Vseukrainska Vyshcha Osviashchenna Rada). Formed after the UNR government ratified the law on the autocephaly of the Ukrainian Orthodox church (1 January 1919), the council briefly guided the activities of the revived church. Its members included the archbishop of Katerynoslav, A. Vyshnevsky; the bishop of Kremianets, D. Valedynsky; Archpriest V. *Lypkivsky; and other church leaders.

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ALL-UKRAINIAN

INSURANCE

UNION

All-Ukrainian Insurance Union. See Strakhsoiuz. All-Ukrainian Learned Association of Oriental Studies (Vseukrainska naukova asotsiiatsiia skhodoznavstva). The association was founded in Kharkiv in 1926 and had branches in Kiev and Odessa. It had two departments: the department of politics and economics, with a Soviet section and a Far East section, and the department of history and ethnology, with art, archeological, linguistic, and historical-literary-economic sections. The association published a scholarly journal - *Skhidnii svit (1927-30, called Chervonyi skhid in 1930-1) - and a series of works on the East. It organized a number of conferences (1927 and 1929), exhibitions, and expeditions, including an expedition to study the Greek settlers of the Mariiupil region. Special attention was devoted to relations between Ukraine and Turkey in the 17th18th century. In Kharkiv, Kiev, and Odessa the association ran the school Ukrainian Courses of Oriental Studies, which by 1929 had an enrollment of over 250 students. The association was headed by O. Shlikhter, O. Gladstern, Ya. Riappo, and L. Velychko. In 1927 its membership was 152, and included such scholars as P. Ritter, V. Buzeskul, S. Rudnytsky, A. Kovalivsky, A. Syniavsky (president of the Kiev branch), A. Thomson (president of the Odessa branch), A. Krymsky, F. Mishchenko, and V. Bozhko. By 1929 there were 193 full members (83 in Kiev, 60 in Kharkiv, and 50 in Odessa) and 158 associate members. In 1930 the association established the Ukrainian Research Institute of Oriental Studies, which had Turkish, Persian, and Arabic departments and commissions on Oriental ideology, national and colonial problems, and the history of Ukrainian-Turkish relations. The association was abolished in 1933, and a large number of its members suffered political persecution. (See also ""Oriental studies.) All-Ukrainian military congresses (Vseukrainski viiskovi zizdy). The First All-Ukrainian Military Congress was held on 18-21 May 1917 in Kiev. Over 700 delegates represented about 1.5 million Ukrainian soldiers from almost all units of the Russian army and navy. The congress was chaired by S. Petliura, M . Mikhnovsky, V. Vynnychenko, and Yu. Kapkan. It recognized the Ukrainian Central Rada as 'the only competent body empowered to decide all matters relating to all of Ukraine/ The congress overwhelmingly supported the decisions of the *A11-Ukrainian National Congress (17-21 April 1917) and demanded that Ukraine's national and territorial autonomy be recognized immediately and that Ukrainian military units of the Russian army and navy be separated and Ukrainianized. To direct the Ukrainian military movement, the congress created the Ukrainian General Military Committee, headed by S. Petliura. The Second All-Ukrainian Military Congress was held on 18-23 June 1917 in Kiev. Over 2,500 delegates representing 1.7 million soldiers attended the congress, despite the fact that it was banned by the Russian Provisional Government's minister of war, A. Kerensky. The congress declared this ban to be illegal. While supporting the Central Rada, which was struggling with the Provisional Government for its rights, the congress instructed the Rada 'to begin at once a determined organization of the country' without consulting the Russian government, and 'to actually establish the foundations of an autono-

mous order.' The second congress elected the *A11Ukrainian Council of Military Deputies, consisting of 132 members, which became part of the Central Rada, and ordered the Ukrainian General Military Committee to prepare, among other measures for Ukrainianizing the armed forces, a plan for organizing the *Free Cossacks. The First ^Universal of the Central Rada was read to the congress. The Third All-Ukrainian Military Congress was held on 2-12 November 1917 in Kiev. About 3,000 delegates (1,100 at its opening) attended. This was a period of very strained relations with Russian circles. Because the command of the Kiev military district wanted to turn Ukraine into a stronghold of the Provisional Government against the Bolsheviks and the Central Rada as well, the congress interrupted its sittings for a few days to form the first Ukrainian Regiment For the Defense of the Revolution (commander: Col Yu. Kapkan). The congress demanded 'from its highest revolutionary body - the Central Rada the immediate proclamation of the Ukrainian Democratic Republic on Ukrainian ethnic territories,' the strengthening of Ukrainian statehood, including the full Ukrainianization of the army and navy, and an immediate peace treaty. The resolutions of the third congress had a strong influence on the proclamation of the Ukrainian National Republic in the Third ""Universal. The congress elected a new All-Ukrainian Council of Military Deputies, consisting of 158 members, who also became part of the Central Rada. BIBLIOGRAPHY Visnyk Ukraïns'koho Viis'kovoho HeneraVnoho Komitetu, nos 5-6 (Kiev 1917) Khrystiuk, P. Zamitky i materiialy do istoriï ukraïns'koï revoliutsiï 1917-1920 rr., 1-2 (Vienna 1921; repr New York 1969) Doroshenko, D. Istoriia Ukraïny 1917-1923, 1 (Uzhhorod 1930; repr New York 1954) A . Zhukovsky

All-Ukrainian National Congress (Vseukrainskyi Natsionalnyi Kongres). First major Ukrainian political forum after the February Revolution of 1917. Convened in Kiev on 17-21 April 1917 by the ^Central Rada, the congress was composed of over 1,000 representatives of political, cultural, and professional organizations (of workers, peasants, the intelligentsia, military, clergy, etc); delegates also came from the war front and Ukrainian centers in major Russian cities. The congress was chaired by the senior delegate, S. Erastov, representative of the Kuban region. M . Hrushevsky was elected honorary chairman. Keynote addresses concerning many aspects of Ukraine's autonomy were delivered by D. Doroshenko, O. Shulhyn, F. Matushevsky, M . Tkachenko, F. Kryzhanivsky, V. Sadovsky, and others. Recognizing the * All-Russian Constituent Assembly's right of final approval of Ukraine's new autonomous status, the congress nevertheless demanded a federative-democratic reorganization of Russia, immediate implementation of autonomist measures, delimitation of Ukraine's borders in agreement with the people's will, participation of Ukraine at a future peace conference, and repatriation of the Western Ukrainian population deported during the period of Russian military occupation. The All-Ukrainian National Congress reorganized the Central Rada and elected its president (M. *Hrushevsky), two vice-presidents (V. ""Vynnychenko and S. *Ye-

ALL-UKRAINIAN

fremov), and 115 members (out of 150 envisaged in the statutes), who represented gubernias, major cities, the Ukrainian communities of Moscow and Petrograd, and civil, political, and cultural organizations. The legal and political significance of the congress went beyond the anticipated goals; it became, in fact, the constituent forum of the first Ukrainian parliament - the Central Rada. BIBLIOGRAPHY Doroshenko, D. Istoriia Ukrainy 1917-1923, 1 (Uzhhorod 1930; repr New York 1954) Yakovliv, A . 'Ukrains'kyi NatsionaFnyi Kongres 1917,' Tryzub, nos 17-18 (Paris 1937) A. Zhukovsky

All-Ukrainian Orthodox Church Council (Vseukrainska Pravoslavna Tserkovna Rada). The council was formed in 1917 at the St Sophia Cathedral in Kiev and consisted of representatives of the clergy and the laity from all parts of Ukraine. It was headed by well-known church leaders - Archbishop O. *Dorodnytsyn and Rev O. Marychev. The council was determined to put an end to the church's dependence on Moscow and summoned the * All-Ukrainian Church Sobor at the beginning of 1918. The council also devoted special attention to the Ukrainianization of the parishes and the liturgy. The first liturgy in Ukrainian was conducted in Kiev at St Nicholas's Cathedral on 9 May 1919. Through the efforts of the council, the Ukrainian Orthodox church declared itself to be autocephalous on 3 May 1920 in Kiev. In 1921 a sobor was summoned, and it established the hierarchy of the ^Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church (UAPTs). In 1928 the presidium of the council consisted of the chairman, Archpriest L. Yunakiv, and the following members: Archbishop I . Oksiuk, Metropolitan M. Boretsky, Archbishop K. Maliushkevych, Rev M . Hrushevsky, Rev Ya. Chulaivsky, Archpriest L. Karpov, and laymen V. Chekhivsky and S. Kobzar. The council was active, with a different membership, up to the forced dissolution of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church in 1930. By 1937, of the church's 2,000 parishes none was left. Almost all of the council's members and staff, as well as the bishops and clergy of the UAPTs, died in Soviet concentration camps. A council bearing the same name, but with a different structure and activity, existed for a short time in Kiev during the Second World War. I. Korovytsky

All-Ukrainian peasant congresses (Vseukrainski selianski zizdy). The First All-Ukrainian Peasant Congress was held in Kiev on 10-16 June 1917. There were 2,200 delegates, all of them members of the ^Peasant Association, of which about 1,500 were representatives of 1,000 volosts. The congress supported the demands of the Ukrainian ^Central Rada and required of the Russian Provisional Government that they be immediately fulfilled. It instructed the Central Rada to draw up a project of autonomy for Ukraine within a federated democratic Russian republic, to call immediately a convention of representatives of all the peoples and lands that desired autonomy, and to Ukrainianize at once all state and civil institutions. Rejecting the principle of private ownership of land, the congress wanted a Ukrainian land fund controlled by a Ukrainian assembly and by county and volost land committees. It elected the Central Committee

PHOTO-CINEMA

ADMINISTRATION

57

of the Peasant Association (M. Kovalevsky, P. Khrystiuk, A. Stepanenko, V. Vynnychenko, M . Stasiuk, B. Martos, and others), which was to be the executive agency of the *A11-Ukrainian Council of Peasants' Deputies (133 members). This committee sat on the Central Rada. The Second All-Ukrainian Peasant Congress took place on 21-23 May 1918. The Hetmán government banned the congress; hence, it convened secretly in the Holosiievo Forest near Kiev. After declaring its loyalty to the UNR, the congress adopted resolutions that were very critical of the Hetmán government and German intervention in Ukrainian affairs. BIBLIOGRAPHY Khrystiuk, P. Zamitky i materiialy do istorii ukraïns'koï revoliutsiï 1917-20 rr., 1, 3 (Vienna 1921; repr New York 1969) Doroshenko, D. Istoriia Ukrainy 1917 - 1923, 2 vols (Uzhhorod 1930-2; repr New York 1954)

All-Ukrainian Photo-Cinema Administration (Vseukrainske foto-kinoupravlinnia or VUFKU). A state monopoly established by the People's Commissariat of Education on 13 March 1922 to oversee film production, control, and distribution in the Ukrainian SSR. Film production was based initially on the nationalized private ateliers in Odessa and Yalta, which were transformed into film studios. In 1924 a state cinematography tekhnikum was opened in Odessa (transferred in 1930 to Kiev as an institute). The large *Kiev Artistic Film Studio was opened in 1928. Film production got off to a slow start, owing to lack of equipment and qualified personnel. The first feature film produced was L. Kurbas's Shveds'kyi sirnyk (The Swedish Match, 1922). By the mid-i920S, however, VUFKU was producing an average of 20-25 artistic films per year, in addition to many more educational and propaganda films. The first Ukrainian film shown abroad, Ukraziia, was produced in 1925. Between 1922 and 1929 VUFKU produced 129 full-length films. In 1928 its capital was worth over six million rubles. By 1928 VUFKU managed 2,136 theaters and mobile cinemas and had exported about 30 films abroad. VUFKU employed many prominent cultural figures: the directors V. Gardin, G. Tasin, V. Pudovkin, D. Vertov, M. Tereshchenko, O. Dovzhenko, L. Kurbas, Yu. Stabovy, P. Chardynin, and I . Kavaleridze; the writers M . Bazhan, Yu. Yanovsky, O. Dosvitnii, O. Korniichuk, M . Irchan, H . Shkurupii, V. Maiakovsky, D. Falkivsky, D. Buzko, and I . Babel; the actors A. Buchma, M . Zankovetska, I. Zamychkovsky, M. Nademsky, V. Chystiakova, V. Hakebush, N . Uzhvii, M . Sadovsky, M . Krushelnytsky, and Yu. Shumsky; cinematographer D. Demutsky; and the artists (set designers) V. Krychevsky and M . Simashkevych. VUFKU played an important cultural and educational role in the 1920s. From 1925 it published Kino, a monthly avant-garde film journal that reported on foreign films and experiments and had foreign contributors, and the weekly film chronicle Kinotyzhderi. VUFKU produced the first Ukrainian sound film, D. Vertov's Symphony of the Donbas, in 1930* In that same year VUFKU'S name was changed to Ukrainfilm, and the monopoly, which had taken greater chances on unknown artists and experimental projects than other Soviet studios throughout the 1920s, came under increasing control of the central

58

ALL-UKRAINIAN PHOTO-CINEMA

ADMINISTRATION

authorities in Moscow and the dictates of socialist realism. (See also "Film.) R. Senkus

All-Ukrainian Postal-Telegraph Union (Vseukrainska poshtovo-telehrafna spilka). The union was established by the All-Ukrainian Postal-Telegraph Congress, which was held in Kiev on 2-4 September 1917 despite the opposition of the All-Russian Postal-Telegraph Union. The congress was prepared by an organizing bureau, which was created at the beginning of the revolution in Kiev. The congress gave its support to the "Central Rada. It elected a supreme council, consisting of 12 representatives of local organizations, to lead the rapidly expanding union. In May 1918 the Supreme Council joined the Ukrainian National State Union, which in August became the "Ukrainian National Union and took an active part in the uprising against the Hetmán government. All-Ukrainian railway workers' congresses (Vseukrainski zizdy zaliznychnykiv). The first congress took place on 12-14 J ty 9 7 Kharkiv and was attended by 300 delegates representing 200,000 organized Ukrainian railway workers in 12 railway lines. The congress recognized the "Central Rada as the 'supreme body of the land' and elected an executive bureau to carry on organizational work. The second congress took place in Kiev at the beginning of September 1917. Together with the Congress of Highway and Waterway Workers it held an all-Ukrainian congress of railway and other road workers and of the association Pratsia. The congress discussed the problem of regulating the railways and other roads and elected the Council of Roads, the Executive Bureau of the congress, and the Supreme Railway Council, which was to oversee all railway organizations. The third congress took place in Kiev in May 1918. The leadership of the Ukrainian railway trade organization, the United Railway Council of Ukraine, joined the "Ukrainian National Union that led the struggle against the Hetmán government. A. "Makarenko, a representative of the railway workers, became a member of the Directory of the UNR on 13 November 1918. u

1

1

m

All-Ukrainian Revolutionary Committee (Vseukrainskyi revoliutsiinyi komitet). A n anti-Bolshevik political-insurgency center that existed from April to July 1919. It was organized in Right-Bank Ukraine by the 'left-independent' faction of the "Ukrainian Social Democratic Workers' party (USDRP) consisting of Yu. "Mazurenko, A. "Richytsky, M. "Avdiienko, A. "Drahomyretsky, and others, who had initially co-operated with the Bolsheviks. The purpose of the committee was to take advantage of the dissatisfaction among Ukrainian peasants with the Bolshevik occupation and, by promoting and co-ordinating local peasants' revolts against the Bolsheviks, to establish an independent Ukrainian Soviet republic, with a government in opposition to both the Directory of the UNR and to Soviet Russia. The organizers of the committee gained the support of other Ukrainian socialist groups. Alongside the committee, the Supreme Insurgent Council and the General Insurgent Staff (A. Richytsky, Yu. Mazurenko) were created. The insurgent groups operated out of Skvyra in their attacks against the Red Army. In July 1919 the insurgents joined the UNR forces. Some members of the committee were

arrested in Kamianets on charges of plotting a coup against the Directory, but they were soon released. At this time the Central Committee of the USDRP left-independentist faction decided to put a stop to anti-Bolshevik insurrection so as not to facilitate A. "Denikin's White offensive, and the committee was dissolved. V. Markus

All-Ukrainian Teachers' Association (Vseukrainska uchytelska spilka or vus). A professional organization of teachers and activists in public education in Ukraine, formed in May 1906 in Kiev on the eve of the Convention of the All-Russian Teachers' Union in Finland. The founders of vus included B. Hrinchenko, V. Domanytsky, V. Durdukivsky, S. Yefremov, V. Strashkevych, V. Chekhivsky, and S. Cherkasenko. The purpose of vus was to establish a Ukrainian school system and to spread public education. As Russian internal politics became increasingly more reactionary, vus operated illegally for some time and then ceased to function. At the outbreak of the revolution vus was re-established in Kiev in April 1917 as a professional association of elementary and secondary school teachers. It represented gubernia, county, and district unions of teachers. At the end of 1918 there were 78 unions, with a membership of 20,000. In August 1917 and January 1919 all-Ukrainian teachers' conventions were held and adopted a program for organizing Ukrainian schools and extramural education. The founders and most prominent members of vus were S. Rusova (president), A. Bakalinsky, O. Omshansky, L. Biletsky, A. Bolozovych, O. Doroshkevych, S. Romaniuk, T. Sushytsky, P. Kholodny, and S. Cherkasenko. vus played an important role in the struggle for Ukrainian statehood, Ukrainian schools, and culture. It published the journal *ViVna ukraïns'ka shkola. P. Polishchuk

All-Ukrainian Union of Landowners (Vseukrainskyi soiuz zemelnykh vlasnykiv). A conservative, monarchist organization of middle and large landowners, formed in Ukraine in the spring of 1917 on the initiative of M . "Kovalenko. Originally, the union was a branch of the All-Russian Union of Landowners. Most of its members were opposed to the idea of Ukrainian independence. The union, together with the "Ukrainian Democratic Agrarian party, held a farmers' congress in Kiev on 29 April 1918 at which P. "Skoropadsky was proclaimed hetmán. In October 1918 the union split into two groups: the large landowners, primarily Russian reactionaries (V. Purishkevich, I . Dusan, Nenarokhomov, et al), who demanded federation with Russia; and the middle and small landowners (M. Kovalenko, M . Chudyniv), who formed the All-Ukrainian Union of Landowning Farmers (Vseukrainskyi Soiuz Khliborobiv-Vlasnykiv). The latter group demanded an independent Ukrainian state with a democratic, parliamentary system under the leadership of a hetmán, the retention of land ownership on a limited scale (to be achieved by the compulsory repurchase of excess estates), and immediate agrarian reforms. Both alliances were dissolved after the fall of the Hetmán government. All-Ukrainian Union of Landowning Farmers. See All-Ukrainian Union of Landowners.

ALMANAC

All-Ukrainian Union of Zemstvos (Vseukrainskyi soiuz zemstv). Union of provincial "zemstvos (local governing councils), organized in April 1918. The president of the union was S. Petliura, who also presided over the Kiev gubernia zemstvo. The union, like the majority of Ukrainian community organizations, was clearly opposed to the Hetmán government. Its executive, together with the All-Ukrainian Congress of Zemstvos, held in June 1918, approached the Hetmán P. Skoropodsky, his government, and the German envoy Baron A. Mumm von Schwarzenstein demanding changes in the Hetmán's policy towards the zemstvos, an end to the repressive measures employed by the Hetmán government, and a return to the prerevolutionary practice of elections. These demands were not met, however, and tensions continued until the fall of the government. Petliura was imprisoned for four months. All-Ukrainian workers' congresses (Vseukrainski robitnychi zizdy). The First All-Ukrainian Workers' Congress took place in Kiev on 24-26 July 1917. It was called at the initiative of the Ukrainian faction of the Kiev Council of Workers' Deputies. About 300 delegates attended the congress. This attests to the weakness of ethnic Ukrainian labor organizations in Ukraine. The "Ukrainian Social Democratic Workers' party dominated the congress. V. Vynnychenko, M. Porsh, D. Antonovych, S. Veselovsky, M. Palamarchuk, and M . Yeremiiv were among the members of the congress presidium. The Central Rada's General Secretariat members I . Steshenko, B. Martos, and V. Sadovsky participated in the congress. The congress recognized the autonomy of Ukraine, demanded peace and the distribution of land among the peasants, called on the workers to support the "Central Rada and its General Secretariat, and elected the "All-Ukrainian Council of Workers' Deputies, consisting of 100 members (70 Social Democrats and 30 Socialist Revolutionaries), who were seated on the Central Rada. It also elected three members to the Little Rada. The Second All-Ukrainian Workers' Congress was held illegally in Kiev on 26-27 May 1918. Because of the Hetmán government's ban only about 200 delegates attended. The congress declared its opposition to the Hetmán regime, demanded a return to the principles of the Central Rada, and supported the independence of the UNR.

All-Union Alliance of Associations of Proletarian Writers (Vsesoiuznoe obedinenie assotsiatsii proletarskikh pisatelei or VOAPP). A union of writers' organizations established in Moscow and active from 1928 to 1932. The purpose of VOAPP was to bring together the writers that were loyal to the Communist party. It encompassed proletarian writers' associations in Russia, Belorussia, Transcaucasia, Central Asia, and Ukraine that were organized to oppose the national writers' organizations in these republics. Of the writers' organizations in Ukraine the "All-Ukrainian Association of Proletarian Writers belonged to the Alliance, VOAPP was dissolved by a resolution of the Party's Central Committee adopted on 23 April 1932. Alma River [Al'ma]. River in the Crimea, the upper portion of which flows through the Crimean mountains and the lower through the steppes. The Alma is 84 km

59

long, and its basin has an area 635 sq km. Its waters are used mostly for irrigation.

Title pages of early almanacs

Almanac. In the Middle Ages an almanac was a book showing the movements of the heavenly bodies. Later it became a calendar or a compendium of useful information. The first Ukrainian literary compendia or almanacs appeared in the 11th century ("Pchela, "Menaion). However, the almanac did not become widely used until the 19th century. In Ukraine the following almanacs contained exclusively literary pieces and played a role in the rebirth of Ukrainian literature: *Ukrainskii almanakh (eds I . Sreznevsky and I . Rozkovshenko, 1831), *Utrenniaia zvezda (1833-4), *Rusalka dnistrovaia (1837), *Ukrainskii sbornik (ed I . Sreznevsky, 1838), *Kievlianin (ed M. Maksymovych, 1840-1), *Lastovka (ed Ye. Hrebinka, 1841), *Snip (ed O. Korsun, 1841), *Molodyk (ed I . Betsky, 1843-4), Vinok rusynam na obzhynky (ed B. Holovatsky, 1846-7), Iuzhnyi russkyi sbornik (ed A. Metlynsky, 1848), *Zapiski 0 Iuzhnoi Rusi (ed P. Kulish, 1857), Zoria halitskaia (ed B. Didytsky, i860), Khata (i860), and *Dnistrianka (1876). *Pershyi vinok, an almanac by and about women, was published by N . Kobrynska and O. Pchilka in Lviv in 1887. In the early 20th century modernist esthetic trends were reflected in the almanacs Z nad khmar i dolyn (ed M . Vorony, 1903), Za krasoiu (dedicated to O. Kobylianska, ed O. Lutsky, 1905), Dubove lystia (dedicated to P. Kulish, eds M . Cherniavsky, M . Kotsiubynsky, and B. Hrinchenko, 1903), Z potoku zhyttia (eds M. Kotsiubynsky and M. Cherniavsky, 1905), Persha lastivka (ed M. Cherniavsky, 1905), and Bahattia (ed I . Lypa, 1905). Also popular were almanacs of poetry and prose: Rozvaha (ed O. Kovalenko, 1905-6), Dosvitni ohni (ed B. Hrinchenko, 1906-14), Ukraïns'ka muza (ed O. Kovalenko, 1908), and Ternovyi vinok (O. Kovalenko, 1908). Early Soviet almanacs included Literaturno-krytychnyi aVmanakh (1918) and Hrono (1920). The literary groups "Hart and "Pluh published almanacs in the 1920s. Later, several Soviet propaganda almanacs appeared (Komsomoliia, 1938; Partiia vede, 1958). A popular almanac during the Second World War was Ukraïna v ohni (1942). Most Ukrainian newspapers outside Ukraine publish yearly almanacs. Pivnichne siaivo (ed Y. Slavutych) has appeared irregularly in Edmonton, Canada, since 1964. BIBLIOGRAPHY Boiko, I.Z. (ed). Ukraïns'ki literaturni aVmanakhy i zbirnyky xix pochatku xx st. (Kiev 1967) G . S . N . Luckyj

6o

ALMAZOV

Almazov, Oleksa, b 6 January 1886 in Kherson, d 13 December 1936 in Lutske. Colonel in the Russian army and, from 1917, in the Army of the UNR. In 1923 Almazov was awarded the rank of general flag-bearer. In 1917 he organized in Kiev the Artillery Battalion of the Separate Zaporozhian Squadron, which later became the *Zaporozhian Corps. At the end of March 1918 Almazov reorganized his unit into the Cavalry-Artillery Regiment, the best regiment in the Zaporozhian Corps. Its members were popularly known as the almazovtsi. Almazov took part in the first * Winter Campaign. He emigrated in 1921 and lived in Czechoslovakia, Poland, and from 1923 in Volhynia.

The Ukrainian Alphabet Print

Italics

Transliterations Written

LC

Variations

a b v

h g

d e it

je ye

zh z y

z

i ï k i

ji yi j y

m n o P r s t u

f

Oleksa Almazov

Pavlo Aloshyn

Aloshyn, Pavlo [Al'osyn], b 28 February 1881 in Kiev, d 7 October 1961 in Kiev. Architect and pedagogue. In 1904 Aloshyn graduated from the Institute of Civil Engineering and in 1917 from the Academy of Fine Arts in Petrograd. In 1918 he was appointed chief architect of Kiev. In 1923-30 he was professor at the Kiev Art Institute. He was a full member of the Academy of Architecture of the Ukrainian SSR in 1945-58 and an honorary member of the Academy of Construction and Architecture of the Ukrainian SSR from 1958. Aloshyn designed a number of prominent buildings in Kiev: the Kiev Pedagogical Museum built in 1909-13, which in 1917-19 housed the Central Rada and today houses a branch of the Lenin Central Museum; the St Olha Gymnasium in 1914-27, today the main building of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR; the Doctors' Building in 1927; and the buildings of the Myronivka Selection Station in 1923, which display characteristics of the Ukrainian folk style. He also designed the Kharkiv tractor plant in 1931 and other buildings and prepared numerous projects for other cities. Aloshyn was very active in the postwar reconstruction of Kiev. He was a functionalist who used modern forms and techniques. In his last years, however, Aloshyn was forced to adhere to Soviet classicist styles. He wrote articles on aspects of Ukrainian architecture. The monograph Kyws'kyi zodchyi P.P. AToshyn (The Kievan Builder P.P. Aloshyn) by V. Yasiievych was published in Kiev in 1966. Alphabet. The modern Ukrainian alphabet consists of 33 letters; its present form is the result of a long evolution of

kh ts ch sh shch iu ia

x ce e s sch se ju yu ja ya

the Cyrillic alphabet. Specifically, in the i8th century, the Cyrillic alphabet was reformed into the *Hrazhdanka, which underwent further, secondary changes, providing the basis for the various writing systems. (See also *Drahomanivka, *Maksymovychivka, *Zhelykhivka, *Kulishivka, *Pankevychivka, *Yaryzhka, and *Orthography.) Alphabet war (azbuchna viiná). Name given by Galician Ukrainians of the time to the alphabet dispute of 1859-61, which was provoked by the attempt of the Austrian government (Minister of Education L. Thun) to impose the Latin alphabet on them in 1859. The project to Latinize Ukrainian writing was inspired by the governor general of Galicia, Count A. Goluchowski, a Pole, and drawn up by J. Jirecek, a Czech scholar. It required the approval of a commission consisting of prominent Ukrainians, two Austrian officials, Governor General Gohichowski, and Jirecek. Most of the Ukrainian members (Ya. Holovatsky, Y. Lozynsky, M. Malynovsky) opposed the plan as a potential means of Polonization. Finally, the commission adopted a reformed orthography based on Cyrillic script. Although this orthography was approved by the Ministry of Education in Vienna and prescribed in all schools and for the clergy by the governor general in Lviv, it was resisted by the Western Ukrainian community. In 1861 the Austrian government revoked all its decrees and allowed the Ukrainians to decide the matter of orthography themselves.

AMBODYK-MAKSYMOVYCH BIBLIOGRAPHY Franko, I. 'Azbuchna viina v H a l y c h y n i / ZNTSh, nos 114-16 (1912) Simovych, V . 'Iosyf ïrechek i ukraïns'ka mo va (Do azbuchnoï zaviriukhy 1859 r . ) / Pratsi Ukraïns'koho vysokoho pedahohichnoho instytutu im. M. Drahomanova v Prazi, 2 (Prague 1932) J.B. Rudnyckyj

Aluminum industry. A branch of non-ferrous metallurgy in which aluminum is isolated and produced from various aluminum ores, primarily bauxite. The aluminum industry also produces crystalline flint, aluminum-flint alloys, metalline potassium, mineral fertilizers, and soda products. In Ukraine the aluminum industry originated in 1933 with the building of the ^Dnieper Aluminum Plant in Zaporizhia, which utilized the cheap hydroelectric energy of the Dnieper Hydroelectric Station. In 1940 the plant produced almost 40,000 tonnes of aluminum (75 percent of the total Soviet production). In the postwar years until 1980 no new aluminum enterprises were established in Ukraine, despite the strong existing power base (the production of aluminum requires large amounts of hydroelectric energy) and the significant reserves of bauxite, which have not been exploited (bauxite is brought in from the Kola peninsula, RSFSR). The aluminum plant in Mykolaiv, at present the largest in Ukraine, began production in 1980. The output of aluminum in the USSR and in the Ukrainian SSR is not made public, as it is part of the aviation industry.

and beaches. It was founded in the 6th century AD on the site of the fortress Aluston, built during the reign of the Byzantine emperor Justinian. It was ruled by Genoa from the 14th century, by the Turks from 1475, and by Russia from 1783. Alymov, Oleksander, b 30 September 1923 in Donetske. Economist, full member of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR since 1973. Alymov began working in the Donbas in 1949, primarily at the Donetske Coal Research Institute (1957-65). He has served as assistant director of the Institute of Economics of the Academy of Sciences (1965-69) and as director of the Institute of Industrial Economics of the academy (1969-72); since 1972 he has headed the academy's Council for the Study of the Productive Resources of the Ukrainian SSR. Alymov has written studies on industrial economics, particularly on the coal industry, on the economy of the Donbas, and on automated production-control systems.

Oleksander Alymov

Alupka: Vorontsov's palace

Alupka. ix-15. City (1974 pop 11,400) on the southern coast of the Crimea, 17 km southwest of Yalta and under the administration of the Yalta city soviet. Alupka's climate makes it one of the best resort areas in the Crimea. The city has many sanatoriums and resort buildings. The former palace of Count M . Vorontsov, built in 1828-48 and designed by the English architect E. Blore in pseudoGothic style, with a Moorish portal and surrounded by a 40 ha park, has been converted into a museum containing 19th-century furniture, porcelain, bronze, crystal, and works by Western European, Russian, and Ukrainian artists (including K. Trutovsky and S. Vasylkivsky). Alushta [Alusta]. ix-15. City (1974 pop 23,500) under the administration of the Crimean oblast, on the southern shore of the Crimea. Alushta has resorts, sanatoriums,

6l

Andrii Alyskevych

Alyskevych, Andrii [Alys'kevyc, Andrij], b 17 December 1870 in the village Zalukva, Stanyslaviv county, Galicia, d 1949 in Prague. A prominent pedagogue and organizer of the teaching profession in Galicia and Transcarpathia. Alyskevych was a Germanist by specialization; he studied in Lviv and Vienna. He served as director of the women's seminary in Lviv (1909-10) and of the gymnasiums in Peremyshl (1910-17) and Drohobych (1918-19). Alyskevych was an active member of the Ruthenian Pedagogical Society in Lviv and co-founder of the "Ukrainian Teachers' Mutual Aid Society. He emigrated to Bohemia and later to Transcarpathia, where he was the director of gymnasiums in Berehove, Uzhhorod (1922-38), and Velykyi Bychkiv and was active in the Plast Ukrainian scouting association. He was the author of German language textbooks and of works on German dialectology. Ambodyk-Maksymovych, Nestor, b 7 November 1744 in the village of Vepryk, Poltava gubernia, d 5 August 1812, most probably in St Petersburg. Physician, encyclopedist. Ambodyk-Maksymovych graduated from the Kiev Theological Academy (1768) and the University of Strasbourg (1775), taught obstetrics in various teaching hospitals, and became director of the school of obstetrics in St Petersburg (1781). In 1797, at his initiative, a clinical obstetrics institute was established in St Petersburg.

62

AMBODYK-MAKSYMOVYCH

Because the church justifies its existence as a preserver of historical tradition, it has tried to put some emphasis on history, language, and culture in the training of its priests. Therefore, the diocese in Johnstown for several years offered courses in Carpatho-Ruthenian history and language. In terms of ethnic identity the church identifies itself as part of a supposed single Russian people, although it does emphasize the particular characteristics of the 'Carpathian branch' of the 'one Russian nationality.' P.R. Magocsi

American Circle (Amerykanskyi kruzhok). A group of Ukrainian Catholic priests from Galicia who emigrated to the United States in the 1890s to work there in the religious, civic, and cultural spheres. The following Ambodyk-Maksymovych was a founder of obstetrics and priests were members of the circle: I . *Konstankevych, N . medical terminology in the Russian Empire, producing a *Dmytriv, I . * Ardan, A. *Bonchevsky, S. *Makar, M . number of medical studies, including translations. The Pidhoretsky, M . Stefanovych, and P. Tymkevych. They most important were Iskusstvo povivaniia, Hi nauka o organized Ukrainian parishes, defended the autonomy of babicKem dele (The Art of Swaddling, or the Science of Ukrainian church communities, and demanded a Ukrai­ Midwifery, 6 parts, 1784-6), Fiziologiia, Hi estestvennaia nian Catholic bishop (at the convention of clergy in istoriia 0 cheloveke (Physiology, or the Natural History of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, in 1902). They also established Man, 1787), and an encyclopedic treatise on medical fraternal insurance associations - the Ruthenian National botany, Vrachebnoe veshchestvoslovie, Hi opisanie tseliteV- Association (renamed the "Ukrainian National Associa­ nykh rastenii v pishchu i lekarstvo upotrebliaemykh (Doctor's tion in 1914) and the Ukrainian Workingmen's Associa­ Lexicon, or a Description of Plants Used in Food and tion (renamed the ^Ukrainian Fraternal Association in Medicine, 3 vols, 1783-5). 1978) - and founded the newspapers *Svoboda and *Narodna volia, schools, and an educational system. The American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Greek Catho­ priests visited Ukrainian settlements in western Canada lic church (Amerikanskaia Karpatorusskaia Pravoslavand laid the foundations for organized religious and naia Greko-Katolicheskaia Tserkov). The church came cultural life there. into existence in 1936 as a result of the controversy within the Byzantine Ruthenian Catholic church over the pro­ American Committee of Liberation (ACL). A private visions of the Vatican decree 'Cum Data Fuerit,' issued in organization that had the official support of the United 1929. This decree sought to provide clear liturgical and States government in promoting the political and cultural administrative guidelines for the Byzantine Ruthenian activities of exiles from the USSR. The ACL was founded in church in the United States, and in particular it called for New York in 1951, with a branch office in Munich. The the enforcement of celibacy, the abolition of the parish committee's objectives were to work for changes in the USSR in the spirit of democratization and self-determina­ trusteeship system of holding church property, and the tion. Initially the committee adopted a stance of 'nonend to interference in church affairs by fraternal organ­ predetermination' concerning the future of non-Russian izations. peoples, which gave rise to criticism among many Ukrai­ Several priests, led by Rev O. *Chornock (1883-1977), nian political organizations. As the committee modified its Rev S. Varzaly (1890-1957), and Rev P. Molchany (b 1902) position in regard to Ukrainians, several Ukrainian groups and joined by laymen, including the powerful *Greek and individuals started to co-operate in ACL-sponsored Catholic Union of the USA, protested vehemently the institutions, such as the "Institute for the Study of the Vatican decree. The result of the 'anticelibacy movement' USSR and *Radio Liberty (1953). The ACL supported the was a church council held in Pittsburgh in 1936, at which review Peoples of the USSR, in which representatives of the defenders of Eastern-rite liturgical tradition, guaranteed Ukrainian government in exile (UNR) were active. After it by the Union of *Uzhhorod (1646), founded the 'true,' or was dissolved in the late 1950s, some of its functions were Orthodox Greek Catholic church. taken over by the United States Information Agency. The new church received its canonical authority from the Greek Orthodox archbishop in New York City, and in 1938 Rev Chornock was named bishop with a diocesan American National Council of Uhro-Rusins (Ameriseat, first at his own parish in Bridgeport, Connecticut, kanska narodna rada uhro-rusinov). A representative and later in Johnstown, Pennsylvania. After numerous body of Carpatho-Ruthenian (Transcarpathian) immi­ legal battles with the Byzantine Ruthenian Catholic grants in the United States, founded on 23 July 1918 in church over property, the membership of the church Homestead, Pennsylvania with the purpose of influen­ stabilized, and in 1974 it had an estimated 60 priests, 65 cing the political future of their native land. Its president churches, and 108,000 parishioners. The church has its was attorney H . ""Zhatkovych (Zsatkovich). At its first own seminary in Johnstown (est 1954) and a bilingual convention in McKeesport, Pennsylvania, on 26 July weekly newspaper, The Church Messenger ( Tserkovnyi vist1918, the following possible options for Transcarpathia nik, est 1944), and it is supported by the Greek Catho­ were considered: independence, union with Galicia and lic Carpatho-Russian Benevolent Association Liberty in Bukovyna, or incorporation into another state with Perth Amboy, New Jersey. The church is at present guaranteed autonomy. Eventually the leaders of the headed by Bishop J. Martin (b 1931). council opted for voluntary union with Czechoslovakia. Nestor AmbodykMaksymovych

AMNESTY

63

On 26 October 1918 they entered into an informal agree­ ment (the 'Philadelphia agreement') with T. *Masaryk concerning Carpatho-Ruthenian autonomy in the future federal republic of Czechoslovakia. The agreement was approved by the council convention in Scranton, Penn­ sylvania on 12 November 1918, and was followed by a plebiscite in all Carpatho-Ruthenian parishes and organi­ zations in the United States, with the following results: 67 percent for union with Czechoslovakia, 28 percent for union with Ukraine, 5 percent for union with other countries (Hungary, Galicia, Russia) or for indepen­ dence. The decision of the council was approved by the ^Central Ruthenian People's Council in Uzhhorod on 8 May 1919 and accepted by Prague. The council continued to exist for a few more years, with declining activity and influence. In 1920 and 1922 it launched protests against the Czechoslovakian government for failure to grant Carpatho-Ukrainian autonomy.

of the Russian nationality. During the early 1930s ARV was a leading opponent of the Byzantine Ruthenian Catholic church, because of the latter's full acceptance of the celibacy rule for priests. The language of the newspaper has also varied; it has appeared in unstandardized forms of Subcarpathian dialects (both in the Cyrillic and Latin alphabets), in 'Slavish' (ie, eastern Slovak dialects), and in English, which has predominated since the 1950s. Among the leading editors was the paper's founder, P. Zhatkovych (1852-1916), Rev S. Varzaly (1890-1957), and M . Roman (b 1912), whose editorship from 1937 to 1981 witnessed improved relations with the Byzantine Ruthenian Catho­ lic church and the propagation of Russophile ideas regarding national identity. The early years of the news­ paper's contents have been analyzed by J.M. Evans, Guide to the Amerikansky Russky Viestnik, 1: 1894-1914. (Fairview, NJ 1979).

American Relief Administration. A United Stages agency founded in 1919 to administer aid in war-ravaged Europe and headed by H . Hoover. In 1921-3 it supplied food, clothing, medicine, and other necessities to Ukraine and southeastern Russia, which had been stricken by famine.

Ameryka (America). The first Ukrainian newspaper in the United States, which appeared from 15 August 1886 until 22 February 1890, at first irregularly as a biweekly and then as a weekly. Ameryka's founder and first publisher was Rev I . *Voliansky; later it was published by the Ukrainian Catholic parish of Shenandoah, Pennsyl­ vania. For a time the paper was edited by V. *Simenovych, and then by K. *Andrukhovych.

V. Markus

American Russian Messenger. skii viestnik.

See Amerikanskii rus-

American Ruthenian National Council (Amerykanska ruska narodna rada). Consisting of representatives of parishes, religious organizations, and clerical circles, the council was founded on 8 December 1914 by Bishop S. *Ortynsky in Philadelphia. Its purpose was to aid the victims of war in the Ukrainian territories of AustriaHungary and to voice the political aspirations of the Ukrainian population. In 1916, after the death of Ortynsky, the council, under the influence of the "Ukrainian National Association and the ^Providence Association of Ukrainian Catholics, changed its name to the Ukrainian National Committee; however, it soon lost ground to the ^Federation of Ukrainians in the United States. Amerikanskii russkii viestnik (American Russian Messenger or ARV). The official organ of the *Greek Catholic Union of the USA, the ARvis the oldest CarpathoRuthenian newspaper in the United States. It was pub­ lished weekly from 1892 to 1952 successively in Mahanoy City and Scranton, Pennsylvania, New York City, Pitts­ burgh, and Homestead, Pennsylvania. Since 1933 it has appeared as a weekly and most recently as a bi-weekly under the title Greek Catholic Union Messenger. During the height of its influence until the Second World War, when in some years up to 100,000 copies per issue were printed, ARV, as the leading organ of the Carpatho-Ruthenian community, was concerned with the economic life of immigrants in the United States, relations with the homeland, and the development of the Greek Catholic or Byzantine Ruthenian Catholic church in America. With regard to the last two issues, the news­ paper adopted vaying positions. Its views on national identity have ranged from arguments that the group comprises a distinct Ruthenian or Rusyn (often spelled Rusin) or Uhro-Rusyn nationality to a belief that it is part

P.R. Magocsi

Front page of the first issue of Ameryka, 29 August 1912

Ameryka (America). A Ukrainian Catholic newspaper published in Philadelphia since 1912 by the ^Providence Association of Ukrainian Catholics in America. At first Ameryka was a weekly, then during the First World War, a daily. From 1918 it appeared three times a week, and since 1951 it has been published five times a week. Its editors since 1912 have been Rev R. Zalitach, Rev O. Pavliak, A. Tsurkovsky, O. Nazaruk, L. Tsehelsky, V. Lototsky, B. Katamai, H . Luzhnytsky, Ye. Zyblikevych, M . Pasika, L. Shankovsky, and I . Bilynsky; currently the editor is M . Dolnytsky. Circulation has varied over the years, peaking at 10,000-12,000 readers in the 1950s to 1970s; at present it is approximately 5,000. Amnesty. Complete or partial remission of punishment issued by a proper state authority to whole groups or categories of prisoners. Special occasions in public life or in the life of the head of state provide opportunities for the granting of amnesty. Traditionally the granting of

6

4

AMNESTY

amnesty has been an act reserved for a head of state; however, it can also be granted by parliament. Russian tsars granted amnesty through their 'illustrious manifes­ toes.' However, only a very few condemned Ukrainians in the Russian Empire were granted amnesty. Polish presidents from 1920 to 1939 also exercised this privilege rarely in relation to Ukrainian political prisoners. In the USSR and the Ukrainian SSR the right of granting amnesty is reserved for the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet; the Ukrainian SSR rarely uses this authority. In fact, it is exercised solely by the USSR, which enacted a wide amnesty in 1955-6 and a limited one in 1967, 1977 (anniversaries of the October Revolution) and 1982; these amnesties contained various clauses restricting applica­ bility and, although advertised as 'general' amnesties, benefited common criminals more than political prisoners. A special type of amnesty, known as povynna, is aimed at the enemies of the Soviet regime, eg, insurgents and émigrés. To receive this amnesty, such persons must voluntarily give themselves up to the authorities with an admission of guilt. The government of the Ukrainian SSR decreed several such amnesties to the members of the ^Ukrainian Insurgent Army and to political émigrés in the West in the 1940s and 1950s. There is also an act of individual amnesty known as pardon (pomyluvannia). V. Markus

Amnesty International (AI). A n international organi­ zation, founded in Great Britain in 1961, working for the release of prisoners of conscience imprisoned anywhere in the world. It has consultative status with the United Nations (ECOSOC and UNESCO) and the Council of Europe and observer status with the Organization of African Unity. In 1977 it was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Amnesty International has adopted numerous Ukrainian prisoners of conscience, among them V. *Moroz, Yu. *Shukhevych, L. *Pliushch, P. *Hryhorenko, V. *Chornovil, and M. *Rudenko. From 1970 to 1982 it published the English-language edition of the samizdat ^Chronicle of Current Events and in 1975 published the report Prisoners of Conscience in the USSR (rev ed, 1980). Political repression in Ukraine is extensively covered in its reports.

Mykola Amosov

Amosov, Mykola, b 19 December 1913 in Olgov, Vologda gubernia, Russia. Surgeon, full member of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR since 1969, and corresponding member of the Academy of Medical Sci­ ences of the USSR since 1961. In 1952-68 Amosov was in

charge of the Clinic for Tubercular Heart and Artery Surgery and Breast Surgery at the Kiev Scientific Re­ search Institute of Tubercular Lung Surgery, and in 1968 he became the institute's assistant director. Amosov is one of the founders of lung and heart surgery in the USSR. He is also a founder of the Ukrainian school of biological, medical, and psychological cybernetics. Amosov has written several novelistic works: Dumky i sertse (Thoughts and the Heart, 1964), Zapysky iz maibutn'oho (Notes from the Future, 1966), Zapysky poVovoho khirurha PPH-2266 (Notes of Field Surgeon PPH-2266, 1974). Amvrosiivka [Amvrosijivka]. vi-19, DB iv-4. City (1975 pop 25,200) in the southeastern part of the Donets Basin (est in 1869) and a raion center in Donetske oblast. The city is an important center of the cement industry in Ukraine (the * Amvrosiivka Cement Complex). The city also has the reinforced-concrete factory Buddetal and a food and consumer-goods industry. There are large marl deposits in the vicinity. Amvrosiivka Cement Complex (Amvrosiivskyi tsementnyi kombinat). The largest cement manufacturing complex in the Ukrainian SSR, located in the city of Amvrosiivka in Donetske oblast. It was formed in 1954 through the merger of five cement factories and four quarries. The first two plants were built in 1896-8, the third in 1914. In 1913 these plants produced 109,000 tonnes of cement. In 1925-32 the plants were radically reconstructed, and a fourth plant was built in 1932. After the war production reached the prewar level only in 1949. In 1953 the fifth cement factory, the Novoamvrosiivka factory, began production. In 1961-2 an asbestos pipe factory was added to the complex. Today it produces cement of various quality (3,900,000 t in 1975). Amvrosiivka site. A late Paleolithic site discovered in 1935 near Amvrosiivka in Donetske oblast. Excavations in the 1940s uncovered a thick layer of bones of about 1,000 bison that had been stampeded over a precipice by hunters. Spearheads and other flint and bone implements were also found. The discovery showed that collective hunting on a large scale occurred in the late Paleolithic era. Analecta Ordinis S. Basilii Magni/Zapysky ChSW (Transactions of the Order of St Basil the Great). Irregular scholarly publication of the *Basilian monastic order, first published in Zhovkva (now Nesterov) and Lviv (1924-39), then in Rome (as a second series, commencing in 1949). The first editor of Analecta was Rev I . Skruten. Six volumes were published by 1939. The second series of Analecta, under the editorship of Rev A. *Velyky, con­ sisted of 103 volumes by 1979 and was divided into three sections: (1) works - monographs (40 vols); (2) trans­ actions of the Order of St. Basil the Great - varticles, reviews, bibliographies, and other materials (10 vols); (3) documents - a systematic publication of materials from the Vatican Archives (53 vols) concerning the history of Ukraine, including two large volumes entitled Documenta Pontificum Romanorum historiam Ucrainae illustrantia 1075-1953 (1953-4)Ananiv [Anan'jiv]. vi-10. City (1969 pop 18,900) lo­ cated in the southeast of the Podilian plateau; a raion

ANASTASEVYCH

center in Odessa oblast. Ananiv was founded in the mid-i8th century and was part of the Ottoman Empire. In 1792 it came under Russian rule in accordance with the Treaty of Jassy. In 1834 it became a county town in Kherson gubernia. Ananiv has not developed because of its distance from railway lines (in 1926 its population was 18,200). The city has a food and consumer-goods industry. Anapa, ix-18. City (1968 pop 23,000) on the Black Sea in the Krasnodar krai (RSFSR). This is a large children's resort, established in 1866, which features curative mud baths. Anarchists. Proponents of the doctrine that rejects the state, private property, law, and external coercion. Anar­ chists in Ukraine were connected with various trends of Russian anarchism: anarcho-communism, anarcho-syn­ dicalism, and anarcho-individualism. None of these movements had their beginnings in Ukraine, but were imported from Russia. The first groups of anarchocommunists were formed among Odessa workers at the end of the 19th century under the influence of the ideas of the Russian anarchist Prince P. Kropotkin. Some of these groups were suppressed by the police in 1902, and some disintegrated. After 1905 the anarchists stepped up their activity. They disseminated their propaganda, staged terrorist actions, and extorted state and private money, particularly in Odessa. In 1905-6 the anarcho-syndica­ lists attempted to form an organization in Kharkiv, but failed. Because of police infiltration and banditry, most of the anarchist groups disappeared by the end of 1907. In Odessa and Katerynoslav, where anarchist cells survived until 1908, many anarchists were punished by death. In 1917 anarchist groups of different tendencies reap­ peared in a number of Ukrainian cities. At first they usually supported the Bolsheviks, but at times also opposed them. In Kiev O. Feofilaktov revived an anarcho-communist group that had been suppressed in 1910. (For some time he had co-operated with Yu. Piatakov, the leader of the Kiev Bolsheviks.) According to computa­ tions based on the anarchist press, there were various kinds of anarchist groups in about 25 cities and villages in Ukraine prior to 1917. The largest centers of anarchism were Katerynoslav, Kharkiv, Odessa, and Kiev. The members of these groups were Russians, Russified Ukrainians, and, to a large extent, Jews. Although an attempt was made in 1914 to set up a Ukrainian anarchist cell, it failed. In general the attitude of the anarchists in Ukraine towards the nationality question, specifically towards the Ukrainian question, was indifferent or nega­ tive, since they regarded nationalism as an essentially bourgeois ideology. In the spring of 1918 many detach­ ments of anarchists, which became notorious for the looting of towns, retreated with the Red forces from Ukraine, mostly from the Donets Basin. At this time the Bolsheviks turned on the anarchists and disarmed them. Anarchists from Ukraine participated in organizing the assassination of the Moscow Committee of the Russian Communist party in September 1919 and were liquidated by the Cheka. The Moscow anarchist group associated with the paper Nabat moved its operations to Ukraine in 1918 because of the increasing power of the Bolsheviks in Russia and the spreading peasant revolts against the Hetmán govern­

65

ment in Ukraine. There it established ties with N . *Makhno. The group's leader was V. Eikhenbaum-Volin. In 1918-21 some of the peasant movements in Ukraine were led by anarchists, the most famous of which was Makhno's faction. The program of the Makhno movement was articulated by Russian anarchists; it consisted of an amorphous blend of anarcho-syndicalist ideas and slo­ gans that appealed to the discontented peasantry - the will of the people, soviets without Communists, land distribution by local authorities, the free exchange of goods - and was directed against the agricultural com­ munes, grain confiscation, and the Cheka terror. At Makhno's headquarters in Huliai-Pole near Zaporizhia there was a 'free people's soviet.' Its propagandists, including V. Volin, N . Popov, and P. Marin-Arshinov, published the anarchist periodicals Put' k svobode and Nabat as well as various pamphlets and leaflets. Anar­ chists, as well as leftist Socialist Revolutionaries, were among N . *Hiyhoriiv's followers. They also served in the larger detachments of the Makhno movement as political officers. Although anarchist propaganda in Ukraine paid little attention to the Ukrainian question, a potentially serious rift over the theory and practice of anarchism began to appear in the last years of the revolution between the Russian and Jewish urban anarchists and the Ukrainian peasant masses, who constituted the overwhelming majority of the Makhno movement and whose views were defended by Makhno himself. When the New Economic Policy was introduced and the Soviet attitude towards the peasants became more moderate in 1921, the remnants of the Makhno movement were eliminated. The last organ­ ized expression of anarchism in Ukraine was the Workers' Opposition that emerged in the Bolshevik party in 1920 and was led by A. Shliapnikov, S. Medvedev, and A. Kollontai. After the Workers' Opposition, which was described as 'an anti-Party anarcho-syndicalist group,' had been defeated at the Moscow Congress in 1921, some of its members joined the Trotskyists and were later liquidated with them during Stalin's Great Purge. BIBLIOGRAPHY Pridesnianskii, L . T e r v y e shagi anarkhizma na Ukraine,' AVmanakh, no. 1 (Paris 1909) Makhno, N . Russkaia revoliutsiia na Ukraine (Paris 1929) - Pod udarami kontr-revoliutsii (Paris 1936) - Ukrainskaia revoliutsiia (Paris 1937) Volin, V. The Unknown Revolution (London 1955) Avrich, P. The Russian Anarchists (Princeton 1967) Wojna, R. 'Nestor Makhno; anarchizm czynu,' Z pola walki, no. 2 (50) (Warsaw 1970) Arshinov, P. History of the Makhnovist Movement (1918-1921) (Detroit 1974) Palij, M . The Anarchism of Nestor Makhno, 1918-1921: An Aspect of the Ukrainian Revolution (Seattle 1976) Sysyn, F . 'Nestor Makhno and the Ukrainian Revolution/ in The Ukraine 1917-1921: A Study in Revolution, ed T. H u n czak (Cambridge, Mass 1977) Ternon, Y . Makhno - La révolte anarchiste, 1917-1921 (Brussels 1981) M . Kovalevsky

Anastasevych, Vasyl [Anastasevyc, Vasyl'], b 11 March 1775 in Kiev, d 28 February 1845 in St Petersburg. Bibliographer, journalist, civic leader. Anastasevych studied at the Kievan Mohyla Academy (1786-91). In 1811-12 he published the magazine Ulei (Beehive) in St

66

ANASTASEVYCH

Petersburg. He was the first to propose the establishment of a state bibliographical registration system and the introduction of a bibliography of articles in the journals of the Russian Empire. He himself compiled a bibliography of serial publications for the years 1707-1824, which is a valuable source for research on Ukrainian publications. Anastasevych also published the ^Lithuanian Statute in 1811. Anastaziievsky, Mykola [Anastazijevs'kyj], b 14 August 1891 in Skala, Borshchiv county, Galicia, d 28 May 1974 in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Realist painter, graphic artist, and pedagogue. Anastaziievsky obtained his artistic education at the Cracow Academy of Art. His works include portraits, landscapes, still lifes, graphic works with Ukrainian folk motifs, and series of greeting cards depicting Ukrainian Christmas and Easter rites. Anatolii [Anatolij], b in Volhynia. Artist of the second half of the 17th century, hieromonk of the Pochaiv Monastery. In 1675 he painted The Siege of Pochaiv by the Turks, which was preserved at the Pochaiv Monastery until the end of the 19th century. In 1704 N . Zubrytsky copied the painting in copper. Ancestor worship. The cult of the ancestors was a basic feature of the ancient pagan world view of the Ukrainian people. Every feast of the folk calendar commemorated the dead and was believed to serve a practical agricultural purpose. According to popular belief the clan (rid) was an indivisible whole, consisting of the living, the dead, and the unborn. Death was viewed as a departure or displacement in space, which did not sever the ties between the dead and the living. The ancestors participated in all the affairs and the agricultural work of the family. Commemorative meals or feasts were held at certain times of the year. The ancestors were invited to them and left at the end of the festive cycles. Every commemorative feast consisted of a summoning-invitational ritual, a greeting ritual, a communal ritual meal for the living and the dead, and a farewell ritual. Christmas Eve, which is the most important family holiday in Ukraine, is closely connected with the clan cult and the commemoration of the dead. During the evening meal three spoons of each dish are placed in a special bowl for the departed relatives. The Epiphany Eve meal (holodna kutia) also has a commemorative function. In the spring the dead are remembered on St Theodore's day, the first Saturday of Lent. The main commemorative rite is the 'sending-off (provody) of the dead, which is held on the Monday after St Thomas's Sunday. Various foods, colored eggs, liquor, and wine are brought to the graves of the ancestors. The dead are also commemorated on the eve and day of Pentecost. In the fall the dead are honored on three commemorative Saturdays: St Demetrius's, St Cosmas's, and St Michael's. P. Odarchenko

Ancient states on the northern Black Sea coast. City states existed on the northern pontic coast from the middle of the 1st millennium BC to the 3rd~4th century AD. They were founded as colonies of Greek city states, mainly Miletus and other Ionic states, on sites that had fertile land, were close to good fishing grounds,

and facilitated trade with such tribes as the Scythians, Sindians, and Maeotians. The oldest Greek colony in Ukraine was founded on *Berezan Island in the second half of the 7th century BC. The other colonies were founded mostly in the 6th century BC: *Tyras (now Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi), *01bia (on the Boh liman), and, in the Crimea, *Panticapaeum (now Kerch), Theodosia (now Teodosiia), *Tiritaka, *Nymphaeum, and *Kerkinitidis (now Yevpatoriia). ^Chersonese Táurica, the only Doric colony, was built at the end of the 5th century BC in southwestern Crimea. In a short time these colonies all became independent, slave-owning poleis. The economy of these states was based on agriculture (particularly viticulture), manufacturing (stonecutting, construction, metal-working, pottery-making, and jewelry-making), and trade with the neighboring tribes and the cities of Greece and Asia Minor. The colonies sold their own products and acted as intermediaries between Greece and the Black Sea tribes. Most of the states produced their own coins. They sold the local tribes wine, weapons, and such luxury items as sculptures, vases, and precious textiles, and exported grain, dried fish, other agricultural products, and slaves. In political structure most of these states were, like their mother states, slave-owning republics. The *Bosporan Kingdom, established ca 480 BC, had a monarchical structure. By the late 2nd century BC the states on the northern pontic littoral went into decline, mostly because of expansion by the Scythians and Taurians. In the middle of the 1st century BC they came under the protection of King Mithradates vi Eupator of Pontus and joined him in his wars with Rome. After Mithradates' defeat Roman garrisons were stationed in many of the states and remained there until the 3rd~4th century AD. Local tribes who settled there became hellenized and began to play an increasingly important role, leading to the creation of a Greco-Sarmatian culture. In the 330s AD the states on the northern pontic littoral were economically ruined by the invasions of the Ostrogoths; they were finally destroyed by the *Huns in the fourth century. BIBLIOGRAPHY Rostovtzeff, M . Iranians and Greeks in South Russia (Oxford 1920) Ivanova, A . Iskusstvo antichnykh gorodov Severnogo Prichernomofia (Moscow-Leningrad 1953) Narysy starodavrioï istorii Ukrains'koi RSR (Kiev 1959) Problemy istorii Severnogo Prichernomof ia v antichnuiu epokhu (Moscow 1959) Blavatskii, V. Antichnaia arkheologiia Severnogo Prichernomof ia (Moscow 1961)

Anczewska-Wisniewska, Elzbieta. See Wisniewska, Elzbieta. Anders, Wtadysîaw, b u August 1892 in Btoñ, Poland, d 11 May 1970 in London, England. Polish general. Following the outbreak of the German-Soviet war and the signing of the Soviet-Polish agreement of 30 July 1941, Anders became commander-in-chief of a Polish army in the USSR. The army included some 2,000 Ukrainians, citizens of Poland who had been deported from Western Ukrainian territories by Soviet authorities. Following the end of the war and the dissolution of Anders's corps in

ANDREW I I

1945, most of the Ukrainians settled in England. As an émigré Anders supported Polish claims to eastern Galicia and Volhynia. Andiievska, Emma [Andijevs'ka], b 19 March 1931 in Donetske. Poetess and prose writer. A n émigré since 1943, she at first lived in Germany (where she completed her higher education), then in France and the United States, and now again lives in Germany. Andiievska's work is highly original. To date she has published nine collections of verse: Poeziï (Poems, 1951), Narodzhennia idola (Birth of the Idol, 1958), Ryba i rozmir (Fish and Dimension, 1961), Kuty opostin' (Corners on Both Sides of the Wall, 1963), Pervni (Elements, 1964), Bazar (Bazaar, 1967), Pisni bez tekstu (Songs without a Text, 1968), Nauka pro zemliu (Science of the Earth, 1975), and Kavarnia (Café, 1983); three collections of short prose: Podorozh (Journey, 1933), Tyhry (Tigers, 1962), and Dzhalapita (1962); and three novels: Herostraty (Herostrati, 1970), Roman pro dobru liudynu (Novel about a Good Person, 1973), and Roman pro liuds'ke pryznachennia (A Novel about Human Destiny, 1982). The reaction of critics to her works has been mixed and even contradictory. The hermeticism of her poetry and the self-imposed and strictly adhered-to structural constraints of her prose do not lend themselves to easy comprehension. Andiievska's poetic world consists of surrealistic landscapes rooted in real descriptions of nature, which Andiievska views from various dimensions and to which she provides exquisite instrumentation. The multidimensional imagery produces an effect of simultaneity of events, coinciding with the notion of 'round time/ whose laws govern the multiepisodic but monolinear (chainlike) novels. D . H . Struk

6

7

Andreas, ?- ca 726. Archbishop of Crete, writer, preacher, and ecclesiastical poet. His Velykyi Pokaiannyi Kanon (Great Penitential Canon) was one of the best-known works of Old Ukrainian literature in translation. Andreev, Konstantin, b 26 March 1848 in Moscow, d 29 October 1921 in Moscow. Mathematician, corresponding member of the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences. From 1873 to 1898 Andreev taught at Kharkiv University, where he was appointed professor in 1879, and then at Moscow University. He was an organizer and active member of the Kharkiv Mathematical Society. He published works on projective geometry and mathematical analysis. Andrei Bogoliubskii [Andrej Bogoljubskij], b ca 1111, d 29 April 1174. Prince of Vladimir-Suzdal, son of *Yurii Dolgorukii, and grandson of * Volodymyr Monomakh. Andrei's father appointed him prince of Vyshhorod near Kiev, and Andrei participated in his father's struggle to take Kiev. In 1155 he left Vyshhorod and became ruler of Vladimir in the north. After his father's death in 1157, he became the prince of Rostov and Suzdal. Thus, he united the northeastern part of Rus' under his rule. From 1139 he tried to strengthen his influence in Novgorod. In 1169 he sacked Kiev. Andrei was murdered by the boyars, who resisted his autocratic policies. Andreiko, Dmytro [Andrejko], 1869-1923. Pedagogue and educator in the United States (from 1907), organizer of schools, and member of the editorial board of the newspaper *Svoboda. Andreiko compiled a primer and readers for Ukrainian church schools, edited the children's magazines Tsvitok and Ridna shkola, and published a collection of 600 folk songs, entitled Zvuky Ukraïny (Sounds of Ukraine, 1923). Andreenko, Michel. See Andriienko-Nechytailo, Mykhailo.

Emma Andiievska

Halyna Andreadis

Andreadis, Halyna (Alicia) (birth name Mynaiv), b 22 June 1932 in Stravropil. Operatic contralto. Andreadis's family came from Zaporizhia. She studied under A. Cetera at the conservatory in Buenos Aires. Since i960 Andreadis has been a soloist with the Teatro Colon opera in Buenos Aires. She has appeared in the United States and Canada with various opera companies and has given many concerts. The American record company RCA has produced three records of her singing.

Andrella, Mykhailo (pseud Orosvyhivsky [Orosvyhivs'kyj]), b 1637 in Rosvyhove (Orosvyhove) in Transcarpathia, d 1710 in Iza, Transcarpathia. Writer, polemicist, and priest. Andrella studied at the universities of Vienna, Bratislava, and Trnava. During his travels abroad he became a Catholic, but on coming home (in 1669) he returned to Orthodoxy and wrote sharp attacks on Catholicism and Protestantism in Logos (1691-2) and Obrona virnomu kazhdomu cheloviku (Defense of Every Faithful Man, 1697-1701). Some scholars consider Andrella a follower of I . *Vyshensky, but he does not measure up to the great polemicist. His biography and a survey of his literary work can be found in M . Vozniak's Istoriia ukraïns'koï literatury (A History of Ukrainian Literature, vol 3, 1924) and in V. Mykytas's Ukraïns'kyi pys'mennyk-polemist M. Andrella (The Ukrainian WriterPolemicist M . Andrella, i960). Andrew II, 1175-1233. Hungarian king. After the death of Prince Roman Mstyslavych in 1205, Andrew (Endre) tried to gain control of the principality of Galicia-Volhynia and adopted the title of king of Galicia and Lodomeria. He fought against Prince Danylo Romanovych and tried to win the Galician throne for his sons, Kálmán and Andrew.

68

ANDRII

Andrii [Andrij], b in Volhynia. Painter of the 15th century. Andrii painted frescos in the Chapel of the Holy Trinity in Lublin, Poland. The Last Supper, Prayers over the Chalice, Descent from the Cross, and The Betrayal are on the walls around the altar, and a depiction of Christ with Andrii's signature and the date 1418 is on the arch between the altar and the nave. Andrii Pervozvannyi. See Saint Andrew. Andrii Yuriiovych [Andrij Jurijovyc], ?-ca 1323. Prince of Galicia-Volhynia who ruled with his brother *Lev Yuriiovych from 1308 to ca 1323, son of *Yurii Lvovych. Andrii maintained close ties with the Teutonic Knights and Poland and waged war against the Tatars and Lithuanians. The deaths of Andrii and Lev while fighting the Tatars ended the dynasty of *Volodymyr Monomakh in Galicia.

Detail of 1418 fresco by Andrii in the Holy Trinity Chapel in Lublin, Poland

Mykhailo AndriienkoNechytailo

Andriiashev, Oleksander [Andrijasev], b 1 September 1863 in Chernihiv, d 1939. Historian, archivist, archeographer. Andriiashev graduated from Kiev University in 1886 and worked in the archives of Riga, Revel, St Petersburg, and Kiev (especially in the Central Archive of Old Documents). He wrote Ocherk istorii Volynskoi zemli do kontsa xiv veka (A Historical Survey of the Volhynian Land to the End of the 14th Century, 1887) and 'Narys istoriï kolonizatsiï Kyïvs'koï zemli do kintsia xv viku' (A Historical Survey of the Colonization of the Kievan Land to the End of the 15th Century) in Kyïv ta ioho okolytsia v istoriï i pam'iatkakh (Kiev and Its Environs in History and in Monuments, ed M . Hrushevsky, Kiev 1926). Andriiashyk, Roman [Andrijasyk], b 9 May 1933 in Korolivka, Ternopil county, Galicia. Writer. Andriiashyk studied physics and mathematics at Chernivtsi University and journalism at Lviv University. His works were first published in 1957. He is the author of five novels: Liudy zi strakhu (People out of Fear, 1966), Poltva (The Poltva River, serialized in the Kharkiv journal Prapor, 1969, nos 8-9), Dodomu nema vorottia (There Is No Way to Return Home, 1976), Krovnasprava (A Matter of Blood, 1978), and Sad bez lystopadu (An Orchard without Falling Leaves, 1980). Poltva, a historical novel about the life of the

Galician intelligentsia during and after the struggle for Ukrainian independence, was sharply attacked by Soviet critics for nationalism and subsequently banned. It was republished in the émigré journal Suchasnisf, 1971, nos 2-5-

Andriichuk, Mykhailo [Andrijcuk], b 30 November 1894 in Slobidka, Tovmach county, Galicia, d 28 November 1938 in the United States. Journalist and short-story writer. Andriichuk emigrated to America in 1911. He was a member of pro-Communist Ukrainian-American organizations and editor of *Robitnyk, at first in Cleveland and later in New York. He also edited the satirical journal Smikh, contributed to Ukraïns'ki shchodenni visti, and edited Svitlo. Andriichuk depicted the life of the working class from a communist viewpoint. A selection of his writings was published in Ukraine in 1957. Andriienko-Nechytailo, Mykhailo [Andrijenko-Necytajlo, Myxajlo] (known in France as Michel Andreenko), b 29 December 1894 in Odessa, d 12 November 1982 in Paris. Painter and stage designer. In 1912-17 AndriienkoNechytailo studied with M . Rerikh, M . Rylov, and I . Bilibin at the art school of the Imperial Society for the Promotion of the Arts in St Petersburg. In 1914-16 he exhibited the composition Black Dome and his first cubist works in St Petersburg. In 1914 he participated in an international graphics exhibition in Leipzig. In 1917-24 he devoted most of his time to designing stage sets for various theaters - in St Petersburg, Odessa, Prague, Paris, and for the Royal Opera in Bucharest. In Paris, where he lived from 1923, he also worked on sets for the films Casanova and Sheherezade and continued to paint in the cubist-constructivist style. In the 1930s AndriienkoNechytailo produced a series of surrealist paintings. He switched to neorealism in the 1940s and painted a number of portraits as well as the cityscape Disappearing Paris. From 1958 he returned to constructivism and abstraction. Andriienko-Nechytailo's work is characterized by a precision of composition that harmonizes subtly with color. His stage sets are remarkable for their laconic quality and architectural schematism, and his costume designs, for their richness. His paintings can be found in the City Museum of Modern Art and the Arsenal Library in Paris, the National Library in Vienna, the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, the Metropolitan Museum in New York, the Lviv State Museum of Ukrainian Art, and Ukrainian émigré museums and private art collections. Andriienko-Nechytailo is also the author of several short stories and articles on art. BIBLIOGRAPHY Sichyns'kyi, V . Andriienko (Lviv 1934) Popovych, V. Mykhailo Andriienko (Munich 1969) Marcadé, J.-Cl. and V . Andreenko (Lausanne 1978) M. Andriienko. Kataloh vystavky v Ukraïns'komu instytuti modernoho mystetstva (Chicago 1979) S. Hordynsky

Andriievsky, Borys [Andrijevs'kyj], b 1898 in Bezsaly, Poltava gubernia, d 20 October 1962 in Cleveland, Ohio. Surgeon, brother of D. Andriievsky. Andriievsky was a professor of surgery at the Dnipropetrovske Medical Institute and, in 1943-44, at the Lviv Medical Institute. He wrote more than 30 scientific works. As an émigré in Germany he was one of the organizers of the Ukrainian Red Cross; in 1952 he emigrated to the United States.

ANDRIIEVYCH

Andriievsky, Dmytro [Andrijevs'kyj], b 27 September 1892 in Budky, Poltava gubernia, d 30 August 1976 in Dornstadt, West Germany. Political activist and publicist, engineer. Andriievsky was secretary of the UNR diplo­ matic mission in Switzerland (1919-20) and subse­ quently head of the Ukrainian Committee in Belgium. He was a member of the first Leadership Council of Ukrainian Nationalists (1928), a participant in the founding con­ gress of the ^Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists in 1929, and served afterwards in the OUN (Melnyk faction) leadership, in charge of external contacts. In 1944 he was imprisoned in the German concentration camp at Bràtz. In 1948 he became a member of the ""Ukrainian National Council and of its Executive Organ; he also served as its state controller. He was head of the senate of the OUN (Melnyk faction). Andriievsky wrote articles on the ideology of Ukrainian nationalism and on Ukrainian foreign policy and is the author of Rosiis'kyi koloniializm i soviets'ka imperiia (Russian Colonialism and the Soviet Empire, 1938).

Dmytro Andriievsky

9

cultural figure, and pedagogue, who worked in Kiev, Katerynoslav, and Odessa. Andriievsky was editor of Kievskie gubernskie vedomosti and wrote for the periodical Kievskaia starina. He produced articles on T. Shevchenko, 10 volumes of Istoricheskie materialy iz arkhiva Kievskogo gubernskogo pravleniia (Historical Materials from the Ar­ chive of the Kiev Gubernia Government, 1882-6), Materialy dlia istorii ZaporozWia (Materials for the History of Zaporizhia, 1893), and other works. Andriievsky, Opanas [Andrijevs'kyj], b 1878 in the Uman region, d 16 May 1953 in Spittal an der Drau, Austria. Political figure, justice of the peace, and lawyer (in Kiev from 1905). Andriievsky was active in the Ukrai­ nian Party of Socialists-Independentists and the Ukrai­ nian National Union. He became a member of the Directory of the UNR on 13 November 1918. After emigrating, he was professor of civil law at the Ukrainian Free University in Prague from 1924 to 1937. Andriievsky, Petro [Andrijevs'kyj], 1880-? Veteri­ narian and biologist-bacteriologist. Andriievsky studied at the Kharkiv Veterinary Institute in 1899 and later worked in Kharkiv and Moscow. He was one of the founders of the ""Revolutionary Ukrainian party. After emigrating he taught at the Ukrainian Free University in Prague and did scientific research at the Pasteur Institute in Paris and in the French Sudan. From 1933 to 1939 he was a professor of veterinary medicine at Warsaw Univer­ sity. During the German occupation of Western Ukraine he directed the Lviv Veterinary Academy.

Oleksii Andriievsky

Andriievsky, Ivan [Andrijevs'kyj], b 1759 in the Cher­ nihiv region, d 1809 in Moscow. Pioneer of veterinary science in the Russian Empire. Andriievsky studied at the Kievan Mohyla Academy and Moscow University, where he was later appointed to the chair of veterinary medi­ cine. He wrote numerous studies in Latin and Russian, including translations from the French. The most impor­ tant of these are Kratkoe nachertanie anatomii domashnikh zhivotnykh (Brief Outline of the Anatomy of Domestic Animals, 1804) d NachaVnye osnovaniia meditsiny veterinarii Hi skotolecheniia (Basic Fundamentals of Veterinary Medicine or the Healing of Animals, 1809). a R

Andriievsky, Oleksander [Andrijevs'kyj], b 15 Au­ gust 1869 in Byryne, Chernihiv gubernia, d 15 June 1930. Ukrainian ethnographer and folklorist, high school teacher. From 1921 Andriievsky was associated with the ""Ethnographic Commission of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. He compiled Bibliohrafiia literatury z ukrains'icono folkVoru (Bibliography of Ukrainian Folklore, 1930). Andriievsky, Oleksander [Andrijevs'kyj], b 26 Au­ gust 1900 in Kharkiv, d 18 January 1976 in Lviv. Physicist. In 1955 Andriievsky was appointed professor at the Lviv Polytechnical Institute. His works deal with the physics of semiconductors and gases. Andriievsky, Oleksii [Andrijevs'kyj, Oleksij], b 28 March 1845 Kaniv, d 22 July 1902 in Kiev. Historian, m

6

Viktor Andriievsky

Andriievsky, Viktor [Andrijevs'kyj], b 11 November 1885 in Poltava, d 13 September 1967 in Dornstadt, Germany. Public figure, publicist, and pedagogue. Andriievsky worked in the Poltava provincial zemstvo, was a member of the Poltava Hromada, and held the post of Poltava gubernia commissioner of education in 191718. He co-founded the ""Party of Agrarian Democrats in 1917. In 1920 he emigrated and lived in Poland, Czecho­ slovakia, and finally Germany. Andriievsky was the author of works and numerous anti-socialist newspaper articles. Among his writings are the following: Z mynuloho (From the Past, 2 vols, 1921-3); his memoirs, cover­ ing the years 1885 to 1917, entitled Try hromady (Three Communities, 2 vols, 1938); M. Lysenko (1942); and M . Mikhnovs'kyi (1950). Andriievych, Marharyta [Andrijevyc], b 9 October 1912 in the village of Moshny, Kiev gubernia. Playwright, translator, and actress. After completing her studies at

70

ANDRIIEVYCH

the Kiev Institute of Theater Arts in 1937, Andriievych worked as an actress in the Poltava and later the Chernivtsi theater. From 1954 to 1977 she was literary director of the Chernivtsi Ukrainian Music and Drama Theater. Her plays include Ya viriu (I Believe, 1958; co-authored with M. Akumenko), Lesia (i960), Puhachivna (1963), Tytarivna (The Sexton's Daughter, 1963), U novorichnu nick (On New Year's Eve, 1964), Vid'ma (Witch, 1964), Marichka (1965), Kriz' roky (Through the Years, 1966), and Kara (Punishment, 1975). Andriievych has also written stories and translations of literary works. Andriivka [Andrijivka]. iv-17. Town smt (1976 pop 12,800) in Balakliia raion, Kharkiv oblast on the Donets River. The first mention of Andriivka dates back to 1627. Today it has a gas refinery, a clothing factory, and a factory producing reinforced-concrete products and con­ crete blocks. Androkhovych, Amvrosii [Androxovyc, Amvrosij], b 5 October 1879 in Lysets, Stanyslaviv county, Galicia, d 1942. Pedagogue and historian, full member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society, professor at the Greek Catholic Theological Academy in Lviv (1941-2), director of a teacher's seminary in Sokal, Galicia (1928-31), and of the Second State Woman Teachers' Seminary in Lviv (1931-4). Androkhovych wrote studies on the *Barbareum and the *Studium Ruthenum (Zapysky Naukovoho Tovarystva im. Shevchenka, vols 131, 132, 137, 146, Lviv 1921-9), as well as on the Greek Catholic Seminary in Lviv, and articles on the cultural history of Galicia, particularly on education in the late-i8th and early-i9th century. Andropov, Yurii, b 15 June 1914 in Nagutskaia, Stavropol gubernia, d 9 February 1984 in Moscow. Soviet Party and government leader; since 11 November 1982 fifth general secretary of the CPSU. By professional training a marine engineer, Andropov began working in the Party apparat early in his career, first in the Komsomol (1936-44) and then in the CPSU. In 1940-7 he worked in Karelia as the protégé of the Finnish Communist O. Kuusinen and from 1947 served as the second secretary of the cc CP of the Karelo-Finnish ASSR. In 1951 he was

transferred to Moscow to work in the ce CPSU apparat. In 1954-7 he served as the Soviet ambassador to Hungary and faithfully carried out the Kremlin's policy of sup­ pressing the 1956 Hungarian uprising and installing J. Kadar's puppet government. In 1957 Andropov re­ turned to Moscow to head the department of relations with East European Communist parties of the Secretariat of the cc CPSU. In May 1967 he was appointed chief of the KGB, a post at which he served for 15 years. As KGB chief Andropov immediately became a candidate member of the Politburo of the cc CPSU. In April 1973 he was promoted to full member. In 1976 he was awarded the rank of army general. Under Andropov the KGB strengthened its system of political repression and its foreign intelligence network, including its economic and technological intelligence gathering and disinformation operations. Within the USSR dissidents, particularly Ukrainian cultural figures and defenders of human rights, came under increasingly severe persecution. In 1972 the KGB conducted numerous arrests in Kiev and Lviv. There are suspicions that P. *Shelest was removed from his post of first secretary of

the cc CPU and then from the Politburo of the CPSU because of KGB pressure. According to samvydav sources, the chief of the KGB in the Ukrainian SSR, V. Fedorchuk, denounced Shelest to his superiors in Moscow for failing to suppress the dissident movement in Ukraine. In 1977-80 under Andropov's leadership the ^Ukrainian Helsinki Group and similar groups in other Soviet repub­ lics were crushed. With the aging of the Secretariat of the Politburo in Moscow and the disclosure of corruption in L. Brezhnev's family, Andropov consolidated his position. After the death of M. Suslov, he became chief for ideological affairs in May 1982. After Brezhnev's death, on 12 November 1982 Andropov was elected the general secretary of the Party over Brezhnev's protégé, K. Chernenko. The Supreme Soviet of the USSR elected Andropov a member of its presidium in November 1982 and its chairman in 1983. As the new leader Andropov did not alter Brezhnev's domestic and foreign policies, but economic and adminis­ trative reforms were introduced in the USSR. During the last six months of his life Andropov was gravely ill, and the USSR was ruled 'collectively' by other members of the Politburo. V. Markus Andrukh, Ivan [Andrux], b 1892, d August 1921 in Kiev. Public and military figure. Andrukh helped organ­ ize the *Sich association of physical culture in Galicia and was a second lieutenant and then captain and commander of the First Infantry Regiment of the Sich Riflemen. He was a prominent figure in the anti-Bolshevik movement in Ukraine in 1920-1 and a member in Bolshevik-occupied Ukraine of the Supreme Collegium of the Ukrainian Central Insurgent Committee connected with the Ukrai­ nian Military Organization. Andrukh was executed by a Bolshevik firing squad. Andrukhovych, Kost [Andruxovyc, Kost'], b?, d 1905 in Galicia. One of the first Ukrainian Catholic clergymen in the United States. Andrukhovych was born in Galicia and lived in the United States in 1889-91. He settled first in Kingston, and later Shenandoah, Pennsylvania, where for a short period he was editor of the newspaper Ameryka, replacing I . Voliansky. Later he published another newspaper, Ruske slovo (1891). Andrukhovych was also briefly involved in organizing consumer co­ operatives for Ukrainians in the area. He was the author of a study of Ukrainians in the United States entitled Z zhyttia rusyniv v Amerytsi (On the Life of Ruthenians in the United States, Kolomyia 1904). Andrushchenko, Yurii [Andruscenko, Jurij], b 11 Au­ gust 1910 in Velykoseletske, Poltava gubernia, d 31 Janu­ ary 1975 in Poltava. Poet. Andrushchenko's first pub­ lished works appeared in the 1920s. Four collections of his poetry have been published: Tsvituf zhyta (The Rye Fields Are in Bloom, 1931), Spivaiu molodisf (I Sing of Youth, 1936), Zhyvu toboiu (I Live Through You, 1957), and Vohon' dushi (Flame of the Soul, 1963). Andrushivka [Andrusivka]. 111-10. City (1972 pop 11,200) in the Dnieper Upland on the Huiva River, a raion center in Zhytomyr oblast. Andrushivka was first men­ tioned as Andrusovka in 1683. Its population is employed mostly in the food industry (sugar refining and distilling) and in two brick factories.

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Andrushkiv, Osyp [Andruskiv], b 21 March 1906 in Horodok, Galicia. Mathematician. Andrushkiv studied at Lviv University and at the Ukrainian Free University in Munich. He was professor and head of the mathematics department at Seton Hall University in Newark, New Jersey. A full member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society in the United States, Andrushkiv has served as its president and vice-president and also as editor of the society's Zbirnyk, Section of Mathematics, Natural Sciences, and Medicine (1953-64). Andrusiak, Mykola [Andrusjak], b 20 February 1902 in Perevolochna, Zolochiv county, Galicia. Historian, professor at the Ukrainian Free University, and full member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society. Since 1950 he has lived in the United States. Andrusiak's works include the following books: Zv'iazky Mazepy z S. Lieshchyns'kym i Karlom xn (Mazepa's Ties with S. Leszczyñski and Charles xn, 1933), Józef Szumlanski (1934), Narysy z istoriï halyts'koho moskvofiVstva (Essays on the History of Galician Russophilism, 1935), Mazepa i Pravoberezhzhia (Mazepa and Right-Bank Ukraine, 1938), Heneza i kharakter halyts'koho rusofiVstva v 19 i 20 st (The Genesis and Character of Galician Russophilism in the 19th and 20th Century, 1941), and various studies and articles on the history of the Principality of Galicia-Volhynia, the Cossack period, and the national awakening in Galicia in Zapysky NTSh and other historical journals. Andrusiv, Mykola, b 19 December 1861 in Odessa, d 27 April 1924 in Prague. Geologist and paleontologist, professor at the universities in Dorpat and Kiev (190512), full member of the Russian Academy of Sciences and, from 1920, the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. Andrusiv's principal works are on the stratigraphy and paleontology of the neogenesis of the Crimean, Caucasian, and Transcaspian regions. He developed a stratigraphic schema of the neogenesis of the Ponto-Caspian Basin, drew paleogeographic maps of the Black Sea Basin in the neogenetic and anthropogenetic periods, and determined that the Black Sea Basin was polluted by hydrogen sulfide. Andrusiv, Petro, b 2 July 1906 in the village of Kamenobrid, Lviv region, d 29 December 1981 in Riverhead, New York. Painter and graphic artist. Andrusiv studied at the Warsaw Academy of Arts, where he was a co-organizer of the artistic group Spokii (1927-39). From 1947 he resided in Philadelphia, where he worked as a city artist from 1955 to 1972. In 1952 he helped found the ^Ukrainian Artists' Association in the United States. Andrusiv's work was shown at exhibitions arranged by Spokii in Warsaw (1928-33), by the ^Association of Independent Ukrainian Artists in Lviv, by the Ukrainian Artists' Association in the United States, and by other groups. He created large compositions based on Ukrainian medieval and Cossack history, and illustrations for children's books and historical publications. He painted murals in a number of churches in the United States in a Byzantine-like style. His last major work was The Baptism of Ukraine-Rus\ A monograph on Andrusiv by S. Hordynsky was published in New York in 1980. Andrusovo, Treaty of. A peace treaty between Poland and Muscovy, signed 13 January 1667 village of m

t n e

Andrusovo near Smolensk, Muscovy, that remained in effect for thirteen and one-half years. It terminated the war that began in 1654. According to this treaty, LeftBank Ukraine remained under Muscovite rule, while Right-Bank Ukraine was transferred to Poland. Kiev was to remain in Russian hands for two years, but the Russians kept it permanently. The Zaporozhian Sich came under the joint protection of Muscovy and Poland. This was the first partition of Ukraine, and it was confirmed by the so-called ^Eternal Peace of 1686. The events leading to the Treaty of Andrusovo are analyzed in C.B. O'Brien's Muscovy and the Ukraine from the Pereiaslav Agreement to the Truce of Andrusovo, 1654-1667 (Berkeley 1963).

Petro Andrusiv

Constantine Andrusyshen

Andrusyshen, Constantine [Andrusysyn, Kostjantyn], b 19 July 1907 in Winnipeg, Manitoba, d 13 May 1983 in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. Literary scholar, linguist, and translator. Andrusyshen received his PHD in Romance languages from the University of Toronto in 1940, and until 1944 he edited the newspaper Kanadiis'kyi farmer in Winnipeg. In 1945 he became head of the Slavics department at the University of Saskatchewan, the first in Canada, remaining as chairman to 1975. His major works include the Ukrainian-English Dictionary (1955), with J.N. Krett, and two translations in collaboration with W. Kirkconnell, The Ukrainian Poets 1189-1962 (1963) and The Poetical Works of Taras Shevchenko (1964). In 1964 Andrusyshen was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. Andruzky, Yurii [Andruz'kyj, Jurij], b 8 June 1827 in Vechirky, Poltava gubernia, d? Community figure, poet. Andruzky studied at Kiev University. His poetry was influenced by T. Shevchenko. A member of the ""Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood, he was arrested in 1847 d exiled to Kazan, then to Petrozavodsk. For his revolutionary convictions, expressed in the article 'Konstytutsiia respubliky' (Constitution of the Republic), he was again exiled, this time to the monastery on the Solovets Islands (1850-4). After his release he worked in Arkhangelsk. a n

Andrzejowski, Antoni, b 1785 in Varkovytsi, Volhynia, d 12 December 1868 in Stavyshche, Kiev gubernia. Polish naturalist. A n adjunct professor at Kiev University, Andrzejowski was a teacher at the lyceums in Kremianets and Nizhen. From 1839 to 1841 he studied the flora of Volhynia, eastern Podilia, and Kherson gubernia;

7*

ANDRZEJOWSKI

he also studied the taxonomy and morphology of the plant family Cruciferae. Anecdote. A very short narrative, usually of a humorous nature, with a culminating point. Ukrainian oral literature is full of anecdotes. Attempts to collect these were made by B. Hrinchenko (Etnograficheskie materialy [Ethno­ graphic Materials], 1895-9), V. Hnatiuk (Etnografichnyi zbirnyk [Ethnographic Collection], v i , 1899), M . Levchenko, and V. Shukhevych. Anecdotes often provided the foundation for literary works, not only in the baroque period (intermediia) but also in the 19th (S. Rudansky) and 20th (Ostap Vyshnia) century. In oral literature anec­ dotes describe human types or situations, and in Ukraine today many of them reveal popular, dissenting views on Soviet life and institutions. Anglicisms. Words and syntactical constructions bor­ rowed from the English language. Anglicisms first ap­ peared in the Ukrainian language in the early 20th century, but their usage grew significantly only after the Second World War. Originally, Anglicisms entered the Ukrainian language through Russian, Polish, and Ger­ man; since the war they have been incorporated primarily from Russian in the USSR and from English in the West. Anglicisms are most common in technical terminology and urban slang (dress, popular dances, sex). In the conversational language of Ukrainians in the United States, Canada, Australia, and Engand, Angli­ cisms are used to denote new concepts (developed since emigration), as well as proper geographical names, and to imbue the language with emotional coloring.

Metropolitan Antin Anhelovych

Anhelovych, Antin [Anhelovyc], b 14 April 1756 in the village of Hryniv, Bibrka country, Galicia, d 9 August 1814 in Lviv. Greek Catholic metropolitan of Lviv. An­ helovych studied at the Barbareum and in 1793 became the first rector of the Greek Catholic Theological Seminary in Lviv. In 1794 he became professor of dogma and in 1796 rector of Lviv University. In 1795 he was appointed bishop of Peremyshl; in 1798, administrator of the Lviv eparchy; in 1804, administrator of the Kholm eparchy; and in 1805, administrator of both the Lviv and Kholm eparchies. In 1808 Anhelovych became the first metro­ politan of the reinstated Galician metropolitanate in Lviv. Animal husbandry. The main branches of animal hus­ bandry in Ukraine are *cattle raising, *sheep farming, *hog raising, ^poultry farming, *horse breeding, *goat

farming, *rabbit breeding, and to a lesser extent fish farming, ""beekeeping, and silkworm breeding. Animal husbandry has been practiced in Ukraine since Neolithic times. Cattle, sheep, pigs, and goats were kept, particularly by people of the Trypilian culture. Since the Bronze Age horse breeding has been important, espe­ cially among the steppe inhabitants. It was particularly important among the Scythians. In the Princely era animal husbandry was well developed, and horse breeding had a military significance. Beginning in the 15th century, Ukraine exported oxen to Western Europe, and then to Muscovy. Under the Hetmán state oxen and sheep were exported from the Left Bank. Yet the primary purpose of animal husbandry was to satisfy the needs of the native population. Only by the end of the 18th century did animal husbandry in southern Ukraine assume a commer­ cial character, with the exportation of wool and oxen. But when the steppes came under cultivation, sheep farming declined because of the feed shortage, and oxen, which were suitable for plowing thick, virgin soil, were replaced by horses. Mid-i8oos to 1914. In Ukraine animal husbandry was inseparable from ^agriculture. The relationship between the two varied with different systems of farming. Under the ^long-fallow system feed was plentiful, and much livestock was raised. Such conditions existed in the steppes in the first half of the 19th century: many sheep and oxen were kept. Under the three-field system, which predominated in the forest-steppe belt, the equilibrium between the two branches of farming was upset. The *feed base for livestock diminished, and so livestock numbers declined. At the same time land cultivation became more difficult because of the shortage of work animals and of animal fertilizer. The fertility of the soil decreased, and the development of agriculture was hampered. Such conditions prevailed in the forest-steppe belt, particularly on the Left Bank and from the 1860s in the steppe belt, after the decline of the long-fallow system. The number of livestock diminished, especially the number of sheep, not only relative to the increasing population but in absolute numbers. *Crop rotation, which increases the feed base and improves soil fertility, provided better conditions for animal husbandry, but this system prevailed only in Western Ukraine. Thus, Ukraine had an inadequate feed base for live­ stock, except in the Carpathian Mountains and the forest belt, which had an abundance of hayfields and pastures, and Western Ukraine, where a tenth of the seeded land was devoted to fodder. The basic feed in winter was hay and straw; in summer, pasture vegetation. Oats and barley were used in much smaller quantity. The wastes of sugar and vegetable-oil production were used as feed, but most of these were exported as high-quality feed. The shortage of feed and the low quality of breeds account for the low productivity of milk (600-1,000 L per year on the average per head) and of meat in Ukraine. Some progress in central and eastern Ukraine was discernible in the last few years before the First World War, owing to the efforts of the *zemstvos and large landowners. Measures were adopted to improve the quality of livestock, mainly by introducing better breeds. The increase in livestock raising in the nine Ukrainian gubernias from 1882 to 1912 is presented in table 1 (in millions). The large decline in the number of sheep was caused by the cultivation of the steppes and the falling

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY TABLE 1 Year

Cattle

Sheep

Hogs

1882 1912

5.4 6.5

15.2 6.2

5.0 4.2

demand for wool abroad. The increase in the number of cattle was insignificant and did not match the increase in population, but the number of hogs did increase signifi­ cantly. The number of horses also increased greatly; eg, in Kherson guebernia the number of horses increased from 329,000 in 1881 to 814,000 in 1913; for the entire Dnieper region it increased to 5.7 million. The increase was largely owing to the fact that horses replaced oxen as the main draft force, particularly in the steppes. 1914-41. In the first years of the war livestock reserves, especially cattle, increased in the Dnieper region, because the feed base grew as diminishing grain exports caused fields to be left fallow. The number of livestock decreased in the years of War Communism (reinforced by the 1921 drought) and increased again under the New Economic Policy, when the number of peasant farms increased, reaching an all-time high in 1928. Later ^collectivization, which eradicated private farms, led to disastrous conse­ quences for animal husbandry. The peasant farmers slaughtered much of their livestock rather than surrender it to the collective farms. Then poor management on the collective farms and the *famine of 1933 caused livestock reserves to shrink even further. In 1933, according to official statistics, scarcely 41 percent of the horses, 53 percent of the cattle, 40 percent of the hogs, and 38 percent of the sheep and goats that were kept before collectivization remained. From 1934 the livestock num­ bers began to grow, mainly because members of collective farms were allowed to raise domestic animals on private plots, but by 1940 they still had not reached the 1928 level. This growth is evident in table 2, showing the livestock reserves of the Ukrainian SSR (in millions). From 1934 the Soviet government devoted increasing attention to the development of animal husbandry on the collective and state farms. At every collective farm two or three animal farms were set up. State animal farms were organized. Much work was done to improve animal breeds. From 1940 the quotas of animal products to be delivered to the state were determined according to sector. The production of the collective and state farms expanded at the expense of private owners: from 1938 to 1941 their share of cattle jumped from 31 percent to 49.5 percent, of hogs from 33.8 percent to 49.6 percent, and of sheep from 60.3 percent to 81.7 percent. The rest of the livestock was owned privately by collective farmers, workers, functionaries, and other private individuals. Since 1941. The Soviet-German war and the German occupation of Ukraine brought about heavy losses of TABLE 2 Year

Horses

Cattle

Hogs

Sheep and goats

1916 1928 1933 1936 1940

5.5 5.5 2.6 2.5 3.3

7.7 8.6 4.4 6.1 7.7

4.6 7.0 2.0 6.0 7.3

6.4 8.1 2.0 2.3 4.7

73

livestock. The animal reserves did not reach the prewar 1941 level until the beginning of the 1950s. In general the restoration of animal husbandry was much more difficult than that of other branches of farming, and this branch fell further and further behind the demands of the ever-increasing urban population. The feed base con­ tinued to be inadequate, and the collective farmers lacked any material incentive to improve animal husbandry. The Central Committee of the CPSU tried to overcome these shortcomings by its various plenum resolutions (Septem­ ber 1953, January 1955, June 1958, March 1965), congress decisions (23rd, 24th, 25th), and other Party and govern­ ment measures. The amount of land devoted to feed corn, as well as the farm prices and retail prices of animal products, have been increased. Livestock breeds have been improved, and new breeds have been developed. New buildings and facilities have also been built. The policies governing the development of animal husbandry in Ukraine, like the policies governing the economy as a whole, were and continue to be set in Moscow. N . Khrushchev called on the farmers to over­ take the United States in per capita production of milk, meat, and eggs and advocated a large increase in the amount of land devoted to corn. Because of Ukraine's limited land fund, an increase in the land devoted to corn and silage brought about a decrease in that devoted to grasses and grain. As a result, the feed base was short on vitamins and protein. The production of milk increased, but the production of meat did not improve. Furthermore, a policy directed against private husbandry led to a decrease in the livestock raised on private plots, which had provided much of the meat. Under L. Brezhnev an effort was made to increase the production of meat and eggs by means of industrialized feeding. Large interfarm feeding centers and modern equipment were intended not only to raise the workers' productivity and farm production, but also to undermine the private sector of animal husbandry. In Ukraine the private sector yields a higher proportion of animals and animal products than this sector does in all the other republics of the USSR combined, despite the shortage of feed and equipment. But industrialized feeding requires not only large capital investment, which is beyond the means of many collective farms in Ukraine, and a good transport and road system, but also various concentrated feed additives, such as minerals, vitamins, and anti­ biotics, which could not be supplied in sufficient quantities by industry. Thus, the projected economic effectiveness of the feed was not attained, and the government had to continue its compromise with the private sector, supply­ ing it with feed for private animal husbandry. Even today private plots supplement the state's effort to meet the demand of the urban population for dairy products and eggs. Although the ambitious projects to expand animal husbandry have been full of errors, this branch of farming has improved somewhat. According to official statistics, the number of cattle and pigs has increased, although the number of sheep and goats has remained nearly the same as in 1953 because of a pasture shortage. Because of the mechanization of farming, the number of horses and oxen has decreased. The details pertaining to the Ukrainian SSR are summarized in table 3 (in millions). The increase in livestock applies only to collective farms and especially state farms. The number of animals raised

74

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

TABLE 3

Year

Cattle

Cows only

1916 1928 1935 1941 1946 1950 1953 1960 1970 1978 1980

9.1 9.9 5.1 11.0 8.3 11.0 12.0 17.0 20.3 24.9 25.6

4.1 4.9 2.5 6.0 4.3 4.8 5.1 7.7 8.5 9.1 9.3

Hogs

Horses

Sheep and goats

6.5 8.6 3.9 9.2 2.9 7.0 9.2 16.5 17.2 19.8 20.1

6.5 6.4 3.7 4.7 2.0 2.0 2.5 2.0 1.4 0.9 0.9

6.9 8.3 2.2 7.3 3.4 5.8 9.1 11.6 8.7 9.2 9.2

Sheep only 6.8 NA

2.0 6.7 2.6 4.5 7.6 11.1 8.3 8.9 9.0

on small private plots is decreasing, slowly but steadily. The main branches of animal husbandry in Ukraine today are cattle farming (particularly dairying) and hog raising, followed by sheep farming. Poultry farming is developing rapidly, while horse breeding has declined. Rabbit breeding (mainly private), beekeeping, silkworm breeding, fish farming, and fur-animal breeding are of secondary importance. The output of animal products - meat, fat, milk, and wool - has increased more rapidly than have animal numbers. (Table 4 gives the growth in animal products from 1913 to 1977.) This growth is the result of higher animal productivity in the Ukrainian SSR. According to official statistics, the average annual production of milk per cow has increased from 1,358 kg in 1950 to 1,764 kg in i960, 2,190 kg in 1970, and 2,467 kg in 1977. The average annual production of wool per sheep has increased from 2.6 kg in 1950 to 3.0 kg in 1970 and 3.4 kg in 1977. The average annual production of eggs per hen on collective and state farms has gone from 75 in i960 to 152 in 1970 and 193 in 1977. These levels of productivity, particularly milk productivity, are far behind those in Western Europe, North America, and Australia, and even behind those in Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and the Soviet Baltic republics. Ukraine's contribution to the animal husbandry of the USSR is considerable: with only 7.8 percent of the USSR's farm land and 2.4 percent of the hayfields and pastures, the Ukrainian SSR has 22 percent of the USSR's cattle, 28 percent of the hogs, 6 percent of the sheep, and 23 percent of the poultry. In 1978 Ukraine produced 23 percent of the milk and 23.4 percent of the meat in the USSR. In 1977, for each person in its population, Ukraine produced 70.1 kg of meat and fat, 255 kg of milk, and 266 eggs. The corresponding figures for the USSR were 57.7 kg, 366 kg, and 230 eggs. The supply of animal products does not meet demand. According to scientifically determined dietary require-

RSFSR.

Research in animal husbandry is carried on by the Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Animal Hus­ bandry of the Steppe Regions in Askaniia-Nova, the Scientific Research Institute of Animal Husbandry of the Forest-Steppe and Polisia of the Ukrainian SSR in Kharkiv, the Scientific Research Institute of Land Cultivation and Animal Husbandry in the Western Regions of the Ukrai­ nian SSR in Lviv, the Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Experimental Veterinary Medicine in Kharkiv, the Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Animal Physio­ logy and Biochemistry in Lviv, the Poltava Scientific Research Institute of Hog Raising, the Ukrainian Scien­ tific Research Institute of Poultry Farming in Kharkiv, the departments of various agricultural institutes, and research stations. The Southern Section of the Academy of AgriTABLE 5

All cattle Cows only Hogs Sheep and goats

1941

1960

1970

1976

996 438 794 971

1,559 629 2,449 1,245

1,786 656 2,630 1,075

2,173 678 2,700 1,270

TABLE 6

TABLE 4 Product

ments for the USSR, each person should be provided with 81.8 kg of meat and fat, 433.6 kg of milk, and 292 eggs per year. Actual consumption, according to statistics, though increasing, is far from reaching these require­ ments. From 1965 to 1975 the per capita consumption of meat and fat in the Ukrainian SSR increased from 41 to 60 kg, of milk from 245 to 335 kg, and of eggs from 124 to 210. Even so, consumption of animal products in Ukraine remains lower than in the RSFSR, where the per-capita production of meat, milk, and eggs is somewhat lower than in Ukraine. Apparently the Ukrainian SSR exports annually an estimated 400,000 tonnes of meat and fat, almost three million tonnes of milk and dairy products, and almost two billion eggs to the RSFSR. This is accom­ plished through relatively higher state quotas of animal products in Ukraine, if calculated on an urban per capita basis, than in the RSFSR. The Kuban (Krasnodar krai), now in the RSFSR, is better supplied with animals than Ukraine, as is evident from table 5 (in thousands). Compared to the Ukrainian SSR and to the other republics and oblasts of the RSFSR, Krasnodar krai has the lowest proportion (31 percent in 1970) of cows among its cattle, that is, it has the highest specialization in meat production. Its production of animal products is given in table 6 (supplies per person given in kilograms, except for eggs, which are given in absolute numbers). Thus, Krasnodar krai surpasses the Ukrainian SSR significantly in the per-capita production of meat and eggs. It has large surpluses that it ships mainly to the industrial areas of the

1913 1940

1950

1955

1960

1970

1977

Meat and fat (in 1,0001) 1,122 1,127 1,195 1,351 2,068 2,850 3,464 Milk (in 1,000 t) 4,667 7,114 6,804 9,670 13,995 18,712 22,467 Wool (in 1,0001) 14.8 13.5 11.9 17.9 27.6 24.8 29.6 Eggs (millions) 3,005 3,272 3,490 4,292 7,187 9,202 13,154

Product (in millions of kg)

1970

1976

(per person)

Meat and fat Milk Wool Eggs (in millions)

374 1,527 4.1 1,296

440 1,591 4.5 1,707

(93.8 kg) (339 kg) (0.9 kg) (364)

ANNUNCIATION

75

cultural Sciences co-ordinates the work of all these institutions. BIBLIOGRAPHY SiVs'ke hospodarstvo Ukra'iny (Kharkiv 1923) Khraplyvyi, l u . Plekannia rohatoi khudoby u Skhidnii Halychyni (Lviv 1930) Kubiiovych, V . 'Heohrafiia sil's'koho hospodarstva,' in Heohrafiia Ukra'iny i sumezhnykh kraiv (Lviv 1938) Romanenko, I. SiVs'ke hospodarstvo Ukra'iny (Prague 1942) Razvitie produktivnogo zhivotnovodstva Ukrainskoi SSR (Kiev 1957) Visnyk siVs'kohospodars'koi nauky (Kiev 1957) Romanenko, I. SiVs'ke hospodarstvo Ukrains''koi RSR (Kiev 1958) Tvarynnytstvo Ukrains'koi RSR: Statystychnyi zbirnyk (Kiev i960) Tvarynnytstvo Ukra'iny (Kiev 1964) Ekonomika i organizatsiia seVskogo khoziaistva (Kiev 1965) Shul'ha, Z . Sotsialistychna perebudova i rozvytok siVs'koho hospodarstva Ukrains'koi RSR, 1-2 (Kiev 1967-8) Chepurnov, I. Planuvannia tvarynnytstva (Kiev 1969) Chepurnov, L ; et al. Ekonomichni problemy rozvytku i struktury tvarynnytstva na Ukraïni (Kiev 1969) Peredhirne ta hirs'ke zemlerobstvo i tvarynnytstvo. Vol 6: Intensyfikatsiia tvarynnytstva (Kiev 1969) SiVs'ke hospodarstvo URSR:Statystychnyi zbirnyk (Kiev 1970) Kas'ianov, L . Osnovni napriamy spetsializatsii tvarynnytstva i ikh ekonomichna efektyvnisf (Kiev 1971) Stebelsky, I. 'Ukrainian Agriculture: The Problems of Specialization and Intensification in Perspective,' in Ukraine in the Seventies, ed P. Potichnyj (Oakville, Ont 1975) Zhivotnovodstvo (Moscow 1976) V. Kubijovyc, I. Stebelsky

Anna Ivanovna, b 7 February 1693 in Moscow, d 28 October 1740 in St Petersburg. Russian empress in 1730-40, daughter of Tsar Ivan v and niece of Peter I . Anna restored the policies of Peter 1 i n Ukraine and reduced Ukraine's autonomy even further. After the death of Hetmán D. Apóstol, the election of a new hetmán was not permitted. The Russian ""Governing Council of the Hetmán Office was created to govern Ukraine. Under it the Ukrainian people were subjected to great exploitation and oppression. The construction of a new Ukrainian line of fortifications against the Tatars from the Dnieper River along the Orel River to the Donets River was begun in 1731 and continued into the 1740s. It cost Ukraine dearly in men and money. Ukraine had to take part in the War of the Polish Succession (1733-4) d the war with Turkey (1735-9), which ruined the economy of the Hetmán state. In 1734 the Zaporozhian Cossacks were allowed to return home and to establish the *New Sich in preparation for the war with Turkey. During Anna's reign the Ukrainian Cossacks were divided according to wealth into the privileged ""elect Cossacks and the poor *Cossack helpers. a

n

Anna Yaroslavna, b 1024 or 1032 in Kiev, d after 1075. Daughter of *Yaroslav the Wise and queen of France from 1049. Henry 1 of France wanted to obtain the support of Yaroslav against the Holy Roman Empire and married Anna on 4 August 1049 in Rheims. After Henry's death in 1060, Anna ruled as regent while her son Philip 1 was a child. There is some evidence that Anna married Count de Valois et de Crépy in 1062, but the marriage was never legally recognized. Her signature has been preserved and is the oldest extant example of Old Ukrainian writing. A fresco in the St Sophia Cathedral in Kiev depicts Anna, and a sculpture of her is found in the portal of St Vincent's Church in Senlis near Paris.

Anna Yaroslavna; statue in

Senlis, France

BIBLIOGRAPHY Lobanoff. Recueil de pièces historiques sur la Reine Anne ou Agnès, épouse de Henri 1, Roi de France (Paris 1825) Caix de Saint-Aymour. Anne de Russie, Reine de France et comtesse de Valois (Paris 1896) Hallu, R. Anne de Kiev, Reine de France (Rome 1973)

Annals oí the Ukrainian Academy oí Arts and Sciences in the United States. Scholarly periodical published in New York from 1951 to the present. It deals with various aspects of Ukrainian studies. The first nine volumes, some of which had several issues, appeared regularly. M . Vetukhiv was the editor until 1959; G.Y. Shevelov was the editor in 1960-1. A special issue was devoted to M . Drahomanov (1952). Several issues constitute original monographs: The Cathedral of St Sophia in Kiev by O. Powstenko (1954); The Settlement of the Southern Ukraine (1750-1775) by N.D. Polonska-Vasylenko (1955); and A Survey of Ukrainian Historiography by D. Doroshenko, supplemented by O. Ohloblyn's study 'Ukrainian Historiography, 1917-1956' (1957). Since 1961, the Annals have appeared irregularly. Volume 14 was published in 197880. Individual volumes cover certain aspects of Ukrainian studies (linguistics, history, political science, economics) and have volume editors. Annenkov, Nikolai, b 3 May 1819 in St Petersburg, d there 21 August 1889. Russian botanist who worked in Ukraine in 1863-75, director of the School of Horticulture and the Sofiivka Park in Uman. Annenkov compiled a botanical dictionary (1878), in which terms are given in Latin, French, German, English, and Russian; he also included many Ukrainian popular terms. Annunciation, Cathedral of the (Blahovishchenskyi sobor). Church in Chernihiv, funded by Prince Sviatoslav in Vsevolodovych in 1183-6 and later destroyed. It was a large cruciform church with six columns and a central cupola. Three sides of the interior had two-story-high galleries. It was topped by five additional cupolas. On the main facade the pilasters were built of light-yellow brick, and the walls were of dark-red brick. The interior walls and the ceiling were decorated with frescoes, while the floor of the central nave and the transept consisted of a multicolored mosaic, which included a representation of a peacock (unusual for floors). Thefloorof the side sections consisted of yellow and green glazed ceramic tiles. The first traces of the church were discovered in 1876-8 by T. Kybalchych. Later, partial excavations were conducted in 1909 and 1946-7 by B. Rybakov.

76

ANTES

Antes (Greek: Antae; Ukrainian: Anty). The name used by the Gothic historian Jordanes and by Byzantine writers of the 6th~7th century - Agathias, Procopius, Menander, Theophylactus, and others - for the east Slavic tribes of the 4th-7th century. Scholars disagree on the origin and meaning of this term, which was first used in the 3rd century. A. Shakhmatov argued that the name designated all the East Slavic tribes, while others held that it designated only their southern part. In the 4th-7th century the Antes formed a large tribal alliance that covered the territories between the Dnieper and the Dniester rivers and in some periods extended throughout most of the forest-steppe belt from the Carpathian Mountains and the lower Danube to the Sea of Azov. Agriculture was the Antes' main occupation, in which they used the iron plow. The skilled trades, particularly pottery and ironworking, were highly developed among them. There is evidence that they also engaged in internal and foreign trade, especially with the Roman Empire, and that they used Roman silver coins. The basic unit of Antes society was the village commune. With time, individual land use, private land control, and farms appeared. Slavery was widely practiced; Byzantine historians wrote that the Antes took tens of thousands of war captives and turned them into slaves. The tribal alliance of the Antes was extensive enough to support a large military force. Some sources mention the figure of 100,000 warriors, but this is probably an exaggeration. The alliance was led by princes and the tribal oligarchy. Jordanes and Byzantine sources of the 6th-7th century mention such princes as Boz (Bozh), Ardagast, and Peiragast and the generals Chilbudins and Dobrogast. In the 4th century the Antes came into conflict with the *Goths, who wanted to establish hegemony over Eastern Europe. After several defeats the Gothic king Vinitharius captured, in 383, Prince Boz of the Antes, his sons, and 70 nobles. All of them were executed. The invasion of the *Huns, however, prevented the Goths from establishing a firm rule over the Antes. In the 6th century the Antes, together with the closely related Sclavini, began to attack the Balkan parts of the Byzantine Empire. At first they were interested only in booty and slaves, but by the second half of the 6th century the Antes began to settle in these lands. The Antes resettled so quickly that by the end of the 6th century the territories of contemporary Bulgaria and Yugoslavia were Slavicized. From the end of the 6th century the Antes fought stubbornly against the *Avars, who established their khaganate in Eastern Europe. This war led to the disintegration of the tribal alliance and the disappearance of the Antes as a political force. From the beginning of the 7th century Byzantine writers no longer mention the Antes. BIBLIOGRAPHY Rybakov, B. 'Anty i Kievskaia Rus',' Vestnik drevnei istorii, 1939, no. 1 Tret'iakov, P. Vostochnoslavianskie plemena (Moscow 1953) Braichevs'kyi, M . Bilia dzherel slov'ians'koï derzhavnosti (Kiev 1964) Petrov, V. Etnohenez slov'ian (Kiev 1972) Mishko, S. Narys ranrioï istoríi Rusy-Ukraïny, ed O. Dombrovs'kyi (New York-Toronto-Munich 1981) A. Zhukovsky

Anthem. The official song of a state or nation. In 1917 'Shche ne vmerla Ukrai'na' (Ukraine Has Not Yet Died) was officially recognized as the Ukrainian national anthem. The words were written by P. Chubynsky, the music by M . Verbytsky. It was published first in 1863, and in 1885 with the score. Before its official adoption it was widely sung throughout Ukraine. In the second half of the 19th and in the 20th century, T. Shevchenko's 'Zapovit' (Testament) was treated as a national anthem in central and eastern Ukraine. In Galicia, in the 19th century Yu. Dobrylovsky's 'Dai Bozhe, v dobryi chas' (Grant Us, God, Good Fortune) had the status of a national anthem at first. Then I . Hushalevych's 'Myr vam, brattia, vsim pry nosy m' (We Bring All of You Peace, Brothers) was recognized in 1848 by the ""Supreme Ruthenian Council in Lviv as the anthem of the Galician Ukrainians. Later I . Franko's 'Ne pora' (This Is Not the Time) achieved a similar status. In Transcarpathia O. Dukhnovych's l a rusyn byl' (I Was a Ruthenian) and 'Podkarpats'kii rusyny' (Subcarpathian Ruthenians) were sung as anthems, and the latter was officially recognized as its anthem (1920-38). After the divine liturgy O. Konysky's 'Bozhe Velykyi Iedynyi' (O God, Great and Only) is often sung in Ukrainian churches as a combined religious and national hymn. Ukrainians in the United States have adopted 'Daleka Ty, ta blyz'ka nam' (You Are Far Away but Dear to Us) by V. Shchurat and 'Het' za morem' (Far beyond the Sea) by O. Hrytsai (music by S. Liudkevych) as their anthems. In the Ukrainian SSR, as in the entire USSR, until 1944 the state anthem was The International,' words by E. Pottier, music by P. Degeyter, Ukrainian translation by M . Vorony, and later the anthem 'Soiuz nerushimyi' (Unbreakable Union), words by S. Mikhalkov and G. Registan, music by A. Aleksandrov. On 1 January 1930 the Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian SSR approved 'Zhyvy Ukraïno' (Live Ukraine), with words by M . Bazhan and P. Tychyna and music by A. Lebedynets, as the Soviet Ukrainian anthem. Revised lyrics were approved on 22 March 1978. M. Hlobenko

Anthology. Literally 'a gathering of flowers,' an anthology is a selection of poetry or prose by various authors. The first anthology of modern Ukrainian literature was Antolohiia rus'ka (A Ruthenian Anthology, Lviv 1881), edited by I . Franko. Popular anthologies in the early 20th century were Vik (Century, 3 vols, Kiev 1902), *Akordy (Chords, Lviv 1903), Ukraïns'ka muza (Ukrainian Muse, Kiev 1908), and Struny (Strings, Berlin 1922). Several major anthologies have been published in Soviet Ukraine: Antolohiia ukraïns'koï poeziï (Anthology of Ukrainian Poetry, 4 vols, 1937), Ukraïns'ka radians'ka piesa (The Soviet Ukrainian Play, 5 vols, 1949-35), Antolohiia ukraïns'koho opovidannia (Anthology of the Ukrainian Short Story, 4 vols, i960). A n anthology of the works of Soviet Ukrainian poets repressed during the Stalin terror, Obirvani struny (Broken Strings, New York 1955), was edited by B. Kravtsiv. The most recent anthology is O. Zilynsky's Antolohiia ukraïns'koï liryky (An Anthology of Ukrainian Lyric Poetry, Toronto, 1978). Several anthologies of Ukrainian poetry have appeared in foreign translation - Polish: Antología poezji ukrainskiej, edited by F. Nieuwazny and J. Plesniarowicz (Warsaw 1977); Russian: Antologiia ukrainskoi poezii, 2 vols (Moscow 1958); En-

ANTHROPONYMY

glish: The Ukrainian Poets 1189-1962, edited by C.H. Andrusyshen and W. Kirkconnell (Toronto 1963). (See also *Almanac.) G . S . N . Luckyj

Anthropological studies. Anthropology is the science dealing specifically with man throughout history that studies his physical appearance and the development of diverse biological characteristics and defines the *races by those hereditary physical and psychological features that are common to a given group. The concept of anthropology as a comparative biology of man arose in the 18th century and prevails today in Ukraine and most of Europe. In the English-speaking world, however, anthropology is approached more broadly as the science of man from both a biological and cultural aspect and includes the theory and history of culture, prehistory, ethnology, ethnography, and, to some extent, sociology. As a result, two branches have developed - physical anthropology and cultural anthropology. This article describes the development of the study of physical anthropology in Ukraine. For an anthropological description of the Ukrainian population, see ""Physical anthropology. The earliest attempts at describing the racial composition of the population of Ukraine were made by *Herodotus, Hippocrates, and Aristotle. During the Middle Ages such descriptions were recorded by Byzantine and Arab travellers and historians. In modern times the subject has been studied by scholars from nearly every European nation, chiefly by ethnographers. Scientific studies on this subject have appeared only since the late 19th century, however. The first anthropological studies of the Ukrainian people were written by P. *Chubynsky, a Ukrainian; A. Bogdanov, a Russian; I . *Kopernicki, a Pole; and E. Amy and J. Deniker, both Frenchmen. In recent times the most important anthropological work on Ukraine has been done by the Russian scholars D. Anuchin, A. Ivanovsky, and V. Bunak; the Poles J. *Talko-Hryncewicz and J. Czekanowski; and the Germans H . Günther and E. Eickstedt. Their studies, however, were not concerned primarily with Ukraine. The renowned Ukrainian F. *Vovk was the only scholar who conducted systematic anthropological research in all the Ukrainian ethnic territories. After the First World War anthropological research in Ukraine was stepped up. It was conducted primarily by the scholars of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. The most prominent anthropologists were O. Omelchenko and O. Alesho, who was in charge of the Academy's ""Cabinet of Anthropology and Ethnography (est as a museum 1921 and renamed a cabinet in 1922 under A. ""Nosiv). In 1927 the cabinet was divided into separate cabinets of anthropology and ethnography. The Cabinet of Anthropology published, in 1928-31, four annual volumes of Antropolohiia, which contained archeological and anthropological materials on the inhabitants and ethnic groups of Ukraine. The Kiev school collected anthropological materials throughout Ukraine, including the Crimea and the Kuban region. In the 1920s the Anthropological Cabinet of the Ukrainian Psycho-Neurological Institute in Kharkiv published Materialy po antropologii Ukraïny, a review edited by L. *Nikolaev. The Kharkiv school researched primarily the physical and social features of the various population

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groups. Anthropological research in the 1920s to 1940s was also conducted by the anatomy departments of the universities and medical institutes of Soviet Ukraine. Government interfrence and political repression made anthropological research in the 1930s extremely difficult. Research was resumed only in 1955 by the ethnographic section of the ^Institute of Fine Arts, Folklore, and Ethnography of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR. Owing to the initiative of M . Rylsky, K. Huslysty, and H . Débets, a group devoted to anthropology was formed. In 1974 anthropological research was transferred from this institute to the Institute of Archeology of the Academy of Sciences. In 1936-9 the Ukrainian Anthropological Expedition of the Institute of Ethnography conducted systematic research on the population of Ukraine, as well as a series of paleoanthropological investigations. Since i960 the institute has published Materialy z antropolohiï Ukraïny. Some well-known contemporary Ukrainian anthropologists are Ye. Danylova, V. Diachenko, H . Zinevych, I . *Pidoplichko, and K. Sokolova. In Western Ukraine anthropological research was conducted in Lviv in the 1920s and 1930s by I . ""Rakovsky and later by R. *Yendyk, who also continued his work as an émigré. The Lviv school attempted primarily to reconstruct a synthetic picture of racial interrelations in Ukraine and of the racial differences between the Ukrainians and their neighbors (chiefly the Poles and the Russians). In Soviet Ukraine today all areas of Ukraine's anthropology are studied. Soviet anthropologists attempt to prove that the Ukrainians are racially related to the Russians and Belorussians, and thus to refute the view of the Ukrainian 'nationalist school' (F. Vovk and the Lviv school) that the Ukrainians have some distinctive racial characteristics. BIBLIOGRAPHY Vovk, F . Antropologicheskie osobennosti ukrainskogo naroda (Petrograd 1916) Rakovs'kyi, I. 'Rasovist' slov'ian,' Zbirnyk MatematychnoPryrodopysno-Likars'koï SektsiïNTSh (Lviv 1919) Iendyk, R. Antropolohichni prykmety ukra'ins'koho narodu (Lviv 1934) Diachenko, V . D . Antropolohichnyi sklad ukra'ins'koho narodu (Kiev 1965) Zinevich, G . Ocherki paleoantropologii Ukrainy (Kiev 1967) R. Yendyk

Anthroponymy. Inventory of personal names in the past and the present and the study of such names (the latter more appropriately called anthroponymics). Ukrainian anthroponymy includes Christian (baptismal) names (official church names together with their endearing and derogatory forms), patronymics with the suffixes -ov, -yc, and -ivna, surnames and nicknames (including vulgar and street nicknames), and finally general tribalterritorial names (hucul, volynjak) and national names (ethnonyms such as poljak [Pole] and cex [Czech]). In early historical times the parents named a child at birth, and the name became socially recognized at the age of initiation (two to seven for boys). This custom held probably until the 16th century. Pre-Christian names carried inherent meaning: wishful (promptive) - Sudymyr (Judge of the World), Ljudmyla (Pleasing to People); descriptive - Biljak (Whitey), Verescaha (Screamer), Ljut (Cruel), Tretjak (The Third One), Bazan (The Desired

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ANTHROPONYMY

One), Vovk (Wolf); or charmful (intimidatory) - Prodan (Sold: the threat of being sold, used to frighten disobedient children). With Christianization, at baptism, the priest gave the child the name of a Christian saint, who became his/her heavenly patron. The name was determined by the child's birthdate, or day of baptism, or by parental wish. If a candidate was to take monastic or priestly vows, he/she changed his/her Christian name. By the 14th-15th century the church had forced preChristian names out of use. Among the large number of biblical (Hebrew) or Greco-Latin Christian names, a few names of Ukrainian saints (Volodymyr, Borys, Hlib, Ol'ha) have been accepted from the Princely era. Phonetic and morphological adaptations of Christian names, which are typical of popular usage (Pylyp, Ivan, Vasja, Javdoxa), were not admitted in the church; in particular, such names could not be used by the clergy. Pre-Christian Slavic names (including a few Varangian names) became fashionable in the romantic period. They spread among the intelligentsia and subsequently, to some extent, even among the burghers and peasantry. Since the 17th-18th century Slavic translations of Greco-Latin names have appeared: Bohdan = Theodore, Scasnyj = Felix. In the Soviet period newly invented, often abbreviational names in honor of Soviet leaders and revolutionary events became popular: eg, Integral, Oktjabryna, Vladlen, Vladlena, Kim. Following the custom of Western nobility and intelligentsia, Galicians in the 20th century began to give their children two names. In the 18th century the Bukovynians imitated the Moldavian-Greek fashion and used classical Greek names such as Sokrat (Socrates) and Artemida (Artemis) and classical Latin names such as Ovidij (Ovid) and Sil'vija (Sylvia). In Transcarpathia Hungarian forms of Christian names are widespread (liona, Marca), while Russian forms (Serjoza, etc) are common among the Russified intelligentsia and workers in eastern Ukraine. Roman Catholics in Galicia and Podilia use Polish church names and their diminutives: Stanyslav - Stax, Stas'; Barbara - Basja. From the early historical period two-, three-, and even four-name systems were used in addition to the one-name system consisting of the given name, particularly among the upper estates (princes, boyars, gentry), then among the burghers, Cossacks, and peasants. Certain elements of the name system became hereditary surnames, first among the gentry in the 14th-15th century and last among the peasants in the 18th-19th century. Finally, official surnames became fixed in Austria by the edict of 1786 and the edict of 1812 pertaining to peasants and Jews. In Russia they were fixed in 1826. Under Polish influence the two-name system (name, surname) became customary in Ukraine. In Russia the three-name system (name, patronymic, surname) was prevalent, and this system prevailed on virtually all Ukrainian territories in the USSR by the late 1930s. The main types of secondary names that became surnames were as follows: (1) patronymics that from early times ended in a palatalized consonant or the suffixes -yc, -ovyc, -evyc, -enj(a) and, since the 15th century, also -enok, -enk(o), -uk, -jak, -ôak. Surnames ending in -ovyc and -uk are common in Volhynia, the -enk(o) suffix has been common in central and eastern Ukraine since the 15th century, and the -enok suffix has been common in northeastern Ukraine since the 16th century; (2) possessive forms based on the paternal or maternal (in the case of

widows or illegitimate children) name, ending in -iv, -yn, -ysyn; (3) nicknames that first referred to personal appearance (Xromyj - Lame, Bakalo - Tub) or to objects of daily use (Makohin - Pestle), plants or animals (Lys Fox, Burjak - Beet), place of residence or mode of settlement (Zadoroznyj - Beyond the Road, Osadcyj Settled), place of origin (Belz'kyj - fromBelz), nationality (Uhryn - Hungarian, Cex - Czech), or occupation (Cobotar - Bootmaker, Koskodav - Catstrangler). The Zaporozhian Cossacks used humorous names that referred to a personal trait or special incident connected with the individual: Kryvonis (Crooked Nose), Ubyjvovk (Kill the Wolf), Varykasa (Cook the Gruel). Women were usually named after their husbands and changed their names when they remarried. With the official sanction of surnames in the 18th-19th century, a woman was required to adopt her husband's surname when she married. After the revolution women were allowed to keep their maiden surnames. Various social classes, particularly the gentry and burghers, were characterized by specific forms of surname (originally closer to nicknames). Following the Polish practice, besides surnames the gentry used patronymics ending in -(ov)yc, and from the 14th century toponymie adjectives ending in -(iv)s'k(yj), derived usually from the names of family estates. These family names were sometimes supplemented with specific names (prydomoky) derived originally from a (fighting) motto (Abdank), ancestral line (Sas, Kornyc), or the name of the coat of arms. Among burghers, besides patronymics and matronymics, names based on professions (Cobotar - Bootmaker, Kozum'jaka - Tanner) or on place of origin (Bybel's'kyj - From Byblo) became widespread. Following the fashion among European humanists, the bettereducated burghers of the 16th and 17th centuries used Greco-Latin translations of Slavic surnames (Zyzanij = Kukil' [Cockle]). The secular clergy used surnames derived from the church feast of their village (Bohojavlens'kyj - of the Epiphany). Theology students of peasant origin and without surnames were often registered at seminaries under a religious or classical surname. Polish, Russian, Hungarian, and then Rumanian clerks often imposed their own linguistic forms on Ukrainian surnames; thus, for example, Verbyc'kyj became Wierzbicki, Kovaliv became Kovalëv. In some cases these forms have been retained to the present time: Jefremov, Doncov, Muxin. Jews, who used only Hebrew names and patronymics like Ben-David (Son of David) under the Polish Commonwealth, were forced to adopt surnames by the Austrian government. These were often German surnames selected by functionaries according to (1) the place of birth or residence (Cortkiver - From Chortkiv); (2) the father's name (èmulzon - Son of Schmul) or the mother's name (Rifkes - Son of Rifke [Rebecca]); (3) a plant or animal (Wolf - Wolf, Pfeffer - Pepper); (4) profession (Suster Shoemaker); (5) esthetic associations (Goldberg - Golden Mountain, Rosencwejg - Rose Twig); or (6) vulgar and derogatory intent (Cwibel'duft - Onion Smell). The study of Ukrainian personal names was begun by such ethnographers as M . Sumtsov (1885), V. Okhrymovych (1893), and I . Franko (1906), and historians such as E. Borschak (1952). V. Simovych laid the foundations of

ANTIRELIGIOUS PROPAGANDA

linguistic anthroponymics in the 1920s. Anthroponymic research grew rapidly from the mid-2oth century. BIBLIOGRAPHY Simovych, V. 'Ukraïns'ki imennyky cholovichoho rodu na -0/ in Pratsi Ukraïns'koho vysokoho pedahohichnoho instytutu im. M. Drahomanova (Prague 1929) - 'Ukraïns'ki cholovichi imennia osib na -no (v istorychnim osvitlenni)/ in Zbirnyk komisiï dlia doslidzhennia istorii ukraïns'koï movy vi (Kiev 1931) Hursky, J.P. T h e Origin of Patronymic Surnames in Ukrainian/ Ph D dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1957 Humets'ka, L . Narys slovotvorchoi systemy ukraïns'koï aktovoi movy xiv-xv st. (Kiev 1958) Red'ko, Iu. Dovidnyk ukrai'ns'kykh prizvyshch (Kiev 1959) Vincenz, A . de. 'Le nom de famille houtzoule/ AU A , 8 (New York i960) Pytannia toponimiky ta onomastyky (Kiev 1962) Pytannia onomastyky (Kiev 1965) TerytoriaVni dialekty i vlasni nazvy (Kiev 1965) Red'ko, lu. Suchasni ukraïns'ki prizvyshcha (Kiev 1966) Antroponimika (Moscow 1970) Vincenz, A . de. Traité d'antroponymie houtzoule (Munich 1970) Skulina, T. Staroruskie imiennictwo osobowe, 1-2 (Wrocïaw

1973-4)

79

groups. Youth sections of the ABN are active in Great Britain and the United States. The ABN has been headed, since its origin, by Ya. *Stetsko, president of the Central Committee. The chairmen of the ABN Peoples' Council have included V. Berzins, V. Kajum-Khan, Ferdinand Durcansky, F. Farkas de Kisbarnak, and R. Ostrowski. The long-time general secretaries were N . Nakashidze and C. Pokorny. The ABN conducts information-propaganda activity through its periodical and non-periodical publications in various languages, including the bimonthly *ABN Correspondence (since 1950; initially in English, German, and French, later in English only; ed S. *Stetsko), and Resistencia y Liberación (Buenos Aires). Also associated with the ABN is the journal *L'est européen (Paris). The headquarters and cells of the ABN organize mass anti-Soviet rallies, protest demonstrations, press conferences, and international congresses, and the distribution of various memoranda. The ABN co-operates with the *World Anti-Communist League (WACL) and the European Freedom Council (EFC). Representatives from the ABN and related organizations participate in the congresses of the WACL and EFC.

Bogdan, F . Dictionary of Ukrainian Surnames in Canada (Winnipeg 1974) Weischedel, R. Line Untersuchung ukrainischer Personennamen des 17 Jahrhunderts. Kiever Regiment (Munich 1974) Khudash, M . Z istoriï ukraïns'koï antroponimiï (Kiev 1977) Z istoriï ukraïns'koï leksykolohiï (Kiev 1980) O. Horbach

Ukrainians form the most active group in the ABN (specifically, the OUN(B) and organizations of the ""Ukrainian Liberation Front) and are also the main financers of its activities. The headquarters of the ABN has, from the start, been in Munich.

Anti-Bolshevik Bloc of Nations (ABN). A co-ordinating center for anti-Communist émigré political organizations from Soviet and other socialist countries. The ABN attributes its existence and its ideological foundations to the underground conference of representatives of nonRussian peoples that took place on 21-22 November 1943 near Zhytomyr on the initiative of the ^Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN), and at which the platform of joint revolutionary struggle against Russian communism was formulated. The goal of the ABN is the dismemberment of the Soviet Union into national states. Given an organizational structure in Munich in 1946, the ABN extended its scope of activity to include the Eastern European emigration. The following organizations have been members of the ABN since its inception or for varying periods of time: Tree Armenia' Committee, Bulgarian National Front, Belorussian Central Council, Cossack National Liberation Movement, Croatian National Liberation Movement, Czech Movement for Freedom (Za Svobodu), Czech National Committee, Estonian Liberation Movement, Union of the Estonian Fighters for Freedom, Georgian National Organization, Hungarian Liberation Movement, Hungarian Mindszenty Movement, Latvian Association for the Struggle against Communism, Lithuanian Rebirth Movement, Slovak Liberation Committee, National Turkestanian Unity Committee, Ukrainian Hetmán Union, and the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (Bandera faction). In the 1970s two anti-Communist organizations, For the Freedom of Vietnam and Cuba Libre, joined the ABN. Some local émigré organizations also belong to the ABN. In several countries (the United States, Canada, Great Britain) national ABN and ABN support groups, such as the American Friends of the ABN, are active; in others (Belgium, Italy, Australia, Argentina, etc) the organization is represented by branch offices and

Antiokh, Marko. See Vorony, Marko.

V. Markus

Antireligious propaganda. A n integral part of and one of the main means of carrying out Soviet religious policy in Ukraine, which is aimed at the complete eradication of religion in society as a prerequisite for 'constructing communism' in the USSR. While derived from Marxist philosophical materialism, antireligious propaganda was elevated by V. Lenin to one of the primary tasks of the Party's ideological work. The 'right to antireligious propaganda' has been entrenched in all Soviet constitutions since 1918 (till 1929, together with the 'right to religious propaganda'). Having outlawed any religious instruction of minors outside the family, the Soviet regime has mobilized, especially since 1929, its entire Party and governmental apparatus, educational system, public organizations, and mass media for the purposes of antireligious propaganda. The direction, intensity, and methods of such propaganda have varied during different periods of Soviet rule in Ukraine, depending on the larger political objectives of the regime. During the first year sporadic antireligious propaganda focussed mainly on the largest religious organization, the Russian Orthodox church (ROC), and featured the 'unmasking of clerical counterrevolution' and desecration of holy relics. Soviet confiscation of church valuables in the wake of the 1921 famine was accompanied by the first large-scale antireligious propaganda campaign, with the Komsomol staging antireligious 'festivals' on the main religious feast days, during which they ridiculed the beliefs and rites of all religions. Increasingly the ^Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church (UAOC) came to be attacked in Soviet antireligious propaganda. During the NEP period the Party found it expedient to lower the intensity of its propaganda, while

8o

ANTIRELIGIOUS PROPAGANDA

seeking to give it a more systematic and organized character. In 1925 it launched the antireligious, semi­ monthly *Bezvirnyk, which, by 1930, had attained a circulation of 37,000. Two years later a mass atheist organization - the Association of Atheists of Ukraine (SBU) - was established; it held its first congress in 1928, electing D. Ihnatiuk as its head. The first stage of forcible collectivization in Ukraine (1929-30) was accompanied by a massive antireligious campaign directed against all religious groups, including the hitherto favored Synodal (Renovationist) Orthodox church. It was spearheaded by the * Association of Militant Atheists of Ukraine (former SBU, which now added voiovnychykh [Militant] to its name [SVBU]), its nominal membership increasing from 213,000 in 1929 to over 1.5 million by 1931. Apart from an upsurge in the number of antireligious publications, including a weekly, Voiovnychyi bezvirnyk, with a circulation of 100,000 by 1930, this campaign involved large-scale confiscation of church bells (Tor industrialization ) the burning of icons and religious books, the terrorization of members of the clergy in order to force them to renounce the priesthood and even religion, the liquidation of all the remaining monasteries and convents, and the mass closing of churches, most of which were turned to secular uses. Some churches were transformed into antireligious muse­ ums (St Volodymyr's Cathedral in Kiev was made into an 'all-Ukrainian atheist museum' of the SVBU). In the course of the 1929-30 campaign the secret police arrested numer­ ous bishops, priests, and leading laymen in Ukraine, the main blow being directed against the UAOC, which was forced into 'self-dissolution' in January 1930. In the second, even more violent, wave of compulsory collectiv­ ization, which brought about the catastrophic 1933 fam­ ine, antireligious propaganda accused 'churchmen and sectarians' of all faiths of collusion with the 'kulaks,' anticollectivization agitation, and various 'counter­ revolutionary' crimes, and most bishops and clergymen of all faiths were arrested or deported by the secret police. In the mid-i930S a number of ancient Ukrainian churches, including the 12th-century Cathedral of St Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery in Kiev, were demolished by the authorities. At the height of the Yezhov Terror (1937-8), all but a handful of ROC and Renovationist churches were closed in Ukraine. The SVBU, its member­ ship rapidly declining after 1931 and its two periodicals closing by 1935, also fell victim to the great purges, which decimated its leadership (Ihnatiuk was executed as a 'fascist spy' in 1937). Though the SVBU (its membership reduced to less than 230,000) resumed its activities, including the publication of the weekly Bezbozhnyk from 1938, and rapidly expanded its largely token membership, it was ordered to cease all antireligious propaganda following the German invasion of the USSR in June 1941 and soon afterward was quietly dissolved. Eager to mobilize the support of alienated believers for the Soviet war effort, Stalin proceeded to offer tactical concessions to the ROC and some other religious groups that had called on their followers to oppose the invading Nazis. By September 1943 a new modus vivendi between the Kremlin and the Moscow patriarchate crystallized in far-reaching legal, administra­ tive, and economic concessions to the ROC. Meanwhile, in Ukraine, as in other German-occupied territories, a spon­ taneous revival of church life brought about the reopen­ ,

/

ing of several thousand churches and a number of monasteries and convents, as well as the re-establishment of the UAOC. The latter attracted hostile propaganda from both the Soviet side and the Moscow patriarchate, and when the Red Army recaptured Ukraine, all Autocephalist parishes were forced into the ROC. By 1945 Soviet propaganda turned against the Catholic church, espe­ cially the "Ukrainian Catholic church in Western Ukraine. Accused of 'Ukrainian nationalism' and 'collaboration' with the enemy, all Ukrainian Catholic bishops and several hundred clergymen were arrested during 1945-6, and the entire church was outlawed after the so-called reunion sobor in Lviv 'voted' to merge it with the ROC in March 1946 (in Carpatho-Ukraine the Uniate church was outlawed in August 1949). Although the Party adopted a resolution ordering the resumption of antireligious propaganda under the guise of 'scientific-educational propaganda' as early as Septem­ ber 1944, it was not until 1947 that the propaganda assumed an organized character, when the main re­ sponsibility for it was vested in the Society for the Dissemination of Political and Scientific Knowledge (sub­ sequently renamed the *Znannia Society of the Ukrainian SSR). Until the end of Stalin's rule, however, antireligious propaganda focussed primarily on Catholicism - espe­ cially on the underground - the Ukrainian Catholic church, Judaism, and sectarianism, studiously avoiding any attacks on the hierarchy of the ROC. It was only after N. ""Khrushchev assumed Party leadership that compre­ hensive antireligious propaganda was resumed in 1954, escalating, by 1959, into a massive attack on all religious groups, especially in Ukraine, where the majority of Orthodox and sectarian congregations in the USSR are located. All party and state agencies, including the governmental council for the affairs of the ROC and that for other religious 'cults,' were pressed into this cam­ paign. 'Loyal' ecclesiastical leaders were required by the authorities not only to abandon 'voluntarily' some con­ cessions they had received during the 1940s, to restrict their activities, and to close most of their monastic and theological institutions as well as parishes, but also to make public denials of any governmental interference with freedom of conscience in the USSR. Guided by unpublished Party and state directives and co-ordinated by the ideological commission of the cc CPSU, Khru­ shchev's antireligious campaign reduced the number of Orthodox churches in Ukraine from the postwar total of 8,000 to 4,500 by 1966 and closed 29 of the 38 monasteries and convents and two of the three theological seminaries; the number of Evangelical Baptist congregations in the Ukrainian SSR was cut by half, to 1,100. The only Russian Orthodox periodical in Ukrainian, *Pravoslav?tyi visnyk, published since 1946, was discontinued in 1963 (it resumed publication only in mid-1968). The Znannia society played an important, but secondary role in this campaign; in i960 it launched an antireligious monthly, Voiovnychyi ateist, renamed, in 1965, Liudyna isvit, as well as a series of monthly antireligious brochures, and organized large numbers of antireligious lectures, exhib­ its, courses, and conferences. Khrushchev's removal brought about a significant abatement in the intensity of the antireligious campaign, though the long-range program of 'scientific-atheist' work developed by the Party's ideological commission in November 1963 has not been abandoned. Since 1965,

ANTI-SEMITISM

while continuing slowly to reduce the number of working churches, the regime has been emphasizing a 'complex/ 'scientific-atheist' education, as well as 'individual work with believers' and the fostering of ritual substitutes for religion. To train specialists in antireligious propaganda, chairs for 'scientific atheism' were established at a number of Soviet Ukrainian institutions of higher learning, begin­ ning with Kiev University (1959). Since 1964 a course, Fundamentals of Scientific Atheism (which is now offered at all institutions of higher learning), was made compulsory for students attending universities as well as pegagogical, medical, and agricultural institutes. A de­ partment of atheism was established within the Institute of Philosophy of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrai­ nian SSR, and, in 1967, a branch of the Party's Institute of Scientific Atheism in Moscow was opened in Kiev. Since 1965 Kiev University has been publishing an interinstitutional yearbook, Pytannia ateizmu (Questions of Atheism, in Russian since 1978). Greater attention is now being given to survey research to examine the strengths and weaknesses of religious ideology, identify the distribu­ tion of believers in different regions of Ukraine, and monitor the effectiveness of antireligious propaganda. (See * A theism.) At the popular level, a number of agencies have been active under the guidance of the propaganda department of the cc CPU, most notably the Znannia society of the Ukrainian SSR (690,000 members in December 1979); oblast and raion 'houses of atheism'; atheist museums (nearly 100 in 1978); evening schools and universities 'of athe­ ism'; secondary school and postsecondary 'atheist cir­ cles'; antireligious television and radio programs, films, newspaper columns, atheist wall newspapers, etc. Spe­ cial emphasis has been placed on the promotion of 'Soviet traditions, holidays, and rites,' under the auspices of special councils established at different government lev­ els and presided over by a commission attached to the Council of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR. Simultan­ eously, unofficial registration of and sanctions against young people resorting to baptism and religious wedding ceremonies have been instituted, while at the local government level commissions have been established to monitor 'observance of the legislation on cults,' that is, to police more effectively individual religious congregations and to combat the growing number of 'deregistered' or 'illegal' congregations. The struggle against religious dissent in Ukraine - in particular, against the banned Ukrainian Catholic church, the Council of Churches of the Evangelical Christians-Baptists, unregistered Pente­ costal and Adventist communities, and Jehovah's Witnesses - has extended beyond the confines of anti­ religious propaganda, involving administrative harass­ ment, trials and sentences, and selective police terror. Soviet antireligious propaganda in Ukraine has failed to infuse the masses with militant atheism despite the huge investment of material and human resources by the state, as can be seen from a succession of published and classified Party and government resolutions, including the resolution of the Ukrainian Council of Ministers 'On the Strengthening of Control over the Observance of Legislation on Cults' (1 April 1969), the cc CPSU resolution 'On the Intensification of the Atheist Upbringing of the Population' (16 July 1971), and the most recent cc resolution, 'On the Further Improvement of Ideological and Political-Educational Work' (26 April 1979). While

8l

drastic restrictions on the religious upbringing of youth and on proselytizing, discrimination against known be­ lievers, and, especially, modernization processes have contributed to widespread secularization, according to Soviet population surveys believers constitute at least 15 percent of the urban population and 30 percent of the rural population in central and eastern Ukraine, while in western Ukraine at least twice as many have retained their religious beliefs. In fact, the failure of the Soviet regime to fill the spiritual and moral vacuum created by the large-scale suppression of institutional religion and the widespread cynicism about official ideology have generated, since the 1960s, growing interest in Ukrainian national religious traditions, especially among the young Ukrainian intelligentsia. This explains the continuous outpouring of antireligious books and articles in the Ukrainian SSR directed against the 'non-existent' Ukrai­ nian Catholic church and the UAOC. These increasingly stress the interdependence between religious and national consciousness and urge all public socialization agencies to combine atheist and internationalist indoctri­ nation as a means of integrating Ukrainians into a 'new historical community' of Russified 'Soviet people.' B.R. Bociurkiw

Anti-Semitism. Until the 1940s Ukraine had for many centuries been the home of one of the world's largest populations of "Jews, who alternately thrived there and were the victims of prejudice as well as of intermittent, sometimes fierce, outbreaks of violence. The first major outbreak of violence directed against the Jews of Ukraine occurred during the popular rebellion led by B. *Khmelnytsky (1648). In discussions about antiSemitism (A-S) some writers, eg, E. Wiesel in Jews of Silence, have tried to draw a parallel between the 17th-century massacres of Jews and Poles by the Ukrai­ nians during the Khmelnytsky rebellion and the mass killings of Jews by the German Nazis. Such attempts at analogy have typically obscured more than illuminated, and they seem to originate in an inability to recognize a fundamental distinction, a shortcoming common to many writings about A-S, between hostile acts or sentiments directed at Jews that derive from prejudice (A-S) and such acts or sentiments that derive from other sources (eg, real and significant socio-economic or political conflicts rather than imagined or invented ones). G. Airport's classic definition of ethnic prejudice, of which A-S is a species, defines it as antipathy based on faulty and inflexible generalizations. Whereas Nazi atti­ tudes and practices clearly instantiate such antipathy, those of the 17th-century Ukrainian peasant masses do not. Jews were the principal administrators of a system of economic, religious, and national oppression imposed upon the enserfed Ukrainian peasantry by the colonialist Polish nobility. Thus, the mass killings of Jews and Poles during the rebellion, when tens of thousands perished, were prompted by objective conditions of oppression and probably had little to do with ethnic prejudice in the sense defined above. A similar analysis applies to the killing of Jews during the bloody *Haidamaka uprisings of the 18th century. Though more terrible in outcome than the expulsions and most other acts of persecution that Jews have had to endure over the centuries in, eg, Western Europe or Russia, the massacres of Jews and Poles by Ukrainians

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during the rebellions of the 17th and 18th centuries stand in important contrast to the many practices of persecution against Jews in the lands referred to above. The reason for this is that Jews constituted but a beleaguered and op­ pressed minority in Western Europe or Russia, while in Ukraine they were, vis-à-vis the Ukrainians, part of the ruling classes. Unambiguous instances of widespread prejudice against the Jews of Ukraine appear at the end of the 18th century, a point by which Russia had consolidated control over most of Ukraine, with the institution of the Pale of Settlement by Russian tsarist authorities. Pale proscrip­ tions not only forbade Jewish settlement in the ethnic Russian areas of the empire but also imposed various restrictions on Jews living in those areas of the Russian Empire that were open to them, ie, the Ukrainian, Polish, Belorussian, and Lithuanian territories. Classically antiSemitic in motive and intent, the restrictions both served to discriminate against the Jews and to mark them in the eyes of the populace as an object class deserving of prejudicial treatment. As is clear from the example of the Pale, any attempt to provide an account of A-S in Ukraine must carefully distinguish between genuinely Ukrainian A-S, ie, A-S manifested by Ukrainians, and A-S manifested within Ukraine but either not by Ukrainians or not at their initiative. The need for this distinction is the result of Ukraine's unusual political history, ie, its lack of sover­ eignty for centuries, and of the presence on its territory of large, politically and economically dominant colonies of non-Ukrainians (Russians and Poles) who inhabited the towns and cities. Thus, paradoxically, Pale restrictions, a paradigm example of A-S in Ukraine, were nevertheless a manifestation not of Ukrainian A-S but of Russian A-S. The same holds true of the anti-Semitic pogroms of the 1880s in the Ukrainian and other Pale territories of the empire, which broke out following the assassination of Tsar Alexander 11, insofar as these were the product of a campaign conducted by reactionary Russian circles, cal­ culated to lay blame for the assassination upon the Jews. This state of affairs recurred between 1903 and 1906, when government provocateurs and protsarist groups and gangs such as the notorious Russian *Black Hundreds carried out numerous bloody anti-Semitic pogroms, frequently under the rallying cry of 'Beat the Yids, Save Russia,' in order to deflect away popular dis­ content with tsarist absolutism by finding an alternate scapegoat for the empire's ills, namely the Jews. Still another prominent example of Russian A-S as practiced in Ukraine was the M . Beilis blood-libel trial (see *Beilis affair), which was instigated and conducted by the tsarist police and judicial apparatuses in Kiev between 1911 and 1913. In contradistinction to the ready availability of exam­ ples of Russian A-S in Ukraine, examples of genuinely Ukrainian A-S are much more difficult to locate, though well-documented instances of specifically Ukrainian vio­ lence committed against Jews (the Khmelnytsky and Haidamaka rebellions) are, of course, not. One frequently alleged example of Ukrainian A-S is the pogroms carried out by UNR Directory forces in 1919. Another is the alleged widespread collaboration of Ukrainians with the Nazis in the extermination of the Jews during the Second World War. Whereas there is little disagreement among historians

that some units of the Directory's army did commit po­ groms, extant evidence does not seem to support the accusation, found in some of the literature, that the Ukrainian government ever promoted or condoned such excesses, although it is unclear whether or not, under the prevailing conditions of near anarchy, more could have been done to prevent them. What is, moreover, impos­ sible to determine is why those units of the Directory's forces that committed the pogroms did so. Possible explanations include a general condition of civil war and anarchy, in which all armed forces fighting on Ukrainian soil - Ukrainian, White, Red, and Polish - engaged in pogroms; the Ukrainians' conviction that Jews were opposed to Ukrainian independence; or simply A-S although even here it is unfortunately impossible to distinguish between an A-S with genuinely Ukrainian roots and one generated as the result of the cumulative effect of decades of officially sponsored tsarist Russian A-S prior to the revolution of 1917. During the Second World War a small number of individual Ukrainians collaborated with the Nazis in victimizing the Jews. This, however, cannot really be considered a conspicuous example of Ukrainian A-S for three reasons: (1) similar or more systematic collaboration took place throughout Nazi-occupied Europe, including France, Hungary, and Poland; (2) the number of Ukrai­ nians who collaborated with the Germans, estimated by some sources to be 11,000, represents but a small fraction of the total population, estimated at 36 million; and (3) the number of collaborators is simply dwarfed by the number of Ukrainians killed by the Germans, whether as civilian victims of the Nazi holocaust (3 million) or as some undetermined portion of the total Soviet prisoner-of-war population killed by the Germans (estimated at between 2.5 and 3 million) or during combat against the Third Reich as members of the Soviet Army or the forces of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army. In the time since the war the situation with A-S in Ukraine has come to resemble that which prevailed during the period of the Russian Empire, insofar as a central governmental authority outside of Ukraine, in this case the Soviet authorities in Moscow, determines the official position taken in regard to Jews living not only within the Ukrainian SSR but within the Soviet Union as a whole. And, similarly, the official posture has not only shown itself to contain an endorsement of A-S but has also at various points included an active promotion of a particularly virulent strain of it, in some instances rivaling the A-S of Nazi Germany. A Ukrainian publication best representing this brand of especially vicious Soviet A-S is T. Kichko's Iudaizm bez prykras (Judaism without Embel­ lishment), a volume published under the official auspices of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR in 1963. Although it is difficult to identify major instances of A-S, in the specific sense of prejudice and not simply hostility, that have a demonstrably Ukrainian character, and al­ though there has never, for example, been a Ukrainian anti-Semitic organization or political party, it is neverthe­ less reasonable to assume the existence of Ukrainian A-S. But its depth or extent cannot be gauged. Native xeno­ phobia, ignorance, Christian A-S, frictions deriving from economic competition, and a profound and reciprocal cultural and political alienation would be likely sources. Some of the writings of the 19th-century Ukrainian historian and polemicist M . Kostomarov are a good example of Ukrainian A-S.

ANTONII

To date, the subject of A-S in Ukraine has not had the benefit of much careful and scholarly analysis. Extant discussions, of which there are a fair number, are usually of a popular or semischolarly character and more often than not are marred by conceptual confusions about the very nature of A-S, a failure to recognize that A-S in Ukraine is not synonymous with Ukrainian A-S, and a tendency to apply conclusions pertinent to Western European or Russian A-S to interpretations of friction or hostility between the gentiles and Jews in Ukraine, a land where such conclusions are frequently inapplicable because of the very different role and status that Jews held there in earlier centuries, when they were part of and aligned with the ruling and oppressing nonUkrainian classes. BIBLIOGRAPHY Dubnow, S.M. History of the Jews in Russia and Poland, 3 vols (Philadelphia 1916-20) Allport, G . The Nature of Prejudice (Boston 1954) Bilynsky, Y . T h e Jewish Question in the Ukraine,' in The Second Soviet Republic (New Brunswick, NJ 1964) Ukrainian Congress Committee of America. Ukrainians and Jews: A Symposium (New York 1966) Wiesel, E . 'Babi Yar,' in Jews of Silence (New York 1966) Hunczak, T. 'A Reappraisal of Symon Petliura and UkrainianJewish Relations 1917-1921/ Jewish Social Studies, 31, no. 3 (1969) Szajkowski, S. 'A Rebuttal/ Jewish Social Studies, 31, no. 3 (1969) Possony, S T . T h e Ukrainian-Jewish Problem,' Plural Societies, 5, no. 4 (1974) Gitelman, Z . 'The Social and Political Role of the Jews in Ukraine,' in Ukraine in the Seventies, ed P. Potichnyj (Oakville, Ont 1975) Margolin, A . Ukraine and Policy of the Entente (np 1977) Weinryb, B. D. 'The Hebrew Chronicles on Bohdan Xmel'nyc'kyj and the Cossack-Polish War,' Harvard Ukrainian Studies, 1, no. 2 (1977) Hewko, J. 'The Ukrainian-Jewish Political Relationship during the Period of the Central Rada,' M A thesis, University of Oxford, 1981 B. Wytwycky

Antolohion. A *menaion for feast days, one of the liturgical books of the Eastern church, which was published by the press of the Kievan Cave Monastery. It was translated from the Greek by Y. Boretsky, Z. Kopystensky, and P. Berynda. Berynda also wrote the afterword.

PECHERSKY

83

Antonenko-Davydovych, Borys [Antonenko-Davydovyc] (pseud of Davydov), b 5 August 1899 in Romen, Poltava gubernia, d ? May 1984 in Kiev. Writer, journalist, and an active participant in the post-1917 renaissance of Ukrainian culture. Antonenko-Davydovych studied natural science at the University of Kharkiv and philology at the Kiev Institute of People's Education. During the 1920s he was a member of the editorial board of the newspaper Proletars'ka pravda. His work began to be published in 1923 in the journals Nova hromada, Zhyttia i revoliutsiia, and Chervonyi shliakh, among others. He was a member of the literary group Lanka (later *MARS). His first works published separately were the drama Lytsari absurdu (Knights of the Absurd, 1924) and the collections of stories and short novels Zaporosheni syliuety (Dusty Silhouettes, 1925), Tuk-tuk (1926), and Synia voloshka (The Blue Cornflower, 1927). Antonenko-Davydovych's novel SmerV (Death, 1928), which became very popular but was at the same time sharply criticized for nationalism, describes the then-current problem of the betrayal of his nation by a Ukrainian intellectual who becomes a Communist. Antonenko-Davydovych was again accused of nationalism for his book of travel vignettes, Zemleiu ukraïns'koiu (Through the Ukrainian Land, 1930). He was arrested in 1935, imprisoned until 1956, and then exiled to Central Asia. After being rehabilitated, he returned to Kiev. The following years saw the publication of his collections of stories and sketches Zbruch (1959), V sim'ï voVnii, novii (In the Free, New Family, i960), and Zolotyi korablyk (The Little Golden Ship, i960), and the short novel Slovo materi (The Mother's Word, 1964). His best-known postwar novel, Za shyrmoiu (Behind the Screen, 1963), was also harshly criticized for deviating from the principles of socialist realism. The novel, set in contemporary Uzbekistan, raises the question of a humanitarian attitude towards people, and especially that of children towards their parents. Antonenko-Davydovych had two unfinished novels: Sich-maty (Mother Sich) and Nashchadky pradidiv (Descendants of Ancestors). Collections of his articles on literary topics and literary criticism - Pro shcho i iak (On What and How, 1962), V literaturi i kolo literatury (In Literature and around Literature, 1964), Zdaleka i zblyz'ka (From Far and Near, 1969) - and on linguistic themes - Iak my hovorymo (How We Speak, 1970) - also appeared. Antonenko-Davydovych had a significant influence on the literary generation of the 1960s. For his protests against Russification and his defense of Ukrainian dissidents he was again persecuted from the mid-1960s, and from the early 1970s publication of his works was suspended and his books were banned. BIBLIOGRAPHY Lavrinenko, Iu. Rozstriliane vidrodzhennia (Paris 1959) Boiko, L . 'Borys Antonenko-Davydovych,' in Ukraïns'ki radians'ki pys'mennyky, 6 (Kiev 1968) Chub, D. Borys Antonenko-Davydovych (Melbourne 1979) I. Koshelivets

The Dormition, an illustration from Antolohion (1619)

Borys AntonenkoDavydovych

Antonii [Antonij], 7-1391. Initially the bishop, then the metropolitan, of Halych (1371-91). He was appointed metropolitan by Philotheos, the patriarch of Constantinople. After Antonii's death the Halych metropolitanate went into decline once again. Antonii Pechersky. See Saint Anthony of the Caves.

8

4

ANTONIN Y

Antoniny. iv-7. Town smt (1970 pop 3,720) in Krasyliv raion, Khmelnytskyi oblast; until 1770 it was called Holodky. Antoniny has a sugar refinery, brick factory, baking plant, breeding farm, and forest reserve.

Zynovii Antoniuk

Antoniuk, Zynovii [Antonjuk, Zynovij], b 24 July 1933. Engineer, economist. Antoniuk was active in the dissident movement in Kiev during the 1960s and 1970s. He has written articles on historical and ethnographic themes. Arrested in 1972 and tried on a charge of collaboration with the samvydav journal *Ukraïns'kyi visnyk, Antoniuk was sentenced to seven years in a labor camp and three years' internal exile. From 1975 to 1978 he was incarcerated in Vladimir Prison following mass hunger strikes by prisoners in the Ural labor camp. Antoniuk and I . *Svitlychny were accused of organizing these strikes. Antonivka. vn-13. Town smt (1968 pop 12,600) in Kherson oblast administered by the Kherson raion soviet and established in 1963. Its main industries are viticulture and wine-making. Antonivka hoard. Also known as the Inhul hoard. An archeological hoard of the late Bronze Age, found in 1962 on the Inhul River near the village of Antonivka in Mykolaiv oblast. The hoard consists of bronze axes, sickles, ornaments, and weapons characteristic of the late period of the ""Timber-Grave culture of the 13th-12th century BC. The hoard is preserved at the Odessa Archeological Museum. Antonov, Oleg, b 7 February 1906 in Troitsa, Moscow gubernia. Prominent Soviet aircraft designer; full member of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR since 1967. Antonov has designed over sixty aircraft, including the propeller-driven AN-2 and AN-14; the turboprops AN-8, AN-10, AN-22, AN-24, AN-26, AN-28, and AN-30; the turbojet AN-72; and the single-frame sport gliders A - I I , A-13, and A-15. He has been a member of the Central Committee of the CPU since 1966. In 1968, however, Antonov was one of 139 Soviet citizens who signed an open letter to the Soviet leaders protesting the arrests of Ukrainian cultural activists and governmental restriction of Ukrainian cultural development. Antonov-Ovsiienko, Volodymyr [Antonov-Ovsijenko], b 21 March 1883 in Chernihiv, d 1938. Bolshevik leader who was commander in chief of the Bolshevik occupation

of Ukraine from December 1917 to May 1918. In MarchApril 1918 he was a member of the Soviet Ukrainian government. From November 1918 to June 1919 AntonovOvsiienko commanded the Soviet divisions (the so-called Ukrainian Front), which occupied Ukraine a second time. From 1924 to 1937 he was in diplomatic service as the plenipotentiary representative of the USSR to Czechoslovakia, Lithuania, Poland, and Spain. Antonov-Ovsiienko was executed by firing squad on the charge of being a Trotskyist. He was the author of Zapiski 0 grazhdanskoi voine (Notes on the Civil War, 4 vols, 1924-33), which contains valuable materials on the history of the Bolshevik occupation of Ukraine. Antonovsky, Mykhailo [Antonovs'kyj, Myxajlo], b 11 October 1759 in Borzna, Chernihiv gubernia, d 1816 in St Petersburg. Antonovsky completed his studies at the Kievan Mohyla Academy (1772) and the University of Moscow (1779-83). He worked as a librarian at the public library in St Petersburg and wrote Istoriia 0 Maloi Rossii (History of Little Russia, 1799) on the basis of Ukrainian chronicles and manuscripts of the 17th-18th century. Antonovsky published H . Skovoroda's 'Nartsys' (Narcissus) in the book Biblioteka dukhovnaia (Spiritual Library, 1798). Antonovsky's memoirs were published in the journal Russkii arkhiv in 1885. Antonovych, Danylo [Antonovyc] (real name Budko), b 22 December 1889 in Bilopillia, near Sumy, d 8 February 1975 in Kharkiv. Actor, graduate of the Lysenko Music and Drama Institute in Kiev. In 1919 he joined the Kiev Shevchenko Theater, in 1920-2 he worked with L. *Kurbas in the Kiev Drama Theater (Kyidramte), and in 1922-3 and 1926-34 in *Berezil. In 1923-6 he worked in Moscow in the First Russian Workers' Theater. From 1935 he acted in the Kharkiv T. Shevchenko Drama Theater. He began to lecture in 1949 and in 1957 was promoted to professor of the Kharkiv Theater Institute. His main roles included the following: Zalizniak in Haidamaky (based on T. Shevchenko's poem), Yaroslav in I . Kocherha's Iaroslav Mudryi (Yaroslav the Wise), Kryvonis in O. Korniichuk's Bohdan KhmeVnyts'kyi (and other plays by Korniichuk), Felix Grandet in H . Balzac's Eugénie Grandet, Othello in W. Shakespeare's tragedy. He played in the ethnographic plays of H . Kvitka-Osnovianenko, I . Karpenko-Kary, and others. He appeared in S. Eisenstein's films Stachka (Strike) and Bronenosets Potemkin (The Battleship Potemkin). Antonovych, Dmytro [Antonovyc], b 15 November 1877 in Kiev, d 12 October 1945 in Prague. Son of V. ""Antonovych, art and theater historian, political leader. Antonovych was one of the founders and leaders of the Revolutionary Ukrainian party (RUP) in 1900-5, and, from 1905, of the Ukrainian Social Democratic Workers' party (USDRP). He served as the editor of several party publications - the journals *Haslo (1902-3) and *Selianyn (1903-5) in Chernivtsi, and, in Kharkiv, the newspaper Volia. From 1912 he taught art history at the Kiev School of Arts and worked for the monthly journals *Dzvin (191314) and *Siaivo (1913-14). An active figure in the Ukrainian Central Rada in 1917-18, Antonovych held the portfolios of naval affairs and the arts. During the period of the Directory of the Ukrainian National Republic Antonovych was the president of the Ukrainian diplo-

ANTONOVYCH

85

Studentstva, 1921-45 (An Outline of the History of the Central Union of Ukrainian Students, 1921-45, 1976). Antonovych edited the journal Rozbudova derzhavy (1949-54) and since 1964 has co-edited the scholarly journal Ukrains'kyi istoryk.

Danylo Antonovych

Dmytro Antonovych

matic mission in Rome. He was an organizer and rector of the Ukrainian Free University in Vienna and Prague and a professor of art history there as well. Antonovych was the director of the Museum of Ukraine's Struggle for Independence in Prague for many years. From 1923 to 1945 he was president of the Ukrainian HistoricalPhilological Society, and director of the Ukrainian Studio of Plastic Arts, both in Prague. His works include Estetychne vykhovannia Shevchenka (Shevchenko's Aesthetic Education, 1914), Ukrai'ns'ke mystetstvo (Ukrainian Art, 1923), Trysta rokiv ukrai'ns'koho teatru (1619-1919) (Three Hundred Years of Ukrainian Theater [1619-1919], 1925), T. Shevchenko iak maliar (T. Shevchenko, the Artist, 1937), and Deutsche Einflüsse auf die ukrainische Kunst (1942). Antonovych, Kateryna [Antonovyc] (birth name Serebriakova), b 1884 in Kharkiv, d 22 February 1975 in Winnipeg. Painter and professor of art history, wife of Dmytro * Antonovych. She studied in the Ukrainian National Academy of Art in Kiev under V. Krychevsky and M . Boichuk; from 1923 she was in Prague, where she worked in the Ukrainian Studio of Plastic Arts and the Museum of Ukraine's Struggle for Independence. Antonovych emigrated to Canada in 1945, and from 1954 directed her own drawing and painting school. Her portraits, landscapes, and still lifes were exhibited in Canada and in the United States. Antonovych, Maksym [Antonovyc], b 9 May 1835 in Bilopillia, near Sumy, d 14 November 1918. Russian philosopher, publicist, literary critic, of Ukrainian descent. Antonovych graduated from the Kharkiv seminary and the St Petersburg Theological Academy. He later broke with his religious training and became a materialist and an atheist but eschewed Marxism. He popularized the theories of C. Darwin and criticized the mystical religious philosophy of the Kiev philosophers S. *Hohotsky and P. *Yurkevych. Antonovych was a proponent of peasant revolution. Antonovych, Marko [Antonovyc], b 7 July 1916 in Kiev. Son of Dmytro * Antonovych, student organizer (*Zarevo), civic and political activist (member of the Melnyk faction of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists), historian, and publicist. He is the author of articles on the cultural renaissance of the 19th century in Ukraine, as well as Narys istoriï TsentraVnoho Soiuzu Ukra'ins'koho

Antonovych, Mykhailo [Antonovyc, Myxajlo], b 20 November 1910 in Florence, d? Historian, son of Dmytro * Antonovych, research associate of the Ukrainian Scientific Institute in Berlin from 1936 to 1941, lecturer at Breslau University and at Vienna University. His writings include a PH D dissertation on Prince Repnin, the Governor General of Saxony (1936), Istoriia Ukraïny (A History of Ukraine, 4 vols, 1941-2), Studñ z chasiv Nalyvaika (Studies of the Times of Nalyvaiko, 1941), and Pereiaslavs'ka kampaniia 1630 r. (The Pereiaslav Campaign of 1630, 1944). In 1945 he was seized by Soviet agents in Berlin and was deported to the USSR. There he was incarcerated in prison camps; his subsequent fate is unknown.

Volodymyr Antonovych

Antonovych, Volodymyr [Antonovyc], b 18 January 1834 in Makhnivka, Kiev gubernia, d 21 March 1908 in Kiev. Historian, archeographer, archeologist, professor of history at Kiev University from 1878, editor in chief of the publications of the *Kiev Archeographic Commission, patron and head (from 1881) of the ^Historical Society of Nestor the Chronicler in Kiev, and organizer of archeological conferences in Ukraine. He collected, edited with introductions, and published the voluminous *Arkhiv lugo-Zapadnoi Rossii (in 8 series, 1859-1914), which deals with the history of Right-Bank Ukraine in the 16th-18th century. Antonovych's introductory articles to these volumes are concerned with the history of the Cossacks, Haidamakas, peasantry, nobility, gentry, towns and burghers, colonization, and the church: 'O proiskhozhdennii kozachestva' (On the Origin of the Cossacks, 1863); 'Ob okolichnoi shliakhte' (The Neighboring Gentry, 1867); 'Posledniia vremena kozachestva na pravom beregu Dnepra po aktam 1679-1716 g.' (The Last Days of the Cossacks on the Dnieper's Right Bank According to Documents of 1679-1716, 1868); 'O gaidamachestve' (On the Haidamaka Movement, 1876); 'O mnimom krest'ianskom vozstanii na Volyni v 1789 g.' (On the Supposed Peasant Uprising in Volhynia in 1789,1902); 'O krest'ianakh v lugo-Zapadnoi Rossii po aktam 1770-1798 gg.' (On the Peasants in Southwestern Russia According to Documents of 1770-98, 1870); 'O proiskhozhdenii shliakhetskikh rodov v lugo-Zapadnoi Rossii' (On the Origin of Noble Family Lines in Southwestern Russia, 1867); 'O

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gorodakh v Iugo-Zapadnoi Rossii po aktam 1432-1798 g / (On the Towns of Southwestern Russia According to Documents of 1432-1798, 1870); 'Ob Unii i sostoianii Pravoslavnoi Tserkvi s poloviny xvn do kontsa xvin v.' (On the [Church] Union and the State of the Orthodox Church from the Middle of the 17th to the End of the 18th Century, 1871). Other important works by Antonovych are Ocherki istorii Velikogo Kniazhestva Litovskogo do smerti v. kn. OVgerda (An Outline of the History of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania up to the Death of the Grand Prince Algirdas, 1877-8); 'Kiev, ego sud'ba i znachenie v xiv-xvi st.' (Kiev, Its Fate and Importance from the 14th to the 16th Century), Kievskaia starina, no. 1 (1882); 'Uman'skii sotnik Ivan Gonta' (The Captain of Uman, Ivan Gonta) Kievskaia starina, no. 11 (1882); and Monografii po istorii Zapadnoi i Iugo-Zapadnoi Rossii (Monographs on the History of Western and Southwestern Russia, 1885). Antonovych edited several collections of historical documents, such as Sbornik materialov dlia istoricheskoi topografii Kieva i ego okrestnostei (Collection of Materials for the Historical Topography of Kiev and Its Surrounding Areas, 1874); Sbornik letopisei, otnosiashchikhsia k istorii Iuzhnoi i Zapadnoi Rossii (Collection of Chronicles Pertaining to the History of Southern and Western Russia, 1888); Memuary, otnosiashchiesia k istorii Iuzhnoi Rusi (Memoirs Pertaining to the History of Southern Rus', 2 vols, 1890-6); 'Dnevnik Stanislava Osvetsima (1643-51)' (The Diary of Stanisiaw Oswiçcim [1643-51]), Kievskaia starina, nos. 1-2, 5-6, 9-12 (1882), and separately. He was responsible for the historical annotations to M . Drahomanov's Istoricheskie pesni malorusskogo naroda (The Historical Songs of the Little Russian People, i - n , 1874-5). His principal works in archeology are Raskopki v zemle drevlian (Excavations in the Derevlianian Land, 1893); Arkheologicheskaia karta Kievskoi gubernii (An Archeological Map of Kiev Gubernia, 1895); Arkheologicheskaia karta Volynskoi gubernii (An Archeological Map of the Volhynian Gubernia, 1900); and Opisanie monet i medalei, khraniashchikhsia v numizmaticheskom muzee Universiteta sv. Vladimira (A Description of the Coins and Medals Preserved at the Numismatic Museum of St Vladimir University, 1896). Antonovych was a representative of the populist school in Ukrainian historiography. He founded the so-called Kievan school of historians, which consisted of his students at Kiev University (among them, D. *Bahalii, P. *Holubovsky, M . *Hrushevsky, M . *Dovnar-Zapolsky, and I . *Lynnychenko). These historians laid the foundations of modern Ukrainian historiography. In his writings Antonovych avoided synthetic theories and concentrated on documentary research. Only in his more popular lectures, such as Besidy pro chasy kozats'ki na Ukraïni (Conversations on the Cossack Period in Ukraine, 1897; 2nd ed, Vyklady pro chasy kozats'ki na Ukraïni [Lectures on the Cossack Period in Ukraine], 1912), did Antonovych give a general survey of Ukrainian history from the origin of the Cossacks. As a member of the *Khlopomany, Antonovych published a well-known article in reply to the Polish journalist Z. Fisz (pseud T. Padalica), entitled 'Moia ispoved' (My Confession), in Osnova, 1 (1862), in which he defended the ideology of the 'peasant lovers.' He was head of the Old Hromada of Kiev. Through his initiative the Poles and Ukrainians in the Galician diet reached an

agreement in 1890. He played an important role in Hrushevsky's move to Lviv and the city's emergence as an important center of Ukrainian learning and publishing. For almost half a century Antonovych played a leading role in Ukrainian civic and political life. l i e wrote over 300 scholarly studies. BIBLIOGRAPHY Tomashivs'kyi, S. Volodymyr Antonovych (Lviv 1907) Dovnar-Zapol'skii, M . Tstoricheskie vzgliady V.B. Antonov i c h a / Chteniia Nestora, 19 (1909) Hrushevs'kyi, M . V o l o d y m y r Antonovych. Osnovni idei* ioho tvorchosty i diial'nosty/ ZNTK, 3 (1909) Pavluts'kyi, H . 'Antonovych iak arkheoloh/ ZNTK, 3 (1909) Loboda, A . Tratsi Antonovycha po etnohrafii* ta literaturi/ ZNTK, 3 (1909); Ukrai'na, 5 (1928) Bahalii, D . I . (ed). Materiialy dlia biohrafiï V.B. Antonovycha (Kiev 1929) Antonovych, V . B . Tvory, 1 (Kiev 1932) Doroshenko, D . Volodymyr Antonovych. Ioho zhyttia i naukova ta hromads'ka diiaVnisf (Prague 1942) - A Survey of Ukrainian Historiography (New York 1957) O. Ohloblyn

Antonovych-Melnyk, Kateryna [Antonovyc-Mel'nyk], 1859-1942. Archeologist, historian, and community figure in Kiev; second wife of V. * Antonovych. She conducted archeological excavations in Volhynia, Podilia, Zaporizhia, and Slobidska Ukraine and studied neolithic, megalithic, and other monuments. She belonged to many archeological societies, was a full member of the Ukrainian Scientific Society in Kiev and of the Shevchenko Scientific Society, and helped establish museums at the University of Kiev and in Katerynoslav. Her works include Sledy megaliticheskikh sooruzhenii v Iuzhnoi Rossii (Traces of Megalithic Structures in Southern Russia, 1884) and Maidanovi horodyshcha na Ukraïni (Square-Type Ancient Towns in Ukraine). Antonowycz, Myroslaw [Antonovyc, Myroslav], b 1 March 1917 in Dolyna, Galicia. Musicologist and conductor, lecturer at Utrecht University in Holland, founder and conductor of the *Byzantine Choir at Utrecht. His publications include DieMotette Benedicta es von Josquin des Pre... (1951), Die byzantinischen Elemente in den Antiphonen (gradúale) der ukrainischen Kirche (1955), and The Chants from Ukrainian Heirmologia (1974). Antonowycz has contributed to Dutch and German music encyclopedias. Antonych, Bohdan Ihor [Antonyc], b 5 October 1909 in the village of Novytsia in the Lemko region, d 6 July 1937 in Lviv. Poet, critic, and publicist. As a student in the arts and science faculty of Lviv University, Antonych assiduously studied the Ukrainian language and Ukrainian literature and wrote journalistic and critical articles under the pseudonym Zoil. He graduated in 1933. With V. Havryliuk and V. Lasovsky he co-edited the art journal Karby. Antonych edited the literary chronicle for the journal *Dazhboh and for a time was its editor in chief. According to his own admission, Antonych was 'a pagan in love with life,' 'a poet of spring intoxication.' His lyrical poetry deals with a wide range of philosophical themes and combines the principles of imagism with a unique form of pantheism rooted in Lemko folklore. His religious attitude to folk objects and his extensive use of alliteration fascinated his contemporaries and have influenced some of the young poets of today, for example, I . *Kalynets and M. *Horbal.

APOCRYPHAL

LITERATURE

87

Ukrainian portrait painting of the 18th century is noticeable in his portraits, such as in the portrait of Archbishop S. Kuliabka and of Otaman F. Krasnoshchokov.

Myroslaw Antonowycz

Bohdan Ihor Antonych; portrait by V . Lasovsky

During his lifetime the following collections of his poetry appeared in print: Pryvitannia zhyttia (Welcome to Life, 1931), Try persteni (Three Rings, 1934), Knyha leva (The Book of the Lion, 1936). Zelena levanheliia (The Green Gospel, 1938), Rotatsu (Rotations, 1938), and Vybrani poezïi (Selected Poems, ed B. Romanenchuk, 1940) were published posthumously. In the 1960s there was renewed interest in Antonych's poetry. Various articles on and studies of his work appeared. Several annotated editions of his poetry were published: Persteni molodosti (The Rings of Youth, ed M . Neverly, Bratislava 1966), Pisnia pro neznyshchennisV materiï (Song on the Indestructibility of Matter, introd D. Pavlychko, Kiev 1967), and Zibrani tvory (The Collected Works, ed S. Hordynsky and B. Rubchak, New York-Winnipeg 1967). The last collection includes, besides Antonych's poetry, his unfinished libretto Dovbush, fragments of the novel Na tomu berezi (On the Other Shore), his theoretical articles on art, journalistic articles, and book reviews. In the 1970s selections from his work were translated into Slovak (Ocareny pohan [Kosice 1976]) and into English (Square of Angels [New York 1977]). D . H . Struk

Antratsyt [Antracyt]. v-20, DB 111-6. City (1983 pop 65,000) in the southeast part of the Donets Basin and a raion center in Voroshylovhrad oblast. The town was founded at the end of the 19th century and was called Bokovo-Antratsyt until 1962. It is known for its anthracite mines and enrichment plants. Antratsyt has a tractorparts plant, one of the largest greenhouses in Ukraine, a slag-block plant, an asphalt plant, and a mining technical school. Antropolohiia (Anthropology). A scientific collection published annually in 1927-30 (4 vols) by the ^Cabinet of Anthropology and Ethnology of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences in Kiev. The collection contained articles on the ethnic and physical anthropology of Ukraine, paleoanthropology, and archeology. The editors were A. Nosiv and M. Rudynsky. Antropov, Aleksei, b 25 March 1716 in St Petersburg, d 23 June 1795 in St Petersburg. Russian painter of portraits. Antropov also painted churches and palaces: in 1752-5 he took part in painting St Andrew's Cathedral in Kiev (among other paintings, that of the Last Supper and the paintings of the cupola are his). The influence of

Anyshchenko, Kalistrat [Anyscenko], b 26 September 1885 in the village of Krasne, Kiev gubernia, d 28 March 1929 in Kharkiv. Writer and journalist. He began publishing in 1904. His collections of stories dealing with the lives of workers and peasants include Opovidannia (Stories, 1918), Tkachykhy (The Weaver's Wives, 1924), Myronosnytsi (The Balsam Bearers, 1926), Balans (The Balance, 1927), and Pobachennia (The Rendezvous, 1929); other works include the popular narrative Mandrivka do pivdennoho bihuna (Journey to the South Pole, 1929) and the children's novel Piramidy proletariiatu (Pyramids of the Proletariat, 1929). Apanovych, Olena [Apanovyc], b 23 March 1919. Historian specializing in the history of the Zaporozhian Sich and Ukrainian military history. Her works include Zaporiz'ka Sich ta x'x prohresyvna roV v istoriï ukrai'ns'koho narodu (The Zaporozhian Sich and Its Progressive Role in the History of the Ukrainian People, Kiev 1954, co-author K. Huslysty), Zaporiz'ka Sich u boroVbi proty turets'kotatars'koï ahresiï 50-70-i roky xvn st. (The Zaporozhian Sich in the Struggle against the Turkish-Tatar Aggression of the 1650s to 1670s, Kiev 1961), and Zbroini syly Ukra'iny pershoi polovyny xvm st. (The Armed Forces of Ukraine of the First Half of the 18th Century, Kiev 1969). Apocryphal literature. Works about events and figures in religious history that were never officially recognized by the Christian church or accepted into the canon of the Holy Scriptures and thus are regarded as false or heretical. Apocryphal literature elaborates on events that are not mentioned or are mentioned only in passing in the Scriptures. The legends and oral traditions that grew up around the apocrypha often contradicted the teachings of the church. Heretics attempted to lend credibility to the apocrypha by attributing their authorship to the apostles or church fathers. References in literary monuments indicate that the apocrypha, together with lists of forbidden works (indexes), were known in Ukraine by the 11th century. The apocrypha, as well as other early works of ^translated literature, reached Ukraine from Byzantium and the Holy Land via Bulgaria and were spread by means of oral and written communication. During the 17th-18th century apocryphal literature was replenished by new translations and legends of Western origin. Apocryphal literature may be divided into several categories. Old Testament apocrypha include stories describing genesis, Adam and Eve, Noah and the Flood, Abraham, Moses, numerous tales about Solomon, and the so-called Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs. New Testament apocrypha - the so-called gospels of Khoma (Thomas), Yakiv (Jacob), Nicodemus, and others - include tales of Christ's childhood, his trial and sufferings (the Passion), his journey to hell, and, also, of the Mother of God and the apostles. Apocryphal lives of the saints (Mykyta, Yurii, Iryna, Fedir, etc) emerged alongside the officially recognized *hagiography. The category of eschatological apocrypha (depicting the end of the world and life after death) includes perhaps the most popular Ukrainian apocryphal tale, 'Khozhdeniie Bohorodytsi po

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mukakh/ (The Mother of God's Journey through the Tortures). Apocryphal motifs and plots were often incorporated into folk literature, particularly into folk tales and religious poems. Iconography has, similarly, adopted some apocryphal themes. Motifs derived from the apocrypha are found in the original Ukrainian literature of the Princely era ("chronicles, lives of saints, oratorical works, the pilgrimage of hegumen *Danylo, etc), and in works of the 17th-18th century (sermons, hagiographie stories, dramas, religious songs, and the 'Slovo o zburenniu pekla' [Tale of the Destruction of Hell]). In 19th-century literature, the apocryphal tradition is reflected in the description of hell in I . Kotliarevsky's Eneida (Aeneid) and in Baiky svitovïï v spivakh (Fables of the World in Songs) and Baiky svitovi'iv opovidkakh (Fables of the World in Stories). The apocryphal tradition in Ukraine and its influences on Ukrainian literature were studied by V. Peretts, M . Sumtsov, M . Petrov, M . Gudzii, and others. I. Franko in particular devoted much attention to the collection and research of apocrypha, compiling the finest existing collection of Ukrainian apocryphal works, 'Apokryfy i legendy z ukrains'kykh rukopysiv' (Apocrypha and Legends from Ukrainian Manuscripts), in Pamiatky ukrains'koï movy i literatury (Monuments of Ukrainian Language and Literature, vols 1-5, Lviv 18961910). M. Hlobenko

Apokrisis. A polemical anti-Catholic work by Kh. Philalet, the pseudonym of M . Broniewski or Kh. Bronski according to some scholars. The work was published in Polish in Vilnius in 1597 and in Ukrainian Church Slavonic in 1598 in Ostrih. It is a reply from the Protestant viewpoint to P. *Skarga's Synod Brzeski ijego obrona (The Synod of Brest and Its Defense, 1597). Apóstol. A book containing the works and epistles of the apostles, which is read during the liturgy. The name Apóstol also refers to the section of the liturgy preceding the reading of the Gospels. Early Ukrainian editions of the Apóstol were the Lviv edition published by I . *Fedorovych in 1574, the Kiev editions of the 17th-18th century (starting with 1630), the Lviv edition of 1639, the Uhertsi edition of 1620, the Lutske edition of 1640, and the Pochaiv, Zhovkva, and many other editions. Apóstol. Name of a Ukrainian noble family of Moldavian origin. Pavlo Yefremovych Apóstol (ca 1617-18 to 1683) was the captain of the Khomutets Company in the Myrhorod Regiment (1657), the colonel of the Hadiache Regiment (1659-60) and of the Myrhorod Regiment (1659-64, 1672-83), and P. *Doroshenko s general aidede-camp (1666). His son Danylo * Apóstol was the hetmán of Left-Bank Ukraine (1727-34). Danylo's first son, Petro * Apóstol (d 1758), was the colonel of the Lubni Regiment (1728-57), and his second son, Pavlo (d 1736), was the colonel of the Myrhorod Regiment (1727-36) and died in a Crimean campaign. Petro Apostol's son Danylo was general flagbearer (1762-82) and a member of the "Little Russian Collegium (1767). His son Mykhailo was a colonel in the Russian army and the last male in the Apóstol line (d 1816). The name and the large estate of this ,

First page from Apóstol, Lviv 1574

Danylo Apóstol; a medal by V. Masiutyn

family were passed on through its female members to I . Muravev-Apostol (1770-1851) and his descendants. Apóstol, Danylo, b 14 December 1654, d 28 January 1734 in Sorochyntsi, Myrhorod regiment. Colonel of the Myrhorod Regiment in 1683-1727 and then hetmán of Left-Bank Ukraine in 1727-34. At first Apóstol opposed I. *Mazepa, then supported him. In November 1708, however, he abandoned Mazepa and the Swedes and joined *Peter I . He took part in Russia's Prut (1711) and Persian (1722) campaigns. The martial law established in Ukraine by Peter 1 after his victory at Poltava, the rule of the *Little Russian Collegium, and other restrictions on Ukrainian autonomy persuaded Apóstol to side with the Ukrainian officers under the leadership of Acting Hetmán P. *Polubotok. Apóstol was the initiator of the so-called *Kolomak petitions in 1723, which led to the imprisonment of Polubotok and a delegation of officers in St Petersburg and the deportation of Apóstol and his associates. The influential Prince A. *Menshikov, however, supported Apóstol for his own economic reasons and helped to secure his election as hetmán on 1 October 1727. The Authoritative Ordinances (Reshitelnye Punkty) imposed on Ukraine by the Russian government in 1728 limited the powers of the hetmán considerably. Apostol's rule was characterized by a unique compromise between the old political arrangements and the new, which were more restrictive of Ukraine's autonomy. In the first few years as hetmán Apóstol accomplished a great deal. He improved the Cossack administration and reformed the judicial system (decree of 1730). To regularize social relations, he put an end to the transfer of Cossack officers' estates into improper hands. The ^General Survey of Land Holdings was conducted in 1729-30 in all the regiments of the Hetmán state. Apóstol was a diligent landowner, merchant-exporter, and manufacturer. He defended the interests of Ukrainian merchants and tried to modify the commercial system that was imposed on Ukraine by Peter 1, a system that favored the Russian merchants and the Russian state. Apóstol opposed the Russian elements in the Hetmán state administration, where a number of Cossack regiments (Starodub, Cher-

ARABLE LAND

nihiv, Nizhen, Pereiaslav, Hadiache) were governed by Russians or other foreigners appointed by the tsar. BIBLIOGRAPHY 'Dnevnik Petra Danilovicha Apostóla/ Kievskaia starina, 1895, nos 6-8 Krupnyts'kyi, B. Het'man Danylo Apóstol i ioho doba (Augsburg 1948) B. Krupnytsky, O . Ohloblyn

Apóstol, Petro, 7-1758. Son of Hetmán D. *Apostol, colonel of the Lubni Regiment (1728-57); educated in St Petersburg. From 1726 to 1730 he was held hostage in Moscow by the Russian government as a means of exerting control over the politics of his father, the hetmán of Ukraine. One of the most cultured figures of the Hetmán period, Petro Apóstol knew French, German, and Italian. His diary of 1725-7 was written in French. In 1895 O. Lazarevsky published the Russian translation of it in Kievskaia starina (no. 7-8). The diary contains notes on Ukraine's past, interesting data about the events of 1725-7, and information on the socioeconomic history of Left-Bank Ukraine. Apóstoles. Town (1980 pop 11,000, including about 3,000 Ukrainians) in the province of Misiones in northern Argentina. Apóstoles has the oldest Ukrainian colony in * Argentina, dating back to 1897. A Basilian monastery with a printing press, the editorial office of the monthly Zhyttia (published since 1948), a Ukrainian elementary school, and an Argentine-Ukrainian club are located in the town. Apostolove (1818 to 1923: Pokrovske). vi-14. City (1969 pop 17,500) southeast of Kryvyi Rih, a raion center in Dnipropetrovske oblast. The city has a food industry and reinforced-concrete-products and automobile-repair fac­ tories. Apple (Malus; Ukrainian: yablunia). A genus of the family Rosaceae; the most important fruit tree of the temperate latitudes. The tree grows to a height of 10-15 m and sometimes takes the form of a shrub. There are over 30 wild species of the apple tree, 3 of which grow in Ukraine: the wild crab or common apple (M. sylvestris), the M. dasyphilla, and the common or edible apple (M. pumila). There are about 100 varieties of the cultivated apple tree (M. domestica) in Ukraine, and they are of great economic importance. Apples contain sugars, organic acids, pec­ tins, vitamins, and mineral salts. Some apple trees are decorative, but all apple trees are a source of honey. In Ukraine apple trees occupy about 65 percent of the land devoted to orchards. Their productivity reaches 400-500 kg per tree. The fruit is consumed fresh, dried, or processed into preserves, marmalade, and wine. In Ukraine the most common apple trees are the following: the Papirovka, Borovynka, and Doneshta, whose fruit ripens in the summer; the Common Antonivka, Pepinka, and Fall Putivka, whose fruit ripen in the fall; and the Snow Kalvil, P. Symyrenko's Renet, and Champaign Renet, whose fruit ripens in winter. Apponyi, Albert, b 29 May 1846 in Vienna, d 7 February 1933 in Geneva. Hungarian count, politician, and minister of education in 1906-10 and 1917-18. He

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introduced the law of 1907 that gave the Hungarian government the means to close the schools of the national minorities. According to this law, instruction in Hun­ garian had to be provided if the parents of 20 children, or of 20 percent of the children, in a school using a language other than Hungarian desired Hungarian to be used as the language of instruction. As a result of this law, all purely Ukrainian schools in Transcarpathia were closed. While in 1874 there were 571 Ukrainian schools, in 1907 only 107 mixed Ukrainian-Hungarian schools remained, and in 1915 there were only 18 mixed schools left. Apricot (Prunus armeniaca; Ukrainian: abrykosa, morelia, or zherdelia). Fruit tree and sometimes bush of the family Rosaceae. The apricot tree is not discriminating about soils, but is sensitive to cold. In Ukraine the apricot is common in the steppe and the forest-steppe belts, particu­ larly on the Azov coast and in Podilia and the Lower Dnieper and Boh regions. The most common varieties in Ukraine are the Red-cheeked (chervonoshchoki) and Sorochyntsi apricots. Apsheronsk [Apseronsk] (to 1947: Apsheronsk Out­ post). ix-20. City (1968 pop 33,700) on the Pshekha River in the Kuban on the northwestern slopes of the Caucasus, a raion center in Krasnodar krai in the RSFSR. The city has forest and woodworking industries. Apukhtin, Nikolai (Mykola) [Apuxtin, Nikolaj], b 20 May 1924 in Tashkent. Ballet master, performer, and teacher. In 1942 he graduated from the Leningrad School of Choreography. From 1945 to 1966 he was a ballet soloist of the Kiev Opera and Ballet Theater. Since then he has worked as a pedagogue with the Ukrainian SSR Dance Ensemble. Arabat Bay. A bay in the southwestern part of the Azov Sea between the Kerch Peninsula and the Arabat Spit. Arabat Bay is 22 km long, up to 40 km wide, and 8-9 m deep. Arabat Spit. A sandy spit dividing Syvash Lake from the Sea of Azov. It is almost 100 km long and from 270 m to almost 8 km wide. Arable land. Excluding private plots, arable land consti­ tutes 34.1 million ha or 53.3 percent of the territory of the Ukrainian SSR (with private plots, 36 million ha or 57.6 percent) and 80.3 percent of the total area used for agricultural purposes. In the Kuban (Krasnodar krai), arable land constitutes 4.5 million ha or 54 percent of the territory and 85.3 percent of the total area used for agricultural purposes. In all of the Ukrainian ethnic territories arable land (including private plots) constitutes about 60 million ha (59 percent of the territory) and 83 percent of the total area used for agricultural purposes. The area of arable land has grown considerably over the ages, as a result of the cultivation of the steppes and the simultaneous deforestation. At the end of the 18th century, before the tilling of the steppes in southern Ukraine, arable land constituted over 30 percent of the entire area of the present-day Ukrainian SSR. By 1890 this percentage had grown to 60, and in the 1920s, to 68. Since that time, the area of arable land has been significantly

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reduced by the use of vast areas of land for construction, industrial buildings, roads, and reservoirs. Ukraine's arable land is almost completely under cultivation (96 percent at present; 91 percent in 1940; and 81 percent in 1913)The geographical distribution of arable land, being dependent on natural conditions, is not uniform. Arable land covers over two-thirds of the forest-steppe and steppe belts, one-third of the forest belt, and only 14 percent of the Carpathian Mountains. Over 70 percent of the area of the Kirovohrad, Mykolaiv, Zaporizhia, and Vinnytsia oblasts is arable; the oblasts with the least arable land are Transcarpathia (14 percent of total area), Rivne (31 percent), and Volhynia (34 percent). V. Kubijovyc

Arabs. In the 9th-10th century the Arabs conducted a vigorous trade with Eastern Europe, some evidence of which is provided by discoveries of Arab coins ca 820 in Ukraine. Arab geographers, historians, and travelers of the time (some of whom were of Persian or Jewish origin) gave interesting information about the lands and customs of the eastern Slavs, including Kiev, and about the Rus' (Varangian) merchants and conquerors. They include the Persian *Ibn Khordàdhbeh, *Ibn Fadlàn (known only from the adaptations of al-Istakhrï and Ibn Hawqal), Ibn al-Faqïh, al-Balàdhurï, the Persian Ibn Rosta, al-Mas'udï, al-Balkhï, al-Istakhrî (known only from transcriptions), and *Ibn Hawqal, al-Ya'qubï, Ibn Miskawaih, and the Jew Ibn Ya'qub. Data on Ukraine, particularly on the Crimea, are found in the later Arab writers: Ibn Yahyà and al-Bakrï of the n t h century, al-Idrîsï of the 12th, Abu al-Fidà' of the 13th, and Ibn Battu ta of the 14th. In the later Kievan Rus' era Ukrainians became acquainted with Arab literature through the mediation of the Byzantines and then of the Jews. In the 13th century the Indian story 'Kalila and Dimna' (Kalïla wa-Dimna), which reached Greece in the Arabic translation of Ibn al-Muqaffa' in the 9th century, was translated from Greek into Old Ukrainian under the title 'Stephanit and Ikhnilat/ In the 15th century, through Jewish mediation, there appeared in Ukrainian translation the political-moral treatise Tainaia tainykh (Mystery of Mysteries; Arabic: Sirr al-asrâr), possibly a translation of Ibn Yahyà, and the logical-philosophical work RechiMoiseia lehyptianyna (The Discourses of Moses the Egyptian), by Moses Maimonides of the 12th century, which was a translation of the ArabPersian philosopher al-Ghazâlî of the nth-12th century (Maqâsid al-falâsifa - The Tendencies of Philosophers). According to some conjectures this could have been the work of the Aristotelian philosopher al-Fàrâbï of the 9th-10th century. Ukrainian contacts with Arab Christians of the Eastern rite, particularly with the Antioch and Jerusalem patriarchates, began in the 16th century. In 1586 *Joachim v, the patriarch of Antioch, visited Lviv; his voyage is described in a contemporary Arab poem. In the 1640s Metropolitan Jeremiah of Syria visited Ukraine; *Paul of Aleppo, the son of the Antioch patriarch Macarius i n , who traveled through Ukraine on his way to Moscow in 1654, was hosted by B. Khmelnytsky and wrote in Arabic an account of his trip, which contains an important chapter on Ukraine. S. Tudorsky and I . Galiatovsky of the Kievan Mohyla Academy polemicized against the Koran in the 17th century. A n Arabic edition of the

Gospels published in Aleppo at the beginning of the 18th century was funded by Hetmán I . Mazepa. Accounts of travels to Palestine and the adjacent Arab countries were written by Macarius and Sylvester of Novhorod Siverskyi in 1704-7,1. Vyshensky of Chernihiv in 1707-9, Sylvester and Nykodym of Rykhly Monastery in 1722, and by V. Hryhorovych-Barsky, who spent over 20 years in the Near East. In the mid-i9th century, descriptions of travels in Arabic lands begin to appear in the Ukrainian press: for example V. Terletsky (1856), L. Turiansky of Kolomyia (1886), P. Skaliuk (1906). Arab themes can be found in the writings of H . Skovoroda, L. Borovykovsky, S. HulakArtemovsky, P. Kulish, I . Franko, Lesia Ukrainka, and A. Krymsky (who also translated Arab literature into Ukrainian). The first lectures on the Arab language and literature in Ukraine were given by B. Dorn at Kharkiv University (1829-32). M . Petrov and V. Nadler, both professors of Kharkiv University, wrote on Arab history. Many works in Arab studies were published by the prominent orientalist A. Krymsky and then by A. Kovalivsky, T. Kezma, and others. (See ""Oriental studies.) In 1925-30 the Ukrainian Eastern Chamber of Commerce in Soviet Ukraine promoted trade with Egypt and Palestine. In the 1960s Ukraine became the principal supplier of sugar to the Arab countries. In 1965-6 the Ukrainian SSR participated in the development of 18 industrial firms in Iraq, 16 in Egypt, 6 in Sudan, and 4 each in Syria and Tunisia. Many Arab students study in Soviet Ukraine: for example, in 1966-7 there were 205 students from Iraq, 129 from North Yemen, and 108 from Egypt. BIBLIOGRAPHY Garkavi, A . Skazaniia musuVmanskikh pisatelei o slavianakh i russkikh (St Petersburg 1870) Kunik, A . ; Rozen, V . Izvestiia aV-Bekri i drugikh avtorov 0 Rusi i slavianakh (St Petersburg 1878) Ukraïna i Blyz'kyi ta Serednii Skhid (Kiev 1968) Chernikov, I. Druzhnia pidtrymka i spivrobitnytstvo Ukraïns'koï RSR u vidnosynakh Radians'koho Soiuzu z kraïnamy Blyz'koho i Seredn'oho Skhodu (1922-1939) (Kiev 1973) Noonan, T . S . 'When Did Dirhams First Reach the Ukraine?' Harvard Ukrainian Studies, 1978, no. 1 B. Struminsky

Arandarenko, Mykola, 1795-1867. Historian, statistician, and ethnographer. In the 1840s he was director of the Poltava treasury and then governor of Arkhangelsk gubernia. He wrote Zapiski 0 Poltavskoi gubernii, sostavlennye v 1846 godu (Notes on the Poltava Gubernia Taken Down in 1846, 3 vols, 1848-52), which contains valuable historical information, economic data, and ethnographic material. Arbeits- und Fôrderungsgemeinschaft der ukrainischen Wissenschaften. See Association for the Advancement of Ukrainian Studies. Arbitration. A way of settling disputes between parties by a mutually agreed-upon arbitrator (third-party judgment). This way of resolving disputes has been used by every legal system that has functioned in the i9th-2oth century in Ukrainian lands under Russian, Austrian, Polish, Rumanian, or Czechoslovak rule. A special type of arbitration exists in the Ukrainian SSR as in all of the USSR - state arbitration. It was instituted in

ARCHEOGRAPHY

1931 when the Soviet economy was being reorganized according to a single plan. Its purpose was to strengthen discipline in contracting and planning and accountability in enterprises and organizations. A state arbitration board was established under the Council of Ministers of the USSR and a similar board under the Council of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR. Arbitration boards were also set up under the executive committee of each oblast soviet. Every arbitration body was responsible only to the agency under which it functioned. The Council of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR created its own arbitration board, oversaw its activities, and could cancel or change its decisions. The board under the Council of Ministers of the USSR could not interfere in the affairs of the arbitration board under the Council of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR. The boards of the executive committees of the oblast soviets were organized similarly to the board of the Council of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR. The arbitration board of the Council of Ministers of the USSR settled the most important contractual disputes between enterprises that were of Union prerogatives or between enterprises that were located in different republics of the Union. All other disputes in the Ukrainian SSR were settled either by the arbitrators of the Council of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR or by the arbitrators of the executive committees of the oblast soviets. The arbitration boards were appointed by the agencies under which they functioned, and they reached decisions unilaterally or with the participation of the disputants. In the 1950s and 1960s the powers of the arbitration board under the Council of Ministers of the USSR were enlarged gradually to guarantee uniformity of decisions. This board was empowered to give instructions to the board under the Council of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR.

The new statute of 1974 concerning state arbitration has introduced unity of all arbitration agencies throughout the USSR. In compliance with this decree, on 30 May 1974 the Council of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR converted the arbitration board of the Council of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR into a Union-republican agency and confirmed the new statute concerning the state arbitration boards of the Ukrainian SSR. Since 1974 the arbitration board of the Council of Ministers of the USSR has had the right to review the decisions of the chief arbitrators in the republics and the decisions of their deputies. The principal task of the arbitrators is to settle economic disputes between the state and the co-operative firms and organizations (excluding collective farms). There are also departmental arbitration boards, which investigate disputes between enterprises, organizations, and institutions under the same ministry. Awards are rendered by arbitrators who work in the juridical division of the ministry or the department. A. Bilynsky

Arbuzynka. vi-12. Town smt (1980 pop 8,100), raion center in Mykolaiv oblast on the Harbuzynka River. Until 1946 it was called Harbuzynka. Arbuzynka has a food industry and a brick factory. Archaisms. In the Ukrainian language these consist primarily of Church Slavonic words and word forms mostly designating abstract concepts related to church

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tradition, and words designating reaiia (objects and notions pertaining to the folkways - obsolete occupations, titles and forms of address, etc) of the early and middle periods of Ukrainian history. Only a small number of archaisms stemming from the medieval period have survived in the Ukrainian language. They were initially ignored by populist literary trends, which concentrated primarily on the spoken language of the peasantry. During the Soviet period these archaisms have been viewed as 'nationalistic' and hence to be avoided. Authors who have incorporated archaisms into their style relatively freely include T. Shevchenko, P. Kulish, K. Hrynevycheva, M . Bazhan, Yu. Darahan, O. Stefanovych, O. Liaturynska. Archeographic commissions. Three archeographic commissions played a key role in the development of Ukrainian archeography: (1) the *Kiev Archeographic Commission, founded in Kiev in 1843; (2) the Archeographic Commission of the Shevchenko Scientific Society, established in Lviv in 1893 at the initiative of M . Hrushevsky; and (3) the Archeographic Commission of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, established in Kiev in 1919. The main serial publications of the second of these were: *Zherela do istorii Rusy-Ukraïny (1895-1924), *Panïiatky ukraïns'ko-rus'koï movy i literatury (1896-1930), and Ukrains'ko-rus'kyi arkhiv, published from 1905. In 1921 the Kiev Archeographic Commission merged with the Archeographic Commission of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. The leading member of the commission in 1924-34 was M . Hrushevsky. Its main publications were Ukraïns'kyi arkheohrafichnyi zbirnyk (The Ukrainian Archeographic Collection, 3 vols, Kiev 1926-30) and Ukraïns'kyi arkhiv (Ukrainian Archive, 3 vols, Kiev 19293i)Archeography. A n auxiliary historical discipline whose function is to describe and publish ancient documents and to work out the methods of preparing and publishing literary monuments. The first attempts to publish Ukrainian historical documents date back to the end of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th century. Such documents appeared in the works of H. Smotrytsky, S. Zyzanii, I . Potii, M . Smotrytsky, etc, in connection with the heated polemics between the Orthodox and the Uniate camps on the question of the union with Rome. Historical documents began to be published for a scholarly purpose only in the 18th century. In 1777 V. *Ruban published Kratkaia letopis' Malyia Rossii s 1506 po 1776 g. (A Brief Chronicle of Little Russia from 1506 to 1776), which was based in part on a transcription of Kratkoe opisanie Malorossii (A Brief Description of Little Russia), written in the 1730s. In 1793 F. Tumansky published B. Khmelnytsky's manifesto of Bila Tserkva and the chronicle of H . *Hrabianka in the journal Rossiiskii magazin. During almost the entire 19th century Ukrainian historical documents were published by central Russian or local Ukrainian government bodies. The Archeographic Commission in St Petersburg began the important work of publishing the oldest materials (1811-22). The following publications were of particular importance: Polnoe sobranie russkikh letopisei (The Complete Collection of Russian Chronicles, 1843-71, repr 1908-10 and 1962); the phototype editions of the *Laurentian (1872) and *Hypatian

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(1871) chronicles; the series Akty istoricheskie (1841-3), sion [a society founded in 1842]) were of some importance *Akty, otnosiashchiesia k istorii Zapadnoi Rossii (3 vols, to Ukrainian historical studies. 1846-53), and vols 16 and 17 of Polnoe sobranie russkikh Besides the commissions there were individual Ukrailetopisei containing the Lithuanian-Ruthenian chronicles nians who edited and published historical materials: M . of the 16th century (1889) d the ^ t h century (1907). In *Bilozersky published Iuzhno-russkie letopisi (South Rusthe 1860s M . Kostomarov began to work at the Archeosian Chronicles, 1856), and Oleksander *Markovych pubgraphic Commission and edited vols 1-9 and 11-13 of the lished a condensed and Russified version of Dnevnye 15-volume series *Akty, otnosiashchiesia k isotorii Iuzhnoi i zapiski ... la. Markovicha (The Daily Notes ... of Ya. Zapadnoi Rossii (1863-92). Kostomarov's volumes were Markovych, 2 vols, Moscow 1859). particularly rich in Ukrainian materials of the 14th-17th An important place in Ukrainian archeography is held century. G. Karpov was the editor of the other volumes. by *Kievskaia starina, a scholarly journal of Ukrainian O. *Bodiansky s work as secretary of the Society of studies published in Kiev. In the course of its existence Russian History and Antiquities at Moscow University in (1882-1906, and as *Ukraïna in 1907), this journal pub1845-8 and 1849-76 marked a new period in Ukrainian lished the following materials: pomianyk (Commemorative archeography. In the Chteniia of this society, which List) of the Pustin-St Nicholas Cathedral (1895), the Bodiansky edited, he published Litopys Samovydtsia Synodicon of the St Sophia Cathedral in Kiev (1895), (*Samovydets Chronicle, pub separately 1846); *Istoriia M. *Khanenko's 'Diiariush' (1884-6), Ya. *Markovych's Rusov (History of the Rus' People, pub separately in Dnevnye zapiski (Daily Notes, 1893-7), P- * Apóstol's 1846); a Cossack chronicle of the 18th century, Povesf 0 diary, a number of other old and recent memoirs, the torn, chto sluchilos' na Ukraine (The Story of What Hapcorrespondence of Ukrainian public figures, legal docupened in Ukraine, 1848); A. *Rigelman s Letopisnoe poments, etc. The "Historical Society of Nestor the Chronivestvovanie 0 Maloi Rossii i ee narode i kazakakh voobshche (A cler, founded in 1873, published some historical docuChronicle Account of Little Russia and Its People and the ments in its Chteniia, eg, the pomianyki of the Kievan Cave Cossacks in General, 1847); P. *Symonovsky's Kratkoe Monastery and St Michael's Monastery from the 16thopisanie 0 kazatskom malorossiiskom narode i 0 voennykh ego 17th century. delakh (A Brief Description of the Cossack Little Russian O. *Lazarevsky, who was associated with Kievskaia People and Its Military Affairs [of 1765], 1847); and many starina for many years, prepared for publication selections other materials. Later he published M . *Khanenko s from the family archives of the *Sulyma, Skorupa, VoiDiiariush (Diary [of 1722], 1858), Istochniki dlia malorostsiekhovych, and *Myloradovych families, as well as from siiskoi istorii (Sources for Little Russian History, 2 vols, the documents of the Pereiaslav Regiment in the 17th1858), and Reestra vsego Voiska Zaporozhskogo (Register of 18th century. His work was published in the 1880s-1890s the Entire Zaporozhian Host [of 1649], 1875). in Kiev. Then, in 1902-12, the papers of the *Storozhenko family were published in eight volumes under the editorIn 1843 the *Kiev Archeographic Commission was ship of M . and A. Storozhenko. This is an important established under the name Temporary Commission for source for the history of the Hetmán state in the the Analysis of Ancient Documents. It was attached to the 17th-18th century. In 1908-14 V. *Modzalevsky pubchancellery of the governor general. Its purpose was to lished Malorosiiskii rodoslovnyk (Little Russian Genealogy) publish old archival materials in order to justify the in four volumes. anti-Polish Russification policies in Right-Bank Ukraine. Dedicated scholars such as M . Maksymovych, M . IvaGradually, more and more subjects and Ukrainian nyshev, and V. Dombrovsky, however, immediately territories came under archeographical study. I . *Luchygained control of the commission, and T. Shevchenko and tsky published materials on the history of land ownership P. Kulish worked as associates of the commission. The in Left-Bank Ukraine (1884), Oleksii * Andriievsky pubcommission became a permanent one and made an imporlished documents from 18th-century archives of Hetmán tant contribution to historical studies by publishing a Ukraine, and D. *Bahalii published archival materials on wealth of source materials: Pamiatniki (Monuments, vols the history of the settlement of Slobidska Ukraine in the i - i v , 1845-59) d the chronicles of S. *Velychko (184817th-18th century in *Sbornik Khafkovskogo istoriko64), Hrabianka (1852), and Samovydets (1878), etc. In filologicheskogo obshchestva in the 1880s. D. *Yavornytsky 1863 V. *Antonovych joined the commission, and in the published documents on the Zaporozhian Sich. P. Dmy1870S-80S he directed the work of many associates. trenko published Sbornik materialov dlia istorii Kubanskogo The commission's main publication was the 35-volume kazacKego voiska (Collection of Materials on the History (divided into eight series, some volumes in two parts) of the Kuban Cossack Host, 1896-8). M . *Dovnar*Arkhiv lugo-Zapadnoi Rossii, 1859-1914. I . Novytsky Zapolsky published the legal documents of the Lithuanianpublished a name (1878) and geographical (1883) index to Ruthenian state (1899). The *Kiev Theological Academy the publications of the Kiev Archeographic Commission. published Akty i dokumenty, otnosiashchiesia k istorii KievAmong the commission's other publications the following skoi akademii (Acts and Documents Relating to the History should be mentioned: Sbornik letopisei, otnosiashchikhsia k of the Kievan Academy) in 1904-15, with M . *Petrov istorii Iuzhnoi i Zapadnoi Rossii (A Collection of Chronicles editing part two and F. T i t o v editing part three. Related to the History of South and West Russia, 1888), Before the founding of the ^Shevchenko Scientific edited by V. Antonovych; Paleograficheskii izbornik (PaléoSociety, archeographic publications in Galicia were of an graphie Compendium, 1909) compiled by I . Kamanin; and occasional nature. Among them were Galitskii istoricheskii Materialy po istorii russkoi kartografii (Materials on the sbornik (Galician Historical Collection), the *Lviv chroniHistory of Russian Cartography), edited by V. Kordt. cle of the 17th century (1867), the ""Galician-Volhynian Akty, izdavaemye Vilenskoiu arkheograficheskoiu komissieiu chronicle (1871) edited by A. Petrushevych, and Iubileinoe (Acts Published by the Vilnius Archeographic Commisizdanie (Jubilee Edition) of the ""Lviv Dormition Brothera n

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hood (1886), containing its legal documents and correspondence. In 1868 the series *Akta grodzkie i ziemskie, which published much material on Western Ukraine, began to appear in Lviv; it continued to do so until 1935. In the 1890s, when the Shevchenko Scientific Society increased its activities, M . *Hrushevsky helped to initiate a wide publishing program of historical materials, in which the series *Zherela do istorii Ukra'iny-Rusy played a key role; in 1895-1919,11 volumes of documents from the 16th-18th century were published. The series was edited by the Archeographic Commission of the Shevchenko Scientific Society, which numbered among its members I. *Dzhydzhora, M . *Vozniak, V. *Herasymchuk, O. *Kolessa, M . *Korduba, I . *Krypiakevych, K. *Studynsky, and S. *Tomashivsky. The commission also published *Pam'iatky ukraïns'ko-rus'koï movy i literatury, (8 vols, 1896-1930). The historical-philosophical section of the society published Ukraïns'ko-rus'kyi arkhiv, which contained collections of short documents, descriptions of manuscripts, etc. At the turn of the century archival commissions were organized: in Symferopil in 1887, Chernihiv in 1896, Poltava in 1903, Katerynoslav in 1903. One of their tasks was to publish archival materials, and they managed to produce such publications as Aktovye knigi poltavskogo gorodovogo uriada 17 v. (The Statute Books of the Poltava Town Government in the 17th Century, 3 issues, 191214) and Aktovaia kniga starodubskogo gorodovogo uriada 1693 g. (The Statute Books of the Starodub Town Government in 1693, 1914). The ""Ukrainian Scientific Society in Kiev published a collection of materials on the *Cyril and Methodius Brotherhood in Zbirnyk parriiati T. Shevchenka (Collection in Memory of T. Shevchenko, 1915). The Kiev Archeographic Commission, which continued to work on Arkhiv lugo-Zapadnoi Rossii, published at this time Sbornik materialov po istorii lugo-Zapadnoi Rossii (Collection of Materials on the History of Southwest Russia, 2 vols, 1911-16). After the formation of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences in 1918, the Archeographic Commission of the academy, with which the Kiev Archeographic Commission merged in 1921, became the principal center for Ukrainian archeography. Its first chairman was V. *Lkonnikov (1920-3), followed by M . *Vasylenko (1923-4) and M. Hrushevsky (1924-31). Under Hrushevsky its activities expanded greatly. Among its members and associates were the following scholars: M . Vasylenko, V. Herasymchuk, Y. *Hermaize, O. ^Hrushevsky, P. *Klymenko, V. Kordt, K. Lazarenko, V. *Romanovsky, My kola *Tkachenko, P. *Fedorenko, and V. *Shcherbyna. The commission published three volumes of Ukraïns'kyi arkhiv (The Ukrainian Archive, 1929-31), which contained HeneraVne slidstvo pro maietnosti 1729-31 rr. (General Survey of Landholdings in 1729-31) of the Starodub (vol 1, 1929) and the Lubni (vol 3, 1931) regiments and Kodens'ka knyha sudovykh sprav (The Koden Register of Court Cases, vol 2,1931); the first volume of S. Velychko's chronicle (1926); Opys Novhorod-Sivers'koho namisnytstva 1779-81 rr. (An Account of the Vicegerency of NovhorodSiverskyi in 1779-81, 1931); Perepysni knyhy 1666 roku (The Census Books of 1666, 1933); Tsekhova knyha ... Kam'iantsia PodiVs'koho vid 1601 do 1803 r. (The Guild Book ... of Kamianets-Podilskyi from 1601 to 1803, 93 )Some of the commission's publications had already been 1

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printed but then were confiscated when M . Hrushevsky was exiled to Moscow in 1931. The All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences was forcibly reorganized at the beginning of the 1930s. Several publications that were planned by the commission were never completed. Only the text of *Ruskaia Pravda, which was prepared by S. Yushkov for the commission, was published by the Institute of Material Culture of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR in 1935. In the 1920s and early 1930s documentary materials were also published in publications other than those of the Archeographic Commission: in the journal *Ukrai'na (1924-32); the collections *Zia sto lit and Dekabrysty na Ukraïni (The Decembrists in Ukraine, 2 vols, 1926-30); in *Zapysky Istorychno-filolohichnoho viddilu; and other publications of the All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. The following collections were published separately: Ukraïns'ki hramoty 14-15 vv. (Ukrainian Legal Documents of the 14th-15th Centuries, Kiev 1928), prepared by V. Rozov; Materiialy do istorii ukrains'koho prava (Materials on the History of Ukrainian Law, vol 1, Kiev 1929), compiled by M. Vasylenko; and a number of historical-literary materials, particularly *Slovo 0 polku Ihorevi (The Tale of Ihor's Armament, Kiev 1926), edited by V. Peretts; Kyievopechers'kyi pateryk (The Patericon of the Kievan Cave Monastery, Kiev 1930); T. Shevchenko's diary and correspondence (Kiev 1927), edited by S. Yefremov; Materiialy dlia kuVturnoï i hromads'koï istorii Zakhidn'oi Ukra'iny (Materials in the Culture and Civic History of Western Ukraine), the first volume of which was devoted to the correspondence between I . Franko and M . Drahomanov (Kiev 1928); and Halychyna i Ukraina v lystuvanni 1862-84 rr. (Galicia and Ukraine in the Correspondence of 186284, Kiev-Kharkiv 1931), by K. Studynsky. In 1930 an archeographic commission was set up at the Central Archives Administration (TsAU) of the Ukrainian SSR (then in Kharkiv). The commission provided work for scholars-archivists and financial resources for publishing collections of documents such as Arkhiv Zaporoz'koi Sichi (Archive of the Zaporozhian Sich). The intention was to have the commission of the TsAU concentrate on publishing documents of modern and recent Ukrainian history (i9th-2oth century), while the archeographic commission of the All-Ukrainian Academy of Sciences continued to publish older materials (up to the 19th century). The Archeographic Commission of the TsAU specialized for the most part in the history of the revolutionary movement, industry and labor, peasant movements, etc. It published the journal *Arkhiv Radians'koï Ukra'iny, of which eight issues appeared. It managed to publish the collection Povstannia selian u seli Turbaiakh (1789-93 rr.) (The Peasant Revolt in the Village of Turbai [1789-93], Kharkiv 1932) and a description of the archives of the Zaporozhian Sich prepared by the ""Kiev Central Archive of Old Documents and edited by Mykola Tyshchenko (Kiev 1930), but other collections that were ready for publication did not appear. During the repression of Ukrainian scholars in 1933-4, the Archeographic Commission of the TsAU was reorganized and eventually became a department of the NKVD. The persecution of the scholars and directors of TsAU led to the abolition of the Archeographic Commission of the Academy of Sciences. In the 1930s the political situation was unfavorable for the development of Ukrainian archeography. It was abolished in Soviet Ukraine and could not develop in

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Century, [1582-1588], Kiev 1965); Pam'iatky ukraïns'koï Galicia or abroad because of a lack of financial resources movy xiv i xvst. (Monuments of the Ukrainian Language and the dispersal of scholarly cadres. Only the ^Ukrainian of the 14th and 15th Centuries); and Hramoty xivst (Legal Scientific Institute in Warsaw managed to publish vol 1 Documents of the 14th Century, Kiev 1974). of Diiarii heVmana Pylypa Orlyka (The Diary of Hetmán Recent attempts to expand archeographic studies in Pylyp Orlyk, 1936), under the editorship of Y. TokarUkraine have ended in failure. In 1969 the Archeographic zhevsky-Karashevych; vol 1 of Arkhiv M. Drahomanova: Commission of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian Lystuvannia Kyïvs'koï Staroï hromady z M. Drahomanovym, SSR was established 'to co-ordinate and to expand docu1870-1895 (M. Drahomanov's Archive: The Corresponmentary publications in the republic' The commission's dence of the Kiev Old Hromada with M . Drahomanov, executive, headed by A. Skaba and including I . Hurzhii, 1870-1895, 1938); P. Shandruk's collection of documents K. Huslysty, V. Diadychenko, and V. Strelsky, prepared Ukraïns'ko-moskovs'ka viina 1920 r. (The Ukrainiana plan to publish sources for the ancient and modern Russian War of 1920, vol 1, 1933); the memoirs of O. history of Ukraine. The project was to include a series of Lototsky - Storinky mynuloho (Pages of the Past, 3 vols, chronicles of the 17th-18th century, among them the 1932-4) and U Tsarhorodi (In Constantinople, 1939); and Velychko, Hrabianka, and Samovydets chronicles. An other memoirs. A host of materials in the history of annual collection, Arkheohrafiia Ukraïny (Archeography of Ukrainian emigration in the 18th century, mostly on the Ukraine), was approved. But only Vvivs'kyi litopys i activities of P. and H . *Orlyk, were published by E. Ostroz'kyi litopysets" (The Lviv Chronicle and the ChroniBorschak and B. Krupnytsky. The Second World War cut cler of Ostrih, Kiev 1970), edited by O. Bevzo, and Litopys this work short. Samovydtsia (Kiev 1971), edited by Ya. Dzyra, appeared. Archeographic research and publication resumed in The subsequent repression of Ukrainian historical studies Ukraine and abroad only after the war. Soviet historians in 1972-3 put an end to the commission's activities. took advantage of the post-Stalin thaw in the 1950s to Although archeographical publications, mostly in recent publish a series of valuable archeographic collections. Ukrainian history, appear from time to time, the developThe 1954 celebration of the 300th anniversary of the ment of scientific archeography in Soviet Ukraine is *Pereiaslav Treaty of 1654 provided the occasion for such hampered by the lack of a single scholarly center, the publications. A collection of documents Ukraïna napereddispersal of specialists, and most of all by the ideologicalodni vyzvoVno't viiny 1648-1654 rr. (Ukraine on the Eve of political censorship of the Soviet authorities and the the War of Liberation of 1648-1654) was published before Communist party. then, in 1946. In 1953-4 the academies of sciences of the Outside Soviet Ukraine, important scholarly archeoUSSR and the Ukrainian SSR published the monumental graphic publications by émigré specialists began to apVossoedinenie Ukrainy s Rossiei (The Union of Ukraine pear only in the 1950s. The two most productive instituwith Russia) in three volumes, covering the period tions in the field have been two Ukrainian church centers 1620-54. The anniversary inspired two other large collecin Rome. The Basilian order publishes materials on the tions, which were published later: Dokumenty Bohdana history of Ukraine and the Ukrainian church from the KhmeVnyts'koho, 1648-1657 (The Documents of Bohdan Vatican archives in the series Documenta ...ex archivis Khmelnytsky, 1648-1657, Kiev 1961), prepared by the Romanis under the editorship of Rev A. *Velyky (52 vols to Institute of Social Sciences in Lviv and the Archival date). The other center is the ""Ukrainian Catholic UniverAdministration of the Council of Ministers of the Ukraisity, which, under Cardinal Y. Slipy's sponsorship, nian SSR and edited by I . Krypiakevych and I . Butych, and Dokumenty ob osvobodi'teVnoi voine ukrainskogo naroda 1648- publishes documents from Rome's archives in *Monumenta Ucrainae Histórica (15 vols, 1964-77). 1654 gg. (Documents on the Liberation War of the In the United States the *Lypynsky East European Ukrainian People in 1648-1654, Kiev 1965), a selection of Research Institute in Philadelphia has published a collecPolish documents made by A. Baraboi, O. Kompan tion of documents from Vienna archives dealing with (associates of the Institute of History of the Academy of events in Ukraine in 1914-22 (4 vols, 1966-9), edited by Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR), I . Butych, and A. KaRev T. Hornykevych, and D. Doroshenko's and O. trenko (associates of the Archival Administration). MoreNazaruk's correspondence with V. Lypynsky (2 vols, over, the two institutions co-published such archeographic collections as Otmena krepostnogo prava na Ukraine 1973-6), edited by I . Korovytsky and I.L. Rudnytsky. Among archeographic publications devoted to the (The Abolition of Serfdom in Ukraine, Kiev 1961); SelianCossack period the following should be mentioned: Rev s'kyi rukh na Ukraïni (seredyna xvin-persha chverf xixst.) A. Baran and G. Gajecky, The Cossacks in the Thirty Years' (The Peasant Movement in Ukraine [mid-i8th-First War, vol 1: 1619-1624 (Rome 1969) and O. Subtelny's Quarter of the 19th Century], Kiev 1970); Haidamats'kyi collection On the Eve of Poltava: The Letters of Ivan Mazepa to rukh na Ukraïni v xvin sr. (The Haidamaka Movement in Adam Sieniawski, 1704-1708 (New York 1975). Individual Ukraine in the 18th Century, Kiev 1970); Obshchestvennodocuments are also published in the journals *Ukraïns'kyi politicheskoe dvizhenie na Ukraine v 1856-1864 gg. (The istoryk and ^Harvard Ukrainian Studies. In 1972 the Sociopolitical Movement in Ukraine in 1856-1864, 2 vols, ^Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute reprinted the Kiev 1963-4); Grazhdanskaia voina na Ukraine 1918-1920 1878 Kiev Archeographic Commission edition of Litopys (The Civil War in Ukraine, 1918-1920, 3 vols, Kiev 1967); Samovydtsia. and many collections of materials on the recent history of Ukraine, most of which are not of a scholarly archeographic nature. For its part, the "Institute of Linguistics of BIBLIOGRAPHY Levitskii, O. Piatidesiatiletie Kievskoi komissii dlia razbora drevnikh the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR published a aktov. 1843-1893 (Kiev 1893) number of scholarly works, including Aktova knyha ZhytoDoroshenko, D . 'A Survey of Ukrainian Historiography,' AU A , myrs'koho mis'koho uriadu xvi st. (1582-1588 rr.) (Statute 5-6 (1957) Book of the Zhytomyr Town Government in the 16th

ARCHEOLOGY Ohloblyn, O. 'Ukrainian Historiography 1917-1956/ AUA, 5-6

(1957)

Isaievych, la. 'Ukraïns'ka arkheohrafiia v x v i i - x v u i st./ in Istorychni dzherela ta ïkh vykorystannia, no. 1 (Kiev 1964) Iakovliev, S. Ukraïns'ka radians'ka arkheohrafiia (Kiev 1965) Butych, I. 'Literatura do istoriï ukraïns'koï arkheohrafiï,' in Istorychni dzherela ta ïkh vykorystannia, no. 3 (Kiev 1968) Radians'ki vydannia dokumentaVnykh materialiv z istoriï Ukraïny (1917-68) (Kiev 1970) Komarenko, h N . Ustanovy istorychnoï nauky v Ukrai'ns'kii RSR (Kiev 1973) Mitiukov, O. Radians'ke arkhivne budivnytstvo na Ukra'ini 19171973 (Kiev 1975) E . Borschak, O . Ohloblyn, O . Subtelny

Archeology. Ukrainians have long been interested in their archeological monuments. As early as 1635 Metropolitan P. *Mohyla organized the first archeological excavations in Kiev. The Church of the *Tithes and the *Kievan Cave Monastery were excavated, and the uncovered artifacts were preserved in the *St. Sophia Cathedral. More extensive archeological research began in the second half of the 18th century. The large Scythian *kurhans (burial mounds) and the remains of ancient cities on the northern littoral of the Black Sea were excavated. In 1763 A. Melgunov opened the Scythian kurhan *Lyta Mohyla of the 6th century BC near presentday Kirovohrad. In the first half of the 19th century more systematic excavations of the ancient cities of the *Bosporan Kingdom in the Kerch Peninsula, the capital *Panticapaeum and *Chersonese Táurica near Sevastopil, were begun. I. *Stempkovsky s excavation of the large Scythian kurhan Kul Oba near Kerch in 1830 uncovered a royal tomb with finely crafted Greek jewelry. This discovery stimulated the further archeological investigations of Scythian kurhans. The study of Kiev's historicalarchitectural sites began in the early 19th century: the ruins of the Church of the Tithes were investigated, and itsfloorplan was described by K. *Lokhvytsky; in 1832-3 the remains of the *Golden Gate of ancient Kiev were excavated. The growth in archeological research stimulated the creation of museums. In 1806 a museum was established in Mykolaiv, in 1811 in Teodosiia in the Crimea, in 1823 in Odessa, in 1826 in Kerch, in 1849 Katerynoslav, in 1890 in Kherson, and in 1899 in Kiev. In Lviv the museum of the ^Shevchenko Scientific Society was established in 1893. The *Odessa Society of History and Antiquities, founded in 1839, became a center of archeological research and organized excavations throughout Ukraine; in its transactions (Zapiski), various archeological studies were published. Kiev was another center for archeological research, which was promoted by the *archeographic commissions (1842-72), the Society of Church Archeology of the *Kiev Theological Academy (1872), and the ^Historical Society of Nestor the Chronicler (1873). The historian V. Antonovych gave the first lectures on archeology at Kiev University. Lviv, with its university and the archeological section of the Shevchenko Scientific Society, and Kharkiv were less important centers. Some archeological research in Ukraine was conducted by the gubernia ^archival commissions, the central archeological institutions of Imperial Russia, and the Polish Academy of Sciences in Cracow. ,

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Second half of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century. In this period the sites of varous epochs were excavated. In 1871-3 the first Paleolithic site was discovered in the village of *Hintsi in Poltava gubernia, and F. Kaminsky began excavating it. These excavations stimulated further research on Paleolithic sites. V. Antonovych investigated the Studenytsia settlement on the Dniester River near Kamianets-Podilskyi in 1881. From 1893 to 1903 V. Khvoika researched the Paleolithic *Kyrylivska site in Kiev. The site at the village of *Mizyn on the Desna River near Novhorod-Siverskyi was investigated by F. Vovk, P. Yefymenko, L. Chykalenko, and others in 1908-10. In the Crimea the cave sites of Vovchyi Hrot and Siuren were excavated in 1879-80. In 1913 the site of Hlyniany near Lviv and in 1908-11 and the 1920s the sites of *Horodok near Rivne were excavated. Very few Neolithic monuments were discovered in Ukraine during this period. M. Biliashivsky explored the dunes of the banks of the Dnieper River around Kiev in 1887-9. N. Veselovsky discovered the famous site of *Kamiana Mohyla near Melitopil in 1890. The sites of the Linear Spiral-Meander Pottery culture were investigated in Galicia: in the village of Torske near Zalishchyky by M. Antoniewicz in 1921, and in the town of Komarno near Lviv by Ya. Pasternak in 1936. The monuments of the Copper-Bronze Age in Ukraine were investigated much more extensively. V. Khvoika uncovered early agricultural settlements near the village of Trypilia in Kiev gubernia and in the 1890s excavated several of them. Later similar settlements of the *Trypilian culture, from the Middle Dnieper to the Carpathians, were excavated by E. Shtern, A. Spitsyn, S. Hamchenko, M. Biliashivsky, F. Vovk, R. Kaindl, O. Kandyba, and others. In the mid-i9th century the excavation of kurhans with the flexed and red-ochred skeletons of the nomadic pastoralists from the Copper-Bronze Age began in the steppe regions near Kherson and Zaporizhia. In 1901-2 V. Gorodtsov excavated the kurhans in the basin of the Donets River and divided the Copper-Bronze Age according to the internal burial construction he discovered into three temporal cultures - the *Pit-Grave, ""Catacomb, and *Timber-Grave cultures. Sites of the Copper-Bronze Age were also investigated in Western Ukraine: M. Smishko uncovered the funnel-necked vessels of the Hrybovychi culture in the village of Mali Hrybovychi near Lviv in 1933, A. Kirkor and G. Ossowski excavated the megalithic Globular-Amphora culture in 1877 and 1891 respectively, and T. SuHmirski excavated the CordedWare Pottery culture and the *Komariv culture near Halych in 1936. Archeologists devoted significant attention to the Scythian and Sarmatian tribes. The Scythian 'royal' kurhans are noted for their large dimensions and the richness of their funerary contents, which include a large number of Greek artifacts made from precious metals and of ceramics. The most famous discoveries were the *Chortomlyk kurhan near Nykopil, which was excavated by I. Zabelin in 1862-3, and the *Solokha kurhan in the Melitopil region, which was excavated by M. Veselovsky in 1912-13. Large fortified settlements were excavated: the *Bilske settlement (of the 6th century BC) near Zinkiv in Poltava gubernia, discovered by V. Gorodtsov in 1900, and the *Nemyriv settlement (of the 8th-7th century BC) near Vinnytsia, discovered by A. Spitsyn. Fortified settlements in Right-Bank Ukraine were investigated by V.

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1) Vessel of the Corded Pottery culture, of the late Neolithic, found at the Kulchytsi site; now in the Lviv Historical Museum. 2) Ceramic models of dwellings from the Trypilian culture, State Historical Museum in Kiev. 3) Stone relief in the village of Busha, ca 1000 A D . 4) Bronze anthropomorphic figurine from the 7th century A D , State Historical Museum in Kiev. 5) Late Paleolithic female figurine carved from a mammoth tusk, State Historical Museum in Kiev. 6) Ritual vessel from the Nezvyska site, Lviv Historical Museum.

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i ) The silver-gilded Nykopil vase, 5th century B C 2) Gold earrings from the 4th century B C 3) Gold ornament from the kurhan Kul-Oba, 4th century B C

Khvoika and in the lower-Dnieper region by V. Hoshkevych. Much research was also devoted to the cities of classical antiquity in Ukraine. The remains of the Hellenic cities of the Bosporan Kingdom were excavated by J. Blamberg, P. Diubriuks, and others. Chersonese Táurica was exca­ vated by K. Kostsiushko-Voliuzhynych and others; *01bia was excavated by A. Uvarov and B. Farmakovsky; *Tyras on the Dniester Liman and the colony on *Berezan Island near the town of Ochakiv were excavated by E. Shtern. V. Khvoika's excavation of large burial sites of the *Zarubyntsi culture near Pereiaslav and the *Cherniakhiv culture in the Kiev region in 1899-1901 were important. By cross-dating the uncovered remains with imported Greek goods, Khvoika dated them back to the 2nd century BC to 5th century AD and stated that they

belonged to the ancient eastern Slavs. Khvoika con­ ducted many excavations of ancient Rus' sites in Kiev. He discovered the remains of the stone palaces of the Princely era and a pagan Slavic sacrificial altar near the Church of the Tithes. In 1894 he conducted excavations on Kyselivka Mountain. M. Biliashivsky investigated *Kniazha Hora on the Dnieper near Kaniv in 1891-3. Khvoika excavated the ancient town *Bilhorod (now the village of Bilohorodky) on Irpin River near Kiev in 1909-10. D. Samokvasov excavated many sites of the Siverianians - kurhans and fortified settlements in Cher­ nihiv gubernia - in the 1870s. V. Antonovych investi­ gated the sites of the Derevlianians in 1887, and K. Melnyk studied the sites of the Luchanians of Volhynia in 1897-8. Six Russian archeological congresses took place in Ukraine: in Kiev in 1874 and 1899, Odessa in 1884,

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Kharkiv in 1902, Katerynoslav in 1905, and Chernihiv in 1908. The results of archeological studies were published in the congresses' proceedings (Trudy) and in *Kievskaia starina, Arkheologicheskaia letopis' Iuzhnoi Rossii, Zapiski Odesskogo obshchestva istorii i drevnostei, and other journals in Ukraine and Russia. Since 1918. With the founding of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, its archeological institutions became the major center of archeological research. The first was the Commission for the Compilation of the Archeological Map of Ukraine, established in 1919 and later called the Archeological Commission (from 1923, Committee). In 1924 it was succeeded by the *A11-Ukrainian Archeological Committee (VUAK), which until 1934 co-ordinated expeditions, research, and the protection of archeological monuments in Ukraine. Its archeological research was published in Korotke zvidomlennia VUAK (Kiev 1926 and 1927), TrypiVs'ka kuVtura na Ukraïni (Trypilian Culture in Ukraine, Kiev 1926), Zapysky VUAK (1930), Khronika arkheolohiï ta mystetstva (3 issues, Kiev 1930-1), and other publications. In 1934-8 the academy's Institute of the History of Material Culture co-ordinated all archeological research in Ukraine. In 1938 it became the "Institute of Archeology of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, which today co-ordinates all archeological research in Ukraine. Archeological research is also conducted by the institute of Social Sciences in Lviv, the Odessa Archeological Society, the archeological departments of the universities of Kiev, Kharkiv, Odessa, Chernivtsi, Uzhhorod, and Donetske, and the historical and archeological museums of Lviv, Odessa, Kharkiv, Dnipropetrovske, Uman, Kerch, Kherson, and elsewhere. The Institute of Archeology of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the State Historical Museum in Moscow, and the State Hermitage in Leningrad also carry out extensive archeological research in Ukraine. In the last few decades archeology has been viewed as an important part of history, and much attention has been devoted to current theoretical and methodological problems. The rich store of archeological materials that has been gathered by numerous expeditions is an important source for the study of the history of various peoples in Ukraine. Archeological excavations can be conducted only with the approval of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR. Much archeological research and excavation takes place on the sites of large construction projects, particularly of water reservoirs. For an understanding of the early stages of social development, it is important to study the settlements and dwellings of Paleolithic man. Many new sites from various stages of the Paleolithic age have been discovered and investigated in Ukraine, particularly the sites of the *Acheulean and *Mousterian cultures. Scholars such as I. Pidoplichko, S. Bibikov, M. Rudynsky, O. Chernysh, and I. Shovkoplias have explored various upper Paleolithic ethnocultural regions in Ukraine and traced the different origins and development of local Paleolithic cultures. Much new material on the Mesolithic age has been found in Ukraine. Various groupings of Mesolithic sites have been defined on the basis of archeological sources. Three large Mesolithic burial sites on the Dnieper River north of Zaporizhia have attracted much attention and have been investigated by D. Telehin, O. Chernysh, and others.

The Neolithic period has been studied extensively. The Neolithic cultures in Ukraine developed usually out of autochthonous Mesolithic cultures and were influenced by the Neolithic crop-raising and stock-breeding civilizations of the Balkans of the 6th millennium BC. Archeologists have distinguished two groups of Neolithic tribal cultures, according to their principal occupation; the inhabitants of the southern and southwestern regions of Ukraine engaged mostly in primitive agriculture and cattle raising, while the inhabitants of the forests of Left-Bank Ukraine and Polisia lived by hunting, fishing, and gathering until the end of the Neolithic period. The archeological evidence shows that the neolithic tribes in Ukraine had diverse anthropological traits, pottery shapes, tools, and ways of life. Scholars such as S. Bibikov, M. Rudynsky, D. Telehin, and K. Chernysh have attempted to explain the appearance and disappearance of particular tribes, their distribution, cultural ties, and influence. Sites of the Linear Spiral-Meander Pottery culture were uncovered on the territories of the Upper and Middle Dniester Basin and in western Volhynia. Artifacts were excavated near the villages of *Nezvysko (K. Chernysh, 1955) and Zveniachyn (Yu. Zakharuk, 1934, 1959; T. Passek, 1963; I. Sveshnikov, 1954, 1956; K. Chernysh, 1955,1957,1963) on the right bank of the Dniester River in Ivano-Frankivske and Chernivtsi oblasts. Much research has been devoted to the monuments of the Trypilian culture, which were produced by the cropraising, stock-breeding tribes of the Eneolithic Age. These tribes lived on the periphery of the oldest civilization of the Near East and Asia Minor. Noted archeologists in Ukraine and the West studied the rise of the Trypilian culture. In the 1930s and 1940s systematic excavations of Trypilian settlements were conducted at the sites *Kolomyishchyna 1 and Kolomyishchyna 11 near the village of Khalepia in Kiev oblast by S. Mahura, T. Passek, Ye. Krychevsky, N. Kordysh, and M. Makarevych, and near the village of *Volodymyrivka in Kirovohrad oblast by T. Passek, N. Kordysh, O. Chernysh, and others. After the Second World War field work on the Trypilian culture was concentrated mainly in the Dniester Basin, where about 60 early Trypilian settlements had already been uncovered. They were scattered from the Rumanian Carpathians (the Seret River) to the Boh Basin, along the upper Dniester and Prut rivers. The most studied settlements of the Dniester Basin were *Luka-Vrublivetska (S. Bibikov, 1956), *Lenkivtsi (K. Chernysh, 1959), Soloncheny (T. Movsha, 1955; T. Passek, 1961), Bernovo-Luka and Holerkany (T. Passek, 1961). In 1952, on the left bank of the Dniester River near the village of Vykhvatnivtsi, T. Passek and K. Chernysh excavated a site of the late Trypilian period containing 61 burials. Much research was done on the tribes of the late Trypilian period who settled eastern Volhynia, the river banks of the Dnieper region, and the steppes northwest of the Black Sea coast in the second half of the 3rd millenium BC. There they came into contact with the tribes of other cultures. Archeologists have defined various tribal groups in this period, when almost all the traits of the Trypilian culture were gradually disappearing (S. Bibikov, M. Boltenko, F. Vovk, S. Mahura, M. Makarenko, T. Passek, I. Pidoplichko, M. Rudynsky, K. Chernysh, I. Shovkoplias, and others.) In the western part of Lviv and Volhynia oblasts, excavations uncovered almost 40 sites of the Funnel-

ARCHEOLOGY

Necked Vessel culture of the middle-4th to the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. The excavation from the 1920s to the 1960s of the graves of pastoral-nomadic tribes of the Pit-Grave culture, which spread from the steppes east of the Volga and Don rivers into the steppes of Ukraine and the forest-steppe of Eastern Europe in the 3rd and the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, as well as the discovery and investigation of the settlement in *Mykhailivka in Kherson oblast, provided materials for a thorough description of the Pit-Grave culture in the Copper-Bronze Age in Ukraine. From 1947 to 1962 over 20 kürhans were excavated in Ukraine and Belorussia. Many tribal settlements of the *Middle-Dnieper culture, which at the end of the 3rd and the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC was widespread in the large territory between the Oder and upper Volga rivers from the Baltic to the Dniester, were also uncovered. Many archeologists and linguists believe these tribes were the ancestors of the ancient Slavs, Baits, and Germans. According to these scholars, the MiddleDnieper culture arose as a result of the assimilation of migrant peoples from the west by the aborigines near the end of the 3rd millennium BC. In Volhynia I. Levytsky investigated the stone burial cists of the Globular-Amphora culture, which was contemporaneous with the late Trypilian cultures. The appearance of this culture in Ukraine is believed to be the result of migration from the middle and lower Oder Basin, where it originated. The archeological sites of the pastoral-nomadic TimberGrave culture have been studied. This culture arose east of the Volga and spread into the steppes of Ukraine, the Azov coast, and northern Caucasia from the 15th to the 8th century BC. There its tribes gradually forced out or assimilated the indigenous local cultures. The Komariv culture of the developed Bronze Age (15th-12th century BC) in the middle and upper Dniester Basin was investigated after the war. In the 1930s the kurhans near *Komariv had been excavated by T. Sulimirski, in Bilyi Potik near Ternopil by J. Kostrzewski, and in *Nahiriany by L. Kozrowski and M. Smishko. After the war this research was continued by S. Bibikov, V. Gorodtsov, B. Grakov, V. Illinska, M. Rudynsky, D. Telehin, A. Terenozhkin, and others. In 1949 O. Lahodovska and I. Sveshnikov excavated the burial sites of this culture near the village of Voitsekhivka in IvanoFrankivske oblast. The pre-Scythian cultures in Ukraine have been increasingly studied, particularly in the last few decades. A Cimmerian steppe culture connected with the TimberGrave culture has been discovered. Linguistic studies have led to the conclusion that the Cimmerians were an Iranian people. Sites of the *Chornyi Lis culture, which is believed to be descended from the autochthonous inhabitants of the Bronze Age, have been discovered in the forest-steppe region between the Dnieper and Dniester rivers. Tribes closely linked to the ancient Thracians lived in the middle Dniester region and west of it. The Scythians, Iranian tribes that came from Central Asia, partly destroyed the ethnocultural base and changed the composition of the population. In the steppes of Ukraine the pastoral crop-raising economy was replaced by pastoral-nomadic live stock breeding. Numerous archeological expeditions have investigated the sites of the Scythian culture. Kurhans, fortifications,

99

and settlements have been excavated on the right bank of the Dnieper River. The large royal tombs in Ukraine Haimanova Mohyla, excavated by V. Bidzilia in 1967-70, and Tovsta Mohyla, excavated by B. Mozolevsky in 1971 - contained unique articles of Scythian and Hellenic manufacture and have become famous around the world. Monuments of settled life, such as the large Kamianske fortified settlement near Kamianka Dniprovska, have been studied. Over 50 settlements on the Boh Liman have been discovered. Several local Scythian cultural groups have been identified in Left-Bank Ukraine. Excavations of large Scythian fortified settlements, such as the *Bilske fortified settlement in Poltava oblast and the *Nemyriv settlement in Vinnytsia oblast, have been conducted. *Neapolis, the capital of the Scythian state of the 3rd century BC, now near Symferopil, was extensively excavated by P. Shults and A. Karasev in 1948-50. Excavations of sites of the Sarmatians in southern Ukraine have thrown much new light on the ties between these tribes and the civilization of the Hellenic cities. The ethnogenesis of the Eastern Slavs and their early history continue to be important archeological problems. The *Zarubyntsi and *Cherniakhiv cultures of the Iron Age, which are closely linked to the unresolved question of the origin of the Slavs, continue to be studied. Extensive excavations of the monuments of the medieval period have been conducted in Kiev: near the Church of the Tithes and St Michael's Cathedral of the *Vydubychi monastery, and on Kyselivka Mountain. Such towns of ancient Rus' as Chernihiv, Pereiaslav, Bilhorod, Liubech, Vyshhorod, Putyvl, and Halych have been investigated. Ancient fortified settlements have been excavated: in Shestovytsi near Chernihiv, *Raiky near Berdychiv, Donets near Kharkiv, *Kolodiazhyn near Zhytomyr, the settlement near Shepetivka, and others. The monuments of Kievan Rus' have been studied by such archeologists as M. Karger, T. Movchanivsky, Ya. Pasternak, V. Dovzhenok, V. Bohusevych, D. Blifeld, V. Honcharov, M. Artamonov, M. Makarenko, V. Petrov, M. Rudynsky, M. Smishko, P. Tretiakov, I. Shovkoplias, Yu. Asieiev, M. Boltenko, B. Rybakov, and others. Excavations of ancient Greek colonies on the northern Black Sea coast - Chersonese Táurica, Panticapaeum, Olbia, Phanagoria, Tanais - have been continued and have provided new data about the history and culture of these cities as well as their influence on the Scythians, Sarmatians, Taurians, and other tribes with which they traded (V. Haidukevych, S. Dlozhevsky, M. Rostovtsev, B. Farmakovsky). Many monographs, periodicals, collections, and twelve scholarly conferences have been devoted to the new discoveries. The Institute of Archeology of the Academy of Sciences has published since 1971 the journal Arkheolohiia; other periodicals, such as Arkheolohichni patriiatky URSR (13 vols, 1949-63), and Kratki soobshcheniia Instituía arkheologii AN USSR (12 vols, 1952-62), are no longer published. The collective work Arkheolohiia Ukraïns'koï RSR (archeology of the Ukrainian SSR, 3 vols) was published in 1971-5. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bibikov, S. Rannetripolskoe poselenie Luka-Vrublevetskaia Dnestre (Moscow-Leningrad 1953) Pasternak, la. Arkheolohiia Ukraïny (Toronto 1961) Danilenko, V. Neolit Ukrainy (Kiev 1969)

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Passek T. RannezemledeVcheskie plemena Podneprovia (Moscow 1969) Shovkoplias, I. Rozvytok radians'koï arkheolohiï na Ukraïni (1917-1966) (Kiev 1969) Sulimirski, T. Prehistoric Russia (London 1970) Arkheolohiia Ukraïns'koï RSR, 3 vols (Kiev 1971-5) Bidzilia, V . Istoriia kuVtury Zakarpattia na rubezhi nashoï ery (Kiev 1971) Gimbutas, M . The Slavs (London 1971) Pidoplichko, I. Verkhnie paleoliticheskie zhilishcha Ukrainy (Kiev 1971) Shovkoplias, I. T i z n i i paleolit/ in Arkheolohiia Ukraïns'koï RSR (Kiev 1971) Baran, V . Ranni slov'iany mizh Dniprom ta Pryp'iattiu (Kiev 1972) Maksimov, E . Srednee Podneprov'e na rubezhe nashei ery (Kiev 1972) Petrov, V. Etnogenez slavian (Kiev 1972) Vynokur, I. Istoriia ta kuVtura cherniakhivs'kykh piemen DnistroDniprovs'koho mezhyrichchia n-vst. n.e. (Kiev 1972) Sveshnikov, I. Istoriia naselennia Prykarpattia, Podillia ta Volyni v kintsi m - pochatku 11 tysiacholittia do n.e. (Kiev 1973) Telegin, D . Srednestogovskaia kuVtura epokhi medi (Kiev 1973) Terenozhkin, A . (ed). Skifskie drevnosti (Kiev 1973) Baran, N . Poseleniia Srednego PodneprovHa epokhi rannei bronzy (Kiev 1974) Merpert, N . Drevneishie skotovody Volzhsko-UraVskogo mezhdurecKia (Moscow 1974) Zbenovich, V. PozdnetripoVskie plemena Severnogo Prichernomofia (Kiev 1974) Rikman, E . Etnicheskaia istoriia naseleniia Podnestrov'ia i prilegaiuschchego Podunav'ia v pervykh vekakh nashei ery (Moscow 1975) Smilenko, A . Slov'iany ta ïkh susidy v stepovomu Podniprov'ï (Kiev 1975) N . Kordysh-Holovko

Archeology, Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR. See Institute of Archeology of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR. Archimandrite. Hegumen of an important monastery, appointed for life, with the right to carry a miter and crozier and with other privileges. There were several archimandrites in Ukraine. The most important ones were the archimandrites of the *Kievan Cave Monastery and those of Pochaiv Monastery. The most famous Ukrainian archimandrites were Polikarp (1174-82), the first archimandrite of the Kievan Cave Monastery; N. Tur (1593-9); Ye. Pletenetsky (1599-1624); Z. Kopystensky (1624-7); P. Mohyla (1627-47); I. Gizel (1656-83); I. Galiatovsky (1669-88); and H. Odorsky (1705-12). The Basilian Monks in the Ukrainian Catholic church have maintained the title of archimandrite for the order's superior general (protoarchimandrite). The mother superior of the Basilian sisters has been called, since the 1960s, archimandrite (archimandrynia). The superiors of the Studite monks have also been known as archimandrites. Cardinal Y. Slipy has elevated a certain number of high-ranking monks and regular (unmarried) priests to the dignity of patriarchal archimandrite, a title that is subordinate to that of bishop but investing the bearer with certain episcopal insignia and special assignments or functions in the church. Archipenko, Alexander [Arxypenko, Oleksander], b 30 May 1887 in Kiev, d 25 February 1964 in New York. Modernist sculptor, painter, pedagogue, and a full member of the International Institute of Arts and Literature

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2 1) Alexander Archipenko with his Shevchenko in Exile (1933). 2) A . Archipenko's Repose, wood and bakélite, 1957.

from 1953. Archipenko studied art at the Kiev Art School in 1902-5, in Moscow in 1906-8, and then briefly at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. His first one-man show took place in 1906 in Ukraine. In 1910 he exhibited his works with a group of artists from Ukraine at the Salon des Indépendants and then exhibited his works annually until 1914. His works appeared also at the Salon d'Automne. In 1912 Archipenko joined a new artistic group - La Section d'Or, which numbered among its members P. Picasso, G. Braque, J. Gris, F. Léger, R. Delaunay, R. de la Fresnaye, J. Villon, F. Picabia, and M. Duchamp - and participated in the group's exhibitions. In 1912 Archipenko opened his own school of sculpture in Paris. At his individual exhibition at the Folkwang Museum in Hagen, Germany, in 1912, Archipenko displayed Médrano 1, the first modern sculpture made of various polychromed materials (wood, glass, and metal fiber). At this time he also created the first so-called sculpto-peintur'es (carved and painted plaster reliefs) and the first modern sculpture composed of concave forms contrasted with convex ones - Walking Woman. In 1913 his works appeared at the Armory Show in New York, and he held his first individual exhibition in Berlin. In the following year he participated in a cubist exhibition in Prague. During the war he lived in Nice; he returned to Paris in 1918. In 1919-21 Archipenko's works were

ARCHITECTURE

exhibited in many cities throughout Europe. In 1920 he was given a separate pavilion at the Venice Biennale, and his work appeared at the exhibitions of the Section d'Or in Paris and Brussels and then, in 1921, in Rome and Geneva. In 1921 Archipenko moved to Berlin, where he established a school of sculpture. He held a retrospective exhibition at Potsdam and his first individual exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. In 1923 Archipenko moved to the United States. He established a school in New York and in the following year moved it to Woodstock, New Jersey. In this period he created the changing picture known as peinture changeante or Archipentura. Besides working at his art, Archipenko devoted much time to teaching. He was in constant contact with various universities, among them the universities in Oakland, Los Angeles, Seattle, and Chicago (the New Bauhaus School). In 1927 an exhibition of his works was arranged in Tokyo. In 1933 his work apeared in the Ukraine Pavilion at the Century of Progress Exposition in Chicago. The Nazi regime confiscated 22 of Archipenko's sculptures in German museums in the 1930s. In 1947 Archipenko created the first sculptures out of transparent materials (plastics) with interior illumination (modeling light) - l'art de la réflexion. In 1952-3 his work was exhibited in Sao Paulo, Brazil, and in Guatemala. In 1955-6 his exhibitions toured Germany. In 1956 Archipenko tried his hand at moving figures (figures tournantes), which were mechanically rotating structures built of wood, mother of pearl, and metal. In i960 his largest monograph, Fifty Creative Years, 1908-1958, appeared. Parts of it had been published previously in Ukrainian art journals. In 1962 Archipenko was elected to the Department of Art of the National Institute of Arts and Letters in the United States. His last works were two large bronzes, Queen Sheba (1961) and King Solomon (1964), and 10 lithographs entitled Les formes vivantes. In 1963 large retrospective exhibitions of Archipenko's sculptures, drawings, and prints were held in Rome, Milan, and Munich. In 1967-9 posthumous retrospective exhibitions of his work were organized by the University of California (Los Angeles) at 10 American museums and by the Smithsonian Institution at various European museums, including the Rodin Museum in Paris. Archipenko's cubist style utilized interdependent geometrical lines and introduced new concepts and methods into sculpture. Although cubism formed the basis of his art, it was not its exclusive style. Archipenko's purpose was to discover the laws of formal relationships through a precise examination of the great historical styles and to preserve the old foundations of the plastic arts while transforming them in his own way. His creative and logical thought was also opposed to his dynamic personality, and this dramatic conflict endowed his art with an intriguing vitality. Archipenko never severed his ties with his countrymen. During his first years in Paris he was a member of the Ukrainian Students' Club; in Berlin, a member of the Ukrainska Hromada, and in the United States, a member of the Ukrainian Artists' Association in the United States. His works appeared at the association's exhibitions. He belonged to the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences in the United States and the Ukrainian Institute of America in New York. Among his works many have Ukrainian themes, eg, the relief Ukraine (1940), four busts of T. Shevchenko (one of them in the Park

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of Nationalities in Cleveland), busts of I. Franko and Prince Volodymyr the Great, and portraits of Ukrainian public figures. Some of Archipenko's exhibitions, such as the one at the Century of Progress Exposition in Chicago, were sponsored by Ukrainian groups. In Soviet Ukraine Archipenko's name had never been mentioned before his death. Five of his sculptures and paintings at the of Lviv Museum of Ukrainian Art were destroyed in the 1950s. Although his name began to appear in the artistic press during the post-Stalin Thaw, V. Korotych's monograph about him has been suppressed. BIBLIOGRAPHY Goll, I. Archipenko Album (Potsdam 1921) Holubets', M . 'Arkhypenko,' Ukraïns'ke mystetstvo (Lviv 1922) Hildebrandt, H . Alexander Archipenko (Berlin 1923; separate editions in English, German, French, Ukrainian, and later, Spanish) Raynal, M . A. Archipenko (Rome 1923) Wiese, E . Alexander Archipenko (Leipzig 1923) Schacht, R. Alexander Archipenko. Sturm Bilderbucher, 11 (Berlin 1924) Hordynsky, S. T h e Art World of Archipenko/ The Ukrainian Quarterly 11, no. 3 (1955) Lobanovs'kyi, B. 'Khudozhnyk i s vit rechei/ Vsesvit, 1968, no. 1 Karshan, D . H . (ed). Archipenko, International Visionary (Washington 1969) Michaelsen, K J . Archipenko: A Study of the Early Works, 19081920 (New York 1977) S. Hordynsky

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1) A 19th-century house in the village of Tukholka. 2) Contemporary village architecture. 3) The Black Building in Lviv, built by P. Krasovsky in 1577.

Architecture. Ukrainian architecture has a rich history and occupies an important place in the history of European art. Extant architectural monuments testify to the high state of the art in Ukraine. They display originality, functionality of construction, and attentiveness to form. While assimilating the engineering and artistic principles of antiquity, old Ukrainian builders refined them and supplemented them with local characteristics; at the same time they influenced and enriched the architecture of neighboring countries. The prehistoric and early period. Architectural con-

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ARCHITECTURE

structions in Ukraine date back to the Paleolithic period. By the end of the Neolithic period (8,000-3,000 BC) the Trypilian culture had developed among the tribes inhabiting Right-Bank Ukraine. In the first millenium BC Greek colonies (eg *Olbia, Teodosiia, ^Chersonese Táurica, *Panticapaeum) appeared on the coast of the Black Sea. Their buildings were constructed according to Greek style and were enriched by vaults of wedged stone, which were unknown in Greece itself. In the 6th~3rd century BC many fortified settlements were built by the Scythian tribes. The ruins of the Scythian capital, *Neapolis, near Symferopil have been well preserved to this day. The indigenous population in the Crimea built cave settlements such as *Eski-Kermen, Manhup, and *Chufut-Kaleh. Stone cult figures, or megaliths, on Mount Kishka near Simeiz in the Crimea and in the lower Dnieper region were erected in the first millennium AD. As Christian religious architecture evolved, stone buildding, based on the Greek-cross form, the principal form of Byzantine church architecture, developed on the ruins of the Greek colonies. Excavations have also uncovered ground plans of rotundas and Roman-type basilicas, fortifications such as the Kharaks fort, and other structures. The Princely Era. Byzantine culture flourished under the Macedonian dynasty (867-1057). During this period the Kievan state adopted Byzantine Christianity and its rich architectural traditions. Drawing on their own tradition of wooden architecture and on certain Western influences, the architects of Kievan Rus' adapted the Old Christian and Byzantine styles to local conditions and created their own synthesis. This original and creative interpretation permits one to speak of a Ukrainian style. The Kievan grand prince Volodymyr the Great built the first famous stone church - the Cathedral of the Holy Mother of God, or the Church of the *Tithes (989-96). Only its foundations have survived, but its plan and construction were repeated in a host of churches in Rus'. Under Yaroslav the Wise Kiev became one of the important capitals of Europe. The prince encircled the city with defensive walls. Of the three city gates only the remains of the *Golden Gate, which was topped by the Church of the Annunciation, have been partly preserved. The masterpiece of the Princely era is, however, the *St Sophia Cathedral (1037-54). The original structure was a monumental, rectangular temple with five naves and five apses on the eastern side; its prototype was the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. It had a balcony on three sides and was topped by thirteen cupolas in a pyramidal arrangement. Of the many palaces built in the nth-i2th century only the foundations remain, but many Kievan churches and monasteries from the period survived until the mid-i93os (when many of them were demolished by the Soviet authorities). The more important among them were the Cathedral of *St Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery (1108, destroyed in 1934); the *Dormition Cathedral of the Kievan Cave Monastery (1078, destroyed in 1941); St Michael's Church of the *Vydubychi Monastery (1088); the Holy Trinity Church built above the gate of the Kievan Cave Monastery (1108); Transfiguration Church in the Berestiv District of Kiev (mid-nth century); the Church of Our Lady of Pirohoshcha (1138, destroyed in 1926); the Church of *St Cyril's Monastery (1146); and the Church of the Three Saints (1185, destroyed in the mid-i93os). Chernihiv ranks second in the number of churches

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PRINCELY ERA ARCHITECTURE

1) St Basil's Church in Ovruch, i2th century. 2) The Transfiguration Cathedral in Chernihiv (1036); both side towers were added later. 3) The foundation plan of the Transfiguration Cathedral in Chernihiv.

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preserved from the Princely era: the Cathedral of the Transfiguration (1036); the Dormition Cathedral of the *Yeletskyi Monastery (i2th century); *ss Borys and Hlib Cathedral (i2th century); *St Elijah's Church (i2th century); and the Church of *Good Friday (early i3th century). The most important churches that have been preserved (and partly reconstructed) in other towns are *St Basil's Church (late i2th century) in Ovruch; the *Dormition Cathedral (1160) in Volodymyr-Volynskyi; St George's Church (1144) in Kaniv; and *St Panteleimon's Church (pre-i2oo) in Halych (which survives in its original state with a carved Romanesque portal of great artistic value). Excavations of Halych in 1935-7 un~ covered the foundations of the majestic Cathedral of the Dormition built by Prince Yaroslav Osmomysi at the site of the princely residence in *Krylos. Only fragments, such as the foundations or details of the capitals, remain of the magnificent churches built by King Danylo Romanovych in Kholm and Peremyshl (eg, St John's Cathedral of the i2th century). After the Mongol-Tatar invasion (second half of the i3th to the i6th century). After the Tatar invasion construction was restricted to small buildings, and these were built mostly in the western territories (known as the Principality of Galicia-Volhynia until the middle of the i4th century). Some *castles and a few fortified churches have been preserved from this turbulent period. The foundations of the castle-fortresses varied, depending on the terrain. Their towers, turrets, galleries, and parapets were of a monumental, severe appearance. The best examples of medieval castles are located in Zinkiv in Podilia, Sataniv on the Zbruch, Lutske, Terebovlia, Zbarazh, Kremianets, and Khotyn. The imposing fortress in Kamianets-Podilskyi (i5th-i6th century) was reconstructed beginning in the i7th century. Church building adhered to the style of the Princely era and was influenced by the tradition of wooden architecture. An outstanding example of this is the church-fortress of the Holy Protectress (1467) in Sutkivtsi, Podilia. Like many

ARCHITECTURE

other buildings of the time it was designed for defense. The wooden belfries, which have often preserved their archaic forms, probably served as models for gate towers. As time passed, the master builders made them ever more elaborate. The finest examples of wooden belfries are located in Galicia: Potelych, Drohobych, Yamna, Mykulychyn, Tysmenytsia, Topilnytsia, Yasenytsia Zamkova, and Turka. The Renaissance. The Renaissance style of architecture was adapted to the Byzantine-Ukrainian heritage and to the Ukrainian character. The style developed mainly in towns that were built on the Western European pattern. Italian and then German, French, and native architects constructed new churches and private and municipal buildings and reconstructed castle-fortresses, finishing them in the new style. The castles in Ostrih, Stare Selo near Lviv, Buchach, Olesko, and Kamianets-Podilskyi acquired picturesque attics. Castle-palaces like the one in *Pidhirtsi (1636-40) in Galicia, which was influenced by French palace architecture (G. V. de *Beauplan and A. de 1'Aqua), are good examples of this style. The best examples of Renaissance architecture are found in Lviv. Most of them were built by masters of Italian origin, such as P. *Rymlianyn, A. *Prykhylny, and V. *Kapynos. They created the architectural masterpieces of the Renaissance period: the Lviv brotherhood's *Dormition Church, also known as the Wallachian Church (1598-1631, by P. Rymlianyn); its tower of Korniakt (1578, by P. *Barbone); and the Lviv brotherhood's Chapel of the Three Saints (1590-1671). The *Black Building, the *Korniakt building, and the chapel-mausoleum of the Kampian family (1619) on the outside wall of the Latin Cathedral deserve mention. The Crimea. The architecture of the Crimea is unique and complex. It was tied to the traditions of the local population, which descended from the Taurians, Scythians, Sarmatians, and other tribes, and later from the Italian traders and colonists. Genoese fortresses in Sudak, Teodosiia, and Balaklava, Armenian monasteries and churches (eg in Surb-Khach near Staryi Krym), and Tatar mosques (eg, in Yevpatoriia in 1552 by Koca Sinan) were built in this period. The main architectural monument is the Crimean khan's palace in *Bakhchesarai (i6th-i8th century). The baroque period. The architecture of the late Renaissance displayed certain features of the early *baroque: dynamism, spiral lines, mannerisms, decorativeness. The Boim family chapel (1609-11) and the Church of *Good Friday (both in Lviv) are examples of the late Renaissance, while the church built by Hetmán B. Khmelnytsky in *Subotiv (1653), witn its imposing front, already belongs to the early baroque. The baroque was an expression of i7th- and 18th-century European culture. Its vigorous growth in Ukraine marked a golden age of the arts, similar to that of the Princely era. The center of artistic life shifted again to the Dnieper region, dominated by Kiev, and the new patrons were Hetmán I. *Mazepa, who built four churches and restored about twenty, and the Cossack senior officers. The synthesis of West European baroque and Byzantine-Ukrainian tradition produced an original fusion of the three-nave, Greek-cross church with the basilica. Having elaborate decorative elements, which were often borrowed from wooden architecture, this style was spontaneously called the 'Cossack baroque' or the 'Mazepa baroque.' Because it

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BAROQUE ARCHITECTURE i) St Nicholas's Cathedral in Kiev; built in 1690 with the support of Hetmán I. Mazepa, demolished by Soviet authorities in 1934. 2) St Cyril's Church in Kiev (i2th century); present view after the addition of a baroque exterior.

was a truly original adaptation of the baroque, this style is generally called the 'Ukrainian baroque.' The best evidence for the adaptation of the baroque can be found in the princely churches that were reconstructed mostly under Metropolitan P. Mohyla - St Sophia Cathedral, the Dormition Cathedral of the Kievan Cave Monastery, and the churches of St Michael's Monastery and Vydubychi Monastery. Their principal feature was the form and architectural composition of the gilded cupolas. The general apperance of a city was often defined by its monasteries, which included many secular buildings, such as the metropolitan's residence at the St Sophia Cathedral in Kiev (1758); the regimental chancellery in Chernihiv (1680-90, reconstructed in 1758); and the residence of V. Kochubei in Baturyn. In the i8th century the typical church was cruciform; this was the second peculiarity of the Ukrainian baroque. Three-domed and five-domed structures, built on a central plan borrowed from the wooden churches of Ukraine, represent the highest achievement in artistic expression and purity of form. The following are examples of such churches: the 12th-century Transfiguration Church in Kiev's Berestiv district, reconstructed in 1638-43; the Cathedral of the Holy Protectress in Kharkiv (1689); St George's Church of the Vydubychi Monastery (1696); the Church of All Saints above the Economic Gate of the Kievan Cave Monastery (1696-8); the cathedral of the *Mhar Monastery near Lubni (1684-92, built by I. Battista and M. Tomashevsky); and the church of the *Kiev Epiphany Brotherhood Monastery (1693) an

Braude, Semen, b 28 January 1911 in Poltava. Ukrainian radiophysicist, full member of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian S S R since 1969. From 1933 to 1955 Braude worked at the Physical-Technical Institute of the Academy of Sciences in Kharkiv. In 1955 he began working at the Institute of Radiophysics and Electronics of the academy. Braude's research is concentrated in the fields of high-frequency vibrations, the propagation of radio waves, radio oceanography, and radio astronomy. He is the author of Radioastronomiia (Radioastronomy, 1965). Braun, Volodymyr, b 13 January 1896 in Yelysavethrad, d 21 August 1957 in Kiev. Film director. He began his career in Leningrad in 1924 and in 1939 moved to Ukraine. His films usually dealt with the sea: Skarby zahybloho korablia (The Treasures of a Sunken Ship, 1935), Koro-

Brauner, Oleksander, b 25 January 1857 in Symferopil, d 5 May 1941 in Odessa. Zoologist and archeologist. He finished Odessa University in 1881 and worked in a zemstvo. In 1918 he was appointed chairman of the department of animal husbandry at the Odessa Agricultural Institute. From 1923 to 1935 he worked in the All-Union Institute of Hybridization and Acclimatization of Animals in Askaniia-Nova. He produced about 150 zoological works. Brazil. Brazil, the largest country in South America, is a federation of 23 autonomous states, 4 territories, and the federal capital district of Brasilia. The country has an area of 8,512,000 sq km and an estimated population in 1983 of 131.3 million. History of Ukrainian settlement. Ukrainians began to settle in Brazil at the beginning of the 1870s. They came from Galicia and Bukovyna and settled in the state of *Paraná. The first known immigrants were the family of M . Morozovych, from the Zolochiv region, who arrived in 1872. Mass immigration took place in three phases. The first wave of immigration from Ukraine, called 'the Bazilian fever,' occurred in 1895-7 d brought over 20,000 small farmers and landless peasants, who were promised cheap land by agents of Italian shipping companies. Instead of the promised black soil, the Ukrainian colonists received lots of uncleared forest in Paraná in the vicinity of Prudentópolis and Mallet. Some of them returned to Galicia. After this, fresh Ukrainian immigrants arrived in smaller groups of 700-1,000 people per year. A larger influx, of 15,000-25,000, took place in 1907-14, this time in response to the Brazilian government's call for construction workers to lay the railroad from Sao Paulo through Paraná to Rio Grande do Sul. The second wave of immigration consisted of newcomers from Galicia and Volhynia between the world wars. The third wave took place in 1947-51, when about 7,000 Ukrainians arrived from ^displaced persons camps in Germany and Austria. These immigrants were socially more diverse and settled almost exclusively in the cities. Among them were many intellectuals, most of whom later emigrated to Canada or the United States. a n

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B R A Z I L

Population. Although government statistics are inac­ curate because Ukrainian immigrants were classified as Austrians or Poles and children born in Brazil were counted as Brazilians, the Ukrainian ethnic group in Brazil numbers 190,000-200,000, and 92.5 percent of its members are Brazilian-born. Of all of these Ukrainians, 78 percent live in the state of Paraná, 5 percent in the state of Sao Paulo (most of them in the city of Sao Caetano do Sul), 9 percent in the state of Santa Catarina, 6 percent in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, 0.8 percent in the state of Mato Groso do Sul, 0.6 percent in the territory of Rondônia, 0.4 percent in the state of Goiás, and 0.2 percent in the state of Minas Gérais. The bulk of the Ukrainian ethnic population lives in Paraná in an area of 6,000 sq km that is known as 'Brazilian Ukraine.' Its largest concentration, 30,500, is found in southeastern Paraná in the county of Prudentópolis. There Ukrainians constitute 75 percent of the population. The city of ^Prudentópolis is a center of Ukrainian life, particularly religious life. The secondlargest concentration is found in the city of Curitiba and its environs, where about 13,750 ethnic Ukrainians live and make up 1.3 percent of the population. Pockets of Ukrainians exist in other cities and towns of Paraná, such as Apucarana, Ivai, Irati, Ponta Grossa, and Uniáo da Vitoria, and in such counties of Santa Catarina as Itaiópolis, Papanduva, and Taió. Religious life. Eighty-five percent of Ukrainians in Brazil are Catholic. The first Ukrainian Catholic chapel was built in Silva near Itaiópolis. In 1897 Ukrainian monks of the Basilian order began to arrive in Brazil, followed by the Sisters Servants of Mary Immaculate in 1911. At first Ukrainian Catholics were subject to the Brazilian Roman Catholic hierarchy. Since the Brazilian church did not accept married priests, most of the Ukrainian priests were and still are members of the Basilian order. Under the dictatorship of G. Vargas in 1930-45, priests were forbidden to preach in Ukrainian. Ukrainian Catholics received their own vicar general only in 1952 - Mgr C. Preima - and were brought under a new ordinary for Eastern-rite Catholics in Brazil - Archbishop J. Cámara.

A typical church built by Ukrainian settlers in Brazil

In 1958 they got their own bishop - Y. Martynets, who served as auxiliary bishop to Cardinal Cámara. Finally, in 1962, a separate exarchate was established under the direction of Bishop Martynets, whose residence was in Curitiba. At the same time Rev P. Busko was appointed vicar-general in place of Mgr Preima, who emigrated to the United States. In 1971 the Apostolic See created the Eparchy of St John the Baptist for all Brazil. Its seat is Curitiba. Bishop Martynets was appointed its first head,

The Ukrainian Catholic church in Prudentópolis, built in 1933

and Bishop E.B. Krevey (Kryvy), who was born in Brazil, was appointed auxiliary bishop with the right of succes­ sion. When Bishop Martynets resigned in 1978, Bishop Krevey succeeded him. The Ukrainian Eparchy of St John the Baptist en­ compasses 17 parishes, which are in the care of 52 priests, 43 of whom are Basilians and 9 diocesan. There are 179 churches and chapels, the most impressive of which are St Josaphat's Church in Prudentópolis, the Cathedral of St John the Baptist in Curitiba, and the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Curitiba. The following monastic orders are active in the eparchy: the Basilian fathers, the Sisters Servants of Mary Immaculate, the Sisters Catechists of St Anne, the Sisters of St Joseph, the Basilian sisters, and the Sisters Catechists of the Sacred Heart of Jesus. The Basilian fathers run St Joseph's Seminary in Prudentópolis and the Cardinal Tisserant Seminary in Maréchal Mallet. Their monasteries in Ivai and Curitiba support a novitiate and teach philosophy and theology. Most of the Ukrainian priests are now Brazilian-born, and many of them are graduates of Gregorianum University in Rome. The Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church con­ sists of the descendants of colonists from Bukovyna and Volhynia, as well as Galician converts to Orthodoxy in the 1920s. The first parish was formed in 1926 in Jangada, Santa Catarina, by Galician settlers. Another parish was established in the following year in the colony of Sao Miguel, in Joaquim Távora, Paraná. These parishes were in the care of Rev M . Zombra, who came from Galicia. In 1929 the Orthodox community in Iracema, Santa Cata­ rina, petitioned Archbishop I . Teodorovych in the United States to take the community under his care and to send a missionary to Iracema. This led to the formation of the first organized parish of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Ortho­ dox church in Brazil in 1930. In 1931 Protopresbyter D. Sidletsky, who was appointed head of the Ukrainian Orthodox mission in Brazil by Archbishop Teodorovych, arrived in Gonçalves Júnior. By 1938, 20 parishes and missionary outposts were established in Paraná and Santa Catarina. The period of dictatorship and nationali­ zation in Brazil (1938-45) had a detrimental effect on the Orthodox church, and it lost most of its clergy. In 1942 the archimandrite, V. Postolian, left for Uruguay, where he was ordained by Archbishop M . Solovii. In 1945-8 Rev Postolian was the only Orthodox priest left in Brazil. After the Second World War four Orthodox priests came to Brazil. In 1951 Protopresbyter F. Kulchynsky

B R A Z I L

came from Canada to assume the duties of administrator of the church in Brazil. This led to important changes in the life of the church and to new organizational forms. In 1969 Bishop Y. Skakalsky became head of the Orthodox church for all of South America. When he died in 1974, the United States Council of Bishops appointed Bishop V. Hai as his successor. On Hai's death in 1977 Metropolitan M. Skrypnyk appointed Rev M . Mylus as his representative and administrator of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church in South America. The church has about 8,000 members in Brazil, who constitute 4 percent of the Ukrainian population. They are organized in 14 parishes and missionary posts and are served by five priests. The largest churches are St Volodymyr's Church in Sao Caetano do Sul, built in the Ukrainian style; St Michael's Church in Curitiba; and SS Peter and Paul's Church in Gonçalves Júnior. Ukrainian Evangelical Baptists first came to Brazil after the Second World War and settled mostly in the state of Sâo Paulo. In 1951 the first Baptist congregation was formed in Sao Caetano do Sul under the leadership of Pastor S. Molezhnyk. In 1955 it adopted the official name First Ukrainian Baptist church. Since i960 its pastor has been D. Butsky. There are about 300 Ukrainian Baptists in Brazil. Social and political life. At first Ukrainian settlers congregated around their churches and parish organizations. The first secular organizations appeared in the early 1900s. In 1902 a Prosvita society was founded in Curitiba. On the eve of the First World War there were 32 Ukrainian organizations in Brazil. They spanned the entire political spectrum, from conservative to radical. The largest of them was Ukraine (Ukraina) in Prudentópolis, which was supported by the Basilian fathers. The second largest was the Ukrainian Union, which was founded in Porto Uniáo in 1922. In 1934 its central office moved to Curitiba. In 1938 its name was changed to the *Uniáo Agrícola Instrutiva, and it became the cultural center of Ukrainian life in Brazil. In 1940 the corporatist government of G. Vargas dissolved all immigrant organizations in Brazil. With the return to a democratic order the union resumed its activities in 1947 and was ideologically associated with the Melnyk faction of the O U N . In the same year the ^Society of Friends of Ukrainian Culture was founded in Curitiba; it was ideologically close to the hetmanite movement and the Bandera faction of the O U N . In 1949 the Sociedade Ucraniana Unificacáo (suu) was established in Sao Caetano do Sul; its activities were limited to the state of Sao Paulo. In 1971 the Brazilian Center for Ukrainian Studies was established in Curitiba. In the last few years the activities of the Uniáo Agrícola Instrutiva ( U A I ) have expanded greatly. Publishing has been resumed, and weekly radio broadcasts were begun, first in Ukrainian and later, in response to government demands, in Portuguese. The U A I and suu each have a women's section. In 1967 a conference of all women's organizations in South America that are members of the World Federation of Ukrainian Women's Organizations was held in Curitiba. There also exist youth organizations, which are affiliated with parishes and various societies. The largest youth group today is the Literary and Sports Youth Center of the U A I in Curitiba. In 1980 the Catholic eparchy founded the Religious and Cultural Center for Ukrainian Youth in Curitiba.

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Attempts to set up a federation of Ukrainian organizations - including the Ukrainian People's Council in Prudentópolis, formed by the first congress of Ukrainians in Brazil in 1910; the Ukrainian People's Council, created at the congress in Dorizón in 1919; and the Ukrainian Union, founded at the congress in Dorizón in 1922 - were short-lived. Even the Ukrainian-Brazilian Committee, which was formed by three Ukrainian organizations in Curitiba in 1953, disintegrated in 1956 because of political conflicts. In spite of their disunity, the Ukrainians in Brazil always took a keen interest in events in Ukraine and responded to them actively. In 1920-2 P. Karmansky, a representative of the Western Ukrainian National Republic, collected a large sum in Brazil in aid of the republic. Later the Ukrainians in Brazil supported various Ukrainian causes. Ukrainians have been active in Brazilian politics in two ways: they have informed the government and the mass media about Ukraine, and they have participated in the party politics of Brazil. Since 1946 Brazilians of Ukrainian origin have been elected to state legislatures and the federal parliament. In Paraná many Ukrainians hold government posts, and even more of them are elected to local and municipal councils. Education and cultural life. Ukrainian private schools were first organized by the better-educated immigrants in 1897-8. In 1913, as a result of the efforts of the Basilian fathers, the School Union was established. In 1938, when the Vargas government prohibited immigrant schools, there were 41 Ukrainian schools in Prudentópolis county alone. By 1938 the Sisters Servants ran 18 schools, some of which were boarding schools. Today their schools are government supervised and subsidized. In 1926-7 the Ukrainian Union founded a junior gymnasium in Porto Uniáo, but efforts to establish a full gymnasium did not succeed. Only in 1935 was a permanent Ukrainian secondary school, with two languages of instruction Ukrainian and Portuguese - established: St Joseph's Minor Seminary, directed by the Basilian fathers in Prudentópolis. The Ukrainian language is taught as an extracurricular subject in the 32 elementary and 3 secondary schools of the Sisters Servants, at the St Olha Institute in Prudentópolis (which was founded in 1941 and is run by the Sisters Catechists of the Sacred Heart of Jesus), and at evening, weekend, and summer schools run by various parishes and organizations. The Ukrainian press in Brazil began to appear at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1907-9 S. Petrytsky published a radical biweekly, Zoria, in Curitiba. The Catholic bimonthly Prapor was published first in Curitiba and then in Prudentópolis in 1910-11. The Basilian fathers have published the monthly Ukrai'ns'kyi misionar in Prudentópolis since 1911. The Catholic weekly *Pratsia has been published with a few interruptions since 1912. In 1924 P. Karmansky founded the weekly Ukraïns'kyi khliborob in Porto Uniáo. From 1934 it was published in Curitiba under the name *Khliborob by the U A I . In 1972 it changed its name to Informatyvnyi biuleten' and now appears irregularly. Many periodicals appeared only briefly: the semimonthly Ukraïna, published in Curitiba in 1919; the monthly Samoosvitnyk, published in Prudentópolis in 1935-40; Nash napriam, published in Curitiba in 1937-8; Nasha dumka, published in Sao Paulo in 1948; Sorbornisf, published in Sao Paulo in 1966-8; and Pravoslavna nyva, published by the Ukrainian Autocephalous

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BRAZIL

Gluchowski, K . Materiaty do problemy osadnictwa polskiego w Brazyliji (Warsaw 1927) Zin'ko, V . Ridna Shkola v Brazylit (Prudentópolis i960) Boruszenko, O . 'A Imigraçâo Ucraniana no Paraná,' in Anais do vi Simposio de Historia (Porto Alegre 1969) Strelko, A . Trímeros immigrantes ucranianos en Latino America/ America Latina, no. 1 (Moscow 1975) Borushenko, O . 'Ukraïntsi v Brazyliï'/ in Ukraïns'ki poselennia: Dovidnyk, ed A . Milianych et al (New York 1980) O. Borushenko

The title page of the first issue of Pratsia, 22 December 1912

Orthodox church in Brazil in 1954-70. The Basilian fathers' publishing house in Prudentópolis has published religious, educational, and popular literature since 1912. In the early days of Ukrainian settlement in Brazil an important role in Ukrainian cultural life was played by V. Kuts-Smola, S. Petrytsky, P. Karmansky, O. Martynets, the priests P. Protskiv, S. Kizyma, M . Shkirpan, K. Bzhukhovsky, and O. Ananevych. Several early immigrants wrote on Brazilian themes: V. Kuts-Smola, P. Karmansky, S. Kalynets, and O. Shpytko. The present generation of writers consists of O. Kolodii, V. VovkSelianska, O. Zaporizky, V. Buzhenko, and O. Mak, who emigrated to Canada in 1971. The most prominent Ukrainian artists and musicians in Brazil are the landscape painter M . Bakun, the portrait painter D. Izmailovych, the sculptor O. Narozhniak, and the pianist L. Borushenko. Ukrainian scholars are usually employed by Brazilian universities: in 1980, 52 Ukrainians held university appointments. Ukrainian folk arts are cultivated by Ukrainians in Brazil. Amateur groups devoted to Easter-egg painting, embroidery, woodcarving, folk singing, and dancing display their skills at folk festivals. The largest amateur group, 120 people, is connected with U A I . Economic life. Almost 75 percent of Ukrainians in Brazil (compared to 52 percent of Brazilians in general) are occupied in farming. They grow wheat, rye, buckwheat, potato, and local crops such as rice and sweet potato. Industrial crops such as mint, sunflower, castor bush, maté, and coffee are widely raised. The Ukrainian settlers have made beekeeping popular in Brazil and have developed new species of fruit trees by grafting and crossbreeding. Ukrainian farmers also raise cattle, poultry, and hogs for their own use and for sale at local markets. Generally the Ukrainian farmers in Brazil are poor. Today successful agriculture requires a large investment of capital or a co-operative system. Unfortunately, in spite of the efforts of V. Kuts and other leaders, there are no Ukrainian co-operatives in Brazil. Some Ukrainians work in industry or in small manufacturing firms. Relatively few Ukrainians - only about 8 percent - work in professions such as medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, law, engineering, agronomy, or in government jobs at the federal, state, or municipal level. BIBLIOGRAPHY Karmans'kyi, P. Mizh ridnymy v Pivdennii Amerytsi (Vienna

1922)

Bream (Abramis brama; Ukrainian: liashch). A fish of the carp family. It reaches 50 cm in length and 6 kg in weight. Usually, breams of 0.8-1.5 kg are caught. The fish is very common in the rivers of Ukraine, the low-salinity waters of the limans, and the freshwater parts of the Sea of Azov. The bream is an important mainstay of the fish industry. Breiter, Ernest, b 22 October 1865 in Davydiv near Lviv, d November 1935 in Vienna. Polish journalist and politician in Galicia, an independent socialist, member of the Austrian parliament for Lviv (1900-14). In 1918 he was a member of the Ukrainian National Rada and the government of the Western Ukrainian National Republic. He was the only Polish politician at that time who supported Ukraine's sovereignty; later he joined Ye. Petrushevych's government in exile in Vienna. Brest (Ukrainian: Berestia). 1-4. City (1981 pop 194,000); an oblast capital in the Belorussian S S R on the right bank of the Buh River at the mouth of the Mukhavets River, an important railway and highway junction, and a port on the Mukhavets. The city has an airport. Brest was founded as a center for trade and defense on the border between Kievan Rus', the Polish Kingdom, and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. It was first mentioned in 1017 as the city of Berestia of the *Derevlianians and was for a time ruled by the Turiv princes. In 1044 it was conquered by Yaroslav the Wise. As the major center of *Berestia land, Berestia was a part of the Kievan state and the Volhynian principality. In 1319 it came under Lithuanian rule; in 1596 the Church Union of *Berestia took place there. From 1569 to 1795 it was the major city of Brest voivodeship in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (during this time it was called Brest Lytovskyi). In the 15th and 16th century it was a busy market town; during the second half of the 17th century it fell into decline. In 1795 Brest came under Russian rule and in 1801 it became a county town of Grodno gubernia, with the name of Brest-Li to vsk. In 1831 the population of the town was resettled a few kilometers to the east, and Brest was turned into a fortress to defend the highways leading to Kiev and Moscow from the west. In the second half of the 19th century, when Brest became a railway junction, trade increased, and by 1909 the population (mainly Jewish) had increased to 53,000. In 1918 the Peace Treaty of *Brest-Litovsk between Ukraine and the Central Powers was signed there. Under Polish rule (1920-39) Brest (Brzesc nad Bugiem) was the center of Polisia voivodeship; in 1920 it contained an infamous internment camp for soldiers of the Ukrainian Galician Army; in 1930-1, opposition members of the Polish Sejm (including Ukrainians) were imprisoned there. In 1939 the Brest region became part of the Belorussian S S R , although its inhabitants were Ukrainian. Today Brest is an important appliance-manufacturing center. The city also has a food

B R E S T

industry and light industry, a carpet-manufacturing com­ plex, and shoe and garment factories. A once-famous Basilian monastery and the Church of ss Peter and Paul, as well as a pedagogical and a construction institute, a theater, and a regional museum are located there.

V. Kubijovyc

Brest oblast. A southwestern province of the Belo­ russian S S R , bordering on the Ukrainian S S R in the south and Poland in the west. In the north and east it borders on other oblasts of the Belorussian S S R . Brest oblast was formed on 4 December 1939. Its area covers 32,300 sq km, and its population in 1979 was 1,360,000. It is divided into 16 raions and has 19 cities and 10 towns. Although Brest oblast lies within Belorussia, most of its territory is a part of Ukrainian ethnic territory. Of the 16 raions, 10 are essentially Ukrainian, 4 in the north are Belorussian, and 2 are mixed (ie, are divided by the Ukrainian-Belorussian ethnic border). The part of the oblast settled by Ukrai­ nians covers about 20,000 sq km and has a population of 900,000. The discrepancy between the Ukrainian-Belorussian political border and the ethnic border results from a deliberate decision made by the Soviet authorities. It is their policy to weaken the Ukrainian S S R and to reduce the size of the Ukrainian population, which is subjected to denationalization through both Belorussification and Russification in Belorussia. Physical geography. Brest oblast lies on the border of Polisia, except for a small part in the northwest that belongs to Podlachia and a part in the northeast (settled exclusively by Belorussians) that belongs to the Belo­ russian Upland (Baranavichy Plain and Navahrudak eleva­ tion). The Ukrainian part of Brest oblast includes the fol­ lowing areas of Polisia: Buh Polisia, the western part of Prypiat Polisia, Zaiasoldia, Zarichia, and the somewhat more elevated *Zahorodia. Except for Zahorodia, all these areas are wetlands. The highest elevation is 175 m, and the lowest is 110 m. The climate is temperate continental: the average temperature in July is i8-i9°c, and in January it is ~4.5°c (in the west) and - 5 . 5 ° c in the east. The length of the growing season is 195-205 days. The annual precipitation is 550-650 mm, of which 400-450 mm fall in the warm season. The total length of the rivers is 5,000 km. The largest rivers are the Prypiat and its tributaries the Yaselda, Pyna (connected to the Buh through the Dnieper-Buh Canal and the Mukhavets River), Styr, and Horyn. There are many lakes, of which the largest are Vyhonivske and Chorne. The oblast has weakly podzolic sandy soils, podzolic turf loam, podzolic turf gley, and humus carbonate soils. Peat-bog soils con­ stitute about 360,000 ha. Marshes cover 20 percent of the territory; of these, 93 percent are lowland bogs. The forests of Brest oblast are 54 percent pine, 18 percent birch, 18 percent alder, and 5 percent oak. *Bilovezha Forest lies within the oblast. History. Under the Polish Commonwealth most of the present Brest oblast constituted Brest voivodeship of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. After the partitions of Poland it became part of Hrodna gubernia within the Russian Empire. In 1917-19 the area was part of the U N R . In 1920-39 under Poland it belonged to Polisia voivode­ ship. After 1939, retaining approximately the same boundaries, it became Brest oblast. (See also *Berestia land and *Polisia).

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Population. In 1979 the population of Brest oblast was 1,360,000, resulting in a density of 42.3 people per square kilometer. The population density was highest in the raions with the largest cities - the Brest and Pynske raions. In the First World War the front for a long time ran through the region, and there was a high loss of life during that war as well as during the Second World War. Owing to a high birth rate, the population bounced back quickly after the wars. The oblast s population was 1,225,000 in 1940, 1,182,000 in 1959, and 1,294,000 in 1970. The percentage of the urban population is constant­ ly increasing: it was 17 percent of the population in 1940, 24 percent in 1959, 34.8 percent in 1970, and 42.1 percent in 1980. The largest cities in the province are Brest, with a population of 194,000; Baranavichy, with 135,000; Pynske, with 96,000; Kobryn, with 25,000; Luninets, with 11,000; and Pruzhany, with 10,000. According to the census of 1979, the ethnic composition of the oblast's population was: Belorussians, 1,151,000; Russians, 124,400; Ukrainians 40,600; Poles, 34,000. Economy. Until 1940 the economy of Brest oblast was predominantly agricultural. Lumbering also played an im­ portant role. Certain specific old farming methods were still employed (see *Polisia). After the Second World War the oblast s economy underwent basic changes because of the nationalization of agriculture and the growth of industry. Industry. In the present structure of industrial produc­ tion the food industry (35 percent) and light industry (33 percent) predominate; they are followed by the metalworking industry (12 percent), the lumber and wood­ working industry (8 percent), the peat industry, and the building industry. The energy produced is based on peat, natural gas (brought in by the Dashava-Minsk pipeline), and coal (from the Lviv-Volhynia Coal Basin). A huge 920,000 kW thermal power plant has been built in Bereza. The food industry consists of poultry- and meat-packing plants, fruit and vegetable canning plants, flour mills, sugar refineries, liquor distilleries, breweries, etc. The largest enterprise of light industry is the cotton textile mill in Baranavichy. There are also a rug factory, a hosiery factory, and a wool-textile factory in Brest and a knitted wear factory in Pynske. Leather footwear is produced on a large scale. The metalworking and machine-building industries developed only in the 1950s. They consist of an auto-repair plants and plants producing machine-tool instruments and equipment for commercial enterprises (in Baranavichy), gas equipment and electrical lamps (in Brest), and repair shops for boats and excavators (in Pynske). The largest plants of the woodworking industry are the plywood and matchstick production complex in Pynske, the ski factory in Telekhany, and the furniture factories in Brest, Baranavichy, and Pynske. The main industrial centers of the oblast are Brest, Baranavichy, Pynske, Luninets, and Kobryn. Agriculture. In 1978 there were 307 collective farms and 91 state farms in Brest oblast. Farmland covers 1,482,700 ha, or 45.1 percent of the total land area: of the total land resources in the oblast, 25.2 percent is culti­ vated, 9.2 percent is hayfields, and 9.4 percent is pasture. Much of the farmland is swampy and requires draining; in 1978 drained farmland covered 497,400 ha. There were 855,500 ha under crops in 1978 (756,400 in 1965); of this, 402,500 ha (47.1 percent) were devoted to grain, 44,500ha (5.2 percent) to industrial crops, 121,300 ha (14.2 7

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percent) to potatoes, 6,600 ha (0.8 percent) to vegetable and melon crops, and 126,300 ha (14.8 percent) to fodder crops. Flax predominates among the industrial crops, covering an area of 24,555 ha. 975~8 the average yield (in centners per hectare) in Brest oblast was 25.0 for grains, 177.7 f ° potatoes, and 4.5 for flax. In 1979 there were 1,050,000 head of cattle (including 423,600 cows), 649,900 hogs, and 99,600 sheep in the oblast. Fishing, poultry farming, and beekeeping are also well developed. Transport. As of 1969 there were 1,050 km of usable railway in Brest oblast. The main lines are Moscow-Brest, Homel-Brest, and Vilnius-Rivne. The main railway junc­ tions are Brest, Baranavichy, Lunynets, and Zhabynka. The road transportation network is expanding rapidly, encompassing 10,500 km of highways, of which 3,300 km are hard-surface highways. Waterways, too, are exten­ sively used, primarily the Prypiat, Pyna, Mukhavets, Styr, Horyn, and Shar rivers and the Dnieper-Buh Canal. The trans-European Druzhba oil pipeline and the Dashava-Minsk gas pipeline run through the oblast. l

n

1

r

BIBLIOGRAPHY Aninchin, L. Brestskaia oblast' (Minsk 1961) Geografiia Belorussii (Minsk 1961) Belorussiia (Moscow 1967) Rashevskii, N . Belorusskaia SSR: Brestskaia oblast' (Minsk 1968) V. Kubijovyc

Brest-Litovsk, Peace Treaty of. A peace treaty be­ tween the Ukrainian National Republic and the Central Powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Bul­ garia, signed on 9 February 1918 in Brest, Belorussia. When the Russian Bolshevik government began to nego­ tiate an armistice on the eastern front, the government of the Ukrainian Central Rada also began negotiations, because the Austro-German and Rumanian fronts ran through Ukrainian territory. The Central Rada expressed its desire for peace with the four Central Powers in the resolutions of 22, 24, and 26 December 1917, and on 28 December an armistice suspending hostilities at the front was signed. The Bolshevik delegation led by L. Trotsky began peace negotiations at Brest-Litovsk on 3 December 1917. On 1 January 1918 the Ukrainian delegation, headed by V. Holubovych and including M . Poloz, O. Sevriuk, M . Levytsky, and M . Liubynsky, arrived at Brest-Litovsk. On 12 January 1918 Count O. Czernin, representing the Central Powers, recognized the independent U N R delega­ tion. Counts Czernin and Csáky, representing AustriaHungary, refused to include the question of Galicia, Bukovyna, and Transcarpathia in the general peace treaty, claiming these territories were an internal issue of the Habsburg monarchy. But they conceded that the Kholm region and Podlachia should be part of the U N R . After 20 January 1918 the Ukrainian delegation returned to Kiev. The full independence of the U N R was proclaimed in the Fourth Universal on 22 January. The Ukrainian dele­ gation, now headed by O. Sevriuk and including M . Liubynsky and M . Levytsky, returned to Brest-Litovsk. On 1 February 1918 the plenary session was attended by Ye. Medvedev and V. Shakhrai, representing the 'Soviet Ukrainian government' in Kharkiv. On behalf of the Central Powers, Czernin recognized the independence

and sovereignty of the U N R . On 9 February 1918, over Bolshevik protests, the treaty between the U N R and the Central Powers was signed. Those signing the treaty included O. Sevriuk, M . Liubynsky, and M . Levytsky for the U N R ; Gen M.F. Hoffmann, the representative of the German high command, and R. von Kuhlmann for Ger­ many; Count O. Czernin for Austria-Hungary; V. Radoslavov, A. Toshev, I . Stoianovich, T. Anastasov, and Col P. Ganchev for Bulgaria; and Talaat Pasha, I . Hakki Pasha, A. Nessimi Bey, and A. Izzet Pasha for Turkey. The Central Powers recognized the following as the UNR'S boundaries: in the west the 1914 AustroHungarian-Russian boundary; in the north the line running from Tarnohrad through Bilhorai, Shchebreshyn, Krasnostav, Puhachiv, Radzyn, Mezhyrichia, Melnyk, Kamianets-Lytovskyi, Pruzhany, and Vyhonivske Lake. The exact boundaries were to be determined by a mixed commission on the basis of ethnic composition and the will of the inhabitants (art 2). Articles in the treaty provided for the regulated evacuation of the occupied regions (art 3), the establishment of diplomatic relations (art 4), the return of prisoners of war (art 6), and the exchange of interned civilians and the renewal of public and private legal relations (art 8). Both sides renounced mutual war reparations (art 5). Article 7 provided for the immediate resumption of economic relations and trade and set down the principles of accounting and tariffs. Austria-Hungary and the U N R also signed a secret agreement regarding Galicia and Bukovyna. Austria agreed to unify by 31 July 1918 in one crown land those areas of eastern Galicia and Bukovyna where the Ukrai­ nian population predominated. But on 4 July 1918 Austria annulled this secret agreement under the pretext that Ukraine had not delivered to it the amount of grain promised under the treaty. This action was really the result of Polish pressure. The Central Powers signed a separate peace treaty with Bolshevik Russia at Brest-Litovsk on 3 March 1918. Russia agreed to recognize the concluded treaty with the U N R , to sign a peace treaty with Ukraine immediately, and to define the border between Russia and Ukraine (art 6). The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk provided Ukraine with German military aid in clearing Bolshevik forces from Ukraine in February-April 1918. However, the Allied powers received news of the treaty with indignation and suspended relations with the U N R . The Treaty of Rapallo of 1922 between Germany and Soviet Russia canceled the German commitments made at Brest-Litovsk. The dis­ integration of Austria-Hungary automatically annulled Austria's commitments. Turkey renounced the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk by signing a treaty with the Ukrainian S S R in 1922. Only Bulgaria, so far as is known, never formally annulled the treaty. BIBLIOGRAPHY Der Friedensvertrag mit der Ukraine (Berlin 1918) Kreppel, J. Der Friede im Osten (Vienna 1918) Magnes, J. Russia and Germany at Brest-Litovsk: A Documentary History of the Peace Negotiations (New York 1919) Mirny e peregovory v Brest-Litovske (Moscow 1920) Kedryn, I. (ed). Beresteis'kyi myr: Spomyny ta materiialy (Lviv 1928) Wheeler-Bennett, J. Brest-Litovsk: The Forgotten Peace (London 1938) Borschak, E . La paix ukrainienne de Brest-Litovsk (Paris 1939)

B R E Z H N E V

Chubar'ian, A . Brestskii mir (Moscow 1964) Fedyshyn, O . Germany's Drive to the East and the Ukrainian Revolution 1917-1918 (New Brunswick, NJ 1971) E . Borschak

Brewing industry. A branch of the food industry that produces beer. In Ukraine brewing has existed as a home industry since the period of Kievan Rus'. Beginning in the 15th century, the Polish kings and the grand dukes of Lithuania granted the right to establish breweries in the towns, where later brewery guilds began to form. In the mid-i9th century the small home breweries were sup­ planted by brewing factories. At first these factories were small: in 1895 there were 186 such breweries, employing 1,417 workers, in the nine Ukrainian gubernias; in 1913 there were 218 breweries, with an annual production of 204 million liters of beer (17.8 percent of beer production in the Russian Empire). The brewing industry was distributed throughout Ukraine, but it was concentrated in the larger cities, particularly in Kiev, Kharkiv, and Lviv. During the First World War breweries across the Russian Empire were closed down, and the industry declined. Beer production returned to the prewar level towards the end of the 1920s. In 1940 the Ukrainian S S R (in its present boundaries) produced 272 million liters of beer, which amounted to 22.5 percent of the U S S R production and to 1.6 percent of the gross output of the food industry in Ukraine. After the Second World War a number of breweries were rebuilt, and many new ones constructed. The growth in the production of beer in the Ukrainian S S R is represented by the following figures (in millions of liters; the percentage of the U S S R production that these figures constitute is given in parentheses): 1950 - 267 (20.4); i960 - 522 (20.8); 1970 - 900 (21.5); 1978 1,409 (21.8); and 1980 - 1,331 (21.7). In 1978 the per capita production of beer in Ukraine was 28.2 L as compared to 6.7 L in 1940 (the respective figures for the U S S R are 24.6 L and 6.4 L). As of 1978 there were 110 breweries in Ukraine, at which time brewing and bottling were already fully mechanized, but the packaging, loading, and un­ loading were not. Breweries are distributed fairly evenly throughout Ukraine, but most of the beer is produced in the Dnipropetrovske, Donetske, Kharkiv, Lviv, and Kiev oblasts. The largest breweries are located in Lviv (the Kolos plant), Donetske, Dnipropetrovske, Kiev, and Kharkiv. Improvements in the development of the brew­ ing industry are studied at the Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of the Food Industry in Kharkiv and the All-Union Planning and Design Scientific Research Institute for the Automation of the Food Industry in Odessa. (For a bibliography see ""Food industry.) B. Wynar

Brezhnev, Leonid I l i c h , b 19 December 1906 in the village of Kamianske (now Dniprodzerzhynske) in Katery­ noslav gubernia, d 10 November 1982 in Moscow. Soviet political leader, first secretary of the Central Committee (cc) of the C P S U from 14 October 1964 (general secretary from 8 April 1966), and chairman of the Presidium of the U S S R Supreme Soviet from 16 June 1977. Brezhnev's grandfather, Yakov, and father, Ilia, were immigrant workers from Kursk gubernia. From 1923 to 1927 Brezhnev attended the Kursk Tekhnikum for Land Utilization and Reclamation and, in 1930-1, the Agricul­ tural Institute in Moscow. In 1931 Brezhnev joined the Communist party and returned to Ukraine from the Urals

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to work at the Kamianske steel mill and to finish his. degree in engineering at the local metallurgical institute (1931-5)Brezhnev's political career began in Ukraine. He held various posts in the Party oblast committee (obkom) in Dnipropetrovske (1938-40), including that of secretary for propaganda during the Great Purge. During the war Brezhnev rose to the rank of major-general, with such duties as chief of the Political Administration of the Fourth Ukrainian Front (1945) and of the Carpathian Military District (1945-6), where he participated in the Soviet campaign against the Ukrainian Insurgent Army. After the war Brezhnev was obkom first secretary in Zaporizhia (1946-7) and Dnipropetrovske (1947-50), first secretary of the Communist Party of Moldavia (1950-2), and secretary of the cc C P S U and candidate member of the C P S U Presidium (1952-3). As N . ^Khrushchev's successful representative for the virgin-lands program, he was sec­ ond secretary (1954-5) and then first secretary (1955-6) of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan. He became a full member of the C P S U Presidium in 1957, head of the Presid­ ium of the Supreme Soviet (1960-4), and finally first secre­ tary of the cc C P S U after the overthrow of Khrushchev in 1964. Brezhnev changed Khrushchev's regional pattern of Soviet economic administration (sovnarkhoz) back to the rigidly centralist, functional, ministerial pattern. Opposi­ tion from Ukrainian economists and government officials was disregarded, and generally, as supreme ruler of the U S S R , Brezhnev systematically asserted his power and centralist policies in Ukraine. Brezhnev defeated the Kharkiv-Kiev (Pidhorny-Shelest) faction in the Soviet leadership. M . *Pidhorny was removed from the cc C P S U Secretariat (December 1965) and ousted from the Polit­ buro (May 1977). P. *Shelest lost his position as first secretary of the C P U in May 1972 and his seat on the C P S U Politburo in April 1973. He was replaced as first secretary of the C P U by Brezhnev's protégé, V. *Shcherbytsky, a prominent member of the Dnipropetrovske fac­ tion. Whereas Pidhorny's and Shelest's factions were more assertive of Ukrainian political, economic, and cul­ tural autonomy, Shcherbytsky's group has been more subservient to Moscow. Although continuing the assimilationist pressures of Khrushchev's last years, Brezhnev's legacy in Soviet ^nationality policy appears to be threefold. On the theoretical level, at the 24th C P S U Congress (1977) Brezh­ nev altered Khrushchev's 'merging of nations' to 'the unshakable union' and endorsed the concept of the 'Soviet people,' as 'a new historical community' that has emerged during the 'building of socialism in the U S S R . ' On the practical level, despite some pressure to abolish the pseudosovereign Soviet republics, Brezhnev accepted their continued existence in the new 1977 Soviet constitu­ tion. Thirdly, on the policy level, in May 1979 the Tash­ kent Conference on 'The Russian Language - The Lan­ guage of Friendship and Co-operation of the Peoples of the U S S R ' passed a secret draft calling for the mandatory teaching of Russian in every non-Russian kindergarten and nursery. It appears that, despite Brezhnev's close personal connections with Ukraine, his attitude towards Ukraine was that of a Russian centralist attempting a gradual conversion of Ukraine back into the Little Russia or New Russia of the 19th century.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Morozow, M . Leonid Breschnew: Biographie (Stuttgart 1973) Dornberg, J. Brezhnev: The Masks of Power (New York 1974) Potichnyj, P.J. (ed). Ukraine in the Seventies (Oakville, Ont 1975) Bilinsky, Y . 'Politics, Purge, and Dissent in Ukraine since the Fall of Shelest/ in Nationalism and Human Rights: Processes of Modernization in the USSR, ed I. Kamenetsky (Littleton, Colo 1977) Leonid I . Brezhnev: Pages from His Life (New York 1978) Y. Bilinsky

Brianka [Brjanka]. v-19. City (1981 pop 63,000) in Voroshylovhrad oblast, on the Lozova River. The city developed from a mining settlement that sprang up near a coal mine opened in 1889 in Luhanske county in Katerynoslav gubernia. In 1944 Brianka became a raion of the city of Kadiivka and in 1962 it became a separate city. The population of Brianka is declining: It was 78,000 in 1959, 71,000 in 1970, and 67,000 in 1977. Brianka has eight coal mines, two enrichment plants, a mining-machine repair plant, a reinforced-concrete plant, and a tekhnikum of economics and technology. Briansk oblast. Adrninistrative unit in the western R S F S R , established on 5 July 1944. It has an area of 34,900 sqkm and a population of 1,509,000 (1980). Until 1920 the southwestern portion of Briansk oblast included the northern part of *Chernihiv gubernia (Novozybkiv, Starodub, Mhlyn, and Surazh counties), which at one time was part of the Cossack Hetmán state and the U N R . In 1980 Briansk oblast officially had a Ukrainian population of 22,200. (See also *Chernihiv region.) Brick industry. A branch of the *building-materials industry that manufactures various forms of brick, blocks, panels, tiles, etc, out of minerals - mostly clay and a mixture of quartz sand and lime. See also *wall-materials industry. Brickmaking involves two processes - the mechanical process of breaking up, mixing, and shaping the clay from which the bricks are made and the thermal process of firing the bricks. Brickmaking existed in the Far East as early as the 5th millennium B C . It was probably introduced into Ukraine through the Greek Black Sea colonies and later the Byzantine cities. The adoption of Christianity in Ukraine stimulated the development of the brick industry. As early as the 10th and 11th century large buildings - such as St Sophia Cathedral and the Church of the Tithes in Kiev and the princely palaces in Kiev, Chernihiv, and elsewhere - were constructed of fired brick. The shape of bricks changed with time: the oldest were square (30 cm x 30 cm) and very thin; the bricks of the 11th-12th century were rectangular (36-38 cm x 26-29 cm) and 4.5 cm thick. Today the standard form is 25 cm x 12 cm x 6.5 cm. Urban growth stimulated the further development of the brick industry. Brickyards were usually located near deposits of clay. Nevertheless, only a small number of buildings were built of brick. Brickmaking in the preindustrial period was a cottage industry; all work was done by hand, and employment was seasonal. Brickyards often developed as subsidiaries of metallurgical, sugar, and other enterprises and were usually located in the larger towns. It was only at the end of the 19th century that the industry lost its cottage-industry character. In 1912

Russian-ruled Ukraine produced 519 million bricks, or 22 percent of the empire's production, and nearly 100 million fireproof bricks, or 53 percent of the empire's production, of which Katerynoslav gubernia produced 85 million. In 1918-20 the brick industry declined. Although it recovered beginning in 1921, the technology remained backward, and production could not satisfy the demand, which had grown particularly because of the growth in housing construction. By the mid-i930S the prewar level of production was reached, and in 1940,1.6 billion bricks were produced. Following the period of postwar reconstruction in the early 1950s, a series of new, larger brick plants was built in 1960-75 - in Mykolaiv (Lviv oblast), Zdolbuniv (Rivne oblast), Novoamvrosiivske (Donetske oblast), Kryvyi Rih, and elsewhere. During this time about 60 percent of the plants were converted from seasonal to year-round production. New branches of the industry were created to produce artificial brick and slate and silica brick. The production of architectural brick (porous and perforated), brick blocks, and facing brick for metallurgy was expanded. Old plants were reopened and provided with ring kilns of a modified type (producing three million bricks a year) and tunnel kilns (with a capacity of eight million bricks a year). Since the second half of the 1970s, however, brick production has slowed down. Clay brick was found to be a poor wall material and is currently being replaced with more effective products, such as building blocks and precast reinforced concrete. Today there are close to 500 state and co-operative brick plants in Ukraine and nearly 4,000 smaller brickyards, which are usually located on collective farms and in less populated areas. The smaller brickyards belong to sugar refineries and other industrial enterprises and are managed by industrial co-operatives and other agencies of local industry. In spite of the relatively wide geographic distribution of the brick industry in Ukraine, brick production does not always function economically. The transportation of brick, which is very heavy, is very expensive, and long hauls have a high damage rate, of 10-25 percent. Although the necessary raw materials can be found in almost all regions of Ukraine, brick continues to be transported over long distances, particularly from Crimea and Chernivtsi oblasts; silicate brick is transported from Voroshylovhrad, Donetske, Kharkiv, Dnipropetrovske, Kiev, and Lviv oblasts to Poltava, Zaporizhia, Chernihiv, Mykolaiv, and Kherson oblasts (supplying nearly 40 percent of their needs). In addition, the capacity of drying kilns in the brick plants is smaller than the capacity of the firing furnaces by about two billion bricks; hence, hundreds of brick plants continue to operate only six to eight months a year. Ukraine now produces 21-22 percent of the building brick in the Soviet Union. Production has varied over the years as follows (in billions of bricks): 0.6 in 1913, 1.6 in 1940, 2.1 in 1950, 7.3 in i960, 9.7 in 1970, and 8.9 in 1981. The development of the brick industry is studied at the Scientific Research Institute of Building Materials and Products in Kiev. BIBLIOGRAPHY Khramov, O. Rozvytok vyrobnytstva mistsevykh budiveVnykh materialiv Ukraïns'koï RSR (Kiev 1958) Klepko, F . Mestnye stroiteVnye materialy Ukrainy i problemy razvitiia ïkh proizvodstva (Kiev 1967)

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Davydenko, O. Rozvytok i rozmishchennia osnovnykh haluzei promyslovosti budiveVnykh materialiv Ukraïns'koï RSR (Kiev 1972) B. Wynar

Brisling or Sprat (Sprattus sprattus phalericus; Ukrainian: kilka chornomorska, shprot, sardelia, sardynka). Sea fish of the herring family. It reaches a length of 12 cm and a weight of 9 g. In the spring large numbers of sprat swim up to the shore of the Black Sea. They seldom enter the Sea of Azov. British Columbia. Canada's most western province. In 1971 British Columbia had 60,150 Ukrainian residents, who constituted 2.8 percent of the provincial population and were the fifth largest Ukrainian community in Canada. The first Ukrainians settled in Vancouver and in mountain mining centers such as Fernie, Michel, and Hosmer before the Second World War. Most Ukrainians (78.4 percent) in 1971 were urban residents in such major centers in Vancouver (31,130 or 2.9 percent), Prince George (1,905 or 3.8 percent), Kamloops (1,545 3-5 percent), Kelowna (1,470 or 4.0 percent), and Vernon (1,285 or 9.7 percent). Of the Ukrainian organizations, the religious organizations are most active: the Ukrainian Catholics through the exarchate of New Westminster for British Columbia, created within the western eparchy in 1974, and the Orthodox as part of the western eparchy, whose see was established in Edmonton in 1951. o r

Britsky, Nicholas [Bryc'kyj, Mykola], b 11 December 1913 in Veldizh, Dolyna county, Galicia. Pedagogue, painter, sculptor. Britsky emigrated with his family to New York City in 1922. He studied fine arts at Yale University, the Cranbrook Academy of Art in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, and the University of Syracuse. He was a professor of art at the University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign from 1945 to 1978. Britsky specializes in religious art: he has decorated St Patrick's Church in Urbana, producing for it a fiberglass and steel sculpture, Rising Christ, and other churches. He has also created symbolic canvases on philosophical themes, such as The Downfall of Culture, The Road to Illusion, and The Wall of Shame, in which he combined modern and traditional styles. He has taken part in over 70 art exhibits in the United States and other countries. Briukhovetsky, Ivan [Brjuxovec'kyj], b ?, d 18 June 1668. Hetmán of Left-Bank Ukraine. Briukhovetsky was a registered Cossack of the Chyhyryn Company (1650) and B. Khmelnytsky's courier and diplomatic emissary. After Khmelnytsky's death Briukhovetsky went to the Zaporozhian Sich (1659) and became its otaman (1661-3). In 1663 at the *Chorna Rada near Nizhen he was elected hetmán with the support of the Zaporozhian Cossacks and the Cossack masses (chern) (*Baturyn Articles). After doing away with his opponents, Col Ya. Somko and Col V. Zolotarenko, he went to Moscow in 1665 and signed the ""Moscow Articles, thereby placing Ukraine under the direct authority of the tsar and his voivodes and thus relinquishing Ukraine's autonomy. For this he received the title of boyar. By this time Briukhovetsky had forfeited the support of the population, which had had high expectations of him. In response to popular opposition to the Treaty of *Andrusovo Briukhovetsky broke off rela-

Ivan Briukhovetsky

tions with Moscow in 1668 and organized a rebellion against the tsar. But an angry Cossack mob killed him in the village of Budyshchi near Opishnia. Briukhovychi [Brjuxovyci]. iv-4. Town smt (1977 pop 6,200) 6 km northwest of Lviv on the slope of the Roztochia ridge. The town has a recreational resort and a wood industry. A n astronomy station of the Lviv University observatory is located here. Briullov, Karl [Brjullov], b 23 December 1799 in St Petersburg, d 23 June 1852 in Marciano near Rome, Italy. Painter, professor at the St Petersburg Academy of Arts (1836-48). A number of Ukrainian artists, including I . Soshenko, D. Bezperchy, A. Mokrytsky, and T. Shevchenko, studied with Briullov. He took an active part in emancipating Shevchenko from serfdom and later befriended him. His most famous work is The Last Day of Pompei (1830-3). Broch, Olaf, b 4 August 1867 in Horten, Norway, d 28 January 1961. A prominent Norwegian linguist and Slavist, professor at the University of Oslo, and member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society. Broch wrote seminal studies in the descriptive phonetics of Slavic languages, including those of Western Ukrainian (Slavische Phonetik, 1911), and a number of descriptive works on Transcarpathian Ukrainian dialects transitional to the Slovak language. These are based on extremely minute observations on phonetics, but do not discuss the problems of phonemics. Brockhaus and Efron. Publishing house founded in St Petersburg in 1890 by the German firm of F. A. Brockhaus (Leipzig) and the Russian entrepreneur I . Efron. The Entsiklopedicheskii slovaf (Encyclopedic Dictionary) published by Brockhaus and Efron was one of the largest Russian encyclopedias and was produced with the participation of eminent scholars. The first edition (18901907) comprised 82 volumes and 4 additional demivolumes. The second edition, entitled Novyi entsiklopedicheskii slovaf (New Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1911-16), remained unfinished: of the 48 volumes planned, 29 were published. Among those contributing articles on Ukrainian history and culture were D. Bahalii. M . Vasylenko. I . Zhytetsky, O. Lazarevsky, V. Peretts, O. Rusov, M . Sumtsov, I . Franko. O. Yefymenko, P. Yefymenko, and A. Krymsky.

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Brodii, Andrii [Brodij, Andrij], b 1895 in the village of Kyviazhd, Transcarpathia, d 1946 in Uzhhorod. A leader of the Russophile and pro-Hungarian orientation in Transcarpathia and a teacher. Brodii was a co-founder in 1920 of the Autonomous Agriculturalist Union ( A Z S ) (its head in 1933-9); publisher of the A Z S newspaper, *Russkii viestnik (1923-39); and A Z S representative in the Czechoslovakian parliament (1932-8). In October 1938 he was appointed prime minister of the autonomous government of Subcarpathian Ruthenia by the Czechoslovakian government. Arrested in November for pro-Hungarian activities, he escaped to Budapest and fought against an autonomous Carpatho-Ukraine. From 1939 to 1944 he was a member of the Hungarian parliament and led efforts to obtain local autonomy for Transcarpathia. From 1940 to 1944 he published the weekly newspaper Russkoe slovo. He was arrested by the Soviet authorities in 1945 and executed for collaborating with the Hungarian regime.

Archangel Michael, an icon by Illia Brodlakovych, 17th century

Brodlakovych (Vyshensky), Illia [Brodlakovyc, Illja], b in the village of Sudova Vyshnia, Lviv region, Galicia. Seventeenth-century painter. Brodlakovych worked in Mukachiv in Transcarpathia, painting traditional monumental icons in bright colors. These include The Protectress (1646), Deesis, and Archangel Michael. He also painted icons in a lyrical one-dimensional style: St Nicholas, Christ the Pantocrator (1666), and Sobor of the Archangel Michael. Discrepancies in the style of these works have led to the conjecture that they were painted by two artists with the same name (perhaps father and son). Brodnyks (brodnyky). A warlike steppe people, mostly of East Slavic descent, who lived in the region north of the Black Sea in the 12th-13th century. Mentioned in old Rus' chronicles under the years 1147 d 1216, the Brodnyks are also referred to in Byzantine and Hungarian chronicles. They took part in the internecine strife among the Rus' princes. At the battle on the Kalka River in 1223, they fought on the side of the Tatars. a n

Brodsky, Oleksander [Brods'kyj], b 19 June 1895 in Katerynoslav, d 21 August 1969 in Kiev. Physical chemist, full member of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian S S R from 1939 and corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the U S S R from 1943. In 1939 Brodsky became director of the Institute of Physical Chemistry at the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian S S R . His works are devoted to the thermodynamics and electrochemistry of

Oleksander Brodsky

solutions. He was the first to produce heavy water in the Soviet Union (1934). He developed a general theory for isolating isotopes and some methods for analyzing them. Brodsky wrote a number of textbooks and monographs, among them Khimiia izotopov (The Chemistry of Isotopes, 1952), the first such work in the field, and Fizicheskaia khimiia (Physical Chemistry, 2 vols, 1948). Brody. 111-6. City (1970 pop 13,500) at the foot of the Podilia Upland in the valley of the upper Styr River; a raion center in Lviv oblast. Brody is first mentioned in historical sources in the 12th century. In 1584 the town was granted Magdeburg law, and in the 17th century a well-fortified castle was built there, designed by the French military engineer G. de Beauplan. From the mid19th century to 1939 Brody was a county town. Because of its border location and trade privileges it was a center of Austrian-Russian trade in the first half of the 19th century. With the building of the railroads Brody lost its privileged position and began to decline: it had 20,000 inhabitants in 1880 and only 12,500 in 1931. Most of its inhabitants were Jews; in 1900 they constituted 64 percent of the population. The city has a clothes factory, a furniture factory, a concrete-making plant, a food industry, and teachers' school. The ruins of the castle have been preserved. On 17-22 July 1944 the Ukrainian ^Division Galizien fought the Soviet army nearby (see *Brody, Battle of). Brody, Battle of. A series of defensive engagements fought by the Ukrainian *Division Galizien, attached to the 13th German Army Corps, against the advancing Red Army during the Lviv-Sandomierz operation (13-22 July 1944). The Soviet forces, several times stronger in men and material, began their offensive against Lviv with advances in the direction of Ternopil-Zolochiv to the south and Radekhiv-Busk to the north of the town of Brody. During the battle individual regiments of the division - then stationed on the second line of the front were dispatched to the areas of heaviest fighting to close gaps. On 18 July Soviet forces surrounded the corps and destroyed it. On 21-22 July the survivors broke out of the encirclement near the villages of Kniazhe and Pochany and moved south towards the Podilian Upland (HolohoryPeremyshliany). Of the division's 11,000 soldiers, 3,000 returned from Brody and regrouped in Serednie, Transcarpathia. After the battle some members of the division joined up with the ^Ukrainian Insurgent Army. Many were taken as prisoners of war.

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Lysiak, O. (ed). Brody: Zbirnyk (Munich 1951) Polushkin, M. Na sandomirskom napravlenii: Vvovsko-Sandomirskaia operatsiia (iiuV-avgust 1944 g.) (Moscow 1969) Heike, W . - D . Sie wollten Die Freiheit: Die Geschichte der Ukrainischen Division 1943-1945 (Dorheim 1973) Lysiak, O.; Veryha, V.; Livyns'kyi, R.; Drazhevs'kyi, R. (eds). Bii pid Brodamy: Zbirnyk (New York 1974)

Bronze Age. Historical-cultural period in which bronze utensils, implements, and weapons began to be manufac­ tured. Bronze implements became increasingly wide­ spread alongside stone implements. Owing to the greater hardness of bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, as com­ pared to copper, bronze culture replaced the Copper Age or Eneolithic Age and lasted from the end of the 4th mil­ lennium to the 1st millennium B C . The bronze culture did not develop synchronously: the territories that were re­ mote from the advanced centers of civilization retained their Neolithic form of life based on hunting and fishing. There the transition to metal progressed slowly. In Europe bronze products were known in the 3rd-2nd millennium B C . Deposits of copper and tin ores were located at the time in Spain, England, France, Austria, and Hungary. Caucasia played an important role in this age by supply­ ing the steppe regions of eastern Europe with bronze im­ plements at the end of the 2nd millennium B C . Barter trade was gradually established and developed in the regions of metal mining. On Ukrainian territory Plan of a Trypilian settlement of the Late Bronze Age at Kolomyishchyna, Kiev region; drawing according to T. Passek, 1949

Thirteen molds for casting bronze objects from a settlement of the Sabatynivka culture, 1200-800 BC; drawing according to A. Dobrovolsky, 1950

trade stimulated the rapid development of livestock grazing and primitive agriculture and facilitated the transition to a patriarchal clan system and the economic stratification of the livestock-herding tribes. The tribes who lived west of the Dnieper River and north of the Dniester River usually obtained their bronze from Subcarpathia; the tribes east of the Dnieper obtained their bronze from Caucasia and partly from the Donets Basin. The Bronze Age on Ukrainian territory and in all eastern Europe can be divided into three periods: (1) the early period from the 19th to the 17th century B C ; (2) the middle period from the 16th to the 14th century B C ; and (3) the late period, from the 13th to the 9th century B C . The oldest copper-bronze culture that existed on Ukrainian territories between the Dnieper and the Volga was the *Pit-Grave culture of the livestock-grazing and agricultural tribes who lived east and partly west of the Dnieper. Later, during the early Bronze Age, the southern steppe region of Ukraine east of the Dnieper was inhabited by livestock-raising tribes of the ""Catacomb culture, who also occupied the Don region and the Caspian steppes. These tribes maintained close trade relations with the tribes of northern Caucasia. In the early 2nd millennium B C seminomadic livestock-raising tribes of the CordedPottery culture appeared from the west in Right-Bank Ukraine. Migrating eastwards, they mingled with the indigenous tribes and thus gave rise to the *MiddleDnieper culture. In the middle Bronze Age almost all the forest-steppe of the Dnieper and Dniester regions was settled by tribes of the Trzciniec-*Komariv culture, whose artifacts are found also in Poland. In the east the basins of the Desna and

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Seim rivers were inhabited by the tribes of the *Marianivka and *Bondarykha cultures. In southern and southwestern Ukraine the so-called *Multicylindrical-Pottery culture flourished at that time. In the late Bronze Age the tribes of the ^Bilohrudivka culture inhabited the forest-steppe west of the Dnieper River. East of the Dnieper the late Marianivka and Bondarykha cultures continued to flourish. In the middle Dniester region the Noua culture was widespread. Its agricultural and livestock-raising tribes were advanced in their bronze casting and maintained ties with the Transylvanian centers of metallurgy. They were also in contact with the tribes of central Europe and western Ukraine. Their bronze artifacts also reached the tribes of the late *Timber-Grave culture. In Transcarpathia the *Stanove culture of agricultural and cattle-raising tribes was advanced in bronze casting and was connected with the Transylvanian centers. Many valuable bronze artifacts - weapons, farm implements, decorative objects, and horse armor - have been found in the region. A large proportion of these articles come from the Tysa-Danube Basin. The tribes of the Timber-Grave culture, who were related to the *Scythians, moved into the Black Sea steppes in the middle of the 2nd millennium and lived there until the 8th century B C . They lived by agriculture and animal breeding and partly by bronze manufacturing. Bronze smithies and foundries of this culture, with molds of daggers, spearheads, decorative objects, and farm implements, have been uncovered. A shortage of metals forced these tribes to establish close cultural ties with the Noua tribes, who provided them with metal ores from the Transylvanian centers. During the Bronze Age important historical developments, migrations, and military encounters took place in southern Ukraine. Ukraine became the location of various tribal cultures and alliances. Some tribes were gradually assimilated by others and disappeared. Others continued to exist in the *Iron Age. BIBLIOGRAPHY Shovkoplias, I. Arkheolohichni doslidzhennia na Ukraïni, 19171957 (Kiev 1957) Artemenko, I. Plemena Verkhnego i Srednego Podneprov'ia v epokhu bronzy (Moscow 1967) Sulimirski, T. Prehistoric Russia (London 1970) Arkheolohiia Ukraïns'koï RSR (Kiev 1971) Berezanskaia, S. Srednii period bronzovogo veka v Severnoi Ukraine (Kiev 1972) Svieshnikov, I. Istoriia naselennia Peredkarpattia, Podillia i Volyni v kintsi in-na pochatku 11 tysiacholittia do nasho'i ery (Kiev 1974) Eneolit i bronzovyi vek Ukrainy (Kiev 1976) N . Kordysh-Holovko

Bronzov-Yehorov, Ivan [Bronzov-Jehorov], b 7 March 1896 in Katerynoslav, d 20 February 1963 in Kharkiv. Opera singer, dramatic baritone. From 1925 until 1959, Bronzov-Yehorov performed in the opera theaters of Kiev, Odessa, Dnipropetrovske, and Kharkiv. His roles included Bohdan in K. Dankevych's Bohdan KhmeVnyts'kyi, Mazeppa in P. Tchaikovsky's Mazeppa, Scarpia in G. Puccini's La Tosca, and Kachura in O. Chyshko's Bronenosets Potemkin (Battleship Potemkin). Broshniv-Osada [Brosniv-Osada]. v-5. Town smt (1977 pop 5,800) in the Carpathian foothills of Rozhniativ raion,

Ivano-Frankivske oblast. Broshniv-Osada is one of the largest timber-industry centers in Ukraine, processing wood from the central Gorgany Mountains (a narrowgauge railway gives access to the mountain range). There are two timber mills near Broshniv-Osada: the Osmoloda and the Broshniv. Brotherhood of Former Soldiers of the First Ukrainian Division of the Ukrainian National Army (Bratstvo kolyshnikh voiakiv Pershoi ukrainskoi dyvizii Ukrainskoi natsionalnoi armii). A n association of former members of the ^Division Galizien, founded in Neu Ulm, West Germany, in 1949. Its head office was located first in Munich, then transferred to New York at the end of the 1950s, and finally to Toronto in the mid1960s. The brotherhood has national organizations and local branches in Germany, Canada, the United States, Argentina, and Australia. In Great Britain former members of the division co-operate with the brotherhood but have founded a separate organization known as the ^Ukrainian Former Combatants in Great Britain. The brotherhood's membership numbered some 1,000 in 1950, 1,400 in 1980. Its presidents have been Rev M . Le vene ts (1950-2), L. Ortynsky (1953-62), I . Skirka (1963-4), R. Drazhniowsky (1974-9), and M . Maletsky (1964-73 and from 1979). The brotherhood published a magazine, Visti, in Munich in 1950-74 (140 issues). It co-publishes a bimonthly - Visti kombatanta (115 issues by 1981) - with the United Ukrainian War Veterans in America. Brotherhood of St Nicholas. See Ukrainian Mutual Benefit Association of St Nicholas.

Brotherhood of Taras in Kharkiv, 1891-3

Brotherhood of Taras (Bratstvo tarasivtsiv). Secret organization of young nationally conscious Ukrainians established in 1891 (according to some, in 1892) when a group of students and civic leaders from Kharkiv and Kiev visited the grave of T. Shevchenko near Kaniv. Among the brotherhood's founders were V. Borovyk, B. Hrinchenko, I . Lypa, and M . Mikhnovsky. Besides promoting cultural goals, the brotherhood raised political demands - the liberation of the Ukrainian nation from Russian domination, full autonomy for all the peoples of the Russian Empire, and social justice. Kharkiv was the brotherhood's center of activity until its members were arrested in the summer of 1893. Then Kiev became the center, with chapters in Odessa, Poltava, Lubni, and

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Pryluka. The brotherhood included such people as V. Borzhkovsky, M . Dmytriiev, M . Kononenko, M . Kotsiubynsky, V. Samiilenko, V. Sovachiv, V. Stepanenko, Ye. Tymchenko, O. Cherniakhivsky, V. Shemet, V. Andriievsky, M . Bazkevych, and M . Baizdrenko. The ideological principles of the society were formulated by I . Lypa and were published anonymously in a revised form as 'Profession de foi' in the journal Pravda (April 1893). These ideas were propagated by Vartovy (B. Hrinchenko) in Lysty z Ukraïny Naddniprians'koï (Letters from Dnieper Ukraine), by M. Kotsiubynsky in the fable 'Kho/ and by V. Samiilenko in satires on the Little Russian mentality and Ukrainophilism. The Brotherhood of Taras was active until 1898. Through its influence the Old Hromada transformed itself in 1897 into the more political ^General Ukrainian Non-Party Democratic Organization, and the younger generation organized the ^Revolutionary Ukrainian party in 1900.

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provided what was accepted as a secondary education in those times: classical languages, dialectics, rhetoric, poetics, homiletics, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music (church singing). Some schools taught Orthodox theology and Catholic theology (for the purpose of polemics). Brotherhood schools were open to various social strata. Students were judged not by lineage, but by achievement (in contrast to Jesuit schools). Discipline

BIBLIOGRAPHY Lypa, I. Tarasivtsi,' Pys'mo z Prosvity, 1922, nos 11-12 Kozub, S. 'Kotsiubyns'kyi u Braterstvi tarasivtsiv/ in Ivory Kotsiubyns'koho, 7 (Kharkiv-Kiev 1930-1) V.V. '45-littia Tarasivtsiv/ Litopys Chervonoï Kalyny, 1936, nos 1-2 A . Zhukovsky

Brotherhood of the Resurrection (Bratsrvo Voskresinnia). Founded in Kiev in 1917 following a convention of clergy and laymen that elected as its head the archpriest (later metropolitan) V. *Lypkivsky. The goal of the brotherhood was the winning of autocephalous status for the Ukrainian Orthodox church. The brotherhood reconstituted itself as the *A11-Ukrainian Orthodox Church Council, which convened the *AU-Ukrainian Church Sobor on 7 January 1918. Brotherhood schools. Schools founded by religious ^brotherhoods for the purposes of counteracting the denationalizing influence of Catholic (Jesuit) and Protestant schools and of preserving the Orthodox faith began to appear in the 1580s. The first school was established in 1586 by the *Lviv Dormition Brotherhood. The school served as a model for other brotherhood schools in various towns of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, most of them in Ukraine and Belorussia: Peremyshl (est 1592), Halych, Horodok, Rohatyn, Stryi, Mykolaiv, Komarno, Yaroslav, Kholm, Krasnostav, Zamostia (est 1606), Lublin, Bilske, Berestia, Volodava, Pynske, Kiev (est 1615), Striatyn, Vinnytsia, Nemyriv, Kamianets-Podilskyi, Medzhybizh, Lutske (est 1620), Volodymyr-Volynskyi, Dubno, Kremianets, Vilnius (est 1587), Minsk, and Mohyliv. In the first half of the 17th century even some villages had brotherhood schools. The most prominent schools were those of the Lviv and Kiev brotherhoods. At first the brotherhood schools had a Greek-Church Slavonic curriculum: lectures were in Church Slavonic, and Greek was taught as a second language. (Hence these schools were also called Greek schools.) Then the schools began to adopt the structure and curriculum of the Jesuit schools, using Latin as the primary language, particularly those schools that modeled themselves on the *Kievan Mohyla Academy. Ukrainian was used only for examination purposes and, from 1645, for teaching the catechism. The curriculum of most of the brotherhood schools

A page from o vospitanii ditei (On the Education of Children), Published in Lviv in 1609

in the schools was strict, and physical punishment was used. Orphans and poor students lived in "bursas. Lecturers were required to set an example by their behavior and to have pedagogical training. Brotherhood schools made a significant contribution to the growth of religious and national consciousness and the development of Ukrainian culture. They published textbooks, particularly language textbooks. The Czech educator J. A. Comenius (Komensky) derived many of the ideas in his Didáctica Magna (1628-32) from the practices of the brotherhood schools. At the end of the 17th century and in the 18th century the schools found themselves in adverse political conditions and declined. BIBLIOGRAPHY Medyns'kyi, le. Brats'ki shkoly Ukraïny i Bilorusiïv stolittiakh (Kiev 1958)

xvi-xvii P. Polishchuk

Brotherhoods (Ukrainian sing: bratstvo). Fraternities affiliated with individual churches in Ukraine and Belorussia that performed a number of religious and secular functions. The origins of brotherhoods can be traced back to the medieval bratchyny, which were organized at churches in the Princely era (first mentioned in the Hypatian Chronicle, 1159). Brotherhoods as such appeared in Ukraine in the mid-i5th century (the *Lviv Dormition Brotherhood was first mentioned in 1463), with the rise of the burgher class. They adopted their organizational structure from Western medieval brotherhoods (confraternitates) and trade guilds. Initially the brotherhoods engaged only in religious and charitable activities. They maintained churches and sometimes assumed financial responsibility for them, ensured that church services, in particular

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Church of the Lutske Brotherhood (1622)

parish feasts, were celebrated in a ceremonious way, arranged ritual dinners for their members, collected money, helped the indigent and the sick, and organized hospitals. Since these religious and charitable activities of the brotherhoods left no visible traces, some historians, such as K. Huslysty and Ya. Isaievych, do not consider the early period of the brotherhoods as being part of their history. The brotherhoods began to play a historical role in the second half of the 16th and at the beginning of the 17th century. In this period they assumed the task of defend­ ing the Orthodox faith and Ukrainian nationality by counteracting Catholic and particularly Jesuit expansion­ ism, Polonization, and later conversion to the Uniate church. Because they consisted predominantly of bur­ ghers, the brotherhoods acquired a secular character and often found themselves in opposition to the authoritarian practices of the clergy. Hence, they endeavored to reform the Orthodox church from within by condemning the corrupt practices of the hierarchy and of individual clergymen. Their interference in clerical affairs was one of the reasons for the favorable attitude towards the Church Union of *Berestia among the Orthodox bishops. The brotherhoods brought about a revival in the life of the church by promoting cultural and educational activity. They founded ^brotherhood schools, printing presses, and libraries. The resulting cultural-religious movement found its literary expression in "polemical literature. The brotherhoods also participated in civic and political life. They sent representatives to church councils and to the Sejm in Warsaw and maintained ties with the Cossacks. In the late 16th and early 17th century new brother­ hoods were founded and existing ones were reorganized in the towns of Galicia, the Kholm region, Podlachia, Volhynia, and the Dnieper region. Each brotherhood had its own statute (articles, regulations, procedures), modeled on the statute of the Lviv brotherhood of 1586. Membership was open to all estates, but usually only married men were admitted (unmarried men belonged to the 'junior brotherhoods). At his initiation a member had to take an oath. Officers - usually four elders, including the head (a senior member) - were elected at the annual meeting. Although brotherhood members were usually mer­ chants and skilled tradesmen residing in the towns, some Orthodox clerics and nobles, such as L. Drevynsky and A. Puzyna, and some magnates, such as K. Ostrozky, A. Vyshnevetsky, R. Ruzhynsky, and A. Kysil, participated 7

in the affairs of certain brotherhoods. The clergy and the nobility were particularly active in the Lutske and Kiev brotherhoods. Hetmán P. Sahaidachny, 'with the whole Zaporozhian Host,' joined the Kiev brotherhood. The Lviv Dormition Brotherhood was one of the oldest and most successful brotherhoods. In 1386 it received the right of *stauropegion (direct subordination to a patriarch instead of a local bishop) and founded a school and a printing press. It maintained close contacts with Molda­ vian rulers and boyars. In 1588-95 there were active brotherhoods in the towns of Kamianets-Podilskyi, Rohatyn, Horodok, Berestia, Peremyshl, Lublin, and Halych. After 1596 brotherhoods were established in Sianik, Zamostia, Drohobych, Sambir, Kholm, Ostrih, Lutske, Kremianets, Sharhorod, Nemyriv, Kiev, and elsewhere. The *Kiev Epiphany Brotherhood began to play an impor­ tant cultural-educational and religious role in 1615. It founded a school (*Kiev Epiphany Brotherhood School) that in 1632 became a college and then in 1701 the *Kievan Mohyla Academy. In 1617 the *Lutske Brother­ hood of the Elevation of the Cross gained prominence.

The logogram of the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood printing press, with the coats of arms of Lviv (left) and the brotherhood (right)

Under the Hetmán state, the Orthodox church in­ creased in influence. The reforms of P. Mohyla and the general improvement in clerical education enabled the Orthodox to compete with the previously superior educa­ tional system of the Jesuits, and the threat of denational­ ization in Ukraine diminished. Although the number of brotherhoods increased in this period, they confined their activities to the religious and charitable sphere and dropped their broader national and civic pursuits. In Left-Bank Ukraine new brotherhoods, with a nar­ rower focus, appeared at the end of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th century in Poltava, Novi Sanzhary, Starodub, Sribne (where the brotherhood supported a hospital), Lebedyn, and Kharkiv. After the Ukrainian church became subordinated to the Moscow patriarchate in 1686 and then to the Holy Synod, the Russian imperial government did not approve of the activities of the

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The Teaching of Letters, a detail on an icon from Yablonytsia Ruska (15th century)

brotherhoods. Only much later, on 8 May 1864, did the Russian authorities issue a law permitting brotherhoods to be formed throughout the Russian Empire; these newly created brotherhoods, however, differed in their aims and work from the traditional Ukrainian brotherhoods. In Right-Bank Ukraine in 1679 the Polish Sejm pro­ hibited the brotherhoods from maintaining ties with the Eastern patriarchs; as a result, the right of stauropegion lost its significance. By the beginning of the 18th century the Uniate church had established itself firmly in Western Ukraine. The Lviv Dormition Brotherhood had accepted the union in 1709 and had received from the Pope a guarantee of its right of stauropegion. Under the Aus­ trian regime, however, the Galician brotherhoods were dissolved by the government decree of 1788. The Lviv brotherhood was then transformed into the *Stauropegion Institute. In the 19th-20th century brotherhoods were again organized in many villages and towns, but these usually merely helped to run the local parishes. They assumed their proper religious and national tasks only during Ukraine's independence in 1917-20. The Kiev *Brotherhood of the Resurrection (established in 1917 and headed by Rev V. Lypkivsky) helped to convene the * All-Ukrai­ nian Orthodox Church Council, which later led to the formation of the ^Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church. Religious life in certain internment camps for the soldiers of the Ukrainian National Republic in 1921-2 was under the care of brotherhoods. The best-known among them was the Brotherhood of the Holy Protectress (1921-4) in Aleksandrów Kujawski and then in Szczypiorno, Poland, with branches in other camps. This brotherhood published Relihiino-naukovyi visnyk and books. Ukrainian immigrants in the United States and Canada organized brotherhoods as soon as they established their own parishes. The Brotherhood of St Nicholas was formed in Shenandoah, Pennsylvania, in 1885, and many other similar societies appeared. Eventually they united into brotherhood associations, which in time evolved into mutal-aid and insurance organizations. Parallel women's organizations, such as the St Olha Sisterhood in Jersey City (1897), were founded. In 1932 the Ukrainian Catholic Brotherhood was established in Canada and adopted the functions of the Catholic Action societies rather than those of the traditional Ukrainian brotherhoods.

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After 1945 many Orthodox and Catholic brotherhoods were created in the displaced persons camps. The statute of the Orthodox brotherhoods was adopted by the coun­ cil of bishops in 1947. The most important Orthodox brotherhoods established after the Second World War were the Metropolitan Lypkivsky Brotherhood, which publishes the bimonthly Tserkva izhyttia; the Brotherhood of the Holy Protectress in Argentina, which published the monthly Dzvin; St Simon's Brotherhood in Paris; and St Valdimir's Brotherhood in Toronto. In the United States the parish sisterhoods together formed the United Ukrainian Orthodox Sisterhoods of the U S A , which is engaged in educational and publishing activities and has published Ukraina: Entsyklopediia dlia molodi (Ukraine: Encyclopedia for Youth, 1971). The oldest Catholic brotherhood outside Ukraine is St Barbara's Brotherhood, established in the 1870s in Vienna. The church life of the Ukrainian Catholic eparchy in Australia is based on lay brotherhoods. The recent struggle for an independent patriarchate and for the autonomy of the Ukrainian Catholic church has given rise to brotherhoods and sisterhoods in the United States that continue the traditions of the old brotherhoods. The

The seal of the Lviv Dormition Brotherhood, late i6th century

Ukrainian Catholic Lay Brotherhood of St Andrew in Chicago is among the better known; since 1970 it has published annually Tserkovnyi kalendar aVmanakh. The Union of Ukrainian Catholic Brotherhoods and Sister­ hoods of America was formed in 1976 and is based in Chicago. BIBLIOGRAPHY Kharlampovich, K. 'Zapadno-russkie tserkovnye bratstva i ikh prosvetitel'naia deiatel'nost' v kontse xvi i nachale xvn v.,' Khristiianskoe chtenie (St Petersburg 1899) Krylovskii, A . Uvovskoe StavropigiaVnoe bratstvo (Kiev 1904) Hrinchenko, B. Bratstva i prosvitnia sprava (Kiev 1907)

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Hrushevs'kyi, M . KuVturno-natsionaVnyi rukh na Ukraïni v XVI-XVII v. (Kiev 1912) Savych, A . Narysy z istorii' kuVturnykh rukhiv na Ukraïni ta Bilorusiï v xvi-xviii v. (Kiev 1929) Ohiienko, I. 'Ukra'ins'ki tserkovni bratstva, ïkh diial'nist' ta znachennia/ Nasha kuVtura (Warsaw 1937) Isaievych, la. Bratstva ta ïkh roV v rozvytku ukrains'koi kuVtury XVI-XVIII st. (Kiev 1966) Nazarko, I. 'Bratstva i ïkh rolia v istorii Ukraïns'koï Tserkvy/ in Ukraïns'kyi myrianyn v zhytti Tserkvy, spiVnoty i liudstva (Paris-Rome 1966) Isaievych, la. 'Dzherela z istorii bratstv,' in Dzherela z istorii' ukraïns'koï kuVtury doby feodalizmu (Kiev 1972) A . Zhukovsky

Brounov, Petr, b 2 January 1853 in St Petersburg, d 24 April 1927 in Leningrad. Russian meteorologist, founder of agricultural meteorology in the Russian Empire. He was a professor at Kiev (1890-3) and St Petersburg univerisities and organizer of the Dnieper network of meteorological stations in Ukraine.

edited the illustrated educational monthly Zhyttia i znannia. Bryk is the author of Slav'ians'kyi z'ïzd u Prazi 1848 r. i ukraïns'ka sprava (The Slavic Congress in Prague in 1848 and the Ukrainian Question, 1920) and Materiialy do istorii ukraïns'ko-ches'kykh vzaiemyn v pershii polovyni xix st. (Materials on the History of Ukrainian-Czech Relations in the First Half of the 19th Century), vol 15 of Ukraïns'ko-rys'kyi arkhiv (1920). Bryndzan, Teofíl, b 1 November 1875 in Tovtry, Bukovyna, d 24 January 1962 in Bad Salzuflen, West Germany. Community figure and pedagogue in Bukovyna. Bryndzan taught classical and modern languages at gymnasiums in Kitsman and Chernivtsi and organized courses in Ukrainian studies for students in Bukovyna. His articles appeared in the Bukovynian press.

Brovary. 111-11. City (1982 pop 62,000) and raion center in Kiev oblast, 20 km northeast of Kiev. The city has a metallurgical plant, built in 1961-4, a rail-repair plant, a plastics plant, a rolled-steel and foundry plant, a refrigerator factory, a mechanical-repairs plant, a children's clothes factory, the Kiev poultry plant, a woodworking complex, and a consumer-goods complex. In January 1918 the city was the site of battles between U N R and Bolshevik forces. Brovchenko, Volodymyr [Brovcenko], b 1 June 1931 in Mala Vyska, now in Kirovohrad oblast. Poet and journalist. From 1973 to 1979 he was chief editor of the literary journal *Dnipro, and he now heads the Ukraina Association for Cultural Relations with Ukrainians Abroad. His collections of poetry include: ShumliaV zhyta (The Grain Is Rustling, 1956), Zustrichaite sontse (Greet the Sun, 1959), Skelia liubovi (The Cliff of Love, 1964), Nerozstriliani zori (Unexploded Stars, 1966), Perelohy (Fallow Fields, 1968), Na krylakh vechoriv (On the Wings of Evenings, 1971), V orkestri svitla (In the Orchestra of Light, 1973), Dumna hora (The Lofty Mountain, 1975), Surmy (Trumpets, 1976), Vichnyi zhaivir (The Eternal Lark, 1977), Pohoda na zavtra (Tomorrow's Weather, 1979), and Zoshyt z-pid kamenia (Notebook from under a Stone, 1980). Bryk, Ivan, b 8 July 1879 in Ustryky Dolishni, Lisko county, Galicia, d August 1947 in Landeck, Austria. Literary scholar, teacher, and civic leader; full member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society from 1919. Bryk received his P H D from Vienna University in 1903. He taught at the Lviv Academic Gymnasium and the Ukrainian Underground University, wrote for Galician newspapers, and contributed articles on Ukrainian-Czech relations, the Galician press, the Galician revival (M. Shashkevych), and T. Shevchenko to Galician and Czech scholarly journals. In 1902 Bryk founded and headed the Ukrainian Hromada in Prague. He is best known for his activity in the central office of the Prosvita society in Lviv, where he served as secretary, office director (1906-10), acting head (1919-23), deputy head (1923-31), and head (1932-9). Bryk organized the First Ukrainian Educational and Economic Congress in Lviv in 1909 and the Second AllUkrainian Educational Congress in 1929. In 1931-3 he

Mykhailo Brynsky

Brynsky, Mykhailo [Bryns'kyj, Myxajlo], b 11 October 1883 in Dolyna, Tovmach county, Galicia, d 10 January 1957 m Prague. Sculptor, monumentalist. Brynsky graduated from the Academy of Arts in Prague (1926). He lived in Prague from 1920 and produced several monuments, including one to killed striking workers (1912) at Ottakring Cemetery near Vienna. He sculpted the monument to dead Ukrainian prisoners of war that stands in Jablonov (1922) and monuments in Liberec, Pribram (1926), Hradec Králové, and Jozefov, all in Moravia. He designed a columbarium in Podëbrady. His other works include Aeneus Saves His Father (1916), Boy with a Goose, Head of a Peasant Woman, relief sculptures, and portraits of T. Shevchenko. Bryzh, Teodosiia [Bryz, Teodosija], b 18 February 1929 in Berezhnytsia, Rivne county, Volhynia. Sculptor, graduate of the Lviv Institute of Applied and Decorative Art (1954). She has sculpted portraits of King Danylo (1954), Yevpraksiia Mstyslavna, Princess Olha (1961), and I . Vilde (1964); compositions based on the works of V. Stefanyk (The Road) and Lesia Ukrainka (The Forest Song, 1970); and series on ancient Slavic mythology: The God of War, The God of Fire, The God of Earth and Water (1968-70). She has also done sculptures for parks. With Ye. Dzyndra she produced the monument to Nazi victims in Volodymyr-Volynskyi (1966). Bubniuk, Stefaniia [Bubnjuk, Stefanija] (birth name: Hladka), b 26 April 1901 in Troianivka, Galicia. Bubniuk came to Canada in 1926. She was a member of the first

B U C H A R E S T

executive of the Ukrainian Women's Organization of Canada ( O U K , 1934-43) d from 1951 to 1973 editor of Zhinochyi svit, the official organ of O U K . a R

Bubnyshche

Bubnyshche [Bubnysce]. iv-4. Village in Dolyna raion, Ivano-Frankivske oblast. A medieval cave monastery, protected by a wall on one side, was located here. One of the important monuments of monasticism in Ukraine, it was investigated by the archeologists W. Demetrykiewicz in 1903 and Ya. Pasternak in 1913. Popular legends about O. Dovbush's treasure are associated with Bubnyshche. Bucha [Buca]. 111-11. Town smt (1977 pop 24,500) in Kiev oblast, subordinated to the Irpin city soviet. A resort town located among pine forests 32 km northwest of Kiev, it has an experimental packing plant and a glass-packing plant. The Ukrainian branch of the All-Union Institute of Fiberglass and Polyacrylics is located here.

Buchach Town Hall

Buchach [Bucac]. iv-6. City (1973 pop 11,400) on the Strypa River, a raion center in Ternopil oblast. Buchach was first mentioned in historical documents from 1397 as part of the estates of the Buczacki family. In 1515 the fortified city was granted Magdeburg law. In the 16th17th century Buchach protected Galicia from the Tatars and Turks. In 1672 the *Buchach Peace Treaty was signed. Count S. Potocki established a Basilian monastery in 1712; a well-known school functioned at the monastery until 1893. The Basilians ran a teacher's seminary here in 185565, and from 1911, the St Josaphat Institute. From the mid-i9th century to 1939 Buchach was a county center. It produced carpets and ornamental rugs. The city devel­

307

oped slowly: in 1880 it had 9,000 inhabitants, of whom 63.5 percent were Jews; in 1939 it had 11,100 inhabitants, of whom 46.4 percent were Jews, 31.9 percent were Poles or Roman Catholics, and 21.6 percent were Ukrainians. In 1959 Ukrainians constituted 96 percent of the population. Today a food industry is located in Buchach. Among its architectural monuments are the ruins of the Potocki family's castle (i4th-i6th century); St Nicholas's Church (1610); the Basilian monastery (1712) with a baroque church (1751); and the town hall, built in the baroque style by the architect B. Meretyn and decorated by the sculptor J. Pinzel (1751). Buchach Gospel. Also known as the Horodyshche Gospel. The Church Slavonic text of 180 folios was tran­ scribed in Ukraine, probably in southern Volhynia in the first half of the 13th century. The language of the text has been studied by A. Sobólevsky, I . Svientsitsky, and O. Kolessa (who published samples from it). The manuscript is preserved in Lviv. Buchach Peace Treaty of 1672. A treaty concluded on 16 October 1672 in the town of Buchach between Turkey and Poland, which had been defeated by Mohammed iv. According to the terms of the treaty, the Podilia voivode­ ship, with Kamianets, was to be ceded to Turkey; the Bratslav voivodeship and the southern portion of the Kiev voivodeship were to be recognized as Cossack territory administered by Hetmán P. ^Doroshenko under a Turkish protectorate; and Poland was to pay a large annual tribute to Turkey. The Polish Sejm did not ratify the treaty, how­ ever, and war resumed in April 1673. Turkish policy in Right-Bank Ukraine led to the mass resettlement of the Ukrainian population in Left-Bank Ukraine and to Doro­ shenko's resignation as hetmán in 1676. Bucharest (Bucure§ti). ix-7. Since 1862 the capital city (1980 pop 1,858,000) of ^Rumania, located on the Dhnbovija River. Bucharest has been known since the 14th century, and in 1659 it became the capital of Wallachia. In 1812 Russia signed the ^Bucharest Peace Treaty here, annexing *Bessarabia. Between the world wars many Ukrainians from Buko­ vyna and Bessarabia and émigrés from central Ukraine lived in Bucharest; in 1940 their number increased. A number of Ukrainian organizations were based here: the Public Relief Committee of Ukrainian Emigrants in Ru­ mania (established in 1923), its branch the Community of Ukrainian Emigrants in Bucharest, the monarchist Ukrai­ nian Union of Agrarians-Statists (established in Bucha­ rest in 1921), the Society of Ukrainian Soldiers in Ru­ mania, the Union of Ukrainian Emigrant Women in Ru­ mania, and the student organizations Zoria (1921-6) and Bukovyna (1926-44). In 1941 a Ukrainian radio program was broadcast from Bucharest, and the newspaper Zhyt­ tia and the journal Batava were published. During the Soviet occupation of 1944-5 Ukrainian activists, includ­ ing I . Hryhorovych and O. Masikevych, were arrested. Since the 1950s the Ukrainian population in Bucharest has been about 3,000. The biweekly Novyi vik (1949-) and the bimonthly journal KuVturnyi poradnyk (1950-8) have been published in the city. Since 1969 Kriterion publish­ ers have published many works by Ukrainian writers living in Rumania. In 1952 a chair of Ukrainian language and literature was established in the Slavic Institute of

3o8

BUCHAREST

Bucharest University, and a monument to T. Shevchenko was erected in a public park of the city. Bucharest is the center of Ukrainian cultural life in Rumania. A . Zhukovsky

Bucharest Peace Treaty of 1812. A treaty signed by Russia and Turkey on 28 May 1812 following the war of 1806-12. Turkey ceded ^Bessarabia to the Russian Em­ pire, the Prut River became the new Russian-Turkish border, and Russia was guaranteed the right to use the Danube River for trade purposes. Buchko, Ivan [Bucko], b 1 October 1891 in the village of Hermaniv near Lviv, d 21 September 1974 in Rome. Ukrainian Catholic archbishop, church and civic leader. Having completed his theological studies in Rome in 1911-13, Buchko was ordained in 1915. He served as rector of the Minor Seminary and professor of the Greek Catholic Theological Seminary in Lviv. In 1929 he became auxiliary bishop of the Lviv eparchy and was active in the archeparchial administration, the improvement of the religious life of the laity, the organizations of Catholic youth (including the Ukrainian Youth for Christ manifes­ tation) Catholic Action, Orly, and the defense of the church and the people under the Polish occupation, particularly during the Pacification. In 1939 he was the visitator of Ukrainian communities in South America and in 1940 the auxiliary bishop of the Philadelphia exarchate in the United States and the pastor of New York. From 1942 he lived permanently in Rome, representing Ukrai­ nian church and national interests at the Vatican. In 1946 he was appointed apostolic visitator of Ukrainians in Western Europe and in 1953 the titular archbishop of Leucadia. In 1958 he became consultor to the Congrega­ tion of the Eastern Churches, a member of the Vatican Commission of the Eastern Churches of the Second Vatican Council, and the vice-chairman of the Ukrainian Epis­ copal Conference. He was instrumental in the growth of the Ukrainian Catholic church in the diaspora. He also acted as the protector of Ukrainian political refugees in Europe after 1944. As a patron of Ukrainian culture and learning, Buchko was instrumental in setting up the Shevchenko Scientific Society center in Sarcelles, France, and was an honorary member of the society. He received honorary doctorates from the Ukrainian Free University and the Ukrainian Technical and Husbandry Institute.

A . Velyky

Buchma, Amvrosii [Bucma, Amvrosij], b 14 March 1891 in Lviv, d 6 January 1957 in Kiev. Prominent stage and screen actor, director, and teacher. Buchma began his stage career at the Ruska Besida theater in Lviv in 1910. In 1917 he studied at the Lysenko Music and Drama School in Kiev. In 1920 he worked in the Franko Drama Theater in Kiev and in 1923-6 in the *Berezil theater, where he played such memorable roles as Jimmy Higgins in an adaptation of U. Sinclair's novel, Leiba in an adapta­ tion of T. Shevchenko's Haidamaky (The Haidamakas), Jean in P. Mérimée's La Jacquerie, and the Fool in W. Shakespeare's Macbeth. At the same time he became a film actor and later left the theater to devote himself solely to the cinema (1926-30). The main roles in which he appeared in these years were those of Jimmy Higgins, Mykola Dzheria, Taras Shevchenko, Taras Triasylo (in films of the

Archbishop Ivan Buchko

Amvrosii Buchma

same titles), the leading role of Hordii in Nichnyi viznyk (The Night Coachman) and the German soldier in O. Dovzhenko's Arsenal. In 1930-6 Buchma returned to the Berezil theater (called the T. Shevchenko Ukrainian Drama Theater from 1935), now in Kharkiv, and played such roles as Dudar in I . Mykytenko's Dyktatura (The Dictatorship), Puzyr in I . Karpenko-Kary's Khaziain (The Master), and Haidai and Krechet in O. Korniichuk's ZahybeV eskadry (The Destruction of the Squadron) and Platon Krechet. From 1936 to 1954 Buchma worked as an actor and director in the Franko Theater in Kiev and in film. His was one of the best portrayals of Mykola Zadorozhny in I . Franko's Ukradene shchastia (Stolen Happiness). Buchma played in over 200 different roles. He depicted comic, dramatic, and tragic figures equally well. He directed the film Za stinoiu (Behind the Wall, 1928) and the play Nazar Stodolia at the Franko Theater in 1942 (he also co-directed this play with L. Dubovyk in 1951) and co-directed I . Kotliarevsky's Natalka Poltavka (Natalka from Poltava) at the Kiev Opera and Ballet Theater with V. Manzii in 1951. From 1940 Buchma lectured at the Kiev In­ stitute of Theater Arts and in 1946-8 was the artistic director of the Kiev Studio of Artistic Films. BIBLIOGRAPHY Burevii, K . Buchma (Kharkiv 1933) Piskun, I. A.M. Buchma (Kiev 1956) Babyshkin, O . Amvrosii Buchma v kino (Kiev 1966) Kosach, I u . Amvrosii Buchma (Kiev 1978)

V. Revutsky

Buchynsky, Meliton [Bucyns'kyj], b 24 February 1847 in Skalat county, Galicia, d 25 April 1903. Lawyer, civic leader, folklorist. He collected ethnographic material. His correspondence with M . Drahomanov in 1871-7 was published in 1910 by the Shevchenko Scientific Society through the efforts of M . Pavlyk. Buckwheat (Fagopyrum sagittatum; Ukrainian: hrechka). An annual spring grain that has been grown in Ukraine since the Princely era. The seed is ground into grits and flour. Buckwheat grows in many soils and matures quickly (65-80 days), but it does not tolerate drought. It is widespread only in the forest and forest-steppe belts of Ukraine, particularly in the Chernihiv region. In Ukraine 600,000-700,000 ha were usually devoted to buckwheat. In 1913, for example, 698,000 ha, or 2.8 percent of the land devoted to grain, were seeded with buckwheat and produced 400,000 tonnes or 1.7 percent of the total grain

B U D G E T

crop. From the mid-1950s the area seeded with buckwheat was greatly reduced, mainly because of its low harvest yield. In 1980, 345,000 ha (0.7 percent of the land given to grain) produced 371,000 tonnes (0.4 percent of all grain). Bucovina. See Bukovyna. Bucyk, John [Butsyk, Ivan], b 12 May 1935 in Edmonton, Alberta. Professional hockey player. Bucyk played 22 years (1955-77) in the National Hockey League ( N H L ) , including 20 seasons with the Boston Bruins. With V. Stasiuk and B. Horvath, the left-winger formed the 'Uke Line/ becoming the Bruins first 250-goal scorer and the second highest point scorer in N H L history. Twice an N H L all-star and twice awarded the Lady Byng Trophy for gentlemanly conduct, Bucyk was elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1981. 7

Budapest. Capital city (1982 est pop 2,000,000) of Hungary. In the 18th-19th century Budapest was an important cultural center for Transcarpathian Ukrainians. Many Ukrainians studied at its university. There were two Greek Catholic parishes in the city, in which Church Slavonic was replaced by Hungarian in the 1920s. The Transcarpathian Ukrainian community in the city was not separately organized and numbered about 500 in the 1960s. In 1837 the almanac Rusalka Dnistrovaia was published in Budapest, and several Ukrainian periodicals appeared there at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century. During the First World War the magazine Ukrània was published there in Hungarian. In 1919 the Communist paper Chervona Ukraïna appeared in Budapest. In 1918-21 diplomatic missions of the U N R and the Western Ukrainian National Republic were stationed in the city. Budapest University has a chair in the Ukrainian language. Budenny, Semen [Budennyj], b 25 April 1883 in Koziurin in the Kuban, d 26 October 1973 in Moscow. Soviet military and political leader, field marshal of the U S S R . In 1918-21 Budenny commanded the Bolshevik 1st Cavalry Army in southern Ukraine and Russia and played a crucial role in defeating the White forces of A. Denikin, P. Wrangel, and the combined Polish and Ukrainian armies. During the Second World War he commanded the Soviet army on the southwest front. For a time Budenny served as first deputy commissar for defense and from 1938 was a member of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the U S S R . Budget. A statement of the past period, and estimate for the coming period, of the revenues and expenditures of a given governmental entity, prescribed in fiscal terms by a legislative process for a specific period of time, usually one year, and allocated by the appropriate executive agencies. Depending on the jurisdiction, budgets are classified as state (national), regional, or local administrative budgets, municipal budgets, or public and economic institutional budgets. Before the First World War Ukraine, not being an independent state, did not have its own national budget but was included as part of the financial systems of the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires. During the period of independence (1918-19) the efforts of the Central Rada and the governments of the U N R and the

309

Western Ukrainian National Republic to institute a state budget did not succeed. The first state budget for Ukraine was introduced in 1918 under the Hetmán government. The state income was 3.2 million karbovantsi (Ukrainian rubles), and the expenses 5.3 million; the deficit was to be covered by issuing credit bonds and printing money. After the defeat of the Ukrainian government there was no organized budget in the period of War Communism (1919-20). There were provisional estimates of income and expenses, which had little significance in this period of economic ruin and inflation. The huge government deficits were covered by printing more paper money. Besides the printing of money the state's other main sources of income were the surplus appropriation system, various contributions, seizures and confiscations, and the depletion of financial reserves accumulated in previous years. In this period the Ukrainian S S R did not even have its own provisional budget but was subject to the financial legislation and policies of the Russian S F S R . With the creation of the U S S R and the introduction of the New Economic Policy, taxes in kind, which were undermining economic activity, were replaced by monetary taxes, and a number of prerevolutionary financial institutions were revived. In September 1924 the Central Executive Committee of the U S S R recommended the adoption of the first law on the budgetary rights of the Union republic, according to which the Ukrainian S S R and other republics are wholly subordinate to all-Union legislation, and the central government of the U S S R has the right, even without the republic's approval, to change these budgetary rights and to set the rate and means of taxation and of other financial exactions. The republican agencies have the power merely to set additional norms for fulfilling the financial plans according to local circumstances and the right to issue executive orders, but only within the limits specified by all-Union legislation. Thus, the principle of a unitary state budget was established in the U S S R ; it includes the all-Union budget and the budgets of the various republics. This centralized budgetary system makes it possible for the central authorities in Moscow to redistribute the national incomes of individual republics and regions and to influence decisively capital investment in the different branches of the economy. The first budget of the Ukrainian S S R , for 1923-4, had a total of 44.7 million rubles, or 2.2 percent of the U S S R state budget. This by no means reflected the economic role of Ukraine in the Soviet economy. The revenues of the Ukrainian S S R came almost entirely (99 percent) as deductions from direct taxes (taxes on agricultural products and industrial profits). Non-taxable revenues originated in the activities of the republic's people's commissariats. Up to 30 percent of the expenditures were spent on the economy; 20 percent were spent on culture, education, and social programs; and 10 percent on administration. The remainder, about 40 percent, was transferred to local budgets. The taxation reform of 1930, which aimed at simplifying the taxation system, was directly connected with the introduction of the *five-year plan and the increasing nationalization of sectors of the Soviet economy. Of the 70 existing taxes, 56 were revoked. A turnover tax was introduced, and the importance of indirect taxation thus increased. This indirect form of taxation provided the U S S R state budget with large financial resources for the development of industry and the bureaucracy. In this

310

B U D G E T

connection an important contribution was made by the obligatory deliveries of agricultural products to the state at artificially low, fixed prices (see * Agricultural procure­ ment) . Similarly, artificially high prices were set for manu­ factured goods. The revenue from the turnover tax flowed directly into the all-Union budget, and only a certain portion of it was returned to the republics. Another source of state revenue was the tax on the profits of enterprises, which in the interwar period had a varying rate of 10-80 percent, with a considerably higher rate applying to manufacturers of consumer goods than to heavy industry. The taxes from republican enterprises went into the budget of the Ukrainian S S R , while those from the all-Union enterprises went into the U S S R budget. In 1927 the practice of massive *state loans from the population was introduced; by 1931 about 17 percent of Ukraine's budget consisted of such loans. In 1938 local budgets and social-insurance funds were included in the budget of Ukraine. In the interwar period only about 20 percent of the revenues and expenditures of the Ukrai­ nian S S R figured in the budget of the republic. The rest was transferred to Ukraine from the all-Union budget. The small importance of Ukraine's budget can be seen from the comparison in table 1. TABLE 1 Budgets of Ukraine and USSR (in millions of rubles)

USSR'S income

1928-9

1932

1937

1940

8,831 (100%)

38,042

109,329

180,241

Ukraine's income

413 (4.7%)

781 (2%)

4,069 (3.7%)

7,880 (4.4%)

USSR'S expenses

8,784 (100%)

37,995

106,238

174,350

781 (2%)

4,070 (3.8%)

7,880 (4.5%)

Ukraine's expenses

412 (4.7%)

This state of affairs aroused opposition in Ukrainian circles. In the published materials of the State Planning Commission of the Ukrainian S S R there were attempts to analyze the distribution of all budgetary income and expenses on Ukrainian territory and to delineate the financial relations between the budgets of Ukraine and the U S S R . V. Dobrohaiev, M . Volobuiev, and other econo­ mists of the period asserted that about 23 percent of the income from Ukraine's economy was spent outside of Ukraine through the all-Union budget and based their methodological arguments on earlier studies by M . Porsh, P. Maltsev, and others on Russia's economic exploitation of Ukraine. According to Dobrohaiev's calculations, the 1925-6 income from the Ukrainian S S R was 689.4 million rubles, while the money spent on the republic was 554.2 million, resulting i n a loss to Ukraine of 135.2 million rubles or 19.6 percent of its income. The respective figures for 1926-7 were 852.3 and 686.2, with a loss to Ukraine of 166.1 million rubles, or 19.5 percent of its income. If one takes into account only those amounts that were pro­ cessed by the People's Commissariat of Finances of the Ukrainian S S R , the absence of data about the income and expenditures in the field of transportation (which amounted to a profit for Ukraine), as well as certain inaccuracies in the calculations, several insignificant

TABLE 2 Territorial budget of the Ukrainian SSR for 1926-7 (in thousands of rubles) Revenues collected in Ukraine from: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Direct taxes Indirect taxes Payments Communications and transportation State property State farming, industry, trade, banks, and insurance Covered state expenditures Miscellaneous Issuing money and loans

Total revenues Expenditures in Ukraine for: 1. Government and administration a) unconsolidated b) consolidated c) all-Union 2. State credit system 3. Funds 4. Financing of economy 5. A i d to local budgets Total expenditures Balance (loss to Ukraine)

For

USSR

budget 3,811.4 292,266.5 532.8

For Ukraine's budget

Category total

-

190,534.2 292,266.5 30,611.7

-

186,722.8 30,078.9

2.9 11.4

43,542.9

2.9 43,554.3

45.9

8,703.5

8,749.4

445.8 298.8 11,095.4

2,644.2 1,708.5

3,090.0 2,007.3 11,095.4

308,510.9

273,400.8

581,911.7

From

From Ukraine's budget

Total

USSR

budget

-

-

-

4,684.4 58,112.1 115,445.3

165,524.9 76,425.8 22,944.7 66,154.2 366.7 4,982.0 130,076.5 115,445.3

214,830.4

367,089.7

581,920.1

71,100.9

-

4,946.6 66,154.2 366.7 297.6 71,964.4

94,424.0 76,425.8 17,998.1

165,507.4

corrections can be made to Dobrohaiev's figures (see table 2). During the Stalin terror economists such as Volobuiev, Dobrohaiev, and others who defended Ukraine's budget­ ary rights perished, and research on the territorial budget of Ukraine was curtailed. After the Second World War the U S S R ' S budgetary system became even more centralized, particularly after the passage of the law of 30 October 1959. Since then, as in previous years, the central institutions in Moscow have had a decisive say in the drafting of the republican budgets. They have deter­ mined the size of revenues and expenditures for most branches of the national economy and even the culturaleducational requirements of the republics: the elementary and secondary schools have been financed through the republican budget, while technical schools, universities, and the institutions of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian S S R have been financed through the all-Union budget. Transportation and communications, external trade, military expenses (including pensions), the courts, etc, have been financed through the all-Union budget. However, the new law has permitted the supreme soviets of the republics to increase their budgeted incomes and expenditures somewhat beyond the limit set by the U S S R Supreme Soviet, with the proviso that the percentage of disbursements from Union taxes to the republics remains constant and that new taxes are not introduced.

BUDILOVICH

This innovation in the budgetary legislation of the USSR probably resulted from N. Khrushchev's reforms, aimed at decentralizing to some extent the management of the national economy (see ""Regional economic councils). At the time the Institute of Economics of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR was permitted at least partially to resume research into the "national income of Ukraine. For the first time since the 19205 some fairly limited data were published on the redistribution of revenues collected in Ukraine through the all-Union budget. In 1960, for example, of the total turnover tax collected in Ukraine (5,442 million rubles), 72.3 percent was retained in the all-Union budget, and only 27.7 percent was returned to Ukraine's budget. That year enterprises under all-Union jurisdiction contributed 102.4 million rubles to the all-Union budget, while the enterprises under the jurisdiction of the economic councils contributed 548.9 million rubles. In 1956-62,46.5 percent of the total revenues from taxes paid by the population (6,488.8 million) was transferred to the allUnion budget. Again a number of Ukrainian economists (including O. Nesterenko, V. Kuts, I. Tereshchenko, and others) spoke out in defense of Ukraine's budgetary rights, and in 1963 the Institute of Economics published a book on the national income of the Ukrainian SSR that showed that in 1959-61 Ukraine lost almost 14.4 percent of its national income annually to the other Soviet republics. With the abolition of Khrushchev's economic reforms and the return to full centralization of the Soviet economy, such research was curtailed; only general data about the size and structure of the republican budget are now published. The basic tendencies in the structure of the budget of the Ukrainian SSR since the second half of the 19605 are evident in table 3. The relative proportion of the budget of Ukraine in the budgetary system of the USSR has continued to be small: 4.2 percent in 1950, 10.3 in 1960, 9.8 in 1965, 8.5 in 1970, 8.5 in 1975, and 8.6 in 1979. Ukraine's budget has increased only insignificantly in the postwar period and does not correlate with the relative size of Ukraine's population or its economic resources. The budget of Ukraine, being deprived of any financial resources of its TABLE 3 Budget of the Ukrainian SSR (in millions of rubles)

Revenues from: 1. Turnover tax 2. Contributions from the income of state enterprises and organizations 3. Income tax from co-operatives and collective farms 4. State loans 5. Individual taxes Expenditures for: 1. National economy 2. Social-cultural programs Administrative expenses Repayment of loans, etc

1965

1975

1979

2,273

5,150

8,245

3,999

7,600

9,131

443 18 761

303 46 1,580

335 63 1,929

5,105 4,603

9,057 8,651

11,217 10,343

164 145

234 197

260 291

3"

own, is wholly dependent on the transfer of revenues from the central agencies in Moscow and in fact encompasses only a small part of the financial operations that take place on Ukrainian territory. Most of the branches of Ukraine's national economy are financed through the all-Union budget. All-Union investments not only have a decisive influence on the structure of Ukraine's economy but also subordinate Ukraine's economic interests to the general interests of the USSR as a whole. The policy of transferring "capital investment from Ukraine's economy to the other republics of the USSR is often discriminatory and reflects the exploitation of Ukraine's resources. BIBLIOGRAPHY Mal'tsiv, P. Ukraïna u derzhavnomu biudzheti Rostí (Lubni 1917) Porsh, M. Ukraïna u derzhavnomu biudzheti Rosiï (Katerynoslav 1918) Nemanov, L. Finansovaia politika Ukrainy (Kiev 1919) Derzhavnyi biudzhet URSR na 1927-28 r. (Kharkiv 1928) Volobuiev, M. 'Do problemy ukraïns'koï ekonomiky/ BiVshovyk Ukraïny, 1928, nos 2-3 Glovins'kyi, le. Finansy USSR (Warsaw 1939) Kovankovskii, P. Biudzhet SSSR (Munich 1956) Wynar, B. Ekonomichnyi koloniializm v Ukraïni (Paris 1958) Plotnikov, K. Gosudarstvennyi biudzhet SSSR (Moscow 1959) NatsionaVnyi dokhod Ukrams^koi' RSR v period rozvynutoho budivnytstva komunizmu (Kiev 1963) O biudzhetnykh pravakh Soiuza SSR, soiuznykh respublik i mestnykh deputatov trudiashchikhsia (Moscow 1963) Melnyk, Z.L. Soviet Capital Formation: Ukraine 1928/29-32 (Munich 1965) Solovei, D. Finansovyi vyzysk Ukraïny (Detroit 1965) Gosudarstvennyi biudzhet SSSR i biudzhety soiuznykh respublik (Moscow 1966) 50 let sovetskikh finansov (Moscow 1967) Bandera, V.; Melnyk, Z. (eds). The Soviet Economy in a Regional Perspective (New York 1973) Finansy SSSR (Moscow 1977) Narodnoe khoziaistvo Ukrainskoi SSR v 1979 g.: Statisticheskii ezhegodnik (Kiev 1980) B. Wynar

Budiak, Yurii [Budjak, Jurij] (pseud of Yurii Pokos), b 1879 in the village of Krasnohirka, Poltava gubernia, d 23 September 1943. Poet, writer, journalist, and teacher. Budiak was first published in Russian in 1895. Before the revolution he had published the poems NevoFnytsiaukraïnka (The Ukrainian Slave-Girl, 1907) and Pan Bazalei (Master Bazalei, 1911), the poetry collections Na poliakh zhyttia (On the Fields of Life, 1909) and Buruny (Breakers, 1910), and a book of memoirs, Zapysky vchytelia (Notes of a Teacher, 1912). In 1924 he joined the literary organization Pluh and from 1924 to 1930 published two plays, sixteen collections of verse, and four collections of stories, all for children; the story collection Zablukalyi (The Lost One, 1928); and the short novels Do velykoï bramy (Maryna Kopachivna) (To the Great Gate [Maryna Kopachivna], 1929) and Chervonyi mak (The Red Poppy, 1930). Repressed in the 19305, he died in exile. Budilovich, Anton [Budilovic], b 24 May 1846 in Hrodna gubernia, d 19 December 1908 in St Petersburg. Russian linguist, professor at Warsaw University from 1881. Budilovich researched a Church Slavonic text written in Ukraine, which was published under the title Izsledovanie iazyka drevne-slavianskogo perevoda trinadtsiat' slov Grigoriia Bogoslova po rukopisi Imper. publichnoi biblioteki, xi veka (An Investigation of the Language of the Old

3

12

B U D I L O V I C H

Slavonic Translation of the Thirteen Sermons of St Gregory of Nazianzus/ based on an Eleventh-Century Manuscript in the Imperial Public Library, 1871, 1875). Budivelnyk (The Builder). Publishing house for technical literature in the field of construction and communal economy, located in Kiev and established in 1947. Until January 1964 the publishing house was part of the Academy of Construction and Architecture of the Ukrainian S S R . It publishes the journals StroiteVstvo i arkhitektura and SiVs'ke budivnytstvo, scientific collections, and popular books in Russian and Ukrainian. Budka, Nykyta, b 7 September 1877 Dobromirka, Zbarazh county, Galicia, d 1 October 1949 in Karaganda, Kazakh S S R . Ukrainian Catholic bishop. After attending university in Vienna and Innsbruck, Budka received a doctorate in theology and was ordained in 1905. He became prefect of the Lviv Theological Seminary and involved himself with Ukrainian emigration through the church-sponsored St Raphael Galician and Bukovynian Emigrant Aid Society, which he helped to found. In October 1912 he was consecrated bishop and in December became first head of the Ruthenian Greek Catholic church in Canada, remaining to 1927. His pastoral letter of 27 July 1914, on the eve of the First World War, created considerable controversy at the time and remains a subject of debate in Ukrainian Canadian historiography. On his return to Europe Budka was named vicar general of the Lviv archeparchy. In 1945 the Soviet authorities arrested and deported him. i n

Budnevych, Viktor [Budnevyc], b 1895, d 1957 m Chernivtsi. Opera singer, dramatic baritone. He sang as a soloist in the Odessa and, from 1927, Kharkiv opera theaters. He was active in the Ukrainization of opera in the 1920s. He appeared in many operas, including A. Vakhnianyn's Kupalo, B. Liatoshynsky's Zolotyi obruch (Golden Hoop), G. Rossini's William Tell, and G. Verdi's Aida and Rigoletto. In the 1940s he worked mostly as a director and teacher. Budnikov, Petr (Budnykov, Petro), b 21 October 1885 in Smolensk, d 6 December 1968 in Moscow. Chemist, full member of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian S S R and corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the U S S R from 1939. Budnikov taught at the Kharkiv Chemistry and Technology Institute in 1926-41. He researched the properties and chemical changes of silicate systems in order to synthesize refractory, ceramic, and fusible materials. His selected works were published in Kiev in i960.

Buduchnist Credit Union. One of the largest Ukrainian credit unions in Canada. Buduchnist was established in 1952 and by 1982 had attained a membership of 5,939 and held assets of $40,311,434. It has a head office and one branch office in Toronto. Buduchnist natsii (Future of the Nation). Newspaper that replaced Biuleten' Bratstva ukrai'ntsiv-katolykiv Kanady (1933-7). From 1938 to 1950 it was the organ of the Ukrainian Catholic Brotherhood of Canada. Published semimonthly in Yorkton, Saskatchewan, it was primarily a religious newspaper with some general news, historical articles, literary works, and sections for women and youth. Rev S. Semchuk was editor. 9

Budy. iv-17. Town smt (1977 pop 9,700) in Kharkiv oblast, southwest of Kharkiv. The *Budy Faience Factory and a building-materials plant are located there. Budy Faience Factory (Budianskyi faiansovyi zavod Serp i molot). Enterprise of the porcelain industry. The factory is located in the town of Budy in Kharkiv oblast. Its basic output consists of faience dishware. The plant was built in 1887. It produced about 11 million pieces in 1913,44 million in 1940, and 78.6 million in 1976. Samples of its ware have been exhibited at Soviet and international exhibits and fairs. Budyns. According to Herodotus, this was a large tribe that lived 'above the Sarmatians in a completely forested region.' Although scholars disagree on the Budyns' precise homeland, they generally agree that it was in the forest-steppe belt, somewhere between the Dnieper and Volga rivers. Some scholars think that the Budyns were the ancestors of the Moravinians, others that they were the ancestors of the Eastern Slavs, and still others that they were of Iranian origin. It is known that they helped the Scythians to fight Darius 1 of Persia in 514 or 513 B C and that they had strong, wooden fortifications. Budzhak. A historical land of the 16th-19th century between the lower Danube and the lower Dniester rivers in southern Bessarabia, consisting of steppe that is flat in the south and undulating in the north. In the 17th-18th century the Budzhak was inhabited by the Bilhorod Tatar Horde. In 1812, along with the rest of Bessarabia, it was ceded to Russia by Turkey under the ^Bucharest Peace Treaty.

Budzynovsky, Viacheslav [Budzynovs'kyj, V'jaceslav], b 30 January 1868 in the village of Bavoriv, Ternopil county, Galicia, d 14 February 1935 in Lviv. Galician politician, writer, and journalist. One of the founders of Budny, Symeon [Budnyj] (Polish: Budny, Szymon), b the ^Ukrainian Radical party, he edited its organ, Hromadca 1530, d 13 January 1593, in Lithuania. Belorussian s'kyi holos, as well as other periodicals, such as Pratsia theologian from Lithuania, graduate of the University of (Chernivtsi), Svoboda (Lviv), and the literary biweekly Cracow, advocate of Calvinism and later dof Socinianism, S'vit. After leaving the Radical party in 1889, he helped which was widespread in Ukraine. Budny translated the found the Ukrainian National Democratic party and Bible into Polish for the Socinians (1570-2) and published represented it in the Austrian parliament (1907-18). In the books O opravdanii hrishnoho chelovika pered Bohom (On 1927-30 he founded and headed the pro-Soviet *Ukraithe Justification of Sinful Man before God, 1562) and nian Party of Labor and edited its weekly, Rada. He wrote Katykhysys ... dlia prostykh liudei iazyka ruskoho (Catechism works on socioeconomic topics, including KuVturna nu... For Common Folk of the Ruthenian Tongue, 1562). zhda avstriis'koï Rusy (The Cultural Impoverishment of Austrian Ruthenia, 1880), Agrarni vidnosyny v Halychyni (Agrarian Relations in Galicia, 1894), RiVnycha produktsiia

B U H

R I V E R

3*3

Ukrainians live in Buffalo. The first Ukrainians, mostly Lemkos, settled there in the 1880s. Between 1895 and 1907 they built three churches. Today there are five Ukrainian Catholic churches, one Orthodox church, two community centers, an elementary Ukrainian Catholic school, a Saturday school, a choir (Burlaky), and over 30 Ukrainian institutions and organizations in the city. There are two resorts near Buffalo - Novyi Sokil, owned by the Plast association, and Kholodnyi Yar, owned by the Ukrainian Youth Association of America. From the 1950s to the early 1980s V. Sharavan managed a daily Ukrainian radio program in Buffalo. Viacheslav Budzynovsky

u Skhidnii Halychyni i na Bukovyni (Agricultural Production in Eastern Galicia and Bukovyna, 1896), Panshchyna, ieï pochatok i skasovanie (Serfdom, Its Origin, and Abolition, 1898), Khlops'ka posilisf v Halychyni (Peasant Property in Galicia, 1901), Nashi heVmany (Our Hetmans, 1907), and Istoriia Ukraïny (The History of Ukraine, 2 vols, 1924). After 1921 he devoted himself mostly to writing literature. He contributed over 100 stories to the American daily Svoboda. He is the author of short historical adventure novels, including Osaul Pidkova, Plastun (The Scout), Krov za krov (Blood for Blood), Pid odnu bulavu (Under One Command), and Shliakhets'ke pravo (The Noble Right). His story collections include Strimholov (Headlong, 1897), lak cholovik ziishov na pana (How Man Degenerated into a Master, 1897), Opovidannia (Stories, 1897), Do viry baVkiv (To the Faith of Our Fathers, 1924), and Opryshok ta inshi opovidannia (The Opryshok and Other Stories, 1927). Buenos Aires. Federal capital city (1970 metropolitan pop 8,352,900; city pop 2,972,453) of * Argentina. Buenos Aires is the center of Ukrainian community life in Argentina; more than 20,000 Ukrainians live there. Ukrainians began to settle there at the beginning of the 20th century and arrived in great numbers between 1922 and 1940; a second major influx occurred after 1947, and a number of Ukrainians from Paraguay and Uruguay migrated to the city between 1965 and 1970. Some Ukrainians, notably members of the intelligentsia, emigrated to North America in the 1950s and 1960s. Ukrainian organizations and institutions in Buenos Aires include the Ukrainian Central Representation; the Prosvita and Vidrodzhennia societies, which maintain several community centers; and the Vidrodzhennia and Fortuna credit unions. The semimonthly Ukraïns'ke slovo and Nash klych and the monthly Zhyttia are published in Buenos Aires, and the publishers M. Denysiuk (1949-55) d Yu. Serediak have established publishing houses in the city. Buenos Aires is the seat of the Ukrainian Catholic Eparchy of the Holy Protection and its cathedral. The city also has a branch of the Ukrainian Catholic University, a minor seminary, several monasteries, an Orthodox church established by the Brotherhood of the Holy Protectress, three Ukrainian Catholic churches, and a Baptish house of worship. A statue of T. Shevchenko sculpted by L. Molodozhanyn has been erected in a civic park. Ukrainians manage a number of small commercial and manufacturing enterprises in the city. a R

M . Vasylyk

Buffalo. City (1980 metropolitan pop 1,242,573) in northwestern New York State. About 10,000-12,000

Buggan, Constantine, b 29 July 1936 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Orthodox clergyman. Buggan graduated from Duquesne University and took monastic vows in 1967. In 1972 he was consecrated bishop of the Ukrainian Orthodox church in the United States and established residence in Chicago. In 1976 he was promoted to archbishop. He also serves as the spiritual adviser to the Ukrainian Orthodox League. Buh, Southern. See Boh. Buh Depression. The western part of Little Polisia, the Buh Depression forms a triangle bounded by the Roztochia hills in the southwest, the edge of Podilia in the southeast, and the recess of the Volhynian-Kholm Upland in the north. The depression is of tectonic-erosive origin. The northern part is a moraine-sand or sand outwash plain, in many places covered with pine forest. The southwestern part consists of low, flat, latitudinal chalk hills, covered mostly with loess, which are dissected by broad, swampy hollows. Buh River (Soviet Ukrainian name: Buh zakhidnyi [Western Buh]; Polish: Bug). A right-bank tributary of the Vistula River. The Buh is 813 km long, and its basin is 73,470 sq km in area. It originates in the Podilian Upland in Lviv oblast. It flows through the Buh Depression to the mouth of the Solokiia River and then crosses the VolhynianKholm Upland. From the town of Dubenky it flows through the Podlachian-Polisian Lowland (average depth 1 m). Its slope is 3 m/km in the upper section, 0.6 m/km in the middle section, and 0.25 m/km in the lower section. The Buh freezes over in late December and thaws in late March. It is navigable (periodically) below Brest. Its tributaries on Ukrainian ethnic territory are the Poltva, Rata, Solokiia, Huchva, Uherka, Volodava, and Krna on the left bank and the Luha, Mukhavets, Lisna, Nurets, and Narva on the right bank. The Buh is connected by canals between the Mukhavets River and the Pyna River (a tributary of the Prypiat River) to the *Dnieper-Buh Canal system and by the Narva River and the Augustów Canal to the Neman River. From Kryliv in the south to Melnyk in the north the Buh serves as a border of the Ukrainian S S R , the Belorussian S S R , and Poland. Since the resettlement of Ukrainians from Podlachia and the Kholm region in 1946, the Buh has also marked the Polish-Ukrainian ethnic border. In 17951831 it was a border river between the Russian Empire and the Austrian Empire (in 1807-15 the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, in 1815-31 the Congress Kingdom of Poland). Later the borders of Russian gubernias and Polish voivodeships, as well as the *Curzon Line, ran along the Buh.

3*4

B U H A I E V S K Y - B L A H O D A R N

Y

Limestone Chalk, marl, clinker Granite Refractory clay Marble Construction stone Clayey deposits (ceramicite, slag, perlite, in Transcarpathia, etc) H . Kaolin I. Iron K. Lumber

1. Cement industry 2. Manufacture of binding wall materials and tiles 3. Production of concrete, reinforced concrete, and aluminum constructs (in Brovary near Kiev) 4. Manufacture of soft and synthetic covering materials and insulation 5. Production of asbestos-cement products and natural slate 6. Manufacture of construction glass 7. Manufacture of construction ceramics and faience

Buhaievsky-Blahodarny, Ivan [Buhajevs'kyj-Blahodarnyj], b 9 September 1773 in Kiev, d 1839. Painter, student of V. BorovykovskyandD. Levytsky, graduate of the St Petersburg Academy of Arts. Buhaievsky-Blahodarny was an outstanding portraitist. Among his works are a portrait of V. Borovykovsky and the icons of the Smolensk Monastery, the Synodal Church in St Petersburg, and the Kronstadt Cathedral.

Hospital. One of the outstanding surgeons in Europe, Buialsky developed several new surgical operations and medical methods, such as a treatment for aneurisms. He introduced refinements in various surgical instruments and was one of the first physicians in Russia to use antiseptics and ether and chloroform anesthesia, and to perform blood transfusions. He wrote many works on anatomy and surgery, among them Anatomiko-khirurgicheskie tablitsy (Anatomic-Surgical Tables, 1827).

A. B. C. D. E. F. G.

Buhaivka [Buhajivka]. v-19, D B 111-3. Town smt (1977 pop 7,300) in Perevalske raion, Voroshylovhrad oblast. A stone quarry and the Perevalske Coal Mine are located there. Buialsky, Illia [BujalYkyj, Hija], b 6 August 1789 in the village of Vorobivka in the Novhorod-Siverskyi region, d 20 December 1866 in St Petersburg. Surgeon and anatomist. He graduated from the St Petersburg MedicalSurgical Academy in 1814 and was a professor of surgery and anatomy there in 1821-44. He also taught anatomy at the Academy of Arts and was chief surgeon at St Mary's

8. Mining and processing of non-metallic building materials and light fillers 9. Other branches of the construction industry

Buievsky, Borys [Bujevs'kyj], b 7 June 1933 in Kryvyi Rih. Composer, graduate of the Kharkiv Conservatory. He composed the ballet Song of the Blue Sea (1966); the oratorio Voyage of the Heart (1946), to the poems of L. Kostenko and T. Kolomiiets; and various symphonic works. Building-ceramics industry. A branch of the buildingmaterials industry. Its basic products include ceramic floor tiles, wall tiles, sanitary and acid-resistant porcelain, ceramic facing, and drain and sewer pipes. The first

B U I L D I N G - M A T E R I A L S

I N D U S T R Y

315

Building-materials production

Ukraine

% of Russian Empire

0.3

16.7

billion pieces

-

-

0.6

17.6

million pieces

-

million sq m

million eu m

-

-

-

-

-

-

—

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

Type of product

Units of measure

Cement

million tonnes

Wall materials including bricks Asbestos-cement slate Soft roofing and insulation

Window glass

Precast reinforced concrete

prestressed including rein­ forced supports

Ceramic floor tile Ceramic wall tile Gypsum Lime

billion pieces

million sq m

million eu m

million sq m million sq m

thousand tonnes

million tonnes

Ukr SSR

1.2

-

1970

1960

1940

1913

%of

USSR

20.7

-

Ukr SSR

%of

USSR

Ukr SSR

1978 %of

USSR

Ukr

%of

USSR

SSR

8.1

17.8

17.3

18.1

23.1

18.1

10.4

23.5

14.1

24.8

14.1

23.0

1.6

21.1

7.3

20.6

9.7

22.5

9.9

22.1

-

42.4

9.4

338.3

11.3

919.0

15.7

1,107.0

15.2

5.4

52.9

40.1

30.9

245.2

32.7

378.0

28.3

325.0

17.4

1.0

4.1

15.3

33.5

39.6

26.9

51.3

22.2

55.3

20.8

-

5.0

16.7

14.4

17.0

20.7

16.8

-

0.7

17.1

3.6

18.6

5.4

18.7

68.2

6.6

64.3

9.6

49.4

11.3

45.1

-

-

2.5

37.2

5.4

31.2

248

-

ceramics plant in Ukraine and in the Russian Empire was built in 1880 in Kharkiv. In 1913 there were four large ceramics firms in Ukraine. In the Soviet period before the Second World War, existing plants were modernized, and after the war new plants were built. In 1978 the Ukrainian S S R produced 11.3 million sq m of floor tiles (45.1 percent of U S S R ' S production), 7,040,000 sq m of decorative wall tiles (24.3 percent), 225,000 tonnes of acid-resistant ceramic products (35.5 percent), and 2.3 million sanitary articles (24.5 percent). Today Ukraine boasts large, mechanized enterprises: ceramics complexes in Slovianske and Donetske; glazed-tile, ceramic-pipe, and tile plants in Kharkiv; the Keramik Plant in Kiev; the Budfaians Plant in Slavuta; a ceramics plant in Lviv; and a building-ceramics plant in Artemivske. Building-materials industry. A n industry, consisting of various branches, that produces materials for the con­ struction of buildings. The ""building-ceramics industry manufactures decorative andsanitary-technicalmaterials. The *cement industry produces binding materials. The ""asbestos-cement industry makes covering and insulating materials. The ""brick, block, and *reinforced-concrete in­ dustries produce wall-building materials. Building stone and sand are produced by the inert-materials industry. Some types of building materials, such as construction metal and wood products, are manufactured by other industries, for example, the *metalworking and *woodworking industries. Certain types of building materials - brick, tile, lime, glass, ceramic tile - were already used in Kievan Rus'. In the 18th century the first brick and glass workshops in

0.75

0.7

-

927 2.4

-

953 1.9

-

7.03 956 2.0

24.4

-

Ukraine were established. But the origin of the buildingmaterials industry in Ukraine can be dated at 1854, when a large glazed-tile factory was built in Kharkiv. By 1913 there were over 500 building-materials firms in Ukraine. The largest were the cement factories in Amvrosiivka (the ""Amvrosiivka Cement Complex, 1896) and Zdolbuniv (1898). Most of the firms were technologically backward and limited in the amount and variety of their production. The First World War devastated the industry, which recovered only in 1927. During the 1930s it developed rapidly, particularly in the production of cement, building ceramics, and wall materials. Cement plants were built in Dniprodzerzhynske, Yenakiieve, and Kharkiv, a ceramic pipe plant was built in Artemivske, and other plants were modernized. After another setback in 1941-5, the in­ dustry resumed its prewar production level in 1947. Thereafter its rate of development greatly outstripped the general rate of industrial growth in the Ukrainian S S R . New branches of the industry were established to manu­ facture precast reinforced concrete, insulated pipes, etc. In addition to the Donbas, the Lviv and Kharkiv oblasts and Kiev became the centers of cement, building-ceramics, and glass production. New plants were built: insulationmaterials plants in Zhdanov, Bila Tserkva, Donetske, Zaporizhia, and Kiev; an asbestos-cement complex in Kiev; a technical-glass plant in Lviv; and cement plants in Kryvyi Rih, Kamianets-Podilskyi, Mykolaiv (Lviv oblast), Balakliia, and elsewhere. The problems of the industry and production planning are studied by the Southern State Planning Institute for the Cement Industry (Pivdendiprotsement) in Kharkiv, the Scientific Research Institute of Building Materials and

3i6

BUILDING-MATERIALS INDUSTRY

Products in Kiev, and the State Planning Institute for Building Materials in Kiev. In general, only 14 percent of usable building materials produced are of a high quality. The accompanying table indicates the main types produced. BIBLIOGRAPHY Khramov, O. Rozvytok vyrobnytstva mistsevykh budiveVnykh materialiv Ukraïns'koï RSR (Kiev 1958) Grinenko, lu.; Nevelev, A. Tromyshlennost' stroitel'nykh materialov USSR za 50 let Sovetskoi vlasti i ee perspektivy/ Organizatsiia i planirovanie otraslei narodnogo khoziaistva, 1967, nos 8-9 Klepko, F. Mestnye stroiteVnye material]) Ukrainy i problemy razvitiia ikh proizvodstva (Kiev 1967) Davydenko, O. Rozvytok i rozmishchennia osnovnykh haluzei promyslovosti budiveVnykh materialiv Ukraïns'koï RSR (Kiev 1972) Pashchenko, H. Tromyslovist' budivel'nykh materialiv Ukraïns'koï RSR u desiatii p'iatyrichtsi/ ERU, 1977, no. 7 Pedan, M.; Sigel, V.; Trukhaniuk, V. Problemy razvitiia i razmeshcheniia promyshlennosti stroiteUnykh materialov (Kiev 1977) Yu. Savchuk

Bujak, Franciszek, b 16 August 1875 in tne village of Maszkienice, Brzesko county, Poland, d 21 March 1953 in Cracow. Polish historian, economist, and sociologist. Bujak was a professor at Cracow (1909-18), Warsaw (1919-21), and Lviv (1921-41) universities. His works, especially Galicya (2 vols, 1908-10), contain a wealth of material on the history and economy of Galicia.

Archbishop Havryil Bukatko

Bukatko, Havryil, b 2 January 1913 in the village of Adrijevcy, Croatia, d 18 October 1981 in Ruski Krstur, Serbia. Greek Catholic archbishop and church figure. Bukatko studied philosophy and theology in Rome and was ordained in 1939. In 1950 he became administrator of the eparchy of Krizevci; in 1952, Severian bishop; and, in 1960, bishop of the eparchy. In 1964, as archbishop, he accepted the responsibilities of Roman Catholic archbishop of Belgrade (a position he held until 1980). He took part in the synods of the Ukrainian Catholic church. Bukovetsky, Yevhen [Bukovec'kyj, Jevhen], b 17 December 1866 in Odessa, d 27 July 1948 in Odessa. Realist painter. Bukovetsky obtained his artistic education at the Odessa Drawing School (graduating in 1890), the St Petersburg Academy of Arts, and the Académie Rodolphe Julian in Paris. He was a member of the Society of South Russian Artists and took part in the exhibitions of the *Peredvizhniki. He was an initiator of the Kyriak Kostandi Artistic Society (1922-9) and taught at the Odessa

State Art School (from 1937). Among his paintings are Amateur Photographer (1894), In Court (1895), and portraits of V. Filatov, P. Nilus, P. Stoliarsky, and many others. Bukovyna (Bukovina, Bukowina, Bucovina). The territory between the middle Dnieser River and the main range of the Carpathian Mountains, around the source of the Prut River and the upper Seret (Siret) River, the border area between Ukraine and Rumania. Today Bukovyna is divided between the Ukrainian SSR (incorporating Chernivtsi oblast or most of northern Bukovyna) and Rumania (containing most of the Suceava region or southern Bukovyna). The name of this territory is derived from its great beech (buk) forests and dates back to the i4th century when it designated the lands on the MoldavianPolish border. Bukovyna is a transitional land between Ukraine and Rumania. From a historical perspective it is a strategically important border area between Galicia and Moldavia, as it lies at the northwest entrance to Moldavia. Bukovyna's transitional location influenced its history; it belonged to the Principality of Galicia-Volhynia, then to Moldavia. Polish and Hungarian influences intersected here in the i4th and 15th century. In 1919-40 and 1941-4 all of Bukovyna belonged to Rumania. It was only in 1940 that Bukovyna was divided, according to the ethnic principle, between Ukraine and Rumania. Bukovyna's territory consists of 10,440 sq km, of which about 5,500 belong to the Ukrainian SSR. The population in 1930 was 853,000, about 520,000 of which became citizens of the Ukrainian SSR in 1940. Geography and economy. The southwestern half of Bukovyna consists of the Carpathians, which are divided into two ranges: the crystalline *Maramures-Bukovynian Upland and the flysch Hutsul Beskyd Mountains. Adjacent to the Carpathians lie the Bukovynian Carpathian foothills. Then comes a part of the *Pokutian-Bessarabian Upland located between the Prut and the Dniester rivers. The climate of Bukovyna is temperate continental, modified by the elevation. For example, the temperature at Vatra Dornei (at 789 m) is -6.4°c in January and i4.2°c in July, and the annual precipitation is 745 mm; at Chernivtsi (at 252 m) the temperature is -5. i°c in January and 20. i°c in July and the annual precipitation is 619 mm. About 40 percent of the area is forest, up to 20 percent is pasture, and over 30 percent is cultivated land. The 270,000 ha under cultivation produce corn, rye, wheat, oats, potatoes, seed grasses, and sugar beets. In 1930 about 75 percent of the population was employed in agriculture. The crystalline band contains such useful minerals as iron ore, manganese ore, lead, silver, and copper. The Carpathian foothills contain salt and cement marls. The main industry is woodcrafts, which produces significant exports, followed by the food industry (sugar refining, milling, brewing), tanning and shoemaking, rubbermaking, and knitting. In general industrial development is low, although industrial growth was somewhat greater under Rumanian rule than it was before 1918, when Bukovyna had to compete with Austrian and Czech industries. The railway network (5.1 km per 100 sq km or 6.3 km per 1,000 inhabitants) and highway network are well developed. Population. At the time Bukovyna came under Austrian rule it was sparsely settled. In 1775 it had 75,000 inhabitants or 7 people per sq km. Eventually, through

BUKOVYNA

Bukovyna; river valley near the village of Kurlybaby natural g r o w t h a n d immigration, its population increased to 208,000 i n 1807; 371,000 i n 1827; 447,000 i n 1857; a n d 642,000 i n 1890. A t the e n d of the 19th century the population outflow (emigration to the Americas) exceeded the influx, a n d so the rate of population growth declined: i n 1900 the population was 730,000; i n 1930 it was 853,000; a n d i n 1941 it was 792,000. In 1930 there were 82 inhabitants per square kilometer, a n d 27 percent of the population lived i n towns. The largest towns were Chernivtsi (the center of the region) w i t h 112,000 inhabi­ tants, Suceava w i t h 17,000, Rdβuji w i t h 17,000, Seret w i t h 10,000, Cξmpulung M o l d o v e n e s c w i t h 10,000, Sadhora w i t h 9,000, a n d Storozhynets w i t h 9,000. Ukrainians and Rumanians constitute the majority of the population. According to the A u s t r i a n census of 1910, Ukrainians numbered 340,000 or 40 percent of the population (29.2 percent according to the inaccurate R u m a n i a n census of 1930), while Rumanians numbered 290,000 or 34 percent of the population (379,000 or 44.5 percent of the popula­ tion according to the R u m a n i a n census). Other ethnic groups appeared only d u r i n g the A u s ­ trian period: i n 1910 Jews n u m b e r e d 95,000, constituting 11 percent of the p o p u l a t i o n (92,000 or 10.8 percent according to the 1930 census); Germans numbered 75,000 or 9 percent (75,500 or 8.9 percent); Poles numbered 25,000 or 3 percent (30,600 or 3.6 percent); and smaller groups, such as the Hungarians, Russian O l d Believers, Slovaks, a n d A r m e n i a n s , totaled 25,000 or 3 percent of the population. The Jews, Germans, a n d Poles lived primarily in towns (most of them i n Chernivtsi). A l t h o u g h the Germans constituted only one-tenth of the population, the G e r m a n language, w h i c h was used by Jews as w e l l as Germans, was w i d e l y spoken i n B u k o v y n a , especially during the A u s t r i a n period. N o w h e r e else i n Ukraine were G e r m a n cultural influences and, i n the A u s t r i a n period, G e r m a n political influences as strong as i n Bukov­ yna. The ethnographic border that divides B u k o v y n a into Ukrainian a n d R u m a n i a n sections runs from Kyrlybaba i n the south, through Ruska M o l d a v y t s i a , Banyliv-Pidhirnyi, Storozhynets, a n d Chernivtsi, to Ridkivtsi on the Bessarabian border i n the north. F r o m the U k r a i n i a n ethnic area a long U k r a i n i a n ethnic peninsula, containing the t o w n of Seret, extends along the M o l d a v i a n border from Chernivtsi to Suceava i n the south. O n the other side R u m a n i a n settlements extend u p to Chernivtsi. In 1930 Ukrainians constituted 65 percent, Jews 12 percent,

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Rumanians 11.5 percent, Germans 5 percent, and others 6 percent of the p o p u l a t i o n i n the U k r a i n i a n ethnic area (5,300 s q k m a n d 460,000 inhabitants). A t the same time, i n the R u m a n i a n ethnic area (5,140 sq k m , 390,000 inhabi­ tants), Rumanians constituted 64 percent, Germans 11 percent, Jews 10 percent, Ukrainians 9.5 percent, and others 5.5 percent of the population. The present political border between the Ukrainian SSR and R u m a n i a does not coincide w i t h the ethnic border: Rumania contains the southern part of the Ukrainian ethnic peninsula w i t h Seret a n d a string of mountain villages, while U k r a i n e contains the R u m a n i a n ethnic wedge that extends to Chernivtsi. R u m a n i a n Bukovyna has about 30,000 Ukrainians or 9 percent of the region's total population, while U k r a i n i a n B u k o v y n a has almost 95,000 Rumanians or 18 percent of the region's popula­ tion. The present ethnic composition of the population has changed somewhat as a result of the G e r m a n exodus and the extermination of most of the Jews d u r i n g the Second W o r l d W a r .

Bukovyna; mountain meadows History To 1774. In early times B u k o v y n a was inhabited by the Thracian tribes of the Getae a n d Dacians. F r o m the 3rd to the 9th century AD various nomads traversed Bukovyna: i n the 4th century East Slavic tribes began to appear and the region was part of the A n t e a n state; i n the 9th century the Tivertsians a n d W h i t e Croats were the local inhabi­ tants. In the 10th century B u k o v y n a became part of the Kievan state. W h e n this state was divided at the end of the 11th century, B u k o v y n a was eventually incorporated into the Principality of Galicia-Volhynia. The church i n Bukovyna was administered b y the K i e v metropolitanate until 1302, w h e n it was transferred to the H a l y c h metro­ politanate. W i t h the Tatar invasion i n 1241 B u k o v y n a fell under Tatar domination. A t the beginning of the 14th century i n northern B u k o v y n a an autonomous territory called the S h y p y n t s i l a n d arose. W h e n the H u n g a r i a n k i n g Louis i defeated the Tatars i n 1342, southern Buko­ vyna came under H u n g a r i a n rule. D u r i n g this period Rumanians from Transylvania a n d the M a r m a r o s h (Maramure§) region began to settle i n B u k o v y n a . Voevode Bogdan i , the founder of the M o l d a v i a n state, freed Buko­ vyna from H u n g a r y (1359-65). F r o m then to 1774 Buko­ vyna belonged to " M o l d a v i a a n d shared its fate. F r o m 1387 to 1497 M o l d a v i a recognized the n o m i n a l supremacy of Poland. In this p e r i o d the people of B u k o v y n a took part i n *Mukha's rebellion against the Polish and M o l d a ­ vian nobles (1490-2). F r o m 1514 M o l d a v i a recognized the supremacy of Turkey, a n d towards the e n d of the century it became increasingly dominated by that country. The

3l8

BUKOVYNA

1. Borders of Bukovyna under Austria 2. Borders of Bukovyna under Rumania 3. Borders of the Ukrainian SSR 4. Borders of counties under Austria 5. Borders of counties under Rumania 6. Borders of the raions in Chernivtsi oblast 7. Towns with population (in 1910) of under 1,000 8. Towns with population (in 1910) of 1,000-2,500 9. Towns with population (in 1910) of 2,500-5,000 10. Towns with population (in 1910) of 5,000-10,000 11. Towns with population (in 1910) of 10,000-20,000 12. Towns with population (in 1910) of 20,000-100,000 13. Cities U Ukrainians R Rumanians G Germans J Jews L Lipovans H Hungarians P Poles O Others Insets A. Bukovyna under Austria: 1) Austro-Hungary, 2) Russia, 3) Rumania B. Bukovyna under Rumania: 1) Poland, 2) Rumania, 3) Ukrainian SSR

Rumanianization of M o l d a v i a , where the Ukrainians played an important role and literary U k r a i n i a n was the official language, a n d of B u k o v y n a became more intense after 1564, w h e n the capital of M o l d a v i a was m o v e d from Suceava i n B u k o v y n a to Ia§i. Yet B u k o v y n a maintained its ties w i t h the rest of Ukraine. Cossack regiments (under I. Pidkova, S. N a l y v a i k o , a n d P . Sahaidachny) fought o n M o l d a v i a n territory against the Turks. Some of Buko­ vyna's population participated i n B . K h m e l n y t s k y ' s na­ tional rebellion. T. K h m e l n y t s k y died near Suceava i n 1653 fighting a coalition of P o l a n d , Transylvania, and Wallachia. In the cultural sphere, B u k o v y n a benefited from the achievements of the L v i v D o r m i t i o n Brotherhood and the K i e v a n M o h y l a A c a d e m y . F r o m 1401 to 1630 an indepen­ dent metropolitanate (to w h i c h the eparchy of Rβduji was subordinated) existed i n Suceava. F r o m 1630 to 1782 the Suceava metropolitanate came under the metropoli­ tan of Ia§i. F r o m the 16th to the m i d - i 9 t h century the *opryshoks were active i n the mountainous part of B u k o v y n a bordering o n Galicia; among them was the famous O . *Dovbush. A t the end of the M o l d a v i a n period B u k o v y n a was sparsely populated and was economically and culturally backward. 1774-1918. T a k i n g advantage of the Russo-Turkish war of 1768-74, A u s t r i a annexed the part of northern M o l d a v i a that included Chernivtsi, Seret, Rβduji, and Suceava. Turkey a n d M o l d a v i a h a d no choice but to accept this action. The n e w administrative entity was given the name of B u k o v y n a (first used i n a document i n 1412). The A u s t r i a n government brought i n a series of reforms: i n 1781 serfdom was abolished; i n 1782 a Bukov y n i a n eparchy (subordinated to the Serbian metropoli­ tan i n Sremski Karlovci) was established; i n 1873 the eparchy was elevated to an independent metropolitanate w i t h E . H a k m a n as the first metropolitan; schools were then founded. A u s t r i a opened n e w sources of immigra­ tion into B u k o v y n a from the neighboring lands - Transyl­ vania, M o l d a v i a , Galicia - as w e l l as from the heartland of Austria and Germany. A s a result, there was an influx of Germans, Poles, Jews, Hungarians, Rumanians, and Ukrainians, and by the beginning of the 19th century the population of B u k o v y n a was three times that of 1775. G e r m a n was the official language i n B u k o v y n a , although Rumanian a n d U k r a i n i a n could be used i n transactions w i t h the government. A t first A u s t r i a held B u k o v y n a under military rule. From 1774 to 1786 it was governed by the generals G . Splιnyi and K . v o n Enzenberg. In 1787 it was attached as a separate region to Galicia, a status it retained until 1849. D u r i n g this period, i n 1842-5 and particularly i n 1848-9, peasant revolts broke out i n the H u t s u l area of B u k o v y n a . The peasants demanded social a n d political rights. Corvιe was abolished i n 1848. T h e n elections to the par­ liament i n V i e n n a were held, a n d five Ukrainians (among them L . *Kobylytsia), two Rumanians, a n d one G e r m a n were elected to represent B u k o v y n a . O n 4 M a r c h 1849 B u k o v y n a became a c r o w n land w i t h an autonomous administration and its o w n president. It attained full autonomy i n 1861, w h e n it was granted a special statute, a regional diet (its first marshal was Bishop E . Hakman), and its o w n executive. Writers such as Y u . *Fedkovych, S. *Vorobkevych, and later O . *Kobylianska were the heralds of the 19thcentury U k r a i n i a n renaissance i n B u k o v y n a . The first

BUKOVYNA

Bukovyna; the village of Putyliv, early 20th century Ukrainian association, k n o w n as *Ruska Besida, was established i n 1869. In 1870 a political society, the *Ruthenian C o u n c i l , was founded, and i n 1875 a student organization called Soiuz, i n w h i c h Russophiles at first predominated. F r o m 1884 the populists (see Galician ""Populism) assumed the leadership i n U k r a i n i a n public life. They founded a number of n e w organizations and published the periodical * Bukovyna (1885-1918). L e d by S. *Smal-Stotsky, Y e . *Pihuliak, O . *Popovych, and M . *Vasylko, the Ukrainians of B u k o v y n a made important gains i n the political, civic, economic, cultural, and religious fields. Not until 1890 d i d Ukrainians w i n representation at the regional diet and i n the V i e n n a parliament, where their representatives from B u k o v y n a and Galicia formed the 'Ukrainian C l u b / After 1911 Ukrainians exerted greater influence i n the administration of B u k o v y n a . B y that year they had 16 representatives i n the diet. The vice-marshals of the diet were S. Smal-Stotsky (from 1904) and Rev T. Drachynsky (from 1911). A t the turn of the century the populists split into various parties: the National Democrats (led by S. Smal-Stotsky until 1911, then by M . Vasylko and Rev T. Drachynsky), the Radicals (founded in 1906 and led by T. H a l i p and I. Popovych), and the Social Democrats (led by O . Bezpalko and M . H a v r y shchuk). Cultural-educational w o r k was carried o n by the Ruska Besida society, w h i c h h a d nine branches i n various towns, 150 reading rooms i n villages, and a membership of 13,000; by the U k r a i n s k a Shkola society, and by the Sich (a sports and firefighting organization). In Chernivtsi the People's H o m e network was responsible for cultural work. The Selianska Kasa u n i o n of agricultural associations headed a system of savings and loan co-operatives of the Raiffeisen type. U k r a i n i a n schools were well organized i n B u k o v y n a ; there were 216 elementary schools and 6 secondary schools (4 gymnasiums and 2 teachers seminaries). A t ^Chernivtsi University, w h i c h was founded i n 1875 w i t h G e r m a n as the language of instruction, there were three chairs besides the chair i n Ukrainian language a n d literature whose holder lectured i n Ukrainian. Generally speaking, u p to 1914 B u k o v y n a had the best U k r a i n i a n schools and cultural-educational institutions of all the regions of U k r a i n e . In the religious field the Orthodox Ukrainians of Bukovyna strove for equality w i t h the Rumanians. They achieved it i n part on the eve of the First W o r l d War. The consistory was d i v i d e d into two branches - U k r a i n i a n and Rumanian. A bishop was appointed for the U k r a i nians (Bishop T. T y m i n s k y ) ; two U k r a i n i a n chairs were

319

established i n the faculty of theology; and church publications appeared i n U k r a i n i a n . The Greek Catholic deanery of Chernivtsi was subordinated to the L v i v archeparchy from 1811 and from 1885 to the Stanyslaviv eparchy. The efforts of Ukrainians to divide B u k o v y n a into a Ukrainian- and a Rumanian-governed section d i d not succeed. U k r a i n i a n achievements were accompanied by friction w i t h the Rumanians, especially at the turn of the century. Rural overpopulation a n d difficult economic conditions forced m a n y peasants to emigrate overseas (almost 50,000 left i n 1891-1910) and led to peasant strikes i n 1901-5. D u r i n g the First W o r l d W a r B u k o v y n a was a war zone and therefore suffered great losses. In 1915 U k r a i n i a n representatives from B u k o v y n a and from Galicia organized the General U k r a i n i a n C o u n c i l i n Vienna (with M . Vasylko as vice-president). 1918-40. O n 25 October 1918 the U k r a i n i a n Regional Committee, w i t h O . P o p o v y c h as chairman, was established i n Chernivtsi to represent the U k r a i n i a n National C o u n c i l i n B u k o v y n a . This committee organized a massive public rally i n C h e r n i v t s i o n 3 N o v e m b e r to demand that B u k o v y n a be attached to U k r a i n e , and o n 6 N o v e m ber it took p o w e r i n the U k r a i n i a n part of B u k o v y n a , including Chernivtsi. R u m a n i a n moderates, led by A . O n c i u l , accepted the division of B u k o v y n a into Ukrainian and R u m a n i a n sections, but R u m a n i a n conservatives under I. Flondor's leadership rejected this idea. O n 11 November the R u m a n i a n army occupied Chernivtsi and all B u k o v y n a i n spite of resistance from the Ukrainians. The General Congress of B u k o v y n a , w h i c h was hastily s u m m o n e d by the Rumanians, declared the unification of B u k o v y n a w i t h R u m a n i a o n 28 November. O n 10 September 1919, the peace conference of Saint-Germain recognized Rumania's right to the part of B u k o v y n a settled by Rumanians. O n 10 A u g u s t 1920 the conference at Sèvres ceded all B u k o v y n a to R u m a n i a . Official representatives of the Western U k r a i n i a n N a t i o n a l Republic, the U k r a i n ian National Republic, a n d the U k r a i n i a n SSR protested this action. The R u m a n i a n government canceled all the autonomous powers of B u k o v y n a a n d turned it into an ordinary Rumanian province. The U k r a i n i a n school system was dismantled; U k r a i n i a n cultural and civic life was restricted; and the U k r a i n i a n church was persecuted (Rumanian was introduced into the liturgy). In 1918-28 and 1937-40 B u k o v y n a found itself i n a state of siege.

7

Village of Falkiv in the Suceava Valley of the Bukovynian Beskyd

320

BUKOVYNA

Ukrainians were particularly oppressed w h e n the Liberal party was i n power, a n d they made few gains w h e n the National Peasant party took office. In the 1920s the Ukrainian section of the Social Democratic Party of Bukovyna (led b y V . Rusnak) became active. The left w i n g of the party (under S. K a n i u k ) became the C o m m u n i s t Party of B u k o v y n a . In time the "Ukrainian N a t i o n a l party (1928-38), under the leadership of V . Zalozetsky-Sas, V . Dutchak, a n d Y u . Serbyniuk, became the legal political representative of the U k r a i n i a n population. H a v i n g reached an understanding w i t h R u m a n i a n political parties, the U k r a i n i a n N a t i o n a l party w o n several seats i n the R u m a n i a n parliament. W h e n R u m a n i a became an authoritarian state i n 1938, the position of Ukrainians i n Bukovyna grew even worse. In the 1930s an underground nationalist movement led by O . Z y b a c h y n s k y and D . K v i t k o v s k y gained strength. To counteract it, the R u m a n i a n government staged two political trials i n 1937. In spite of government persecution, U k r a i n i a n organizations - such as the People's H o m e i n Chernivtsi (headed b y O . K u p c h a n k o ) ; the U k r a i n s k a Shkola educational society (led by A . K y r y l i v and T. Bryndzan); the musical societies B u k o v y n s k y i K o b z a r (Chernivtsi 192040) and the U k r a i n i a n M a l e Choir; the W o m e n ' s H r o m a d a (headed b y O . H u z a r ) ; the student societies Zaporozhe, C h o r n o m o r e , a n d Zalizniak; a n d the U k r a i n i a n Theater (headed by S. Terletsky and I. D u d k a ) - continued their cultural activities. The publication of the daily Chas by L . K o h u t , several weeklies - Khliborobs'ka pravda, Ridnyi krai, Rada, a n d Samostiinisf - a n d the journal Samostiina dumka was an important achievement. U n d e r R u m a n i a n domination there were 155 U k r a i n i a n Orthodox parishes (out of a total of 310), 133 U k r a i n i a n priests, a n d 330,000 church members i n B u k o v y n a . The Greek Catholic church h a d 17 parishes and 17 priests. In 1923-30 it constituted the B u k o v y n i a n apostolic administration w i t h its center i n Seret. T h e n it became a general vicariate subordinated to the R u m a n i a n diocese of Baia Mare. 1940-5. O n 28 June 1940 the Rumanians w i t h d r e w from the U k r a i n i a n part of B u k o v y n a i n response to an ultimat u m from the USSR, a n d Soviet troops m o v e d i n . By decision of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR o n 2 August, northern B u k o v y n a , together w i t h northern Bessarabia and a small part of o l d R u m a n i a containing the t o w n of Hertsa, became *Chernivtsi oblast. D u r i n g the year-long Soviet occupation some radical changes took place i n Bukovyna: private property was nationalized; farms were partly collectivized; a n d education was Ukrainianized. A t the same time all U k r a i n i a n organizations were disbanded, and m a n y publicly active Ukrainians were either killed or exiled. A significant part of the U k r a i n i a n intelligentsia h a d emigrated to R u m a n i a or G e r m a n y w h e n the Soviet occupation began. W h e n the German-Soviet war broke out a n d the Soviet troops retreated from B u k o v y n a , Ukrainians tried to establish their o w n local government, but they could not withstand the advance of the Rumanian army. In July 1941 almost 1,000 Bukovynians fled to Galicia, where they formed the *Bukovynian Battalion under the leadership of P. V o i n o v s k y . This company joined the O U N expeditionary groups of the M e l n y k faction a n d reached K i e v . In 1941-4 the Rumanians set up a military dictatorship i n B u k o v y n a (which was turned into a Generalgouvernement), established concentration camps, put prominent Ukrainians (O. H u z a r , M . Zybachynsky,

and others) o n trial, prohibited any k i n d of civic and cultural w o r k , and introduced total Rumanianization. A t this time partisan groups sprang u p i n the mountains of Bukovyna forming the B u k o v y n i a n - U k r a i n i a n Selfdefense A r m y . U n d e r V . L u h o v y ' s leadership these units fought the Rumanians and, i n 1944, the Soviets. In M a r c h 1944 Soviet troops occupied northern B u kovyna for the second time. The Paris Peace Treaty of 1947 between the Allies and the Rumanians recognized the Soviet-Rumanian border that h a d been established i n 28 June 1940. The Soviet government created i n B u k o v y n a the same conditions of life as i n the U k r a i n i a n SSR.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Kaindl, R.F. Geschichte der Bukowina, 3 vols (Chernivtsi 18961903) Smal'-Stots'kyi, S. Bukovyns'ka Rus' (Chernivtsi 1897) Die ôsterreichisch-ungarische Monarchie in Wort una, Bild. Bukowina (Vienna 1899) Korduba, M . Iliustrovana istoriia Bukovyny (Chernivtsi 1901) Nistor, I. Românii §i Rutenii in Bucowina (Bucharest 1915) Korduba, M . Terevorot na Bukovyni/ LNV, 1923, nos 10-12 Piddubnyi, H . Bukovyna, ïï mynule i suchasne (Kharkiv 1928) Popovych, O. Vidrodzhennia Bukovyny (Lviv 1933) Kvitkovs'kyi, D.; Bryndzan, T.; Zhukovs'kyi, A . (eds). Bukovyna, ïï mynule i suchasne (Paris-Philadelphia-Detroit 1956) Borofba trudiashchykh Bukovyny za sotsiaVne ta natsionaVne vyzvolennia i vozz'iednannia z Ukraïns'koiu RSR, 1917-1941: Dokumenty i materialy (Chernivtsi 1958) Hryhorenko, O. Bukovyna vchora i s'ohodni (Kiev 1967) Radians'ka Bukovyna 1940-1945: Dokumenty i materialy (Kiev 1967) Tymoshchuk, B. Pivnichna Bukovyna - zemlia slov'ians'ka (Uzhhorod 1968) Kurylo, V.; Lishchenko, M . ; Romanets', O.; Syrota, N . ; Tymoshchuk, B. Pivnichna Bukovyna, ïï mynule i suchasne (Uzhhorod 1969) Nowosiwsky, I. Bukovinian Ukrainians (New York 1970) Mynule i suchasne Pivnichnoï Bukovyny, 3 vols (Kiev 1972-4) Karpenko, Iu. Toponomiia Bukovyny (Kiev 1973) V. Kubijovyc, A . Zhukovsky

Front page of Bukovyna Bukovyna. The largest U k r a i n i a n newspaper i n Bukovyna, published i n 1885-1918; the unofficial organ of the B u k o v y n i a n populists. It appeared i n the vernacular Ukrainian, adopting the phonetic orthography i n 1888. Bukovyna was published i n C h e r n i v t s i and i n V i e n n a (1913-17), originally twice a m o n t h until 1892; then weekly until 1895, four times a week i n 1895-6, then daily

BUKVAR' IUZHNORUSSKII 321

until 1898, a n d three times a week from 1898 to 1910. It ceased publication i n 1911-12 to resume i n 1913-14 three times weekly under the title Nova Bukovyna. F r o m 1915 to 1917 it was a w e e k l y a n d i n 1918 a daily. Bukovyna was edited by Y u . F e d k o v y c h (1885-8), P. K y r c h i v (1888), S. Dashkevych (1888-94), V . Dutchak (1894-5), O . M a k o v e i (1895-7), L . Turbatsky (1897-8), L . K o h u t , D . Lukiianov y c h , I. Shpytko, V . Simovyc, A . K r u s h e l n y t s k y , Y a . Veselovsky (1904-5), O . L u t s k y , V . Shchurat, V . Fedorov y c h , V . K u s h n i r , Y u . Serbyniuk, a n d others. The politics of the paper were determined b y O . P o p o v y c h a n d S. Smal-Stotsky (a series of articles entitled T o l i t y k a real'na' [A Realistic Policy], 1896). Such writers as O . K o n y s k y , B . H r i n c h e n k o ('Lysty z Ukraïny Naddniprians'koï' [Letters from Dnieper Ukraine], 1892-3, w h i c h p r o v o k e d a reply by M . Drahomanov), I. Franko, A . K r y m s k y , M . Kotsiubynsky, O . M a k o v e i , O . Kobylianska (Tsarivna [The Princess], and M . C h e r e m s h y n a p u b l i s h e d their works and articles i n Bukovyna. The newspaper played an important role i n the development of national consciousness i n Bukovyna a n d contained valuable materials o n the history of the territory.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Franko, I. 'Realisty chy karyierysty,' Zhytie i slovo, 1896, no. 5 Vernyvolia, V. 'Bukovyna (u 50-littia zasnovyn),' Zhyttia i znannia, 8, no. 2 (1935)

Zhukovs'kyi, A . 'Bukovyna,' in Bukovyna, ii mynule i suchasne (Paris-Philadelphia-Detroit 1956) A. Zhukovsky Bukovyna-Pokutia dialects. S p o k e n i n the area bordered b y the Dniester, the Bystrytsia (near the t o w n of Nadvirna), a n d the Seret rivers, they are closely related to the *Hutsul a n d ^Dniester dialects. The B u k o v y n a Pokutia dialects are characterized by the following peculiarities: (1) the use of "e (if unstressed, 'y, '/) instead of 'a (pofédok [order]) after palatalized consonants; (2) u i n place of the unstressed 0 (subi [himself], dat); (3) k\ g ' i n place of t\ à" (g'iwka [girl], zyk'e [life]); (4) the so-called M i d d l e European /; (5) the coronal (weak) palatalization of the softened s\ z\ c\ a n d dz' a n d their dispalatalization i n certain suffixes (des [somewhere], blysk'yj [near], pánckyj [master's], palee [finger]); (6) the preservation of the palatalization i n s', 2', < f , a n d r'; (7) the preservation of certain archaic endings i n the soft declension (na kony, konevy [horse], dat a n d loc sing) a n d the use of verb forms of the following type: pecy [bake]; mocy [be able]; xóg'u [I walk]; Vúbju [I love]; uny xog'y [they walk]; xodywjeml -smyl-jes, xodylysmo,ste [walk], past tense; -mulbudu xodyty [walk], future tense; (8) certain lexical peculiarities, including Rumanianisms, especially i n the eastern part of the Bukovyna-Pokutia dialects area. The expansion of ancient Pokutian phonetic features Çe from 'a) i n the 14th to 16th centuries i n western Podilia contributed, together w i t h the expansion of the Sian dialect features, to the formation of the Dniester dialects. The Bukovyna-Pokutia dialects have been studied by I. Verkhratsky, Y u . Karpenko, and K . Kysilevsky, a m o n g others. Bukovyna-Pokutia dialecticisms form a stylistic element i n the stories of V. Stefanyk and M . C h e r e m s h y n a .

BIBLIOGRAPHY Leonova, M . 'Do kharakterystyky hovirok pivnichnykh raioniv Bukovyny,' in Pytannia istoriï i diialektolohiï skhidnoslov ians'kykh mov (Chernivtsi 1958)

Zales'kyi, A . 'Deiaki iavyshcha vokalizmu pokuts'kykh hovirok z pohliadu fonolohii',' in Pratsi xn respublikans'kot dialektolohichnoï narady, ed F. Zhylko (Kiev 1971) Prokopenko, V. 'Oblastnoi slovar' bukovinskikh govorov,' in A N SSSR, Karpatskaia dialektologiia i onomastika (Moscow 1972) O. Horbach B u k o v y n i a n Battalion of 1919. Volunteer military formation organized i n K o l o m y i a b y M . Topushchak. The battalion, w h i c h consisted of refugees from B u k o v y n a , was attached to the T h i r d A r m o r e d Rifle D i v i s i o n of the A r m y of the U N R a n d saw action against the Soviet forces. The c o m m a n d i n g officer was O . Kantemir. B u k o v y n i a n Battalion of 1941. Volunteer formation of Bukovynians created i n July 1941 b y the O U N (Melnyk faction). W i t h a force of some 1,000 m e n under the c o m m a n d of Capt P . V o i n o v s k y , the battalion reached Kiev, where it was demobilized. Members of the battalion later fought i n the ranks of G e r m a n auxiliary forces against Soviet partisans i n Belorussia. Some went into the Ukrainian u n d e r g r o u n d , w h i l e others joined the French Resistance after h a v i n g been transferred to the French front i n 1944. B u k o v y n i a n S o n g and Dance Ensemble (Bukovynskyi ansambl p i s n i i tantsiu). A vocal-choreographic organization of the C h e r n i v t s i Philharmonic. The ensemble arose out of a B u k o v y n i a n choral a n d dance group i n 1944. It consists of a m i x e d chorus, a dance group, and an orchestra of folk instruments. Its repertoire includes B u k o v y n i a n folk songs a n d dances a n d dramatized musical-choreographic sketches.

Boris Bukreev Bukreev, Boris, b 6 September 1859 i n L g o v , K u r s k gubernia, Russia, d 2 October 1962 i n Kiev. Mathematician, professor at K i e v U n i v e r s i t y from 1889. Bukreev's main w o r k s deal w i t h the theory of complex functions, differential equations, a n d geometry, particularly nonEuclidean geometry. H i s most important books are Kurs prilozhenii differentsiaVnogo i integraVnogo ischisleniia k geometrii (A Course o n A p p l i c a t i o n s of Differential and Integral Calculus to Geometry, 1900), Vstup do variatsiinoho chyslennia ( A n Introduction to Variational Calculus, 1934), and Neevklidova planimetriia v analitychnomu vykladi (Non-Euclidean Planimetry i n Analytical Terms, 1947). Bukvar' iuzhnorusskii (South Russian Primer). A primer compiled by T. Shevchenko i n i860 a n d published by h i m in 1861 i n St Petersburg for use i n Sunday schools for

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adults a n d adolescents. B e g i n n i n g i n 1859, the *Sunday schools were used by U k r a i n i a n intellectuals to promote Ukrainian as the language of education. Shevchenko's primer followed Hramatka by P. K u l i s h (1857) but placed more emphasis o n folkloric texts. B u k y . iv-11. T o w n smt (1977 p o p 4,100) i n M a n k i v k a raion, Cherkasy oblast, o n the H i r s k y i T i k y c h River. The t o w n was first mentioned as a village i n 16th-century documents. It has two brick factories, a stone quarry, a n d a hydroelectric station. B u l a k h o v s k y , L e o n i d [Bulaxovs'kyj], b 14 A p r i l 1888 in K h a r k i v , d 4 A p r i l 1961 i n K i e v . Outstanding Slavic linguist, from 1921 professor at K h a r k i v University and, from 1946, at K i e v University; member of the A c a d e m y of Sciences of the U k r a i n i a n SSR from 1939 a n d director of its Institute of Linguistics from 1944. A student of S. K u l b a k i n a n d Y a . E n d z e l i n , B u l a k h o v s k y was a typical representative of the neogrammarian school, w h i c h emphasizes comparative studies. The merit of Bulakhovsky in this regard was his broad study of Slavic accentology (he conducted studies i n Polish, C z e c h , Bulgarian, Serbian, Russian, a n d other accents). In the history of the U k r a i n i a n language his m a i n works are Pytannia pokhodzhennia ukraïns'koï movy (The Q u e s t i o n of the O r i g i n of the U k r a i n i a n Language, 1956) a n d a series of smaller studies published posthumously i n the collection Istorychnyi komentarii do ukraïns'koï literaturnoï movy (A Historical C o m m e n t a r y to the U k r a i n i a n Literary Language, 1977). Bulakhovsky's historical studies are free from distortion of facts for the sake of political conformity a n d i n this respect are unique for the time of their appearance. H o w ever, they are built o n limited data - dictionaries a n d m o d e r n fiction, as w e l l as comparison w i t h other Slavic languages - a n d give little attention to O l d a n d M i d d l e U k r a i n i a n texts; furthermore, Bulakhovsky's knowledge of dialects was o n l y secondhand. A s a result his studies include certain unjustified hypotheses (eg, his attempt to tie the development of 0 a n d e into i w i t h the new rising pitch i n Slovene a n d Serbo-Croatian a n d other 'fictions of comparative linguistics'). In studies of m o d e r n standard U k r a i n i a n , Bulaxovs'kyj's m a i n achievements were two collective w o r k s that he edited - Pidvyshchenyi kurs ukraïns'koï movy ( A n A d v a n c e d Course i n the U k r a i n i a n L a n guage, 1930) a n d Kurs suchasnoï ukraïns'koï literaturnoï movy (A Course i n the Contemporary U k r a i n i a n Literary Language, 2 vols, 1951-2). H e was also the originator and editor of the U k r a i n i a n orthography mandatory i n the U k r a i n i a n SSR since 1946, w h i c h has since been only slightly modified. Five volumes of Bulakhovsky's selected works were p u b l i s h e d i n K i e v i n 1975-7. G.Y. Shevelov B u l a n k i n , Ivan, b 3 February 1901 i n the village of Tenky, Tatar ASSR, d 31 October i960 i n K h a r k i v . Biochemist, full member of the A c a d e m y of Sciences of the U k r a i n i a n SSR from 1951. In 1934 B u l a n k i n was appointed professor at K h a r k i v University a n d from 1945 served as its rector. H i s w o r k s deal w i t h the chemistry of proteins, particularly the p r o b l e m of the reversibility of protein denaturation processes, a n d w i t h problems of comparative a n d age-conditioned biochemistry. H e is the author of Fizicheskaia i kolloidnaia khimiia (Physical a n d Colloidal Chemistry, 1959).

Leonid Bulakhovsky

Kost Buldyn

Bulat, Ivan, b 1896 i n the village of Z h d a n y , Poltava gubernia, d 30 July 1939. C o m m u n i s t party administrator. In 1917 Bulat was engaged i n Party w o r k i n Katerynoslav. F r o m 1922 to 1925 he was a Party a n d trade-union figure in K h a r k i v , serving as secretary of the Southern Bureau of the A l l - U n i o n Central C o u n c i l of Trade U n i o n s i n 1924. In 1925-6 he was deputy chairman of the C o u n c i l of People's Commissars of the U k r a i n i a n SSR a n d of the Economic C o u n c i l of the U k r a i n i a n SSR; i n 1924-5 he was a candidate member of the Politburo of the CP(B)U. F r o m 1926 he held h i g h Party a n d government offices i n Russia. Bulat, Tamara, b 3 February 1933 i n Zaporizhia. M u s i cologist a n d research associate of the Institute of Fine Arts, Folklore, a n d Ethnography of the A c a d e m y of Sciences of the U k r a i n i a n SSR. She has written several works about M . L y s e n k o . Bulava. A type of mace 50-80 c m i n length consisting of a handle a n d head i n the shape of a sphere or octahedron. The bulava was k n o w n a m o n g Eastern peoples and came into widespread use i n U k r a i n e i n the 13th century, first as a w e a p o n a n d then as a s y m b o l of authority. In the 16th- 18th century Cossack officers bestowed the bulava on the elected hetmán. The Russian tsar also e n d o w e d hetmans w i t h the bulava. A smaller type of bulava, k n o w n as pernach or shestoper, was carried by Cossack colonels. B u l a v i n , K o n d r a t i i , b ca 1660, d 18 July 1708 i n Cherkaske, D o n region. Bakhmut otaman of the D o n Cossacks, leader of an antitsarist rebellion that spread through the D o n region, Slobidska U k r a i n e , a n d 43 counties of southern Russia. The revolt was the result of the government's attempts to take away the traditional autonomy of the D o n Cossacks, to apprehend peasants w h o h a d fled from their owners, to expel poor Cossacks from the D o n Host, a n d to t u r n the rich Cossacks into a closed military estate. Because of his initial setbacks, Bulavin came to the Z a p o r o z h i a n Sich i n search of aid i n the winter of 1707. A number of Z a p o r o z h i a n rank-and-file Cossacks joined his ranks. H o w e v e r , Hetmán I. M a z e p a sent the Poltava Regiment against the rebels. In July 1708 the rebels were crushed b y the tsar's army near O z i v , and shortly afterwards the D o n Cossack officers d i d away w i t h B u l a v i n . The Russian troops ravaged many rebel settlements a n d villages a n d tortured to death thousands

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of the captured rebels. M a n y rebels fled to the K u b a n . After the Battle of T o l t a v a the former followers of Bula v i n established contact w i t h M a z e p a ' s supporters, w h o had emigrated to Bendery, M o l d a v i a , a n d offered to recognize the authority of the U k r a i n i a n hetmαn. Bulavytsky, Oleksa [Bulavyc'kyj], b 8 October 1916 i n U m a n , K i e v gubernia. Painter. Bulavytsky studied at the Odessa A r t School, the L e n i n g r a d A c a d e m y of A r t s , a n d the K i e v State A r t Institute. H e w o r k e d i n K i e v film studios and as a stage designer for various theaters. After the war he lived i n G e r m a n y a n d i n 1950 immigrated to the U n i t e d States, where he w o r k e d as a draftsman a n d designer for various architectural firms. In 1959 he opened his o w n art studio i n M i n n e a p o l i s . A s a painter Bulavytsky specializes i n landscapes, portraits, still lifes, and figurai compositions. H e has h e l d i n d i v i d u a l exhibits of his w o r k a n d has participated i n group exhibits i n Europe, the U n i t e d States, a n d Canada. Buldyn, Kost [Bul'dyn, Kost'], b 1897 i n K i e v , d 1966 i n Buenos Aires. Sculptor a n d painter. B u l d y n graduated from the K i e v A r t Institute i n 1929. H e shared first prize, w i t h A . Darahan a n d B. Kratky, i n 1933 for his design of a gravesite m o n u m e n t to T. Shevchenko, w h i c h was never built. U s i n g this design i n 1935 M . M a n i z e r built a monument to Shevchenko i n K h a r k i v . B u l d y n w o r k e d o n buildings as a decorative sculptor i n K i e v , Dnipropetrovske, Odessa, V o r o s h y l o v h r a d (a huge bas-relief frieze for the Workers' Club), K h a r k i v , Zaporizhia, a n d elsewhere. H e helped found a n d w o r k e d as a n editor at Mystetstvo publishers i n K i e v . In 1943-4 he lived i n L v i v a n d then emigrated to Austria. F r o m 1949 he resided i n Argentina, where he designed a n industrial-economic exhibition i n Avellaneda i n 1950 a n d a b u i l d i n g complex, the C h i l ­ dren's Republic, i n Buenos A i r e s . In the 1920s he be­ longed to the writers' association P l u h a n d published articles o n art a n d short stories (the latter under the p s e u d o n y m Kost Haidar). In A r g e n t i n a he wrote under the p s e u d o n y m V. K o b . Bulgakov, Makarii, b 2 October 1816 i n Surkov, near Kursk, Russia, d 22 June 1882 i n C h e r k i z o v , near M o s ­ cow. A noted Russian theologian a n d church historian. H e studied at the K i e v Theological A c a d e m y and i n 1841 became a professor at the academy. In 1842 he was ap­ pointed professor at the St Petersburg Theological A c a d ­ emy. H e was a full member of the Russian A c a d e m y of Sciences. In 1850 he became bishop of V i n n y t s i a , then of Kharkiv (1862-7), a n d i n 1879 metropolitan of M o s c o w . H e wrote Istoriia Kievskoi Akademii ( A H i s t o r y of the K i e v Academy, 1843). Bulgakov's 13-volume Istoriia russkoi Tserkvi (History of the Russian C h u r c h , 1857-83) con­ tains m u c h material o n the history of the U k r a i n i a n church. Bulgaria. A predominantly Slavic country i n southeast­ ern Europe occupying the eastern portion of the Balkan peninsula. Settled originally b y the Thracians, Bulgaria was conquered b y Rome i n the 1st century A D a n d b y Byzantium i n the 4th century. A Bulgarian state existed from the 7th to the 14th century; i n the 11th a n d 12th century it was a Byzantine vassal state. U n d e r O t t o m a n rule from the late 14th century, Bulgaria became a n inde­ pendent monarchy i n 1879 a n d a C o m m u n i s t people's

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republic i n 1946. Its present territory is 111,000 sq k m i n area. In 1982 Bulgaria h a d a n estimated population of 9,108,000, 87 percent of it Bulgarian, 8.5 percent Turkish, 2.5 percent M a c e d o n i a n , a n d 2 percent G y p s y . The country's capital is Sofia. Political relations between Bulgaria and Ukraine origi­ nated i n the early period of K i e v a n Rus'. Conflicts be­ tween Bulgaria a n d Prince Ihor of Kiev arose as early as the 940s. Prince Sviatoslav Ihorevych took part i n the wars between B y z a n t i u m a n d Bulgaria. In 968 he cap­ tured the t o w n of Preslavets, an important trade center at the m o u t h of the Danube, but was forced to relinquish it w h e n the Pechenegs attacked K i e v . In 971 Sviatoslav's forces marched through Bulgaria a n d w i t h Bulgarian support fought the Byzantine emperor John Tzimisces. A Bulgarian m o n k a n d scribe, Gregory, was adviser to Princess O l h a . O n e of the wives of Prince V o l o d y m y r the Great, the mother of Borys a n d H l i b (Bulgarian names), was Bulgarian. F r o m the end of the 10th century and the adoption of Christianity, cultural relations between B u l ­ garia a n d Ukraine were particularly important. A l o n g w i t h the first liturgical books, the C h u r c h Slavonic lan­ guage (the language of the Southern Slavs, i n c l u d i n g the Bulgarians) was brought to R u s ' and became the literary language of o l d Ukraine. The absorption of a foreign literature b y R u s ' was strongly encouraged b y the close ties between R u s ' and the Bulgarian patriarch of O h r i d i n the first 50 years after the Christianization of Rus'. A l o n g w i t h translations done i n Ukraine, earlier translations done i n Bulgaria of liturgical books, sermons, the *Menaion, *Zlatostrui, the Theology of St John of Damascus, the version of the Shestodnev by John, exarch of Bulgaria, the Chronicle of John Malalas, the Chronicle of Constantine Manasses, *Izbornik of Sviatoslav of 1073 and 1076 and On Poetics b y the m o n k K h r a b r spread throughout Ukraine. A s well, a few original works b y Bulgarian churchmen, such as Bishop Constantine of Preslav's UchiteVnoe ievangelie (10th century) a n d some apocrypha of unques­ tionable Bulgarian origin (they contain traces of Bogomilism, w h i c h was widespread i n Bulgaria i n the 10th a n d 11th centuries), were k n o w n i n Ukraine. In addition to translations, scribes (knyzhnyky) also came from Bulgaria to Ukraine. O l d U k r a i n i a n literature developed under Bulgarian a n d Byzantine influence a n d soon began to spread to Bulgaria (eg, the Lives of ss Borys and H l i b and Theodosius of the Caves) a n d to influence Bulgarian literature. Byzantium's conquest of Bulgaria i n 1018 a n d its subsequent dominance until the e n d of the 12th century p u t a n e n d to Bulgarian literary creativity. D u r i n g the second Bulgarian k i n g d o m (1187-1396) the Bulgarian rulers appealed to the Rus' princes for help several times. The Bulgarian prince Ivan A s e n 11 lived i n exile for 10 years i n the Principality of Galicia-Volhynia and w i t h its help recaptured the throne i n 1218.1. R u s y n of Ukraine was a Bulgarian military leader a n d fought against Byzantium. W h e n K i e v was sacked b y the M o n ­ gols i n 1240, Prince Yakiv Sviatoslav found refuge i n Bulgaria, where he ruled its northwestern part. The political renaissance of Bulgaria was accompanied by increased literary activity a n d the growth of Christian mysticism. The m a i n representative of this movement was Patriarch E u t h y m i u s of Trnovo (1370S-93). H e direct­ ly influenced the K i e v metropolitans C y p r i a n (d 1407) and G . Tsamblak (1415-19), both of w h o m were Bulgar­ ians. The influence of this T r n o v o school is apparent i n

3*4

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the strong ascetic a n d mystical sentiments, the rhetorical quality, a n d the ornamental style of the literature of the 14th-15th century. D u r i n g the period of T u r k i s h domination Bulgaria found cultural support i n U k r a i n e , especially i n connec­ tion w i t h the O r t h o d o x renaissance i n Ukraine at the end of the 16th century. The publications of the K i e v a n Cave Monastery press, established i n 1615, reached Bulgaria and other O r t h o d o x countries. In 1671 the monastery published for the first time Patriarch Euthymius's Sluzhba s zhytiiem Ivana Rylskogo (which is about the popular Bulgarian saint a n d founder of the Rila monastery). In the first half of the 17th century the Z a p o r o z h i a n Cossacks staged a series of attacks o n Varna, Balchik, and other coastal towns of Bulgaria. A Bulgarian archbishop, P. Parchevich, representing A u s t r i a , negotiated a military alliance w i t h B . K h m e i n y t s k y against Turkey (1657). Ukrainian-Bulgarian ties became closer at the end of the 18th a n d the b e g i n n i n g of the 19th century, particularly because Bulgarian merchants appeared i n Odessa. During the 18th-19th century m a n y Bulgarians studied at the K i e v a n M o h y l a A c a d e m y . In the first half of the 19th century Odessa became an important center of the Bulgar­ ian cultural movement k n o w n as the Bulgarian national renaissance. A Transcarpathian U k r a i n i a n historian and writer, Y . Hutsa-Venelin (1802-39), played an important role i n this renaissance. H e traveled through Bulgaria, collected a large amount of historical and philological materials, and founded Bulgarian ethnographical studies. In 1829 he published Drevnie i nyneshnie holgare (Ancient a n d Contemporary Bulgarians) i n M o s c o w . The book had a great impact o n Bulgarian national consciousness. In 1845 one of the first books of Bulgarian poetry i n the 19th century, N . Gerov's Stoian i Rada, was published i n Odessa. Bulgarian writers of the 19th century were keenly interested i n T. Shevchenko, and many of them were clearly influenced by h i m , as Bulgarian critics point out. R. Z h i n z i f o v (1839-77) was influenced by Shev­ chenko, particularly i n his Krvava koshulia (Blood-stained Shirt, 1876), a n d from 1863 o n published a number of translations of Shevchenko's works. The founder of modern Bulgarian poetry, P. Slaveikov (1827-93), translated Shev­ chenko a n d was influenced by h i m . The most prominent Bulgarian writer, I. V a z o v (1850-1921), turned to motifs found i n U k r a i n i a n folk poetry and i n Shevchenko. The writer a n d ethnographer L . Karavelov (1835-79) studied U k r a i n i a n folklore and U k r a i n i a n ethnographers and was influenced b y H . Kvitka-Osnovianenko, M a r k o Vovchok, and Shevchenko, w h o m he also translated (1870-3). M a n y U k r a i n i a n volunteers fought for Bulgaria's liber­ ation i n the insurrection against Turkey and i n the Russo-Turkish war (1877-8), w h e n the idea of liberating the Slavs from T u r k i s h rule was very popular. Later cul­ tural relations between Ukrainians and Bulgarians were particularly influenced by M . *Drahomanov. A s a profes­ sor at the University of Sofia (1889-95), made impor­ tant contributions to the study of Bulgarian folklore. Drahamanov's grandson D . Shishmanov collaborated i n 1915 w i t h the U n i o n for the Liberation of Ukraine. The leading Bulgarian historian, M . D r i n o v (1837-1906), was a professor at the University of K h a r k i v and took part i n the w o r k of the K h a r k i v Historical-Philological Society. In 1890-7 he was its president. M a n y Bulgarian scholars were full members of the Shevchenko Scientific Society, among them M . A r n a u d o v , G . Bonchev, A . T . Ishirkov, L . Miletich, S. Petkov, a n d I. Shishmanov. n

e

In 1918 the Peace Treaty of Brest-Litovsk led to diplo­ matic relations between Ukraine a n d Bulgaria. The first Bulgarian envoy i n K i e v was I. Shishmanov, a long-time supporter of U k r a i n i a n statehood. The U k r a i n i a n envoy i n Sofia was O . S h u l h y n a n d then F. Shulha. In the 20th century Ukrainian-Bulgarian relations have been restricted for the most part to the cultural sphere. Bulgarian writers have translated U k r a i n i a n literature. I. Belev, Diiamantin, A . Ikhchiev, S. D r i n o v , S. Chilingirov, and K h . Tsankov-Derizhan have translated Shevchenko. P. Todorov has translated V . Stefanyk and O . Kobylianska. K h . Tsankov-Derizhan and others have translated I. Franko and O . Oles. I. Shishmanov, S. M l a d e n o v , S. Chilingirov, M . A r n a u d o v , S. Stanimirov, N . Balabanov, D . Strashimirov, a n d others have written o n Ukrainian subjects, particularly o n U k r a i n i a n literature. The works of Soviet U k r a i n i a n poets and writers such as P. Tychyna, M . Bazhan, Y u . Smolych, A . M a l y s h k o , M . Stelmakh, and O . K o r n i i c h u k have been published i n Bulgarian. F r o m 1917 to 1974, 1,105 w o r k s of U k r a i n i a n literature were translated into Bulgarian. After the Second W o r l d W a r a n d the peace treaty of 10 February 1947 between the Allies, i n c l u d i n g the U k r a i ­ nian S S R a n d Bulgaria, relations between the two coun­ tries became fairly close. In 1958 the U k r a i n i a n Depart­ ment of the Society for Soviet-Bulgarian Friendship was established. The Bulgarian consulate general was located i n Odessa from 1966 to 1971 and since then has been located i n K i e v . A Bulgarian consulate has existed i n Odessa since 1971. Each country's theater and choir groups tour the other country. The prose w o r k s of I. V a z o v have been published i n U k r a i n i a n , and the poetry of K h . Botev has been translated by P. T y c h y n a , w h o was elected corresponding member of the Bulgarian A c a d e m y of Sciences. The poetry of L . Karavelov and L . Stoianov and a collection of selected poems by Bulgarian poets have been translated. F r o m 1894 to 1962, 173 works of Bulgarian literature were published i n Ukrainian. H o w ­ ever, political interference has considerably impaired Ukrainian-Bulgarian co-operation. The economic relations between Bulgaria and the Ukrainian S S R are mutually beneficial. A l m o s t 100 percent of Bulgaria's imported coal and cast iron, 40 percent of its coke, 60 percent of its iron ore, and almost 50 percent of its ferrous metals come from Ukraine. Bulgaria accounts for 10 percent of Ukraine's foreign trade. The U k r a i n i a n S S R took part i n constructing 100 of the 180 industrial projects built w i t h the aid of the U S S R i n Bulgaria u p to 1970. In 1920-44 a small number of Ukrainians lived i n Bulgaria. A l m o s t all of them were veterans of the A r m y of the U N R . They lived m a i n l y i n Sofia, Plovdiv, Sliven, V i d i n , Ruse, Burgas, a n d Varna. U k r a i n i a n organizations such as the U k r a i n i a n H r o m a d a i n Bulgaria and the Ukrainian Alliance i n Bulgaria and their branches were active i n those years. In 1934 the U n i o n of Ukrainian Organizations i n Bulgaria was formed. The most promi­ nent figures i n the U k r a i n i a n community were C o l F y l y p o v y c h and the sculptor M . Parashchuk. In 1920 the Bulgarian-Ukrainian Society was established i n Sofia. It was organized a n d headed by I. Shishmanov and re­ mained active until 1944. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Tikhomirov, M . 'Istoriia sviazi russkogo naroda s iuzhnymi slavianami s drevneishikh vremen do pol. xvii v . / Slavianskii sbornik (Moscow 1947)

B U L G A R I A N S

Snegarov, I. Dukhovnokulturny vruzki mezh.au Bulgaria i Rusiia prez srednite vekove (x-xv v.) (Sofia 1950) Mandryka, M . Z bolhars'ko-ukraïns'kykh vzaiemyn (Vplyv Shevchenka na bolhars'ku poeziiu) (Winnipeg 1956) Dmytruk, V. Storinky vikovoï druzhby: Z istoriï ukra'ins'kobolhars'kykh zv'iazkiv xix-pochatku xx st. (Lviv 1958) Atanasov, P. 'Z mynuloho bolhars'ko-ukraïns'kykh zv'iazkiv/ UlZh, i960, no. 4 Shumada, N . Ukraïns'ko-bolhars'ki foVklory'stychni zv'iazky (Kiev 1963) Shyl'ova, O. T.H. Shevchenko i bolhars'ka literatura (Kiev 1963) Sokhan', P. Sotsialisticheskii internatsionalizm v deistvii: Ukrainskaia SSR V sovetsko-bolgarskom ekonomicheskom, nauchno-tekhnicheskom i kuVturnout sotrudnichestve 1945-1965 gg. (Kiev 1969) Khrusanova, V. Ukrainska s"vetska khudozhestvena literatura i literaturna kritika v B"lgariia, 1917-1974: Bibliografía (Sofia 1974) Stepovyk, L. Ukraïns''ko-bolhars''ki mystets'ki zv'iazky (Kiev 1975) Sokhan', P. Ocherki istorii ukrainsko-bolgarskikh sviazei (Kiev 1976) M . Hlobenko, O. Ohloblyn Bulgarians in Ukraine. The borderlands separating the Ukrainians a n d the Bulgarians i n the prehistoric period, the Princely era, and then d u r i n g the period of M o l d a v i a n statehood have not yet been adequately investigated, particularly because segments of the U k r a i n i a n and B u l garian nations have been R u m a n i a n i z e d , a n d the territories of both groups have undergone profound changes o w i n g to colonization. The present Bulgarian communities i n southern Ukraine were established b y people fleeing religious, national, a n d social oppression south of the Danube b y the Ottoman Turks. Bulgarian migrations were connected w i t h the Russo-Turkish wars, i n w h i c h the Bulgarians helped the Russian army, a n d w i t h Russia's desire to settle the southern steppes of * N e w Russia as quickly as possible. The first colonies appeared i n Ukraine i n the second half of the 18th century. In 1732 the Russian government recognized the Bulgarian settlements i n N o v o m y r h o r o d and V i l s h a n k a o n the S y n i u k h a River (on the territories of the Serbian Hussar Regiment). In 17649, i n response to an appeal b y the Russian government encouraging foreigners to settle i n Russia, a small group of Bulgarians settled near K i e v o n lands of the K i e v a n Brotherhood monastery, and other groups settled i n the Chernihiv region. In 1769-91 there was a n increasingly large influx of Bulgarians into Bessarabia (Izmail, Kiliia, Bendery, Akkerman, Reni, Chisinàu). Russian landowners brought i n Bulgarians to cultivate their steppe estates. In 1790 a sizable Bulgarian contingent joined the B o h Cossack H o s t (abolished i n 1817), and its members were later settled i n K h e r s o n gubernia near Bobrynets a n d Voznesenske. After the Treaty of Ia§i (1791) some of the Bessarabian Bulgarians m o v e d to Tyraspil, N y z h n i Dubosari, H r y h o riopil, and Odessa. The period of most vigorous colonization was 1801-12, w h e n the Russian government took a particular interest i n the fate of the Balkan nations. Bulgarian refugees i n this period settled south of Odessa, near M y k o l a i v , a n d near Teodosiia i n the Crimea. Others settled i n southern Bessarabia a n d came under the protectorate of the M o l d a v i a n hospodars. The total number of Bulgarian settlers was about 24,000 i n 1819. The Bulgarians' desire to organize a separate Bulgarian Cossack host i n southern Bessarabia was left unrealized

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by the Russian authorities. The last mass migration of Bulgarians into southern Ukraine occurred i n 1830-4. By the m i d - i 9 t h century there were 92 Bulgarian settlements i n Ukraine, w i t h a total population of 75,000 i n 1844 (constituting 3.3 percent of the population of Bessarabia, Kherson, and Tavriia gubernias). W h e n , according to the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856, almost half of the territory of Bessarabia, w h i c h was settled b y Bulgarians, was ceded to M o l d a v i a , the Russian government resettled about 30,000 Bulgarians i n 1861-2 along the A z o v sea coast i n the Berdianske a n d Melitopil regions. These settlers were joined by Bulgarians from b e y o n d the Danube. Part of the Bulgarian population of the M e l i t o p i l region m o v e d to the K u b a n and Transcaucasia i n the 1860s. The Russian government gave the Bulgarians various concessions a n d aid, a n d they proved to be good farmers, gardeners, and vintagers. A c c o r d i n g to the 1897 census, there were 63,000 Bulgarians i n the territories constituting the U k r a i n i a n S S R i n 1938. A c c o r d i n g to the 1926 census, there were 92,000, and 111,000 i n all of the U S S R . Ninety-six percent lived i n the countryside. M o s t of them (50,000) were concentrated i n the M e l i t o p i l region, where i n the 1920s there were two Bulgarian national raions - Kolarov a n d Tsaredariv. The m a i n center was the village of Preslav, where a Bulgarian teachers' seminary had been i n operation since 1875. Smaller Bulgarian concentrations were found i n southwestern Ukaine: i n the okruhas of Odessa (19,000) and Pervomaiske (7,000), i n the Crimea (11,000), and i n the K u b a n (1,000). The Bulgarians lived i n more or less compact colonies: 76 percent lived i n 40 exclusively or almost exclusively Bulgarian rural soviets. In the 1920s the language of instruction i n elementary schools was Bulgarian. A c c o r d i n g to the 1927 census, 72.5 percent of Bulgarian children i n Ukraine studied at Bulgarian sevenyear schools, and 12.4 percent studied i n Bulgarian and i n another language. The U k r a i n i a n branch of the Tsentrizdat publishing house published textbooks a n d popular literature i n Bulgarian. A n official newspaper, S'vetsko selo, was published i n Bulgarian. After 1933 the nationality policy changed, and the Bulgarian raions and schools were abolished. There is a large Bulgarian colony centered i n *Bolhrad i n southern Bessarabia, o n the border d i v i d i n g the Ukrainian a n d R u m a n i a n (Moldavian) ethnic territories. A c c o r d i n g to the 1897 census, 102,000 Bulgarians lived there; according to the 1941 census, there were 179,000; and i n 1970 there were a n estimated 200,000. This area n o w belongs to Odessa oblast, except for the northern part, w h i c h belongs to the M o l d a v i a n S S R . The number of Bulgarians i n the U k r a i n i a n S S R according to the 1959 a n d 1970 censuses is s h o w n i n the table below.

Total Urban Rural

1959

1970

219,000 (0.5) 58,000 (0.1) 161,000 (0.7)

234,000 (0.5) 77,000 (0.3) 157,000 (0.7)

The Bulgarian population continues to be predominantly rural. In 1970, 67 percent of Bulgarians lived i n the countryside (73 percent i n 1959 and 94 percent i n 1928). In 1979, 66 percent of the Bulgarians i n the U S S R a n d 3 percent of the Bulgarians i n the w o r l d lived i n Ukraine.

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BULGARIANS

Twenty-two percent of the Bulgarians i n the USSR live i n the M o l d a v i a n SSR. Today most of the Bulgarians i n the U k r a i n i a n SSR live in Odessa oblast. I n 1979, 170,000 or 71.4 percent of the Bulgarians lived there, constituting 6.7 percent of the oblast's population. Thirty-seven thousand Bulgarians lived i n Z a p o r i z h i a oblast, 6,000 i n M y k o l a i v oblast, and 25,100 i n all the other oblasts. Of the 238,217 Bulgarians i n the U k r a i n i a n SSR i n 1980, only 162,693 (68.3 percent) indicated Bulgarian as their mother tongue, 67,980 (28.5 percent) indicated Russian, and only 6,787 (2.9 percent) indicated U k r a i n i a n . Fiftynine percent indicated that Russian w a s their second language, w h i l e only 7.3 percent indicated the same for Ukrainian. The Russification of Bulgarians is being hastened b y the lack of Bulgarian schools, publications, cultural-educational institutions, a n d so on.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Skal'kovskii, A . Bolgarskie kolonii v Bessarabii i Novorosiiskom krae: Statisticheskii ocherk (Odessa 1848) Muzychenko, A . 'Byt bolgar-poselentsev Feodosiiskogo uezda/ Etnograficheskoe obozrenie, 43 (Moscow 1895) Titorov, I. B"lgarite v Bessarabii (Sofia 1905) Derzhavin, N . 'Bolgarskie kolonii v Rossii (Tavricheskaia, Khersonskaia i Bessarabskaia gubernii),' Sbornik za narodni umotvoreniia i narodopis, 29 (Sofia 1914), 2 (Petrograd 1915) Bernshtein, S. 'Bolgarskie govory Ukrainy/ Naukovi zapysky Odes'koho derzhavnoho pedahohichnoho instytutu, 1 (Odessa 1930) Naulko, V. Heohrafichne rozmishchennia narodiv v URSR (Kiev 1966) Demidenko, L. KuVtura i byt bolgarskogo naseleniia v USSR (Na materialakh kolkhozov Bolgradskogo raiona Odesskoi oblasti) (Kiev 1970) Dykhan, M . Bolhary-politemihranty u sotsialistychnomu budivnytstvi na Ukraïni v 1924-1929 rr. (Kiev 1973) O. Horbach Bulhak, Yosafat Ihnatii [Bulhak, Josafat Ihnatij], b 10 A p r i l 1758, d 23 February 1838 i n St Petersburg. Uniate bishop of Pynske (1790-5), removed from this office b y Catherine 11. In 1798 he became bishop of Berestia (Brest) and i n 1817 metropolitan of the Uniate church i n Russia (without the title 'of Kiev'); the Vatican confirmed this appointment i n 1818 by m a k i n g h i m 'apostolic delegate.' Bulhak was the last Catholic metropolitan of K i e v before the abolition of the C h u r c h U n i o n of Berestia i n 1839 i n all territories of the Russian Empire except the K h o l m region and Podlachia. Bulich, Sergei [Bulic, Sergej], b 27 August 1859 in Kazan, Russia, d 1921 i n Petrograd. Russian linguist. In Ocherk istorii iazykoznaniia v Rossii ( A n Outline of the History of Linguistics i n Russia, 1, 1904) he presented a wealth of materials from the history of linguistics i n Russia a n d Ukraine u p to 1825. Bunchukovyi tovarysh. See Fellow of the standard. Bunchuzhnyi. See General standard bearer. B u n d (Yiddish for 'union' or 'league'). Jewish social democratic party, the full name of w h i c h w a s the General Jewish Workers' U n i o n i n Lithuania, Poland, and Russia. F o u n d e d i n V i l n i u s i n 1897, it adopted a revolutionary Marxist program a n d represented Jewish workers a n d

leftist intellectuals i n the Russian Pale of Settlement, w h i c h included Ukraine. T h e B u n d ' s representatives were present at the founding congress of the ^Russian Social Democratic Workers' party (RSDRP) i n M i n s k i n 1898, and the B u n d became an autonomous member of the RSDRP. V . L e n i n opposed the 'separatist' and 'nationalist' tendencies of the B u n d . Consequently the B u n d left the RSDRP i n 1903; it returned i n 1906 a n d aligned itself w i t h the M e n s h e v i k s . The B u n d defended the principles of federalism a n d cultural-national autonomy i n the Russian Empire. In 1912 it was expelled together w i t h the M e n s h e v i k s from the RSDRP b y the Bolsheviks. After the Russian R e v o l u tion the B u n d co-operated w i t h the Russian Provisional Government, the M e n s h e v i k s , and the Socialist Revolutionaries. In Ukraine there were B u n d representatives i n the U N R governments of the Central Rada a n d the Directory. Yet, the B u n d , w h i c h h a d 15,000 members i n Ukraine at the time, d i d not support a n independent Ukraine, a n d its representative, M . Rafes, voted against the Fourth ""Universal of the UNR. B y 1919 the majority of the B u n d ' s members h a d gone over to the side of 'Soviet power.' The B u n d continued to function despite internal splits u n t i l 1921, w h e n it w a s forced to dissolve. Its members then either joined the Bolshevik party or emigrated abroad. The B u n d was active i n interwar Poland, including Galicia.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Gitelman, Z. Jewish Nationality and Soviet Politics: The Jewish Sections of the CPSU, 1917-1930 (Princeton 1972) Tobias, H . The Jewish Bund in Russia from Its Origins to 1905 (Stanford 1972) V. Markus, R. Senkus

Nikolai Bunge Bunge, N i k o l a i , b 23 January 1823 i n K i e v , d 15 June 1895 i n Tsarskoe Selo, Russia. Economist, financier, Russian political figure, full member of the St Petersburg A c a d e m y of Sciences from 1890. Bunge was a noble of German descent a n d a Protestant. H e graduated from Kiev University a n d i n 1850 began teaching there. In 1852 he held the chair of economics a n d statistics; he served several times as rector of the university d u r i n g the period 1859-80. In 1881-6 he was the minister of finance i n the tsarist government a n d i n 1887-95 the chairman of the Committee of Ministers. Bunge founded a school of classical liberalism at K i e v University: he advocated free trade and free workers' associations, capitalism, and the industrialization of Ukraine a n d criticized the Russian government for expanding monopolies i n Ukraine. W i t h M . Yasnopolsky he founded the K i e v historical school of

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economics. Bunge's m a i n works were Teoriia kredita (The Theory of Credit, 1852), Kurs statistiki (Statistics Course, 1855), Osnovaniia politicheskoi ekonomii (The Foundations of Political Economy, 1870), Ocherki politiko-ekonomicheskoi literatury (Outlines of Politico-Economic Literature, 1895), Esquisses de littιrature politico-ιconomique, 1898), and a work o n the iron-ore industry i n the K i e v school district (1855). Buniak [Bunjak]. C u m a n khan w h o led attacks on Ukraine i n 1096 (on Kiev), 1097, 5 / d 1107. In the last cam­ paign Buniak's forces were routed by retinues of the Rus' princes near L u b n i . 1 1 0

a

n

Buniak, Porfyr [Bunjak], 1888-1941. Printer, member of the Central Committee of the U k r a i n i a n Social Democratic party (USDP), organizer of the trade-union movement i n Galicia, co-editor of Dobra novyna, Vpered, S'vit (1925-9), and Profesiini visti. In the USDP he supported the position of independence from the Polish Socialist party and, later, from the C o m m u n i s t Party of Western Ukraine d u r i n g the crisis i n the party i n 1924. H e died i n Soviet exile. B u n i a k o v s k y , V i k t o r [Bunjakovs'kyj], b 16 December 1804 i n Bar, Podilia, d 12 December 1889 i n St Petersburg. N o t e d U k r a i n i a n mathematician. After completing his studies i n Paris i n 1826, B u n i a k o v s k y taught i n various institutions of higher learning i n St Petersburg. In 1830 he was elected to the St Petersburg A c a d e m y of Sciences and from 1864 to 1889 was its vice-president. Buniakovsky wrote over 100 scientific w o r k s , some of them i n French. H i s works deal w i t h mathematical analysis, numbers theory, geometry, a n d the theory of probability and its application i n demography, statistics, and inequality theory. H i s principal books are Osnovaniia matematicheskoi teorii veroiatnostei (Foundations of the Mathematical Theory of Probability, 1846), O veroiatnoi chisliteYnosti kontingentov russkoi armii 1883-85 gg. ( O n the Probable Size of the C o n ­ tingents of the Russian A r m y i n 1883-5, i ^ ) , Sur quel­ ques inιgalitιs concernant les intιgrales ordinaires et les intι­ grales aux differences finies (1859), d Recherches sur quel­ ques fonctions numιriques (1861). B u n i a k o v s k y invented the planimeter, the pantograph, a n d a device for adding squares. a

Viktor Buniakovsky

Mykola Burachek, portrait by Zhevago, 1939

Moie zhyttia ( M y Life, 1937) a n d Velykyi narodnyi khudozhnyk (A Great N a t i o n a l Artist, 1939, a monograph o n T. Shevchenko), a n d numerous articles about O . M u r a s h k o , S. Vasylkivsky, M . Z h u k , M . Samokysha, and other artists. A book o n Burachek by Y u . D i u z h e n k o was published i n K i e v i n 1967. Burachynska, L i d i i a [Buracyns'ka, Lidija], b 28 De­ cember 1902 i n H r y n i a v a , Stanyslaviv county, Galicia. Journalist, ethnographer, activist i n the Ukrainian w o ­ men's movement. Burachynska studied economics i n Prague a n d edited the magazine Nova khata i n L v i v from 1930 to 1939. D u r i n g the Second W o r l d War she w o r k e d w i t h the U k r a i n i a n Central Committee i n Cracow. She

n

Burachek, M y k o l a [Buracek], b 16 M a r c h 1871 i n Letychiv, Podilia, d 12 A u g u s t 1942 i n K h a r k i v . Impres­ sionist painter a n d pedagogue. Burachek studied i n Kiev and graduated from the C r a c o w A c a d e m y of Fine A r t s i n 1910 (class of J. Stanisfawski). H i s first exhibit was held i n 1907. In 1910-12 he w o r k e d i n the studio of H . Matisse i n Paris. In 1917-22 he served as professor at the U k r a i n i a n State A c a d e m y of A r t s i n K i e v a n d then at the Kiev A r t Institute a n d the L y s e n k o School of M u s i c a n d Drama i n Kiev. F r o m 1925 to 1934 he was rector of the K h a r k i v A r t Institute a n d then returned to the K i e v A r t Institute. Burachek also designed stage sets: i n 1934 for the plays Marusia Churai by I. M y k y t e n k o and Dai sertsiu voliu ... (Set Y o u r Heart Free ...) by M . K r o p y v n y t s k y , w h i c h were staged i n K h a r k i v theaters, a n d i n 1937 for plays staged i n Donetske theaters. A master landscape painter, he rendered the U k r a i n i a n landscape i n a colorful, impressionist style i n such w o r k s as Morning on the Dnieper (1934), Apple Trees in Bloom (1936), a n d The Broad Dnieper Roars and Moans (1941). Burachek wrote the books

Lidiia Burachynska emigrated to A u s t r i a a n d m o v e d to the U n i t e d States i n 1949, where she edited the magazine Nashe zhyttia from 1951 to 1972. Burachynska served as president of the Ukrainian N a t i o n a l W o m e n ' s League of America (196871) and as vice-president (1972-7) and president of the W o r l d Federation of U k r a i n i a n W o m e n ' s Organiza­ tions (1977-82). She is co-founder of the Ukrainian M u ­ seum i n N e w York. H e r articles and studies o n ethnog­ raphy have appeared i n journals, as w e l l as i n the col­ lection Bukovyna - xi mynule i suchasne (Bukovyna, Its Past and Present, 1956). Burchynsky, H e o r h i i [Burcyns'kyj, Heorhij], b 2 M a y 1908 i n Kiev. Therapist-clinician, graduate of the K i e v Medical Institute (1931), military doctor, and since 1954

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chairman of the therapy department of the K i e v M e d i c a l Institute. H e has written w o r k s o n p u l m o n o l o g y , ulcers, cardiology, a n d other areas of internal medicine. H e developed a theory of the neurotropic origin of ulcers and curative methods. Burdenko, N i k o l a i , b 3 June 1876 i n K a m e n k a , Penza gubernia, Russia, d 11 N o v e m b e r 1946 i n M o s c o w . E m i ­ nent surgeon of U k r a i n i a n descent, one of the founders of neurosurgery. In 1912 B u r d e n k o became a professor at Tartu University a n d i n 1924 at M o s c o w University. In 1934 he organized a n d then directed the Central N e u r o ­ surgical Institute, a n d he was the first president of the USSR A c a d e m y of M e d i c a l Sciences (1944-6). H e pro­ duced studies o n military field surgery, surgical treatment of brain tumors, a n d damage of the nervous system.

1931), w h i c h were staged by the Berezil theater, and the historical drama Pavlo Polubotok (published abroad post­ h u m o u s l y i n 1955). A m o n g Burevii's works o n literature and art are Try poemy (Three Poems, 1931) o n the poetry of P. T y c h y n a , M . Semenko, a n d V . Polishchuk, a n d Amvrosii Buchma (1933). Official criticism of Burevii began in 1929, a n d i n 1934 repressions were such that he was forced to flee to M o s c o w . In early December 1934 Burevii was one of 28 leading U k r a i n i a n cultural figures arrested and executed by firing squad i n K i e v .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Strikha, Edvard. Parodezy, Zozendropiia, Avtoekzekutsiia (New York 1955) Lavrinenko, Iu. Rozstriliane vidrodzhennia (Paris 1959) I. Koshelivets

Burevisnyk (Shearwater). A student sports association in the USSR a n d the U k r a i n i a n SSR, founded i n 1957. In 1936-57 a sports association of trade unions a n d govern­ ment institutions bore the same name. In 1978 Burevisnyk had over 386,000 members i n U k r a i n e , w h o trained i n 49 different kinds of sports. Its members have w o n O l y m p i c and w o r l d championships i n gymnastics (L. Latynina, B. Shakhlin, a n d Y u . Tytov), track a n d field (V. Borzov, V . Brumel), a n d various games. Burghardt, O s w a l d . See K l e n , Y u r i i .

Kost Burevii Burevii, Kost [Burevij, Kost'] (pseud of Kost Sokolsky), b 2 June 1888 i n the village of Velikaia M e z h e n k a i n Voro­ nezh gubernia, d 15 December 1934 i n K i e v . Political ac­ tivist, publicist, writer, a n d critic. Burevii became i n ­ volved i n revolutionary activity early i n his life a n d was, for the most part, self-educated. F r o m 1903 to 1922 he was active i n the Russian Socialist Revolutionary party, be­ coming a member of its central committee i n December 1917. Prior to 1917 Burevii h a d been arrested many times and exiled several times. In 1923 he became active i n the U k r a i n i a n national rebirth a n d was one of the organizers in M o s c o w , where he lived, of a U k r a i n i a n club, a society of friends of U k r a i n i a n theater, a n d the U k r a i n i a n pub­ lishing enterprise Selo i M i s t o . In 1926 he wrote as a con­ tribution to the literary discussion then occurring i n Ukraine the brochure Evropa chy Rosiia? (Europe or Rus­ sia?). In 1929 he m o v e d to K h a r k i v , where he was active in literary a n d c o m m u n i t y life. Burevii began his career as a publicist i n Russian, w i t h works such as Kolchakovshchina (1919) a n d Raspad (The Collapse, 1923). In U k r a i n i a n he wrote the novel Khamy (The Boors), excerpts of w h i c h were published i n the journal Chervonyi shliakh i n 1925. H i s U k r a i n i a n poetic parodies of 'proletarian' literature, the panfuturism of M . Semenko, a n d the constructivism of V . Polishchuk i n Nova heneratsiia (1927-8) a n d the p o e m ' Z o z e n d r o p i i a ' i n Avanhard (1929), w h i c h were all published under the p s e u d o n y m E d v a r d Strikha, were some of the finer examples of the parodie poetry of the time. Burevii also contributed to the journals Literaturnyi iarmarok, provid­ ing editorial comment i n the form of A e s o p i a n fables (intermedii), a n d Prolitfront. H e wrote the plays Oportuniia (1930) a n d Chotyry chemberleny (Four Chamberlains,

Burghers. In the broad sense of the term, burghers were city and t o w n dwellers e m p l o y e d i n various skilled trades, industries, a n d commerce, as w e l l as t o w n a n d suburban residents employed i n farming, gardening, fruit growing, etc. In the narrow sense, w h i c h is particularly applicable to Ukraine, burghers were a social stratum that used to be self-governing a n d then became an estate - the 'poll-tax-paying estate' (podatnoe sosloviie) of the Russian Empire i n the i 9 t h - 2 o t h century. In K i e v a n Rus' the burghers ( k n o w n as liudy hradskii [townspeople] or hrazhdany [citizens]) were not legally defined, even though they constituted a socially a n d economically distinct stratum. The leaders were prominent m e n (narochyti muzhi), city elders (startsi hradskii), a n d aliens (hosti); i n the middle were the merchants; beneath them were the c o m m o n burghers or simple folk (prostaia chad, liude). A t the bottom were dependents of various kinds - servants, slaves, exiles, etc (kholopy, izhoi). The burghers were engaged i n u p to 60 different professions i n this period. The burghers (mistychi or mishchany) became a separate stratum i n the Principality of Galicia-Volhynia at the end of the 13th century, a n d particularly under PolishLithuanian rule, w h e n *Magdeburg law was granted to many cities a n d towns throughout Ukraine. D u r i n g this period a distinct hierarchy, consisting of patricians, middle burghers, a n d plebeians, emerged among the burghers. In Western U k r a i n e this division was compli­ cated by national-religious differences. A s a result, differ­ ent groups of burghers h a d different rights; for example, non-Catholic burghers (Orthodox Ukrainians, A r m e ­ nians, Jews) lost the right to elect their o w n representa­ tives to the city council a n d to certain guilds. In general, the residents of small towns, particularly towns o w n e d by nobles, enjoyed significantly fewer rights than the resi­ dents of large towns that h a d full self-government. The burghers of larger towns or cities (eg, Kiev) came under various jurisdictions - the city council, the state *voivode

BURGHERS

or *starosta, the church (monastery, metropolitan, or bishop) - and their legal-social position was not uniform. In spite of social a n d national-religious discrimination by the Polish authorities and the economic competition of the nobility and the foreigners, the U k r a i n i a n burghers formed the leading stratum i n the towns of the 16th- 17th century. They sought allies i n the struggle for their rights and interests; they attracted some noblemen and gentry of the 'Ruthenian faith to their brotherhoods and i n time w o n the significant support of the U k r a i n i a n Cossacks, w h o came to a large extent from the towns of the Dnieper region. By the end of the 16th century, the population of Galicia was about 100,000, of w h i c h 38 percent were burghers. Ten percent of the population was employed in commerce, and 28 percent, i n the skilled trades. A t the time there were about 100 trades and more than 33 guilds i n L v i v , while K i e v had only 10 guilds, KamianetsPodilskyi had 18, C r a c o w had 44, and V i e n n a had 77. The following were the most influential burgher families of the 'Ruthenian faith i n Western Ukraine: the Babych, Berynda, D u b o v y c h , Z y z a n i i , Krasovsky, N a l y vaiko, Smotrytsky, Striletsky, Tuchapsky, and Shakhovych families, and some immigrant families that joined the 'Ruthenian faith (the A l b i z , Korniakt, L i a n h y s h , M a zapet, and Mazarakii families). W e l l k n o w n i n Kiev i n the 15th-16th century were the K o b y z e v y c h , Koshkoldovych, K r y k u n o v y c h , K r y n y t s k y , M e l e s h k o v y c h , M y t k o vych, Cherevchii, and Shavula families. In the 16th-17th century the leading families i n K i e v were the Balyka, Bykovsky, Bulych, V o i n y c h , K o t o v y c h , Lobachevsky, Machokha, Mefedovych, Samuilovych, Sobol, Somkovych, Sushchyn, K h m i l , K h o d y k a , and K h u r s o v y c h families. Some of them (eg, K h o d y k a ) were elevated to the nobility because of their wealth and pro-Polish attitude. The burghers played an important role i n the Hetmán state. They participated i n large numbers i n the Cossack wars of the 16th-17th century, particularly i n K h m e l n y tsky s Cossack-Polish W a r . W i t h their help the CossackH e t m a n government organized the economy and finances of the state and used their commercial connections w i t h foreign lands to establish diplomatic relations. The burghers played a particularly important role i n restoring the economy i n U k r a i n e under the hetmans I. Samoilovych, I. M a z e p a , and D . Apóstol. The patricians participated actively i n foreign trade and tax farming under the hetmans. Besides the patricians, the middle burghers took an interest i n agriculture, particularly i n various farm and forest industries, and acquired landed estates worked by the c o m m o n people. In spite of strong competition from the Cossack officers and the monasteries, the burghers were an important factor i n the economic development of the Hetmán state, and this strengthened their influence i n the sociopolitical and cultural life of the country. In 1666, 60-65 percent of the population of Left-Bank Ukraine lived i n cities a n d towns. One-third to two-fifths of this population were burghers. M a n y of the more influential burgher families joined the Cossack officer class i n the 17th-18th century, including the Bezborodko, V a s y l k i v s k y - M a k s y m o v y c h , K o z e l sky, K o r n i i e v y c h - O h r a n o v y c h , Kuliabka, Lobysevych, M o l i a v k o , Polubotok, Skorupa, T o m y l o v s k y , and Shyrai families. But the patricians remained part of the burgher estate and retained all their public influence under the hetmans, as is especially noticeable i n Kiev, where the 7

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following burgher families were prominent i n the 17th18th century: the A l e k s a n d r o v y c h , Balabukha, Barsky, Kyselivsky, ¡Nechái, Polotsky, Rybalsky, and Tadryna families. The burghers of K i e v produced such outstanding cultural figures as T. P r o k o p o v y c h , the brothers V . and I. Hryhorovych-Barsky, and A . Vedel. A s before, the burghers, particularly i n large cities, constituted three basic groups: the rich (mozhni) or patricians, the middle stratum (seredni) or merchants, and the ppor (mizerni) or plebeians. A c c o r d i n g to data from 1723, i n K i e v and Starodub the first two groups comprised almost one-third, and the last group two-thirds, of the burghers. In 1743 the legal code of the Hetmán state recognized the burghers as a separate estate. A c c o r d i n g to the code, a burgher was a resident of a t o w n and an accepted member of the c o m m u n i t y whose name was entered i n the t o w n register and w h o was occupied i n commerce, the skilled trades, or i n some other w o r k related to t o w n life. The burghers had the right to elect, and to be elected to, all offices of the m u n i c i p a l government, court, and administration, the exclusive right to commerce and i n dustry i n the t o w n and its lands, and the right to be free of tolls. The burghers fulfilled their military service at home by maintaining law a n d order i n their towns. They were obliged to defend their towns or to go to war only on rare occasions of national emergency. In some large cities such as K i e v the burghers maintained their o w n troops, w h i c h bore various types of arms. In the second half of the 17th and at the beginning of the 18th century the burghers declined rapidly o n Ukrainian territories under the Polish C o m m o n w e a l t h because of the hostile policies of the nobility and the gentry. To monopolize the profits from commerce, the nobility prohibited burghers from engaging i n foreign trade and lowered prices o n the burghers wares while raising the prices on its o w n goods. It d i d so through the Sejm, w h i c h it controlled. For these reasons the burghers became impoverished. M a n y skilled tradesmen left the towns and took u p employment o n the estates of nobles or the latifundia of magnates. A s a result, the cultural importance of the U k r a i n i a n burghers declined as well. W i t h the abolition of the Hetmán state and the u n i fication of the majority of U k r a i n i a n territories under the Russian Empire, the position of burghers i n Ukraine changed. Catherine n s charter (1785) and subsequent acts of the Russian government d i v i d e d t o w n residents, excluding nobles, 'honorary citizens, clergy, and urban peasants, into three estate-corporative groups: merchants, guild tradesmen, and burghers. Thus, the burghers i n the i 9 t h - 2 o t h century formed a separate estate, membership i n w h i c h was hereditary. Before the emancipation i n 1861, serfs could not become burghers, and state serfs could become burghers only by permission of the senate. The burgher estate had its o w n self-government, whose role gradually decreased, particularly after the reform of municipal self-government i n 1870. These changes led to the socioeconomic, legal, and cultural decline of Ukrainian burghers. A l t h o u g h i n the 19th century the majority of burghers were U k r a i n i a n , there were many Russians, some Jews (in Right-Bank Ukraine), Greeks, Armenians, and other non-Ukrainians (in the south) among the merchants. A c c o r d i n g to 1832 data, of 1,000 merchants w h o o w n e d factories i n Ukraine 526 were Russian, 222 U k r a i n i a n , 209 Jewish, and 43 other. O f 7

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1,000 burghers w h o o w n e d industrial firms the respective figures were 355, 314, 124, a n d 207. In general the burghers constituted 5 percent of the population of Ukraine at the b e g i n n i n g of the 19th century a n d almost 8 percent by mid-century. O l d U k r a i n i a n burgher families that went over to the merchant estate retained their socioeconomic status during the 19th a n d the beginning of the 20th century, particularly i n K i e v a n d the Left Bank (notably the Balabukh, Barsky, D y k o v s k y , D r o n y k , D u b y n s k y , Kyselivsky, Kobets, Kulzhenko, Kunderevych, Mariienko, M y tiuk, Sokolovsky, Strilbytsky, a n d Sukhota families). O n l y a few U k r a i n i a n families of burgher or peasant-burgher lineage managed to penetrate the top echelon of wealth and economic power: the Yakhnenko a n d Symyrenko families of the K i e v region, the Tereshchenko family of the Chernihiv region, a n d the K h a r y t o n e n k o a n d A l c h e v s k y families of the K h a r k i v region. The majority of U k r a i n i a n merchants remained, up to recent times, petty merchants a n d tradesmen. M a n y burghers, particularly i n small towns a n d suburbs, were farmers. M o s t of the U k r a i n i a n burghers preserved the U k r a i n i a n language, customs, a n d traditions. Enjoying greater rights than the peasants, they h a d better access to schools. This advantage eventually produced many cultural a n d political leaders. The U k r a i n i a n burgher intelligentsia took part i n the hromadas of the 1860s and 1870s. S. Petliura was descended from Poltava burghers. M a n y Ukrainian burghers, however, became Russified or Polonized under the influence of the city environment, education, or career interests. In Western Ukraine under A u s t r i a n rule, attempts were made i n the 1870s to revive the U k r a i n i a n burgher class and strengthen its economic position, despite Polish opposition. Brotherhoods a n d banks were organized by U k r a i n i a n burghers to protect small producers against usury. This was the purpose of the Burgher Brotherhood i n L v i v , founded by M . Z h e l e k h i v s k y a n d M . D y m e t i n 1872, a n d of other brotherhoods i n various towns of Galicia a n d B u k o v y n a , particularly i n Ternopil and Perem y s h l . In 1884 the trades association Zoria was organized i n L v i v through the efforts of V . N a h i r n y , a n d it continued the w o r k of the former brotherhoods. A m o n g the prominent organizers of U k r a i n i a n burghers i n Western U k r a i n e before the First W o r l d War, the following deserve to be mentioned: R. Zalozetsky-Sas (founder of a U k r a i n i a n business school i n L v i v i n 1911), I. L e v y n s k y (founder of a craft-industrial b u i l d i n g complex i n L v i v ) , M . Halibei, M . Stefanivsky, Y u . Sydorak, A . A n d r e i c h y n , I. Yarema, Karpiak, Ferentsevych and C h o r n i i . A m o n g w o m e n pioneers of small-scale industries were K . A v d y k o v y c h , O . Levytska, O . H i r n i a k (all of Lviv), a n d m a n y organizers i n the provinces. Between the two wars the *Union of U k r a i n i a n M e r chants a n d Entrepreneurs, headed by Y a . Skopliak and then Y e . D u m y n , was active i n Western Ukraine. Y o u n g people w i t h higher education w h o set u p small business and industrial firms or w o r k e d i n co-operatives continued the traditions of the burghers. The legal a n d economic status of U k r a i n i a n burghers w i t h i n the Russian E m p i r e remained almost unchanged until the revolution i n 1917, although their numbers increased to 13 percent of the population. The revolution abolished the estate system. The Soviet victory i n Ukraine destroyed the economic base of the burghers i n central

and eastern Ukraine i n the 1920s a n d i n Western Ukraine after 1939. (See also *Magdeburg law and *Cities a n d towns.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hrushevs'kyi, M . Rozvidky pro mista i mishchanstvo na UkraïniRusy, vols 23-24 of Rus'ka istorychna biblioteka (Lviv 1904) Vologodtsev, I. Osobennosti razvitiia gorodov Ukrainy (Kharkiv 1930) Doroschenko, D. 'Das deutsche Recht in der Ukraine/ Zeitschrift fur osteuropâische Geschichte 5 (1931), no. 4 Jakowliw, A . Das deutsche Recht in der Ukraine und seine Einflüsse auf das ukrainische Recht im xvi-xvin Jahrhundert (Leipzig 1942) Ryndziunskii, P. Gorodskoe grazhdanstvo doreformennoi Rossii (Moscow 1958) Hornowa, E. Stosunki ekonomiczno-spoïeczne w miastach ziemi Halickiej w latach 1509-1648 (Opole 1963) Kompan, O. Mista Ukrainy v druhii polovyni xvust. (Kiev 1963) Mykhailyna, P. VyzvoVna borofba trudovoho naselennia mist Ukrainy, 1569-1654 (Kiev 1975) O. Ohloblyn, I. Vytanovych

Ivan Buriachok Buriachok, Ivan [Burjacok], b 6 October 1877 i n the village of L o z u v a t a , near V i n n y t s i a , d 24 October 1936 in Kiev. Stage designer a n d graphic artist. Buriachok graduated from the K i e v D r a w i n g School and the Cracow A c a d e m y of Fine A r t s (in 1907). F r o m 1908 to 1918, w h i l e w o r k i n g w i t h the Sadovsky Theater i n K i e v , he designed the sets for M . L y s e n k o ' s operas Utoplena (The D r o w n e d One, 1913) a n d Rizdviana nich (Christmas N i g h t , 1915) and for stagings of plays by I. K a r p e n k o - K a r y i (Suva Chalyi, 1913), Lesia U k r a i n k a (Kaminnyi hospodar [The Stone Host, 1914]), S. Cherkasenko (Pro shcho tyrsa shelestila [What the Grass Whispered], Kazka staroho mlyna [Tale of the O l d M i l l ] , Zemlia [Earth]), a n d others. Buriachok also w o r k e d as a caricaturist (under the p s e u d o n y m P. Burula) a n d as a book a n d newspaper illustrator. Buriak, Borys [Burjak], b 6 A u g u s t 1913 i n Rubizhne, K h a r k i v gubernia. Literary a n d film critic a n d writer. Buriak has w o r k e d as the chief editor of V i l n a U k r a i n a publishers a n d of the K i e v Artistic F i l m Studio, a n d as head of the Department of F i l m Studies of the Institute of Fine Arts, Folklore, a n d Ethnography of the U k r a i n i a n Academy of Sciences. Today he heads the academy's Chair of F i l m Studies of the Institute of Theater Arts. H i s books are chiefly collections of literary essays: U sim'ïshchaslyvii (In a H a p p y Family, 1949), Sluzhinnia narodovi (Service to

BURSAS

the People, 1954), Obraz nashoho suchasnyka (The Image of O u r Contemporary, i960), Za zakonamy krasy (According to the L a w s of Beauty, 1963), Khudozhnii ideal i kharakter (The Artistic Ideal a n d Character, 1967), Nauka. Literatura. Heroi (Science. Literature. The H e r o , 1969), Khudozhnyk i zhyttia (The Artist a n d Life, 1973), a n d Prohres i svit prekrasnoho (Progress a n d the W o r l d of the Beautiful, 1974). H e also wrote a study of Y a . K a c h u r a . A l t h o u g h adhering to official literary policy, Buriak has attempted to go bey o n d the framework of socialist realism. Burial m o u n d . See K u r h a n . Burial rites. The ancient burial rites of the U k r a i n i a n people were based o n various customs a n d beliefs. The body of the deceased was washed, dressed, and placed on a bench under a w i n d o w , w i t h the head towards icons and the feet towards the door. A s l o n g as the deceased remained i n the house, all w o r k ceased, except that required for the funeral. The house was not swept d u r i n g the funeral proceedings. The b o d y was carried to the grave feet first, a n d the mourners followed, to prevent the deceased from 'seeing' them. The coffin was knocked against the threshold three times so that the deceased might b i d farewell to his or her home a n d not return. In ancient times the coffin was lined w i t h d o w n , hence the proverbs Khai yomu zemlia perom (May the earth be like feathers for him) a n d Pukhom tobi zemlia (May the earth be like d o w n for you). Kolyvo - cooked wheat or barley covered w i t h honey - was carried i n front of the coffin i n the funeral procession a n d was always the first course of the funeral meal. The ritual was accompanied by wailing and lamentation. F o l l o w i n g the requiem, the 'final embrace/ a formal leave-taking of the deceased, took place, after w h i c h the coffin was lowered into the grave, i n a position so that the deceased faced the sunrise. Those people w h o were directly i n v o l v e d i n the burial purified themselves by w a s h i n g their hands a n d touching the stove before sitting d o w n to dinner. The fear of the dead and the desire to protect themselves from the return of the deceased to this w o r l d characterized the burial rites of the Ukrainian people. In order to discourage the return of the deceased, attempts were made to placate h i m or her w i t h an elaborate funeral a n d by g i v i n g generous alms to the elderly a n d preparing a good commemorative meal.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Trudy etnografichesko-statisticheskoi ekspeditsii v Zapadno-Russkii

Krai, 4 (St Petersburg 1872-9) Vovk, Kh. Studiï z ukraïns'koï etnohrafiï ta antropolohiï (Prague 1928)

Ilarion [Ohiienko, I.]. Dokhrystyians'ki viruvannia narodu (Winnipeg 1965)

ukraïns'koho P. Odarchenko

Burkser, Yevhen, b 4 A u g u s t 1887 i n Odessa, d 25 June 1965 i n K i e v . Geochemist, one of the founders of aerochemistry, corresponding member of the A c a d e m y of Sciences of the U k r a i n i a n SSR. H e graduated from Odessa University a n d i n 1910 became director of the radiology laboratory i n Odessa. In 1926 he was appointed director of the Chemical-Radiology Institute i n Odessa and i n 1938 head of a department of the Institute of Geological Sciences of the A c a d e m y of Sciences of the U k r a i n i a n SSR. Burkser studied the radioactivity of natural objects; the geochemistry and hydrochemistry of mineral waters, salt

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waters, and curative muds, geological dating; meteorites; and other topics. Burkut. A mineral spring i n a hamlet near Zhabie (now Verkhovyna) o n the C h o r n y i C h e r e m o s h River i n the H u t s u l Beskyd. A resort built i n the 18th century was destroyed i n the First W o r l d W a r a n d was not restored. The name is also used locally for other mineral springs i n the Carpathian Mountains, for example, Burkut-S valiava. Burlesque (from the Italian burlesco, 'joke'). Genre of comic poetry, prose, or drama whose artistic effect is achieved by the m i x i n g of elevated a n d ' l o w ' jocular elements. W o r k s i n w h i c h serious themes were treated i n humorous, vulgar language were very c o m m o n i n U k r a i nian literature of the late 18th a n d early 19th century. I. Kotliarevsky's Eneida (Aeneid) a n d the works of many of his epigones were written i n this style. Burliai, Kindrat [Burljaj], 17th century; dates unknown. First colonel of the Hadiache Regiment (1648-9), a close associate of B. K h m e l n y t s k y , a n d a leading Cossack diplomat. A s K h m e l n y t s k y ' s emissary at the beginning of 1648, he led negotiations w i t h K h a n Islam Girei 111 concerning an alliance against P o l a n d . In 1653 he headed the Cossack legation to M o s c o w to prepare for the Treaty of *Pereiaslav. In 1655 he again traveled to M o s c o w , i n an unsuccessful mission to obtain the tsar's approval of an alliance between K h m e l n y t s k y and Sweden against Poland. Burliai's further activities are u n k n o w n . Burmister (from G e r m a n Bürgermeister). C h a i r m a n of a city or t o w n council, assistant to the *viit (mayor) i n cities w i t h self-governing charters based o n *Magdeburg law. First introduced to U k r a i n e i n the 14th century, the term was used for various m u n i c i p a l officers until the 19th century. In accordance w i t h M a g d e b u r g law the general assembly of t o w n s m e n usually elected two burmistry to the ^magistrat (municipal administration). They alternated i n performing their functions, w h i c h included presiding over the council a n d taking care of certain administrative and financial matters. Cities without full self-government usually h a d one burmister. B y the 19th century o n U k r a i nian territories i n A u s t r i a - H u n g a r y the burmister or burgomister was the equivalent of mayor. In Ukraine under Russia the term was used for municipal officers w h o managed the city administration a n d collected state taxes; occasionally, for managers of estates; and, after 1861, for elected officers of the rural district (volost) administration. Bursas and student residences. The first student residences i n Ukraine were k n o w n as bursas (sg, bursa) and were established by religious brotherhoods at b r o t h e r hood schools i n the late 16th century; they usually housed students from poorer families a n d orphans. The best-known bursas were at the L v i v Brotherhood School and the *Kievan M o h y l a A c a d e m y ; they were also found at Jesuit schools (in Zamostia a n d elsewhere). In the early 18th century bursas were set u p at ^colleges i n Chernihiv, Pereiaslav, a n d K h a r k i v a n d remained w h e n the collegiums became seminaries. The residences were supported by donations (which were forbidden i n eastern Ukraine after 1786) a n d by special foundations. They had their o w n organization a n d customs. T w o prefects and several assistants a n d secretaries were elected annually i n

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each bursa. Residents w i t h full or partial board staged Christmas a n d Easter plays; poor students earned their keep by singing. In the 18th century there was a school a n d residence at the C h u r c h of the H o l y Protectress at the Z a p o r o z h i a n Sich. In U k r a i n e under Russian rule at the end of the 18th century ""boarding schools (pansiony) for children of the gentry, particularly the poorer gentry, began to appear. The name 'bursa' was retained for all student residences w i t h i n the system of religious educational institutions; sometimes the term denoted the institutions themselves. By the turn of the 20th century such residences could be found at "theological seminaries that h a d been former collegiums or h a d recently been founded i n provincial capitals; at schools for children of the clergy (dukhovni uchylyshcha, p o p u l a r l y k n o w n as bursas); and at "eparchial schools for w o m e n . Other institutions w i t h student residences were the finishing schools for daughters of the gentry a n d nobility (instytuty blahorodnykh divyts), military schools, certain "gymnasiums, especially private g y m nasiums for w o m e n , a n d schools that were part of the system of secondary pedagogical education (teachers' seminaries, religious teachers' schools, etc). H o w e v e r , the majority of students i n secondary a n d higher schools i n the 19th century lived i n private lodgings as opposed to student residences. Despite the prevailing Russification i n the educational system, some residences, especially at seminaries, h o u s e d active U k r a i n i a n student circles, out of w h i c h emerged m a n y prominent civic leaders. The best k n o w n were *Galagan College a n d the "Kiev Theological A c a d e m y , w h i c h boarded about 200 students annually. A . S v y d n y t s k y based his n o v e l Liuborats'ki (1861-2) o n his o w n experiences at the residence of the KamianetsP o d i l s k y i Theological Seminary i n 1851-6. In Galicia, under A u s t r i a n rule, the Institute of the Basilian Sisters i n Yavoriv was established i n 1848. In time many residences were established by various associations a n d religious corporations, a m o n g them the Ruthenian Bursa (later k n o w n as the U k r a i n i a n Bursa) i n Ternopil (1873) a n d Stryi (1876), the Institute of the Basilian Sisters i n L v i v (1880), the Trade a n d Industrial Bursa i n L v i v (1890), the Institute for Girls i n Peremyshl (1895), and the residences of the Ruthenian Pedagogical Society and Prosvita (beginning of the 20th century). In 1914 there were 68 U k r a i n i a n residences i n 37 towns; 54 were for boys, a n d 14 for girls. They housed about 3,500 students, or close to 3 percent of the student population i n Galicia. M o r e than 30 residences o w n e d their buildings. The A c a demic H o m e i n L v i v (1909) for students at institutions of higher learning, w h i c h was funded by Y e . C h y k a l e n k o and V . S y m y r e n k o , h e l d a special place among residences. It played an important role i n raising the level of national consciousness a m o n g U k r a i n i a n students. There were also 30 Russophile residences. After the First W o r l d War the number of residences i n Galicia, n o w under Polish rule, declined almost every year. In 1942-4 the number increased, mainly o w i n g to the efforts of the U k r a i n i a n Central Committee i n the G e r m a n Generalgouvernement. In 1943 there were 102 residences, housing over 6,000 students. In Transcarpathia the first residences were established i n U z h h o r o d : i n 1826 a boys' residence, w h i c h operated until 1946, a n d i n 1840 a girls' residence; both were for orphans of the Greek Catholic clergy. Eparchial residences were established i n other towns and accepted

students without regard to origin. In the interwar period the residences were supported by the Czechoslovakian government. There were 14 residences (one of them for Czech children), h o u s i n g 700-1,000 secondary school students. A l t h o u g h Russophile influence dominated, some of these residences, for example, the Basilian residence i n U z h o r o d a n d others i n K h u s t , Berehove and M u k a c h i v were able to maintain a U k r a i n i a n character. The Shkolnaia P o m o s h c h Society was one of the private Russophile institutions that operated residences. In B u k o v y n a the oldest U k r a i n i a n bursa - the Fedkovych Bursa - was established for g y m n a s i u m students i n Chernivtsi i n 1896 a n d functioned until 1940. Four other residences, w h i c h were opened i n the early 1900s, declined under R u m a n i a n rule. After the First W o r l d W a r the most important residence outside U k r a i n e belonged to the U k r a i n i a n G y m nasium i n Revnice, a n d later M o d f a n y , Czechoslovakia. In Canada today there are five U k r a i n i a n student residences: at the M o h y l a Institute i n Saskatoon, St John's Institute i n E d m o n t o n , the St V l a d i m i r Institute i n Toronto, St A n d r e w ' s College i n W i n n i p e g (all four are Orthodox), and the Catholic Sheptytsky Institute i n Saskatoon. In Brazil there is one student residence, at M o h y l a College in Prudentópolis. In the U k r a i n i a n SSR, instead of 'bursa,' the term hurtozhytok is used for residence. The Marxist view of the school system as an instrument of class power led to the rapid establishment of preparatory 'workers" faculties for students of desirable 'proletarian' backgrounds and forced the government to set up student dormitories i n the early 1920s. Later, residences for secondary-school students were built. A c c o r d i n g to official statistics, 41.5 percent of students lived i n residences i n the 1926-7 school year. In the following years this percentage increased w i t h the general rise i n student enrollment but d r o p p e d after the Second W o r l d W a r . B y 1968-9 only 21.8 percent of students lived i n residences. Since the 1930s a n d especially after the Second W o r l d W a r , the residence system has expanded to the tekhnikums, the Tabor reserve schools,' and the military schools. L i v i n g conditions a n d food are modest i n the residences; they are better i n certain industrial institutes a n d tekhnikums that are supported by the ministries of various industries. B y controlling access to the residences a n d regulating the size of scholarships the state can control student activities. In 1956 several p r i v i leged secondary "boarding schools were established, primarily for children of the Soviet elite. In i960 exclusive 'semiboarding' secondary schools ('schools w i t h a prolonged day') w i t h a simpler program were created.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Zhuk, A . 'Statystyka ukrai'ns'kykh burs v Halychyni,' Nasha shkola (Lviv), 1911, nos 2-3 Lovyts'kyi, Iu. Materiialy do statystyky burs (Lviv 1914) Iasinchuk, L. PiatdesiaV lit Ridnoï Shkoly (1881-1931) (Lviv 1931)

!

Siropolko, S. 'Istoriia osvity na Ukrai'ni/ Shliakh vykhovannia i navchannia, nos 2-3 (Lviv 1937) P. Polishchuk Burshtyn [Burstyn]. iv-5. T o w n smt (1977 p o p 13,000) i n H a l y c h raion, Ivano-Frankivske oblast, situated i n the Opilia U p l a n d o n the H n y l a L y p a River. It has a prefabricated-building panels plant, a regional power plant, and energetics t e k h n i k u m . B u r s h t y n is first mentioned i n

B U T O V Y C H

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historical documents of 1334 because of its fortress, w h i c h was built i n the 16th century.

prohibition, to paint a large number of landscapes a n d genre paintings.

Burtniak, Peter [Burtnjak, Petro], b 26 M a r c h 1925 i n Fork River, M a n i t o b a . Politician. Burtniak was elected to the Manitoba legislature i n 1969, representing the Dauphin constituency for the N e w Democratic party until 1977. H e held the portfolios of tourism a n d recreation, culture, and highways, a n d was minister responsible for the Manitoba Public Insurance Corporation. H e has been a member of the board of Canada's National U k r a i n i a n Festival i n D a u p h i n , Manitoba.

Butenko, Hryhorii, b 12 February 1904 i n the village of Diachkivtsi, K h a r k i v gubernia, d 9 January 1977. C o m m u nist official. F r o m 1938 to 1940 Butenko was head of the executive committee of K h a r k i v oblast. F r o m 1940 to 1949 he was minister of agriculture of the U k r a i n i a n S S R , later becoming minister of meat a n d milk production. F r o m 1956 to 1968 he was deputy chairman of the Council of Ministers of the U k r a i n i a n S S R .

Burulcha River [Burul'ca]. Small river i n the Crimea, a right-bank tributary of the Salhyr River. The Burulcha is 76 k m long, and its basin covers 244 sq k m . It rises i n the Crimean M o u n t a i n s . In years of drought the river runs dry i n the summer. Burundai [Burundaj], 13th century; dates u n k n o w n . Mongol-Tatar military leader w h o took part i n the attacks on K i e v a n Rus' led b y *Batu K h a n i n the late 1230s a n d early 1240s. Burundai forced the Volhynian prince Vasylko Romanovych to join the Tatar campaigns against Lithuania (1258) a n d P o l a n d (1259). O n Burundai's orders all fortifications i n V o l h y n i a a n d Galicia (except for Kholm) were destroyed. Buryn [Buryn']. 11-14. C i t y (1970 p o p 10,300), a raion center i n S u m y oblast, and a food-industry center. Busha [Busa]. v-9. Village (1972 p o p 1,300) i n Y a m p i l raion, Vinnytsia oblast, situated o n the Murafa River i n eastern Podilia. In the m i d - i 7 t h century it was a fortress of the Bratslav Regiment. (The remains of the fortress have been preserved.) In February a n d M a r c h 1654 Polish forces attacked Busha, a n d finally a 60,000-strong army captured it i n N o v e m b e r . Captains H r e c h k a and Z a v y s n y commanded the defense of several thousand Cossacks. After their deaths Z a v y s n y ' s spouse, M a r i a , set fire to the magazine, perishing together w i t h m a n y of the attackers. The Poles slew almost all the inhabitants. These events were popularized i n U k r a i n i a n literature by M . Starytsky i n the play Oborona Bushi (The Defense of Busha) and the short novel Obloha Bushi (The Siege of Busha). Bushtyna [Bustyna]. v-4. T o w n smt (1977 pop 7,100) i n Tiachiv raion, Transcarpathia oblast, located at the junction of the Tereblia and the Tysa rivers i n the Maramures, Basin. It has a timber-processing complex. Bustard, Great (Otis tarda; Ukrainian: drokhva). The largest game a n d l a n d bird i n Ukraine a n d Europe. Its length is over 1 m , and its weight is 10-21 k g . It is found i n the steppe a n d the forest-steppe belts, the Crimea, a n d northern Caucasia. In the past bustards were far more numerous a n d widespread; i n 1910 they could still be found i n western Podilia. Butakov, Aleksei, b 19 February 1816 i n Kronshtadt, Russia, d 10 July 1869 i n Schwalbach, Germany. Russian geographer, explorer, a n d sailor. In 1848-9 he led an expedition to the A r a l Sea, i n w h i c h T. Shevchenko took part as the landscape artist. Butakov treated the exiled Shevchenko w e l l a n d allowed h i m , i n spite of the tsar's

Butkovsky, Ivan [Butkovs'kyj] (pseud: Hutsul), b 2 M a y 1910, d 3 July 1967 i n M u n i c h . Lieutenant colonel i n the U k r a i n i a n Insurgent A r m y ( U P A ) , commander of its fourth military district i n 1944, a n d chief of the U P A ' s mission abroad. Butkovsky, Petro [Butkovs'kyj], b 1801, d 1844. Psychiatrist, surgeon, a n d therapist. H e was born i n Ukraine and graduated from the K h a r k i v Theological Collegium and the St Petersburg M e d i c a l Surgical A c a d e m y i n 1825. H e served as an army doctor i n 1823-32. In 1834 he was appointed professor at K h a r k i v University. H e wrote a number of works a n d textbooks i n psychiatry, surgery, pathology, a n d therapy. Butnyk-Siversky, Borys [Butnyk-Sivers'kyj], b 16 March 1901 i n C h e r n i h i v . A r t historian. Butnyk-Siversky has specialized i n the history of decorative folk art, poster art, and the art of T. Shevchenko. H i s major works are Riepin i Ukraïna (Repin a n d U k r a i n e , 1962), Ukraïns'ke radians'ke narodne mystetstvo, 1917-1941 (Soviet Ukrainian Folk A r t , 1917-1941, 1966), Ukraïns'ke radians'ke narodne mystetstvo, 1941-1967 (Soviet U k r a i n i a n Folk A r t , 1941-1967, 1970), Narodnye ukrainskie risunki (Ukrainian Folk Drawings, 1971), a n d Ukraïns'kyi radians'kyi suvenir (The Soviet Ukrainian Souvenir, 1972). Butovych. Surname of several U k r a i n i a n families of different lineage k n o w n since the 17th century. Stepan Butovych of the C h e r n i h i v Regiment was general aidede-camp of the Hetmán state i n 1709-17. D e m i a n a n d Stepan Butovych were fellows of the standard a n d participants i n the H y l i a n a n d Sulak campaigns i n 1723-7. Oleksa Butovych was governor of C h e r n i h i v gubernia i n 1813-18. H r y h o r i i B u t o v y c h (from a different line) was archpriest of Pereiaslav a n d Hadiache i n 1634-73 a n d a supporter of Hetmán I. Briukhovetsky, w i t h w h o m he traveled to M o s c o w . The family controlled the captaincy of the Z i n k i v company of the Hadiache Regiment i n the last half of the 18th century. Butovych, Mykola [Butovyc], b 1 December 1893 i n the village of Petrivka, Poltava gubernia, d 21 December 1961 i n Hackensack, N e w Jersey. M o d e r n i s t painter a n d graphic artist. B u t o v y c h studied i n Prague, Berlin, a n d Leipzig (at the A c a d e m y of Graphic A r t , 1922-6). H e w o r k e d i n L v i v , Western Europe, and, from 1947, i n the U n i t e d States. H e h a d i n d i v i d u a l exhibits i n Berlin a n d N e w York and took part i n group shows i n L v i v (numerous exhibits of the Association of Independent Ukrainian Artists), Paris (the Salon d ' A u t o m n e ) , Los Angeles (exhibiting bookplates i n 1933), Rome (graphics i n 1938), Brussels (1946), and, from 1932, the U n i t e d States (exhibits of

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U n i o n A c a d e m y of the Agricultural Sciences. H e gradu­ ated from the Odessa Agricultural Institute and i n 1930 joined the A U - U n i o n Scientific-Research Institute of Sugar Beets i n K i e v . F r o m 1941 to 1970 he served as its director. H e has published w o r k s o n the physiology and agrotechnology of sugar beets.

Mykola Butovych the U k r a i n i a n Artists Association). Butovych s w o r k is based on themes from U k r a i n i a n folkways, mythology, and folklore, w h i c h are often treated i n a humorous or grotesque w a y . H i s w o r k s include illustrations to books by N . G o g o l , V . Stefanyk, and I. Kotliarevsky; numerous book-cover designs, bookplates, a n d company emblems; series of woodcuts o n U k r a i n i a n mythology and demonology a n d of Greek gods dressed i n U k r a i n i a n costumes; and graphic a n d o i l compositions, such as Aeneas, Dido and Music (1942), Zeus Resting (1955), On Lysa Mountain (1955), and the series The Witch. M a n y of his works have expressionist or constructivist elements. S. Hordynsky 7

7

Butsmaniuk, Y u l i i a n [Bucmanjuk, Julijan], b 3 July 1885 i n S m o r z h i v , B r o d y county, Galicia, d 30 December 1967 i n E d m o n t o n , Alberta. Painter. Butsmaniuk studied art i n L v i v a n d C r a c o w before the First W o r l d W a r and painted churches i n Galicia as an assistant to M . Sosenko. F o l l o w i n g studies i n Prague, he returned to L v i v i n 1927 and taught art i n R i d n a Shkola society schools a n d painted the Basilian church i n Z h o v k v a . In 1950 he emigrated to C a n a d a and settled i n E d m o n t o n , where he did portraits a n d painted the interior of St Josaphafs U k r a i n i a n Catholic Cathedral. Butsmaniuk s religious art is traditional i n form but has elements of n e w styles, particularly of the Viennese Secession. A book about h i m was published i n E d m o n t o n i n 1979. 7

B u t u r l i n , V a s i l i i , ? - 1636. Russian boyar. In January 1654 he headed the Muscovite delegation that negotiated the Treaty of T e r e i a s l a v w i t h Hetmαn B. K h m e l n y t s k y and the Cossack starshyna. In 1635 he commanded the Russian forces that helped the U k r a i n i a n army expel Polish troops from most of U k r a i n e . Buturlynivka (Russian: Buturlinovka). 111-21. City (1968 pop 23,000) o n the Osered River, a raion center i n V o r o ­ nezh oblast, Russian SFSR. In 1926 it h a d a population of 28,000, of w h i c h 85 percent was U k r a i n i a n . It lies i n the northeasternmost part of U k r a i n i a n ethnic territory. Buturlynivka arose i n about 1740 a n d was inhabited mostly by U k r a i n i a n settlers from the Left Bank. In 1766 the settlers rebelled w h e n C o u n t Buturlin turned them into serfs. U n d e r the Russian Empire B u t u r l y n i v k a was the largest village w i t h a cottage industry i n V o r o n e z h gubernia. Buzanov, Ivan, b 12 M a y 1903 i n N o v a Praha, K h e r s o n gubernia. Plant physiologist, full member of the A l l -

B u z e s k u l , V l a d y s l a v , b 8 M a r c h 1838 i n the village of Popivka, K h a r k i v gubernia, d 1 June 1931 i n K h a r k i v . Historian. B u z e s k u l graduated from K h a r k i v University i n 1880 a n d i n 1890 became a professor there. H e became a member of the A c a d e m y of Sciences of the USSR i n 1922 and of the A l l - U k r a i n i a n A c a d e m y of Sciences i n 1923. H e published w o r k s o n the history of ancient Greece, includ­ ing Vvedenie v istoriiu Gretsii (Introduction to the H i s t o r y of Greece, 1915), Istoriia afinskoi demokratii (History of A t h e n i a n Democracy, 1909), a n d studies o n Pericles, Aristotle, a n d the antiquities of the northern Black Sea coast; he also wrote Vseobshchaia istoriia i ee predstaviteli v Rossii v xix i nachale xx veka (World H i s t o r y and Its Repre­ sentatives i n Russia i n the 19th a n d Early 20th Century, 1929-31). Buzhanians (Buzhany). A n East Slavic tribe or alliance of tribes that, according to the Primary Chronicle, inhab­ ited the B u h River Basin. A n anonymous 10th-century Bavarian writer noted that the Buzhanians had 230 strongholds. A c c o r d i n g to some scholars, the B u z h a n ­ ians, like the V o l h y n i a n s , were earlier k n o w n as the Dulibians. In the 9th-10th century the Buzhanians came under the rule of K i e v a n R u s ' a n d were no longer mentioned i n chronicles. B u z h y n s k y , H a v r y i l [Buzyns'kyj, Havryjil], b 1680s i n Ukraine, d 1731 i n M o s c o w . Prefect of the M o s c o w A c a d e m y (1717-18), bishop of Riazan, collaborator i n Peter I'S reforms. B u z h y n s k y studied at the K i e v a n M o h y l a A c a d e m y a n d belonged to a group of Ukrainians w h o chose to serve Peter 1. B u z h y n s k y praised Peter's reforms i n his sermons (publ 1898). H e translated works of such thinkers as S. Pufendorf a n d Erasmus. Buzke [Buz'ke] (official Soviet name: Busk), iv-5. City (1970 p o p 6,ooo) at the junction of the Poltva and B u h rivers, a raion center i n L v i v oblast. First mentioned i n the chronicles of 1097 as a stronghold, i n the 12th century it was a V o l h y n i a n border t o w n a n d an appanage capital for some years. Remnants of two forts and m a n y graves have been preserved. Today B u z k e has a brewery, two brick plants, a n d a food industry. B u z k o , D m y t r o [Buz'ko], b 1891 i n K h e r s o n . Writer and political figure. B u z k o studied at the University of Copenhagen. U n t i l 1917 he was a member of the U k r a i ­ nian Party of Socialist Revolutionaries. Later he was secretary of the U N R m i s s i o n i n Copenhagen. H e was published from 1920 as a futurist a n d belonged to the writers' group N o v a Heneratsiia. B u z k o is the author of the story collections Lisovyi zvir (Forest A n i m a l , 1924) and Na svitanku ( A t D a w n , 1930) a n d the novels Chaika (The Seagull, 1929), Pro shcho rozpovidala rotatsiika (What the Press Operator T o l d , 1929), Za gratamy (Behind Bars, 1930), Domny (Blast Furnaces, 1932), Nashchadky khorobrykh (Descendants of the Brave, 1933), Kryshtalevyi krai (The Crystal C o u n t r y , 1933), a n d ladviha i Malka -

BYKOVSKY

polis'ki partyzany (Yadviha a n d M a l k a , Polisian Partisans, 1936). H e was arrested i n 1937 d u r i n g the Y e z h o v terror and was probably later shot. V a r i o u s Soviet sources state he died i n 1938 or 1943.

Petro Buzuk

Luka Bych

B u z u k , Petro, b 14 July 1891 i n the village of Ternivka near Tyraspil, Bessarabia, d 7 October 1943. A prominent Ukrainian linguist, professor at the universities of Odessa and M i n s k (from 1925), a n d director of the Institute of Linguistics of the Belorussian A c a d e m y of Sciences from 1931. B u z u k ' s first w o r k s o n general linguistics were compilations a n d psycholinguistic i n character (eg, Ocherki po psikhologii iazyka [Essays o n the Psychology of Language, 1918]). Later he turned to researching C h u r c h Slavonic and comparative Slavic grammar. H e studied Old-Ukrainian records such as the Lutske G o s p e l , the Arkhangelsk G o s p e l , a n d H . Skovoroda's works. H e published several series of etymological studies. H e wrote the comprehensive Narys istoriï ukraïns'koï movy (Outline of the H i s t o r y of the U k r a i n i a n Language, 2nd edn, 1927) a n d was the first to attempt to apply the principles of linguistic geography to Ukraine a n d Belorussia i n his 'Diialektolohichnyi narys Poltavshchyny' (A Dialectological Study of the Poltava Region, Ukraïns'kyi diialektolohichnyi zbirnyk, 2,1929) a n d Sproba linhvistychnae heohrafii Belarusi ( A n A t t e m p t at a Linguistic Geography of Belorussia, 1928). H e investigated U k r a i n i a n and Belorussian dialects a n d described Ukrainian-Belorussian and U k r a i n i a n - M o l d a v i a n linguistic relations. In his 'Sproba historyi dahistarychnai e p o k h slavianskai fanetyki' ( A n Attempt at the H i s t o r y of Slavic Phonetics i n the Prehistoric Period, Zapiski Addzelu humanitarnykh nauk, 2, M i n s k , 1928) B u z u k pioneered the historical-chronological approach to the C o m m o n Slavic language. U n d e r the p s e u d o n y m of Rosich he published literary a n d critical works i n Belorussian a n d popularized U k r a i n i a n literature i n Belorussia. After his arrest i n 1933, he lived (according to Soviet sources) i n V o l o g d a a n d taught at the local pedagogical institute. B u z u l u k . See Bazavluk.

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researched and published by P. K o p k o i n Denkschriften der Wiener Akademie, Phil.-hist. Klasse, 55 (Vienna 1912). Bych, L u k a [Bye], b 1875 i n Stanytsia Pavlovska i n the K u b a n , d 1944. Jurist and economist, K u b a n political leader. Bych was a member of the Black Sea Committee of the Revolutionary U k r a i n i a n party i n Katerynoslav, leading member of the K u b a n councils, first K u b a n prime minister (1917-8), president of the K u b a n Legislative C o u n c i l , and chairman of the K u b a n delegation to the Paris peace conference i n 1918-20. After emigrating, he was a docent and then professor of economics at the Ukrainian H u s b a n d r y A c a d e m y , later the U k r a i n i a n Technical and H u s b a n d r y Institute, i n Podëbrady. In 1937-9 he was director of the institute. Bych is the author of many articles, particularly o n banking, local selfgovernment, and economics, several textbooks of the academy and the institute i n Podëbrady, and the political w o r k Kuban' u kryvomu dzerkali (The K u b a n i n a Distorted M i r r o r , Prague 1927). Bychko, Valentyn [Bycko], b 17 June 1912 i n Kharkiv. Writer, teacher, and journalist. For many years Bychko was editor of the children's paper Zirka and the periodical Pioneriia. H e wrote over 30 collections of poetry, stories, and plays for children, articles, songs, and two opera librettos. In 1969 he published the autobiographical novel Blahoslovlialosia na svit ( D a w n Was Breaking). A m o n g his collections of poetry for adults are Sontse zustrichaiu (I Greet the S u n , 1951), Bilia sertsia blyz'ko (Close to the Heart, 1935), Siisia, rodysia, zerno (Scatter and G r o w , G r a i n , 1959), Bilia vechirn'oho vohniu (By the Evening Fire, 1966), Sribnolittia (The Silver Years, 1973), and Kolir chasu (The Color of Time, 1974). H e also wrote a literary-critical study, N.L. Zabila (1963). Bykhovets Chronicle. O n e of the most complete Ruthenian-Lithuanian chronicles of the late 16th century. In 1840 the chronicle was i n the possession of O . Bykhovets from Volkovysk, Belorussia. The chronicle describes events i n the history of the G r a n d D u c h y of Lithuania from the 13th to the early 16th century. It deals w i t h the wars between Lithuania and P o l a n d , the struggle against the Tatars and the Teutonic K n i g h t s , and U k r a i n i a n resistance to L i t h u a n i a n and Polish domination. The chronicle was published i n Polnoe sobranie russkikh letopisei (The Complete Collection of Russian Chronicles, v o l 17, 1907). B y k h o v s k y , H r y h o r i i [Byxovs'kyj, Hryhorij], 18611936. Surgeon and oncologist. B y k h o v s k y graduated from K i e v University i n 1899 a n d practiced surgery at the university clinic a n d hospitals i n K i e v . H e founded and directed the K i e v Institute for the U p g r a d i n g of Physicians i n 1922. H e also headed a network of oncological institutions i n K i e v a n d throughout Ukraine. H e wrote many scientific w o r k s , i n c l u d i n g several monographs. B y k o v s k y , Lev [Bykovs'kyj], b 10 A p r i l 1895 the village of Vilkhivets, K i e v gubernia. Bibliologist and bibliographer, full member of the U k r a i n i a n A c a d e m y of Arts and Sciences i n the U n i t e d States. Bykovsky has w o r k e d i n libraries i n K i e v , Kamianets-Podilskyi, Warsaw, and Denver, Colorado. Since 1934 he has served as co-organizer a n d secretary of various research institutes, i

Byblo Apóstol. A 36-folio fragment of the apóstol (acts and epistles of Christ's apostles) found i n the village of Byblo near Peremyshl and, most probably, transcribed there i n the late i 3 t h - e a r l y 14th century from the C h u r c h Slavonic text. It contains m a n y peculiarities of the southwestern U k r a i n i a n dialects at that time. The apóstol was

n

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including the Black Sea Institute, w h i c h was established i n West G e r m a n y a n d transferred to the U n i t e d States i n 1950. B y k o v s k y has written bibliographic studies, i n cluding NatsionaVna Biblioteka Ukraïns'koï Derzhavy (The National Library of the U k r a i n i a n State, 1922) and Knyzhna sprava v Chekhoslovachchyni (Book Matters i n Czechoslovakia, 1926). H e has compiled numerous bibliographies of the writings of scholars a n d statesmen, as w e l l as his o w n biography a n d bibliography, Li sluzhbakh ukrains'kii knyzhtsi (In the Service of the U k r a i n i a n Book, 1972). Bylbasivka. v-18; DB 11-3. T o w n smt (1976 p o p 8,800) i n Slovianske raion, Donetske oblast, founded i n 1670. Fish a n d poultry are bred there. Bylyna (Russian: bylina). N a m e of epic songs of the K i e v a n R u s ' era that have not survived i n Ukraine but are still s u n g i n northern Russia, where they are called stariny. The U k r a i n i a n origins of the bylyny and their enduring presence o n U k r a i n i a n territories can be seen from the clear traces they have left i n other forms of U k r a i n i a n folk literature - i n legends, carols, w e d d i n g songs, etc - as w e l l as from references to certain bylyny heroes i n o l d R u s ' chronicles a n d literary works of the 16th-17th century. The bylyny are d i v i d e d into several cycles. The pre-Christian cycle, w h i c h is richest i n mythological themes, consists of bylyny about the heroes M y k u l a S e l i a n y n o v y c h , Sviatohor, a n d V o l h a Vseslavych; the songs about Volha Vseslavych are reflected i n tales about Prince O l e h the Seer a n d Princess O l h a found i n the chronicles. The K i e v bylyny cycle presents Prince V o l o d y m y r as the central figure, combining i n h i m the characteristics of Prince V o l o d y m y r the Great a n d V o l o d y m y r M o n o m a k h . Other heroes of this cycle include Illia M u r o m e t s (Murovets i n the older sources) from Chernihiv, whose grave at the K i e v a n Cave Monastery was still visited i n the 17th century; Dobrynia; a n d A l o s h a (Oleksander) P o p o v y c h . The m a i n themes of the Kiev cycle concern the demise of bylyny heroes a n d depict the struggle w i t h 'the faithless p o w e r / the nomadic hordes. A n o t h e r series of bylyny are connected w i t h the V o l h y nian a n d H a l y c h principalities. They deal w i t h Prince R o m a n M s t y s l a v y c h , D i u k (Duka) Stepanovych, C h u r y l o Plenkovych, M y k h a i l o K o z a r y n , a n d others. A c c o r d i n g to U k r a i n i a n scholars, the bylyny ceased to be sung by the U k r a i n i a n people i n the 17th century, w h e n turbulent events gave rise to a n e w epic song form - the Cossack *duma.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Petrov, N . 'Sledy severno-russkogo bylevogo eposa v iuzhnorusskoi narodnoi literature,' TKDA (1878) Dashkevich, N . K voprosu 0 proiskhozhdenii russkikh bylin (Kiev 1883)

Veselovskii, A . Iuzhnorusskie byliny, 1-2 (St Petersburg 1881); 3-11 (St Petersburg 1884) Khalanskii, M . Velikorusskie byliny kievskogo tsikla (Warsaw 1885)

Loboda, A . Russkie byliny 0 svatovstve (Kiev 1904) Hrushevs'kyi, M . Istoriia ukraïns'koï literatury, 4 (Kiev 1925) Byrchak, V o l o d y m y r . See Birchak, V o l o d y m y r . B y r i u c h y i Island [Byrjucyj]. A n island i n the northwestern part of the Sea of A z o v . Together w i t h the Fedotova Spit the island separates the U t l i u k L i m a n from

the sea. Its m a x i m u m length is 24 k m ; w i d t h , 3 k m . The island is part of the *Azov-Syvash G a m e Preserve. Bystrytsia N a d v i r n i a n s k a River [Bystrycja N a d v i r njans'ka]. A tributary of the ^Bystrytsia River. Its length is 94 k m ; its basin area, 1,380 sq m . In its upper a n d m i d d l e course, i n the G o r g a n y M o u n t a i n s , it is a typical m o u n tain river; i n its lower course (in Subcarpathia) it is a river of the plains. Bystrytsia River [Bystrycja], also called the Bystrytsia Ty&menska River. A right-bank tributary i n L v i v oblast of the upper Dniester River. It is 72 k m l o n g a n d has a basin area of 1,160 sq k m . The river flows through the H i g h Beskyd mountains. Bystrytsia River [Bystrycja]. A small right-bank tributary of the Dniester River i n Ivano-Frankivske oblast. It is formed from the confluence of the *Bystrytsia N a d v i r nianska a n d the ""Bystrytsia Solotvynska rivers. The river is 17 k m long; its basin covers an area of 2,320 sq k m . Bystrytsia Solotvynska River [Bystrycja Solotvyns'ka]. A tributary of the *Bystrytsia River. It is 82 k m long and has a basin area of 793 sq k m . The river flows through the Gorgany M o u n t a i n s a n d Subcarpathia.

Bytkiv Bytkiv. v-3. T o w n smt (1969 pop 4,700) i n N a d v i r n a raion, Ivano-Frankivske oblast, i n the northeastern part of the G o r g a n y M o u n t a i n s . The t o w n has o i l and gas wells. O i l has been produced i n Bytkiv since the end of the 19th century; the peak year was 1923. In the 1920s a n d 1930s Bytkiv was the largest producer of o i l i n Galicia after Boryslav. Byzantine art. V i s u a l art produced i n the *Byzantine Empire a n d i n countries under its political control or cultural influence, a m o n g them Ukraine. The spread of Byzantine art was the result, i n large measure, of its style, w h i c h h a d all the traits of universalism to w h i c h other cultures could easily adapt. This style began to develop i n the 6th century AD d u r i n g the first G o l d e n A g e under the reign of Emperor Justinian. It was based o n Greco-Roman art a n d the art of the East - Syria, A s i a M i n o r , Persia, and Egypt. In architecture, churches w i t h stone cupolas symbolizing the cosmos appeared, replacing the longitudinal basilicas w i t h flat w o o d e n ceilings. The Hagia Sophia Cathedral i n Constantinople (dedicated i n 337),

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BYZANTINE ART i: mosaics and frescos in the St Sophia Cathedral in Kiev, nth century: i) archangel from the cupola; 2) central part of the Eucharist; 3) Mother of God, from the sanctuary arch; 4) daughters of Yaroslav the Wise; 5) unknown saint, n: mosaics from the church of St Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery in Kiev (1108): 6) Christ with a chalice; 7) St Demetrius; 8) angel from the Eucharist. (After the demolition of the church by the Soviets in 1935-6, the mosaics that survived were transferred to the St Sophia Museum with the exception of no. 7, which was taken to the Tretiakov Gallery in Moscow.)

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BYZANTINE ART

w i t h its huge cupola resting o n four piers by means of pendentives, became the accepted standard for church architecture. In the 7th-9th century the cruciform church plan was developed. In this p l a n the m a i n dome was surrounded by smaller domes, creating a large interior space without the use of buttresses to support the walls. Byzantine painting departed from Greco-Roman ideals, w h i c h prescribed three-dimensional illusionism i n the reproduction of nature. U n d e r the influence of Eastern art, it turned to a two-dimensional, flat representation. Some historians of the 19th century interpreted this as the barbarization of painting, with the return to Hellenic ideals only d u r i n g the Renaissance. Yet, the replacement of realistic illusionism by symbolism under the influence of Christian ideas p r o v e d to be profoundly creative i n that it rejected secondary detail and perspective and concen­ trated o n the plastic depiction of an idea i n its most immediate form. The content became more important than the form, and the background lost its perspective and became predominantly golden, emphasizing the play of lines and colored planes of strong tones and contrasts of light. A l l these features are elements of an essentially plastic nature, equally significant i n all ages. Hence, Byzantine art developed creatively without losing its stylistic features w h e n it was transferred to other lands, even after the decline of B y z a n t i u m as a cultural center. In the 8th-9th century, after the defeat of the icono­ clasts, the second G o l d e n A g e of Byzantine art began. It lasted through the reign of the M a c e d o n i a n and C o m n e nian dynasties (869-1204). D u r i n g this period K i e v a n Rus' actively entered the orbit of Byzantine culture and i n 988 adopted Christianity through B y z a n t i u m . H o w e v e r , Byzantine influence o n U k r a i n i a n territory began m u c h earlier and was concentrated o n the northern shores of the Black Sea. In the 6th century Byzantine influence spread to Taurida, where the city of K e r c h i n the Crimea was restored. A t this time basilican and cruciform churches similar to those i n Ravenna were built i n Chersonese. After the hiatus caused by the K h a z a r invasion i n the 7th century Chersonese resumed it development and main­ tained close relations w i t h K i e v . Prince V o l o d y m y r the Great of K i e v was baptized here i n 988. There were up to 30 churches and chapels i n o l d Chersonese, of w h i c h only the foundations remain today. H a v i n g annexed the Crimea i n 1783, the Russian government, under the pre­ text of urban development, demolished the partially pre­ served early Christian buildings of Chersonese. The old­ est k n o w n church there dated back to the 3th century and displayed the influence of Syrian architecture. The largest church was the so-called U v a r o v Basilica (named after the discoverer, A . U v a r o v ) , whose three naves were similar to those i n Ravenna and Balkan churches. Similar churches were discovered also i n K e r c h . The C h u r c h of St John the Baptist, built i n K e r c h i n the 10th century, w i t h a c o l u m n dated 767 and Byzantine capitals from the 6th century, is the only fully preserved church of the first m i l l e n n i u m i n the Crimea. Despite the destruction caused by the continual inva­ sions of nomadic hordes, examples of art and architecture from the Princely era, particularly stone structures, have survived. M a n y icons a n d other artwork perished i n fires, however. There were churches i n K i e v , such as St Elijah's C h u r c h , even before Christianity was officially adopted by Ukraine. H o w e v e r , these early temples were built of w o o d and were also destroyed by fire. Stone and brick

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architecture appeared i n Ukraine under Byzantine i n ­ fluence, w h i c h brought to K i e v such traditional tech­ niques of R o m a n architecture as opus mixtum (alternating layers of brick and stone i n the construction of walls). Kievan architecture became the m o d e l for buildings i n other cities of K i e v a n Rus'. A l t h o u g h the C h u r c h of the T i t h e s from the end of the 10th century has not sur­ vived, the *St Sophia Cathedral, begun i n 1037, has been preserved i n relatively good condition. The cathedral has a cruciform plan, w i t h 3 naves and, originally, 13 domes. Apart from the general features of the Byzantine style, St Sophia of K i e v does not resemble the Hagia Sophia of Constantinople, but rather bears a certain resemblance to the churches i n Georgia. The interiors of the early Kievan churches are connected directly w i t h the art of Chersonese. A c c o r d i n g to the Rus' chronicles, Prince V o l o d y m y r imported the first architects and artists from Chersonese, and these together w i t h the artists of Constantinople were the first creators of mosaics and frescos. In style and chronology the mosaics of St Sophia Cathedral occupy a position between the mosaic complex of the monastery church of Hosios Lukas i n Phocis, Greece (1020s) and the mosaics i n the monastery church at D a p h n i near A t h e n s (end of the 11th century). The style of the K i e v a n mosaics is more archaic and closer to the mosaics of Hosios L u k a s , w h i l e the mosaics of St Michael's G o l d e n - D o m e d Cathedral i n Kiev (beginning of the 12th century) have already shed the archaic severity and are more lifelike. The interior of St Sophia basically adheres to the hierarchical ordering of paintings that was established i n Byzantine art: Christ the Pantocrator was depicted o n the dome ceiling; beneath h i m , four arch­ angels; below them, the prophets and apostles; and at the bottom, the bishops or fathers of the C h u r c h . O n the wall behind the altar the M o t h e r of G o d (Orante) is depicted between the heavenly a n d the earthly C h u r c h , as if unifying the two. The arch of the sanctuary is framed w i t h medallions portraying the martyrs. While the mosaics of St Sophia conform to all the traditions of Byzantium, the frescos contain numerous innovations and departures from the Byzantine models, i n depicting, for example, the Last Supper, the transformation of water into wine at the w e d d i n g i n C a n a . A p o c r y p h a l themes are reflected i n the cycle of paintings devoted to the life of the V i r g i n M a r y . Even i n this early period K i e v had its local iconographers w h o diverged i n some ways from the mainstream of Byzantine art and followed their o w n inspiration i n painting. The K i e v a n state maintained close relations w i t h the Western countries. Hence, a certain exchange and inter­ mingling of styles was inevitable. H a l y c h and C h e r n i h i v buildings, for example, possess elements of ""Romanesque architecture. The Western style is reflected also i n some miniatures. Later, i n the 13th-16th century, Galician iconography creatively absorbed certain features of the Gothic style, a rare occurrence i n the history of Byzantine art. A t the turn of the 19th century some scholars, such as the Russian Byzantologist N . *Kondakov, held that the Kievan art of the Princely era was only a provincial imitation of the art of Constantinople. Since then m u c h has been discovered and clarified. In 1937 A . M . A m m a n showed that the art of K i e v was of a metropolitan type, while the art of the northern territories of Rus', w h i c h arose under Kiev's influence, had a peripheral style. H e

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notes that the fresco complexes that have been preserved i n K i e v h a d no parallels at the time i n Constantinople and that the K i e v a n mosaics preserved the oldest normative type of the Pantocrator a n d the Eucharist i n Byzantine art. Because of constant invasions few icons of the Princely era ( i o t h - i 4 t h century) have survived in Ukraine, but some excellent examples of K i e v a n icons have been preserved i n Russia; for example, the M o t h e r of G o d from V y s h h o r o d ( k n o w n as Vladimirskaia), St Demetrius, and the M o t h e r of G o d w i t h ss A n t h o n y a n d Theodosius from the Monastery of the Caves, are n o w i n the Tretiakov Gallery i n M o s c o w . After the fall of B y z a n t i u m i n 1457 Byzantine iconography continued to flourish. This can be seen i n Galicia, where from the 14th to the e n d of the 16th century high-quality U k r a i n i a n examples of icons i n the Byzantine style were painted. O v e r the centuries this style was transformed a n d became organically U k r a i n i a n . In the 17th a n d 18th century some of the finest examples of architecture i n U k r a i n e appeared. They were a synthesis of U k r a i n i a n folk architecture w i t h the Byzantine and the *baroque styles. U k r a i n i a n w o o d e n churches of that time are unparalleled masterpieces of w o r l d r e n o w n . The Byzantine style was revived i n U k r a i n i a n art at the beginning of the 20th century. M . *Boichuk combined Byzantine traditions w i t h m o d e r n tendencies such as cubism a n d constructivism, p r o d u c i n g one of the most important movements i n East European art. (See also *Architecture, *Enamel, *Fresco Painting, *Icon, ""Miniature Painting, *Mosaic, *Painting, *Neo-Byzantism, and ^Sculpture.) BIBLIOGRAPHY Prakhov, V . Kievskie pamiatki vizantiisko-russkogo iskusstva (Moscow 1887) Ainalov, D. Iskusstvo Kievskoi Rusi (St Petersburg 1904) - Mramory i inkrustatsii Kievo-Sofiiskogo sobora i Desiatinnoi tserkvi (Moscow 1905) Pavlutskii, G. 'Kievskie khramy domongolskogo perioda i ikh otnoshenie k vizantiiskomu zodchestvu,' Trudy xiv Arkheologicheskogo s"ezda, 2 (Chernihiv 1909) Shmit, F. Istoriia mystetstva Staroï Rusy-Ukraïny (Kharkiv 1919) Morgilewskij, I. 'Denkmàler Kirchlicher Architektur des xi bis xix Jh,' in Byzantinische Baukunst (Munich 1923) MorhUevs'kyi, I. 'Kyïvs'ka Sofiia v svitli novykh sposterezhenV in Kyïv ta ioho okolytsia v istoriï i pam'iatnykakh, ed M . Hrushevs'kyi (Kiev 1926) Zalozets'kyi, V. 'Sofiis'kyi sobor u Kyievi i ioho vidnoshennia do vizantiis'koï arkhitektury,' ZChVV, 3 (Lviv 1929) Antonovych, D. Skorochenyi kurs istoriï ukraïns'koho mystetstva (Prague 1932) Powstenko, O. The Cathedral of St Sophia in Kiev (New York 1954) Sichyns'kyi, V . Istoriia ukraïns'koho mystetstva (New York 1956) Amman, A . M . La pittura bizantina (Rome 1957) Kresal'nyi, M . Sofiis'kyi zapovidnyk u Kyievi (Kiev i960) Karger, M . Drevnerusskaia monumental"naia zhivopis" (Moscow-Leningrad 1964) Lazarev, V. Mozaiki Sofii Kievskoi (Moscow 1964) Istoriia ukraïns'koho mystetstva, 2 (Kiev 1968) Lohvyn, H . Sofiia Kyïvs'ka (Kiev 1971; separate printings in Russian, English, German, and French) Hordynsky, S. The Ukrainian Icon of the 12th to 18th Centuries (Philadelphia 1973) Lohvyn, H . ; Miliaieva, L.; Svientsits'ka, V. Ukraïns'kyi seredn'ovichnyi zhyvopys (Kiev 1977) S. Hordynsky

Byzantine Catholic World. Official newspaper of the Byzantine Ruthenian Rite Archdiocese of Pittsburgh. It was established i n 1936 o n the initiative of Bishop N . T . Elko a n d since that time has appeared as a weekly published by the Byzantine Catholic Press Association i n Pittsburgh. The first editors were Rev J. Kallok and Rev T. Dolinay (since 1982 bishop of V a n N u y s diocese). English has always been the basic language of publication, although i n the initial years there was also a Ruthenian section (printed i n the dialect i n Latin script) edited b y Rev B . Shereghy. Byzantine Choir. A male choir that sings a cappella, organized i n 1931 i n Utrecht, Holland by M . *Antonowycz, w h o is also its conductor. A l t h o u g h the choir members are Dutch, the choir's repertoire includes U k r a i n i a n church music, folk songs, a n d the w o r k s of U k r a i n i a n composers, w h i c h are all sung i n U k r a i n i a n . The Byzantine C h o i r has toured Europe, the U n i t e d States, a n d Canada w i t h its concerts. Byzantine Empire. B y z a n t i u m was originally a Greek colony, founded ca 660 B C o n the European side of the Bosporus. Because of its strategic location between the Black and Mediterranean seas, the colony controlled the traffic between A s i a a n d Europe. The city was completely razed by the Romans at the end of the 2nd century A D . In 326 Constantinople was built o n the site of B y z a n t i u m , and i n 330 the city became the capital of the Byzantine or Eastern R o m a n E m p i r e , w h i c h endured u n t i l 1433 d played an important role i n the history of Eastern Europe and the Near East. Preserving the classical heritage a n d fusing it w i t h the accomplishments of the n e w Christian learning, the Byzantine Empire cultivated a profound spiritual culture and a h i g h l y developed material culture. Its weaving, silk, glass, a n d jewelry industries were very advanced, a n d its trade was extensive. For m a n y centuries the empire's wealth attracted non-Christian i n vaders such as the H u n s , A v a r s , Persians, Pechenegs, Arabs, Slavs, a n d finally the Turks, w h o brought about the empire's ultimate collapse. In the 6th century A D the Byzantines both fought the * Antes a n d sought their alliance against other tribes. Byzantine chronicles mention R u s ' attacks i n about 842 and a R u s ' seige of Constantinople i n 860. A t approximately the same time that R u s ' a n d B y z a n t i u m began to trade, using the *Varangian routes, Christianity was introduced i n U k r a i n e through the Byzantine colonies o n the northern coast of the Black Sea. In the 10th century relations between R u s ' and B y z a n t i u m intensified: Prince O l e h i marched o n Constantinople a n d signed advantageous trade treaties i n 907 a n d 911 that granted R u s ' merchants certain privileges i n B y z a n t i u m ; Prince Ihor led two unsuccessful campaigns against B y z a n t i u m i n 941 and 944, w h i c h resulted i n less-favorable trading conditions for Rus'; and Princess Olha visited Constantinople i n 937, p a v i n g the w a y for closer ties between the two states and a military alliance i n 961. In 968 Prince Sviatoslav Ihorevych concluded a treaty with Byzantium that enabled him to defeat the Bulgarians. The Byzantines realized Sviatoslav's increasing power was a threat to them a n d turned against h i m , forcing h i m , after heavy losses, to accept a peace treaty w i t h B y z a n t i u m a n d to abandon Bulgaria i n 971. In return for p r o v i d i n g military assistance to Emperor Basil 11, V o l o d y m y r the Great was promised a

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the hand of the emperor's sister i n marriage. W h e n the emperor refused to live u p to his promise, V o l o d y m y r occupied ^Chersonese Táurica and forced h i m to surrender Princess A n n a . V o l o d y m y r ' s adoption of the Christian faith i n 988-9 a n d further changes i n the political situation generally put an end to R u s ' campaigns against the Byzantine E m p i r e , although one unsuccessful campaign against B y z a n t i u m was led i n 1043 by V o l o d y myr, the son of Yaroslav the Wise. Cultural and commercial ties between Rus' a n d B y z a n t i u m grew stronger. Prince V s e v o l o d Yaroslavych (1077-93) married a Byzantine princess. W i t h the adoption of Christianity Ukraine came under Byzantine religious influence. Like other southeastern European nations it inherited from B y z a n t i u m not only the Christian faith but also its culture. For almost 700 years (until 1686) the U k r a i n i a n Orthodox church remained under the canonic jurisdiction of the patriarch of Constantinople. For a l o n g time the K i e v metropolitans were Greek, and attempts to install a U k r a i n i a n metropolitan, apart from Ilarion i n 1031 and K l y m Smoliatych i n 1147, were unsuccessful. H o w e v e r , from the outset the bishops i n the major R u s ' cities were locally appointed, and an indigenous U k r a i n i a n tradition arose i n church life. The U k r a i n i a n church h a d a degree of internal independence from the patriarch. It was also not dependent on the secular authorities, unlike the church i n B y z a n t i u m or i n M u s c o v y . In the period of religious strife i n the 16th-17th century the Orthodox Ukrainians continued to maintain uninterrupted contact w i t h the Greek Orthodox patriarchate, even d u r i n g the renaissance of the U k r a i nian Orthodox church under P. M o h y l a . Byzantine liturgical and religious literature as w e l l as church singing based on eight ëchoi or modes were imported into Ukraine along w i t h the clergy. M o s t of the church literature also came from B y z a n t i u m , although it was first translated by the southern Slavs. The internal life of the U k r a i n i a n church was governed by the *Nomocanon, which consisted not only of the regulations accepted by the Byzantine church, but also of the Byzantine state law regarding the church. The monasteries i n Ukraine were organized according to Byzantine models: for example, St Theodosius of the Caves introduced the strict Studite rule i n the 11th century i n the K i e v a n Cave Monastery. F r o m the Princely era to recent times U k r a i n i a n monks maintained ties w i t h the Greek monastery at M t *Athos, w h i c h had an important influence o n monastic life i n Ukraine. The influence of Byzantine culture i n Ukraine was not limited to the religious sphere. For centuries Byzantine written works served as literary models for writers of nations that had accepted Christianity from B y z a n t i u m . The works of such Byzantine church writers as St Basil the Great, St John C h r y s o s t o m , St Gregory the Theologian, and St Gregory of N y s s a ; collections of instructive aphorisms; the works of such religious poets as St A n d r e w of Crete and St John of Damascus; collections of *hagiographies, particularly the *patericons; epics; and a series of apocrypha all left a lasting impact o n O l d U k r a i n i a n culture. Secular literature was strongly influenced by such Byzantine chroniclers as John Malalas, Georgios Hamartolos, Georgios Synkellos, a n d Constantine M a nasses. The first translated tales or romances, such as *Varlaam i loasaf, *Aleksandriia, *Povisf 0 Akiri premudrom (Tale of A k i r the Wise), *Devhenievo diianie (Deeds of Digenis), and Stefanit i Ikhnilat, arrived i n Ukraine directly

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339

from B y z a n t i u m or indirectly via the Southern Slavs. These works were not only favorite reading materials until the middle period of U k r a i n i a n literature but also served as literary models and thus stimulated the growth of an original U k r a i n i a n literature. A t the same time *Byzantine art h a d a great impact i n Ukraine. Greek masters of *fresco painting, ^mosaics, *icon painting, "miniature painting, and book design taught these arts to Ukrainians and provided the foundations for original U k r a i n i a n creativity (for example, the St Sophia Cathedral i n Kiev). Similarly, Greek master builders constructed the first churches i n Ukraine i n the l o t h - n t h century; soon after, however, church construction was adapted to local conditions and assumed a Ukrainian-Byzantine-Romanesque character. In the legal and social spheres the Byzantine influence in Ukraine was far weaker. A l t h o u g h certain norms of Byzantine l a w were enforced by the church courts, *Byzantine law d i d not have a dominant influence o n legal relations or societal life i n Ukraine. Rus' customary law and later Western influences were not compatible with Byzantine customs, a n d they d i d not take root i n Ukraine. In general the influence of B y z a n t i u m i n Ukraine was not as widespread or as profound as it was i n the VladimirSuzdal principality a n d later i n M u s c o v y , where Byzantine traditions lay at the foundation of the church and state. This was due to a well-developed U k r a i n i a n indigenous tradition a n d Ukraine's close contact w i t h the West. BIBLIOGRAPHY Ikonnikov, V. Opyt issledovaniia 0 kuVturnom znachenii Vizantii v russkoi istorii (Kiev 1869) Hrushevs'kyi, M . Z istoriï relihiinoï dumky na Ukraini (Lviv 1925) Zalozieckyj, V. 'Byzantinisch-ruthenische Kunst. Das geistige Leben der Ukraine in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart/ Deutschtum und Ausland, 28-29 (Münster 1930) Levchenko, M . Istoriia Vizantii (Moscow-Leningrad 1940) Winter, E. Byzanz und Rom im Kampf um die Ukraine, 935-1939 (Leipzig 1942; Ukrainian translation, Prague 1943) Isaïv, P. Rolia Vizantii v upadku ukraïns'koï derzhavnosty (Munich 1947) Vasiliev, A . History of the Byzantine Empire, 324-1453, 2nd rev edn (Madison 1952) Levchenko, M . Ocherki po istorii russko-vizantiiskikh otnoshenii (Moscow 1956) Shekera, I. Kyïvs'ka Rus' xi st. u mizhnarodnykh vidnosynakh (Kiev 1967) Madey, J. Kirche zwischen Ost und West: Beitrage zur Geschichte der Ukrainischen und Weissruthenischen Kirche (Munich 1969) Obolensky, D. The Byzantine Commonwealth: Eastern Europe, 500-1453 (London and New York, 1971) - Byzantium and the Slavs: Collected Studies (London 1971) Byzantine law. Positive law i n B y z a n t i u m i n the 6 t h 13th century A D , founded o n R o m a n law. A t times Byzantine law was influenced by the customary law of various peoples w h o themselves h a d adopted the Byzantine legal and political systems. Slavic influence o n property law is evident, especially i n the institution of community control w i t h the allotment of land for i n d i v i d u a l ownership. A s Byzantine law spread, it affected R u s ' law as well; certain norms of Byzantine origin, especially those concerning public law, can already be seen i n the treaties of the Kievan princes w i t h B y z a n t i u m . Byzantine judicial norms were partially reflected i n the *Ruskaia Pravda. However, the influence of Byzantine law was strongest i n the

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church decrees of K i e v a n princes. C h u r c h legal pro­ ceedings i n U k r a i n e were carried out o n the basis of the norms of Byzantine l a w a n d specifically according to certain Greek legal compendiums: the *Nomocanon the Ecloga, a n d the Procheiron (see *Canon law). In addition to the official c o m p e n d i u m s of Byzantine law, southern Slavic versions were k n o w n as well: *Zakon" sudnyi liudem" (based o n the Ecloga), a n d Knigy zakonnyia (The Books of Law). N o t only members of the clergy, but also so-called church people, came under the jurisdiction of church courts. A number of the norms of O l d U k r a i n i a n customary l a w were incorporated into the Byzantine compendiums of l a w i n Ukraine, a n d especially into their U k r a i n i a n counterparts, *Kormchaia kniga (based o n the Nomocanon), a n d Zakony hradskiie (Laws of the People). Byzantine l a w h a d an influence o n U k r a i n i a n positive law of that time, enriching it w i t h n e w concepts and institu­ tions, m a i n l y i n civil law (in the areas of inheritance and

testament). In Bessarabia Byzantine law as codified i n the medieval Shestiknizhie Armenopula (Hexabiblos Harmenopoulos) was i n force until the 1917 Revolution. The reception of Byzantine law i n Ukraine was only partial, because of the h i g h l y developed and deeply rooted norms of O l d U k r a i n i a n customary law. The influence of Byzantine public l a w o n institutions i n Kievan Ukraine was m i n i m a l . V. Markus Byzantine studies. See Classical studies. Bzheska, Valentyna [Bzes'ka], b 3 M a r c h 1896 i n Bila Tserkva, d 12 January 1977 i n K i e v . Actress, wife of A . *Buchma. She w o r k e d i n the Berezil theater (1923-34), the Kharkiv U k r a i n i a n D r a m a Theater (1933-8), and the K i e v Ukrainian D r a m a Theater (1938-39).

C Cabbage (Brassica olerαcea; Ukrainian: kapusta). A n n u a l or biennial of the Cruciferae family; one of the basic garden plants i n Ukraine, taking u p some 21 percent of horticultural land. It is g r o w n i n all areas of Ukraine, especially i n the western forest-steppe zone, i n Polisia, and near the larger cities. O f the different varieties, the most c o m m o n is white head cabbage (B. olerαcea var capitata f alba), w h i c h accounts for 90 percent of the cabbage g r o w n i n Ukraine. Its yield is 20-401 per ha. Kale or borecole cabbage varieties (B. olerαcea var acephala) are also cultivated for fodder.

Cabinet of Anthropology and Ethnology (Kabinet

antropolohii ta etnolohii i m . F. Vovka). A scientific i n ­ stitution of the A l l - U k r a i n i a n A c a d e m y of Sciences w h i c h functioned i n 1921-34 under the direction of F. V o v k ' s former student A . N o s i v . In 1926 the cabinet's depart­ ment of anthropology was reorganized into a separate Cabinet of A n t h r o p o l o g y , w h i c h conducted research mostly i n Right-Bank Ukraine and the Crimea and analyzed the prehistoric materials that had been collected by Vovk i n * M i z y n . The cabinet published Biuleten' (1 v o l , 1923), four annual collections of Antropolohiia (1927-30), and other works. See also ""Museum of A n t h r o p o l o g y and Ethnology. Cadet corps. In the Russian Empire an exclusive military educational institution at the secondary school level. The cadet corps prepared the sons mainly of officers and noblemen for military service and for higher military schools. The first cadet corps was opened i n 1732. Cadet corps existed until 1918 i n 29 cities i n Russia. In Ukraine such schools were found i n K i e v , Poltava, K h a r k i v , and Odessa. Calendar. A system of measuring time based on the periodicity of certain natural processes. Very little is k n o w n about the U k r a i n i a n calendar i n prehistoric times, but the popular names of the months indicate that some k i n d of calendar was used (see *Folk calendar). A l o n g w i t h Christianity, K i e v a n Rus' adopted from Byzantium the Byzantine form of the calendar introduced by Julius Caesar i n 46 B C ( k n o w n as the Julian calendar). A c c o r d i n g to this calendar the average length of the year is 363 days and 6 hours. This exceeds the real solar year by 11 minutes and 14 seconds; hence, over time, the Julian calendar diverges more and more from the solar year (13.43 days by 1980). Pope Gregory x i n reformed the calendar i n 1382, a n d since then the Gregorian calendar has been officially recognized by the Catholic church and Catholic countries. Protestants adopted it i n the 18th century. Poland adopted the Gregorian calendar i n 1383, but K i n g Stefan Batory, by the edicts of 1384, 1383, and 1386, permitted the O r t h o d o x church to keep the Julian calen­

dar. Orthodox leaders ( H . Smotrytsky, V . Surazky, S. Z y z a n i i , and others) rejected the n e w calendar o n dog­ matic and ritualistic grounds. The Ukrainians w h o ac­ cepted the u n i o n w i t h Rome also kept the o l d calendar, i n spite of attempts, m a i n l y i n the 17th century, to have them adopt the Gregorian calendar. After the partition of Poland the Russian government reintroduced the Julian calendar i n those areas of civil life where the Polish authorities h a d instituted the Gregorian calendar. M e a n ­ while, Austria's efforts to introduce the new calendar among the Ukrainians of Galicia i n 1773, 1798, and 1812 proved fruitless. The n e w calendar was introduced into civil life by the Ukrainian Central Rada o n 1 M a r c h 1918, while the Julian calendar continues to be used i n the church to this day. Attempts to institute the Gregorian calendar i n 1917-18 i n the U k r a i n i a n Catholic eparchy of Stanyslaviv under Bishop H . K h o m y s h y n and i n the 1930s i n the Orthodox church i n Poland were strongly opposed by the Ukrainian community and d i d not succeed. H o w e v e r , the new calendar was adopted by some U k r a i n i a n church c o m m u ­ nities outside Ukraine, notably by the U k r a i n i a n Catholic church i n A r g e n t i n a , Brazil, and some eparchies i n the U S A and Canada. The two calendars differ not only o n the fixed feasts, but also o n the movable feasts of the Easter cycle. The dates of the latter are calculated according to the paschal period, w h i c h is based o n the m o n t h l y cycle. The Eastern church uses the period introduced by Dionysius Exiguus i n 323. This has been modified by the Western church as well. In K i e v a n Rus' the years were numbered from the creation of the w o r l d ; hence, o l d Ukrainian documents are usually dated i n this way. In the 14th century documents began to be dated from the birth of Christ as well, the difference between the two systems of dating being 3,308 years. The calendar year i n civil life began o n 1 M a r c h and i n church life o n 1 September, as i n Byzantium since the time of Justinian. This difference led to confusion i n the dating of the various entries i n the chronicles. O n l y by the end of the 13th century was 1 September accepted as the beginning of both the civil and the church year. In 1700 Peter 1 introduced the Western practice of starting the year w i t h 1 January. In the church, however, the older practice is still observed. A t the same time Peter established i n U k r a i n e the numeration of years from Christ's birth. V. Pavlovsky Calendar (kalendar). Scholarly and literary almanac that has been popular since the 17th century, particularly i n Western Ukraine. It developed from a supplement to litur­ gical books called misiatseslov (menology), w h i c h , besides a daily calendar, contained various information. In 1323 F. Skoryna published a w e l l - k n o w n calendar

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CALENDAR

Calendar covers entitled Malaia podorozhnaia knizhitsia (The Little Travel Book) i n V i l n i u s . It contained a psalter, prayer book, acathistus, canon, hexaemeron, calendar, and Easter calendar. After the A c t of U n i o n h a d been signed i n 1595, I. Potii a n d K . Terletsky published i n Rome Kalendar ryms'kyi novyi (The N e w Roman Calendar) for the Uniates. In the 17th a n d 18th centuries the calendars of Orrninski, S. and F. N i e w e s k i , a n d particularly of S. Duñczewski (Kalendarz polski i ruski [Polish a n d Ruthenian Calendar], 1725-75), p u b l i s h e d i n Polish i n L v i v and Zamosc, were popular. The most popular calendar i n all of Ukraine was the so-called Kolindar entitled Kalendarz gospodarski (The Farmer's Calendar), w h i c h was published i n Polish and Russian i n the period 1760 or 1780 to 1864. A t first it was printed i n Berdychiv and, after the closing of the printery there, i n K i e v a n d Z h y t o m y r . It was reprinted i n various Ukrainian cities, i n c l u d i n g K h a r k i v (1797, 1799, 1808, 1809). In the 18th century the printers of the K i e v a n Cave Monastery published calendars. The first of them came out i n 1700 under the title Kalendar' Hi mesiatseslov (Calendar or M e n o l o g y ) . A t the end of the century two calendars were p u b l i s h e d periodically i n Kiev: a church calendar and Astronomo-politicheskii kalendar' (The Astronomical-Political Calendar). In the 19th century the K i e v a n Cave Monastery published a w e l l - k n o w n calendar, beginning i n 1845: Polnyi khristiianskii mesiatsoslov s prisovokupleniem raznykh statei k rossiiskoi istorii i Kievskoi eparkhii otnosiashchikhsia (The Complete Christian M e n o l o g y Supplemented w i t h Various Articles o n Russian H i s t o r y and the K i e v Eparchy). Besides church news it contained a list of U k r a i n i a n princes, Russian rulers, a n d K i e v bishops; articles on the monasteries a n d churches of the K i e v metropolitanate; and other information. F r o m 1864 to 1915 Kievskii narodnyi kalendar (The K i e v Folk Calendar) was published i n Kiev. The 1867 issue contains L . Kvas's engravings. In Western U k r a i n e , Polish and G e r m a n calendars Pielgrzym Lwowski (The L v i v Pilgrim, 1822) and Der Pilger vom Lemberg (1823), w h i c h were composed by the professors of L v i v U n i v e r s i t y w i t h the participation of the historian D . Z u b r y t s k y - p r o v i d e d the U k r a i n i a n reader w i t h interesting information. The earliest U k r a i n i a n calendars, such as Misiatsoslov (Menology) i n L v i v , Peremyshlianyn (Peremyshl Resident) i n Peremyshl, a n d Pozdravlenie rusynov (Ruthenian Greetings) i n Transcarpathia, d i d not come out periodically. Peremyshlianyn (1850-61,1863,1864), under Rev A . Dobriansky's editorship, rivaled the best foreign calendars w i t h its rich contents. Uvovianyn, pryruchenyi i hospodars'kyi misiatsoslov (The L v i v Resident, A H a n d y

Domestic M e n o l o g y , 1861-2, 1882-4), composed by V . and Ya. Velychko, also deserves to be mentioned. In 1862 the first w o m e n ' s calendar appeared - Peremyshlianka (Woman of Peremyshl). Furkalo (Spinning T o p , 1869), published i n K o l o m y i a , was the first satirical calendar. The Stauropegion Institute i n L v i v published the first periodic calendar - *Vremennyk Stavropihiiskoho instituía s misiatsoslovum (The Periodical of the Stauropegion Institute w i t h a M e n o l o g y , 1864-1915 a n d 1923-39). This calendar appeared annually a n d contained a wealth of scholarly articles. F r o m 1870 to 1939 the Pros vita society in L v i v published a calendar, whose initial title was Kalendar narodnyi (The Folk Calendar). The Transcarpathian calendar Misiatsoslov was published i n U z h h o r o d i n 1867 by the Society of St Basil the Great. In B u k o v y n a the Ruska Besida society published Misiatsoslov bukovynskorusskyi (The B u k o v y n i a n - R u t h e n i a n Menology) i n 1873 in Chernivtsi.

Calendar from Bukovyna, 19th century

Calendar issued by Ukrainian prisoners of war in Freistadt, Austria

In the 1920s-1930s various U k r a i n i a n organizations i n Western Ukraine published calendars. Some of them are important sources of historical materials o n the various movements i n Galicia: the Pros vita society's calendar on culture and education; the calendars Zaporozhets' (The Zaporozhian Cossack, 1904-14), Chervona kalyna (The Red Guelder Rose, 1921-39), and Dnipro (1923-39) o n politics; Sil's'kyi hospodar (The Village Farmer), Kalendartsi kooper-atora (The Co-operative Organizer's Calendars), and Zolotyi kolos (The G o l d e n Ear of Corn) o n economy and co-operatives; Misionar (The Missionary, 1921-39) o n education; and Zhinocha dolia (Woman's Fate, 1925-39) o n the women's movement. The calendars reached regions of Ukraine that, because of political obstacles, were closed to Ukrainian books; for example, i n the K h o l m and Podlachia regions M . Vavrysevych's calendars were read, and i n Polisia and Podlachia Pravoslavnyi kalendar (The Orthodox Calendar) was read. In central and eastern Ukraine the most popular calendars were O . Gattsuk's Russian Krestnyi kalendar' (Calendar of the Cross, 1866), K . A n d r i i a s h e v ' s calendar, and the address calendars published by gubernial governments or zemstvos. A m o n g the U k r a i n i a n calendars the calendar of the K i e v Prosvita society (1907, 1908) and

C A M O M I L E

odryvni kalendari (wall calendars) of the Chas publishing house were w i d e l y k n o w n . In 1919 the first Soviet calendar appeared; it is still published today under the title Kalendar-dovidnyk (Reference Calendar) by Politvydav publishers i n K i e v . This calendar does not mark the days w i t h the names of saints but w i t h historical events of the U S S R and the birth and death dates of Soviet political and cultural figures. Propagandistic material o n economics and culture is included i n Kalendar znamennykh i pam'iatnykh dat (Calendar of Significant and Memorable Dates, published since 1957). Provincial calendars do not differ from those of the capital. D u r i n g the First W o r l d W a r calendars were published for Ukrainian émigrés and soldiers i n V i e n n a , prisoners of war at Wetzlar a n d Freistadt, and refugees at G m ü n d . The Ukrainians i n the Backa region published Ruski kalendar za iugoslavianskikh rusinokh (A Ruthenian Calendar for Yugoslavian Ruthenians) from 1920. U k r a i n i a n calendars were published by émigrés i n Warsaw and Cracow (Kalendar-aVmanakh Ukraïns'koho vydavnytstva [Calendar-Almanac of Ukrainske V y d a v n y t s t v o Publishers]), Prague (Nastup [Advance]), and Berlin. Today calendars are published by various civic and church organizations i n the countries to w h i c h Ukrainians have emigrated. These calendars contain historical material and information about cultural life a n d political developments i n Ukraine and the émigré communities. For the history of Ukrainian life i n the U n i t e d States the calendars of such organizations as the U k r a i n i a n National Association (published since 1897), the U k r a i n i a n Fraternal Association (since 1911), and the Providence Association of U k r a i n i a n Catholics i n A m e r i c a (since 1918) are very valuable. In Canada the calendars of the newspapers Ukraïns'kyi hobs (since 1915) and Kanadiis'kyi farmer (since 1920) are the most important. In Brazil the calendar Pratsia (Work), published since 1921, and i n Argentina the calendars of the Prosvita and V i d r o d z h e n n i a societies are rich sources of historical data. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Shchurat, V. 'Deshcho pro kalendar,' Kalendar Nedilia (Lviv 1930) B.R. 'Iak postaly kalendari,' Kalendar Krynytsia (Lviv 1936) 'Kalendar - knyha znannia/ Kalendar dlia vsikh (Lviv 1936) Shelesnivkov, S. Istoriia kalendaria i khronologiia (Moscow 1977) S. Yaniv Calendric ritual folk poetry. The calendric festivals, rites, and songs of Ukraine reflect the ancient, pre-Christian w o r l d v i e w of the people a n d disclose especially their belief i n the magical power of words. The cyclical annual rituals and songs are closely related to nature and to the labor of an agricultural society. Such customs, rites, and songs reveal characteristic features of the material and spiritual life of U k r a i n i a n society at the various stages of its historical development. W i t h the people's acceptance of Christianity the ancient rituals d i d not disappear, but rather merged, retaining m u c h of their original form, w i t h Christian practices a n d beliefs. The agrarian-calendric customs and rituals of the winter cycle were incorporated into the Christian feasts of St A n d r e w , St Barbara, a n d particularly into the three major winter celebrations of Christmas, N e w Year, and E p i p h any. The feasts of spring, replete w i t h ancient rites and customs, were blended into the church holidays of St George, and, more importantly, into the Easter celebrations. The summer cycle of pre-Christian feasts were

343

united with the Christian Zeleni Sviata (the 'Green Festival/ Pentecost), the holy days of ss Peter and Paul, St John the Baptist (the feast of Ivan Kupalo), a n d the prophet Elijah; the autumnal cycle, w i t h the church feasts of the H o l y Protectress and of St Demetrius. The basic artistic components of calendric ritual poetry are songs, i n c l u d i n g koliady (Christmas carols) and shchedrivky (Epiphany carols), vesnianky (spring songs), rusalni (water-nymph songs, related to the festival cycle of earing of the grain), kupalski (songs of the feast of Ivan Kupalo), and harvest songs. The motifs of calendric ritual folk poetry are w i d e l y used i n U k r a i n i a n literature, painting, and music, i n the works of such authors as T. Shevchenko, M . Starytsky, S. Vasylchenko, O . D o v z h e n k o , and I. Kalynets. (See also *Folk oral literature, *Folk songs, and *Folk calendar.) California. A state o n the western coast of the U n i t e d States, 411,000 sq k m i n area and having a population of 28 million (1981). Before it became an A m e r i c a n state, California was under the control of Spain and Mexico. A t the beginning of the 19th century Russia tried to extend its influence to California a n d established Fort Ross i n 1812. The first noted U k r a i n i a n i n California was the revolutionary and priest A . *Honcharenko (1832-1916), w h o i n 1876 settled near San Francisco and named his homestead Ukraina. A t the beginning of the 20th century individual Ukrainians resided i n California, having moved there from the eastern U n i t e d States and Canada. The members of the U k r a i n i a n Brotherhood i n California attempted to organize a commune at Honcharenko's homestead i n 1902, but the experiment was not successful. Since 1930 the number of Ukrainians i n California has increased steadily, reaching about 23,000 by 1980. Their main centers are Los Angeles (3,300 families), San Francisco (330), a n d San Diego (230). U k r a i n i a n community life and cultural activities are w e l l established i n Los Angeles, where the U k r a i n i a n Culture Center has been operating since 1933. There are three U k r a i n i a n Catholic churches, six Carpatho-Ruthenian Catholic churches, three Orthodox churches, a n d one U k r a i n i a n Baptist church i n California. Several movie stars of U k r a i n i a n origin have been residents of H o l l y w o o d , for example, J. Hodiak, J. Palance, N . A d a m s , and M . M a z u r k i . The film director E. D m y t r y k , the journalist and community leader H . Skehar, the painter V . Balias, a n d the conductor V . Bozhyk have also been residents of California. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ovechko, I. (ed). Iuvileina knyha Ukratns'koho kuVturnoho oseredku (Los Angeles 1969) Novak, M . Na storozhi Ukrainy (Los Angeles 1979) Camelis, Joseph de, 1641-1706. A Basilian m o n k of Greek origin from the island of K h i o s . Camelis was the procurator of the Basilian monastic order i n Rome from 1674 to 1689 and i n 1690 became bishop of the M u k a c h i v eparchy. H e was i n v o l v e d i n organizing schools i n Transcarpathia a n d published two books: Katekhyzys dlia nauky uhro-rus'kym liudem (A Catechism for the Education of Hungarian-Ruthenian People, 1698) and Bukvar iazyka slovenska (A Primer of the Slavonic Language, 1699). Camomile. N a m e of a number of related plants of the Compositae family, especially annuals and perennials of

344

C A M O M I L E

the genus Anthémis (Ukr: roman, romen) and annuals of the genus Matricaria (Ukr: romashka). In Ukraine there are 15 species of Anthémis, widespread i n all areas except for mountain regions and usually g r o w i n g w i l d . These i n clude the corn camomile (A. arvensis), the U k r a i n i a n camomile (A. ruthenica or A. arvensis ruthenica), A. tinctoria, A. cotula L . or A.foetida, a n d Chamaemelum nobile or A. nobilis. A l l these species are very aromatic and bitter i n taste. Some of them are decorative, and some are used i n folk medicine as a cold remedy. There are four species of Matricaria i n Ukraine: M. recutita, also k n o w n as M . chamomilla-, the pineapple w e e d ( M . matricarioides); M. discoidea; a n d M. inodora. The dried flowers and stems of the Matricaria are used as a remedy for colds. Canada. Federal state, occupying about two-thirds of the N o r t h A m e r i c a n continent, w i t h an area of 9,976,139 sq k m . Because of immigration, Canada is a multiethnic society, a fact acknowledged officially i n 1971 by the federal government i n Ottawa through its policy of multiculturalism w i t h i n a bilingual (English-French) framework. In 1981 Canada's population was 24,083,300, and the 733,000 Canadians of U k r a i n i a n origin (3.1 percent of the total) formed the fifth-largest group, preceded by the British, French, Germans, a n d Italians. Immigration of Ukrainians. Isolated individuals of U k r a i n i a n background may have come to Canada d u r i n g the War of 1812 as mercenaries i n the de M e u r o n and de Watteville regiments. It is possible that others participated i n Russian exploration a n d colonization o n the west coast, came w i t h M e n n o n i t e and other G e r m a n immigrants i n the 1870s, or entered Canada from the U n i t e d States. The mass movement of Ukrainians to Canada, however, occurred later, i n three distinct waves. The first period, from 1891 to 1914, brought approximately 170,000; 68,000 came d u r i n g the second or interwar period; a n d 34,000 came between 1947 and 1934. Between 1891 a n d 1914 few Ukrainians emigrated to Canada from the western fringes of the Russian Empire or from Transcarpathia. M o s t came from the provinces of Galicia and B u k o v y n a i n the A u s t r o - H u n g a r i a n Empire, Galicia being the m a i n source. Males predominated, illiteracy was h i g h , and peasant farmers greatly outnumbered other classes. A l m o s t two-thirds gave as their destination the Prairie Provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, a n d A l b e r t a , where the Canadian government offered homesteads of 160 acres (64.7 ha) for 10 dollars to induce settlement. Interest i n U k r a i n i a n immigration to Canada was expressed first i n Galicia. In 18911. P y l y p i v and W . Eleniak, two peasants from N e b y l i v , came to investigate, and P y l y p i w ' s subsequent accounts of free land gave rise i n 1892 to the first U k r a i n i a n colony, at Edna-Star, east of E d m o n t o n , Alberta. In 1893 O . *01eskiv, an educator and agricultural expert i n L v i v , concerned w i t h the economic plight of the U k r a i n i a n peasantry, visited Canada and was impressed w i t h its suitability for the excess rural population of Galicia. H i s public lectures and two booklets, Pro viVni zemli (About Free Lands) and O emigratsiï (About Emigration), d i d m u c h to stimulate U k r a i n i a n immigration to Canada. The following year C . Sifton became minister of the interior i n Sir W . Laurier s new Liberal administration a n d a m i d m u c h criticism for bringing large numbers of culturally alien people into Canada 7

began to solicit agricultural immigrants from southern, central, and eastern Europe. Ukrainian immigration ceased d u r i n g the First W o r l d War but resumed i n the 1920s as stability returned to Eastern Europe a n d the C a n a d i a n Immigration A c t was amended (1923) to permit former nationals from recent enemy countries to immigrate. Galicia and B u k o v y n a , part of P o l a n d a n d R u m a n i a respectively, continued to supply the majority of immigrants. M o s t were generally better educated, more secure financially, and more diverse occupationally than members of the first wave had been. They came to an established UkrainianCanadian c o m m u n i t y a n d benefited from its moral and financial assistance. Canada still favored agriculturalists, and the Prairies again attracted the bulk of the U k r a i n i a n immigrants. After 1929, w i t h widespread unemployment i n Canada, few Ukrainians were admitted. The third wave of U k r a i n i a n immigrants to Canada consisted of persons displaced by the Second W o r l d War, living mainly i n refugee camps i n A u s t r i a and West Germany (see ^Displaced persons). The n e w l y formed "Ukrainian Canadian Committee urged the Canadian government to accept U k r a i n i a n immigrants. Western Ukrainians again predominated, but all ethnic U k r a i n i a n territories were represented. Socioeconomically, the new immigrants were more diverse than previous immigrants had been, a n d greater numbers were well educated. A l m o s t all settled i n urban areas i n the industrialized East, particularly i n Ontario. Today over 80 percent of the U k r a i n i a n - C a n a d i a n population is native-born. Various countries contribute a small number of immigrants annually, and i n the 1970s limited emigration from the Soviet U n i o n brought a few hundred U k r a i n i a n immigrants to Canada, together w i t h Soviet U k r a i n i a n Jews. Population. A s subjects of a foreign power and possessing a blurred national identity, the first Ukrainians i n Canada appeared under a variety of names, producing permanent confusion i n early statistics. In 1931 the Canadian census s h o w e d 223,133 Ukrainians, or 2.2 percent of the population. In the 1971 census there were 380,660 Ukrainians, or 2.7 percent of the total Canadian population. The 1981 census allowed Canadians to declare their origins i n either single or multiple terms. A s a result, 329,613 persons indicated their origin as being U k r a i n i a n and 223,360 indicated that it was at least one component i n their background. Settlement and distribution. After 1896 the U k r a i n i a n colony at Edna-Star expanded rapidly, becoming the largest U k r a i n i a n settlement i n Canada. B y 1914 the wooded-prairie parkland of western Canada was marked by a series of well-defined blocs of U k r a i n i a n settlement that extended from Alberta through the Rosthern and Yorkton-Canora districts of Saskatchewan to the Dauphin, Interlake, and Stuartburn regions of Manitoba. In the interwar period secondary blocs, like that i n the Peace River region i n Alberta, emerged. W i t h i n the blocs a distinctive w a y of life evolved around rural crossroads communities that h a d U k r a i n i a n names and consisted of a post office, general store, church, and c o m m u n i t y center. Interwar migration to urban centers accelerated after the Second W o r l d War. Today the physical and cultural identity of the bloc settlements has been eroded by the automobile, the mass

C A N A D A

P E R C E N T A G E OF U K R A I N I A N S IN T H E P O P U L A T I O N OF T H E P R A I R I E P R O V I N C E S i . Boundary of Canada

2. Provincial boundaries

345

(1951)

3. Boundaries of census divisions

media, higher education, farm consolidation, rising standards of living, a n d u p w a r d social mobility. Some of the early U k r a i n i a n immigrants i n cities were prospective farmers accumulating capital; others became permanent members of the urban labor force. M a n y of the living areas adjacent to the city core continue to house Ukrainian churches, organizations, and businesses, al­ though the c r o w d e d tenements have generally been replaced by single-family dwellings i n working-class districts and more recently i n the suburbs. Immigrants from the second and third immigrations, as w e l l as migrants from the rural blocks, have greatly increased the Ukrainian urban population. In 1981 the U k r a i n i a n p o p u ­ lation (single-origin) i n E d m o n t o n was 63,120; i n W i n n i ­ peg, 58,970; and i n Toronto, 50,705. (See table 1.) In 1931 over 85 percent of all Ukrainians lived i n the three Prairie Provinces, where 77.9 percent were rural; i n 1971 only 57.8 percent resided o n the Prairies, and 75 percent of all U k r a i n i a n Canadians were urban. Prairie Ukrainians, most urban i n Alberta (70.2 percent) and least urban i n Saskatchewan (53.1 percent), were less urban than those i n Ontario (91.1 percent). In 1981 single-origin Ukrainians were most numerous i n Alberta, where they formed 6.1 percent of the population; on the Prairies almost 8 percent of the residents were single-origin U k r a i ­ nian. (See tables 2 a n d 3.) A t the end of the 19th century Anglo-Canadians judged immigrants by their distance from British cultural

standards and placed great emphasis o n assimilating Ukrainian peasants through the public schools and the Protestant churches. Departments of education found it difficult to establish schools i n the poor, scattered, and ethnically diverse pioneer prairie communities, however. The education of Ukrainians was further complicated by Manitoba's 1897 law that permitted instruction i n English and any other language w h e n requested by 10 or more students i n a school district. The *Ruthenian Training School opened i n W i n n i p e g i n 1905 (it m o v e d to Brandon two years later) to provide bilingual teachers. Bilingual schools operated unofficially i n Saskatchewan and to a lesser extent i n Alberta. L e d by a nationally conscious leadership, composed largely of bilingual teachers, Ukrainians strongly supported the bilingual schools that the Anglo-Canadians opposed. In 1916 Manitoba re­ pealed its bilingual clause, a n d Ukrainians turned to private educational institutions to preserve their lan­ guage and culture. For approximately three decades the Methodist and Presbyterian churches sought to evangelize a n d Canadianize Ukrainians through direct proselytization and the establishment of rural schools a n d hospitals and urban home missions. But i n spite of valuable educational, social, and medical services, the Methodists and Pres­ byterians converted few Ukrainians to Protestantism and d i d not remake them i n their o w n image. The First W o r l d War greatly intensified anti-Ukrainian

346

CANADA

feelings i n Canada. A s subjects of the A u s t r o - H u n g a r i a n Empire, unnaturalized immigrants became enemy aliens. Approximately 6,000 Ukrainians were interned, either as A u s t r i a n reservists or potential security threats, or for being u n e m p l o y e d . M a n y were harrassed a n d fired from their jobs. Those naturalized for less than 15 years were disenfranchised i n 1917; i n September 1918 newspapers in U k r a i n i a n a n d other enemy-alien languages were temporarily suspended. In spite of such treatment Ukrainians participated i n the Canadian Patriotic F u n d ,

Single origin

Multiple origin

63,120 58,970 50,705 29,285 18,045 14,595 13,005 11,615 9,820 9,440 9,395 5,200 4,700 3,395 3,105 3,070 3,035

21,445 20,380 21,025 18,335 10,960 5,230 3,530 5,615 4,635 4,135 4,675 2,900 3,770 1,645 1,925 2,860 1,750

4,270 3,465 2,045 1,980 1,895 1,600 1,205 930 885 635

2,105 1,480 1,395 1,510 1,480 670 475 640 380 550

3,795 2,445 1,790 1,760 1,325 965 960

1,555 990 510 910 385 515 850

Ontario Quebec Atlantic provinces

TABLE 2 Ukrainian population by province, 1931-81

British Columbia Alberta Saskatchewan Manitoba Ontario Quebec Atlantic provinces *Single origin only

1931

1941

1951

1961

1971

1981*

2,583 55,872 63,400 73,606 24,426 4,340 883

7,563 71,868

22,613 86,957 78,399 98,753 93,595 12,921 1,431

35,640 105,923 78,851 105,372 127,911 16,588 2,349

60,150 135,515 85,920 114,415 159,880 20,325 3,215

63,605 136,710 76,810 99,795 133,995 14,640 2,840

79,777

89,762 48,158 8,006 735

1951

1971

1981*

0.4 1.1 7.6 24.8 6.9 28.2 10.5 32.7 0.7 10.9 0.2 1.9 0.09 0.3

1.9 5.7 9.3 22.0 9.4 19.8 12.7 25.0 2.0 23.7 0.3 3.3 0.09 0.4

2.8 10.4 8.3 23.3 9.3 14.8 11.5 19.7 2.1 27.5 0.3 3.5 0.16 0.6

2.3 12.0 6.1 25.8 8.0 14.5 9.8 18.8 1.5 25.3 0.2 2.7 0.1 0.5

the R e d Cross, a n d the Victory L o a n campaigns, and approximately 10,000 m e n enlisted i n the Canadian Expeditionary Force. Socioeconomic development. Ukrainians initially homesteaded o n unbroken l a n d w i t h limited capital, outdated agricultural technology, a n d no experience w i t h largescale N o r t h A m e r i c a n farming. H i g h wheat prices d u r i n g the First W o r l d War brought prosperity, marked by the transition to ox- a n d horse-power a n d then to machines as farming became a business. Expansion based o n wheat continued to the 1930s, w h e n many farmers w h o h a d operated o n credit or through mortgages were ruined by low grain prices. M a n y turned to more stable mixed farm­ ing, g r o w i n g a variety of grains a n d keeping stock and dairy cattle. Since 1943 the U k r a i n i a n blocs have under­ gone large-scale mechanization, farm consolidation, and rural depopulation. In 1971, 16,673 of the 23,439 farms w i t h U k r a i n i a n operators o n the Prairies were between 240 and 1,119 acres (97.1-432.6 ha) i n size. Early U k r a i n i a n wage earners were either unskilled laborers i n Canada's cities, members of railway gangs a n d lumbering crews, or miners i n the Rocky M o u n t a i n s , Northern Ontario, Quebec, or o n Cape Breton Island. W o m e n w o r k e d as domestics or i n restaurants a n d hotels. Unsafe w o r k conditions, l o w wages, exploitation, and discrimination made radicals of m a n y U k r a i n i a n workers, involving them i n labor unrest a n d unionization, particu­ larly d u r i n g the 1930s w h e n the u n e m p l o y e d faced public relief or (if unnaturalized) deportation.

Cities

Prince Albert Vernon Moose Jaw Brantford Portage la Prairie Thompson Medicine Hat

(a) (b) (a) (b) (a) (b) (a) (b) (a) (b) (a) (b) (a) (b)

1931

*Single origin only

Urban areas

Oshawa Kelowna Prince George Kamloops Sault Ste Marie North Battleford Kenora Sarnia Flin Flon Sydney

Alberta

Manitoba

Census metropolitan areas

Edmonton Winnipeg Toronto Vancouver Calgary Saskatoon Montreal Hamilton Regina Thunder Bay St Catharines-Niagara Windsor Ottawa-Hull Sudbury London Victoria Kitchener

British Columbia

Saskatchewan

TABLE 1 Ukrainian population (single- and multiple-origin) in 1981 Center

TABLE 3 Ukrainians by province: (a) as a percentage of the total provincial population; (b) as a percentage of the total Ukrainian-Canadian population, 1931-81

Distribution of Ukrainian rural population in 1921

Distribution of Ukrainian rural population in 1941

Distribution of Ukrainian rural population in 1971

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C A N A D A

Some urban Ukrainians before 1914 became small businessmen, general merchants, a n d shopkeepers, and catered to the immigrants' special needs through such establishments as U k r a i n i a n bookstores a n d boardinghouses. W h i l e large-scale movement into the towns and villages of the rural bloc settlements was an interwar and postwar p h e n o m e n o n , the earlier flour mills, general stores, and implement dealerships r u n by Ukrainians had laid the foundations. Hotels, bakeries, garages, and construction and transportation companies followed. Teaching was the first profession to attract Ukrainians i n large numbers. Agricultural colleges also drew y o u n g men anxious to improve farming techniques. U k r a i n i a n co-operatives first appeared before the First W o r l d War. A t its height the Ruthenian Farmers' Elevator C o m p a n y (1917-30) operated eleven elevators i n M a n i ­ toba and four i n Saskatchewan. U k r a i n i a n consumer co­ operatives, w h i c h emerged i n rural areas i n the interwar years, profited from the experiences of interwar i m m i ­ grants w i t h similar enterprises i n Western Ukraine. Alberta a n d M a n i t o b a h a d nine consumer co-operatives each, and Saskatchewan h a d six. U n l i k e the co-opera­ tives, Ukrainian credit unions expanded after 1943 be­ cause of their popularity among the third wave of immigrants. B y the 1970s there were nearly 40, w i t h a membership of approximately 49,000. The largest were the "Ukrainian (Toronto) Credit U n i o n , the *Carpathia Co-operative Credit U n i o n i n Winnipeg, and *Buduchnist i n Toronto. In the 1930s co-ordinating efforts created the Co-operative C o m m u n i t y i n W i n n i p e g a n d the C o ­ ordinating Committee of U k r a i n i a n Credit Co-operatives i n Toronto. Between 1931 a n d 1971 the percentage of Ukrainians i n agriculture d r o p p e d from 37.3 to 11.2; i n the entire Canadian labor force the percentage decrease was from 28.7 to 3.6. In the same period the number of laborers or unskilled workers i n the U k r a i n i a n male labor force dropped from 23.9 to 3.3 percent. Participation i n manu­ facturing, construction, and related occupations i n ­ creased from 7.8 percent i n 1931 to 27.7 percent i n 1971, Ukrainians being overrepresented compared to Canadi­ ans as a w h o l e . Participation i n trade, sales, finance, administrative, a n d professional occupations increased. By 1971 the number of Ukrainians i n medicine, law, and engineering h a d risen from 0.023 percent i n 1931 to 0.23 percent (physicians a n d surgeons), 0.74 percent (profes­ sional engineers), a n d 0.13 percent (lawyers), but the proportion was still below that of the total Canadian w o r k force i n each category. Table 4 shows the distribution of Ukrainian Canadians i n various occupations i n 1971. In 1970 the average income of Canadians over 13 years of age was $5,033, compared to $4,636 for Ukrainian Canadians; U k r a i n i a n males earned less than Canadian males, but U k r a i n i a n females earned more than the national average. The socioeconomic position of U k r a i ­ nians was lowest i n the Prairie Provinces a n d progres­ sively better i n Ontario, British C o l u m b i a , and Quebec. In 1981, 15.3 percent of single-origin U k r a i n i a n Canadians had attended university, w h i c h was slightly below the national level (13.9 percent). A l t h o u g h the u p w a r d mobility of U k r a i n i a n Canadians from peasant origins, rural status, and illiteracy has been impressive, as a group Ukrainians remain entrenched i n the Canadian lower m i d d l e class. Participation in Canadian political life. In 1908 I. Storo-

347

TABLE 4 Occupations of Ukrainian Canadians 15 years of age and over, 1971 Male

Female

Total

All occupations

170,700

95,020

265,720

Managerial, administrative Professional, technical Natural sciences Social sciences Religion Teaching Medicine, health Artistic, literary Clerical Sales Service Farming Fishing, hunting Forestry, logging Mining Processing occupations Machining Product fabrication Construction trades Transport Materials handling Other crafts Occupations nes Not stated

6,555 14,945 6,090 1,025 330 4,115 2,045 1,340 11,380 14,230 15,375 22,400 120 1,095 2,305 8,230 6,885 14,855 17,080 9,650 6,075 2,465 4,630 12,440

1,300 12,810 510 615 35 5,315 5,850 485 27,955 7,990 18,800 8,545

7,850 27,760 6,600 1,640 365 9,430 7,895 1,830 39,315 22,215 34,180 30,945 125 1,145 2,315 10,140 7,175 18,415 17,220 9,910 7,345 2,830 5,110 21,730

—

50 5 1,905 295 3,560 145 260 1,260 360 485 9,295

sczuk was named reeve by the all-Ukrainian council i n the municipality of Stuartburn, Manitoba, becoming the first Ukrainian to lead a local government. Where they were numerous, Ukrainians eventually dominated the elected and administrative sections of rural municipalities, school divisions, counties, t o w n , a n d villages. T. Stefanyk, elected alderman i n W i n n i p e g i n 1912, was the first U k r a i ­ nian successful i n urban politics. Since the Second W o r l d W a r such successes have been numerous. W . Hawrelak was elected mayor of E d m o n t o n four times between 1931 and 1977, S. Juba was mayor of W i n n i p e g from 1936 to 1977, a n d L . Decore was elected mayor of E d m o n t o n i n 1983. The first U k r a i n i a n elected to a provincial legislature was A . Shandro, Liberal candidate for the predominantly Ukrainian r i d i n g of Whitford i n the 1913 Alberta election. H e was followed by T. Ferley, w h o became the Liberal member for G i m l i , M a n i t o b a , i n 1913. B y 1975, 77 U k r a i ­ nian candidates h a d been successful i n Manitoba, 68 i n Alberta, a n d 37 i n Saskatchewan; Ontario and British C o l u m b i a , where U k r a i n i a n candidates d i d not appear until the 1940s, h a d elected 13 a n d 1 respectively. The first U k r a i n i a n i n the H o u s e of C o m m o n s i n Ot­ tawa was M . Luchkovich, w h o represented the Vegreville constituency for the U n i t e d Farmers of Alberta (1926-33). By 1973, 62 Ukrainians h a d w o n federal seats - 23 i n Alberta, 13 i n M a n i t o b a , 13 i n Ontario, a n d 9 i n Sas­ katchewan - the majority representing the Progressive Conservative party. O n l y after 1943 d i d U k r a i n i a n candi­ dates make noticeable progress i n the Liberal and Conservative parties or outside the U k r a i n i a n bloc settle­ ments. M a n y early candidates represented Canadian protest parties. To date, candidates have been over­ w h e l m i n g l y from the first a n d second immigrations. Cabinet posts have come to U k r a i n i a n Canadians since the Second W o r l d W a r . Federally, M . Starr (Starchev-

348 CANADA sky) served as Conservative minister of labor (1938-63) under J. Diefenbaker; N . Cafik h e l d the multiculturalism portfolio (1977-9) i n P. Trudeau's Liberal administration; and R. H n a t y s h y n (energy, mines, a n d resources; science a n d technology) a n d S. Paproski (fitness and amateur sports a n d multiculturalism) were ministers i n the short­ lived Conservative cabinet of J. Clark i n 1979-80. Ukrainians have been better represented provincially. In Alberta A . H o l o w a c h a n d A . L u d w i g served as Social Credit ministers, a n d i n the 1970s W . Diachuk, A . H o h o l , J. Koziak, G . T o p o l n i s k y , P. T r y n c h y , a n d W . Y u r k o s a t i n P. Lougheed's Conservative cabinet. In Manitoba, L i b ­ eral premier D . C a m p b e l l appointed the first U k r a i n i a n cabinet ministers, N . Bachynsky a n d M . H r y h o r c z u k , i n the 1930s; S. U s k i w , B . Hanuschak, P. Burtniak, a n d W . U r u s k i served i n E . Schreyer's N e w Democratic govern­ ment (1969-77). Three U k r a i n i a n cabinet ministers i n Saskatchewan - A . K u z i a k , J. K o w a l c h u k , a n d R. R o m a n o w - represented the Co-operative C o m m o n ­ wealth Federation under T . C . Douglas (1932-64) or its successor, the N e w Democratic party, under A . Blakeney i n the 1970s. Progressive Conservative J. Yaremko has been the sole U k r a i n i a n cabinet minister i n Ontario. Five Canadians of U k r a i n i a n origin have been sum­ m o n e d to the Senate of Canada: W . W a l l (Wolokhatiuk) (Manitoba, 1933-62), J. H n a t y s h y n (Saskatchewan, 1939-67), P. Y u z y k (Manitoba, 1963-),}. Ewasew (Quebec, 1976-8), a n d M . Bielish (Alberta, 1979-). S. Worobetz served as lieutenant governor of Saskatchewan from 1970 to 1976. For m a n y years Ukrainians supported the Liberal party, w h i c h was i n p o w e r w h e n they first arrived. Together w i t h other Canadians from the lower socioeco­ nomic strata, Ukrainians have s h o w n considerable sup­ port for C a n a d i a n protest parties, w h i c h emerged i n the 1930s - the Social Credit party a n d the Co-operative C o m m o n w e a l t h Federation (subsequently the N e w Democratic party). D u r i n g the Great Depression the Ukrainians, Jews, a n d Finns were the most prominent ethnic groups i n the ^ C o m m u n i s t Party of Canada. In the late 1930s m a n y U k r a i n i a n s turned to the Progressive Conservative party, a p p r o v i n g J. Diefenbaker's anticomm u n i s m a n d his appointment of the first U k r a i n i a n Canadian to the federal cabinet. Increasingly, the Voting habits of Ukrainians reflect their economic class or region rather than any c o m m o n ethnic pattern. Religion. N o U k r a i n i a n Catholic or Orthodox priests accompanied the early U k r a i n i a n immigrants to Canada. A m o n g the denominations that m o v e d to fill the spiritual v a c u u m were the Methodists a n d Presbyterians, the Independent Greek church, a n d the Russian Orthodox and R o m a n Catholic churches. A unique religious experiment originated w i t h a Russian O r t h o d o x priest, S. U s t v o l s k y . A s the m o n k Seraphim, self-proclaimed bishop a n d metropolitan of the Orthodox Russian church for A m e r i c a , he arrived i n Canada i n 1903 a n d began to ordain priests. In 1904, alarmed by Seraphim's g r o w i n g eccentricities, several priests, led by I. B o d r u g , broke w i t h h i m a n d formed the Ruthenian Independent Greek church. The n e w church retained the Eastern rite a n d liturgy but was supervised a n d financially supported by the Presbyterian church, w i t h w h i c h B o d r u g h a d contacts. A t its height, the Independent Greek church claimed 60,000 adherents. It declined after 1907 w h e n Presbyterian pressure forced

genuine Protestant reform; it became part of the Presbyte­ rian church a n d then of the U n i t e d church. B o d r u g remained w i t h i n the U k r a i n i a n evangelical movement, w o r k i n g closely w i t h the ^Ukrainian Evangelical Alliance i n N o r t h A m e r i c a (est 1922). In 1931, 1.6 percent of Ukrainian Canadians were U n i t e d church adherents. B y 1971 intermarriage a n d assimilation h a d increased the figure to 13.9 percent, the fourth-largest religious de­ nomination a m o n g U k r a i n i a n Canadians. B u k o v y n i a n immigrants w h o appealed to the Orthodox church i n B u k o v y n a for priests were directed to the Russian Orthodox mission i n the U n i t e d States. The Russian O r t h o d o x missionaries w h o came were also popular a m o n g Galicians. They used a familiar form of worship, charged little, a n d gave the laity considerable local control. The Russian O r t h o d o x Greek Catholic church declined sharply after 1917 w h e n the Russian H o l y Synod's financial support for missionary w o r k ended a n d the traditional U k r a i n i a n churches were re-established i n Canada. Today the Russian O r t h o d o x faith claims a few h u n d r e d U k r a i n i a n - C a n a d i a n adher­ ents. Parishes that recognize the patriarch of M o s c o w share a bishop w i t h their A m e r i c a n counterparts. A few Orthodox Ukrainians belong to the " U k r a i n i a n O r t h o d o x C h u r c h of A m e r i c a , w i t h its seat i n the U n i t e d States. A small number of U k r a i n i a n Baptists (stundists) from the Russian E m p i r e immigrated to Canada prior to 1917 to escape religious persecution. They were first associated w i t h the Russian Stundists, but i n 1921, under P. Kindrat, separate U k r a i n i a n congregations were organized. In 1946 the U k r a i n i a n Bible Institute opened i n Saskatoon to train U k r a i n i a n Baptist clergy a n d to p u b l i s h religious literature. The U k r a i n i a n Evangelical Baptist Alliance of Canada, strengthened by the third immigration, has approximately 23 congregations. Their members, to­ gether w i t h those Ukrainians i n other Baptist congrega­ tions, accounted for 1.4 percent of all Ukrainian Canadians i n 1971. The L u t h e r a n church, the Pentecostal Assembly, the Seventh-Day Adventists, a n d the Jehovah's Wit­ nesses also have significant U k r a i n i a n memberships but are marginal to the organized U k r a i n i a n community. Pub­ lications a n d religious p r o g r a m m i n g i n U k r a i n i a n acknowledge the U k r a i n i a n components. O n l y a minority of U k r a i n i a n Protestants form independent congrega­ tions. The two major U k r a i n i a n denominations i n Canada have been the U k r a i n i a n Catholic church a n d the U k r a i ­ nian Orthodox church, w h i c h were supported by 38.0 and 24.6 percent respectively of all U k r a i n i a n Canadians i n 1931. Despite strained relations between them, the two churches have been central i n preserving the U k r a i ­ nian language, culture, a n d identity. Since the 1940s their strength has declined: i n 1971 the U k r a i n i a n Catholics constituted 32.1 percent a n d the O r t h o d o x 20.1 percent of the U k r a i n i a n - C a n a d i a n population. The first U k r a i n i a n Catholic immigrants were visited periodically by priests from Pennsylvania, i n c l u d i n g N . D m y t r i v as early as 1897. Immigrants a n d itinerant priests came under the jurisdiction of the French-dominated R o m a n Catholic hierarchy i n western Canada, w h i c h tried to absorb the Ukrainians. In v i e w of U k r a i n i a n opposition, the R o m a n Catholic church gradually accepted the idea of a separate U k r a i n i a n Catholic hierarchy a n d w o r k e d to obtain clerical personnel. Because the papal decree of 1894 imposed celibacy o n

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Ukrainian Catholic priests i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , the secular clergy, w h o greatly outnumbered the regular clergy i n Galicia, could not w o r k i n Canada. To fill the v a c u u m , French a n d Belgian missionaries, some of w h o m adopted the Eastern rite, served a m o n g the Ukrainians. They included the French C a n a d i a n Father J. Jean a n d the Belgian Redemptorist Father A . Delaere, w h o was based at Yorkton, Saskatchewan. Because of Delaere's work, an Eastern-rite branch of the Congregation of the M o s t H o l y Redeemer was founded i n Galicia i n 1913 a n d later i n Canada (see *Redemptorists). For approximately a gener­ ation the R o m a n Catholic church assisted its Ukrainian counterpart, particularly i n the establishment of schools and newspapers. In 1902 the first U k r a i n i a n monks, members of the *Basilian monastic order, a n d four nuns of the Sisters Servants of M a r y Immaculate were sent to Canada by Metropolitan A . Sheptytsky. F r o m Beaverlake (now Mundare) i n Alberta they served a pastoral c o m m u ­ nity scattered over hundreds of kilometers. Sheptytsky toured the U k r a i n i a n settlements i n 1910, and i n 1911 he successfully appealed to Rome for a Ukrainian Catholic bishop. In December 19^12 N . Budka became the first bishop of the Ruthenian Greek Catholic church i n Canada, incorporated by Canadian charter i n 1913. H e was not under the R o m a n Catholic hierarchy but directly responsible to the apostolic delegate i n Cahada. Concerned about restoring the church's customary domi­ nance i n U k r a i n i a n life, B u d k a alienated many U k r a i ­ nians, particularly the rising influential intelligentsia, w h i c h led to the formation of the ""Ukrainian Greek Orthodox church i n 1918. Despite the O r t h o d o x inroads, the U k r a i n i a n Catholic church expanded i n the 1920s a n d by 1931 h a d 100 priests, 38 of them secular, serving 330 parishes (3 i n British C o l u m b i a , 102 i n Alberta, 108 i n Saskatchewan, 110 i n M a n i t o b a , 21 i n Ontario, 3 i n Quebec, and 1 i n N o v a Scotia). B u d k a returned to Europe i n 1927, to be succeeded i n 1929 by V . L a d y k a . In 1948 three exarchates were created: the eastern (Toronto) under Bishop I. Borecky, the western (Edmonton) under Bishop N . Savaryn, a n d the central (Winnipeg) under L a d y k a , w h o was elevated to titular archbishop. In 1931 the Sas­ katchewan exarchate was carved out of the western ex­ archate, w i t h A . Roborecky as bishop. In 1936 Pope Pius x i i established the U k r a i n i a n Catholic metropolitanate i n Canada, elevating the four exarchates to eparchies w i t h the central as the archeparchy. M . H e r m a n i u k became the first metropolitan. In 1974 the eparchy of N e w W e s t m i n ­ ster for British C o l u m b i a , under Bishop J. (I.) C h i m y , was created from parts of the E d m o n t o n eparchy. In 1984 B. Filevich succeeded A . Roborecky as bishop of the Saskatoon eparchy. D u r i n g the 1970s, i n the 600 U k r a i n i a n Catholic par­ ishes and missions, the secular clergy greatly outnum­ bered their monastic counterparts. After the Second W o r l d W a r married priests i n the third immigration were permitted by the Vatican to serve, although ordination of married m e n by C a n a d i a n U k r a i n i a n Catholic bishops was generally forbidden. In 1970 the Basilians h a d 109 monks, i n c l u d i n g 31 regular priests. The order became a separate C a n a d i a n province i n 1948 a n d has its seat i n W i n n i p e g , its p u b l i s h i n g house i n Toronto, its seminary in Ottawa, a n d its rich library, archives, a n d m u s e u m i n M u n d a r e . The U k r a i n i a n Redemptorist M i s s i o n i n C a n ­ ada, a separate province after 1961, h a d over 60 regular

349

TABLE 5 Religious affiliation of Ukrainian Canadians (percent), 1931-71 Denomination

1931

1941

1951

1961

1971

Ukrainian Catholic Greek Orthodox Roman Catholic United church Anglican Presbyterian Lutheran Baptist Other

58.0 24.6 11.5 1.6 0.3 0.8 0.5 0.6 2.1

50.0 29.1 12.3 3.0 1.0 1.0 0.6 0.8 2.2

41.7 28.1 14.3 7.1 2.6 1.2 0.9 0.9 3.2

33.3 25.2 16.8 12.6 4.0 1.2 1.4 1.3 4.2

32.1 20.1 15.3 13.9 4.6 1.3 1.8 1.4 9.4

priests i n the 1970s. The provincial seat is i n W i n n i p e g and St V l a d i m i r ' s College (the M i n o r Seminary) for boys is i n Roblin, Manitoba; the p u b l i s h i n g house is i n Yorkton. U n t i l the 1970s the Eastern-rite Brothers of the Christian Schools operated St Joseph's College (est 1919) i n Yorkton. A small number of U k r a i n i a n *Studite monks, w h o came to Canada i n 1931, live at Woodstock, Ontario. There are approximately 300 U k r a i n i a n Catholic nuns i n Canada. The Sisters Servants of M a r y Immaculate have operated schools, orphanages, hospitals, and, more re­ cently, senior-citizens' homes. Their private schools, under provincial regulations, include Sacred Heart A c a d e m y (est 1917) i n Y o r k t o n , Immaculate Heart School (est 1905 as the U k r a i n i a n Catholic School of St Nicholas) i n W i n n i p e g , a n d M o u n t M a r y Immaculate A c a d e m y (1932-1970) i n Ancaster, Ontario, w h i c h housed the novitiate after being m o v e d from M u n d a r e i n 1946. T w o minor orders are the *Sisters of St Joseph i n the Saskatche­ w a n eparchy a n d the Missionary Sisters of Christian Charity i n the Toronto eparchy. Since the 1930s the U k r a i n i a n Catholic church has sponsored national men's, w o m e n ' s , a n d y o u t h lay organizations w i t h local branches, a n d a host of other associations, co-ordinated b y a U k r a i n i a n Catholic coun­ cil i n each eparchy a n d a conciliar superstructure, the A l l - C a n a d i a n U k r a i n i a n Catholic C o u n c i l - the whole assisted by an active press. The rising intelligentsia (among them m a n y bilingual teachers) w h o opposed B u d k a h a d been influenced by the anticlericalism of the "Ukrainian Radical party i n Galicia. They c o n d e m n e d the episcopal incorporation of church property, the i m p o s e d celibacy, and the use of non-Ukrainian Latin-rite priests. In 1916 Ukrainians on the Prairies established i n Saskatoon a non-denomina­ tional, non-partisan U k r a i n i a n students' residence or bursa, the *Mohyla U k r a i n i a n Institute, w h i c h they refused to incorporate w i t h the bishop. The ensuing controversy peaked i n 1918 w h e n a group associated w i t h the M o h y l a Institute broke w i t h B u d k a a n d created a Ukrainian Greek O r t h o d o x Brotherhood to establish the U k r a i n i a n Greek O r t h o d o x C h u r c h of Canada. Rising national consciousness because of events i n Ukraine favored an independent U k r a i n i a n national church i n Canada. The U k r a i n i a n Greek O r t h o d o x church has followed the dogma a n d rites of O r t h o d o x y . Priests are married, church property belongs to the congregations, bishops are elected by a council of clergy a n d laymen, a n d congregations engage a n d discharge priests. Theological classes, begun i n Saskatoon i n 1919, graduated the first priests i n 1920; i n 1932 the theological seminary m o v e d to

35°

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W i n n i p e g , a n d since 1946 it has been at *St A n d r e w ' s College. The n e w church attracted m a n y Greek Catholics, Orthodox Bukovynians, a n d adherents of the Independ­ ent Greek a n d Russian O r t h o d o x churches a n d by 1935 had 180 parishes a n d missions (53 i n Alberta, 76 i n Saskatchewan, 43 i n M a n i t o b a , 7 i n Ontario, and 1 i n Quebec). For several decades the n e w church w a r d e d off charges of canonical unorthodoxy i n its search for autocephaly and a suitable bishop. In 1919 it was taken under the spiritual w i n g of Metropolitan Germanos (Shegedi) of the Syrian O r t h o d o x church i n the U n i t e d States. In 1924 A r c h b i s h o p I. T e o d o r o v y c h of the "Ukrainian Autocephalous O r t h o d o x church i n Ukraine a n d n e w head of the ^Ukrainian O r t h o d o x C h u r c h i n the U S A became bishop, but his efforts to be reconsecrated forced h i m to resign i n 1947. A r c h b i s h o p M . S k r y p n y k , also of the U k r a i n i a n Autocephalous O r t h o d o x hierarchy, replaced h i m , but his role i n Teodorovych's reconsecration a n d his overtures towards union with the American Ukrainian church led to his resignation i n 1950. In 1951 the second extraordinary sobor voted to make the U k r a i n i a n Greek Orthodox church truly autocephalous through a metro­ politanate w i t h three bishops. I. O h i i e n k o was elected metropolitan, a position he h e l d until his death i n 1972, w h e n he was succeeded by A r c h b i s h o p M . (F.) K h o r o s h y , w h o was followed by A r c h b i s h o p A . M e t i u k i n 1975. Three O r t h o d o x eparchies were created i n 1951. The eastern eparchy (Toronto) was under K h o r o s h y until 1977 and then under Bishop M . D e b r y n . The western eparchy (Edmonton) took i n Alberta a n d British C o l u m b i a a n d received its first bishop, A . M e t i u k , i n 1959. The central eparchy (Winnipeg) covered Saskatchewan and Manitoba. In 1963 it received an auxiliary bishop, B. Y a k o v k e v y c h , w i t h his see i n Saskatoon; i n 1975 he became head of the western eparchy a n d archbishop of E d m o n t o n . Bishop W . Fedak replaced h i m as auxiliary bishop of Saskatoon a n d the central eparchy i n 1978 and i n 1981 was given temporary responsibility for the eastern eparchy following D e b r y n ' s death. The U k r a i n i a n Greek O r t h o d o x church also sponsors national men's, w o m e n ' s , a n d y o u t h lay organizations and maintains four institutes w i t h educational facilities, as w e l l as an active press. In 1958 it h a d 300 parishes and missions w i t h 80 priests; d u r i n g the 1970s, 100 priests served the same number of parishes. The two traditional U k r a i n i a n churches are losing ground w i t h U k r a i n i a n Canadians (see table 5), many estranged by intermarriage, loss of the U k r a i n i a n lan­ guage, a n d the adoption of middle-class values and ambitions. The U k r a i n i a n Catholic church has tried to meet the crisis by a l l o w i n g some parishes to adopt the Gregorian calendar a n d to use E n g l i s h for parts of the liturgy a n d sermon, but the O r t h o d o x church has been less flexible. Both churches, still often led by Europeanborn a n d European-educated clergy, face uncertain futures. Education and cultural life. The first secular organiza­ tions were local reading halls (chytalni), *Prosvita socie­ ties, a n d ^people's homes (narodni domy - community centers or national halls) based o n Galician and B u k o v y ­ nian models. B y 1925 there were approximately 250 of these organizations across Canada. A l t h o u g h most had a specific religious or political orientation a n d were later often absorbed by national organizations, they offered

similar programs: concerts, plays, readings for the illiter­ ate, a n d popular a n d scholarly lectures, all combining a lively interest i n the h o m e l a n d w i t h instruction about life i n Canada. The people's homes a n d related institutions peaked i n the 1930s a n d declined after the Second W o r l d War. Ridni shkoly, or part-time U k r a i n i a n schools, existed from the early days of settlement a n d grew rapidly after the abolition of bilingual public schools. Interwar a n d p o s t - S e c o n d W o r l d W a r immigrants p r o v i d e d new teachers a n d pupils. In 1958 there were 600 ridni shkoly (almost two-thirds i n U k r a i n i a n Catholic parishes), w i t h 650 teachers a n d 18,000 pupils. Today they reach about 9,000 of an estimated 95,000 school-age children. In 1981, 510 teachers taught i n 110 ridni shkoly, mainly i n urban areas where the post-1945 immigration settled. Some cater to children w h o speak only English. M o s t operate at the elementary level, teaching U k r a i n i a n language, culture, a n d history; the major cities also offer more advanced courses (kursy ukrainoznavstva). Too few professional teachers a n d resistance to a c o m m o n curricu­ l u m a n d central co-ordination have created duplication and inconsistent quality. There have been various efforts to co-ordinate ridni shkoly, both w i t h i n the different organizations a n d across partisan lines. In 1971 the Ukrainian C a n a d i a n Committee formed the U k r a i n i a n National Educational C o u n c i l of Canada to establish standards, but results have been meager. Pioneer student residences or bursas emerged i n cities and larger towns o n the Prairies to provide a U k r a i n i a n environment for rural students completing elementary school. They i n c l u d e d the U k r a i n s k a Bursa, w h i c h the Independent Greek church opened i n E d m o n t o n i n 1912; the A d a m Kotsko Bursa (1915-17) i n W i n n i p e g ; the Metropolitan Sheptytsky Bursa (1917-24) i n neighboring St Boniface; the Catholic-supported Shevchenko Institute (1918-22) of the N a r o d n y i D i m Association i n E d m o n t o n ; and the Shevchenko Institute (1917-19) i n Vegreville, w h i c h merged w i t h the H r u s h e v s k y Institute (est 1918) i n E d m o n t o n . The latter, n o w the St l o h n ' s Institute, and the M o h y l a U k r a i n i a n Institute (est 1916) i n Saskatoon still exist; along w i t h St A n d r e w ' s College (est 1946) i n W i n n i p e g a n d St V l a d i m i r ' s Institute (inc 1961) i n Toronto, they are affiliated w i t h the U k r a i n i a n Orthodox church. Early bursa students, determined to raise the people's educational level a n d national consciousness, were the community's first political a n d cultural leaders. Today the four O r t h o d o x institutes still w o r k closely w i t h the community, but they are primarily student residences, often w i t h a few n o n - U k r a i n i a n a n d non-Orthodox members. St A n d r e w ' s College is an affiliate of the University of M a n i t o b a a n d offers theology and other courses leading to the bachelor of arts degree. In 1981 its Centre for U k r a i n i a n C a n a d i a n Studies became an integral part of the university. The Sheptytsky Institute i n Saskatoon (est 1934 as the M a r k i i a n Shashkevych Bursa) serves primarily as a U k r a i n i a n Catholic student residence at the University of Saskatchewan. Because of conditions i n Ukraine, U k r a i n i a n Canadians have sought public support for their language a n d culture through a policy of multiculturalism. In the 1950s a n d 1960s governments o n the Prairies accredited U k r a i n i a n as an option, first i n h i g h school, then i n the elementary grades. In 1971 E d m o n t o n ' s U k r a i n i a n Professional and Business C l u b got the Alberta government to amend the

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35I

The Ukrainian Cultural Heritage Village near Edmonton, Alberta, August 1980 School A c t to permit bilingual instruction. B y the fall of 1980 the U k r a i n i a n - E n g l i s h program had reached the junior h i g h school level i n E d m o n t o n and the elementary level i n several smaller communities. Pressed by U k r a i ­ nians, Saskatchewan legislated similar instruction i n 1974 and Manitoba i n 1978. U k r a i n i a n language and literature became university subjects after 1943 as Slavic studies departments were established o n several Canadian cam­ puses; courses i n U k r a i n i a n history, political science, and Ukrainians i n Canada followed. Civic and political organizations. The socialists were the first U k r a i n i a n group w i t h a national profile. In 1907 Ukrainian branches of the Socialist Party of Canada were formed, and by 1909 approximately 10 existed i n centers where workers had reading clubs. The ^Federation of Ukrainian Social Democrats i n Canada ( F U S D ) was launched i n W i n n i p e g i n 1909 and the following year affiliated w i t h the Social Democratic Party of Canada. Ukrainian socialists i n E d m o n t o n unsuccessfully chal­ lenged the F U S D a n d W i n n i p e g leadership i n 1910-12, organizing the ^Federation of U k r a i n i a n Socialists as an autonomous b o d y w i t h i n the Socialist Party of Canada. In 1914 the F U S D was renamed the "Ukrainian Social D e m o ­ cratic party. B y 1917 it h a d become Marxist, and i n September 1918, w h e n it was banned by the Canadian government, it was pro-Bolshevik, w i t h 2,000 members. War and revolution i n Ukraine spurred Ukrainians i n Canada to organize o n behalf of their countrymen. In 1919 the U k r a i n i a n C a n a d i a n Citizens' Committee, led by sup­ porters of the n e w U k r a i n i a n Greek Orthodox church, and a Catholic counterbody, the U k r a i n i a n National Council, sought to help the n e w U k r a i n i a n republic at the Paris Peace Conference. The U k r a i n i a n R e d Cross i n C a n ­ ada was organized to aid war victims i n Ukraine, and i n 1920 a U k r a i n i a n Central Committee was established to co-ordinate collections for overseas relief. St Raphael's

Ukrainian Immigrants Welfare Association, w h i c h func­ tioned for approximately a decade after its establishment i n 1923, assisted interwar immigrants to Canada. National organizations emerged i n the interwar years. The left resurfaced i n 1920, incorporating i n 1924 as the ""Ukrainian Labour-Farmer Temple Association ( U L F T A ) ; sections for w o m e n (est 1922) a n d y o u t h (est 1926) followed. The U L F T A was the largest ethnic organization sympathetic to the C o m m u n i s t Party of Canada, and its educational a n d cultural attractions and economic pro­ gram enjoyed w i d e support d u r i n g the depression. The ^Ukrainian Self-Reliance League, organized i n 1927 by the U k r a i n i a n Orthodox laity, encompassed the following organizations: the U k r a i n i a n Self-Reliance Association, the ""Ukrainian W o m e n ' s Association of Canada (est 1926), the ""Canadian U k r a i n i a n Y o u t h Association (est 1931), and the * U n i o n of U k r a i n i a n C o m m u n i t y Centres of Canada, w h i c h united local Orthodox people's homes and Pros vita societies. The " U k r a i n i a n Catholic Brother­ hood of Canada was established i n 1932 for U k r a i n i a n Catholic laymen, followed i n 1944 by the "Ukrainian Catholic W o m e n ' s League a n d i n 1939 by the ""Ukrainian Catholic Y o u t h . Interwar immigrants introduced a number of new organizations. The paramilitary sporting Sitch (renamed the ^Canadian Sitch Organization i n 1928) was founded in 1924 w i t h official support from the U k r a i n i a n Catholic church. It declined w i t h the appearance of the U k r a i n i a n Catholic Brotherhood a n d i n 1934 was reorganized w i t h ­ out church backing as the *United Hetmαn Organization, a conservative monarchist movement that favored P. Skoropadsky as hetmαn of U k r a i n e . After the death of his son, D . Skoropadsky, i n 1937 the movement, never too popular, rapidly declined. In 1928 the republicaninclined veterans of the U k r a i n i a n independence strug­ gle formed the ""Ukrainian W a r Veterans' Association

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( U W V A ) . In 1932 it p r o v i d e d the base for the ^Ukrainian National Federation, w h i c h espoused the militant nation­ alism of the "Organization of U k r a i n i a n Nationalists. The "Ukrainian W o m e n ' s Organization of Canada, initially associated w i t h the U W V A , affiliated w i t h the U k r a i n i a n National Federation i n 1934, the same year that the "Ukrainian N a t i o n a l Y o u t h Federation was formed. In the late 1920s a n d early 1930s U k r a i n i a n socialist revolution­ ary ιmigrιs made a brief alliance w i t h the U k r a i n i a n National H o m e Association i n W i n n i p e g . The institutions of the second immigration generally fared better i n urban centers, where the n e w arrivals were more closely con­ gregated, than i n previously settled rural areas. D u r i n g the 1930s there was considerable friction be­ tween the Canadian-oriented Ukrainian Catholic Brother­ hood and Ukrainian Self-Reliance League and such Ukraineoriented organizations as the U k r a i n i a n National Federa­ tion. In spite of rivalries, U k r a i n i a n - C a n a d i a n organiza­ tions gave moral a n d financial assistance to U k r a i n i a n ιmigrι centers i n Western Europe and to U k r a i n i a n veter­ ans, war orphans, a n d numerous causes i n P o l a n d and neighboring countries. In the 1930s Polish pacification i n Western U k r a i n e a n d Stalinist terror i n the Soviet U n i o n were w i d e l y p u b l i c i z e d . The U L F T A , w h i c h extolled the Soviet U k r a i n i a n state and especially its cultural flower­ ing i n the 1920s, failed to question the purges, forced collectivization, a n d artificial famine of the 1930s. In 1935 an anti-Soviet faction under D . Lobai broke away and formed the Federation of U k r a i n i a n Worker-Farmer O r ­ ganizations (later the League of U k r a i n i a n Organizations [1936-40] a n d then the "Ukrainian Workers' League). The U L F T A , banned i n 1940, re-emerged as the Association of C a n a d i a n Ukrainians after the Soviet U n i o n became Canada's wartime ally. Its successor, the "Association of U n i t e d U k r a i n i a n Canadians, was incorporated i n 1946; but w i t h the cold war, the a n t i c o m m u n i s m of the third immigration, a n d the decreasing social isolation and poverty of U k r a i n i a n Canadians, it has never had the strength of its predecessor.

In 1940, to unite U k r a i n i a n Canadians behind the war effort, the m a j o r n o n - C o m m u n i s t organizations formed an ad hoc body, the " U k r a i n i a n C a n a d i a n Committee (ucc), by merging two smaller committees: the Representative Committee of U k r a i n i a n Canadians (comprising the U k r a i n i a n Catholic Brotherhood and the U k r a i n i a n N a ­ tional Federation) a n d the U k r a i n i a n Central Committee of Canada (comprising the U k r a i n i a n Self-Reliance League, the U n i t e d Hetmαn Organization, and the League of U k r a i n i a n Organizations). The u c c encour­ aged military enlistment and participation i n victory-loan campaigns, established the " U k r a i n i a n Canadian Relief F u n d to co-operate w i t h the R e d Cross i n p r o v i d i n g aid to U k r a i n i a n refugees, a n d from 1945 to 1951 financially supported the "Central U k r a i n i a n Relief Bureau i n L o n ­ don, E n g l a n d . The u c c was retained after the war as a permanent co-ordinating superstructure for all n o n - C o m m u n i s t or­ ganizations, w h i c h i n 1982 number between 25 and 30. Six - the U k r a i n i a n Self-Reliance League, U k r a i n i a n National Federation, " U k r a i n i a n C a n a d i a n Professional and Busi­ ness Federation, Ukrainian Catholic Brotherhood, "Ukrainian C a n a d i a n Veterans' Association, and ""Canadian League for U k r a i n e ' s Liberation - dominate. In 1944 the U k r a i n i a n C a n a d i a n W o m e n ' s Committee was formed to co-ordinate the major national w o m e n ' s organizations

and local unaffiliated groups, traditionally concerned w i t h education, arts and crafts, museums, child-rearing, and language preservation. The| "Ukrainian C a n a d i a n Servicemen's Association became the U k r a i n i a n C a n a d i a n Veterans' Association i n 1945 and was accepted as a f o u n d i n g member of the u c c ; its members belong to U k r a i n i a n branches of the Royal Canadian Legion. The U k r a i n i a n C a n a d i a n Relief F u n d formed the nucleus of the postwar U k r a i n i a n Canadian Social Welfare Service. In 1953 the " U k r a i n i a n Canadian Students' U n i o n ( S U S K ) superseded several smaller prede­ cessors, although not all U k r a i n i a n student clubs o n university campuses joined. In the 1970s the U k r a i n i a n Canadian Professional a n d Business Federation, formed in 1965 by several independent clubs, had a h i g h political profile as a successful lobby. Organizations introduced by the third wave of i m m i ­ gration have attracted few U k r a i n i a n Canadians from the first two immigrations. The C a n a d i a n League for Ukraine's Liberation (est 1949), associated w i t h the Ban­ dera faction of the Organization of U k r a i n i a n National­ ists, is the largest; tied to it is the " U k r a i n i a n Y o u t h Association of Canada, the largest y o u t h group i n Canada today. The U k r a i n i a n Y o u t h Association *Plast (est 1948) is the U k r a i n i a n equivalent of the boy scoutgirl guide movement; the " U k r a i n i a n Democratic Y o u t h Association (est 1930) enrolls children of postwar i m m i ­ grants primarily from central a n d eastern Ukraine. Y o u t h groups generally transmit the principles of the elders as well as entertain. The U k r a i n i a n N a t i o n a l Democratic League was formed i n 1952 by participants i n the 1917-22 liberation struggle and post-1945 immigrants from central Ukraine. A number of veterans' organizations have ap­ peared among the third wave of immigrants, and since 1964 their members have been able to join the "Ukrainian Canadian Veterans' Association. T w o scholarly associa­ tions, the ""Ukrainian A c a d e m y of A r t s and Sciences (Winnipeg) and the ""Shevchenko Scientific Society (Toronto), were established i n 1948 and 1949 respec­ tively. There are also professional organizations for doc­ tors, lawyers, engineers, writers, and journalists, sup­ ported m a i n l y by the third immigration. Three U k r a i n i a n mutual-benefit associations, incorpo­ rated under the Canada Insurance Companies A c t , pro­ vide life insurance, funeral benefits, and other services. The oldest, the ""Ukrainian M u t u a l Benefit Association of St Nicholas (est 1905), is U k r a i n i a n Catholic. The inde­ pendent U k r a i n i a n Fraternal Society of Canada was formed i n 1921. The ""Workers' Benevolent Association, organized by the U k r a i n i a n Labour-Farmer Temple Asso­ ciation i n 1922, continues to serve supporters of the Asso­ ciation of U n i t e d U k r a i n i a n Canadians. The "Ukrainian National Association and the " U k r a i n i a n Fraternal Asso­ ciation i n the U n i t e d States also serve Ukrainians i n Canada. The strength of the various national organizations has varied over time and i n different parts of the country. Today only 10-15 percent of U k r a i n i a n Canadians belong to the organized c o m m u n i t y . To attract members, some groups are d o w n p l a y i n g their political-nationalist em­ phasis to display a more cultural and social profile. The press. The oldest U k r a i n i a n newspaper i n Canada is the independent weekly *Kanadiis'kyi farmer, launched in 1903 w i t h Liberal party support. *Ukrai'ns'kyi holos, begun i n 1910 by the bilingual teachers, was influential i n

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the birth of the U k r a i n i a n Greek Orthodox church and became the unofficial organ of the U k r a i n i a n Self-Reliance League. In October 1981 the two pioneer newspapers amalgamated. By the 1920s Ukrainians h a d published 54 newspapers and periodicals, some lasting a few issues and others for several years. A n o t h e r 150 appeared between 1921 and 1940, and approximately 350 under the stimulus of the third wave of immigration. M o s t have been local, nonprofessional publications; only a few have been largescale enterprises w i t h a national readership. W i n n i p e g has traditionally dominated publishing, Toronto and to a lesser extent E d m o n t o n being the m a i n challengers. Saskatoon, M u n d a r e , and Y o r k t o n have been the most significant smaller p u b l i s h i n g centers. The left-wing press began w i t h *Chervonyi prapor (19078), w h i c h was succeeded by *Robochyi narod (1909-18), as the organ of the Federation of U k r a i n i a n Social D e m o crats and the U k r a i n i a n Social Democratic party. The Federation of U k r a i n i a n Socialists published *Nova bromada (1911-12). Ukraïns'ki robitnychi visti (1919-37) was the official organ of the U L F T A until replaced by *Narodna hazeta (1937-40). The U L F T A also published the newspaper *Farmers'ke zhyttia (1925-40) and the magazines Holos robitnytsi (1923-4), *Robitnytsia (1924-37), *Svit molodi (1927-30), and Boiova molod' (1930-2). D . L o b a r s splinter group sponsored the newspaper *Pravda (1936-8) and Vpered (1938-40), and U k r a i n i a n Trotskyists published the newspaper * Robitnychi visty (1933-8). T w o newspapers founded d u r i n g the Second W o r l d W a r - * Ukrai'ns'ke zhyttia (1941-65) and *Ukraïns'ke slovo (1943-65) - served pro-Soviet Ukrainian-Canadian C o m m u n i s t s and merged in 1965 to form Zhyttia i slovo, published i n Toronto. Since 1947 the English-language Ukrainian Canadian has been published for C o m m u n i s t youth. The R o m a n Catholic hierarchy funded the first U k r a i nian Catholic newspaper, Kanadiis'kyi rusyn (1911-19); as *Kanadiis'kyi ukraïnets' (1919-31), it served as the principal organ of the U k r a i n i a n Catholic church until 1927. In E d m o n t o n Zakhidni visty (1928-31) was purchased by the Ukrainian Catholic church i n 1929; i n 1932 it became *Ukraïns'ki visti. O h e r major U k r a i n i a n Catholic weeklies are the Toronto-based *Nasha meta, begun i n 1949 for eastern Canada, and *Postup, begun i n 1959 to serve the archeparchy of W i n n i p e g . The monthly *Svitlo (since 1938) and Beacon (begun i n 1966 as Life Beacon to promote the U k r a i n i a n rite) are Basilian publications. The Redemptorists have published the monthly *Holos Spasytelia since 1933 (formerly Holos Izbavytelia, 1923-8) and the theological quarterly *Lohos since 1950. The U k r a i n i a n Catholic Brotherhood has h a d two major publications: Biuleten' Bratstva ukrai'ntsiv-katolykiv Kanady (1933-7) * *BuduchnisV natsiï (1938-50). In 1946 Youth - Iunatstvo became the national organ of U k r a i n i a n Catholic Y o u t h , and i n 1970 the U k r a i n i a n Catholic W o m e n ' s League began to p u b l i s h the quarterly Nasha doroha. The second U k r a i n i a n newspaper i n Canada was the Presbyterian-Independent Greek *Ranok (1905-20). It merged w i t h the Methodist Kanadyiets' (1912-16) to become *Kandiis'kyi ranok (1920-61), subsidized for most of its existence by the U n i t e d C h u c h of Canada; i n 1961 it became levanheVs'kyi ranok, the organ of the U k r a i n i a n Evangelical Alliance, w h i c h had its headquarters i n the United States. In 1940 Ukrainians still w i t h i n the Presbyterian church began the newspaper *IevanheVs ka a n c

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pravda, n o w a magazine published i n Toronto by the Ukrainian Evangelical Alliance. O n e of several Ukrainian Baptist publications, Khrystiians'kyi vistnyk, has appeared since 1942 as the organ of the U k r a i n i a n EvangelicalBaptist Alliance of Canada. The Seventh-Day Adventists, Pentecostals, and Jehovah's Witnesses have also published various Ukrainian-language periodicals. The principal organ of the U k r a i n i a n Orthodox church is the semimonthly newspaper *Visnyk (formerly Pravoslavnyi vistnyk, 1924-7), published by the consistory since 1928. Other O r t h o d o x publications have included Ridna tserkva (1935-40), published by V . Svystun d u r i n g the religious controversy of the 1930s; Tserkva i narid (1949-51); and two theological monthlies edited by Metropolitan Ilarion, *Nasha kuVtura (1951-3) and *Vira ikuVtura (195367 and 1974-5). addition to Ukraïns'kyi holos, the Orthodox laity has the magazine *Promin\ published monthly since i960 by the U k r a i n i a n W o m e n ' s Association of Canada. Sumkivets', the national quarterly of the Canadian U k r a i n i a n Y o u t h Association since 1967, expired i n the late 1970s. The first publication of the nascent hetmanite movement was Probii (1924) followed by Kanadiis'ka Sich (192830), the official organ of U k r a i n i a n monarchists i n C a n ada. For most of its existence *Ukraïns'kyi robitnyk (193456) supported the U n i t e d Hetmán Organization, but its successor, ViVne slovo, became a nonpartisan weekly. Since the Second W o r l d W a r the monarchist viewpoint has been presented by *Nasha derzhava (1952-5) and *BaVkivshchyna (1955-). The newspaper *Novyi shliakh became the organ of the Ukrainian N a t i o n a l Federation i n 1932. * Holos molodi (1947-54), MUN Beams (1955-66), and New Perspectives (since 1971) have been publications of the U k r a i n i a n N a tional Y o u t h Federation; *Zhinochyi svit has been the monthly magazine of the U k r a i n i a n W o m e n ' s Organization of Canada since 1950. By the Second W o r l d W a r the U k r a i n i a n community had also published miscellaneous Russophile, children's, agricultural, home, special-interest, and other newspapers and periodicals. Satire a n d h u m o r were at their richest i n the interwar period, i n P . *Krat's socialist Kadylo (1913-18), Y a . M a i d a n y k ' s *Vuiko (1917-27) and Vuiko Shtif (1927-9), and S. *Doroshchuk's *Tochylo (1930-47). The largest newspaper launched by the third wave of immigration is *Homin Ukraïny (1948-), which soon became the unofficial organ of the C a n a d i a n League for Ukraine's Liberation. It also publishes the English-language Ukrainian Echo. Na varti (1949-52) a n d *Krylati (after 1963) have been the major publications of the U k r a i n i a n Y o u t h Association. *Moloda Ukraïna has represented U k r a i n i a n Democratic Y o u t h since 1951. There have been three major Plast organs: *Iunak a n d *Plastovyi shliakh i n the 1960s, and *Hotuis\ transferred to Toronto from N e w York i n the early 1970s. Other émigré organizations, as w e l l as educational, professional, and special-interest groups emerging after the Second W o r l d W a r , have produced m a n y periodicals of national or local interest. They include Student, since 1968 the often provocative newspaper of the U k r a i n i a n Canadian Student's U n i o n ; Ukrainian Canadian Review, published occasionally since 1966 by the U k r a i n i a n Canadian Professional and Business Federation; *My i svit, an émigré magazine that m o v e d to Toronto from Paris i n 1955; and *Novidni, a literary magazine published since m

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1950. The number of English-language periodicals is increasing. Accurate circulation statistics are rarely available, but figures i n 1969 for the six large weeklies were as follows: Kanadiis'kyi farmer, 16,000; Ukraïns'kyi holos, 14,000; Novyi shliakh, 12,000; ViVne slovo, 9,500; Ukraïns'ki visti, 9,500; a n d Homin Ukraïny, 9,000. O n l y one-fifth of U k r a i n i a n Canadians read the Ukrainian-language press regularly. A p r i m a r y function of an immigrant press, to interpret the n e w homeland, has largely disappeared, leaving the U k r a i n i a n - C a n a d i a n press to report developments i n U k r a i n e a n d i n the immigrant community. U k r a i n i a n p u b l i s h i n g houses have brought out a great many Ukrainian-language books, pamphlets, and annual calendar-almanacs, as w e l l as a g r o w i n g number of titles i n English. Major book publishers since 1945 have i n cluded H o m i n U k r a i n y , Dobra K n y z h k a , Yevshan-Zillia, N o v i D n i , the Basilian Press, and N o v y i Shliakh i n Toronto; the Redemptorist Press i n Yorkton; U k r a i n i a n N e w s Publishers i n E d m o n t o n ; a n d Trident Press, the Ukrainian Greek O r t h o d o x church, the U k r a i n i a n A c a d emy of A r t s a n d Sciences, a n d Ivan Tyktor Publishers i n W i n n i p e g . The U k r a i n i a n A c a d e m y of A r t s and Sciences, the Shevchenko Scientific Society, and the U k r a i n i a n Canadian Research Foundation have published scholarly monographs; since 1978 the Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies has been the most active academic publisher. Theater. A m a t e u r drama clubs flourished among the early U k r a i n i a n immigrants, often i n conjunction w i t h the local Pros vita society, reading r o o m , or people's home. M o s t performed traditional favorites, but they also staged plays that portrayed the immigrant Canadian experience. Between 1928 a n d 1934 there were two semiprofessional companies i n W i n n i p e g , the Prosvita Rusalka Theater and the U N F Travelling Stock Theater. Local U k r a i n i a n communities across Canada supported drama groups as w e l l , but by the Second W o r l d W a r the popularity of these groups was declining. Professional actors a n d experienced theater personnel among the third wave of immigrants, i n c l u d i n g M . Tahaiv, H . Maliieva-Tahaieva, L . K e m p e , I. K u r o c h k a A r m a s h e v s k y , a n d S. T e l i z h y n , revitalized U k r a i n i a n theater, and Toronto replaced W i n n i p e g as the major center. Zahrava is one of the best k n o w n U k r a i n i a n theater companies. A n e w departure i n the 1970s saw the small-scale introduction of Ukrainian-Canadian subject matter into English-language plays written for the general stage. Dance. Folk dances, declining as a form of spontaneous expression a m o n g descendants of the early settlers, were raised to an art form by V . A v r a m e n k o , whose 1927 Canadian tour gave rise to folk-dance schools i n larger centers and to staged, choreographed performances. Instructors of the dance groups formed d u r i n g the 1930s and 1940s (the majority associated w i t h y o u t h organizations) were largely A v r a m e n k o ' s disciples. U k r a i n i a n professional dancers arriving i n the 1950s established dance schools and ensembles i n addition to performing themselves. N u m e r o u s groups emerged i n the 1960s and 1970s, often w i t h organizational ties but increasingly as independent societies. A m o n g them were some large companies w i t h junior and intermediate sections: the Rusalka Dance Ensemble (Winnipeg), C h a i k a (Hamilton, Ontario), the U k r a i n i a n Festival Dance C o m p a n y (Toronto), K a l y n a (Toronto), the S h u m k a Dancers (Edmon-

ton), the U k r a i n i a n C h e r e m o s h Society (Edmonton), the Poltava Dance Ensemble (Regina), and the Y e v s h a n Ukrainian Folk Ballet Ensemble (Saskatoon). Individuals active i n instruction a n d direction since the Second W o r l d War include P . M a r u n c z u k , J. K l u n , P . H l a d u n , C . K u c , T. L u c h e n k o , a n d N . a n d L . Pavlychenko. The spontaneous improvisations of the early i m m i grants were succeeded by dance repertoires shaped by A v r a m e n k o a r o u n d a few set pieces. In the 1960s dance groups copied the colorful, large-scale, a n d conformist style of touring Soviet U k r a i n i a n troupes. Some have undertaken serious training i n addition to more varied repertoires a n d innovative choreography. In 1975 Soviet influence o n U k r a i n i a n dance i n Canada became more direct w i t h the introduction of dance seminars taught by Soviet U k r a i n i a n choreographers; some smaller groups, and those affiliated w i t h the Association of U n i t e d Ukrainian Canadians, have come to draw o n them. To date there has been limited experimentation w i t h U k r a i nian-Canadian themes. Ukrainian dance grew d u r i n g the 1960s and 1970s w i t h national media exposure a n d government grants to subsidize tours by the larger companies, dance workshops, and seminars. In the 1970s approximately a h u n d r e d amateur troupes represented various age groups and skill levels. In addition to major, almost professional productions by large metropolitan companies, there are a number of annual regional festivals where U k r a i n i a n dancers perform regularly: Canada's N a t i o n a l U k r a i n i a n Festival i n D a u p h i n , Manitoba; the Pysanka Festival i n Vegreville, Alberta; the V e s n a Festival i n Saskatoon; and Toronto's multicultural Caravan. Music. The folk tradition is a rich source for U k r a i n i a n music i n Canada. C h o r a l singing, introduced by the first immigrants, became a national art form w i t h the creation of large, trained choirs after the 1922 Canadian tour of the U k r a i n i a n N a t i o n a l C h o i r from Europe under O . K o shyts. A m o n g the leading interwar choirs were the Boian Chorus of the U k r a i n i a n N a t i o n a l H o m e Association, the Bandurist C h o r u s of the SS V o l o d y m y r and Olga Cathedral, and the Prosvita C h o i r i n W i n n i p e g ; the choir of the Ukrainian N a t i o n a l H o m e i n Toronto; and the U k r a i n i a n National Federation a n d St Sophia choirs i n M o n t r e a l . In the 1930s Koshyts taught music history and theory and choral directing i n W i n n i p e g . Conductors of the period included B. K o v a l s k y , Y a . K o z a r u k , Ye. Turula, V . Bohonos, and P. Matsenko. W i t h the third immigration came such professionals as I. K o v a l i v , conductor of the St Nicholas C h u r c h choir a n d founder of the L y s e n k o Musical Institute i n Toronto, N . H o r o d o v e n k o of the Ukraina choir i n M o n t r e a l , a n d L . T u r k e v y c h of the Prometei choir i n Toronto. Since the Second W o r l d W a r noted amateur conductors have included W . K l y m k i w and V . Kardash. The third immigration stimulated instrumental, solo, a n d chamber music, particularly i n the larger cities where U k r a i n i a n s y m p h o n y concerts were held. W i t h the major exception of classical U k r a i n i a n musicologist P. Matsenko, the musical c o m m u n i t y has lacked qualified critics. The 1930s a n d 1940s witnessed the appearance of professional musicians of U k r a i n i a n descent raised i n Canada, i n c l u d i n g W i n n i p e g ' s D . Grescoe (violinist). O f these U k r a i n i a n musicians w h o immigrated to Canada, the opera singer M . H o l y n s k y is probably best k n o w n . The more accomplished professional instrumentalists,

CANADA

singers, and composers include G. Fiala (composer), L. and I. Zuk (pianists), Z. Lawryshyn (composer), S. Staryk (violinist), and A. Chornodolska and R. Roslak (classical vocalists). In 1974 Ukrainians sponsored performances by the Edmonton and Winnipeg symphony orchestras that featured Ukrainian composers and artists. Ukrainians in Toronto (1979) and Edmonton (1981) also staged the opera Kupalo under V. Kolesnyk, former director of the Kiev State Opera. Beginning in the 19405 and 19505 a distinct UkrainianCanadian popular music began to evolve. Drawing on folk tradition and Canadian elements, it has acquired mass appeal through the long-playing record, radio, and television. In western Canada Ukrainian country music has been represented by such artists as Mickey and Bunny (Sklepowich); other popular singers have included A. Stecheson (Tony the Troubador), W. Koster, }. Karasevich, E. Evanko, and T. Shipowick. In the 19605 and 19705 popular bands like Dumka of Edmonton, the D Drifters Five of Winnipeg, and Rushnychok of Montreal provided another dimension to the new UkrainianCanadian music scene. The *tsymbaly, *bandura, and mandolin have been played in Canada since the early 19005, although the popularity of mandolin and bandura choruses has fluctuated and tsymbaly have been most common on the Prairies. Architecture, painting, graphic arts, and sculpture. Church architecture has evolved greatly since the erection of modest prairie pioneer structures by anonymous folk builders. The first architect to have widespread impact was the Oblate priest P. Ruh. Examples of his monumental elaborate style are St Josaphat's Catholic Cathedral in Edmonton and the Ukrainian Catholic church in Cook's Creek, Manitoba. Since the 19605 architect R. Zuk has skillfully integrated traditional Ukrainian and contemporary elements to design modern churches, such as the Holy Eucharist Church in Toronto and the Holy Family Church in Winnipeg, both Ukrainian Catholic. Other architects of Ukrainian churches include Yu. Kodak and V. Deneka. Such Ukrainian folk arts as Easter egg ornamentation and embroidery remain productive forms of individual artistic expression. In danger of being lost in the early 19405, they have been revived by Ukrainian Canadians of all generations. Wood carving has been largely confined to iconostasis, ciborium, and altar construction. Several Canadian artists of Ukrainian descent have drawn on their ethnicity in the Canadian context; others (particularly immigrants) have relied more heavily on the Ukrainian artistic tradition in subject matter, style, or form. In the 19205 cartoonist Ya. Maidanyk satirized the Ukrainian immigrant community and interpreted Canadian society to his readers. W. Kurelek, whose pioneer prairie experience inspired many of his paintings, has been widely recognized by the Canadian artistic community. L. Mol (Molodozhanyn), the internationalaward-winning sculptor, has done several Ukrainian and Canadian pieces, but his work is wide-ranging. Emigre artists of the 19505 who have continued to produce in Canada include M. Levytsky (painting, graphics), I. Keivan (graphics, art criticism), and R. Koval (portraits, landscapes); other members of the group include L. Palii (graphics) and M. Bidniak, H. Novakivska, I. Bielsky, M. Styranka, O. Telizhyn, and P. Mahdenko (painting). Notable church painters have been Yu. Butsmaniuk and

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W. Dobrolige. In 1956 emigre artists established the ^Ukrainian Association of Creative Artists in Toronto. Artists of Ukrainian background active in the Canadian artistic community have included M. Kuczer, L. Klimec, R. Kost, P. Shostak, P. Kolesnyk, K. Kulyk, I. Hrytzak, L. Luhovy, K. Mamchure, I. Kordiuk, I. Osadsa, V. Yurchuk, C. Kudryk, K. Aronetz, P. Diakiw, F. Tymoshenko, and L. Sarafinchan (painting); N. Husar and D. Proch (mixed media); R. Logush (silkscreen prints); A. Lysak (engraving, woodcuts); and E. Drahanchuk (ceramics). The first Ukrainian art gallery, My i Svit, was established in Toronto in 1958 by M. Koliankivsky, who later moved his collection to Niagara Falls, Ontario. Also exhibiting the work of Ukrainian-Canadian artists have been the ^Ukrainian Cultural and Educational Centre in Winnipeg and the Ukrainian Canadian Art Foundation in Toronto. Electronic arts (film, radio, television). Ukrainian filmmaking was poorly developed until B. Soluk, L. Orlyhora, and W. Wasik in the Toronto area became involved after the Second World War. Their productions, which have largely romanticized the Ukrainian past or have been anti-Soviet statements, have included Chornomortsi (Black Sea People, 1952), Hutsulka Ksenia (Ksenia, the Hutsul Girl, 1956), Lvivs'ki katakomby (Lviv Catacombs, 1954), Pisnia Mazepy (Song of Mazepa, 1960), and the more recent productions by Wasik Films, Zhorstoki svitanky (Cruel Dawn, 1965), Nikoly ne zabudu (I Shall Never Forget, 1969), Marichka (1974), and Zashumila verkhovyna (Whispering Highlands, 1975). The National Film Board of Canada (NFB) has produced a number of films and shorts about Ukrainian Canadians, ranging from the early documentarylike Ukrainian Winter Holidays (1943) and Ukrainian Dance (1944) to Kurelek: The Ukrainian Pioneers (1974), R. Kroiter's Strangers at the Door (1977), H. Spak's Wood Mountain Poems (1979, featuring poet A. Suknaski) and H. Kuchmij's Strongest Man in the World (1980) and Laughter in My Soul (1983). Reflections of the Past (1974), an impressionistic view of the pioneer experience in Manitoba by S. Nowytski, was commissioned by the Ukrainian Cultural and Educational Centre in Winnipeg. While films about Ukrainians in Canada have tended to be 'success' oriented or to focus on folkloric and ethnographic elements, some have taken a more critical approach: the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's (CBC) Another Smith for Paradise (1973); the NFB'S Teach Me to Dance (1978, with script by M. Kostash); and '1927' (1978), a CBC television drama written by G. Ryga. Although programs with Ukrainian-Canadian content increased on CBC television during the 19705, the national network refused to introduce regular non-official-language programming. During the 19605 the CBC'S musical variety show 'Juliette/ hosted by singer J. Sysak, periodically featured Ukrainian performers. Local Ukrainian television programs emerged in the 19705 with the advent of community cable television and multilingual stations. Private Ukrainian radio broadcasting had preceded both in the 19305 and consisted largely of entertainment programs sponsored by community organizations. Regular programs, sponsored either by Ukrainian groups or by advertisers, multiplied and diversified after the Second World War- most being religious or musical. Multilingual radio stations in the 19705 expanded the scope and potential of Ukrainian-language and Ukrainian-content

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programming; CBC radio has also aired Ukrainian music, interviews, and feature stories. Since 1952 CBC radio's Voice of Canada, which became Radio Canada International in 1972, has beamed daily Ukrainian-language broadcasts into Soviet Ukraine. Literature. Immigrant folk ballads at the turn of the century were the first form of literary expression among Ukrainians in Canada. Composed in the lively kolomyika meter, they expressed nostalgia for the homeland or the hopes and trials of the new world. Among the folkloristic poets were D. Rarahovsky, P. Bozhyk, I. Zbura, S. Palamariuk, and T. Fedyk. Fedyk's collection of poems, Pisni pro Kanadu i Avstriiu (Songs about Canada and Austria, Winnipeg 1908), became a best-seller, reaching its sixth edition by 1926 and selling an estimated 50,000 copies. Poetry reflecting the national and social consciousness of its authors also appeared during the first three decades of the 2Oth century and included works by M. Gowda, P. Krat, V. Kudryk, S. Kovbel, and later writers H. Ewach, I. Danylchuk, and T. Pavlychenko. Ewach, Danylchuk, and Myroslav *Ichniansky (I. Kmeta), all lyricists, also wrote philosophic and esthetic poetry. M. Kumka and S. Doroshchuk were early humorists. Other interwar poets, who frequently chose Ukrainian-Canadian themes, were M. Adamovska, A. Pruska, J. Yasinchuk, T. Kroitor, I. Novosad, S. Savchuk, K. Novosad, P. Chaikivsky, and S. Semchuk. Interwar immigrant and lyricist M. Mandryka produced the first UkrainianCanadian emigre poetry of note; his works embraced romantic, philosophic, nostalgic, and patriotic themes. Approximately 40 Ukrainian poets, writers, and literary scholars came to Canada after the Second World War. Their initiative gave rise to the writers7 association *Slovo, which has published nine anthologies of prose and poetry by its members since 1971. Major poets among the third wave of immigrants have included B. Oleksandriv, V. Skorupsky, Y. Slavutych, and O. Zuievsky. Two major English-language translations of Ukrainian poetry have been completed by C. Andrusyshen and W. Kirkconnell: The Ukrainian Poets 1189-1962 (1963) and The Poetical Works of Tar as Shevchenko (1964). The first three decades of the 2oth century also produced a number of playwrights. By 1942 approximately a hundred Ukrainian plays had been written and published in Canada; the majority were drama or melodrama, followed by satire and farce, and were set in Ukraine. Canadian-content plays dealt with the struggle for socioeconomic betterment, romance, and social ills. Six dramatists dominated: M. Irchan (A. Babiuk), S. Kovbel, D. Hunkevych, O. Luhovy (Ovrutsky-Schwabe), P. Ostapchuk (Pylypenko), and M. Petrivsky. Early prose about the Ukrainian immigrants in Canada by N. Dmytriv, S. Chernetsky, and others also appeared in the pages of the American daily, Svoboda. Among the pioneer prose writers were M. Stechishin and A. Novak, whose realistic stories often portrayed the immigrant experience negatively; V. Kudryk, who wrote romantic works; P. Krat, whose prose dealt with socialist or contemporary Ukrainian political themes; and O. Hykawy, who wrote children's literature. H. Ewach's novel Holos zemli (Voice of the Land, 1937) and O. Luhovy's Bezkhatnyi (Homeless, 1946) both depicted the settling of the land. The classic novel of the Ukrainian immigrant pioneer experience in rural western Canada in the early 20th century is the trilogy Syny zemli

(Sons of the Soil, 1939-45) by I. Kiriak; it subsequently appeared in an abridged English translation. The major prose figure to come with the third immigration was U. Samchuk, whose Canadian output has included one novel dealing with Ukrainian-Canadian immigrant adjustment, Na tverdii zemli (On Firm Ground, 1967). Others have been I. Bodnarchuk, M. Keivan, and the satirists M. Koliankivsky and O. Smotrych. Among the few Ukrainian Canadians to describe the experiences of their group in English have been V. Lysenko (Yellow Boots, 1954), M. Lazechko-Haas (The Street Where I Live, 1976), and M.A. Seitz (Shelterbelt, 1979). Non-Ukrainians have seldom chosen UkrainianCanadian themes or major characters; those who have include Ralph Connor (C. Gordon) (The Foreigner, 1909), H. Kreisel (The Broken Globe, 1966), G. Roy (Garden in the Wind, 1977), and M. Atwood (Life before Man, 1979). Canadian writers of Ukrainian origin recognized by the Canadian literary establishment include playwright G. Ryga (The Ecstasy of Rita Joe, 1967; Beyond the Crimson Morning, 1979) and poet A. Suknaski (Wood Mountain Poems, 1976; The Ghosts Call You Poor, 1978), whose works do not necessarily reflect their ethnicity. Scholarship. Ukrainian scholarship in Canada was rudimentary and sporadic before the 19505. The two major figures were M. Mandryka, who founded the short-lived Ukrainian Canadian Association for Scholarly Research and taught at the Ukrainian National Home in Winnipeg, and D. Doroshenko, the Ukrainian historian who lectured at the Hrushevsky Institute in Edmonton in the late 19305. Anglo-Canadians who published articles on Ukrainian history and literature and translated literary works included poetess F. Livesay, Presbyterian missionaries A. Hunter and P. Cundy, historian G.W. Simpson, and linguist W. Kirkconnell. The arrival of Ukrainian emigre scholars, the increased interest in Eastern Europe because of the cold war, and the growing number of Ukrainian-Canadian university students facilitated the consolidation of a Ukrainian scholarly community in Canada after 1950. Scholars who researched privately included theologians M. Hermaniuk, V. Laba, and I. Vlasovsky; geographer I. Tesla; archeologist Ya. Pasternak; literary historian L. Biletsky; linguist and church historian I. Ohiienko; and D. Doroshenko, who taught at St Andrew's College. Ukrainian scholars who helped establish Ukrainian studies and Slavics departments at Canadian universities include Canadianborn C. Andrusyshen at the University of Saskatchewan (1945), philologist J.B. Rudnyckyj at the University of Manitoba (1949), historian V. Kaye-Kysilewsky and C. Bida (language and literature) at the University of Ottawa (1950), G. Luckyj (modern Ukrainian and Russian literature) at the University of Toronto (1954), and linguist O. Starchuk at the University of Alberta (1960). In 1979, 30 percent of approximately 275 professors of Ukrainian origin at Canadian universities were in the social sciences and humanities, the great majority in Slavic languages and literatures, followed by East European history and politics. In 1982 eight universities had programs with Ukrainian language and literature majors leading to a bachelor of arts degree; four offered master's degrees in Ukrainian language and literature; and three (Alberta, Ottawa, and Toronto) offered doctorates. The University of Manitoba offers a BA program in UkrainianCanadian heritage studies. In 1982-3, 12 universities

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offered 102 half-courses (or their equivalent) i n U k r a i ­ nian studies to 1,389 students. In the 1970s courses i n folklore, history, political science, a n d methodology for teaching U k r a i n i a n as a second language were introduced. Membership i n the C a n a d i a n branches of the Ukrainian A c a d e m y of A r t s a n d Sciences, the Shevchenko Scientific Society, and smaller organizations has largely been con­ fined to Ukrainians of the third immigration. U k r a i n i a n scholars have been active i n the Eastern Canadian Associa­ tion of Slavic a n d East European Specialists and i n the Canadian Association of Slavists (est 1954), w i t h i n w h i c h they created a Conference o n U k r a i n i a n Studies i n 1974. Academics interested i n U k r a i n i a n - C a n a d i a n studies helped form the Inter-University Committee o n Canadian Slavs (est 1964), w h i c h became the Canadian Ethnic Studies Association i n 1971. Efforts to co-ordinate U k r a i ­ nian studies w i t h i n the university framework resulted i n the establishment of the "Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies at the University of Alberta i n 1976; it conducts and publishes its o w n research a n d promotes Ukrainian studies i n N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d elsewhere. The "Canadian Foundation for U k r a i n i a n Studies, founded i n 1975, is w o r k i n g closely w i t h the institute to p u b l i s h a multivolume English-language encyclopedia of Ukraine. In M a r c h 1979 an e n d o w e d chair of U k r a i n i a n studies (history a n d political economy) was established at the University of Toronto; it is held by P . R . Magocsi. Research i n U k r a i n i a n studies has been dominated by work i n 19th- and early 20th-century literature (G. Luckyj); linguistics (I. Ohijenko), onomastics (J.B. R u d nyckyj), and lexicography (C. A n d r u s y s h e n ) have been secondary. Research i n history also emphasizes the 19th and early 20th centuries (I.L. Rudnytsky). Ukrainian political scientists have concentrated on Soviet politics, particularly nationalities a n d religious policies (J. Borys, B. Bociurkiw, P. Potichnyj). Scholarly periodicals include Ukrainica Canadiana (1954-72), an annual bibliography published by the Ukrainian Academy of Arts and Sciences; Zbirnyk materiialiv Naukovoho tovarystva im. Shevchenka, published occasionally by the Shevchenko Scientific Society since 1954; a n d the semiannual Journal of Ukrai­ nian Studies, published by the C a n a d i a n Institute of Ukrainian Studies since 1976. Notable scholars i n U k r a i n i a n - C a n a d i a n studies have been the professional historians P. Y u z y k , B. K a z y m y r a , V . Kaye-Kysilewsky, a n d M . L u p u l , a n d the private scholars M . Marunchak, O . Woycenko, and P. Krawchuk. Early Canadian sociologists examined Ukrainians for the problems they posed for C a n a d i a n society, but serious sociological research is more recent and is represented by W . Isajiw. In spite of a wealth of raw material UkrainianCanadian folkloric a n d ethnographic studies are i n their infancy, being almost solely dominated by R. K l y m a s z . The recent surge of interest i n ethnic origins has pro­ duced several popular a n d local Ukrainian-Canadian histories. A s ethnic studies are accepted as part of Canadian studies proper, the examination of the U k r a i ­ nian-Canadian experience becomes increasingly critical and analytical. Libraries, museums, and archives. The nuclei of Ukrainian libraries, museums, a n d archives were estab­ lished early i n the 20th century by religious orders a n d local Prosvita societies, reading rooms, a n d people's homes. Later, secular a n d religious organizations set up

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their o w n institutions. M a n y disappeared or fell into disuse, but since the 1960s interest has been rekindled, particularly i n museums, aided by federal a n d provincial multicultural grants. The oldest a n d richest of the libraries, museums, and archives are those of the Basilian fathers i n M u n d a r e , Alberta. Both the library a n d m u s e u m (est 1957), w i t h artifacts from U k r a i n e , Western Europe, and Canada, were largely created by J. Jean. Other surviving pioneer libraries are those at the Redemptorist M i s s i o n i n Yorkton, the U k r a i n i a n N a t i o n a l H o m e i n Toronto, a n d the M o h y l a U k r a i n i a n Institute i n Saskatoon. Major library collections established later are those of the Ukrainian Cultural a n d Educational Centre (est 1944) w i t h almost 40,000 items, the U k r a i n i a n A c a d e m y of Arts and Sci­ ences, and St A n d r e w ' s College i n W i n n i p e g ; the U k r a i ­ nian National Federation, U k r a i n i a n People's H o m e , and St V l a d i m i r Institute i n Toronto; the U k r a i n i a n Fraternal Society i n Vancouver; a n d the Ivan Franko M u s e u m (Winnipeg) a n d Taras Shevchenko M u s e u m (Palermo, Ontario), both pro-Soviet institutions. University-level Ukrainian courses have spurred the development of Ukrainian collections o n C a n a d i a n campuses; the best library collections are at the universities of Alberta and Toronto, followed by Manitoba, Ottawa, and Saskatchewan. In the late 1920s a n d 1930s Ukrainian Canadians seriously began to preserve materials from their past. In 1941 the U k r a i n i a n W o m e n ' s Association of Canada opened the U k r a i n i a n A r t s a n d Crafts M u s e u m i n Saska­ toon, n o w the U k r a i n i a n M u s e u m of Canada w i t h branches i n E d m o n t o n , W i n n i p e g , a n d Toronto. In W i n n i p e g the U k r a i n i a n C u l t u r a l a n d Educational Centre houses a major historical a n d ethnographical museum, w i t h 8,500 artifacts, a n d an art gallery. The Ukrainian Canadian Archives a n d M u s e u m of Alberta (est 1972) i n E d m o n t o n stresses pioneer artifacts from Alberta. Other predominantly folk arts a n d crafts museums include those of the U k r a i n i a n Catholic W o m e n ' s League i n Edmonton, Saskatoon, a n d Toronto. The General M . Sadowsky M u s e u m (originally the Military History M u ­ seum i n Toronto, n o w operated by the U k r a i n i a n A c a d ­ emy of Arts a n d Sciences i n Winnipeg) features artifacts and documents from the independence struggle of 191721, and the St V o l o d y m y r U k r a i n i a n Catholic Centre (est 1967) i n W i n n i p e g displays religious artifacts. B y the late 1970s there were approximately 20 U k r a i n i a n museums, the majority h o u s i n g arts a n d crafts, i n Canada. U k r a i n i a n exhibits and artifacts have become perma­ nent features of several provincial government museums as well as of the C a n a d i a n Centre for Folk Culture Studies and the N a t i o n a l M u s e u m of M a n i n Ottawa. The most elaborate attempt to preserve a n d re-create the UkrainianCanadian past has been the erection near E d m o n t o n , Alberta, of the U k r a i n i a n C u l t u r a l Heritage Village, since 1975 a provincial government project. The display of pioneer artifacts i n restored buildings is designed to portray U k r a i n i a n life i n rural Alberta before 1930. Archives have received the least attention from c o m m u ­ nity groups. Religious and secular organizational records, as w e l l as personal papers, often remain i n the hands of their owners a n d are closed to researchers. The bestorganized a n d most accessible archival collections are at the U k r a i n i a n Cultural a n d Educational Centre, w h i c h houses the papers of I. Bobersky, Y e . Konovalets, O .

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Koshyts, a n d others. The U k r a i n i a n Canadian Archives and M u s e u m of Alberta a n d the U k r a i n i a n M u s e u m of Canada also collect archival materials, as do many other organizations that operate museums a n d libraries, but archival w o r k is often secondary. Canadian provincial archives a n d the Public A r c h i v e s of Canada (through the National Ethnic Archives) i n Ottawa have begun to collect private papers ( A . Z h u k , D . Dontsov, V . Kaye), photographs, organizational records, a n d sound recordings pertaining to U k r a i n i a n Canadians. Assimilation. Increasing intermarriage, the decline i n traditional religion, l o w organizational membership, a n d Ukrainian-language loss are affecting the size and strength of the U k r a i n i a n - C a n a d i a n community. A s late as 1941, 92.1 percent of U k r a i n i a n Canadians reported U k r a i n i a n as their mother tongue (94.3 percent i n the Prairie Provinces, 85.2 percent i n Ontario, 88.0 percent i n Quebec, 71.4 percent i n British Columbia). Language loss accelerated over the next 30 years, however, a n d i n 1981 only 55.1 percent of single-origin U k r a i n i a n Canadians reported U k r a i n i a n as their mother tongue. Ukrainians i n Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Ontario, a n d Quebec were the least assimilated linguistically, w i t h 58.9, 58.1, 60.8, and 73.5 percent respectively being native U k r a i n i a n speakers; those i n Alberta (49.8 percent) a n d British C o l u m b i a (42.3 percent) were the most assimilated. A l m o s t all Canadians of U k r a i n i a n origin w h o first learned a language other than U k r a i n i a n have been assimilated into the English linguistic community. A c celerating assimilation since the Second W o r l d W a r , however, has been partially countered from the 1960s b y g r o w i n g interest a m o n g third- a n d fourth-generation U k r a i n i a n Canadians i n their heritage, particularly i n the visual folk arts. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bozhyk, P. Tserkov ukraïntsiv v Kanadi: Prychynky do istoriï ukraïns'koho tserkovnoho zhyttia v brytiiskii dominiï Kanadi, za chas vid 1890-1927 (Winnipeg 1927) England, R. The Central European Immigrant in Canada (Toronto 1929) Young, C . H . The Ukrainian Canadians: A Study in Assimilation (Toronto 1931) Propam'iatna knyha z nahody zolotoho iuvileiu poselennia ukraïns'koho narodu v Kanadi, 1891-1941 (Yorkton, Sask 1941) luvileina knyha: 25-littia Instytutu im. Petra Mohyly v Saskatuni (Winnipeg 1945) Lysenko, V. Men in Sheepskin Coats: A Study in Assimilation (Toronto 1947) Propam'iatna knyha Ukraïns'koho narodnoho domu u Vynypegu (Winnipeg 1949) Yuzyk, P. The Ukrainians in Manitoba: A Social History (Toronto 1953) Kravchuk, P. Na novii zemli: Storinky z zhyttia borot'by ta tvorchoïpratsi kanadskykh ukraïntsiv (Toronto 1958) Kaye, V.J. Early Ukrainian Settlements in Canada, 1895-1900: Dr. Josef Oleskow's Role in the Settlement of the Canadian Northwest (Toronto 1964) Marunchak, M . Studiïdo istoriï ukraïntsiv Kanady, 5 vols (Winnipeg 1964-80) Mandryka, M . History of Ukrainian Literature in Canada (Ottawa 1968) Woycenko, O. The Ukrainians in Canada (Winnipeg 1968) MacGregor, J.G. Vilni Zemli - Free Lands: The Ukrainian Settlements in Alberta (Toronto 1969) Stechyshyn, Iu. Istoriia poselennia ukraïntsiv u Kanadi (Edmonton 1975) Kostash, M . All of Baba's Children (Edmonton 1977)

Potrebenko, H . No Streets of Gold: A Social History of Ukrainians in Alberta (Vancouver 1977) Lupul, M.R. (ed). Ukrainian Canadians, Multiculturalism and Separatism: An Assessment (Edmonton 1978) Swyripa, F. Ukrainian Canadians: A Survey of Their Portrayal in English-Language Works (Edmonton 1978) Kolasky, J. The Shattered Illusion: The History of Ukrainian ProCommunist Organizations in Canada (Toronto 1979) Darcovich, W.; Yuzyk, P. (eds). A Statistical Compendium on the Ukrainians in Canada, 1891-1976 (Ottawa 1980) Petryshyn, W.R. (ed). Changing Realities: Social Trends among Ukrainian Canadians (Edmonton 1980) Czumer, W. A. Recollections about the Life of the First Ukrainian Settlers in Canada (Edmonton 1981) Yuzyk, P. The Ukrainian Greek Orthodox Church of Canada, 1918-1951 (Ottawa 1981) Lupul, M.R. (ed). A Heritage in Transition: Essays in the History of Ukrainians in Canada (Toronto 1982) Marunchak, M . The Ukrainian Canadians: A History, 2 n d edn (Winnipeg-Ottawa 1982) Swyripa, F.; Herd Thompson, J. (eds). Loyalties in Conflict: Ukrainians in Canada during the Great War (Edmonton 1983) F. Swyripa

Canadian Foundation for Ukrainian Studies. The

Canadian Foundation for U k r a i n i a n Studies was incorporated as the C a n a d i a n Institute of U k r a i n i a n Studies Foundation i n 1975 b y the U k r a i n i a n Canadian Professional a n d Business Federation; it was renamed i n 1979. The foundation assists the development of U k r a i n i a n studies i n Canada b y financing research, publications, scholarships, conferences, a n d other scholarly activities. Its m a i n project is the publication of the four-volume English-language alphabetical Encyclopedia of Ukraine, prepared jointly b y the U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto project office of the C a n a d i a n Institute of U k r a i n i a n Studies a n d the Shevchenko Scientific Society i n Sarcelles, France. S. Frolick, W . Tarnopolsky, O . R u d z i k , P . Savaryn, a n d J. Stashuk have served as presidents of the foundation, w h i c h is administered b y a national board of directors. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies (cius). The Canadian Institute of U k r a i n i a n Studies became a project of the U k r a i n i a n C a n a d i a n Professional a n d Business Federation w h e n the national executive was i n E d m o n t o n (1973-5). In July 1976 it was established at the University of Alberta i n E d m o n t o n as a publicly funded national institute w i t h a project office at the University of Toronto. The c i u s promotes U k r a i n i a n a n d Ukrainian-Canadian studies through research grants, publications, scholarships, seminars, a n d conferences; co-ordinates scholarly activity; a n d encourages Ukrainian-content programs at Canadian universities a n d E n g l i s h - U k r a i n i a n bilingual classes i n Canadian elementary schools. The c i u s houses the only U k r a i n i a n language resource center i n the Western w o r l d . Its m a i n project is the four-volume English-language alphabetical Encyclopedia of Ukraine, prepared jointly w i t h the Shevchenko Scientific Society i n Sarcelles, France. The first director of c i u s has been M . L u p u l ; B. Bociurkiw, G . Luckyj, and I.L. R u d n y t s k y have served as associate directors. Canadian League for Ukraine's Liberation (Liga vyzvolennia Ukrainy). A political organization formed i n 1949 by the Bandera faction of the O U N . It has become the largest organization introduced into Canada by the third immigration. A m o n g its founders w e r e R . Malashchuk, V .

C A N N I N G

359

I N D U S T R Y

Production of canned goods in the Ukrainian SSR (in millions of standard cans) 1950

1940

1960

Types

Ukraine

% of USSR

Ukraine

%

TOTAL

339.2

30.3

297.9

Meat and meatvegetable Fish Milk Fruits and vegetables including: Vegetables Tomatoes Fruits Juices

Ukraine

%

23.8

2,642.4

86.9 63.8 133.3

13.0 8.8 28.6

875.7 358.0 227.3 192.3 98.1

Ukraine

%

19.4

1,159.7

8.7 9.7 0.9

2.7 4.8 1.1

278.6

29.7

of USSR

Makar, M . Kravtsiv, M . Sosnovsky, V . Borodach, and P . Bashuk. The league supports the "Anti-Bolshevik Bloc of Nations. The Toronto weekly *Homin Ukraïny is the organization's unofficial organ. In 1956 the league joined the U k r a i n i a n Canadian Committee. In 1978 the league had 15 buildings and 48 branches, 34 of them i n Ontario. Its presidents have been R. Malashchuk, V . Bezkhlibnyk, and T. Buiniak. A w o m e n ' s association and the Ukrainian Youth Association of Canada maintain close ties w i t h the league. Canadian Sitch Organization (cso). A conservative political organization founded i n 1924 i n Toronto by V . Bosy as the U k r a i n i a n Sporting Sitch Association of Canada, renamed the C a n a d i a n Sitch Organization i n 1928. The c s o was close to the A m e r i c a n Hetmanite organization based i n Chicago. It was officially supported by the U k r a i n i a n Catholic church a n d from 1928 to 1930 was served b y the newspaper Kanadiis'ka Sich. Its most important members were V . Bosy, D . Elcheshen, M . Hetmán, J. Esaiw, A . Zaharychuk, V . D y k y , a n d N . D a n y l chenko. In 1934 the cso's 50 branches were reorganized, without official church support, as the "United Hetmán Organization.

Canadian Ukrainian Youth Association (Soiuz

ukrainskoi m o l o d i Kanady). Since 1931 the U k r a i n i a n Orthodox y o u t h section of the "Ukrainian Self-Reliance League, w i t h branches across Canada. H . T y z u k and P . Yavorsky were pioneer organizers, and I. D a n y l c h u k was an early leader. Sumkivets' was its national quarterly from 1967 to the mid-1970s. Since the early 1970s it has conducted a n annual cultural immersion camp, Selo, i n various parts of Canada. Candela (Icon Lamp). Church journal published monthly i n R u m a n i a n a n d U k r a i n i a n i n Chernivtsi from 1882 to 1916. T h e U k r a i n i a n section w a s edited b y S. Vorobkevych, T. T y m i n s k y , O . Manastyrsky, and Ye. Semaka. The journal published the minutes of meetings of the B u k o v y n i a n O r t h o d o x Consistory. Canning industry. A branch of the food industry that preserves fruit, vegetable, meat, seafood, a n d dairy

1978

1970

Ukraine

%

24.8

3,995.4

24.7

145.4 107.0 315.1

17.8 7.7 28.5

184.8 253.0 333.9

18.5 8.7 24.7

29.2

2,074.6

25.6

3,177.1

26.7

33.9 33.9 20.0 31.5

939.3 377.0 299.8 458.5

35.9 28.9 19.6 24.2

1,278.0 766.2 238.4 894.5

38.3 18.5 18.1 28.4

Of USSR

Of USSR

Of USSR

products primarily through hermetic sealing. M a n y of its enterprises service the "fruit-and-vegetable processing industry specifically, w i t h facilities for drying, salting, pickling, a n d freezing vegetables a n d fruit. Ukraine provides a rich source of r a w materials for the canning industry. A l t h o u g h it covers only 2.7 percent of the U S S R ' s territory, Ukraine contains 31.2 percent of the land devoted to orchards a n d vineyards i n the U S S R (producing 20 percent of the U S S R crop) and 30 percent of the land devoted to vegetable cultivation (producing 25.2 percent of the crop). Ukraine also produces 23.6 percent of the meat and 23.8 percent of the milk i n the U S S R . The canning industry developed i n Ukraine i n the second half of the 19th century, mostly i n the south. In 1913 there were 25 semidomestic canning enterprises, w h i c h produced annually 16-18 million standard cans of vegetables and 15 m i l l i o n cans of meat, accounting for 40 percent of the canning production of the Russian Empire. The canning industry was concentrated i n K h e r s o n gubernia (which produced two-thirds of Ukraine's canned goods), Kiev gubernia, a n d Tavriia gubernia. The largest canning centers were Odessa a n d Symferopil, w h i c h together produced 90 percent of the empire's canned vegetables a n d fruit. After the revolution the small canning enterprises were abolished, the larger ones were modernized several times, a n d n e w plants were built i n Kherson, Odessa, Cherkasy, M e l i t o p i l , and other places d u r i n g the prewar five-year plans. B y 1940 the number of canning plants had grown to 30, a n d they produced 339.2 million standard cans (30.3 percent of U S S R production). After the war the canning industry reached its prewar level of production only i n the 1950s. Besides reconstructing o l d plants a n d building new ones, the state set u p n e w branches of the canning industry to produce canned milk, baby foods, and dietary foods, vitamins, etc. In 1980 3,488.3 million standard cans (24.7 percent of U S S R production) were produced i n the U k r a i n i a n S S R . The canning industry accounts for 5 percent of the production of Ukraine's food industry (for more detail see the accompanying table). Most canning firms come under the control of the M i n i s try of the F o o d Industry, but some come under the Ministry of Local Industry or the M i n i s t r y of Trade or belong to the system of consumer co-operatives, state farms, or collective farms. The capacity of the canning

360

C A N N I N G

I N D U S T R Y

factories is inadequate, and, therefore, a large quantity of fruit and vegetables is lost because of spoilage i n the fields and collection depots. The canning factories are located near the sources of raw materials, a n d their distribution is, therefore, uneven. A l m o s t 60 percent of the canneries are located i n large cities. Fruit a n d vegetable canneries are usually found i n K h e r s o n , Odessa, a n d C r i m e a oblasts. Meat canneries are concentrated i n Poltava, Vinnytsia, and Cherkasy oblasts. Fish canneries are located i n the port cities of the Black and A z o v seas (Kherson, Odessa, Kerch, Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi), o n the Dnieper River (in Kiev, Dnipropetrovske, a n d Zaporizhia), or o n the Danube River (in V y l k o v e , Izmail, a n d Kiliia). The largest canning complex is i n K h e r s o n (built i n 1966, superseding a complex built i n 1932), followed by the complexes i n Odessa (built i n 1919), N i z h e n (1927), Talne (1965), Izmail (1954), Z h d a n o v , M e l i t o p i l , Symferopil, and M y k o l a i v . The canning industry i n the K u b a n and Stavropol regions is w e l l developed a n d accounts for 8.2 percent of USSR production. Vegetable and fruit canneries are located i n Krasnodar, Sloviansk, A r m a v i r , Georgievsk, Izobilnyi, a n d Cherkessk. Fish canneries are found i n Novorosiiske o n the Black Sea coast and i n Yeiske and O z i v o n the coast of the Sea of A z o v . Research for the canning industry is done by the U k r a i n i a n Scientific Research Institute of the C a n n i n g Industry i n Odessa. (For a bibliography see "Food industry.) B. Wynar

Canon (from the Greek 6

KCLVÚV [rule]; also called kryloshanyn or capitular). A higher priestly office i n an eparchy. Often canons are members of a bishop's council and have important functions a n d privileges i n solemn worship i n a cathedral or church. There are active canons (at the bishop's residence) a n d titular ones without the rights a n d duties of canons. In the U k r a i n i a n Catholic church the title of canon was introduced under the influence of the R o m a n Catholic church at the beginning of the 19th century. The title is u n k n o w n i n the U k r a i n i a n Orthodox church, but the corresponding title krylos was introduced very early. H o l d e r s of the title (eg, the famous krylos of Halych) are k n o w n as kryloshany. In recent history there have been very learned and distinguished canons i n the U k r a i n i a n Catholic church w h o have h a d considerable influence o n the public life of the church a n d the nation. Candidates for the episcopate have c o m m o n l y been elected from among their number.

Canon law (Greek: KOLVÚV [norm]). The set of laws regulating the internal order of the church. The oldest source of canon l a w i n the postapostolic era is ALOX^TCDV déÔEKct

'aTTocTTÓkwv

(The Doctrine of the T w e l v e A p o s -

tles), dating from the 1st century A D . The body of church laws accepted i n the Byzantine church (and state) was called the Nomocanon. O n e canonical collection, compiled by John the Scholastic, consisted of 50 titles (the first edition, A D 550, contained 85 canons of the Apostles, the canons of 10 synods, a n d 68 canons of St Basil; the second edition, A D 565, contained more canons of St Basil as well as those of other church fathers). The most famous Nomocanon, ca A D 883, consisted of 14 titles and is attributed to the patriarch Photius. The Slavic translation of the Nomocanon (of 50 titles)

is called Ustiuzhska Kormcha or the Nomocanon of St Methodius (13th century); the translation of the Nomocanon (of 14 titles) is entitled Efremovska Kormcha (11th century). A n o t h e r Slavic source is the Kormchaia kniga (The Rudder Book), composed by the Serbian archbishop Sa va (ca 1199-1207) at M t A t h o s . In 1260 it was transferred from Serbia through Bulgaria to Ukraine, where, i n 1274, it was accepted as the official source for church law at the s y n o d of Vladimir-on-the-Kliazma under the metropolitan of K i e v , C y r i l 111. Kormchaia kniga consisted of different Byzantine sources of canon law, later supplemented w i t h some sources of U k r a i n i a n origin, such as *Ruskaia Pravda (Rus' Justice). Some other U k r a i n i a n sources of canon l a w are Mirylo pravednoie (The Righteous Standard, 14th century, dealing w i t h judicial procedure), the synopsis of canons of 1420, the Nomocanon of 226 chapters (several editions: K i e v 1620, 1624, 1629; L v i v 1646), and Zinar (a penitential collection from the 12th14th century). These collections form the basis of the canon law of the O r t h o d o x church, i n c l u d i n g the Ukrainian Orthodox church. A t the beginning of the 16th century a collection of canon laws k n o w n as Corpus Iuris Canonici was prepared i n the R o m a n Catholic church. This collection expanded constantly but was never approved. The official codification of Catholic canon l a w began i n 1904, and the n e w code, entitled Codex Iuris Canonici (Code of C a n o n Law), came into effect i n 1918. The code is b i n d i n g o n the Roman Catholic church but affects the Eastern church only i n certain relevant sections. Outside this code there is room for special laws adopted by the i n d i v i d u a l church provinces. To compile a similar code of canon law for the Eastern church, i n 1929 Pope Pius x i appointed a commission of cardinals, w h i c h consisted of two subcommissions: one to collect the sources of Eastern canon law, and the other to prepare a code of laws of the Eastern church. The consultant from the U k r a i n i a n Catholic church to the codification subcommission was Rev D . Holovetsky, and to the editorial subcommission, Rev Y . Zaiachkivsky. The editorial subcommission planned to unify the laws of the scattered Eastern churches, to orientalize these laws (eg, a number of Eastern legal terms were introduced), and to reconcile the Eastern code w i t h the code of canon law of the Western church. The code of canon law of the Eastern church was prepared i n full, but i n 1957 Pope Pius x n published o n l y a few of its parts, i n c l u d i n g those relating to Eastern rites. After the Second Vatican C o u n c i l a n e w period of codification of canon law was begun. A pontifical commission for the revision of canon l a w for Eastern churches was established a n d included as the U k r a i n i a n representatives Metropolitan M . H e r m a n i u k and Bishop M . M a r u s y n (now the commission's vice-president), as w e l l as several other Ukrainians i n the role of consultants. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Pavlov, A . Kurs tserkovnogo prava (Moscow 1902) Lotots'kyi, O. Ukraïns'ki dzherela tserkovnoho prava (Warsaw 1931; Rome i960) Holoweckyj, D. Fontes iuris canonici Ecclesiae Ruthenae (Rome 1932)

Wojnar, M . 'The Code of Oriental Canon Law - De Ritibus Orientalibus et Personis,' Jurist, 19 (Washington 1959) De Clercq, C. Fontes iuridici Ecclesiarum Orientalium (Rome 1967)

C A P I T A L

Pontificia Commissio Codici Iuris Canonici Orientalis Recognoscendo. Nuntia, 1-13 (Rome 1975-81) V. Laba, M . Voinar Cantata. A composite vocal-instrumental w o r k for choir, soloists, a n d orchestra, usually of a solemn or lyric-epic character. In U k r a i n i a n music the m o d e l for the cantata was set b y M . L y s e n k o w i t h pieces such as 'Rejoice, Unwatered F i e l d / 'The Rapids P o u n d ' , a n d T n Eternal M e m o r y of Kotliarevsky.' Other composers w h o wrote cantatas were K . Stetsenko ( ' O n Sunday, H o l y Sunday'), S. L i u d k e v y c h ('Caucasus,' 1902-13, Testament,' 1934), L . Revutsky ( T h e Kerchief,' 1923), M . V e r y k i v s k y ('October Cantata,' 1936), B . Liatoshynsky ('Ceremonial C a n tata,' 1939), I. Shamo ('Duma about Three W i n d s ' ) , A . Shtoharenko ('My U k r a i n e / 1943), A . Rudnytsky ('Moses'), L . K o l o d u b ('Glory to the Fatherland'), R. Simovych ('Flower of Happiness and Freedom'), M . Skoryk ('Spring,' ' A Person'), A . K o s - A n a t o l s k y (Tt Passed L o n g A g o , ' 1961), Y a . Tsehliar ( T o the Immortal Kobzar'), V . Kyreiko (Tn M e m o r y of M . L . K r o p y v n y t s k y ' ) , a n d L . D y c h k o ('Red Guelder Rose'). T h e cantata became particularly popular i n Soviet music as a m e d i u m for the glorification of the socialist epoch. Cantus. A song of religious content that appeared i n Ukraine at the turn of the 17th century a n d from there spread to Russia. The original structure of the cantus was a simple one based o n three voices, frequently w i t h parallel passages i n the t w o higher voices; i n time it became more complex. The influence of choral polyphonic music, the so-called partesnyi spiv (part singing) is evident i n the old cantus. By the 18th century the cantus form took on more of a folk character, reflecting popular customs and domestic themes, i n c l u d i n g love lyrics, humorous songs, songs of greeting, a n d panegyrics. Cantus songs were composed a n d sung i n the vernacular b y music teachers, students of the K i e v a n M o h y l a A c a d e m y , wandering cantors, lirnyks, a n d others. The cantus was an indispensable part of the *vertep puppet theater a n d other performances i n brotherhood schools a n d the Kievan M o h y l a A c a d e m y . A m o n g authors of the cantus were H . Skovoroda, D . Tuptalo, and V . Trediakovsky. In recent times M . L e o n t o v y c h , O . Koshyts, M . H a i v o r o n sky, a n d others have arranged cantus. The influence of the cantus is detectable i n the works of D . Bortniansky and others. Examples of lira cantus are presented i n the collection Lira ta ïï motyvy (The Lira a n d Its Motifs, Kiev 1903). Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus; Ukrainian: hlushets, hotur, or hlukharzvychainyi). A species of game bird of the grouse family (Tetraonidae), Galliformes order. The male capercaillie grows u p to 110 c m i n length and 6 k g i n weight. In Ukraine this bird n o w lives only i n the northern forest belt and the Carpathian M o u n t a i n s ; i n the second half of the 18th century it could still be found i n the forest-steppe between the Dnieper a n d the D o n rivers. It is valued for its feathers a n d tasty meat; hence it has been intensely hunted. Capital investment. M o n e t a r y resources used for constructing, expanding, a n d reconstructing plants, residential housing, schools, hospitals, a n d other buildings, communication a n d transport facilities, m i n i n g research and development, a n d stocks of goods.

I N V E S T M E N T

3

6l

Before the revolution most of the capital investment i n Ukraine was made by private individuals and companies, such as joint-stock companies, manufacturers, merchants, and financiers. Foreign capital played an important role i n Ukraine's industry. The government's involvement was relatively small; it partly financed railroad construction, schools, the postal network, a n d certain government projects. U n d e r the Soviet regime capital investment has been strictly controlled b y the state. D e p e n d i n g o n the source of financing, capital investments are either centralized or non-centralized. The magnitude of centralized capital investment is determined b y the state (see ""Economic planning) a n d confirmed b y legislation, a n d the capital is financed mostly out of the state's *budget, revenue, and amortization funds. Non-centralized capital investments are also determined b y the state's economic plan or the plans of i n d i v i d u a l enterprises a n d are financed out of the national budget, the budgets of enterprises, collective farms, a n d other co-operative organizations, a n d the savings of the population; the latter is particularly true of the capital for private a n d cooperative h o u s i n g construction. The m a i n sources of capital received and redistributed by the state budget of the U S S R are: the turnover tax (see T a x a t i o n ) , w h i c h is included i n the price of consumer goods, as w e l l as other taxes whose importance has decreased considerably i n recent times; the profits of enterprises; *state loans; a n d the obligatory deliveries of farm products to the state at prices often below cost. The capital is financed through a bank network for long-term credit operations (see ^Banking system). In accordance w i t h the basic thrust of Soviet economic policy a large part of the capital is invested i n industrial development, particularly i n heavy industry; as a result, the needs of the population are neglected. This is reflected i n the l o w standard of living. In 1918-80 the total capital investment i n the Ukrainian S S R was 334,780 million rubles or about 16 percent of the U S S R investment. A s can be seen from the accompanying table, the relative magnitude of investment i n Ukraine has been declining steadily, particularly since the Eighth Five-Year Plan, a n d is out of proportion to Ukraine's population (18.8 percent of the U S S R population) a n d to the ""national income of Ukraine's economy. The highest percentage of the capital is invested i n construction a n d equipment - 206.8 billion rubles or 62 percent of all capital investment i n 1918-80. This percentage fell significantly i n the Tenth Five-Year Plan to 53 percent (49.6 billion rubles), a n d i n this period only 158 large industrial enterprises were built i n Ukraine. In general, the highest proportion of investment capital has been directed into industry (36.9 percent i n the N i n t h Five-Year Plan, 38.6 percent i n the Tenth). The proportion of capital invested in agriculture has increased (21.1 percent a n d 21.5 percent). Investment i n h o u s i n g has declined (13.4 percent a n d 13.1 percent, compared to 17.1 percent i n the Seventh Five-Year Plan a n d 15.2 percent i n the Eighth). The decrease has resulted i n a significant decline i n the standard of l i v i n g a n d a chronic shortage of living space in Ukraine, particularly i n the larger cities. The most important indicator of a rational capital investment policy is expenditure o n fixed productive assets. In 1978, 120.1 billion rubles were spent for this purpose i n the U S S R economy, a n d 18.5 billion or 15.4 percent were spent i n Ukraine's economy (73.3 billion or 61 percent were spent

362

CAPITAL

INVESTMENT

Capital investment in the national economy of the Ukrainian SSR (relative prices, in millions of rubles) Total capital investment 1918-28 (excepting last quarter of 1928) First Five-Year Plan, 1929-32 and last quarter of 1928 Second Five-Year Plan, 1933-7 Third Five-Year Plan, 1938mid-1941 1 July 1941-1 January 1946 Fourth Five-Year Plan, 1946-50 Fifth Five-Year Plan, 1951-5 Sixth Five-Year Plan, 1956-60 Seventh Five-Year Plan, 1961-5 Eighth Five-Year Plan, 1966-70 Ninth Five-Year Plan, 1971-5 Tenth Five-Year Plan, 1976-80

Percentage Ukraine in USSR

Farming

Transport and communications

Housing construction

834

18.9

139

20

81

559

1,577 3,260

17.9 16.5

693 1,370

137 355

289 575

261 419

2,959 2,482 9,170 14,838 28,530 41,355 57,374 78,518 93,747

14.5 12.1 19.3 16.5 16.9 16.9 16.4 15.9 15.1

1,043 1,117 4,031 6,170 10,908 15,837 21,497 28,989 35,737

293 142 935 2,304 4,495 6,985 10,454 16,593 20,140

447 381 889 1,195 2,403 4,832 6,152 8,740 10,524

484 492 1,890 2,903 6,475 7,074 8,713 10,896 12,262

in the Russian SFSR'S economy, although its population i n 1978 was 42.6 percent of that of USSR). In 1970 the respective figure for the Russian SFSR was 58.6 percent and for Ukraine 16.6 percent; i n 1975 it was 60.4 percent and 15.9 percent. Thus, basic investment i n Ukraine is steadily declining, w h i l e i n the Russian economy it is rising. This favoritism towards Russia at a considerable loss to Ukraine is a concrete example of the Soviet government's colonial approach to the distribution of investment capital. BIBLIOGRAPHY Grinshtain, A . Kapitaly i natsionaVnyi dokhod (Kharkiv 1926) Glovins'kyi, le. 'Problema rozrakhunkovoho biliansu Ukraïny,' in Suchasni problemy ekonomiky Ukraïny (Warsaw 1931) Nesterenko, O. (ed). NatsionaVnyi dokhod Ukraïns'koï RSR V period rozhornutoho budivnytstva komunizmu (Kiev 1963) Melnyk, Z. Soviet Capital Formation: Ukraine, 1928/29-1932 (Munich 1965) Krasovskii, V. Problemy ekonomiki kapitaVnykh vlozhenii (Leningrad 1967) Shliakhy pidvyshchennia ekonomichnoï efektyvnosti kapitaVnykh vkladan' u promyslovisf Ukraïns'koï RSR (Kiev 1967) Voprosy effektivnosti kapitaVnykh vlozhenii (Moscow 1969) Ye. Glovinsky, B. Wynar Capital punishment. There was no punishment by death i n the préstate period of Ukraine or i n the customary l a w codified i n *Ruskaia Pravda a n d practiced i n K i e v a n R u s ' prior to Prince V o l o d y m y r the Great. V o l o d y m y r s introduction of capital punishment (along w i t h Christianity a n d under pressure of his bishops) was short-lived. D u r i n g the subsequent LithuanianRuthenian period (14th-15th century) the death penalty was introduced into the criminal law of the country, mostly under the influence of the strict West European penal systems. U n d e r the "Lithuanian Statutes (1529, 1566, 1588) the death penalty (state beheadings) became one of the principal forms of public punishment. In the Hetmán state (17th-18th century) capital punishment existed for crimes against the head of state, society, religion, a n d morals, as w e l l as for several crimes against private interests. Beheading a n d hanging, the latter being considered most shameful, were the c o m m o n forms of execution. A t the Z a p o r o z h i a n Sich, where military order a n d discipline were of primary importance, the death 7

Industry

penalty was the p u n i s h m e n t for violation of the Cossack order, treason, homicide, a n d homosexuality. Capital punishment was also i n force o n U k r a i n i a n territory under Polish (later Austrian) a n d Russian domination i n the i 8 t h - 2 o t h century, as p r o v i d e d by the criminal laws of the respective countries. D u r i n g the period of U k r a i n i a n statehood (1917-20) no attempt was made by the U k r a i n i a n government to pass new criminal laws. H o w e v e r , the Constitution of the Ukrainian N a t i o n a l Republic of 29 A p r i l 1918 contained, in article 14, the provision that 'no citizen of the U k r a i n i a n National Republic nor any person o n its territory shall be punished by death.' This was the only constitution of all the successor states of the former Russian and A u s t r i a n empires to abolish the death penalty. In Polish-occupied U k r a i n e (1919-39) the criminal code of 1932 limited the use of capital punishment to crimes of h i g h treason a n d assassination of the president. H o w ever, court-martial l a w , w h i c h was i n force at various periods d u r i n g this time, permitted the use of the death penalty without the above limitations, and, i n fact, capital punishment was i n v o k e d against members of the U k r a i nian resistance. In the U k r a i n i a n SSR capital punishment is firmly established, although theoretically it contradicts the Marxist understanding of crime. The U k r a i n i a n criminal code (of 28 December i960), based o n the 'Principles of C r i m i n a l Legislation' of 1958, calls the death penalty 'an exceptional punitive measure [in use temporarily] until its complete abolition.' Three times i n the past (1917, 1920, 1947) the death penalty was formally suspended to show 'genuine socialist h u m a n i s m , ' but each time it was reintroduced after a short time, allegedly as a necessary temporary measure. The 'Principles' of 1958 p r o v i d e d for capital p u n i s h m e n t (by shooting) for treason, espionage, diversion, acts of terrorism, banditry, a n d premeditated murder; but very soon special decrees of the Supreme Soviet extended that penalty to several other crimes, such as theft of state property, currency speculation, a n d counterfeiting. The recent version of the criminal code mentions the death penalty 15 times for offenses by civilians and, additionally, 14 times for offenses by the military. Yu. Starosolsky

C A P I T A L I S M

Capitalism. In the current sense of the term capitalism is a socioeconomic order w i t h the following properties: (1) the means of production are o w n e d mostly b y private individuals or companies, w h i c h use them primarily for the owner's profit; (2) industrial production is concen­ trated mostly i n large enterprises (factories, plants, etc), and the production process is to a large extent mecha­ nized; (3) the division of labor, the money economy, and exchange by trade o n an open market are highly developed; a n d (4) a large class of workers exists, and the urban population expands at the expense of the rural population. In Russian-ruled U k r a i n e the capitalist system existed until 1917; i n other parts of Ukraine it persisted until 1945. According to Soviet theory the period of capitalism i n Russian-ruled Ukraine began w i t h the abolition of serf­ d o m i n 1861. H o w e v e r , the origins of capitalism can already be detected at the e n d of the 17th a n d the beginning of the 18th century w h e n industrial production of market goods began to develop o n the large landed estates ('trade capitalism,' according to M . Yavorsky and V . S u k h y n o - K h o m e n k o ) . The *sugar industry can be considered the first true form of capitalist production i n Ukraine. It originated i n the 1820s and reached significant proportions b y the middle of the century, e m p l o y i n g almost half of the wage-earning industrial laborers. The development of the industry was marked by the growth i n size of sugar refineries: i n the early 1870s refineries w i t h over 500 workers employed about 30 percent of the workers i n the industry; b y the beginning of the 20th century such refineries employed u p to 60 percent of the workers. A t first the owners of the refineries were large landowners; later they were joined b y members of other social classes, mostly the merchant class, i n c l u d i n g Jews or enterprising individuals of U k r a i n i a n peasant origin. The development of "metallurgy and the *coal industry i n the 1870s-1880s h a d a decisive impact o n Ukraine's economy a n d o n the g r o w t h of capitalism. In 1867 W e l s h m a n J. H u g h e s formed the N e w Russia Anthracite, Iron, a n d Rail Production C o m p a n y i n Y u z i v k a (now Donetske), and i n 1871 the first steel and rail mill began to operate, p r o d u c i n g a half m i l l i o n centners of rail a year. In 1880 a French m i n i n g company was established i n the K r y v y i R i h ore region, a n d it built a pig-iron foundry. Subsequently, other large coal a n d iron-ore m i n i n g a n d smelting firms were formed. In 1887 the Russian Briansk Metallurgical C o m p a n y built the A l e x a n d r i a n plant i n Katerynoslav (now Dnipropetrovske). In 1889 the South Dnieper m i l l was built w i t h Belgian capital. In 1891 French capital financed the Donets Iron a n d Steel C o m p a n y , w h i c h built the D r u z h k i v k a m i l l . In 1895 the RussianBelgian C o m p a n y constructed the Petrovsky m i l l . In 1896 the N y k o p i l - M a r i i u p i l M i n i n g a n d Metallurgical C o m ­ pany was established w i t h A m e r i c a n capital to mine man­ ganese ore. A French joint-stock company k n o w n as the General P i g Iron, Iron, a n d Steel Production C o m p a n y built the M a k i i v k a m i l l i n 1898. Between 1872 and 1900 i n the anthracite industry alone 20 large joint-stock com­ panies were formed, a m o n g them the Rutchenkove, Katerynoslav, a n d N i k i t i n companies. The growth i n the m i n i n g of anthracite a n d iron ore and i n the production of p i g iron and steel is presented i n the accompanying table (in millions of centners). The size of the metallurgical w o r k s can be inferred from their production of p i g iron i n 1913 (in millions of centt

n

e

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Anthracite and iron-ore mining and iron and steel production, 1880-1913 (in million centners) Year

Anthracite

Iron ore

Pig iron

Steel

1880 1890 1900 1913

14 30 110 252

0.4 3.8 33 69

0.2 2.2 15 31

0.3 1.4 12 23

ners): Petrovsky, 3.5; Y u z i v k a , 2.8; Donetsko-Yurivsky, 2.5; M a k i i v k a , 2.3; Kramatorske, 1.7. H e a v y industry i n Ukraine developed mostly o n the basis of foreign capital: foreign companies o w n e d 80 percent of the blast fur­ naces, 90 percent of the coke-chemical firms, 80 percent of the ore mines i n the K r y v y i R i h region, a n d 70 percent of the manganese m i n i n g . In relation to the output of the whole Russian Empire, Ukraine i n 1913 produced 70.2 percent of the anthracite, 72.3 percent of the iron ore, 67.1 percent of the p i g iron, a n d 57.2 percent of the iron a n d steel. Of the other branches of heavy industry i n Ukraine, machine b u i l d i n g developed the most. This industry had a large market i n the agricultural regions of southern Ukraine, where agriculture was being mechanized. In 1912 Ukraine produced 55 percent of the Russian Empire's farm machinery. The E l w o r t h y factory i n Yelysavethrad (now Kirovohrad) h a d the highest production and the largest number of employees i n the empire. Transportation machine-building was also being de­ veloped i n Ukraine: steam locomotives i n K h a r k i v (from 1896) a n d i n L u h a n s k e (Hartmann's factory, 1876); rail­ way coaches i n Katerynoslav, K i e v , a n d M y k o l a i v ; ships i n Odessa, Kiev, a n d M y k o l a i v . Prior to 1914,41.3 percent of the empire's steam locomotives were built i n Ukraine. Machine-building a n d metalworking plants were also established i n Kramatorske, Horlivka, Yuzivka, Kadiivka, Kostiantynivka, a n d Luhanske. In general, however, manufacturing lagged far b e h i n d m i n i n g . There was hardly any machine-tool industry (in 1913 Ukraine pro­ duced only 3.7 percent of the empire's output), electricmachine b u i l d i n g (first plant i n 1914), or machine-equip­ ment production i n Ukraine. Except for the Luhanske munitions factory, established i n 1795, a n d the M y k o l a i v shipyard there was n o arms industry i n Ukraine. Besides the sugar industry, liquor distilling, w h i c h was almost the oldest industry i n Ukraine a n d accounted for 21 percent of the distilleries i n the Russian Empire, a n d flour milling, w h i c h accounted for 32.3 percent of the empire's m i l l i n g firms a n d 24.9 percent of the flour, developed rapidly i n U k r a i n e . H o w e v e r , there was virtually no textile industry, a n d Ukraine was the main market for the textile manufacturers i n the Russian a n d Polish industrial regions. A s i n other capitalist countries, "cartels were formed i n Ukraine at the e n d of the 19th a n d the beginning of the 20th century. In 1887 the ^Syndicate of Sugar Manufac­ turers was organized. In 1902 the *Prodamet metallurgical products cartel was formed, encompassing 30 large metal­ lurgical plants, of w h i c h 16 were i n the Donbas. In 1904 a coal cartel, T r o d u g o l , was organized, a n d i n 1908 the *Prodarud ore cartel began to operate. This process of monopolization was concurrent w i t h the g r o w i n g con­ centration i n certain manufacturing industries a n d the merging of industrial capital w i t h bank capital (see

364

C A P I T A L I S M

^Banking system). The cartels were more detrimental than salutary to Ukraine's economy, for they could not prevent ^economic crises a n d contributed to the decline i n the pace of industrial development. Onesidedness was the peculiar feature of capitalism i n Ukraine. M o s t of the developing industries produced raw materials: the m i n i n g industry before 1914 produced 70 percent of the empire's output, w h i l e the manufacturing industries accounted for o n l y about 15 percent of the output. O w i n g to the colonial nature of capitalism i n Ukraine, U k r a i n e exported raw materials a n d semimanufactured goods to the central regions of the empire and was compelled to b u y back manufactured products. This state of affairs was primarily the result of a deliberate policy of the tsarist government, w h i c h promoted industrial development i n the St Petersburg a n d M o s c o w regions. The government located munitions factories i n the central regions, placed a l o w duty o n anthracite imported from E n g l a n d to St Petersburg, and discriminated a m o n g firms i n placing its orders or i n p r o v i d i n g credits. A s a consequence of this centralist policy, almost all the head offices of the industrial joint-stock companies, banks, a n d insurance companies were located i n St Petersburg or M o s c o w . This too h a d an influence o n the distribution of industry. It must be admitted, h o w ever, that the government's tariff a n d railway policies promoted industrial development throughout the empire, including Ukraine. A t the end of the 1870s a n d d u r i n g the 1880s a n d 1890s the duties o n p i g iron, iron, and the products made of these metals rose sharply. Manufacturers of i r o n rails received government premiums. C o m panies obtaining concessions to b u i l d railroads had to promise to b u y a certain proportion of the rails from manufacturers i n the empire. A h i g h duty o n sugar and premiums o n sugar exports stimulated the growth of the sugar industry. In agriculture the development of capitalism, w h i c h was directly related to the emancipation of the serfs, was marked b y the differentiation of l a n d holdings; that is, by an increase i n the number of small l a n d holdings at the same time as the r u l i n g class of wealthy landholders grew, by the emergence of a landless rural proletariat, a n d by the transfer of over one-third of the landowners' estates to the peasantry (see ""Land tenure system). Ukraine's agrarian countryside remained relatively overpopulated, a n d there was a rise i n peasant "emigration. In 1913 Ukraine's economy was 48.2 percent industrial and 51.8 percent agricultural. O f the total production of market goods, industry produced 63.5 percent and agriculture 36.5 percent; 53.5 percent of industrial production consisted of industrial machines, machine tools, and equipment; 46.5 percent consisted of consumer goods. Between 1900 a n d 1913 the number of industrial workers doubled. In 1913 the urban population constituted 19.3 percent of the total population, w h i l e i n 1851 it had been only 10 percent. In Western U k r a i n e capitalism developed somewhat differently than i n Russian-ruled U k r a i n e , because the emancipation of the serfs took place earlier (in 1848) and because natural conditions d i d not facilitate the growth of heavy industry. H o w e v e r , the D r o h o b y c h region oil fields gave rise to a petroleum industry, of w h i c h 85 percent was controlled by foreign capital, and the huge Carpathian forests favored the g r o w t h of the lumber a n d w o o d w o r k i n g industries. In the food industry flour

milling a n d sugar refining, a n d to a m i n o r extent liquor distilling, developed. In general, Galicia lagged far beh i n d the other parts of the A u s t r o - H u n g a r i a n Empire i n industrial development. Its industrial firms were small, and industrial workers were few. The skilled urban trades were more developed a n d were mostly i n Jewish hands. Agrarian overpopulation was more acute there than i n Russian-ruled U k r a i n e a n d l e d to the emigration of many peasants to N o r t h a n d South A m e r i c a . A p a r t from the successful g r o w t h of the *co-operative movement i n Galicia, there were no dramatic changes i n the situation i n the 1920s a n d 1930s. The m a i n branch of industry - petroleum production - steadily shrank: 2,080,0001 were p r o d u c e d i n 1909 compared to 370,0001 in 1938. A s capitalism developed i n U k r a i n e , the number and importance of the workers, a n d particularly of the urban proletariat, increased (see * W o r k i n g class). B y the end of the 19th century there were close to three million industrial workers. They were recruited from a m o n g the impoverished peasants a n d urban artisans w h o left private workshops that could not compete w i t h factories. A t the same time the *trade u n i o n movement took shape, and confrontation between the capitalists a n d the w o r k ers i n the form of ^strikes a n d pressure o n political parties and the government for economic a n d progressive social reform emerged. BIBLIOGRAPHY Lewery, L. Foreign Capital Investment in Russian Industries and Commerce (Washington 1923) Voblyi, K. Narysy z istoriï rosiis'ko-ukraïns'koï tsukrovo-buriakovoï promyslovosty, 2 vols (Kiev 1928-30) Lyashchenko, P. History of the National Economy of Russia to the 1917 Revolution (New York 1949; repr 1970) Narysy rozvytku narodnoho hospodarstva Ukraïns'koï RSR (Kiev 1949) Hurzhii, I. Rozklad feodaVno-kriposnyts'koï systemy u siVs'kim hospodarstvi Ukraïny pershoï polovyny xix st. (Kiev 1954) Nesterenko, A . Ocherki istorii promyshlennosti i polozheniia proletariata Ukrainy v kontse xix v. i nachale xx v. (Moscow 1954) Ocherki razvitiia narodnogo khoziaistva Ukrainskoi SSR (Moscow 1954) Iatskevych, le. Stanovyshche robitnychoho klasu Halychyny v period kapitalizmu (1848-1900) (Kiev 1958) Kononenko, K. Ukraine and Russia: A History of the Economic Relations between the Ukraine and Russia (1654-1917) (Milwaukee 1958) Nesterenko, O. Rozvytok promyslovosti na Ukraïni, 1-2 (Kiev 1959-62) Hurzhii, I. Rozvytok tovarnoho vyrobnytstva i torhivli na Ukraïni (z kintsia xvnist. do 1861 r.) (Kiev 1962) von Laue, T. Sergei Witte and the Industrialization of Russia (New York 1963) Blackwell, W. The Beginnings of Russian Industrialization, 18001860 (Princeton 1968) Hurzhii, I. Ukraïna v systemi vserosiis'koho rynku 6o~9okh rokiv xix st. (Kiev 1968) Tugan-Baranovskii, M . The Russian Factory in the Nineteenth Century (Homewood, 111 1970) Ohloblyn, O. A History of Ukrainian Industry (Munich 1971) Ponomar'ov, O. Rozvytok kapitalistychnykh vidnosyn u promyslovosti Ukraïny xvnist. (Lviv 1971) Mel'nik, L. Promyshlennyi perevorot na Ukraine v 60-e-nachale 90-kh godov xix st. (Kiev 1972) Falkus, M . The Industrialization of Russia, 1700-1914 (London 1973) Crisp, O. Studies in the Russian Economy before 1914 (New York 1976)

C A R P

Rieber, A. Merchants and Entrepreneurs in Imperial Russia (Chapel Hill, N C 1982) Ye. Glovinsky Captain (sotnyk). Military officer i n charge of a "company. In the U N R A r m y and the U k r a i n i a n Galician A r m y this was the highest rank a m o n g the junior officers. Cardinal. A h i g h ecclesiastical office i n the Catholic church, second only to that of pope; a member of the Sacred College of Cardinals. N e w cardinals are appointed by the pope i n a secret consistory of cardinals. F r o m the late 16th century the number of cardinals was limited to 70, but i n the 1960s the limit was raised by Pope John x x i n to over 100. The College of Cardinals has, since the 11th century, elected the n e w pope i n conclave; it also serves as the advisory body o n matters of church administration and assists the pope. Cardinals are i n charge of the various sections of the C u r i a , one of w h i c h is the "Congregation for Eastern Churches, w h i c h oversees the Ukrainian Catholic church and other Eastern Catholic churches. The following U k r a i n i a n church leaders have been appointed cardinals: Metropolitan Isidore of Kiev, the metropolitans of H a l y c h M . Levytsky and S. Sembratovych, and, i n 1965, A r c h b i s h o p Major Y . Slipy of Lviv. Carmelites (Friars of O u r L a d y of M o u n t Carmel). A R o m a n Catholic ascetic order. The order was founded i n Palestine i n 1156 and transferred i n about 1238 to Europe, where it became a mendicant order. In the 17th and 18th century there were Carmelite monasteries i n many Ukrainian towns, i n c l u d i n g Bar, Berdychiv, Drohobych, Kamianets, and Peremyshl. In the first half of the 17th century the Carmelites exercised some influence on the Basilian order, w h i c h was manifested i n the reforms of Metropolitan V . Rutsky. Carnival (miasnytsi). The period between E p i p h a n y and Lent traditionally devoted to revelry and dancing. N o r mally, weddings take place d u r i n g this period. The carnival period ended i n U k r a i n e w i t h the kolodka, an ancient feast for older w o m e n , w h o treated each other w i t h d u m p l i n g s (varenyky). Later it became a feast for everyone ( k n o w n i n Western Ukraine as zapusty) to celebrate the end of the carnival season. The name kolodka derives from the wordl for a small log or stick; this was tied to a y o u n g m a n or girl w h o d i d not marry d u r i n g the carnival. Carols. The custom of caroling is highly developed and widely practiced i n Ukraine. There are two kinds of carols: koliadky and shchedrivky. The koliadky are festive, ritual songs sung at Christmastime, while the shchedrivky are sung o n N e w Year's Eve. Both types of carol have retained traces of their ancient origin, particularly to the cult of the sun and the ancestors, of nature w o r s h i p , and of the faith i n the magical power of words. The koliadky and shchedrivky depict scenes from farm life and express the desire for good harvests, prosperity, good fortune, and health. They are remarkable for their wealth of subject matter and motifs, w h i c h vary w i t h the person w h o is addressed a n d praised i n each carol. There are carols dedicated to the master of the house, the mistress of the house, the y o u n g bachelor, the girl, the daughter-in-

365

law, the son-in-law, and so on. The carols dedicated to the master deal w i t h farm work: they glorify prosperity, the happiness of a well-off farmer, and his well-being. The songs for the y o u n g bachelor depict his strength, courage, and good looks. The carols for girls praise their unmatched beauty, w i s d o m , deep love, diligence, and respect for parents. The descriptions of prosperity, beauty, and w i s d o m are magical incantations intended to secure the described effects. The most important aspect of carols is their wish-fulfilling power. By their age and content the carols can be divided into several groups: (1) the oldest carols, w h i c h deal w i t h the creation of the universe i n a pre-Christian, dualistic, mythological framework; (2) a later stratum describing life in the Princely era; (3) carols about daily life; and (4) recent koliadky and shchedrivky, w h i c h have a biblical theme - Christ's birth, the shepherds, the three wise men, H e r o d . The K i e v a n M o h y l a A c a d e m y was famous for its new carols, w h i c h were composed i n the 17th-18th century. Some carols were also composed by the monks of the "Pochaiv monastery i n the 18th century. The process of Christianization embraced the whole content of the koliadky and shchedrivky. In some carols the ancient agricultural themes are fused w i t h more recent religious themes, as i n ' V poli, p o l i p l u z h o k ore ...' (In the Field the P l o w Is Plowing). A s poetry koliadky a n d shchedrivky are remarkable for their artistic quality. They are distinguished by their joyful spirit, festive air, a n d melodious tunes. Their poetic and musical quality has attracted the attention of the best poets, writers, playwrights, and composers, such as M . Lysenko, M . L e o n t o v y c h , D . Sichynsky, O . N y z h a n k i v sky, and particularly K . Stetsenko, w h o arranged over 50 carols for choirs. The most popular and best-known carols are ' O i , v y d y t ' B o h ' (O, G o d Does See), ' B o h predv i c h n y i ' (The Eternal G o d ) , ' N o v a radist' stala' (A N e w Joy Has Come), ' D o b r y i vechir tobi, pane-hospodariu' (Good Evening to Y o u , Master), ' V poli, poli p l u z h o k ore' (In the Field the P l o w Is Plowing), ' N e b o i zemlia' (Heaven and Earth), a n d ' U Yerusalymi rano zadzvonyly' (In Jerusalem the Bells R a n g i n the M o r n i n g ) . M . Leontovych adapted a simple melody of an ancient Ukrainian shchedrivka to create a miniature for choir entitled 'Shchedryk' (Carol of the Bells). This song has n o w become part of the A m e r i c a n repertoire of carols. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Sumtsov, M . Nauchnoe izuchenie koliadki i shchedrovki (Moscow 1885)

Potebnia, A . Obiasneniia malorusskikh i srodnykh narodnykh pesen. Part 2, Koliadki i shchedrovki (Warsaw 1887) Domanitskii, V. Sovremennye koliadki i shchedrovki (Kiev 1905) Hnatiuk, V. Koliadky ta shchedrivky. Etnohrafichnyi zbirnyk, 35-6 (Lviv 1914) Hrushevs'kyi, M . Istoriia ukraïns'koï literatury, 1 (Kiev 1923; repr New York 1959) Voropai, O. Zvychaï nashoho narodu, 1 (Munich 1958) Koliadky ta shchedrivky (Kiev 1965) Kvitka, K. Tesni ukrainskykh zimnikh obriadovykh prazdnevstv,' Izbrannye trudy v dvukh tomakh, 1 (Moscow 1971) Kurochkin, O. Novorichni sviata ukraïntsiv (Kiev 1976) P. Odarchenko Carp (Cyprinus carpió; Ukrainian: korop). A valuable commercial freshwater fish, u p to 1 m i n length and 20 k g i n weight (usually 1-3 kg). The carp is c o m m o n i n the rivers

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CARP

CARPATHIAN

MOUNTAINS

IN

PROFILE

of U k r a i n e , particularly i n the lower Dniester a n d the Danube. It is also raised i n ponds. Carpathia Co-operative Credit U n i o n . F o r m e d i n W i n n i p e g i n 1940, the second-largest U k r a i n i a n credit u n i o n i n Canada i n 1978 w i t h 6,636 members a n d assets of over $29 m i l l i o n . In 1936 it began p u b l i s h i n g the bulletin Samodopomoha. Carpathian Alliance (Karpatskyi soiuz). A civic-political organization of immigrants from Transcarpathia founded i n 1948 i n N e w Y o r k . The alliance has branches i n the major cities of the U n i t e d States. G r o u p s of members of the alliance exist also i n Western Europe a n d Australia. In 1931-2 the organization p u b l i s h e d the newspaper Karpats'ka zoria, of w h i c h 18 issues appeared, a n d books about Transcarpathia, mostly memoirs. The alliance has a relief fund. The following individuals have served as presidents of the alliance: I. Chereshnia, V . Shandor, I. Kardashynets, V . K o m a r y n s k y , a n d Y u . Kostiuk. Y u . Revai and A . Shtefan have been its honorary presidents. Carpathian M o u n t a i n s (Karpaty). Folded, y o u n g mountains of m e d i u m elevation, stretching i n an arc about 1,300 k m l o n g (with a chord of almost 300 km) from the city of Bratislava i n the northwest to the Iron Gate o n the Danube i n the southeast a n d covering an area of about 200,000 sq k m . The Carpathians are part of the A l p i n e mountain system a n d border o n the o l d C z e c h , Polish, a n d U k r a i n i a n massifs a n d Dobrudja, being separated from them b y a b a n d of y o u n g depressions - along the M o r a v a a n d Vistula rivers, the Sian a n d Dniester lowlands, the Subcarpathian Depression, a n d the Wallachian Depression. The P a n n o n i a n Basin, w h i c h cuts north into the mountains along the Tysa a n d B o d r o g rivers and their tributaries, occupies the central part of the arc. Orography. The Carpathian M o u n t a i n s consist of three geologically distinct bands: the outer flysch, the central crystalline, a n d the inner volcanic. O n l y the flysch band is continuous, connecting the Carpathians into one whole. The crystalline b a n d is interrupted i n the middle for a distance of over 200 k m . Thus, the Carpathians are divided into three parts: the Western Carpathians and the Southern Carpathians, both of w h i c h consist of three bands, a n d the Eastern Carpathians, w h i c h are only 100-120 k m i n w i d t h a n d consist only of the flysch and volcanic bands. The Western Carpathians are settled mostly by Slovaks a n d Poles (with Czechs, Hungarians, and Ukrainians at the fringes), the Eastern Carpathians are settled by Ukrainians, a n d the Southern Carpathians, by Rumanians. Sometimes the Carpathians are d i v i d e d into two parts only: the Western a n d Eastern Carpathians are called the N o r t h e r n or Slavic Carpathians, as distinguished from the Southern or R u m a n i a n Carpathians. The Eastern Carpathians extend from the Biaïa River, T y l y c h Pass, a n d TopTa River i n the west to the Tysa

River, Prislop Pass, a n d Suceava River i n the southeast. Sometimes the western limit of the Eastern Carpathians is defined b y the O s l a va, Laboree, a n d Sian rivers. In Soviet texts the M o l d a v i a n Carpathians are i n c l u d e d i n the Eastern Carpathians, w h i c h extend as far south as the Predeal Pass. The Eastern Carpathians (excluding the " L o w Beskyd) are k n o w n as the Forested or U k r a i n i a n Carpathians. They consist of the flysch band (the *Beskyds) a n d the volcanic b a n d (the "Volcanic U k r a i n i a n Carpathians). In the southeast the Beskyds meet the crystalline " M a r a m u r e § - B u k o v y n i a n U p l a n d . W i t h the L o w Beskyd the Eastern Carpathians cover an area of almost 40,000 sq k m a n d , w i t h o u t it, an area of 32,000 sq k m . U k r a i n i a n ethnic territory i n the Carpathians u p to 1946 covered 24,000 sq k m a n d h a d a population of 1.7 million. Today 22,300 sq k m of the Carpathians, w i t h a population of approximately 1.2 m i l l i o n , belong to the Ukrainian SSR. The Carpathian Mountains, particularly Transcarpathia, are important to U k r a i n e from a geopolitical viewpoint. The Carpathian watershed defined for m a n y centuries the political border of Ukraine, but not the ethnic border, since the m o u n t a i n passes a l l o w e d Ukrainians to penetrate the southern slopes. Thus, the Carpathian region, along w i t h the adjacent edge of the Transcarpathian L o w l a n d , connects U k r a i n e w i t h H u n g a r y and Slovakia, w h i c h lie i n the P a n n o n i a n Basin (for more detail see "Transcarpathia). Geological structure. The Ukrainian Carpathian M o u n tains lie o n the border of the East European Platform and the Mediterranean Géosynclinal Province. Their geological structure is the result of successive periods of sedimentation, orogenesis, a n d denudation. The basic pattern i n the structure of the U k r a i n i a n Carpathians is their distinct division into longitudinal structural-lithological zones. The mountains were principally formed i n the Tertiary period a n d , therefore, Cretaceous a n d L o w e r Tertiary rock formations are most widespread i n the Carpathians. The older Paleozoic a n d Precambrian rocks are quite rare and are found mostly i n the Rakhiv Massif a n d the " C h y v chyn M o u n t a i n s , w h i c h are part of the Maramure§B u k o v y n i a n Massif. U p p e r Cretaceous a n d Paleogene deposits appear i n dislocated layers of flysch - interbedded sandstones, marls, a n d schists. Late Tertiary strata are c o m m o n i n Subcarpathia a n d Transcarpathia. Q u a t e r n a r y formations such as glacial deposits, alluvial deposits, a n d loess i n the depressions are widespread. The tectonic structure of the U k r a i n i a n Carpathian M o u n t a i n s is complex a n d is still being investigated by geologists. Generally, however, the structure is characterized by zonation a n d nappes. The Carpathian Mountains were formed d u r i n g the A l p i n e orogeny i n the Tertiary period. Prior to that, from the end of the Paleozoic to the Cretaceous period, mountains of the Hercynian orogeny (late Paleozoic era), k n o w n as the Protocarpathians, existed i n their place. In the Creta-

C A R P A T H I A N

CARPATHIAN 1. 2. 3. 4.

MOUNTAINS,

M O U N T A I N S

367

MORPHOLOGY

Foothills and low mountains Middle-mountain, flysch landscape Volcanic mountains Crystalline massifs

ceous and L o w e r Tertiary periods the Protocarpathians were destroyed a n d were replaced by géosynclinal depressions filled w i t h seawaters. The Rakhiv Massif and isolated cliffs (klippen) are remnants of the ancient mountains. In the geosynclines flysch was deposited to a depth of 5,000-7,000 m . In the U p p e r Tertiary period the present mountains rose at the site of the géosynclinal depressions. Their formation was accompanied by violent volcanic effusions. The contours of the Carpathians were formed i n the first half of the Miocene epoch. In the middle of the period the Carpathians underwent partial peneplanation, w h i c h was interrupted by uplifting followed by peneplanation again. The present relief of the mountains is the result of the two peneplanations, w h i c h produced large, flat surfaces a n d terraces at several altitudes. D u r i n g the Quarternary period there was some glaciation of the Carpathians i n the Riss a n d Würrn ages. Transverse dislocations, w h i c h cut across the structural zones and frequently provide a path for rivers, play an important role i n the geological structure of the U k r a i n i a n Carpathians.

5. Foothill and middle-mountain depressions covered with Neogene and Quarternary deposits 6. Black Sea Upland 7. Alpine landscape and traces of glaciation 8. Klippen Zonation is characteristic of the tectonic structure of the Ukrainian Carpathians. They consist of four longitudinal structural zones, w h i c h extend from the northwest to the southeast: (1) the outer or overthrust fold zone, 40 k m wide, built of Cretaceous a n d Paleogene flysch (mostly sandstone) formed into anticlinal folds that were broken and thrust towards the southeast (at the edge of the Carpathians they often cover the Miocene strata of Subcarpathia); (2) the central synclinal zone, 30-40 k m wide: at its surface intensely folded U p p e r Oligocène strata of soft, sand-clay sediment are most common; (3) the core of the inner anticlinal zone, consisting primarily of crystalline rock formations - crystalline schists, gneiss, quartzite, a n d crystalline limestones - and, to a lesser extent, of Triassic a n d Jurassic strata - limestones, sandstones, porphyrites, a n d conglomerates - w h i c h emerge to the surface only i n the Maramure§-Bukovynian U p land; however, this basic core is often overthrust w i t h flysch strata from the Cretaceous a n d L o w e r Paleogene periods, folded, frequently dissected, and i n places

368

CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS

CARPATHIAN 1. 2. 3. 4.

MOUNTAINS,

DIVISIONS

Limits of the Carpathian Mountains Limits of the Eastern and Western Carpathians Limits of the various parts of the Carpathians State borders

Numerals on the map

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Yavoryna Cherhivski Mountains Klippen strip. Spy ska Magura Levoca Mountains Halych Ridge Rivna mountain group

pushed towards the north; (4) a zone of volcanic deposits - trachytes, andιsites, rhyolites, a n d tuffs - separated from the rest of the Carpathians by the *Inner Carpathian Valley a n d the *Maramure§ Basin, w h i c h are covered by horizontal layers from the Miocene period. Landscape. The U k r a i n i a n Carpathians are typical mountains of m e d i u m height w i t h rock of l o w resistance. Gentle, broad, a n d little-dissected ridges and parallel valleys contrast w i t h the deeply incised (up to 1,000 m) transverse valleys w i t h steep slopes that are the result of the reliefs rejuvenation. O n l y the highest parts of the Carpathians - m a i n l y the *Hutsul A l p s a n d ^Chornohora

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Borzhava mountain group Krasna mountain group S vy do vets mountain group Chornohora mountain group Hutsul Alps Chyvchyn Mountains Vyhorliat mountain group Makovytsia mountain group Syniak peak Velykyi Dil mountain group Tupyi mountain group Hutyn Mountains

- display a high-mountain landscape o w i n g to past glaciation. Rock fields appear only here and, more markedly, i n the *Gorgany M o u n t a i n s , but even the highest peaks of the Carpathians are covered w i t h clays and continuous vegetation. Despite a certain generally perceived uniformity of landscape, the U k r a i n i a n Carpathians can be divided into a number of regions, based o n different geological struc­ ture and altitude. These tend to form longitudinal belts stretching from the northwest to the southeast as is typical of all the Carpathians. The belts comprise (1) the high, outer flysch belt, separated by (2) the M i d d l e -

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CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS

Carpathian Depression from (3) the inner, h i g h flysch belt - the *Polonynian Beskyd, w h i c h is i n turn separated by (4) the Inner Carpathian Valley from (3) the Volcanic Ukrainian Carpathians. In the southeast the P o l o n y n i a n Beskyd borders o n (6) the Maramure§-Bukovynian U p ­ land. The landscape varies w i t h i n each belt. The outer h i g h belt of the Beskyds, w h i c h corresponds to the outer anticline, rises steeply to 300-400 m above Subcarpathia. The lower parts of this belt have a w e l l developed lattice structure w i t h a trellised drainage pattern: the longitudinal ridges, w i t h steeper northeast­ ern slopes a n d gentler southwestern slopes, are built of limestones a n d are separated by parallel w i d e valleys carved out of soft marls a n d clay. In the higher parts ridges forming a feathered pattern w i t h transverse valleys predominate; clearly defined peaks, rock fields, a n d weak traces of glaciation are evident. Several groups can easily be distinguished i n the outer Beskyds: (1) the lowest range - the *Middle Beskyd - w h i c h lies between the bend of the Sian River a n d the Turka-Boryslav line; (2) the *High Beskyd, w h i c h rises above the M i d d l e Beskyd by 300-400 m a n d extends to the east of it as far as the M i z u n k a River (its peaks are Parashka, 1,271 m , and Magura, 1,368 m); (3) the G o r g a n y - the highest (Syvulia Peak, 1836 m) a n d most continuous part of the Outer Beskyds, w h i c h stretches to the Prut River; and (4) the lower *Hutsul Beskyd, sometimes k n o w n as the PokutiaB u k o v y n i a n Carpathians ( H o r d y i Peak, 1,478 m), w h i c h stretches to the Suceava River i n the east. The Middle-Carpathian Depression is a basin of gently contoured, low-mountain topography w i t h an elevation 200-600 m below that of the two h i g h sandstone zones. The main Carpathian watershed runs along this belt o n a line from the source of the Sian to the source of the Prut, as do the m a i n mountain passes such as U z h o k (889 m), Veretskyi (839 m), a n d Yablonytskyi (931 m). The central part of the depression (23-30 k m wide) borders o n the Great Beskyd a n d is the most developed part. The P o l o n y n i a n Beskyd is the highest a n d most con­ tinuous part of the Eastern Carpathians. In the past it was the m a i n watershed. Its broad a n d gentle tops are covered w i t h meadows, the remnants of former peneplains, and provide a sharp contrast w i t h the narrow valleys, w h i c h are almost 1,200 m deep. Postglacial cirques, some of them filled by lakes, appear o n the mountain slopes. West of the U z h River the ridges of the P o l o n y n i a n Beskyd form a latticelike pattern a n d i n a few places rise above 1,200 m . Farther east it consists of the h i g h massifs Rivna (1,482 m). Borzhava (1,679 m), Krasna (1,368 m), Svydivets (1,883 m), and Hoverlia (2,061 m). E v e n farther to the east the Polonynian Beskyd narrows a n d splits into several longi­ tudinal, broad ridges, w h i c h press closely to the M a r a mure§-Bukovynian M o u n t a i n s . In eastern B u k o v y n a the flysch zone shrinks to 40 k m i n w i d t h , and the division between the flysch belts disappears, forming the East B u k o v y n i a n Beskyd. The Maramure§-Bukovynian U p l a n d is more pic­ turesque than other parts of the U k r a i n i a n Carpathians because of its varied geological structure, its deeply incised rivers, a n d landscapes resulting from former glaciation. This applies particularly to the H u t s u l A l p s (1,961 m). The lower C h y v c h y n M o u n t a i n s , w h i c h are built mostly of crystalline schists, and the B u k o v y n i a n part of the range have gentler outlines, w h i c h are not m u c h different from those of flysch mountains.

369

Lake Synevyr in the Carpathian Mountains The Inner Carpathian Valley (400-300 m deep and 1-6 k m wide) runs between the P o l o n y n i a n Beskyd and the Volcanic Carpathians. Its absolute elevation is 150300 m ; it can, however, reach 430 m i n passes. Formed out of volcanic strata, the valley has gentle outlines and con­ tains a series of terraces. Small longitudinal streams flow along it into the right-bank tributaries of the Tysa River. To the east the valley w i d e n s into the broad (30 km) Maramure§ Basin, w h i c h lies flat along the Tysa River and becomes hilly farther from the river. The basin has an elevation of 200-600 m a n d is covered w i t h thick layers from the Miocene period, w i t h saline strata. The last belt of the U k r a i n i a n Carpathians consists of the Volcanic U k r a i n i a n Carpathians, w h i c h rise steeply for 600-900 m above the Tysa L o w l a n d a n d attain an elevation of 900-1,100 m . These mountains consist mainly of effusion centers joined by lava streams. The landscape is defined by massive, broad ridges, picturesque volcanic rings (the remains of craters), a n d cones. The transverse valleys, containing the tributaries of the Tysa, divide the Volcanic Carpathians into the following massifs: V y h o r lat, Makovytsia, Syniak, V e l y k y i D i l , T u p y i , and H u t y n mountains. A narrow b a n d of gentle foothills stretches below this range. West of the Liaborets, Oslava, a n d Sian rivers the Carpathians consist only of a l o w flysch belt, 30-40 k m wide, o n both sides of the m a i n watershed. This is the L o w Beskyd. It is preceded b y l o w foothills 300-400 m i n elevation, w h i c h broaden out i n the north and encompass the large, flat Gorlice-Sianik Basin (a continuation of the M i d - C a r p a t h i a n Depression). The highest peaks of the L o w Beskyd hardly reach 1,000 m , a n d the passes lie at an elevation of 300-700 m (the T y l y c h [688 m], D u k l i a [302 m], a n d L u p k i v [631 m] passes). Climate. The climate of the Carpathians is determined by the climate of the adjacent plateaus, the height of the mountains, and the relief. Seasonal variations (which also affect the Danube L o w l a n d ) i n barometric pressure from the winter m a x i m u m to the summer m i n i m u m have an important influence. The mountains protect southern Transcarpathia from the flow of cold air from the north. H o w e v e r , w a r m air masses from the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean b r i n g cyclones a n d heavy rainfall to the southern a n d western slopes. The July temperature varies w i t h altitude from 20°c at the southern edge of the Carpathians a n d i 8 ° c i n the north to 6° o n the highest peaks. The variation is smaller i n winter - from - 3 to 0

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- i o ° c . The number of days w i t h temperatures above o°c fluctuates between 290 a n d 100 per year, a n d the number w i t h temperatures above i o ° c varies from 180 days i n the south to 80-100 days at the upper limits of grain cultiva­ tion a n d to 30 days i n the lower meadow belt. A n n u a l precipitation varies from 600 to 1,600 m m a n d is usually 900-1,200 m m , d e p e n d i n g o n altitude a n d local condi­ tions, such as the position of the slopes. The basins of the upper Teresva a n d Tereblia rivers receive the largest amount of precipitation, w h i l e the intermontane depres­ sions are relatively dry. The southern slopes get 100200 m m more precipitation than d o the northern slopes at the same altitude. M o s t dof the precipitation occurs i n June and July; the least, i n January a n d February. In general, almost two-thirds of the precipitation comes i n the w a r m half of the year; hence summers are quite cloudy, and winters are sunny. Generally, the summer temperature rises towards the southeast b y i - 2 ° c as the climate becomes more continen­ tal a n d the mountains more massive. L i k e all mountain climates, the climate of the Carpathians is subject to many local variations: the weather of the northern slopes differs from that of the southern slopes, gentle Foehn w i n d s visit some parts, a n d temperature inversions occur i n winter­ time w h e n the air is warmer o n the slopes than i n the valleys, w h i c h are filled w i t h heavier, cold air. Rivers. The Carpathians are rich i n rivers. The Dnies­ ter w i t h its numerous tributaries (the Stryi, Svicha, L i m nytsia, Bystrytsia, etc), the tributaries of the DanubeTysa w i t h its tributaries (the Teresva, Tereblia, Rika, Borzhava, B o d r o g a n d its tributaries [the Liatorytsia, U z h , Laboree], etc), the Prut (with the Cheremosh), a n d the Seret-Vistula's tributaries the Sian (with the Wisfok), a n d the Wistoka, a n d others all originate i n tohe m o u n ­ tains. The rivers are fed mostly by snow a n d rain. Flash floods are c o m m o n i n the spring a n d summer. Soils. In the Carpathians the soils are determined by the type of parental m o u n t a i n rock, elevation, a n d vegetation cover. The b r o w n p o d z o l forest soils are dthe most c o m m o n , but they are not homogeneous. They vary from areas covered w i t h beech w o o d s to areas of fir-tree forests a n d are different still i n deforested, farming areas (which have light-brown forest soils). The b r o w n soils are acidic a n d of l o w fertility; hence, lime a n d mineral fertilizers are required for their improvement. The peat podzolic soils o n the southern slopes of the Volcanic Carpathians are more fertile. Various meadow soils are found i n the valleys. A b o v e the timberline there are mountain p o d z o l soils, m o u n t a i n m e a d o w soils, a n d peat soils, often containing m a d n y rock fragments. Flora. The vegetation of the U k r a i n i a n Carpathians belongs to the Central European province. Except for that of the L o w B e s k y d , the flora here is m u c h richer than i n the Western Carpathians a n d includes m a n y Balkan and Transylvanian species a n d a number of endemic forms. A t one time all the Carpathians were covered w i t h forest a n d topped w i t h meadows a n d rock fields. E v e n today about one-half of the region is forested. A l l the mountain vegetation belts are represented i n the U k r a i n i a n Car­ pathians. The lowest belt, u p to an altitude of 300-600 m , consists of deciduous a n d m i x e d forests, w h i c h contain mostly oak and some hornbeam, maple, l i n d e n , e l m , b i r c h d , a n d pine. In Transcarpathia, u p to an altitude of 400 m , there are also some warm-climate species such as the chestnut and

walnut. This belt has been modified by humans more than any other, a n d today the forests form only small islands among the farmlands. A b o v e 300-600 m lies the belt of m o u n t a i n forests. In Transcarpathia (apart from its northeastern a n d eastern parts) and i n the upper Sian Basin beech forests occur exclusively; i n other parts of the U k r a i n i a n Carpathians mixed a n d coniferous forests predominate. Some oak is found at the lower levels of the beech forests, as well as maple, birch, a n d ash. The u n d e r g r o w t h includes elder, mezereum, raspberry, currant, honeysuckle, a n d w i l l o w . Grass cover is rare. The upper limit of the beech forests is rather w e l l defined, at 1,100-1,200 m . A b o v e 1,000 m the beech trees are somewhat shorter. Other m o u n t a i n forests i n the Carpathians form two belts: a lower, m i x e d belt, w h i c h reaches an aldtitude of 900-1,200 m a n d consists mostly of beech, spruce, and fir, w i t h an u n d e r g r o w t h similar to that of the beech forests; and a higher, spruce belt, w i t h an admixture of fir, pine, larch, cembra pine, a n d ash. The grasses are poorly developed. The upper limit ofd the forests is 1,4301,600 m . This zone is a transitional belt, about 100 m w i d e , consisting of i n d i v i d u a l trees, brush, a n d meadow. A b o v e the forests runs a belt of h i g h l a n d pastures meadows a n d brush w i t h subalpine (up to 1,730-1,830 m) and alpine vegetation. The typical plants of the subalpine belt are m u g h o pine, green alder, r h o d o d e n d r o n (Rhodo­ dendron Kotschyi), a n d dwarf juniper (Juniperus nana), w h i c h often form a large, hardly penetrable brush, par­ ticularly i n the G o r g a n y a n d the Maramure§-Bukovynian Mountains. Grasslands cover all the higher ridges except the Gorgany. In the beech-forest belt they completely cover the ridges above 1,100-1,200 m , w h i l e i n the pine-forest belt their lower limit is 100-130 m higher a n d they are partly taken over by brush, m a i n l y by dwarf pines. In the Gorgany meadows are rare. B y l o w e r i n g the upper boundary of the forests, humans have increased the area of grasslands, but excessive pasturing has reduced the variety of plant forms. The m o u n t a i n meadows are overgrown w i t h sedge (Carex curvula, C. rupestris), hard rush (Juncus trifidus), sheep fescue (Festuca ovina), and smallreed (Calamagrostis). Low-quality grasses such as matgrass (Nardus stricta) a n d tufted hairgrass (Deschampsia caespitosa) predominate to an altitude of 1,3001,600 m , w h i l e such valuable grasses as c o m m o n meadow grass (Poa pratensis) a n d white dutch clover (Trifolium repens) are rare. In general, the variety of plants g r o w i n g i n the meadows increases towards the east. The variety is greatest o n chalky soils. Fauna. The vertical z o n i n g of the vegetation i n the Carpathians is only feebly reflected i n the distribution of animals. Some high-mountain species are restricted to the subalpine zone; for example, the alpine s n o w vole a n d the alpine shrew. Some taiga species - the capercaillie, hazel grouse, woodcock, black grouse, rare lynx, a n d others live only i n the m o u n t a i n forest zone. M o s t of the fauna consists of species typical of the Central European forests, a n d they can be found i n the higher a n d the lower regions of the Carpathians; these include the b r o w n bear and wildcat (both rare n o w ) , red deer, roe deer, wolf, fox, forest marten, ermine, Carpathian squirrel, dormouse, mole, a n d bat. A m o n g the c o m m o n birds are the berkut eagle, hawk, o w l , woodcock, black stork, rock pupit, a n d white-throated blackbird. M a n y of the birds visit the

CARPATHIAN

The village of Kosiv in the Carpathian Mountains Carpathians only i n summer. There are quite a few species of amphibians a n d reptiles, particularly on the southern slopes, i n c l u d i n g the Carpathian newt, western bullfrog, spotted salamander, a n d smooth snake. M i n k and otter reach the h i g h regions by means of streams. The mountain streams contain trout, grayling, a n d Balkan barbel (Barbus meridionalis). The huchen (Hucho hucho) is endemic to the C h e r e m o s h a n d Tysa rivers. The ^Carpathian Nature Reserve has been established to protect the original flora a n d fauna. Some parts of the Carpathians were protected earlier and formed reserves. Population. A l l of the eastern Carpathians are U k r a i ­ nian ethnic territory except for the L o w Beskyd, where, until 1946, Ukrainians occupied only a narrow strip on both sides of the watershed k n o w n as the L e m k o region. Thereafter the L e m k o s w h o lived i n P o l a n d were re­ settled, a n d only the L e m k o s i n Czechoslovakia were left in their homeland. The ethnic boundaries between the Ukrainians and other nationalities i n the Carpathians are fairly distinct, except i n the case of the Slovaks. The mountains d i d not attract foreigners; hence, nonUkrainians are few. U n t i l the beginning of the 1940s the Jews were the largest minority (10 percent), w h i l e the Slovaks, Hungarians, Rumanians, Czechs, Poles, and Germans together accounted for 12 percent of the popula­ tion. Today less than 10 percent of the population is non-Ukrainian (see also *Bukovyna, *Galicia, *Transcarpathia, a n d the *Presov region). The U k r a i n i a n highlanders are d i v i d e d into several ethnographic groups: the Lemkos, i n the L o w Beskyd and the western part of the M i d d l e Beskyd (almost all of them were resettled by the Polish authorities); the Boikos, up to the Solotvynska Bystrytsia River i n the east; and the Hutsuls i n the east. The central part of Transcarpathia is settled by the Zahoriany (tramontanes) or Dolyniany (lowlanders), w h o are related to the Boikos and speak a central Transcarpathian dialect. There are two forms of settlement a n d farming i n the Carpathians, and they appear to be independent of the natural environment. The first is the H u t s u l form; the second is practiced by all other highlanders. The L e m k o s , Boikos, and Zahoriany are basically agricultural people. They cleared the forests to obtain arable l a n d a n d built their elongated villages i n the valleys. Their settlements are at l o w altitudes. The basic occupation of the H u t s u l s is animal husbandry. Their l a n d is used for pastures a n d hay fields. Their homesteads are attached to their fields; hence, their settlements are scattered a n d extend to considerable altitudes.

MOUNTAINS

371

The distribution of the population and farm lots de­ pends mostly o n natural conditions. The lower, gently sloped areas have been deforested and settled. The higher and steeper areas remain forested or covered w i t h meadows. The longitudinal valleys a n d lower strips are settled; the higher strips are not. Transverse valleys are important communication links but are not heavily p o p u ­ lated. The narrow edges o n both sides of the Carpathians, the Inner Carpathian Valley, a n d the Maramures, Basin are densely populated. The M i d - C a r p a t h i a n Depression, except for its central, elevated part; the M i d d l e Beskyd, w i t h its densely populated valleys and longitudinal forested ridges; a n d the L o w Beskyd, w i t h islands of forest (one-third of the area) and unpopulated land, are regions of moderate population density. A b o u t one-half of the area of the U k r a i n i a n Carpathians is unpopulated. A large unsettled area extends from the Zolota Bystrytsia River i n the southeast to the O p i r a n d V e l y k a rivers i n the northwest. The Volcanic Carpathians are also unsettled. (For more detail see the accompanying table and map, both based o n 1920-30 data, w h i c h , except for those for the L e m k o region, are still valid.) A l m o s t 30 percent of the population lives i n towns that are located at the intersection of longitudinal and trans­ verse highways. The largest towns are at the foot of mountain ranges or at some distance from them (Subcar­ pathia) and i n the Maramures, Basin. There are only small towns i n the mountains, the largest of them being Sianik and Turka. These towns are industrial, trade, and admin­ istration centers. The upper boundary of permanent settlement coin­ cides usually w i t h the upper limit of grain g r o w i n g . Both rise as the mountains become more massive, but they also depend o n the form of settlement a n d farming. O n the southern slopes of the Carpathians, where corn is g r o w n , the boundary dips below 600 m . It rises above 1,000 m only i n the H u t s u l region. Seasonal settlements exist at m u c h higher altitudes. These are used only i n the summer, w h e n sheep and cattle are pastured i n the remote mountain meadows. H e r d i n g is not practiced i n the L o w Beskyd, M i d d l e Beskyd, or the Volcanic Carpathians. O n l y non-dairy cattle and horses are pastured i n the meadows of the H i g h Beskyd a n d R i v n a . H e r d i n g is w i d e l y practiced i n the Polonynian Beskyd, the Gorgany, a n d the H u t s u l region:

Castle ruins in Urych, in the Carpathians

37

2

CARPATHIAN

MOUNTAINS

Land use and population in 1930 Percentiige of area usied for Population per sq km in 1930

Region

Farming;

Pasture and ha}

Western Beskyd Low Beskyd Middle Beskyd High Beskyd Polonynian Beskyd Mid-Carpathian Depression Gorgany and central part of Polonynian Beskyd Hutsul Beskyd and eastern part of Polonynian Beskyd Maramure§-Bukovynian Upland Ukrainian Volcanic Carpathians Foothills of Volcanic Carpathians Maramures. Basin

35 40 47 16 17 44

25 26 16 30 24 27

37 29 32 51 57 26

3 5 5 3 2 3

47 52 76 46 21 67

4

24

70

2

24

5 8 17 43 21

35 31 23 29 42

58 58 58 24 33

2 3 2 4 4

34 28 54 114 81

Total Ukrainian Carpathians

18

27

52

3

47

1

2

4

5

7

Forest

Other

Only the western part Only the western part up to the Velyka River in the east Together with the adjacent part of the Middle Carpathian Depression including the east-Bukovynian Beskyd including the Inner Carpathian Valley a

2

3

i n the 1930s it i n v o l v e d about 3,000 herders, 9,000 horses, 33,000 head of cattle (including 8,000 cows), and 190,000 sheep a n d goats, w h i c h amounted to almost one-quarter of all cattle a n d two-thirds of all sheep i n the Carpathians. The pasturing season lasts two a n d one-half to four and one-half months. It is extended even b e y o n d this dura­ tion, especially i n the H u t s u l region, by the feeding of sheep i n winter enclosures (zymarky) until the hay runs out. H e r d i n g i n the meadows was generally backward, particularly i n Galicia a n d B u k o v y n a . U n d e r the Soviet regime the o l d forms of pastoral life are disappearing. Pastoral artels exist today. Economy. Economic activity i n the Carpathians was determined b y the natural environment, folk customs, tribal relations, a n d the economic policies of the govern­ ments that h a d control of the region. A s i n the past the economy today is based o n farming, w h i c h is closely associated w i t h animal husbandry, a n d o n the forest industry. C o m p a r e d to that of neighboring plateau re-

Mountain huts in the Carpathians

gions, the economy of the Carpathians is backward and quite primitive. Agriculture plays a greater role i n the economy of the L e m k o a n d Boiko regions. Yet, even here the production is insufficient to feed the population. M u c h of the arable land is left fallow. In the Boiko region the more elevated fields are fertilized b y means of sheep grazing. Traces of the tree-clearing system of farming can still be found. The main crops are potatoes a n d oats, w h i c h until the beginning of the 20th century was the m a i n bread-baking grain. In the lower parts rye a n d wheat are g r o w n , and corn is the m a i n crop on the southern slopes. M u c h animal feed is produced. The trend is to grow more potatoes a n d feed a n d less oats. The fertility of the soil is low. In the 19th century animal husbandry specialized i n raising non-dairy cattle i n the L e m k o a n d Boiko regions and dairy cattle i n the H u t s u l region, where sheep raising and horse breeding (of the famous H u t s u l horse) were well developed. Since the second half of the 19th century these differences between the various regions of the Carpathians have d i m i n i s h e d somewhat. A s a result of the impoverishment of the peasantry, horse raising re­ placed ox raising, since the horse was useful i n lumber­ ing. Sheep raising declined i n the western areas. In the 1930s the structure of animal husbandry i n the Car­ pathians was as follows (proportion of the U k r a i n i a n SSR production i n parentheses): cattle, 80 percent (73.3 per­ cent); hogs, 9 percent (18.8); sheep a n d goats, 11 percent (6.7). The per capita s u p p l y of domestic animals is somewhat higher here than i n other parts of Ukraine. The forest, w h i c h for centuries supplied the highlander w i t h food (berries, mushrooms, animals), pasture, fuel, and materials a n d energy for small-scale industries, became the m a i n source of exports a n d a very important economic factor i n the second half of the 19th century. The exploitation of the Carpathian forests intensified at the end of the 19th century w h e n a network of narrowgauge railroads was built to transport lumber from remote

CARPATHIAN

A water trough for floating logs down the mountain at the village of Hrebeniv near Stryi in the Carpathians mountain areas. Because of inadequate protective mea­ sures, the forests have sometimes been excessively ex­ ploited, particularly under the Soviet regime. A l t h o u g h the Carpathian M o u n t a i n s possess only 22 percent of Ukraine's forests, i n the 1950s they yielded over 60 percent of the lumber produced i n Soviet Ukraine. Today young forests a n d deforested areas constitute over 50 percent of the forest l a n d , w h i l e mature forests account for scarcely 11 percent instead of the expected 25 percent. Reforestation measures are inadequate. In the Gorgany alone, 1,470 ha of rocky slope have appeared. Floods have increased, a n d the importance of the mountains as a source of moisture has declined. Industry i n the Carpathians is insignificant. The hydro­ electric resources of the mountains are unused. The Tereblia-Rika power station (1956) is the only large hydro­ electric station i n the region. Larger hydroelectric plants can be found i n Transcarpathia. In Galicia the w o o d w o r k i n g industry is located at some distance from the mountains, i n Subcarpathia. The largest w o o d w o r k ­ ing complexes are located i n Svaliava, V e l y k y i Bychkiv, Perechyn, a n d Skole. Salt is m i n e d i n Galicia at the foot of the mountains - i n D o b r o m y l , Deliatyn, and Kosiv. In Transcarpathia a huge salt field is being developed at Solotvyna. The Carpathians are a source of valuable building materials: andιsites, basalts, rhyolites, tufas, and marble i n the Volcanic Carpathians and hard sand­ stone i n other regions. The oil industry, located at the foot of the mountains, has a national importance. The main o i l fields are Boryslav-Skhidnytsia, D o l y n a (which is today the most important field), a n d Bytkiv. Rivne, Sloboda-Rungurska, a n d K o s m a c h have n o w lost their

MOUNTAINS

373

former significance. Gas fields are found i n Subcarpathia. Since the 19th century the iron industry, based o n small deposits of m u d ores, a n d coal have h a d a slight i m ­ portance. Because of the abundance of mineral springs, a healthy climate, a n d natural beauty, the Carpathians are the main resort a n d recreation area i n U k r a i n e after the Crimea. Various mineral springs - carbonic acid, salt, iodine salt, bitter, and petroleum - occur. The most famous springs are i n the L e m k o area, w h i c h today lies beyond Ukrainian territories: i n K r y n y t s i a , Bardejov, Iwonicz, R y m a n σ w , W y s o w a , Zhegestiv, etc. A t the foot of the mountains are found the Truskavets, M o r s h y n , Deliatyn, and Kosiv springs. Transcarpathia is rich i n mineral springs, mostly in the Volcanic Carpathians. These include the Poliana, Kvasova, and Syniak springs, near U z h h o r o d . Summer resorts are even more important. Before 1914 the Prut Valley was the m a i n summer-resort area. In the interwar period vacationers visited all parts of the Carpathians. U n d e r Soviet rule the resort area was limited again. The most popular resorts are located i n the Prut Valley (Vorokhta, Yaremcha [including the former villages of Yamna a n d Dora], etc) a n d the O p i r Valley. Smaller re­ sorts are found i n Transcarpathia. Cottage industry has lost its importance except i n the H u t s u l area, w h i c h specializes i n folk art. For a long time traveling craftsmen such as wiredrawers were important. Traveling salesmen sold tar to the L e m k o s a n d fruit a n d salt to the Boikos. C o m m o n workers found seasonal w o r k on the farms d u r i n g harvesttime and i n the forests. Emigration, w h i c h began at the end of the 19th century, was vigorous. Generally, the economic resources of the Carpathians under all regimes (except for the Czechoslovakian to some extent) were poorly developed. The population was poor a n d could not find enough employ­ ment. The situation was aggravated by the fact that the main natural resources, the forest a n d oil industries, resorts, a n d trade were foreign-owned (mainly by Jews, Poles, Hungarians, a n d Czechs). The economic condi­ tions i n the mountains are still bad a n d have become worse w i t h the destruction of the forests.

Timber rafts on the Cheremosh River The communication lines i n the Carpathians have r u n i n two directions since ancient times: longitudinally a n d transversely. The longitudinal lines are of greater impor­ tance locally; the transverse have connected Ukraine w i t h H u n g a r y for centuries. The A u s t r i a n government devel­ oped these o l d routes to connect Galicia w i t h the other

374

CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS

Carpathian National Park (Karpatskyi p r y r o d n y i park). A park established i n 1980 for the purpose of protecting the m o u n t a i n environment, p r o v i d i n g recreational facilities, a n d p r o m o t i n g tourism. It covers an area of 47,300 ha. The park is part of the *Chornohora massif, and a section belongs to the Carpathian Nature Reserve.

Opening of the dam on Brustvy Lake in the Carpathians parts of the empire a n d built a number of railroads. F r o m 1918 to 1945 these h i g h w a y s lost their importance, because the state border ran along the ridges of the Carpathians. H o w e v e r , w h e n Transcarpathia was annexed to the U k r a i n i a n SSR, these routes regained their importance. Since the Carpathians are narrow, the longitudinal railroad lines usually r u n parallel to the ridges: i n the north, i n Subcarpathia, there is the P e r e m y s h l K h yr i v - S a m b i r - S tryi - I v a n o - F r a n k i v s k e - C h e r n i v t s i line; the M i c h a l o v c e - C h o p - V y n o h r a d i v line is i n the south, i n the Tysa L o w l a n d a n d the Maramure§ Basin. Both of the longitudinal lines are intersected by four transverse lines that r u n through the mountain passes: the PeremyshlMichalovce, S a m b i r - U z h h o r o d - C h o p , S t r y i - M u k a c h i v V u z l o v e , a n d Ivano-Frankivske-Syhit lines. The whole railway network was built before the First W o r l d W a r . Paved h i g h w a y s r u n the same w a y as the railroads. The important h i g h w a y s used for regular motor transportation are the S n i n a - P e r e c h y n - S v a l i a v a - K h u s t highway, w h i c h runs along the Inner Carpathian Valley and through the D u k l i a Pass, a n d the N y z h n i V o r o t a Mizhhiria-Khust highway. (For more detail o n the population a n d economy of the U k r a i n i a n Carpathians today see *Bukovyna, T r a n s carpathia, * H u t s u l region, *Lemkos, *Boikos, *IvanoFrankivske oblast, *Lviv oblast, ^Chernivtsi oblast.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Uhlig, V. Bau und Bild der Karpathen (Vienna 1903) Rudnyts'kyi, S. 'Znadoby do morfolohi'i stochyshcha Dnistra,' Zbirnyk Matematychno-pryrodopysno-likars'koï sektsïi NTSh (Lviv 1905, 1907) Kubijovyc, V. Rozsifeni kultur a obyvatelstva v Severnich Karpatech (Bratislava 1932) - Pastyfsky zivot v Podkarpatské Rusi, 1-2 (Bratislava 1935) Popov, M . Ocherk rastiteVnosti iflory Karpat (Moscow 1949) Anuchin, V. Geografiia Sovetskogo ZakarpaVia (Moscow 1956) Bondarchuk, V. Radians'ki Karpaty (Kiev 1957) Pryroda Ukraïns'kykh Karpat (Lviv 1968) Voropai, L. Ukraïns'ki Karpaty (Kiev 1968) Buchyns'kyi, I. Klimat Ukraïns'kykh Karpat (Kiev 1971) Geologicheskoe stroenie i goriuchie iskopaemye Ukrainskikh Karpat (Moscow 1971) Stoiko, S., Iermolenko, Iu. Karpaty ochyma dopytlyvykh (Lviv 1976) Stoiko, S. Karpatam zelenity vichno (Uzhhorod 1977) V. Kubijovyc

Carpathian Nature Reserve (Karpatskyi zapovidnyk). Created i n 1968 to protect the environment, plants, and animals of the U k r a i n i a n Carpathians (until then only game preserves existed). The reserve, w i t h an area of 18,500 ha, is composed of three complexes. T w o of them cover the *Chornohora range, w h i c h contains the highest peaks of the Carpathians - H o v e r l i a (2,061 m) and P i p Ivan (2,022 m) - a n d is covered w i t h fir, spruce, and beech-spruce forests. The third, the Uhlia-Shyrekyi L u h complex, lies i n Transcarpathia oblast o n the southern slope of M o u n t M e n c h u l (1,500 m) i n a region of unique ancient beech forests. The deer, m o u n t a i n goat, lynx, brown bear, and other species are protected at the reserve.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Komendar, V. (ed). Karpatskie zapovedniki (Uzhhorod 1966) Carpathian Sich (Karpatska Sich) (also the Carpathian Sich N a t i o n a l Defense Organization). A paramilitary organization i n Transcarpathian Ukraine i n 1938-9, formed i n N o v e m b e r 1938 from units of the U k r a i n i a n National Defence (organized i n U z h h o r o d by U k r a i n i a n nationalists a n d headed by S. Rosokha). The leadership of the Carpathian Sich consisted of the c o m m a n d (commander, D . K l y m p u s h ; deputy-commander, I. Roman) and the staff of officers. The organization's headquarters were i n Khust, a n d there were 10 i n d i v i d u a l district commands w i t h subordinate local sections, w h i c h conducted military and political training i n v o l v i n g several thousand m e n . Five permanent garrisons conducted regular military training, and a number of the Sich soldiers served i n the local police force a n d w i t h the border guards. The Carpathian Sich adopted uniforms a n d ranks modeled o n those of military formations i n U k r a i n e between 1917 and 1920. It was also i n v o l v e d i n cultural a n d educational w o r k among the local population: its members organized the artistic group Letiucha Estrada and published the weekly *Nastup, edited b y S. Rosokha. The Sich held general and district conventions, the largest of w h i c h , consisting of several thousand participants, took place i n K h u s t i n February 1939. A significant number of Galician Ukrainians (who entered illegally from Poland), together w i t h emigrants from Dnieper U k r a i n e , joined the local Ukrainians as officers a n d soldiers i n the permanent garrisons of the Carpathian Sich. After Carpatho-Ukraine's proclamation of independence, the Sich became its national army (Col S. Yefremov, commander; C o l M . K o l o d z i n s k y , chief of staff) and, i n M a r c h 1939, mounted an armed resistance to the H u n g a r i a n invasion. A t that time the strength of the Sich was about 2,000 m e n . Several h u n d r e d of them died i n battles against the Czechs (13 March) and the H u n garians (14-18 March). O v e r w h e l m e d by the H u n g a r i a n army, the soldiers either retreated to Rumania and Slovakia or h i d i n the mountains. The Rumanians turned over many of the soldiers to the Hungarians, w h o i n turn gave u p many Galicians to the Poles a n d kept the remainder as prisoners. Illegal executions of prisoners were perpetrated. The struggle of the Carpathian Sich

C A R T E L

against the Hungarians was the first armed conflict i n central Europe to precede the Second W o r l d War. See also "Transcarpathia. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Karpats'ka Ukraïna v borofbi (Vienna 1939) Hirniak, L. Na stezhkakh istorychnykh podii (New York 1979) V. Markus Carpathian Ski Club (Karpatskyi leshchetarskyi kliub). Sports club founded i n L v i v i n 1924 for skiing enthusiasts. Besides a skiing section it also h a d a s w i m m i n g section a n d a games section. The club h a d branches throughout Galicia. Its presidents were Z . R u s y n and V . Pankiv. The club was dissolved by the Soviets i n 1939 but resumed its activities i n 1941 under the Germans. It was revived abroad - i n M u n i c h i n 1945, then i n N e w York i n 1955, and eventually i n Toronto. Carpatho-Ukraine (Karpatska Ukraina). The name of the autonomous Carpatho-Ukrainian state within Czechoslovakia i n 1938-39. This name as w e l l as the earlier name Subcarpathian Ruthenia (Pidkarpatska Rus') was i n official use. It was the name adopted by constitutional law no. 1 of the Carpatho-Ukrainian Diet o n 15 M a r c h 1939 for the Carpatho-Ukrainian republic. The name was used unofficially before 1938 to designate "Transcarpathia.

Carpini, Giovanni da Pian del, b 1182 i n Umbría,

Italy, d 1 A u g u s t 1252. Italian Franciscan and traveler. In 1245-7 headed the mission of Pope Innocent i v to the Mongols. O n his w a y through Ukraine i n 1245 and 1247 he received aid from princes D a n y l o and Vasylko Romanovych of V o l h y n i a and served as an intermediary between them and the pope. H e described his travels i n Liber Tartarorum, w h i c h contains valuable information about Ukraine, particularly a description of K i e v . n

e

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Beazley, C.R. (ed). The Texts and Versions of John de Plano Carpini (1903; repr 1967) Carrot (Daucus; Ukrainian: morkva). Plant of the family Umbelliferae. In Ukraine the w i l d carrot (Daucus carota), a biennial plant w i t h white flowers a n d an inedible root, is widespread. The garden carrot ( D . carota sativus), an edible biennial plant, is cultivated for h u m a n consumption and animal feed. The most popular varieties i n Ukraine are the K h a r k i v Nantes, Skvyra Chantenay, and Chantenay 2461, w h i c h are cultivated as animal feed. Cartel. A n association of independent firms i n the same or related branches of industry formed for the purpose of regulating production or sales through the allocation of raw materials, the d i v i d i n g u p of markets, the assigning of sales quotas, or the fixing of prices. Cartels have a monopolistic tendency (see "Monopoly): they restrict, but do not abolish, free competition. Members of a cartel retain their identity a n d financial independence. Cartels are characteristic of periods of industrial concentration. Another form of association, consisting of enterprises belonging to different branches of industry and even of financial institutions, is prevalent today. These integrated enterprises share p l a n n i n g and management; hence, they sacrifice some of their former autonomy. Combinations of financial a n d industrial firms k n o w n as

375

consortiums are organized for specific purposes. "Trusts, w h i c h come under one management, are the most integrated form of association. They exist i n the U S S R , but are distinct from the capitalist trusts i n the West. International cartels are composed of enterprises or financial firms from various countries. In prerevolutionary Russia the "syndicate, w h i c h was interested primarily i n regulating sales, was the standard form of cartel. The production of the syndicate members was sold through a c o m m o n marketing center. The syndicates i n Russia were usually joint-stock associations of firms w i t h a c o m m o n statute capital and a single representative agency, w h i c h received purchase orders and distributed them according to quotas among the syndicate members. In the Russian Empire cartels arose at the end of the 19th century, a n d by 1917 there were 100 to 140 of them. The principal cartels were "Prodamet, "Produgol, "Prodarud, the Russian Steamshipping and Trade C o m p a n y , the U n i o n of Rail Manufacturers, the U n i o n of Rail Fittings Manufacturers, the U r o z h a i syndicate of farm-machine builders i n Ukraine, and the Syndicate of South Russian Starch Factories. M o s t of these cartels were under the control of foreign capital or of the largest imperial banks, w h i c h were also usually foreigncontrolled. Individual price-fixing agreements (known as puly or ringi) among manufacturers were common. The Russian cartels d i d not develop into trusts: attempts to turn Prodamet into a steel trust o n the German-American model d i d not succeed. The Russian government tried to curb the growth of cartels o n l y w h e n they encroached u p o n state interests; for example, it reacted against Produgol w h e n the cartel tried to increase the price of coal to the state railways, against the "Syndicate of Sugar Manufacturers, a n d against the secret salt syndicate i n Ukraine, w h i c h lowered prices to undercut the salt refineries i n the Urals and thus reduced the government's income from excise taxes. In most cases, however, the Russian government permitted cartels to exist. The legislation against m o n o p o l y was limited to articles 913 and 1180 of the C o d e of L a w s of the Russian Empire, w h i c h prohibited artifical price hikes o n goods deemed primary necessities, but these articles were rarely invoked, particularly because of widespread corruption i n government and judiciary circles. Cartels i n Ukraine often competed w i t h cartels i n Russian or Polish territory, and i n the process the territorial interests of the U k r a i n i a n enterprises became clearly defined. The government tried to defend the Russian cartels by manipulating freight tariffs o n the state railways and by usually purchasing Russian products, but the policy proved a failure. The cartels i n Ukraine, such as Urozhai, w h i c h after a fierce struggle captured markets as far away as Siberia, a n d Prodamet, extended their i n fluence to markets throughout the empire. D u r i n g the revolution the cartels were nationalized, and d u r i n g the N E P period the Soviet government organized state cartels, w h i c h usually operated o n a territorial basis. The latter were abolished i n 1929-30. Before the First W o r l d W a r Galicia's petroleum industry was controlled b y A u s t r i a n , British, A m e r i c a n , and French concerns, a n d after the war, under Polish rule, it was controlled by British, A m e r i c a n , and French cartels. A large part of interwar Poland's industry was controlled by cartels, and the Polish government was i n debt to certain international cartels. In 1929 the Polish govern-

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ment adopted legislation similar to the G e r m a n legislation of 1923 limiting the activities of cartels. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Rieber, A.J. Merchants and Entrepreneurs in Imperial Russia (Chapel Hill, N C 1982) V. Holubnychy

Cartography Maps of Ukraine until the mid-i7th century. O n e of the

oldest maps of the ancient period is an outline of the U k r a i n i a n coast of the Black Sea found i n Mesopotamia o n a R o m a n shield. A n o t h e r map representing Ukraine is a traveler's m a p of the R o m a n Empire of the 4th century, w h i c h is k n o w n as Tabula Peutingeriana. D u r i n g the M i d d l e A g e s the territory of Ukraine was marked o n the h a n d - d r a w n maps of the w o r l d prepared by the Arabic geographers Al-Istakhri of the 10th century and Al-Idrisi (1154, 1192). The former introduced the name Rus'. In the 14th century Ukraine appeared i n the portolano of T i s a n e ' (1300), G . Laurenciano of Florence (1351), M . Sanuto's (1320) a n d P . Vesconte's (1311) maps of the w o r l d , a n d the Catalonian atlas (Mappemundi) of 1375. In the 15th century several maps of the w o r l d depicted Ukraine: the Catalonian m a p of 1450, P. de N o h a ' s map (ca 1414), a n d H . Germanus's map of 1489. The portolani of U . Freducci (1497), the 'Borgia m a p ' , (1457), a n d A . Benincazo (1476) gave some information about Ukraine. The 'Genoese' map of the Atlantic (1490) and M . Beheim's globe also i n c l u d e d U k r a i n e . In the 16th century n e w cartographical works appeared i n w h i c h U k r a i n i a n lands were represented: J. de la Cosa's portolano (ca 1500); G . Contarini's m a p of the w o r l d (1506); D . Ribero's m a p of the w o r l d (1527); B . Agnese's m a p of M u s c o v y (1525); S. Herberstein's map (1549); the 'Salviati planisphere' (1527); the maps of B . Sylvanus (1511), A . D u r e r (1515, designed by S. Stabius), and S. Gutierrez; the portolano of V . Maggiolo (1512); a map of the Atlantic that i n c l u d e d the Black Sea a n d the most detailed description of the Black a n d A z o v seas along w i t h southern Ukraine (Rusia) b y the Greek carto­ grapher G . K a l a p o d a (1552). Ukraine was depicted o n the maps of P. Forlani (1565) a n d A . Pograbius (1569). Regional maps that i n c l u d e d U k r a i n i a n lands were published b y the Polish historian B . W a p o w s k i (ca 1475-1535). H i s maps of P o l a n d a n d Lithuania encom­ passed Ukraine as far east as the Dnieper River a n d the Black Sea. U k r a i n e was also represented o n M . Waldseem٧ller's m a p of the w o r l d , Carta marina (1516), and J. Ruysch's map of the w o r l d (1508). The eastern part of Ukraine was presented o n the maps of A . W i e d (1555, 1594) a n d the English traveler A . Jenkinson (1562). Western U k r a i n e was encompassed b y W . Grodecki's map (1562), w h i c h was printed i n A . Ortelius's atlas (1527,1598), a n d central Ukraine by G . Mercator's (151294) map. Mercator also published maps of Europe and the w o r l d that covered all U k r a i n e . The C r i m e a a n d its adjacent lands were depicted o n the map of the Ukrainian M . Bronovsky (1515). The L v i v region was mapped by A . Passarotti i n 1607. The first cartographers to produce maps based o n topographic observation a n d measurement of U k r a i n i a n territories were T. M a k o w s k i (ca 1575-1620) a n d G . le Vasseur de *Beauplan (ca 1600-73). M a k o w s k i prepared a comprehensive map of Lithuania, o n a scale of 1:1,300,000,

w h i c h encompassed northern Ukraine. It was published i n A m s t e r d a m i n 1613 b y H . Gerritsz a n d appeared later i n various atlases, most importantly those of K . A l l a r d and N . Visscher. M a k o w s k i also prepared a m a p of the Dnieper, o n a scale of 1:1,300,000, for some atlases. The most important cartographical publication i n the 17th century was Beauplan's map of Ukraine. H i s compre­ hensive m a p Delineado specialis et accurata Ukrainae is a detailed representation of U k r a i n e o n a scale of 1:452,000. It was engraved a n d published b y W . H o n d i u s (15971660) i n A m s t e r d a m i n 1650-53 i n 8 sheets a n d was reproduced i n the atlases of J. Blaeu a n d N . Sanson. Beauplan's second map, Delineatio generalis, o n a scale of 1:1,800,000, encompassed Ukraine from R e d R u s ' (Gali­ cia) to the Black Sea. It was published i n D a n z i g i n 1651 and, under a French title, i n R o u e n i n 1660. Later, it was frequently reproduced under the title Typus generalis Ukrainae. H i s third w o r k was the map of the Dnieper River from K i e v to its m o u t h . It occupied three sheets i n the multilingual Grand Atlas b y J. Blaeu, t w o o n a scale of 1:226,000 and one 1:452,000, a n d i n a reduced form i n the atlases of J. Jansson a n d M . Pitt. Beauplan established the name U k r a i n e , w h i c h appeared first o n a m a p prepared for Charles i x of France i n 1572 a n d then i n Blaeu's atlas of 1613 a n d the atlas of the H o n d i u s brothers of 1644 under the title Typus generalis Ukrainae. Maps from the m i d - i T t h century to 1917. M o r e detailed maps of eastern Ukraine were made b y J. Bruce a n d C . Cruys, t w o D u t c h m e n i n the Russian service; they were published i n A m s t e r d a m . Bruce published a m a p of western a n d southern Russia i n 1679, w h i c h , besides eastern Ukraine, i n c l u d e d the K i e v a n d Bratslav regions o n the Right Bank. C z u y ' s atlas of the D o n contained 17 maps. K . A l l a r d ' s m a p at the beginning of the 18th century encompassed all U k r a i n e . The eastern regions were depicted i n the first Russian atlas, published by I. Kirilov i n 1734, a n d i n Atlas rossiiskoi (The Russian Atlas), edited b y L . Eiler a n d p u b l i s h e d b y the St Petersburg A c a d e m y of Sciences i n 1745. The first topographic surveys a n d mappings of Ukrai­ nian lands were made d u r i n g the reign of Hetmαn I. M a z e p a (1687-1709) for administrative use of the Cossack regiments. (The surveys were later the responsibility of the Imperial College of Foreign Affairs.) O n the basis of the data that were gathered several maps were prepared, including Atlas Dnepra (Atlas of the Dnieper), printed i n 36 sheets i n 1784; General'naia karta Kievskoi gubernii ( A General M a p of the K i e v Gubernia, 1774), w h i c h encom­ passed the lands of 10 regiments; a n d Novorossiia ( N e w Russia, 1779). The eastern parts of Ukraine were repre­ sented o n the first Russian general map (1785), consisting of 8 sheets o n the scale of 1:3,150,000, and i n Rossiiskii atlas (The Russian Atlas, 1792, 1800), edited b y A . Wilbrecht, w h i c h also i n c l u d e d central Ukraine. M o r e accurate topographical surveys of U k r a i n i a n territories based o n triangulation were introduced at the end of the first half of the 18th century. Larger-scale maps were based o n these surveys: G . Rizzi-Zannoni's Carte de la Pologne (on a scale of 1:692,000) i n 24 sheets (1770-7), w h i c h encompassed all U k r a i n i a n lands under P o l a n d and the larger part of Russian-ruled Ukraine; an A u s t r i a n map of Galicia (on a scale of 1:178,000) i n 21 sheets (1783); and a Russian general m a p of western Russia b y K . O p p e r m a n n (on a scale of 1:840,000) i n 114 sheets (180116), w h i c h encompassed the adjacent A u s t r i a n and Polish

C A R T O G R A P H Y

lands. A . M a k s y m o v y c h , a U k r a i n i a n , prepared a general map of European Russia o n a scale of 1:3,780,000 a n d published it i n 5 sheets i n 1816. The southwestern territories that were annexed by Austria were m a p p e d towards the end of the 18th century. In 1805 A . Heldensfeld's Operationskarte beider Galizien ... appeared i n 34 sheets, on the scale of 1:172,800; it later became the basis of a map d r a w n to a scale of 1:200,000. In 1790 J. Liesganig published Kτnigsreich Galizien und Lodomerien o n the scale of 1:288,000. In 1779-83 M i e g prepared a manuscript map i n 413 sheets, on the scale of 1:28,000, w h i c h later was used as the source for a map w i t h a scale of 1:25,000. D u r i n g the 19th century a n d u p to the First W o r l d War, Austria, Russia, a n d G e r m a n y published modern, de­ tailed maps that were based o n n e w surveying methods. The most important maps published by the Russian Military Topography Corps were Shubert's special maps of Russia i n 60 sheets o n the scale of 1:420,000 (1832-44), and a map of Eastern Europe o n the same scale i n the Gauss projection, edited by G e n I. Strilbytsky, w h i c h appeared i n 158 sheets i n 1864-71. The latter embraced all Ukrainian territories. The corps also published a topo­ graphic map of western Russia o n the scale of 1:126,000 i n the Bonne projection (1845-63). It was printed i n 435 sheets, and relief was rendered by hachures. The corps' best topographic map was published i n 1845-82 a n d 1907-17. It covered the western territories belonging to Russia starting from the Kiev-Odessa line o n the scale of 1:84,000 u s i n g the M u e f l i n g projection. It was printed i n two colors. Relief was marked by contours a n d measured in sazhens (1 sazhen = 2.13 meters). N e w methods of triangulation a n d n e w topographic data were used i n its preparation. L i k e other maps this map was oriented o n the Pulkovo meridian (30°i9'42" east of Greenwich) and referred to the Paris or Ferro meridian (i7°39'57" west of Greenwich). The most accurate maps published i n Russia were the map encompassing the Crimea, Taman Penin­ sula, Donbas, a n d territories west of K i e v , published i n 84 sheets i n 1855 o n the scale of 1:42,000, a n d the map of the western borderlands (western V o l h y n i a , the K h o l m region, a n d Podlachia) a n d the C r i m e a o n the scale of 1:21,000. In A u s t r i a - H u n g a r y accurate maps of Galicia, Buko­ vyna, a n d Transcarpathia were prepared by the Military Geographic Institute: the map o n the scale of 1:75,000, w h i c h was p u b l i s h e d i n 1873-89 a n d supplemented and revised on the eve of the First W o r l d War, and the very accurate topographic map o n the scale of 1:25,000, w h i c h was published i n 1867-88, a n d to some extent served as the source of the former map. Both maps were monochro­ matic contour maps w i t h hachures. A m o n g other maps published i n A u s t r i a - H u n g a r y were the general maps of central Europe o n the scales of 1:200,000 (1885) a n d 1:750,000. Both were four-color, hachure maps and cov­ ered the western part of U k r a i n e u p to the Kiev-Odessa line. V . Kummersberg's map of Galicia, on the scale of 1:115,000, was published i n 1855-63. In 1868 a statistical map of Galicia a n d B u k o v y n a appeared, w i t h a scale of 1:576,000. A l l these maps were oriented o n the Ferro meridian. A hypsometric map of the central Carpathians on the scale of 1:100,000 was also published under Austria. In 1885 K . C z o e r n i g published an ethnographic map of A u s t r i a - H u n g a r y o n the scale of 1:2,500,000. The Polish A c a d e m y of Sciences published a geological atlas

377

of Galicia i n C r a c o w i n 1898-1906. H u n g a r i a n maps of Transcarpathia were published i n 1884 o n the scale of 1:360,000 a n d i n 1869-81 (1:144,000). In 1919 Z . Bαtky Kogutowicz published an ethnographic map of H u n g a r y on the scale of 1:300,000, w h i c h included Transcarpathian Ukraine. Ukrainian territories were represented o n the follow­ ing G e r m a n maps: the northwestern territories o n a map w i t h a scale of 1:100,000; the western part on a map of central Europe w i t h a scale of 1:300,000; and all Ukraine on a map of Europe w i t h a scale of 1:800,000. The first of these was monochromatic; the last two were colored. D u r i n g the First W o r l d W a r the Germans reproduced the Russian maps w i t h scales of 1:84,000 and 1:126,000 and reissued them o n the scale of 1:100,000. They also published the first aviation map of K i e v i n 1916, w i t h a scale of 1:26,600. Thematic cartography, w h i c h developed i n the second half of the 19th century, extended cartography i n many directions. The following important thematic maps deal­ ing w i t h Ukraine were published i n Russia: V . D o k u chaev's map of soils for European Russia i n 6 sheets on the scale of 1:2,500,000 (1900); a map of forests o n the scale of 1:1,680,000 (1909); two geologic maps, one i n 6 sheets w i t h a scale of 1:2,520,000 (1900 a n d 1916) and one w i t h a scale of 1:420,000 (1882-94); a military road map i n 27 sheets o n the scale of 1:1,050,000 (1864-1917); the ethno­ graphic map by A . Rittich i n 12 sheets on the scale of 1:1,680,000 (1875), w h i c h was republished i n 1878 i n a German edition o n the scale of 1:1,370,000 by Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen; a n d Gornopromyshlennaia karta evropeiskoi Rossii (The M i n i n g Industry M a p of European Russia, 1903) o n the scale of 1:2,250,000. In 1915 a hypsometric map of the Donets Ridge w i t h a scale of 1:420,000 was published. The first atlases of U k r a i n i a n territories were the his­ torical Atlas Slobodsko-Ukrainskoi gubernii (Atlas of Slobidska Ukraine G u b e r n i a , K h a r k i v , 1885), Atlas Poltavskoi gubernii s uezdami (Atlas of Poltava Gubernia w i t h Its Districts, Poltava 1895) by H . K o l o m i n s k y , a n d Opisanie Chernigovskoi gubernii ( A Description of C h e r n i h i v Guber­ nia; 2 vols, 37 maps, C h e r n i h i v 1898-9). The first ethno­ graphic map of Ukraine was prepared by H . Velychko i n 1896 on a scale of 1:3,700,000, a n d the first regional map of Transcarpathia was p u b l i s h e d by S. Tomashivsky i n 1910 o n the scale of 1:300,000. J. Buzek published a Polish denominational-linguistic map of Galicia o n the scale of 1:432,000 i n L v i v i n 1909. The Ukrainian state. In 1918 the department of carto­ graphy of the Chief Geodesic A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n K i e v revised the Russian special map i n 54 sheets o n the scale of 1:420,000 a n d the map of K i e v a n d its suburbs i n 6 sheets on the scale of 1:21,000, w h i c h s h o w e d contours and U k r a i n i a n names; it also reprinted a Russian map o n the scale of 1:1,050,000 (2nd edn, V i e n n a 1920) and a map by P. *Tutkovsky o n the scale of 1:1,680,000. That year S. *Rudnytsky published the first physical w a l l map of Ukraine i n U k r a i n i a n w i t h a scale of 1:1,000,000. Between the world wars. D u r i n g the civil war i n Russia, the national revolutions, a n d the 1920s, the Russians revised the o l d maps of the Russian Empire. In 1924 work on new maps began. These maps were based on conic projections, referred to G r e e n w i c h as the principal meridian, a n d used metric units. They were prepared w i t h the help of n e w photographic methods. The funda-

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CARTOGRAPHY

Portolan chart (1311) by P. Vesconte of the eastern Mediter­ ranean region, including the Black and Azov seas. (Note re­ markable outline.)

Roman road map, 4th century AD. (Note territory marked Roxolani Sarmate [Ukraine].)

Russian map, scale 1:21,000

Austrian map, scale 1:25,000

Polish map, scale 1:100,000

Russian map, scale 1:84,000*

*Originals in color

Soviet map, scale 1:100,000*

CARTOGRAPHY

379

Austrian map, scale 1:200,000 Soviet map, scale 1:200,000*

Soviet map, scale 1:50,000*

First German aviation map in the Second World War, 1:500,000 (1940)

mental topographic map w i t h a scale of 1:100,000 covered, until 1941, the European part of the USSR u p to the Volga River. It represented relief by contour lines, and objects made by humans, such as settlements and roads, were marked i n detail. F r o m it were compiled large-scale maps w i t h scales of 1:25,000,1:50,000; a n d 1:10,000. M a p s w i t h scales of 1:50,000 a n d 1:1,000,000 were used as aviation maps, a n d the latter was also used for economic and military p l a n n i n g , particularly d u r i n g the Second W o r l d War. Two hypsometric maps w i t h a scale of 1:1,500,000 were published i n the USSR i n 1926 a n d 1929. They also covered the parts of Ukraine under P o l a n d , Rumania, and Czechoslovakia. S. R u d n y t s k y published, i n 1929, the first large hypsometric map of the U k r a i n i a n SSR o n a scale of 1:1,000,000. In Soviet Ukraine the following thematic maps were published: a soil map on the scale of 1:1,000,000 by H . Makhiv i n 1927; a geological map o n the scale of 1:1,000,000 edited by P. C h e r v i n s k y i n 1940; Elektrifikatsiia Ukrainy (The Electrification of Ukraine, 1920) o n the scale of 1:2,100,000; a map of minerals o n the scale of 1:1,050,000 in 1922; a map of the regions of sugar-beet cultivation on the scale of 1:1,700,000 i n 1936; Y u . Kleopov and Y e . Lavrenko's map of vegetation o n the scale of 1:1,000,000 in 1938; a n d detailed maps of the Donbas w i t h scales of 1:200,000 and 1:8,400. A t the same time the following atlases were published: Atlas elektryfikatsii Ukrainy (The Atlas of Ukraine's Electrification, K h a r k i v 1922), Energeticheskii atlas Ukrainy (The Atlas of Ukraine's Energy Resources, K h a r k i v 1921), Statistiko-ekonomicheskii atlas Kryma (The Statistical-Economic Atlas of the Crimea, Sym-

feropil 1922); Klimatychnyi atlas Ukrainy (The Climatic Atlas of Ukraine, K i e v 1927), a n d L . K l o v a n y ' s Atlas Ukrainy (Atlas of Ukraine, K i e v 1928, 1929). The Military Geographic Institute i n Warsaw prepared maps encompassing U k r a i n i a n territories o n scales of 1:25,000; 1:100,000; a n d 1:300,000, as w e l l as aviation maps on scales of 1:500,000 a n d 1:1,000,000. The eastern Carpathians were represented o n the 1927 map on the scale of 1:200,000. V . *Kubijovyc a n d M . *Kulytsky collaborated i n prepar­ ing two physical maps of the ethnic territories of Ukraine, w h i c h were published i n L v i v i n 1935 (on the scale of 1:2,500,000) a n d i n 1939 (on the scale of 1:1,500,000) and revised i n 1942. A n administrative map of Galicia, w i t h a scale of 1:600,000, was published i n 1939. Regional maps of the Galician voivodeships (on the scale of 1:500,000) appeared i n 1940-3. K u l y t s k y published a map of the Ukrainian Catholic church i n Galicia o n the scale of 1:300,000 a n d a map of L v i v o n the scale of 1:30,000 i n 1935. The most important contribution to Ukrainian scholarship was Atlas Ukrainy i sumezhnykh kraiv (Atlas of Ukraine and the N e i g h b o r i n g Countries), w h i c h was edited by V . Kubijovyc a n d published i n Ukrainian a n d English i n L v i v i n 1937. This was one of the few national atlases at the time. A part of this atlas was translated a n d published i n Berlin under the title Atlas der Ukraine und benachbarten Gebiete (part 1, 1943). Transcarpathian Ukraine was represented o n Czechoslovakian maps with scales of 1:25,000, 1:75,000, 1:200,000, and 1:750,000, as w e l l as o n the maps of the national atlas of Czechoslovakia. S. Bohac's ethnographic map of 1937 on the scale of 1:500,000 s h o w e d the distribution of

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Ukrainians i n Czechoslovakia. B u k o v y n a , Bessarabia, a n d the Maramure§ region were depicted o n R u m a n i a n maps w i t h scales of 1:100,000 (1926-39); 1:200,000, 1:300,000, a n d 1:500,000. D u r i n g the Second W o r l d W a r the Germans revised the Polish maps o n scales of 1:100,000 and 1:300,000 a n d the Russian maps w i t h G e r m a n nomenclature on scales of 1:100,000,1:200,000,1:300,000,1:500,000, and 1: 1,000,000. These maps were often supplemented w i t h aerial data. In K i e v a G e r m a n geobotanical map of Ukraine, o n the scale of 1:1,000,000, was published i n 1942 by K l e o p o v a n d Lavrenko. The G e r m a n A u s l a n d s i n stitut i n Stuttgart p u b l i s h e d two valuable ethnographic maps of Caucasia based o n the censuses of 1926 and 1939. After the Second World War. The Soviet U n i o n published n e w maps based on aerial photography on scales of 1:25,000, 1:50,000, 1:100,000, 1:200,000, 1:300,000, 1:500,000, a n d 1:1,000,000, according to Krasovsky's ellipsoidal a n d the Gauss projection. Gosudarstvennaia karta (The State M a p ) on the scale of 1:1,000,000, published i n 1940-5, served as the basis for other maps of the Soviet U n i o n - geological, soil, a n d geobotanical. N o n e of these maps are available to the public. The most precise hypsometric maps are those of the Carpathians a n d the Donbas, both o n a scale of 1:600,000. The basic geological map of Ukraine today is the map o n the scale of 1:200,000. Large parts of U k r a i n e are covered by the geological map o n the scale of 1:50,000. Smaller areas are represented o n maps o n the scale of 1:25,000. There are even more precise maps of m i n i n g areas. Shelf maps o n the scales of 1:100,000 and 1:250,000 are p u b l i s h e d . Special maps on the scale of 1:2,000 to 1:10,000 are based o n local measurements. Sea maps are prepared w i t h scales of 1:25,000 a n d 1:75,000 (port maps), 1:100,000 to 1:500,000 (navigational maps), and 1:1,000,000 a n d over (regional maps). Forest maps are prepared o n a scale of 1:300,000. Soil maps have scales of 1:10,000 a n d 1:25,000, w h i l e regional maps have a scale of 1:200,000. Thematic maps (soil, geological, tectonic, climatic, ethnographic, etc) are published w i t h a scale of 1:2,500,000 a n d 1:1,000,000. The Chief Administration of Geodesy a n d Cartography has published, among others, the following important atlases that pertain to Ukraine: an atlas of railroads (from 1962); an atlas of roads and highways (from 1961); A . Baronov's comprehensive atlas of the USSR (1962, 1969, 1982); Svinarenko's hypsometric Atlas SSSR (Atlas of the USSR, 1954-5); Atlas razvitiia khoziaistva i kuVtury SSSR ( A n Atlas of the Development of the E c o n o m y a n d Culture of the USSR, 1961); Obrazovanie i razvitie SSSR (Formation a n d Development of the USSR, 1972); the large Klimaticheskii atlas SSSR (Climatic Atlas of the USSR, 2 vols, 1960-2); Atlas seVskogo khoziaistva (Atlas of Agriculture, i960); Atlas uglenakopleniia na territorii SSSR (Atlas of C o a l Deposits o n the Territories of the USSR, 1962). It has also published a monumental Atlas mira (World Atlas, 1954, 1967) i n Russian a n d English. The following maps have been published i n the U k r a i nian SSR: a map of soils o n the scale of 1:750,000 (1972); tectonic maps o n the scale of 1:750,000 (1959) and 1:1,000,000 (1962-78); V . Bondarchuk's map of the Carpathians o n the scale of 1:1,000,000; a map of the DnieperDonets L o w l a n d a n d Greater K r y v y i R i h o n the scale of 1:500,000 (1971); a metallogenic map of the Carpathians on the scale of 1:1,000,000 (1973); a map of the U k r a i n i a n Crystalline Shield; a hydrogeological map of Ukraine o n the scale of 1:1,000,000 (1971); geographical-physical

maps w i t h a scale of 1:750,000 (at first geographical survey maps w i t h forests, then only administrative maps); a valuable ethnographic map by V . N a u l k o o n the scale of 1:1,500,000, based o n the census of 1959; a n d a map of the oblasts o n the scale of 1:600,000. The following atlases have been p u b l i s h e d i n Ukraine: Atlas Ukrainskoi SSR i Moldavskoi SSR (Atlas of the U k r a i n i a n SSR a n d the M o l davian SSR, 1962); Atlas siVs'koho hospodarstva URSR (Atlas of Agriculture i n the Ukrainian SSR, 1958); Atlas paleoheohrafichnykh kart URSR (Atlas of Paleogeographic M a p s of the Ukrainian SSR, i960); Atlas Kyïvs'koï oblasti (Atlas of Kiev Oblast, 1962); the economic atlas Nove na karti Ukraïny (The N e w o n Ukraine's M a p , 1961); Agroklimaticheskii atlas Ukrainskoi SSR (Agroclimatic Atlas of the U k r a i n i a n SSR, 1964); three climatic atlases, Leningrad 1964-8); and SfZ's'ko-hospodars'kyi atlas zakhidnykh oblastei URSR (Agricultural Atlas of the Western Oblasts of the U k r a i n i a n SSR, 1965). NatsionaVnyi atlas Ukraïns'koï RSR (The N a t i o n a l Atlas of the U k r a i n i a n SSR) has been prepared i n three volumes since 1963 but has not been published. Ukrainians abroad have p u b l i s h e d the most detailed ethnographic map of interwar Galicia, o n the scale of 1:250,000, prepared by V . Kubijovyc ( M u n i c h 1953). Kubijovyc a n d A . Z h u k o v s k y also published a reference map of Ukraine i n U k r a i n i a n a n d English o n the scale of 1:2,000,000 i n 1978. A physical school map of Ukraine by R. Drazniowsky and L . Prokop (with a scale of 1:1,000,000) and a historical atlas of Ukraine (1981) edited by L . Wynar, I. Tesla, a n d Y e . Tiutko have been published i n the U n i t e d States. In Ukraine there are two central map depositories: the Central Scientific Library of the A c a d e m y of Sciences i n Kiev a n d its branch i n L v i v a n d the Republican Historical Archive i n K i e v , w i t h maps from the 17th century to 1918. Ukrainian geographic nomenclature is determined by the Chief A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of Geodesy a n d Cartography and by the government i n M o s c o w , w h i c h ignore the traditions of U k r a i n i a n t o p o n y m y . B I B L I O G R A P H Y

Kordt, V. Materialy po istorii russkoi kartografii, part 1 (Kiev 1899); part i , 2 n d series (Kiev 1906), part 2 (Kiev 1910) Tutkovs'kyi, P. Materiialy do bibliohrafiï mapoznavstva Ukraïny (Kiev 1924)

Kordt, V. Materiialy do istorychnoï kartohrafiï Ukraïny, part 1 (Kiev 193 ) 1

Sichyns'kyi, V. Vstup do ukraïns'koho kraieznavstva (Prague 1937)

Iatsunskii, V. Istoricheskaia geografiia (xiv-xvin vv.) (Moscow 1955)

Krempol'skii, V. Istoriia razviitiia kartoizdaniia v Rossii i v SSSR (Moscow 1959) Kravtsiv, B. 'Kartohrafiia Ukraïny mazepyns'koï i pomazepyns'koï doby/ SuchasnisV, 1961, no. 7 Novokshanova-Sokolovskaia, Z. Kartograficheskie i geodezicheskie raboty v Rossii v xix-nachale xx v. (Moscow 1967) Ukraïns'kyi istoryko-heohrafichnyi zbirnyk, no. 1 (Kiev 1971) H . Kolodii Casimir III the Great, b 30 A p r i l 1310, d 5 N o v e m b e r 1370. Polish k i n g from 1333, last of the Piast dynasty. Casimir began the expansion of P o l a n d into U k r a i n i a n territory (Red Rus'). H a v i n g made peace on his western border w i t h Bohemia a n d the Teutonic Knights, Casimir obtained the support of H u n g a r y a n d the neutrality of the Tatars. In 1340, following the death of Prince *Yurii 11, Casimir invaded Galicia, taking L v i v and destroying its

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fortifications. H e was repelled by the boyars under the leadership of D . *Dedko, but, o n D e d k o ' s death i n 1349, Casimir seized Galicia a n d western V o l h y n i a , consolidating his rule i n wars against Lithuania's Prince Lubart. Casimir distributed property a n d privileges i n Galicia to Polish magnates, p r o v i d e d incentives to Polish merchants and G e r m a n colonists, a n d granted cities and towns especially L v i v - self-government o n the G e r m a n model. H e supported Catholic missionary orders, particularly the Franciscans a n d Dominicans, though he d i d not persecute the O r t h o d o x and agreed to reinstate the H a l y c h metropolitanate. Casimir I V J a g i e l l o ñ c z y k , b 30 N o v e m b e r 1427 i n Cracow, d 7 June 1492. S o n of * W i a d y s i a w 11 Jagietto and his fourth wife, the U k r a i n i a n princess Sofiia H o l s h a n ska. Casimir became grand duke of Lithuania i n 1440 and king of Poland i n 1447. H e adopted a centralist policy with regard to the U k r a i n i a n lands a n d favored the Lithuanian Catholic nobles i n the G r a n d D u c h y of Lithuania. H e abolished the principality of V o l h y n i a i n 1452 a n d the K i e v principality i n 1470. In 1481 he uncovered a conspiracy of the U k r a i n i a n princes led by *Mykhailo O l e l k o v y c h a n d executed them. Other princes transferred their allegiance a n d their lands to M u s c o v y . D u r i n g Casimir's reign the Tatars, n o w vassals of the Ottoman Empire, resumed their incursions, destroying Kiev i n 1482. The major development i n church affairs during Casimir's reign was the definitive separation of the M o s c o w metropolitanate from that of K i e v . Castle courts (zamkovi sudy). C r i m i n a l courts i n the G r a n d D u c h y of Lithuania presided over by a single judge - by the vicegerent or the starosta i n county cities and the voivode i n provincial cities. Castle courts were introduced after the Bilske diet of 1564, w h e n the lords, under the pressure of the gentry i n general, renounced their judicial privileges. The castle courts h a d jurisdiction over the entire gentry, the burghers under the Magdeburg law, the lords' peasants i n respect to serious criminal offenses, the burghers of small cities, a n d the peasants belonging to grand dukes i n respect to all criminal matters. The castle courts corresponded to *city courts i n Poland. Castles. Fortified residences of rulers. Castles were first built i n the M i d d l e Ages as shelters from invaders. In Ukraine fortified towns were the precursors of castles. Usually the fortifications consisted of a w o o d e n stockade, rarely of stone. Fortified towns were established by the princes i n the i o t h - i 2 t h century, particularly i n the areas threatened by nomadic tribes a n d o n the Polish frontier. (See also *Cities a n d towns.) In the 13th century, after the decline of Kievan Rus' and the Tatar invasions, the focus of political and cultural life moved to the western Ukrainian territories. To defend and restore the Principality of Galicia-Volhynia, its rulers, particularly K i n g D a n y l o , renovated and built numerous fortified towns and castles (Danyliv, Lviv, K h o l m , Volodymyr, Lutske, Kremianets, etc), which under Tatar pressure they then had to demolish. Castles became widespread at the end of the 14th century w h e n Ukraine became part of the Lithuanian and Polish states. Lithuania intended to colonize the steppes as far as the Black Sea a n d undertook the struggle against

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the Tatars, i n w h i c h the castles played both a defensive and an offensive role. Either the state or i n d i v i d u a l magnates such as the Czartoryski or Ostrozky princes restored or built castles i n strategically or economically important locations. To protect the Black Sea coast a n d the customs warehouses i n the south, the grand duke Vytautas built an extensive system of castles (Karavul, Bilhorod, C h o r n o h o r o d , K h a d z h i b e i , etc) and installed i n them nobles w h o were obligated to render military service. After Vytautas's death i n 1430 the colonization movement diminished. The castles i n the southern steppes were abandoned, a n d the defense line was m o v e d north. Larger incursions by the C r i m e a n Tatars, w h o found n e w support i n the T u r k i s h protectorate at the end of the 15th century, forced the L i t h u a n i a n state to restore the o l d castles a n d to b u i l d n e w ones. W o o d e n buildings were replaced b y stone structures, a n d n e w types of weapons were introduced. Castles were built not only o n the exposed frontier along the D n i e p e r River (Kiev, K a n i v , and Cherkasy) and i n Podilia (Bar, M e z h y b i z h , C h o r n o k o z y n t s i , Sataniv, Zhvanets, Pyliava, Z i n k i v , Liatychiv, Y a m p i l , Sutkivtsi, Bratslav, a n d Vinnytsia), but also i n the interior - i n Galicia a n d V o l h y n i a . The Dniester line was guarded from the Turks by *Kamianets-Podilskyi, the strongest fortress i n P o l a n d a n d Ukraine. O n the T u r k i s h side stood *Khotyn. Castles were built i n inaccessible places - o n steep hills (eg, Kremianets, K i e v , L v i v , H a l y c h , and C h y h y r y n ) , at river bends (eg, D u b n o , Lutske, and Berezhany), o n islands, or i n marshes. B u i l d i n g materials consisted of w o o d (castles i n V i n n y t s i a , C h o r n o b y l , P u t y v l , O v r u c h , Z h y t o m y r , Z v e n y h o r o d , Bratslav, and Cherkasy) and sometimes stone (Kremianets, L v i v , and K h o l m ) . W o o d e n castles were surrounded by a thick stockade covered w i t h m u d to protect it from fire. A t the top of the stockade was a covered platform and firing holes. Towers built of beams stood at the corners of the stockade. Sometimes a water-filled moat surrounded the castle, and a drawbridge p r o v i d e d access to the gate. The stronghold or palace, w h i c h was often topped w i t h a tall tower, was the center of the castle. It encompassed the prince's or magnate's residence, the guards' quarters, the prison, the cellars, a n d the w e l l . U s u a l l y there was also a secret passage i n the castle that l e d b e y o n d the walls. O n the castle grounds there was a church, a n d under the walls there were warehouses where the townsfolk w h o lived around the castle stored their goods d u r i n g an enemy attack. Cossack castles were also usually built of w o o d w i t h an emphasis o n a more solid stronghold but weaker fortifications. The largest number of such castles appeared during the K h m e l n y t s k y period. Stone castles consisted of exterior walls, towers, and inner buildings. The o l d castles h a d a large number of towers - Kamianets h a d 11 a n d Yazlivets 8 - w h i c h were used as arsenals a n d warehouses. The towers were either square, as i n K h o l m , or circular, as i n Kamianets. In the 16th-17th century pentagonal towers, as i n Chortkiv, were introduced. The castle entrance was a double gate, usually w i t h i n a tower. The other buildings were similar to those i n w o o d e n castles. The g r o u n d p l a n of a castle was determined to some degree by the setting. But the older castles (eg, KamianetsPodilskyi, Terebovlia, and Buchach) had an irregular plan, as d i d the fortified towns of the Princely era. Castles

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i n the form of a regular pentagon (Berezhany, Brody, Chortkiv, Sataniv, Zhvanets, a n d Kodak) appeared only i n the 16th-17th century. It was very costly to maintain castles i n a battle-ready condition. The central government d i d not always provide the necessary funds, a n d the local magnates and population could not afford to support the troops and armaments. Hence, m a n y castles i n Right-Bank Ukraine i n the 16th century were no more than temporary refuges for the p o p u l a t i o n . The castles along the Dnieper were i n a better condition a n d were continuously manned by 50-100 troops. Besides the garrison they also h a d irregular 'field' troops for reconnaissance duty. Each castle was p r o v i d e d w i t h several cannons. The architecture of the fortified towns of the Princely era has not been adequately researched. The w o o d e n castles of the 14th-17th century were usually built by craftsmen w h o continued a n d developed the traditional forms of w o o d e n fortification from the early Princely era. The large castle complex i n C h o r n o b y l was built by the master builder Z a m o r e n k o i n 1548. The large castle o n Kyselivka H i l l i n K i e v was built by I. Slushka i n 1545. The castle i n Oster was the work of master builder Shutkovsky. O f the numerous stone castles usually only the ruins have been preserved (Lutske, D u b n o , O s t r i h , M e z h y r i chia Ostrozke, Kremianets, Kamianets-Podilskyi, U z h horod, M u k a c h i v , a n d m a n y others). It is possible to reconstruct from these remains a typical castle, w h i c h as early as the 16th century was predominantly of the Gothic style modified by an admixture of Renaissance forms. Such reconstructions were made of the castles i n Lutske (reconstructed by L u k a of Presov i n 1541), Ostrih, Dubno, M e z h y r i c h i a , a n d Kamianets-Podilskyi (14th-16th century a n d rebuilt i n the 17th-18th century). D u r i n g the Renaissance period (16th-17th century) grand residences were built by the magnates - the castles i n L i s k o (owned by the K m i t a family), K r a s y c h y n (Krasicki family), Berezhany (Sieniawski family), Ternopil (Tarnowski family), O l e s k o (Daniiowicz family), Z h o v k v a (Zórkiewski family), Stare Selo (Ostrozky family), etc. The remains of castles a n d fortified palaces built i n the 17th century (rare samples of the West European baroque style) can be found i n Pidhirtsi, Zbarazh, Brody, Zolochiv, Ivano-Frankivske, a n d other places. Because of n e w military technology a n d the cessation of Tatar-Turkish incursions, castle b u i l d i n g declined i n the 18th century. Magnates began to b u i l d residential palaces instead. Special mention must be made of the castles built by Genoese traders i n the C r i m e a to protect their colonies i n the m i d - i 4 t h century. The best-preserved ruins of such castles are f o u n d i n Sudak (1345-1414) and Teodosiia (1348). O n the lower Dniester River A k k e r m a n (now Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi) a n d Bendery were built a n d later were taken b y the Turks w h e n they established control of the northern coast of the Black Sea. The Turks maintained the castles of K h o t y n , Bendery, A k k e r m a n , and Ochakiv a n d eventually built forts o n the lower Dnieper River, of w h i c h K a z y k e r m e n was the most important. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Czotowski, A . Dawne zamki i twierdze na Rusi Halickiej. Teka konserwatorska (Lviv 1892) Svederskii, V. Pamiatniki starinnoi arkhitektury v PodoVskoi gubernii (Petrograd 1916)

Sitsins'kyi, Ie. 'Oboronni zamky Zakhidnoho Podillia xiv-xvu st.' ziFV, 17 (Kiev 1928) Arkhitekturni pam'iatnyky (Kiev 1950) Rappoport, P. Ocherki po istorii russkogo voennogo zodchestva 10-12 vv. Materialy i issledovaniia po arkheologii SSSR, 52

(Moscow-Leningrad 1956) Sichyns'kyi, V. Istoriia ukrai'ns'koho mystetstva, 1: Arkhitektura (New York 1956) Asieiev, Iu.; Lohvyn, H . ; Nel'hovs'kyi, hi.; Iurchenko, P.; Tsapenko, M . 'Arkhitektura,' in Istoriia ukra'ins'koho mystetstva v shesty tomakh, 1-3 (Kiev 1966-8) Tsapenko, M . Arkhitektura Levoberezhnoi Ukrainy xvii-xvin vekov (Moscow 1967) Lohvyn, H . Po Ukraïni (Kiev 1968) Asieiev, Iu. Rozpovidi pro arkhitekturni skarby (Kiev 1976) V. Pavlovsky Castor bean (Ricinus communis; Ukrainian: rytsyna). A n oil plant cultivated i n U k r a i n e since the 1920s. It is g r o w n i n the eastern steppe region, mostly i n Zaporizhia oblast, and i n the K u b a n . U k r a i n i a n territories produce almost 90 percent of the USSR'S castor oil. The Ukrainian SSR devoted 52,200 ha to castor beans i n 1940, 46,300 i n 1950, 36,900 i n i960, and almost 80,000 i n 1969. The m a i n varieties g r o w n in Ukraine are K r u h l y k 5 a n d synthetic Sanguineus. Catacomb culture. Bronze A g e culture that existed i n the U k r a i n i a n steppes from the late third m i l l e n n i u m BC to the early second m i l l e n n i u m BC a n d was a continuation of the *Pit-Grave culture. The Catacomb culture was analyzed by V . Gorodtsov after his excavations of kurhans i n the Donets River Valley i n the 1900s. Relicts of the culture are widespread i n northern Left-Bank Ukraine a n d are also found i n the Right Bank, the A z o v coastal region, the Crimea, along the D o n River, a n d i n the K a l m y k steppes. The tribes of the Catacomb culture practiced herding a n d primitive subsistence farming a n d produced metal objects. D u r i n g its existence the patriarchal system replaced the matriarchal order. The dead were usually buried i n a crouched position i n catacomb niches of burial pits and sprinkled w i t h red ocher dye. Excavations of the graves revealed spherical clay pottery, flint knives, bronze implements, and silver ornaments. Major excavations took place i n the 1950s at the K u t a burial m o u n d , w h i c h is n o w inundated by the Kakhivka water reservoir on the Dnieper River. The tribes of the culture are k n o w n to have h a d cultural a n d trade relations w i t h the peoples of northern Caucasia. Catherine I, b 15 A p r i l 1684 i n M a r i e n b u r g , d 17 M a y 1727 in St Petersburg. Empress of Russia, 1725-7. Catherine, née Marta Skowroñska, was the daughter of a L i t h u a n i a n peasant. She succeeded her husband, Peter 1, a n d continued his policies. She was largely dominated by A . *Menshikov, the effective head of government. U n d e r Catherine 1 the *LihTe Russian C o l l e g i u m was i n charge of Ukrainian affairs. Catherine II, b 5 M a y 1729 i n Stettin, Prussia, d 17 November 1796 i n St Petersburg. A member of the German Anhalt-Zerbst princely house; empress of Russia, 1762-96. The reign of Catherine 11 was marked by an extremely reactionary internal policy (the institution of a system of total serfdom, a n d the expansion of the rights and privileges of the Russian nobility) a n d by a highly successful imperialistic foreign policy (wars w i t h Turkey, 1768-74 a n d 1787-91; the partitions of Poland). Cathe-

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line's policies towards the non-Russian nations a n d peoples of the empire were centralist, especially w i t h respect to U k r a i n e . In 1764 the hetmαn office was abollished, a n d i n the 1780s Ukraine's autonomy was w h o l l y liquidated. In 1765 the regiments of Slobidska Ukraine were abolished, a n d i n 1775 the Z a p o r o z h i a n Sich was destroyed. In 1783 the C r i m e a a n d i n the 1790s the territory between the B o h a n d Dniester rivers, as w e l l as the entire Right Bank, were incorporated into the empire. In the cultural sphere, Catherine's reign was marked by further Russification i n Ukraine. The rights and interests of the U k r a i n i a n church were curtailed by the seculariza­ tion of monastic estates i n 1786. In Right-Bank Ukraine Catherine's government advanced a policy aimed at the annihilation of the U k r a i n i a n Catholic church. Catholic A c t i o n (Katolytska aktsiia). The laity's assist­ ance i n the apostolic w o r k of the church hierarchy, channeled through Catholic organizations under the supervision of the church authorities. Catholic A c t i o n in Galicia grew to prominence i n the 1930s. Its center was the General Institute of Catholic A c t i o n of the Greek Catholic province i n L v i v , w h i c h consisted of the repre­ sentatives of Catholic organizations such as the *Obnova Society of U k r a i n i a n Catholic Students, the *Orly Catho­ lic Association of U k r a i n i a n Y o u t h , a n d the *Skala educa­ tional association. The general church assistant from the Greek Catholic episcopate was first Bishop I. Buchko and then Bishop N . B u d k a . The president of the institute was M . Dzerovych, a n d its most active members were I. Babii, V . Hlibovytsky, a n d P. Isaiv. The institute published the quarterly Katolyts'ka aktsiia i n 1934-9. In Canada Catholic A c t i o n was founded i n 1933 w h e n the Catholic lay organizations the ^Ukrainian Catholic Brotherhood, ^Ukrainian Catholic Women's League, Ukrai­ nian Catholic Y o u t h , and O b n o v a were formed. Its publication was the m o n t h l y Katolyts'ka aktsiia. In the United States the Association of U k r a i n i a n Catholic Students and Obnova have active branches, and women's organizations are active at the parish level. In Brazil the Institute of Women-Catechists has been active i n educa­ tional and charity w o r k since 1940. In G e r m a n y Catholic A c t i o n was established i n 1947, and i n 1949 it encompassed all of Western Europe. Its publication is the weekly Khrystyians'kyi holos. The m a i n organizations that belonged to Catholic A c t i o n were the O b n o v a Federation of Societies of U k r a i n i a n Catholic Students a n d the O b n o v a U k r a i n i a n Catholic Academic Alliance. The active leaders of Catholic A c t i o n i n Western Europe were Y e . Pereima, M . Tomashivska, R. Danylevych, and V . Yaniv. Cattail (Typha; U k r a i n i a n : rohiz). Perennial plant of the Typhaceae family that grows i n marshes and along riverbanks. It has an extensive creeping rhizome and a rigid, r o u n d stem. In U k r a i n e there are five species of cattail, but the most prevalent are the c o m m o n cattail (T. latifolia) and the narrow-leaved cattail (T. angustifolia). Their stems are u p to 2.5 m h i g h . Y o u n g stems can be eaten raw, and the roots can be roasted. The stems are used for thatch and fuel, the leaves for w e a v i n g baskets. The hairs can be used as filling and packing material and mixed with animal hair for m a k i n g hats. Cattails are used i n the paper and cellulose industries.

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Cattle raising. Cattle have been the most important domestic animals i n U k r a i n i a n territories since the later Neolithic period. In the 15th century oxen were exported from Left-Bank Ukraine a n d Podilia to Western Europe and later M u s c o v y for their value as food and draft power. Later they were exported from southern Ukraine. In the second half of the 19th century, as the steppes came under cultivation, grazing l a n d diminished. In the foreststeppe belt, w i t h the exception of Western Ukraine, the three-field system prevailed. Hence, cattle numbers d i d not keep pace w i t h population growth. F r o m 1897 to 1912 the number of cattle even declined by 8 percent i n central and eastern U k r a i n e . In 1912 there were over 10 million head of cattle i n all U k r a i n i a n territories. The Right Bank and the Left Bank h a d the lowest cattle density, while Polisia, w i t h its extensive meadows and pastures, and Galicia, w i t h its abundance of cultivated grasses, had the highest. Ukraine was deficient i n cattle: 35.7 percent of the farms h a d no cows. A t the same time the types of cattle changed: the number of cattle raised for meat and w o r k declined as the ox was replaced by the horse, and the number of m i l k i n g cattle increased. In spite of the contributions of the zemstvos, the breeding of cattle was generally neglected. The annual production of milk i n agricultural regions was 600-1,000 k g per cow. A l t h o u g h the number of cattle declined, over 50 million rubles' w o r t h of animal products was exported from Ukrainian gubernias per year, m a i n l y to P o l a n d . In the first years of the First W o r l d W a r the cattle population increased from 6 m i l l i o n (1912) to 7.7 million (1916) i n central a n d eastern Ukraine because the extent of fallow l a n d increased. It declined d u r i n g the revolution and rose again i n the NEP period (9,928,000 i n 1928), because the number of farms increased and each farmer wanted to o w n a cow. D u r i n g the collectivization and the famine the cattle population fell drastically to 3.4 million i n 1933. To correct this, the Soviet government devoted m u c h effort to the development of animal husbandry o n collective a n d state farms. Every collective farm set up an animal farm. State farms specializing i n animal husbandry were organized. M u c h was done to improve the stock. But the most significant step was the government's compromise w i t h the peasants that permitted them to keep a few privately o w n e d head of cattle o n private lots. This is clear from the fact that i n 1938, w h e n the cattle population i n the U k r a i n i a n SSR stood at 7.8 million, the vast majority of it was privately o w n e d : 69 percent of the cattle belonged to collective farmers a n d other private persons (it went d o w n to 63.6 percent i n 1941, w i t h 3.6 percent belonging to state farms a n d 30.9 percent to collective farms). In Western U k r a i n e there were no significant changes i n cattle population. In 1941 the number of head of cattle i n the Ukrainian SSR was just under 11 m i l l i o n (13 m i l l i o n i n all Ukrainian territories). D u r i n g the war the number fell by a half, and it returned to what it h a d been i n 1941 only i n 1950. Generally, advances i n animal husbandry were m u c h more difficult than i n other branches of agriculture; hence, this branch fell further a n d further behind the demand of the increasing urban population for animal products. A s before, the amount of land devoted to animal husbandry was deficient, a n d the collective farms lacked any material incentive to improve animal husband­ ry. The resolutions of the plenums of the Central Committee of the CPSU (in September 1953 a n d January

3

8

4

CATTLE RAISING

TABLE 1 Cattle: beef and milk production Year

Total cattle

Cows

1916

9,132,000

4,116,000

1928 1935 1941

9,928,000 5,113,000 10,997,000

4,938,000 2,514,000 5,965,000

1946 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1978

8,275,000 11,103,000 11,674,000 17,040,000 19,777,000 20,289,000 24,924,000

4,312,000 4,796,000 5,727,000 7,687,000 8,559,000 8,451,000 9,143,000

Beef and veal (tonnes)

Milk (tonnes)

600,000 (in 1913)

4,667,000 (in 1913)

408,700 (in 1940)

7,114,000 (in 1940) 4,813,000 6,804,000 9,670,000 13,995,000 16,629,000 18,712,000 22,480,000

552,300 714,800 793,300 1,105,000 1,603,000

1955, etc) a n d other Party a n d government resolutions attempted to overcome these defects. T h r o u g h an i n ­ crease i n the amount of l a n d devoted to fodder crops a n d corn, a firm basis was laid for cattle farming. The wholesale a n d retail prices of animal products were raised, a n d the o l d breeds of cattle were i m p r o v e d and n e w breeds introduced. Table 1 shows h o w the cattle population increased. By 1966 it h a d reached 21.3 m i l l i o n a n d remained stable for some time. In the last few years it has increased, reaching 24,924,000 i n 1978. There are 29 m i l l i o n head of cattle i n all U k r a i n i a n territories (22.1 percent of all of the cattle i n the USSR). In 1978 cows n u m b e r e d over 9 m i l l i o n (32.6 percent of the cattle total). A n index of the intensity of cattle farming is the number of cattle per 100 ha of agricultural l a n d . In 1978 i n the U k r a i n i a n SSR the index was 51, compared to 23 i n 1941 (in the USSR the 1978 index was 10.8). The index for cows was 18.7. Cattle farming is most intense i n Galicia, V o l h y n i a , a n d the forest-steppe of the Right Bank (55 to 67 per 100 ha); of m e d i u m intensity o n the Left Bank a n d i n the K u b a n ; a n d of lowest intensity o n the southwestern steppe (38 per 100 ha). Table 2 shows the distribution of cattle by type of farm i n U k r a i n e . The g r o w t h i n the cattle population occurred on the collective a n d state farms. The number of head raised o n private plots has remained the same or declined i n the last 10 years. The m a i n reason is the lack of an adequate fodder s u p p l y for private owners. Thus, only half of the collective farmers n o w keep their o w n cows. The main

emphasis of collective a n d state farms is placed o n both meat a n d milk production, w h i l e the private owners concentrate o n milk production. In 1978 cows constituted 32.1 percent of the cattle o w n e d by collective farms, 34.4 percent of the cattle o w n e d b y state farms, and 62.8 percent of privately o w n e d cattle. The production of meat a n d milk increased more rapidly than the cattle population because of more intensive farming methods. The U k r a i n i a n SSR produced over 552,000 t of beef a n d veal i n 1950 a n d 1,118,000 t i n 1968, w h i c h constituted 21.4 percent of the total pro­ duced by the USSR. U k r a i n e produced 6,804,0001 of milk in 1950 a n d 22,480,000 t i n 1978 (73.2 percent of the milk came from collective a n d state farms a n d 26.8 percent from private plots), w h i c h constituted 23.6 percent of the milk produced by the w h o l e USSR. In 1977,527 centners of milk were produced for every 100 ha of agricultural l a n d i n Ukraine (in 1940 it was 167 centners), w h i l e i n 1977 the USSR average was 92 centners. The average production per cow was 2,496 k g i n 1977 (1,688 i n 1955), w h i l e the USSR average was 2,232 kg. The production of m i l k per 100 ha was highest i n Western U k r a i n e a n d i n the vicinity of large towns, where cattle farming consists mostly of dairying. In 1977 the production of milk per person i n Ukraine was 453 k g , w h i l e the per person production of meat was 70 k g (in the USSR the figures were 365 k g and 57 kg respectively). In spite of the increase i n meat produc­ tion, it barely meets the demands of the urban population. In recent years all cattle i n U k r a i n e have been pure­ bred. The proportion of purebred cattle has increased as follows: 62 percent i n 1951, 96 percent i n 1955, a n d 100 percent i n 1966. The most popular milk-yielding a n d milk-meat-yielding breeds i n U k r a i n e are the R e d Steppe and Simenthal (together constituting 80 percent of the cattle o n collective a n d state farms), Red-Spotted, White­ head, and Red-Polish. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Shyrokyi, I. Velyka rohata khudoba (Kharkiv 1930) Romanenko, I. Razvitie produktivnogo zhivotnovodstva Ukrain­ skoi SSR (Kiev 1957) Chepurnov, I. Planuvannia tvarynnytstva (Kiev 1969) V. Kubijovyc

Caucasia. A large region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea o n the border between Eastern Europe a n d A s i a . It is traversed by the Caucasus M o u n t a i n s , from w h i c h it derives its name. In the north Caucasia extends to the K u m a - M a n y c h Depression and, i n the south, to the

TABLE 2 Distribution of cattle by type of farm (in millions; percentage of all cattle in the Ukrainian SSR in parentheses) Type of farm

1941

1955

1960

1965

1978

Cows 1978

Collective farms

3.4 (30.9) 0.4 (3.6) 7.0 (63.6)

5.8 (49.6) 0.6 (5) 5.3 (45.3)

10.8 (63.5) 1.6 (9.4) 4.6 (27.1)

12.3 (62.1) 2.9 (14.6) 4.6 (23.2)

15.6 (62.4) 4.7 (18.8) 4.3 (17.2)

5.0 (53.8) 1.6 (17.2) 2.7 (29.0)

11.0

11.7

17.0

19.8

25.0

9.3

State farms Private plots Total

CAUCASIAN MOUNTAIN

Soviet-Turkish a n d Soviet-Iranian borders. The region covers an area of over 440,000 sq k m a n d i n 1959 had a population of 27 m i l l i o n . Its northwestern part is settled by Ukrainians. Caucasia consists of three geographical zones: (1) the steep Caucasus M o u n t a i n s , k n o w n also as the Great Caucasus Range; (2) the steppe lowlands of *Subcaucasia, w h i c h lies north of the mountains a n d is d i v i d e d by the Stavropol U p l a n d into the K u b a n L o w l a n d and the Terek-Kuma L o w l a n d ; a n d (3) the mountains of Trans­ caucasia (the Little Caucasus a n d the Southern Caucasian or A r m e n i a n H i g h l a n d ) , w h i c h are south of the lowlands and are separated from them by the R i o n Depression and the K u r a Valley. The Caucasus mountain watershed divides Caucasia into two historical-political regions: (1) Transcaucasia, w i t h an area of 190,000 sq k m (encompas­ sing Georgia, Azerbaijan, a n d Armenia) a n d a population of 14 million; a n d (2) Subcaucasia or northern Caucasia, w i t h an area of 250,000 sq k m belonging to the Russian SFSR (encompassing Krasnodar krai, Stavropol krai, Kabardino-Balkar ASSR, N o r t h Ossetian ASSR, Chechen-Ingush ASSR, and Dagestan ASSR) a n d a population of 13 million. The history a n d the ethnic composition of Caucasia were determined by its location o n the European-Asian frontier. Except for eastern Subcaucasia, w i t h its arid steppes and lowlands of the Caspian littoral, this region was repeatedly crossed by migrating peoples from the East. The mountains served as an obstacle to the migra­ tions and a refuge for m a n y small indigenous peoples. N o large and lasting independent states, except Georgia and A r m e n i a , ever arose i n Caucasia. The region was usually subject to the political and cultural domination of the neighboring peoples - the Scythians, H u n s , Khazars, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, and Turks. The M o n g o l invasions of the 13th century and M o n g o l control of Subcaucasia h a d a great impact o n the region. In the 15th century Caucasia became an object of contention between Iran a n d O t t o m a n Turkey. Chris­ tianity reached Transcaucasia i n the 4th century and Subcaucasia (Taman) i n the 6th. The Arabs introduced Islam, w h i c h by the 18th century was adopted by all the peoples of the region except the Georgians, A r m e n i a n s , and, partly, the Ossetians. Russia began to expand into the region i n the 18th century a n d by the beginning of the 19th century controlled most of it. In spite of resistance from the Caucasian peoples, the process of conquest was completed by the 1860s a n d led to an almost full Slavicization of Subcaucasia, where, apart from Dagestan, indige­ nous peoples account for scarcely one-eighth of the population (see *Kuban). In Transcaucasia, however, the population consists m a i n l y of Georgians (3.5 million), Azerbaijanians (over 4 million), and A r m e n i a n s (2.5 million), w i t h Russians a n d Ukrainians accounting for over 1 million, or one-tenth of the population. After the 1917 revolution the independent states of Georgia, Azerbaijan, A r m e n i a (which formed a short­ lived federation), a n d the Republic of Caucasian M o u n ­ tain Peoples arose i n 1918. In 1920-1 these countries were occupied by the Bolsheviks. In 1922 the Transcaucasian SFSR was established, w h i c h was d i v i d e d into three Soviet republics - Azerbaijan, A r m e n i a , a n d Georgia - i n 1936. In 1921-2 Subcaucasia was incorporated into the Gorskaia ASSR as part of the Russian SFSR. Eventually it was divided into a number of autonomous republics and oblasts (see ^Caucasian m o u n t a i n peoples).

PEOPLES

385

Ukrainian contacts w i t h the peoples of Caucasia go back to the Princely era a n d were renewed i n the 19th and particularly the 20th century. They have consisted mostly of contacts w i t h the ^Georgians a n d to a lesser extent w i t h the * A r m e n i a n s . U k r a i n i a n deputies w o r k e d w i t h Cauca­ sian deputies i n the Russian State D u m a i n the * A u t o n o ­ mists' U n i o n . In 1917 representatives of the Caucasian peoples took part i n a conference of the captive peoples of Russia, w h i c h was held i n K i e v . The UNR established diplomatic ties w i t h the independent Caucasian states i n 1918. Their diplomatic missions abroad (particularly at the Paris Peace Conference) w o r k e d closely together to defend their independence. The Ukrainian and the Cauca­ sian governments i n exile continued their co-operation: i n 1926 the UNR government established an alliance w i t h the Caucasian confederation. The U k r a i n i a n and Caucasian delegations w o r k e d closely together at the League of Nations i n Geneva. F r o m 1926 they co-operated i n the ^Promethean movement i n W a r s a w and Paris and, after the Second W o r l d W a r , i n the *Anti-Bolshevik Bloc of Nations a n d the *Paris Bloc. U n d e r the Soviet regime Ukrainian-Caucasian contacts have taken place only i n the cultural sphere. V. Kubijovyc

Central mountain range of the Caucasus Caucasian mountain peoples (Caucasian highland­ ers, north Caucasian peoples). A group of small nations that inhabit the Caucasus M o u n t a i n s a n d the southern part of Subcaucasia i n the vicinity of territories settled by Ukrainians and people of other nations. These mountain peoples are mostly the remnants of larger nations that were destroyed by the M o n g o l invasion a n d w h o were later pushed into the mountains by Russian and U k r a i ­ nian colonists. Russian attempts to subjugate them i n the 18th and 19th centuries succeeded by the 1860s. F r o m west to east the Caucasian m o u n t a i n peoples include the following nationalities (the 1979 population throughout the USSR is added i n parentheses): the A d y g i a n s (109,000) and the Kabardians (322,000) of the Cherkess group, the Balkars (66,000) a n d the Karachays (131,000) of the Turkic group, the Ossetes (542,000) of Iranian origin, the Che­ chens (756,000) and the Ingushes (186,000) of the Chechen group, and the K u m y k s , A v a r s , Dargins, Lezgians, and numerous other smaller peoples i n Dagestan (total p o p u ­ lation 1,657,000). Except for some of the Ossetes these mountain peoples are S u n n i M o s l e m s .

386

CAUCASIAN MOUNTAIN

PEOPLES

After the 1917 revolution the Caucasian mountain peoples proclaimed their o w n state o n 11 M a y 1918, but it was crushed by A . D e n i k i n ' s W h i t e forces a n d the Bolsheviks. In 1921-2 the Gorskaia ASSR was formed w i t h i n the Russian SFSR, but it was d i v i d e d eventually into a number of autonomous republics a n d oblasts. After the Second W o r l d W a r the Soviet regime resettled the Balkars, Karachays, Chechens, a n d Ingushes, a n d i n 1944-5 it abolished their autonomous territories. In 1957 the former arrangements were restored. Today the fol­ l o w i n g autonomous regions exist i n Subcaucasia: the Kabardino-Balkar ASSR, North-Ossetian ASSR, ChechenIngush ASSR, a n d Dagestan ASSR, a n d the A d y g e y a n d Karachai-Cherkess autonomous oblasts. Political ιmigrιs of the Caucasian mountain peoples were active i n W a r s a w until 1939. Today they are active i n Paris, M u n i c h , a n d Istanbul a n d occasionally co-operate w i t h certain U k r a i n i a n ιmigrι groups.

Bison in the Caucasian Nature Reserve Caucasian Nature Reserve (Kavkazkyi zapovidnyk). W i t h an area of 262,500 ha this is the largest preserve o n the U k r a i n i a n ethnic territories of the K u b a n . It lies i n the Krasnodar krai, i n the western part of Caucasia, o n the upper Bila Laba a n d M a l a Laba rivers, at an altitude of 500-3,150 m . The preserve was created i n 1920-4 as the H i g h M o u n t a i n Landscape (Vysokohirskyi kraievyd). It contains all the vegetative zones that are characteristic of Caucasia a n d over 3,000 flora species. The preserve is inhabited by such species as the wisent, deer, chamois, boar, goat, wildcat, a n d bear. The most interesting birds that live here are the Caucasian woodcock, black vulture, and m o u n t a i n eagle. Caucasus M o u n t a i n s . See Caucasia. Cavalry. U n t i l the Second W o r l d W a r one k i n d of military force used o n l a n d . The cavalry's importance was d i m i n i s h e d by the development of firearms a n d mecha­ nized armaments. Large cavalry battles took place at the beginning of the First W o r l d W a r , but by the end of the war the cavalry h a d no important operational use. The cavalry, however, played an important role i n the fighting in Eastern Europe i n 1918-20. W i t h time the cavalry ceased to be a separate armed service. In the Princely era the U k r a i n i a n army consisted

originally mostly of foot soldiers. A cavalry began to form, mainly under V o l o d y m y r the Great a n d Yaroslav the Wise, i n response to the i n v a d i n g hordes from the steppes. There were two kinds of cavalry: heavy a n d light. The heavily armed cavalry consisted of the prince's troops, w h o were armed w i t h helmets, armor, shields, spears, a n d swords. The light cavalry consisted at first of hired steppe nomads. W i t h time a light R u s ' cavalry was organized a n d was armed w i t h sabers, bows, a n d spears. Eventually the cavalry expanded to such an extent that it constituted the nucleus of the princely army. In the L i t h u a n i a n - P o l i s h armies the cavalry was the main armed force. It consisted m a i n l y of heavy cavalry armed w i t h lances, swords, a n d heavy armor. In the Cossack forces, however, the cavalry was of secondary importance; it consisted of light cavalry armed w i t h spears, sabers, pistols, small rifles, a n d sometimes bows. It was organized into small units that, before battle, challenged the enemy to skirmishes. Rarely d i d it appear in large numbers, a n d w h e n it d i d , it rode into battle i n long rows. The cavalry played a more important role i n the army of B . K h m e l n y t s k y . Large cavalry units w i t h some light artillery were often used i n large raids against the Poles (eg, the raids of C o l S. M o r o z e n k o a n d A . Zhdanovych). U n d e r the Hetmαn state i n the 1 7 t h 18th century there were regiments of volunteer cavalry (known as kompaniitsi) a n d mercenary units of Wallachian, Tatar, Serbian, or G e r m a n (latter half of the 17th century) cavalry. U k r a i n i a n m o u n t e d musketeer regi­ ments served i n the Russian army at the end of the 18th century. The cavalry has h a d no important role i n modern Ukrainian military formations or armies. A small cavalry unit was organized i n 1914 under L t R. K a m i n s k y ' s initiative i n the L e g i o n of the U k r a i n i a n Sich Riflemen. Its functions were reconnaissance a n d communications. After 1917 the larger cavalry formations were the Cavalry Division of the Sich Riflemen a n d the following cavalry regiments: the H a i d a m a k a Cavalry Regiment, the Serdiuk L u b n i Regiment, the Black Z a p o r o z h i a n Regiment, the Pereiaslav Regiment, the Ivan M a z e p a Regiment, and the Otaman Ivan Sirko Regiment. These regiments were rather s m a l l - 3 0 0 - 7 0 0 m e n - a n d decreased as recruitment failed to keep pace w i t h losses. D u r i n g the campaign of 1919-20 cavalry companies were formed at brigade headquarters. In June 1919 the Cavalry Brigade of the U k r a i n i a n Galician A r m y was also organized. It consisted of two regiments n u m b e r i n g at most 600 m e n altogether. It saw action only after the Z b r u c h crossing a n d the K i e v offensive. In 1920 the Separate Cavalry D i v i s i o n of the A r m y of the UNR was organized under G e n I. Omelianovych-Pavlenko. Fur­ thermore, every division i n 1920 h a d its o w n cavalry regiment. D u r i n g the anti-Bolshevik partisan struggle almost every partisan detachment h a d a cavalry unit. The cavalry of the A r m y of the U N R was armed a n d equipped on the Russian pattern, w h i l e the cavalry of the U k r a i n i a n Galician A r m y followed the A u s t r i a n pattern. Yet i n the 1917-20 period U k r a i n i a n cavalry forces were inade­ quate. The U k r a i n i a n army encountered strong enemy cavalry troops i n battle: G . K o t o v s k y ' s Bolshevik regi­ ments a n d S. B u d e n n y ' s M o u n t e d A r m y , A . D e n i k i n ' s Volunteer A r m y , a n d the Polish armed forces. D u r i n g the Second W o r l d W a r the D i v i s i o n Galizien

CELIBACY

had only one cavalry company. The U k r a i n i a n Insurgent A r m y had a few small cavalry units, w h i c h were used only for reconnaissance. M . Kurakh Caves, K i e v a n Monastery of the. See K i e v a n Cave Monastery. Cecora, Battle of. D u r i n g the Polish-Turkish W a r of 1620-1, w h i c h was started by T u r k e y i n an attempt to annex Ukraine, a battle took place near the M o l d a v i a n v i l ­ lage of Cecora, not far from the t o w n of Ia§i on the Prut River. O n 20 N o v e m b e r 1620 the Turkish-Tatar army, numbering close to 40,000, surrounded the advancing Polish-Cossack army, n u m b e r i n g about 8,400, under the leadership of C r o w n Hetmαn S. Zσtkiewski. The PolishCossack army retreated i n disorder and was completely crushed. Zσνkiewski d i e d i n battle, as d i d M . K h m e l n y ­ tsky, the father of B. K h m e l n y t s k y . B. K h m e l n y t s k y was captured and spent the next two years as a T u r k i s h prisoner. After the battle the Tatars ravaged a large part of Podilia and eastern Galicia. Cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus libani; U k r a i n i a n : kedr). A n evergreen of the pine family. The tree attains a height of 25-40 m . Its w o o d is valued h i g h l y as b u i l d i n g material. The cedar is cultivated i n the C r i m e a n M o u n t a i n s as a decorative tree. Celakovsky, Frantisek, b 7 M a r c h 1799 i n Strakonice, Bohemia, d 5 A u g u s t 1852 i n Prague. C z e c h poet, philol­ ogist, and activist i n the national renaissance. Celakovsky published the collection Slovanskι nαrodnt ptsnλ (Slavic Folk Songs, 1822-7), w h i c h i n c l u d e d U k r a i n i a n songs. H e translated into C z e c h works by L . Borovykovsky, A . Metlynsky, M . Kostomarov, and M . Shashkeyych. M e t lynsky included translations from the w o r k of Celakovsky i n his collection Dumky i pisni i shche deshcho (Ballads and Songs and Still Other Things, 1839). Celibacy. The unmarried state of clergy, k n o w n i n both Eastern and Western Christianity. The practice of the Eastern churches, w h i c h trace their origin to the Byzan­ tine church, was permanently codified by the C o u n c i l of Trullo (692): priests, deacons, a n d subdeacons may con­ tinue a marriage entered into before ordination; m e n w h o have remarried cannot be ordained; a n d a priest or deacon cannot remarry after the death of his wife. The C o u n c i l of Trullo also sanctioned the norms for a candi­ date to the episcopacy: he must be celibate, w i d o w e d , or, if married, must separate permanently from his wife. This legislation was i n force w h e n Christianity was adopted i n Ukraine. The pastoral clergy were married, while the bishops were chosen from among the monastic clergy, although it was not rare for w i d o w e r s to be raised to the episcopacy after taking monastic v o w s . This is the canonical n o r m n o w i n force i n the U k r a i n i a n Orthodox church. W h e n the U k r a i n i a n a n d Belorussian hierarchy joined the Catholic church i n the U n i o n of *Berestia (1595), the bishops were aware of the possibility that Rome might impose celibacy o n their clergy. Therefore, they sought express approval of a married priesthood. This they received i n the b u l l Magnus Dominus from Pope Clement

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VIII: 'Priestly marriages remain intact w i t h the exception of bigamous ones.' The freedom to elect marriage before ordination re­ mained uncontested i n the U k r a i n i a n Uniate church until the First W o r l d W a r . A n attempt to enact mandatory celibacy at the L v i v local s y n o d (1891), favored by the papal representative, failed. A conference of the three bishops of the H a l y c h metropolitanate finally adopted celibacy. H o w e v e r , Metropolitan A . Sheptytsky, not w i s h i n g to challenge the statute of the U n i o n of Berestia, understood this step as favoring optional celibacy. H e reserved half of the places i n the seminary for married candidates. T w o other bishops ( H . K h o m y s h y n and Y . Kotsylovsky) d i d not follow h i m i n this measure and from 1924 refused to ordain married men. Three other epar­ chies ( M u k a c h i v and Presov i n Czechoslovakia and K r i zevci i n Yugoslavia) d i d not follow this practice of m a k i n g celibacy mandatory. The situation developed differently i n the diaspora. In the U n i t e d States, Canada, Brazil, and Argentina the U k r a i n i a n Catholic c o m m u n i t y h a d its beginnings i n the 1880s-1890s, w h e n large groups of immigrants from Galicia and Transcarpathia settled there permanently. A circular letter of the Congregation for the Propagation of Faith of 1 October 1890, addressed to the U k r a i n i a n bishops of A u s t r i a - H u n g a r y , forbade married priests to minister among their compatriots i n America. This mea­ sure was repeated several times, although it was not fully observed. The majority of priests w h o went to the U n i t e d States were married m e n w h o took w i t h them their wives and children. M o s t of those w h o went to Canada and Brazil were monks. The opposition of R o m e , at the insistence of the local hierarchy of the Latin rite, to married clergy led to a movement by m a n y of the priests and faithful to join the Russian Orthodox church. The prohibition of a married clergy was omitted i n the decree Cum Episcopo of 17 A u g u s t 1914, w h i c h established separate U k r a i n i a n Cath­ olic jurisdiction i n the U n i t e d States. H o w e v e r , it was reinstated i n 1929 and enforced w i t h vigor. This led to a secession i n the Ruthenian exarchate of Pittsburgh, w h e n about 100,000 church members left to form an Orthodox eparchy under the patriarch of Constantinople. W i t h the n e w influx of U k r a i n i a n immigrants from Western Europe after the Second W o r l d War, the R o m a n Curia consented to their being ministered by married priests from U k r a i n e . But this appeared to be an exceptional measure; the prohibition against ordaining married candidates or b r i n g i n g them from Europe to the Ukrainians i n the Americas a n d Australia was repeated several times i n the 1970s. Still, married ordained priests i n Europe, once they emigrate to the U n i t e d States or Canada, are tolerated a n d are permitted to serve as priests. The R o m a n C u r i a also applies the rule o n celibacy to U k r a i n i a n Catholic communities i n Western Europe and, more recently, i n P o l a n d . The Ukrainians i n Galicia, Transcarpathia, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia are not affected by this prohibition. The U k r a i n i a n Catholic lay movement and the priests of the Society of St A n d r e w are advocating married priesthood i n the diaspora, although without m u c h success i n the Vatican. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bilaniuk, P.B.T. 'Celibacy and Eastern Tradition,' in Celibacy: The Necessary Option, ed G . H . Frein (New York 1968)

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Pospishil, V J . Compulsory Celibacy for the Eastern Catholics in the Americas (Toronto 1977) V J . Pospishil Celtic coins. The coins produced by the Celts were mostly imitations of the silver tetradrachmas of Philip of Macedonia a n d the gold staters of Alexander the Great. They appeared i n western U k r a i n e d u r i n g the L a Tène period. H o a r d s of Celtic coins were found i n S k o m o r o k h y in Sokal county, M u k a c h i v , a n d Rozavlia i n the M a r m a rosh region. Celtic coins were u n k n o w n , however, i n eastern a n d central U k r a i n e . Celts. Tribes that inhabited, i n the 6th-1st century BC, a large part of western a n d central Europe, mainly the territory of present-day France. Influenced strongly by the Greeks, the Celts h a d an advanced culture, w h i c h they spread throughout Europe d u r i n g their migrations. The culture was brought to U k r a i n e by the Celtic tribes of the *Bastarnae a n d Skiri. The mass production of iron articles, mostly weapons a n d farm implements, the widespread use of pottery made o n a potter's wheel, and fine ornamentation are characteristic of the Celtic culture. The m a i n occupations of the Celts were m i x e d farming and trading, i n w h i c h they used their o w n coins (see *Celtic coins). Cement industry. Branch of the *building-materials industry that produces various types of cement. The raw materials from w h i c h cement is made - limestones, marls, chalk, a n d cement clays - are found mostly i n the Donbas, where some of the largest deposits i n the Soviet U n i o n , and i n fact i n the w h o l e w o r l d , are located near A m v r o siivka, i n the K h a r k i v region, a n d i n C h e r n i h i v , L v i v , Chernivtsi, a n d Rivne oblasts. It is i n these regions that the cement industry has developed. The first cement plants i n U k r a i n e were built i n A m v r o s i i v k a i n the D o n bas i n 1896 (see * A m v r o s i i v k a Cement Complex) a n d i n Z d o l b u n i v i n V o l h y n i a i n 1898. B y 1913 there were 12 cement plants i n U k r a i n e , most of w h i c h were small, and their total output was 269,000 t of cement (15 percent of the output of the Russian Empire). D u r i n g the period of industrialization under the first five-year plans the cement industry grew by expansion of the existing plants and by construction of n e w plants i n Dnipropetrovske, Yenakiieve, a n d K h a r k i v . B y 1940 the U k r a i n i a n SSR produced 1.2 m i l l i o n t of cement, or 20. 7 percent of the USSR production. After their destruction i n 1941-3 the cement plants were rebuilt, a n d by 1948 they had returned to their prewar level of production. Eventually, a string of n e w plants was built, i n c l u d i n g such plants as the cement-mining plant i n M y k o l a i v i n L v i v oblast, the Balakliia plant i n K h a r k i v oblast, the N o v o a m v r o s i i v s k e plant, the Z d o l b u n i v plant, the K r y v y i Rih plant, a n d the Kamianets-Podilskyi plant. In 1978 the cement industry was represented by 15 enterprises, w h i c h produced 23.1 million t of cement, or 18.1 percent of the USSR total. O f this output 51.8 percent was portland cement, 44.8 percent was slag cement, a n d 3.3 percent consisted of other types of cement. The present distribution of the cement industry neces sitates extensive interoblast a n d interrepublican freight transportation. The average radius of transportation is 310 k m i n Soviet U k r a i n e a n d over 500 k m i n the southern regions of Ukraine. Cement is also brought into

some oblasts that have deposits of the raw materials for cement, for example, V o r o s h y l o v h r a d , S u m y , a n d Kherson oblasts. Some of the high-quality portland cement, produced mostly at the A m v r o s i i v k a complex, is exported from Ukraine, particularly to Rostov a n d Krasnodar, but also to the central RSFSR a n d Belorussia. High-quality quick-setting portland cement a n d slag cement is imported by U k r a i n e from other republics of the USSR. (For a bibliography, see *Building-materials industry.) Censorship. C o n t r o l by state a n d other institutions of public expression of ideas a n d opinions. A s i n other countries, church censorship preceded state censorship in Ukraine. O n 5 N o v e m b e r 1591 the council of Orthodox bishops meeting at Berestia decreed that 'bishops must inspect, sign, a n d stamp manuscripts before submitting them for p r i n t i n g . ' The reason for this prior censorship was 'that n o t h i n g detrimental to G o d ' s church be published.' The Uniates behaved i n the same way: article 27 of the C h u r c h U n i o n of *Berestia of 1 June 1595 forbade printers to 'print a n y t h i n g w i t h o u t the knowledge a n d permission of their bishops' i n order to prevent 'various heresies from spreading.' Sometimes the Polish authorities exercised postpublication censorship over U k r a i n i a n publications. Thus, i n 1647 L v i v printer M . Slozka was s u m m o n e d before the king's court for p u b l i s h i n g the catechism of P. M o h y l a i n 1645. Muscovite church censorship disapproved of various U k r a i n i a n books even before the Pereiaslav Treaty of 1654. In 1627 the Katekhizis (Catechesis) of S. Z y z a n i i a n d the Ievanheliie uchiteVnoie (Didactic Gospel) of K . Stavrovetsky were b u r n e d i n M o s c o w for 'heresies' contained i n them, and books of Lithuanian i m p r i n t (ie, Ukrainian-Belorussian books) could not be brought into M u s c o v y . W h e n the U k r a i n i a n Orthodox church became subordinate to the M o s c o w patriarch i n 1686, his censorship was extended to the Hetmán state. In 1689 the M o s c o w patriarch Joachim ordered all n e w church books to be sent to h i m for approval before printing. In 1690 the C o u n c i l of M o s c o w anathemized the w o r k s of P. M o h y l a , I. Galiatovsky, L . Baranovych, A . R a d y v y l o v s k y , Y e . Slavynetsky, a n d others. In 1720 Peter 1 ordered the two presses i n Hetmán Ukraine - the press of the K i e v a n Cave M o n a s tery a n d the press of the H o l y T r i n i t y - S t Elijah Monastery in C h e r n i h i v - not to print any books without prior censorship by the Spiritual C o l l e g i u m , w h i c h replaced the M o s c o w patriarchate a n d i n 1721 was given the name *Holy S y n o d . The purpose of this censorship was to suppress any religious heresy or deviation from the Great Russian books. In 1724 both presses were fined for disobeying this order. A t the end of the 18th century Russian authorities began to introduce secular censorship i n Ukraine. The gubernial governments were given the responsibility of controlling publications. In 1804 Alexander 1 entrusted the task of censorship to the universities for a brief period. Nicholas 1 established a special censorship of Uniate publications i n 1826. F r o m 1828 local censorship committees, the K i e v a n d Odessa committees a m o n g others, were subordinated to the M a i n Censorship A d ministration i n St Petersburg. The progress of secularization i n the Russian E m p i r e made possible the p r i n t i n g of Ukrainian literature, first i n Russia a n d then, from the beginning of the 19th century, i n Russian Ukraine. W h e n the U k r a i n i a n awakening became politicized i n the 1840s, t

n

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the authorities began to use censorship to control Ukrai­ nian literature: i n 1847 T. Shevchenko s works were pro­ hibited, particularly his Kobzar, the 1840 and 1844 editions of w h i c h came out w i t h the censor's excisions. The Russian government launched a n e w offensive against U k r a i n i a n publications i n 1863 w i t h a circular from the minister of internal affairs, P. * Value v, w h i c h prohibited the p r i n t i n g of U k r a i n i a n books w i t h a reli­ gious content, U k r a i n i a n school texts, and generally books for popular use. The church authorities prevented the publication of P. Morachevsky's U k r a i n i a n transla­ tion of the Gospels. In 1865 publications entering Russia from abroad began to be censored. A special commission, chaired by the minister of internal affairs, was set u p i n 1875 to study the means of suppressing Ukrainophile activities. A s a result of the commission's recommenda­ tions, Alexander 11 issued the *Ems Ukase on 8 M a y 1876, forbidding the p r i n t i n g of books i n Ukrainian, the publi­ cation of U k r a i n i a n translations, theatrical performances, musical texts i n U k r a i n i a n , and the importation of Ukrai­ nian books from abroad. Because U k r a i n i a n was banned from the stage, U k r a i n i a n songs had to be translated into Russian. The prohibition of U k r a i n i a n texts i n musical compositions was so absurd that M . L y s e n k o , w i t h the support of the K i e v and K h a r k i v governors general, succeeded i n getting it lifted by 1881. A t the same time Alexander i n permitted U k r a i n i a n dictionaries to be published and, under special conditions, U k r a i n i a n plays to be staged. G r a m m a r books, however, were not permit­ ted to be published. In 1895 children's books i n Ukrainian were banned. In 1901 subscribing to the L v i v journal Literaturno-naukovyi vistnyk was prohibited. The censors banished the name Ukraine and its derivatives and re­ placed them w i t h Malorossiia (Little Russia). They disap­ proved of such words as Sich and Cossack, eliminated neologisms that arose as the language developed, and even removed Ukrainianisms from Russian works. F r o m 1895 to 1904, 70 percent of the manuscripts submitted to the censors were rejected. In some years ( 1 8 6 6 , 1 8 7 7 ) single U k r a i n i a n book was published i n the Russian Empire. The ban o n U k r a i n i a n from 1863 forced writers i n Russian Ukraine to p u b l i s h i n Galicia. It was easier to publish something i n U k r a i n i a n i n M o s c o w than i n Kiev, where the censorship was particularly severe: i n 1894,14 Ukrainian books were published i n M o s c o w and only 8 i n Kiev. The Revolution of 1905 spontaneously abolished the restrictions o n U k r a i n i a n . The Imperial A c a d e m y of Sciences favored their abolition. U k r a i n i a n publications began to be censored according to general standards, that is, on the basis of their content rather than their language. The legacy of Valuev and Alexander 11 d i d not die out, however; i n 1906 a complete U k r a i n i a n translation of the Scriptures and the importation of such translations were prohibited. Some newspapers were banned because of their contents: for example, Khliborob i n L u b n i i n 1905, the Social Democratic Borofba i n K i e v , ViVna Ukraina i n St Petersburg, Dobra porada a n d Zaporozhzhia i n Katerynoslav, Narodna sprava i n Odessa, and Slobozhanshchyna i n Kharkiv i n 1906. The publication of T. Shevchenko's complete works was stopped i n 1911, and U k r a i n i a n newspapers could not be sent to village co-operatives. W i t h the outbreak of the First W o r l d W a r strict restric­ tions were imposed o n U k r a i n i a n publications. M a n y publications were prohibited. The military censorship 7

not

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that came into force was particularly severe i n Russianoccupied Galicia. U n d e r A u s t r i a n rule U k r a i n i a n publications were sub­ ject to censorship not o n l y from A u s t r i a n authorities but also from U k r a i n i a n conservative circles, whose restric­ tions were more severe. This was the state of affairs up to the revolution of 1848. In 1834 Rev V . Levytsky, the censor of Ruthenian books, as they were called then, b o w e d to the d e m a n d of the Greek Catholic metropolitan M . Levytsky and prohibited the publication of Zoria, a collection of poems by the Ruthenian Triad, although Y . Kopitar, the Viennese censor, had approved it. This collection of poems appeared i n Budapest under the title Rusalka dnistrovaia (The Dniester Water N y m p h ) , but most of the copies printed were later confiscated i n Galicia. The reason for its prohibition was the fact that its language was considered substandard, being too close to the vernacular. In 1838 Y . L o z y n s k y ' s Ruthenian gram­ mar was banned for a similar reason (it was published i n 1848). W h e n a constitutional order was established i n Austria i n 1867, the o l d system of censorship was abolished, and the public prosecutor was given the power to i m p o u n d suspected publications (particularly i n Galicia). To avoid financial loss, the economically weaker publishers submitted manuscripts to the public prosecu­ tor for prior inspection ( k n o w n as prophylactic censor­ ship). Polish censors sometimes used censorship black­ mail against U k r a i n i a n newspapers; for example, Dilo and Hromads'kyi holos were confiscated. A t the begin­ n i n g of the 20th century A u s t r i a n censorship took a m u c h more liberal attitude towards U k r a i n i a n publications. The February Revolution i n 1917 brought eastern Ukraine freedom of the press. Censorship was intro­ duced only under Hetmαn P. Skoropadsky i n 1918, be­ cause most of the press, both U k r a i n i a n a n d Russian, was opposed to his government. Leftist papers were closed d o w n , i n c l u d i n g Borofba and Narodna volia i n Kiev; MysV, Zemlia i volia, and Rabochaia bofba i n Odessa; MysV naroda and Narodnie dilo i n Kharkiv; Nash luch i n Katerynoslav; and Dnipro i n K h e r s o n . U n d e r the Directory of the UNR the Sich Riflemen i n K i e v first assumed censorship powers a n d closed d o w n Kievskaia mysV and some other Russian newspapers because of their anti-Ukrainian stand. These powers were then transferred to the Su­ preme A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the Press and Propaganda, w h i c h was directed by O . N a z a r u k at the end of 1918 and the beginning of 1919. N a z a r u k demanded that the Russian press print one-third of its material i n Ukrainian. The Western U k r a i n i a n N a t i o n a l Republic had no sepa­ rate agency responsible for censorship. After the Polish occupation of Western Ukraine i n 1919, Ukrainian publications came first under prepublication censorship, but i n the 1930s this was changed to postpub­ lication censorship. In 1924 the U k r a i n i a n representative S. K h r u t s k y declared i n the W a r s a w Sejm that 'almost all issues of U k r a i n i a n periodicals contain the eloquent heading "Second P r i n t i n g after C o n f i s c a t i o n . ' " In the 1930s it was forbidden to fill the confiscated spaces i n newspapers w i t h other material. Blank spaces stamped 'confiscated' served as a protest, contrary to the intention of Polish authorities. A s under A u s t r i a n rule, censorship could be circumvented by reading the confiscated articles i n the Sejm a n d reprinting them from the official steno­ graphic record. In 1932-8,11 editions of T. Shevchenko's works were prohibited by Polish censors. In general, the

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censorship of U k r a i n i a n books was more liberal than that of U k r a i n i a n periodicals. In B u k o v y n a the R u m a n i a n authorities suppressed from the very b e g i n n i n g (1918) the newspapers Nova Bukovyna a n d Borba. U k r a i n i a n editors h a d to submit to the censors twice as m u c h material as they intended to print, because half of it was usually rejected. Blank spaces were not permited. In spite of prepublication censorship the police sometimes confiscated publications that had been approved. In Transcarpathia under Czechoslovakian rule the press was censored after publication, w h i l e books were censored before publication. Several periodicals were closed d o w n temporarily or permanently because of their oppositional or anti-Czech position. The Hungarians introduced prior censorship i n 1939-44 f ° press as well. Publications i n literary U k r a i n i a n and i n phonetic orthography were prohibited. In the Generalgouvernement (1939-45) G e r m a n prepublication censorship of the C r a c o w press and books (restricting the number of titles to be published a n d copies to be printed) was very strict. Scholarly works were forbidden, a n d books o n historical themes (particularly o n the 1917-20 period) were limited. To facilitate control and censorship, the authorities granted the *Ukrainske V y d a v n y t s t v o publishers i n C r a c o w a p u b l i s h i n g monopoly. In Galicia U k r a i n i a n newspapers were published by a G e r m a n semigovernmental p u b l i s h i n g firm. U p to the German-Soviet w a r criticism of the Soviet U n i o n was not allowed. The scanty U k r a i n i a n press i n the Reichskommissariat U k r a i n e a n d i n G e r m a n y was usually under the direct control of the Germans. A l m o s t no U k r a i n i a n books appeared i n Reichskommissariat Ukraine, but a few were published i n Germany, where censorship was not as strict. The Soviet government quickly restored censorship of the press, some of w h i c h was still privately o w n e d or controlled by civic organizations. The Revolutionary Tribunal, established o n 2 A u g u s t 1918, decreed that to use the press against the Soviet regime was a crime. O n 29 December 1918 military censorship was introduced, allegedly to protect military secrets. This agency constantly abused its authority. In 1922 the M a i n Administration for Literature a n d Publications (Glavlit) was established and served as a m o d e l for similar republican administrations, w h i c h were set u p w i t h i n the people's commissariats of education as censorship agencies. In the USSR there was also the A d m i n i s t r a t i o n for the Protection of State Secrets i n the Press. Besides the special Soviet institutions of censorship, the Party leadership exercises censorship i n enforcing a single Party line. E v e n libraries are censored: their holdings are purged periodically, and certain books are destroyed or transferred to special sections (spetsfondy), to w h i c h admission is restricted. In contrast to tsarist censorship, Soviet censorship is d i rected not so m u c h against the U k r a i n i a n language as against specific subject matter: religious subjects, Cossack themes, a n d various persons, particularly national C o m munists. A s a result of the sudden intensification of the anti-Ukrainian policy i n 1933-4, a number of publication projects such as M . H r u s h e v s k y ' s Istoriia Ukraïny-Rusy (The H i s t o r y of Ukraine-Rus') a n d Istoriia literatury (A History of Literature), the Soviet U k r a i n i a n Encyclopedia, the Great Russian-Ukrainian Dictionary, a n d the U k r a i n i a n Historical Dictionary were canceled. r t

n

e

In the U k r a i n i a n SSR censorship was first exercised

by the U k r a i n i a n M a i n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n for Literature a n d Publications (Ukrholovlit), a n d since 1963 it has been exercised directly by the State Committee for P r i n t i n g of the C o u n c i l of Ministers of the USSR (not the U k r a i n i a n SSR). A S w e l l , the Ideological Department of the Central Committee of the CPU keeps an eye o n the press. Other areas of U k r a i n i a n culture are censored by the State Committee for Radio a n d Television, the State Committee for Cinematography, a n d the State Committee for the Arts. A l l these agencies are responsible to higher agencies i n M o s c o w . The function of censorship is not merely to prevent certain events a n d people from being mentioned, but also to distort the texts of U k r a i n i a n classics. Excisions are often marked by three dots. A n t i - R u s s i a n works by classic Ukrainian writers are banned (eg, Shevchenko's p o e m Tak by to ty, Bohdane p i a n y i ' [If O n l y Y o u , D r u n k e n Bohdan] a n d Lesia U k r a i n k a ' s play Boiarynia [The Boyar Woman]). Ukrainians w h o have fought against M o s c o w cannot be mentioned w i t h o u t being abused. Censorship criteria differ according to territory; for example, i n 1944-5 w h e n the U k r a i n i a n Insurgent A r m y was active i n Western Ukraine, Radians'ka Ukraïna a n d other K i e v papers h a d page-long inserts i n issues distributed i n Western Ukraine; these contained some material of local significance. T h r o u g h samvydav a n d samizdat literature certain acts of censorship have become public knowledge. The M o s c o w Chronicle of Current Events has revealed, for example, that the U k r a i n i a n films Kievan Frescos (1966) by S. Paradzhanov a n d The Stone Cross (1968) by L . O s y k a have been banned. The time a w o r k spends at the censor's is indicated o n the last page of a book or journal; it is the difference between the 'submitted for publication' date a n d the 'authorized for p r i n t i n g ' date. The average term is two months for journals a n d from a few months to a year for books. Every w o r k is subjected to 'self-censorship' before it is submitted to the censor: authors a n d editors use every precaution to avoid deviations from the Party line. O n e of the consequences of the suppression of free speech was the appearance of U k r a i n i a n samvydav i n the early 1960s. In the Soviet bloc countries publications i n Ukrainian on U k r a i n i a n subjects come under prior censorship according to general standards a n d are liable to Soviet interference. Censorship i n Yugoslavia is more lenient. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Skabichevskii, A . Ocherki istorii russkoi tsenzury (1700-1863) (St Petersburg 1892) Kotovich, A . Dukhovnaia tsenzura v Rossii (St Petersburg 1909) Ob otmene stesnenii malorusskogo pechatnogo slova (St Petersburg 1910) Ohiienko, I. lak Moskva nyshchyla voliu druku Kyïvs'koï Pechers'koïLavry (Tarnów 1921) Miiakovs'kyi, V. 'Iuvilei tsenzurnoho aktu 1876 r.,' Bibliohrafichni visti, 1926, no. 3

Svoboda, V. 'Shevchenko and Censorship,' Ukrainian Review, 1961, no. 1; 1962, nos 1-2

Butryn, M . 'Do istoriï avstriis'koï tsenzury,' Arkhivy Ukrainy, no. 5 (Kiev 1970) Balmuth, D. Censorship in Russia, 1865-1905 (Washington 1979)

B. Struminsky Census. A direct, massive, statistical survey of the whole population of a given territory for the purpose of determ i n i n g its size, composition (by sex, age, family ties,

CENSUS

descent, language, nationality, religion, social status, occupation, etc), and distribution on a given date. Govern­ ments began to conduct general censuses at the end of the 18th century, i n Eastern Europe at the end of the 19th century, a n d i n the Russian E m p i r e i n 1897. Usually, a census was taken every five or ten years. But partial censuses, w h i c h usually encompassed only taxpayers, were carried out more often. They were u n p u b l i s h e d and provided little information about the population. Cossack Ukraine and the Russian Empire. Some infor­ mation about the size of the population i n Ukraine and its social composition can be obtained from the tax registers of the Polish state, the Hetmαn state, a n d the Russian Empire. In the Hetmαn state censuses had a predomi­ nantly fiscal character, w h i c h was true of, for example, the so-called perepysni knyhy (census books) of 1666. In the 18th century censuses, k n o w n as revizii, were con­ ducted quite frequently, but they were usually limited to certain localities, or to certain groups or estates of the population. The first general census of Hetmαn Ukraine was taken i n 1723, a n d the second accurate census of the male population i n 1763. In 1765-9 the so-called *Rumiantsev census of the male a n d female population of Hetmαn Ukraine was conducted, but it was never completed and tallied. The censuses of the Russian Empire are important sources for information about U k r a i n i a n territories. There were 10 such surveys, of w h i c h the following were conducted i n Ukraine (apart from Slobidska Ukraine, where they were begun earlier): 1782, 1795, 1811, 1815, 1833,1850,1857. They counted the population that was to pay taxes a n d presented the figures according to estate, urban or rural residence, a n d nationality (in the 18th century). In 1857, 1863, a n d 1885 three administrativepolice surveys were conducted. Before the 1897 census, censuses of various towns of central a n d eastern U k r a i n e were taken: i n Yevpatoriia (1887), Z h y t o m y r (1873), Katerynoslav (1865, 1873), K i e v (1874), Mykolaiv (1875), Odessa (1873, 1879, 1892), Tahanrih (1863, 1864), K h e r s o n (1887), Yalta (1894). Except for the results of the K i e v census, w h i c h was conducted and published by the Southwestern Branch of the Imperial Russian Geographic Society, a n d the 1892 census of Kharkiv, w h i c h was p u b l i s h e d by O . Rusov, the results of these censuses were not published. The only general census of the Russian Empire was the census of 9 February 1897, w h i c h was conducted by the Central Statistical Committee i n St Petersburg. The ques­ tionnaires consisted of 14 questions, including a question on religion a n d language but not o n nationality. The census h a d m a n y shortcomings, a m o n g them an unclear classification of occupations a n d erroneous data o n lan­ guage i n some o u t l y i n g regions of Ukraine such as the Belorussian-Ukrainian borderland and the northern Cher­ nihiv region. O n l y some of the results were published, and these were calculated only for large administrative units such as gubernias a n d counties. In spite of its defects the 1897 census remains the only authoritative source of data for 85 percent of the population i n U k r a i n i a n territories at the end of the 19th century. Its results for the w h o l e empire (two volumes) and for i n d i v i d u a l gubernias were published. Some of its ma­ terials were later used i n the 1920s by the Central Statistical A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the U k r a i n i a n SSR. Soviet Union. The first Soviet census, held on 28 A u g u s t 1920, was of limited value, because it d i d not

39*

embrace all of Ukraine a n d was conducted during a civil war. M a n y people refused to register or gave false information. Census materials were published by the Central Statistical A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the USSR i n M o s c o w and the Central Statistical A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n K h a r k i v . O n 15 M a r c h 1923 a fairly accurate city census was held in the Soviet U n i o n . The data for Ukraine were published by the Central Statistical A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the Ukrainian SSR i n K h a r k i v . The first general census of the USSR was conducted on 17 December 1926. It was w e l l prepared and conducted i n an objective way. The questionnaire contained 14 ques­ tions, dealing w i t h such areas as nationality, language, place of birth, occupation, literacy, and education, but there was no question about religion. O f all the censuses in central a n d eastern U k r a i n e , this census p r o v i d e d the most valuable data. Its data have been published exten­ sively and studied thoroughly by the statistical admini­ strations of the USSR a n d the U k r a i n i a n SSR. The data on the native tongue a n d , to a smaller degree, on the nationality of the population i n Ukrainian territories outside the U k r a i n i a n SSR were somewhat vitiated by the misleading instructions a n d the method of carrying out the census. The number of Ukrainians by nationality and, even more so, by language was actually somewhat higher than that recorded. The next USSR census was organized by the Central Administration for the Population-Economic Census i n M o s c o w o n 6 January 1937. A c c o r d i n g to the government itself, this census was carried out w i t h flagrant violations of the principles of statistics a n d of government instruc­ tions. For this reason the C o u n c i l of People's Commissars of the USSR repealed it o n 25 September 1937 before its results were published. The real reason b e h i n d its repeal was the terrible population loss, o w i n g to the *famine of 1933 and the terror, that the census revealed, particularly in Ukraine. The subsequent census of 17 January 1939 was also kept from the public, except for the most general data. The official reason for this secrecy was the outbreak of war i n 1941, but the actual reason was falsification. The govern­ ment announced that the population of the USSR had g r o w n by six m i l l i o n a n d the population of the Ukrainian SSR by two m i l l i o n i n order to conceal the population loss in the 1930s, w h i c h w o u l d have been obvious had the specific results been published. The first postwar census of the USSR, o n 15 January 1959, dealt w i t h 15 traits of the population. In contrast to the 1926 census the question o n place of birth was omitted, probably to conceal the changes resulting from migration. The information about age, socio-occupational status, and family relations was relatively detailed. The results, summarized by the USSR Central Statistical A d m i n i ­ stration rather briefly i n Itogi vsesoiuznoi perepisi naseleniia 1959 g. (Results of the A i l - U n i o n Census of 1959,15 vols, 1 v o l per republic, 1962-3), are given only for large administrative units such as republics, krais, a n d oblasts. This makes any comparison w i t h the results of the 1926 census very difficult. The 1959 census and the succeeding censuses provide no data o n the national breakdown by occupation. The information o n the nationality and native language of the population i n the Ukrainian SSR is reliable. It is not reliable for U k r a i n i a n ethnic territories outside the U k r a i n i a n SSR a n d for Ukrainians scattered throughout the rest of the USSR.

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CENSUS

The second most recent census took place on 15 January 1970. The questionnaire h a d 11 questions. Four supplementary questions o n activities at the place of w o r k and on matters pertinent to migration were to be answered only by 25 percent of the population. U n l i k e the 1959 census, this census examined the educational level of the population i n detail. For the first time since 1926 information o n the use of second languages of the peoples of the USSR was collected, although it contains a host of inaccuracies. The results were summarized by the Central Statistical A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the USSR i n Itogi vsesoiuznoi perepisi naseleniia SSSR 1970 g. (Results of the A l l - U n i o n Census of 1970, 7 vols). There are no separate volumes for the republics. The most recent census was held on 17 January 1979. The questionnaire consisted of 16 questions - 11 for everyone a n d 5 for 25 percent of the population. The question o n family relations that appeared i n the 1970 census was changed, a n d a question about the number of children b o r n to each mother was added. Austria-Hungary. Censuses h a d been conducted i n Austria since 1818 a n d i n H u n g a r y since 1850. Particularly accurate censuses were taken i n 1857, ^ ô ç , 1880, 1890, 1900, a n d 1910 (the last four were taken o n 31 December of the given years). The results were summarized a n d studied i n the numerous publications of the Central Statistical Commission i n Vienna and the Hungarian Statistical A g e n c y i n Budapest, as w e l l as the regional statistical agencies of Galicia a n d B u k o v y n a . The data were presented according to counties a n d partly (since 1880) according to communities. The questionnaires d i d not deal w i t h nationality but w i t h the language used ( Umgangssprache) a n d religion. The linguistic composition of the p o p u l a t i o n was presented inaccurately, because Y i d d i s h was not recognized as a separate language a n d Jews were classified w i t h other linguistic groups, a n d because the census was often administered i n a w a y that was unfair to U k r a i n i a n s . H o w e v e r , the results could be corrected o n the basis of the data o n religious faith. Western Ukraine after 1918. In P o l a n d , w h i c h included part of Western U k r a i n e , a census was held o n 30 September 1921 a n d o n 9 December 1931. The first census registered nationality; the second, native language. The results of the 1921 census were published and were broken d o w n i n greater detail than those of the 1931 census: nationality a n d religious faith were given by community, w h i l e i n the 1931 census they were given only by county. In both censuses the nationality a n d language data for the population on Ukrainian territory were biased against Ukrainians. The data o n religious affiliation were more accurate. In Czechoslovakia censuses were conducted o n 15 February 1921 a n d o n 1 October 1930. They registered all the important features of the population, i n c l u d i n g nationality a n d religious faith. N a t i o n a l relations i n western Transcarpathia (eastern Slovakia) were misrepresented: the figures for U k r a i n i a n s were m i n i m i z e d i n favor of the Slovaks. In R u m a n i a a census was taken o n 19 December 1930, and the m a i n results were published according to county and c o m m u n i t y . The national composition of the population was surveyed i n two ways - b y language and b y ethnic origin. The figures for Ukrainians were m i n i m i z e d , to the advantage of the Rumanians. After the Second W o r l d W a r countries that contain

border regions of Western U k r a i n e have conducted censuses: P o l a n d i n 1946,1950, i960, a n d 1970; Czechoslovakia i n 1947, 1961, 1970, a n d 1976; and R u m a n i a i n 1948, 1956, 1966, 1970, a n d 1976. Religious affiliation is no longer registered i n these countries. Nationality has been registered i n R u m a n i a a n d Czechoslovakia, but the figures for Ukrainians have been m i n i m i z e d . In P o l a n d the censuses have not i n c l u d e d sections o n nationality a n d language. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Sadovs'kyi, V. 'Ohliad literatury pro ukraïns'ku demohrafiiu/ in Ukra'ins'ka liudnisf SSSR (Warsaw 1931) Galin, P. Kak proizvodilis' perepisi naseleniia v SSSR (Munich 1951) Boiarskii, A . ; Shumurin, P. Demograficheskaia statistika (Moscow 1955) Pustokhod, P. 'Z istoriï perepysiv naselennia v SRSR.,' UlZh, 1959, no. 1 Pisarev, I. Narodonaselenie SSSR (Moscow 1962) Kolpakov, B. Vsesoiuznaia perepis' naseleniia 1970 goda (Moscow 1969) Naselenie SSR po dannym Vsesoiuznoi perepisi naseleniia 1979

goda (Moscow 1980)

V. Kubijovyc

Central Rada (Tsentralna Rada). A t first, an allUkrainian center that united political, community, cultural, a n d professional organizations; later, after the *A11-Ukrainian N a t i o n a l Congress (17-21 A p r i l 1917), the revolutionary parliament of U k r a i n e that directed the Ukrainian national movement a n d by its four *universals led Ukraine from autonomy to independence. The Central Rada was founded i n K i e v o n 17 M a r c h 1917 o n the initiative of the ^Society of U k r a i n i a n Progressives w i t h the participation of other political parties. M . *Hrushevsky was chosen i n absentia as the chairman of the Rada, w i t h D . A n t o n o v y c h a n d D . Doroshenko as his deputies. After the A l l - U k r a i n i a n N a t i o n a l C o n gress the Rada was composed of 150 members, elected from U k r a i n i a n political parties, professional and cultural organizations, a n d delegates from the gubernias. A t the congress a n e w p r e s i d i u m of the Rada was elected, w i t h M . H r u s h e v s k y as president a n d S. *Yefremov and V . *Vynnychenko as vice-presidents. To take care of current matters, the Rada chose an executive committee, later renamed the Little Rada, w h i c h consisted of members of the presidium, secretaries of the Rada, a n d two representatives from each political party. A l l important matters were first decided by meetings of the Little Rada; later the proposals d r a w n u p were ratified by the p l e n u m of the Central Rada. D u r i n g its existence the Rada h e l d nine plenary sessions. Even before the proclamation of the First Universal, membership i n the Rada was increased by 130 members delegated by the Second *A11-Ukrainian Military C o n gress (23 June 1917) a n d 133 members of the C o u n c i l of Peasant Deputies, elected at the First ""All-Ukrainian Peasant Congress (15 June 1917). After the proclamation of U k r a i n i a n autonomy (in the First Universal, 23 June 1917), the Rada chose the ^General Secretariat - the autonomous government of Ukraine. H a v i n g w o n recognition by the Russian Provisional G o v e r n m e n t (proclaimed i n the Second Universal, 16 July 1917), the C e n tral Rada increased its membership b y 100 representatives elected at the First *A11-Ukrainian Workers' Congress (24-27 July 1917) a n d by representatives of the national

CENTRAL

First General Secretariat of the Central Rada, 1917 minorities. B y the end of July 1917 the Rada consisted of 822 deputies, w h o represented the following groups: the *A11-Ukrainian C o u n c i l of Peasants' Deputies (212), the * A l l - U k r a i n i a n C o u n c i l of M i l i t a r y Deputies (158), the *A11-Ukrainian C o u n c i l of Workers' Deputies (100), nonUkrainian workers' a n d soldiers' councils (50), U k r a i nian socialist parties (20), Russian socialist parties (40), Jewish socialist parties (35), Polish socialist parties (15), cities, towns, a n d gubernias (84), a n d professional, educational, economic, a n d c o m m u n i t y organizations a n d the national minorities - M o l d a v i a n s , Germans, Tatars, Belorussians (108). O u t of the 822 members, the 58 members of the Little Rada were chosen, w i t h 18 of these representing the national minorities. O n 21-28 September 1917 the Central Rada held the ^Congress of the Peoples of Russia i n K i e v . After the Bolshevik seizure of power i n Russia, the Rada proclaimed the "Ukrainian N a t i o n a l Republic (UNR), designating its territory a n d its federal relationship w i t h Russia (Third Universal, 20 N o v e m b e r 1917). A t the same time the Rada passed a law on elections to the ^Constituent Assembly of U k r a i n e , as w e l l as several other laws (on the courts, the p r i n t i n g of U N R credit notes, etc). The Rada had the support of the majority of the population of Ukraine, as was s h o w n i n the election to the *A11-Russian Constituent A s s e m b l y o n 25 N o v e m b e r 1917 (Ukrainian parties received 75 percent of the vote; the Bolsheviks, only 10 percent). A s early as the end of N o v e m b e r 1917 the Bolsheviks were preparing to seize power i n Ukraine. The Bolshevik government of Russia sent an ultimatum to Ukraine (17 December 1917), w h i c h the Rada rejected. The Bolshevik army then began its military campaign against Ukraine. The ""All-Ukrainian Congress of Workers', Soldiers', and Peasants' Deputies, c o n v o k e d i n K i e v o n 17 December 1917, proclaimed its complete confidence i n and support for the Central Rada. The Bolshevik deputies left for Kharkiv, where, on 25 December, they established a rival government opposed to the Central Rada and the General Secretariat. A t the same time the Rada sent a delegation to the peace negotiations w i t h the Central Powers i n Brest-Litovsk. A t the height of the war w i t h the Bolsheviks and i n the midst of the peace negotiations, the Central Rada proclaimed the Fourth Universal (22 January 1918), w h i c h declared the U N R an independent and sovereign state; the General Secretariat was renamed the ^Council of N a t i o n a l Ministers. F o l l o w i n g the declaration, the Central Rada passed a series of laws, establishing the eight-hour w o r k day, l a n d reform, and, d u r i n g its stay i n Z h y t o m y r a n d Sarny i n V o l h y n i a , laws o n the

REPRESENTATION

393

monetary system, a national coat of arms, citizenship i n the UNR, a n d the administrative-territorial division of the territory of Ukraine. The most important legislative act of the Central Rada was the adoption of the ^Constitution of the UNR (29 A p r i l 1918). The presiding officer of the parliament was simultaneously president of the UNR. M . H r u s h e v s k y was elected the first president. After the signing of the Peace Treaty of *Brest-Litovsk (9 February 1918), the G e r m a n army took over the Ukrainian territory that h a d been occupied by the Bolsheviks, but conflict ensued between the Germans and the UNR because of G e r m a n interference i n the internal affairs of Ukraine. O n 28 A p r i l an armed G e r m a n detachment even broke into a meeting of the Central Rada and arrested two ministers of the UNR. O n 29 A p r i l a coup took place w i t h the support of the G e r m a n army, and G e n P. *Skoropadsky was proclaimed hetmán of the U k r a i n i a n state. Hetmán Skoropadsky dissolved the Central Rada and the Little Rada by an edict a n d revoked the laws that had been passed by them. D u r i n g its existence the Central Rada was headed by M . H r u s h e v s k y . Its deputy-heads were S. Veselovsky, M . Shrah, A . N i k o v s k y , a n d F. K r y z h a n i v s k y , and its secretaries were M . Yeremiiv, M . Chechel, A . Postolovsky, M . Levchenko, a n d Y e . Onatsky. Its governments went through multiple changes under the leadership of V . V y n n y c h e n k o (28 June 1917-30 January 1918) and V . H o l u b o v y c h (30 January 1918-29 A p r i l 1918). The official publication of the Central Rada was Visti 2 Ukraïns'koï TsentraVnoï Rady ( A p r i l - N o v e m b e r 1917), while the official publication of the government of the UNR was *Visnyk HeneraVnoho Sekretariiatu, w h i c h began publication i n N o v e m b e r 1917.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hrushevs'kyi, M . Na porozi novoï Ukrainy (Kiev 1918) Shul'hyn, O. Polityka (Kiev 1918) Vynnychenko, V . Vidrodzhennia natsi'i, 1-3 (Kiev-Vienna 1920) Khrystiuk, P. Zapysky i materiialy do istoriï ukraïns'koï revoliutsiï 1917-1920 rr., 1-2 (Vienna 1921; New York 1969) Doroshenko, D. Istoriia Ukrainy 1917-1923, vol 1: Doba TsentraVnoï Rady (Uzhhorod 1932; repr, New York 1954) Reshetar, J. The Ukrainian Revolution 1917-1920 (Princeton 1952; New York 1972) Pidhainy, O. The Formation of the Ukrainian Republic (Toronto-New York 1966) Kedrovs'kyi, V. 1917 rik (Winnipeg 1967) Hunczak, T. (ed). The Ukraine, 1917-1921: A Study in Revolution (Cambridge, Mass. 1977) A. Zhukovsky Central Representation of the U k r a i n i a n Emigration i n Germany (Tsentralne Predstavnytstvo U k r a i n skoi Emigratsii v N i m e c h c h y n i ; Zentralvertretung der ukrainischen Emigration i n Deutschland, e.V.). Central Ukrainian civic institution i n the Federal Republic of Germany, elected at the first convention of U k r a i n i a n immigrants i n G e r m a n y a n d A u s t r i a , w h i c h was held i n Aschaffenburg i n N o v e m b e r 1945. The purpose of the institution was to represent a n d intercede o n behalf of the Ukrainians w i t h the occupying powers a n d later w i t h the G e r m a n government, as w e l l as to co-operate w i t h foreign charitable organizations a n d institutions, both Ukrainian and n o n - U k r a i n i a n . The representation has a three-level structure (headquarters, regional centers, and local centers); its principal legislative body is the Supreme C o u n c i l , and the executive b o d y is the Supreme A d m i n i -

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CENTRAL

REPRESENTATION

stration. Initially the representation's activities extended to the A m e r i c a n , French, a n d British zones of occupation, and subsequently to the w h o l e of the Federal Republic of Germany. A t first the representation represented all Ukrainians 177,000 persons i n 1946; 29,000 i n 1951. In 1953 it became a legally registered association with the German authorities. In 1956 it h a d 6,700 members; i n 1980,3,800. U n t i l 1950 the representation was based i n A u g s b u r g ; then its head­ quarters were m o v e d to M u n i c h , where they remain to this day. The occupation authorities d i d not recognize the representation, but tolerated its existence. In the British zone the Central U k r a i n i a n Relief Committee, based i n B l o m b e r g a n d headed by S. Biliak and O . Yalovy, was g i v e n official recognition, as was the regional office of the Central Representation of the Ukrainian Emigration i n W a n g e n i n the French zone (headed by Ye. M e n t s i n s k y , w i t h Y a . Kalba i n charge). The representa­ tion's presidents have been: V . M u d r y (1945-9), I. Vovchuk (1949-50), Y u . Studynsky (1950-1 and 1957-61), V . Pliushch (1951-3), M . D o r o z h y n s k y (1953-7), Y a . Bentsal (1961-4), a n d A . M e l n y k (1964-present). The secre­ taries general have been: R. Ilnytsky, N . Hirniak, K . Hodovanets, Z . Pelensky, R. H r o m n y t s k y , A . M e l n y k , and V . L e n y k . B y 1950 three conventions of delegates representing the U k r a i n i a n immigrants h a d taken place, in A u g s b u r g (1945 a n d 1949) a n d Regensburg-Dillingen (1947-8). Since the completion of resettlement there have been nine general sessions a n d delegates' conventions of the representation, as w e l l as six general conventions of Ukrainians i n West G e r m a n y : these have taken place i n Stuttgart (1962), M u n i c h (1965, 1970, 1975, 1980), and Kτnigstein (1967). BIBLIOGRAPHY

Zelenets'kyi, O. (ed). Na hromads'kii nyvi (Do 25-littia (Munich 1972)

TsPUEN) A. Figol

Central Republican Botanical G a r d e n of the A c a d ­ emy of Sciences of the U k r a i n i a n SSR (Tsentralnyi respublikanskyi botanichnyi sad A N URSR). The garden was established i n 1936 a n d incorporated the garden of the i n s t i t u t e of Botany of the A c a d e m y of Sciences of the U k r a i n i a n SSR. In 1944 it became an independent scientific research institution under the present name. It is located in K i e v o n the slopes of the Dnieper's right bank. D u r i n g the war it was heavily damaged but was later restored and expanded. The garden has an area of 169 ha, w i t h varying soil and orographic conditions. The institution has 13 departments, a herbarium, an orangery, a n d a library. Its collections contain about 13,000 species a n d varieties of plants from all the continents. The institution conducts research i n such areas as introduction and acclimatiza­ tion, selection, ecology, physiology, a n d the protection of plants. M a n y n e w varieties of decorative a n d agricultural plants have been developed there. Central Ruthenian People's C o u n c i l (Tsentralna Ruska N a r o d n a Rada). A political organization of Transcarpathian Ukrainians, w h i c h was formed i n 1919 from an association of local people's councils i n Khust, Uzhhorod, a n d Presov. Its first president was Rev A . *Voloshyn. O n 8 M a y 1919 the council adopted a resolution o n the auto­ n o m y of Transcarpathia a n d its u n i o n w i t h Czechoslo­

vakia and sent a delegation to Prague. Eventually, the Russophile faction i n the council left a n d formed a parallel Central Ruthenian People's C o u n c i l . The original council functioned for the duration of the interwar Czechoslovak Republic as a coalition of n o n - C o m m u n i s t U k r a i n i a n groups a n d i n d i v i d u a l s . In 1938 it was reorganized into the Central U k r a i n i a n People's C o u n c i l a n d played a key role i n bringing about the autonomous state of *CarpathoUkraine. In January 1939 the functions of the council were assumed by the ""Ukrainian N a t i o n a l Alliance. Central Scientific Library of the A c a d e m y of Sci­ ences of the U k r a i n i a n SSR (Tsentralna naukova biblioteka A k a d e m i i nauk URSR). The largest research library i n U k r a i n e , w i t h 18 divisions a n d 2 branches, and a research center for library science a n d bibliology. The library was established i n 1918 at the same time as the Ukrainian A c a d e m y of Sciences i n K i e v a n d was k n o w n at first as the National Library of the U k r a i n i a n State. In 1919 it was renamed the N a t i o n a l Library of Ukraine (Vsenarodna biblioteka Ukrainy) a n d affiliated w i t h the A l l Ukrainian A c a d e m y of Sciences. Publishers were re­ quired to provide the library, as the official Ukrainian depository, w i t h copies of their publications. B y 1940 the library contained five m i l l i o n holdings. D u r i n g the Second W o r l d War it sustained some damage. In 1948 it was renamed the State Public Library of the U k r a i n i a n SSR. In 1965 its present name was adopted. By 1979 the library possessed more than 10 million items, i n c l u d i n g about 298,000 manuscripts, about 8,000 books of the 15th-18th century i n Slavonic script (eg, S. Fiol's Chasoslovets [1491], F. Skoryna's Bibliia ruska [151719], I. Fedorovych's Apσstol [1584], and the O s t r i h Bible [1581]), 152,000 art w o r k s , 38,000 dissertations, 516 incunabula, a n d more than 117,000 annual runs of newspapers. The manuscript division contains such rari­ ties as ' K y i v s ' k i lystky' (Kiev M i s s a l , 10th century), a fragment of the S l i p c h y n s k y i Apσstol (12th century), the Orsha G o s p e l (13th century), the Peresopnytsia G o s p e l (1556-61), the edicts of B. K h m e l n y t s k y , a n d manuscripts of T. Shevchenko's, I. Franko's, M . K o t s i u b y n s k y ' s a n d A . Krymsky's works. H o l d i n g s of the library that are considered to be ideologically subversive are kept i n special repositories w i t h restricted access. O n 24 M a y 1964 m a n y valuable o l d printed books, manuscripts, rare books, archives (of the Central Rada, B. H r i n c h e n k o , Kievskaia starina) a n d other materials i n the library were destroyed i n a fire, w h i c h was exposed as officially sanctioned arson i n the samvydav pamphlet V spravi PohruzhaVs'koho ( O n the Pohruzhalsky Case). A. Zhukovsky Central State A r c h i v e - M u s e u m of Literature and Art of the U k r a i n i a n SSR (Tsentralnyi d e r z h a v n y i arkhiv-muzei literatury i mystetstva URSR). A major archive established i n K i e v i n 1967 for the preservation of documentary material o n deceased U k r a i n i a n cultural figures. Theoretically, the archive-museum is supposed to collect documentary material o n U k r a i n i a n culture from the earliest times, but i n practice it confines itself to the Soviet period. A similar institution was established i n M o s c o w i n 1941; it houses archival material pertaining to some U k r a i n i a n figures, i n c l u d i n g the film directors O . D o v z h e n k o and I. Savchenko.

CENTRAL UKRAINIAN RELIEF

Central State Historical Archive of the U k r a i n i a n SSR (Tsentralnyi d e r z h a v n y i istorychnyi arkhiv URSR). Established i n K i e v i n December 1943 w i t h later branches in Kharkiv (in 1944; abolished i n 1971) and i n L v i v (in 1946; since 1958 a separate state archive). The archive i n Kiev preserves documentary materials from the 16th century to 1917. It has published such collections of documents as Ukraïna pered vyzvoVnoiu viinoiu 1648-1654 rr. (Ukraine before the Liberation War of 1648-1654,1946) and Ukraïns'kyi narod u Vitchyznianii viini 1812 roku (The U k r a i n i a n People i n the Patriotic War of 1812, 1948) and co-published Revoliutsiia 1905-1907 rr. na Ukraïni (The Revolution of 1905-1907 i n U k r a i n e , 2 vols, 1955), Haidamats'kyi rukh na Ukraïni v xvin st. (The Haidamaka M o v e m e n t i n Ukraine i n the 18th Century, 1970), collections of documents o n peasants' a n d workers' movements in Ukraine at the beginning of the 20th century, and a number of reference works such as descriptions of legal books, indexes, and catalogues. In 1971 Kataloh kolektsiï dokumentiv Kyïvs'koï arkheohrafichnoï komisiï 1869-1899 (The Catalogue of the Collection of Documents of the Kiev Archeographic C o m m i s s i o n 1869-1899) was published by the K i e v archive. The L v i v archive is the major repository of archival materials o n the history of Western Ukraine. Central Statistical Administration of the C o u n c i l of Ministers of the U k r a i n i a n SSR (Tsentralne statystychne upravlinnia pry Radi M i n i s t r i v URSR or T s S U URSR). Union-republican agency (since i960) located i n Kiev that is responsible for gathering and analyzing statistical data i n U k r a i n e . The agency is subordinate to the C o u n c i l of Ministers of the U k r a i n i a n SSR and to the Central Statistical A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the C o u n c i l of M i n i s ters of the USSR (TsSU SSSR). Because data gathering and statistics are strictly centralized i n the USSR and thus reflect the centralization of p l a n n i n g , the U k r a i n i a n T s S U in practice merely carries out the tasks assigned to it by the T s S U SSSR i n M o s c o w . There are a number of subagencies w i t h i n the T s S U of Ukraine: the U k r a i n i a n Mechanical C o m p u t a t i o n A d m i n istration (Ukrmekhoblik), w h i c h is i n charge of mechanizing computation i n the national economy; the C o m p u t a tion Personnel Development A d m i n i s t r a t i o n (UPK), w h i c h is responsible for training i n the field; the U k r a i n i a n branch of the state statistical p u b l i s h i n g house; and a branch of the Scientific Research Institute for Designing C o m p u t i n g Centers a n d Systems of Economic Information of the T s S U SSSR, whose basic task is to perfect the methodology of statistical work. The oblast statistical agencies and the city statistical bureau of K i e v are directly subordinate to the T s S U URSR. The T s S U URSR dates back to the end of 1920, w h e n the Central Statistical A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of Ukraine (TsSUU) was founded. In the 1920s, w h e n the USSR still lacked a unified economic plan, the T s S U U enjoyed a significant degree of autonomy i n p l a n n i n g statistical research and i n publishing statistics. D u r i n g 1924-5 the T s S U U was U k r a i n i z e d . Its m a i n publications were Statystyka Ukraïny (209 issues, 1921-31); Statystychna khronika (152 issues, 1925-9); Visnyk statystyky (1928-30); an annual reference book, Narodne hospodarstvo Ukraïny (Ukraine's National Economy); and a statistical yearbook, Ukraïna (Ukraine). Local statistical offices published their o w n statistical collections and bulletins.

BUREAU

395

In 1930 all Soviet statistical agencies were abolished as the five-year plans a n d a general p l a n n i n g system were introduced. Their functions were transferred to the State Planning Committee of the USSR and i n 1931 were assigned to the committee's p l a n n i n g agencies - the Central Economic Survey A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the USSR and its republican counterpart i n Ukraine, the Central Economic Survey A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the U k r a i n i a n SSR (Upravlinnia narodno-hospodarskoho oblikuURSR). D u r ing the Stalinist purges of the civil service i n the 1930s many associates of the T s S U U perished. In 1931 the publication of statistical materials was stopped almost completely. O n l y four statistical reference works appeared i n the 1930s, a n d their information was poor and often falsified. In 1941 the T s S U SSSR was restored a n d placed under the jurisdiction of the State P l a n n i n g Committee. In 1948 its jurisdiction was transferred to the C o u n c i l of Ministers of the USSR. The restored Central Statistical A d m i n i s t r a tion of the U k r a i n i a n SSR was subordinated to the T s S U SSSR instead of the government of the U k r a i n i a n SSR. U n d e r the economic reforms initiated by N . Khrushchev in 1956 the T s S U URSR became more responsible to the government of Ukraine. In i960 the agency became a Union-republican institution. The publication of statistical materials was resumed i n 1957. Since 1959 the T s S U URSR has published a statistical yearbook, Narodne hospodarstvo Ukraïny (Ukraine's N a t i o n a l Economy), brief reports of earlier data, and an insignificant number of statistical materials o n agriculture, science, and culture. Oblasts sporadically p u b l i s h their o w n statistical reports. The T s S U URSR does not have its o w n periodical, although i n the 1960s efforts were made to begin such a publication. See also ^Statistics. BIBLIOGRAPHY Pervyi vseukrainskii statisticheskii s'ezd 16-28 noiabria 1925 g.

Stenograficheskii otchet (Kharkiv 1925) Periodychni vydannia

URSR

1918-1950: Zhurnaly (Kharkiv 1956)

Statisticheskii slovaf (Moscow 1956)

B. Krawchenko Central Ukrainian Agricultural Co-operative Union. See Tsentral. Central Ukrainian Relief Bureau (CURB). Relief agency established i n L o n d o n , E n g l a n d , i n late 1945 on the initiative of the U k r a i n i a n C a n a d i a n Servicemen's Association to assist U k r a i n i a n refugees i n Western Europe. It provided material relief, campaigned against forcible repatriation to the Soviet U n i o n , and w o r k e d for the resettlement abroad of U k r a i n i a n *displaced persons. CURB was sponsored a n d financially supported by the Ukrainian Canadian Committee (through the ^Ukrainian Canadian Relief Fund) and the U k r a i n i a n Congress Committee of A m e r i c a (through the "United U k r a i n i a n American Relief Committee). It also represented Ukrainian relief committees i n Great Britain, Belgium, France, Switzerland, Italy, A r g e n t i n a , a n d Brazil. In 1946 the Ukrainian Information Service existed briefly as an adjunct to CURB, disseminating material o n Ukraine and Ukrainian refugees i n the n o n - C o m m u n i s t w o r l d . G . Panchuk was the first director of CURB, and S. Frolick was the first secretary general. Others closely associated w i t h it were M . L u c y k , M . Kapusta, A . Crapleve, P. Smylski, J. Romano w, S. D a v i d o v i c h , G . Luckyj, W . Byblo w, A . Panchuk, and A . Yaremovich.

396

CENTRAL

UNION

Central U n i o n . See Tsentrosoiuz. Central U n i o n of U k r a i n i a n Students (Tsentralnyi soiuz u k r a i n s k o h o studentstva or TseSUS). A central organization that has represented a n d co-ordinated the activities of U k r a i n i a n students outside the Soviet U n i o n since 1922. TseSUS was founded i n Prague at the T h i r d A l l - U k r a i n i a n Student Congress (20 June-8 July 1922), w h i c h acted o n the resolutions of previous student congresses. O v e r the years the TseSUS head office has been located i n Prague, V i e n n a , M u n i c h , Paris, a n d the U n i t e d States. 1922-45. For the first 12 years the u n i o n headquarters were i n Prague, w h i c h p r o v i d e d favorable conditions for its activities. F r o m 1922 to 1939 TseSUS called 11 ordinary a n d 2 extraordinary congresses; most of these were held i n Prague, but some were h e l d i n Podλbrady, D a n z i g , a n d V i e n n a . M e m b e r s h i p i n TseSUS was based largely on national student unions (early members included the Professional Organization of U k r a i n i a n Students; the Committee of the U k r a i n i a n Students of B u k o v y n a , later the U n i o n of U k r a i n i a n Student Organizations i n Rumania; the U n i o n of U k r a i n i a n Student Organizations under P o l a n d ; the U n i o n of U k r a i n i a n Student Organiza­ tions i n G e r m a n y a n d D a n z i g ; a n d the U n i o n of Subcarpathian U k r a i n i a n Students), but almost all i n d i v i d u a l U k r a i n i a n students' clubs abroad i n Europe, America, and A s i a (Harbin) were also represented. The membership was highest at the beginning, w i t h 4,650 students w h o belonged to 18 organizations i n 1923. In 1924 n e w students' clubs i n the U n i t e d States and Canada joined TseSUS, but total membership fell to 3,364 students. Later the U n i o n of Subcarpathian Ukrainian Students joined the central u n i o n . F r o m the end of the 1920s until the outbreak of the Second W o r l d War the union's membership declined steadily. A l l ideologicalpolitical tendencies that found adherents a m o n g U k r a i ­ nians were represented i n TseSUS, but at the beginning of the 1930s the nationalist tendency became dominant. Sovietophile students seceded from TseSUS i n 1924 and founded the ""Working Alliance of Progressive Stu­ dents, w h i c h h a d , however, a brief existence. In the fall of 1934 TseSUS m o v e d its head office to V i e n n a because of the change i n Czechoslovakia's foreign policy a n d its rapprochement w i t h P o l a n d a n d the Soviet U n i o n . A t the e n d of the 1920s a n d the beginning of the 1930s students' organizations underwent a structural change that resulted i n a three-level structure (the central organization, national organizations, a n d local clubs). This simplified the w o r k of the central executive, because the national unions assumed some of the organizational and cultural tasks, leaving TseSUS to set policy and provide general direction for the union's w o r k . TseSUS was active i n the international forum, inform­ ing non-Ukrainians about the problems of U k r a i n i a n students a n d about conditions i n Ukraine i n general under the different occupations. To maintain an effective relationship w i t h n o n - U k r a i n i a n organizations, TseSUS appointed representations i n various countries. It partici­ pated i n international student organizations, sent dele­ gates to their conferences, collaborated w i t h numerous national student unions, a n d published materials i n foreign languages, a n d was accepted as a special member of the Confιdιration Internationale des Ιtudiants (CΝE,

based i n Brussels). ( A U k r a i n i a n representation h a d been admitted to the CIE back i n 1921, before TseSUS was formed.) It was also a member of the aid organization the International Students' Service (iss). Ukrainian students were represented by TseSUS at the All-Slavic Students' Congress i n Prague i n 1922 a n d at various international student sports meets a n d O l y m p i c s . V . Oreletsky, M . M u k h y n , S. N y z h a n k i v s k y , L . M a k a r u s h k a , Ya. Baranovsky, L . H u z a r , a n d others were active i n the area of international contacts. In 1933-9 TseSUS participated i n the International Students' League (Internationale Studentenliga), an anti-Communist central organization of students i n Central Europe. T h r o u g h its economic department TseSUS solicited funds from the U k r a i n i a n public a n d international organ­ izations to provide needy students w i t h aid. In 1940 this function was transferred to the ^Ukrainian Students' A i d Commission (KoDUS). TseSUS p u b l i s h e d *Students'kyi visnyk (1923-31) i n Prague, followed by *Students'kyi shliakh (1931-34) and *Students'kyi visnyk (1935-9) i n L v i v , as w e l l as publica­ tions i n foreign languages. I. Fediv, M . M a s i u k e v y c h , O . Boikiv, V . Oreletsky, M . M u k h y n , V . Yaniv, and M . Prokop were closely associated w i t h the student press. W h e n the G e r m a n authorities began to restrict the union's freedom of action, it decided to transfer its head office to Rome i n 1939, but the outbreak of war made the move impossible. In 1941 the Nationalist Organization of Ukrainian Students assumed the task of co-ordinating the work of U k r a i n i a n student organizations i n Germany. The following i n d i v i d u a l s served as president of TseSUS: P. G a n (1922-3), I. Fediv (1923-4), M . Masiuke­ vych (1924-5), V . Oreletsky (1925-6, 1927-33), S. N y z h a n ­ kivsky (1926-7), Y a . Baranovsky (1933-9), D . Ravych (1939-42), and K . Bilynsky (1942-7). A t the 10th Congress of TseSUS i n 1934 it was resolved that every president of the U n i o n of U k r a i n i a n Student Organizations under Poland w o u l d automatically be the first vice-president of TseSUS. 1945-67. After the end of the Second W o r l d War the Central Emigrι U n i o n of U k r a i n i a n Students was estab­ lished i n M u n i c h i n December 1945, headed by P. M i r c h u k . In M a r c h 1946 TseSUS resumed its work. The political rivalry between supporters of the M e l n y k and Bandera factions of the O U N was thus manifested i n the existence of two central unions a n d h a d a detrimental effect o n student activities. After a fierce struggle be­ tween the two camps, the two central unions merged at the Fourth All-Student Congress i n M u n i c h o n 30 J u n e 2 July 1947. A n important role i n this reconciliation was played by the two u n i o n presidents, P. M e l n y k and K . Bilynsky, a n d by V . Yaniv. W i t h the conflict thus settled, TseSUS became active i n various areas of student life. The postwar period witnessed a great resurgence i n organized student activity, reminiscent of that i n the Prague period. The u n i o n represented 33 students' clubs i n 10 countries w i t h a total membership of 2,721 students (1947). A s m a n y students graduated a n d some emigrated to America, the number of members declined. TseSUS represented 1,950 students i n 1948, 850 i n 1950; and 574 i n 1952. Outside of Europe the membership grew from 133 students i n 1951 to 281 i n 1953. B e g i n n i n g i n 1949, ideological a n d religious students' organizations such as Zarevo, the U k r a i n i a n Students' Organization of M i -

CENTRAL

Executive of the Central Union of Ukrainian Students, 1947. Front row from left to right: B. Ciuciura, O. Horbach, B. Makarenko, V. Yaniv, R. Zalutsky, R. Borkovsky, M . Huta, M . Sosnovsky; back row: V. Matskiv, M . Antokhii, N . Smiak khnovsky, O b n o v a , and the Alliance of Orthodox Students joined TseSUS. Student periodicals of the postwar period included Students'kyi shliakh, the bulletin Visnyk TseSUSu, and the literary journal Zveno (ed V . B i l y n s k y - K r y m s k y ) . After the reconciliation of the two central unions, TseSUS published the journal Students'kyi visnyk (1948-9) and its official paper Visit TseSUSu (1947-56). TsESUS again became active o n the international stage. The CÍE was replaced b y the International U n i o n of Students (ius), w h i c h h a d its head office i n Prague a n d was largely subject to Soviet influence. After 1948 Western national unions began to resign from the ius, and alternative central student unions were established - the International Student Conference (isc) i n E d i n b u r g h i n 1952 (dissolved i n 1969) a n d the W o r l d University Service in 1950, the successor of the prewar iss. TseSUS established ties w i t h these unions a n d sent its representatives to various international student conferences. In 1953 at the congress of the i s c i n C o p e n h a g e n it was recognized as 'a representative student o r g a n i z a t i o n / F r o m 1947 B . Makarenko, I. Sukhoversky, Z . V y n n y t s k y , and V . M a r dak were active i n the area of international contacts. N e w forms of cultural-social w o r k were introduced the Student Ideological Congress i n M u n i c h i n 1948, the Week of H i g h e r Education i n M u n i c h i n 1949, and, beginning i n 1952, advanced summer courses i n U k r a i nian studies. The U k r a i n i a n Students' A i d C o m m i s s i o n continued to provide financial aid to needy students. The union's head office was located i n Paris for a brief period (1952-4) a n d then was m o v e d back to M u n i c h . A s large numbers of U k r a i n i a n students began to leave Europe i n the 1950s, those remaining centered their activities i n L o u v a i n , Paris, M u n i c h , L o n d o n , M a d r i d , and V i e n n a . In 1952 the A m e r i c a n division of the union's executive, w i t h P. Stercho at the head, was established, and by the e n d of the 1950s the TseSUS head office h a d moved to the U n i t e d States. A t the same time national student organizations were founded: the Federation of U k r a i n i a n Student Organizations of America (1953) i n the U n i t e d States, the U k r a i n i a n C a n a d i a n Students' U n i o n (1953) i n Canada, the Central Office (Tsentralia) of

UPLAND

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U k r a i n i a n Students of Australia (1959) i n Australia, the U n i o n of Argentinian-Ukrainian Students (1963) i n A r gentina, and the U n i o n of U k r a i n i a n Student Associations i n Europe (1963) i n Europe. These unions assumed some of the tasks of the Central U n i o n , a n d as the TseSUS executive became less active, its role was reduced to that of general spokesman for the U k r a i n i a n student body. In the postwar period the union's presidents were R. Zalutsky (1947-9), B. H u k (1949-52), V . Markus (1952-3), K . M y t r o v y c h (1953-4), P . D o r o z h y n s k y (1954-8), and Ye. H a n o v s k y (1958-67). 1967-81. In 1967 TseSUS was reactivated, as a new generation of students, those b o r n outside Ukraine, joined its ranks. W o r l d congresses of U k r a i n i a n students were organized, to w h i c h national unions and international ideological associations sent their delegates. These congresses were h e l d i n N e w York i n 1967, Montreal i n 1970, Toronto i n 1973 a n d 1977, a n d Philadelphia i n 1976. TseSUS opened an office i n Toronto i n 1970 for a brief period. In 1971 TseSUS initiated a broad campaign i n defense of Soviet U k r a i n i a n dissidents. H o w e v e r , political and ideological rivalries, of the type that had plagued the u n i o n i n the immediate postwar period, surfaced once more. Since 1977 TseSUS has been undergoing a leadership crisis a n d has become inactive. In this period it has been headed b y B. Futei (1967-70), O . R o m a n y s h y n (1970-3), A . Chornodolsky (1973-6), A . Chyrovsky (19767), and B. H a r h a i (1977-9). (See also ^Students.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY TseSUS 1908-1938: Ukraïns'ke studentstvo v mynulomu i suchas-

nomu (Vienna 1938) Narizhnyi, S. Ukraïns'ka emigratsiia (Prague 1942) Makarenko, B. '25-richchia TseSUS,' Visti TseSUSu, no. 2 (Munich 1948) Orelets'kyi, V. '35-richchia TseSUSu,' Feniks, no. 8 (1958) Antonovych, M . Narys istoriï TseSUSu, 1921-1945 (MunichNew York-Toronto 1976) Joukovsky, A . 'Der Zentralverband der ukrainischen Studentenschaften, Mitteilungen, no. 18 (Munich 1981) A. Zhukovsky Central U p l a n d (Serednia vysochyna) (usually k n o w n as the Central Russian U p l a n d and sometimes as the East European Central U p l a n d ) . A n extensive u p l a n d i n the central part of Eastern Europe, stretching from the north and the northwest (from the O k a River and the line Kaluga-Riazan) towards the southeast to the Donets River, whose valley is sometimes designated as the Donets L o w l a n d . In the east the u p l a n d borders o n the O k a - K a m a L o w l a n d a n d i n the west o n the Dnieper L o w l a n d . It is u p to 1,000 k m l o n g a n d 500 k m w i d e . The greater part of the u p l a n d lies w i t h i n the borders of Russia. O n l y a small part of it lies o n U k r a i n i a n ethnic territory w i t h i n the borders of the U k r a i n i a n SSR (parts of Sumy, K h a r k i v , a n d V o r o s h y l o v h r a d oblasts) and w i t h i n the Russian SFSR (the southern part of Belgorod and V o r o n e z h oblasts a n d the edges of K u r s k a n d Rostov oblasts). The Central U p l a n d is an undulating plateau w i t h an average elevation of 230-250 m (293 m at its highest point). The plateau is dissected to a depth of 100 and even 150 m b y river valleys, ravines, and gullies. Basically, the u p l a n d is built of Precambrian deposits of the crystalline " V o r o n e z h Massif, w h i c h i n the southwest descends to the Dnieper-Donets Trough. M o s t of the

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V o r o n e z h Massif is covered w i t h t h i n layers (up to 150 m) of sedimentary deposits of the D e v o n i a n , Jurassic, Cretaceous, a n d Paleogene periods. In the southeast along the D o n between the cities of Bohuchar a n d Pavlovske the crystalline layers come to the surface. O n all sides of the u p l a n d the Precambrian deposits descend far below the sedimentary layers. A small part of the u p l a n d i n the northwest was covered w i t h a glacier d u r i n g the Dnieper glaciation. Today almost all of the u p l a n d is covered w i t h loess a n d loessial loams. Rivers that arise i n the Central U p l a n d flow into the Black, C a s p i a n , a n d A z o v seas. The larger part of the u p l a n d belongs to the forest-steppe belt, but the southwestern part belongs to the belt of mixed forests a n d the southeastern part to the steppe belt. The U k r a i n i a n part of the Central U p l a n d , consisting of the southwestern slope of the u p l a n d a n d its southwest branch a n d covering an area of about 80,000 sq k m , corresponds to the southwestern slopes of the V o r o n e z h Massif, w h i c h are covered w i t h thick layers of chalk (particularly white chalk, w h i c h comes to the surface i n exposed areas) a n d t h i n layers of Paleogene and A n t h r o pogene deposits. A l l these layers are soft a n d subject to erosion. The u p l a n d is a gently sloping loess plain, denudated b y erosion, that is densely dissected. A b s o lute elevations d i m i n i s h i n the southwestern direction, w h i c h defines the flow of the following rivers: the tributaries of the D n i e p e r - the Seim, Sula, Psol, Vorskla, etc - a n d of the Donets - the U d a , N e z h e h o l , O s k i l , A i d a r , D e r k u l , K a l y t v a , etc. The eastern part of the u p l a n d slopes towards the east to the D o n River a n d is dissected b y its tributaries - the T y k h a Sosna, C h o r n a Kalytva, Osered, T o h u c h i v k a , etc. The river valleys are usually w i d e (up to 6 km) a n d deep. A s i n the Poltava Plain the right-bank parts of the valleys are generally steep, complicated b y slides a n d covered by forests or brush. They are dissected b y short, deep, sharply incised ravines. The left-bank sides of the valleys are sloping and have three to four terraces, of w h i c h the lower are covered mostly w i t h sand a n d the higher w i t h loess. They are infrequently dissected by l o n g ravines and shallow gullies w i t h s l o p i n g sides. In general, the ravines and gullies i n the u p l a n d are more prevalent than i n other U k r a i n i a n territories. Their density is 1-2 k m per sq k m , and the dissection that results from them reaches 10-30 percent of the area (it is highest i n the southeastern part between the O s k i l a n d D o n rivers a n d the K h o p o r River). Deforestation of the u p l a n d a n d p l o w i n g of the steppes have contributed to the g r o w t h of the gullies a n d have brought about a catastrophic increase i n the amount of non-arable l a n d . In the generally u n i f o r m landscape of the Central U p l a n d the h i g h right banks of rivers, built mostly of chalk layers, constitute the more picturesque regions. This is particularly true of the right bank of the D o n , w h i c h is k n o w n as D o n s k e Bilohiria (the D o n White H i g h l a n d , elevation 242 m), a n d the densely dissected Kalach U p l a n d i n the southeast. In the southwestern part of the S u m y region karst topographical features are c o m m o n . M o r a i n e a n d sandur plains are also found there. Generally, this part of the u p l a n d forms a transition to the northern part of the D n i e p e r L o w l a n d and Left-Bank Polisia, w h i c h is sometimes k n o w n as Siverske Polisia. O n the s w a m p y terraces of rivers A e o l i a n forms are sometimes found.

The rivers of the u p l a n d , except for the D o n a n d Donets, are small, a n d some of them dry out i n the summer. N u m e r o u s lakes a n d marshes are found i n the floodplains of the rivers. The climate of the u p l a n d is the most continental i n Ukraine, a n d the winters are the coldest. The average annual temperature is 6°c i n the north a n d 8.5°c i n the south; the average January temperature is -y°c i n the southwest a n d — 9.5°c i n the northeast; a n d the average July temperature is i 9 ° c i n the northwest a n d 22°c i n the southeast. The average difference i n temperature between the coldest a n d warmest m o n t h increases from 26°c i n the northwest to 29°c i n the southeast. The average annual precipitation varies from 500 m m i n the northwest to 400 m m i n the southeast. Seventy-five percent of the precipitation comes i n the summer months, w h e n d o w n pours are c o m m o n . The winters are remarkably stable, and the summers are d r y w i t h frequent dry w i n d s . The soils a n d vegetation change from the northnorthwest to the south-southeast. P o d z o l i z e d soils, p o d zolized chernozems, a n d dark gray, gray, a n d light gray podzolized soils are prevalent north of the Seim River. In the forest belt soddy podzolic sandy soils are also found. In the rest of the forest-steppe the deep, low-humus chernozems are c o m m o n . In the steppes the ordinary lowhumus chernozems prevail. M e a d o w chernozems, sandy soils, a n d s w a m p y soils are found i n the river valleys. Approximately half of the Central U p l a n d lies i n the forest-steppe a n d steppe belts. The rest lies i n the forest belt. Today scarcely 6 percent of this belt is covered w i t h forest. M o s t of the forests are mixed (pine, oak, birch); some are pine. A significant part of the u p l a n d consists of dry and flood meadows a n d swamps. In the forest-steppe belt forests occupy about 10 percent of the area, mostly i n the northwest a n d the river valleys. O a k forests w i t h an admixture of maple, ash, a n d l i n d e n are most c o m m o n , while o n the sandy river terraces pine forests w i t h oak, alder, w i l l o w , etc prevail. Remnants of the grassy, colored, broadleafed steppe have survived only o n the ravine slopes. The large S h y p o v y i Forest (32,000 ha) near Buturlynivka is partly under state protection. Y a m a Steppe i n the southern V o r o n e z h region (near Staryi Oskil) is a nature preserve. Forests cover 3 percent (mostly on the sandy terraces of the Donets) of the colored fescue-feather-grass steppe belt. Some of the steppe vegetation has s u r v i v e d o n the steep slopes of gullies and ravines, o n the small tracts of v i r g i n steppe, and on reserves such as the *Striletskyi Steppe. (For population a n d economy see *Slobidska Ukraine.) BIBLIOGRAPHY Bodnarchuk, V. Heomorfolohiia

URSR (Kiev 1949) Chyzhov, M . Ukrai'ns'kyi Lisostep (Kiev 1961) Popov, V.; Marinich, A . ; Lan'ko, A . (eds). Fiziko-geograficheskoe raionirovanie Ukrainskoi SSR (Kiev 1968)

Sovetskii Soiuz. Geograficheskoe opisanie v 22-kh tt. TsentraVnaia

Rossiia (Moscow 1970) Marynych, O.; Lan'ko, A . ; Shcherban, P.; Shyshchynko, P. Fizychna heohrafiia Ukraïns'koï RSR (Kiev 1982) V. Kubijovyc Ceramics. Objects made of natural ""clays or clays mixed w i t h mineral additives a n d fired to a hardened state. Ceramics are used for both technical and artistic purposes and can be grouped i n a number of categories: electro-

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CERAMICS i) Bowl fragment with enamel ornament, nth-century Kiev (at the Kiev State Museum). 2) Glazed tile from Chernihiv, i8th century (at the Poltava Museum). 3) Plate, Uzhhorod region. 4) Plate, Kiev region (nos 3 and 4 from V. Shcherbakivsky). 5) Hutsul glazed tile by O. Bakhmatiuk, late i9th century. 6) Ram by D. Holovko, Kiev. 7) Hutsul pottery, mid-2oth century (at the Ukrainian Museum in New York). 8) Liquor kegs, Kiev region. 9) Toy whistles, Poltava.

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CERAMICS

technical ceramics, terra-cotta (small clay objects), tradi­ tional pottery, a n d artistic ceramics (one of the decorative arts). The ceramics made o n the territory of Ukraine from the earliest times to the present reveal a h i g h l y developed artistic and technical culture, originality, and creativity. The development of ceramics has been facilitated by the existence of large deposits of various clays, particularly kaolin (china clay). The history of U k r a i n i a n ceramics begins i n the N e o ­ lithic period, w i t h the ceramics of the T r y p i l i a n culture. Their h i g h technical a n d artistic level equals that seen i n artifacts of the A e g e a n culture. A l s o interesting are the ceramics made by various cults. The development of Ukrai­ nian ceramics was also influenced by the ceramics of the Hellenic colonies o n the Black Sea coast, beginning i n the 8th and 7th century BC. Ceramics of the so-called Slavic era, w h i c h began i n the 2nd century A D , were more modest, and only i n the Princely period (9th-13th century) d i d the production of ceramics achieve a h i g h technical level a n d a variety of artistic forms, while g r o w i n g into a large industry. M a n y forms of dishes were produced, as w e l l as decorative, glazed tiles that were used for the floors of churches and palaces. The tiles of H a l y c h i n the 12th-13th century depicted griffons, peacocks, eagles, and doves i n relief; they were cast w i t h the use of carved w o o d e n forms. Their characteristic feature is the j o i n i n g of the Byzantine and Romanesque styles. After the M o n g o l period the potter's w h e e l was w i d e l y introduced, a n d its use finally supplanted the manual shaping of pottery. In the 14th and 15th century ceramic manufacturing declined, and a revival began both o n the technical and artistic levels only w i t h the appearance of trade guilds (at the end of the 15th century). In the 17th and 18th centuries the m a k i n g of ceramics flourished i n Ukraine. U k r a i n i a n artists boldly transformed the lavish styles of the baroque and created an original decorative style w i t h ornamental motifs and a tasteful h a r m o n y of colors. In addition to kitchenware and tableware, an architectural element - the stove - was developed. In the 18th century enameled tiles were produced i n almost all ceramic-producing centers i n Ukraine, particularly i n the C h e r n i h i v region, where small manufacturing factories were located i n C h e r n i h i v itself and i n T u l y h o l o v e , Novhorod-Siverskyi, H l u k h i v , and Baturyn. The technology of ceramics for construction purposes became h i g h l y developed i n the 18th century: bricks, ridge tiles, ornamental slabs and tiles, attractive ceramic shields decorated w i t h colored glazes, and fantastic rosettes symbolizing the s u n were produced. A t this time the manufacture of faience and porcelain developed i n a number of centers, i n c l u d i n g M e z h y h i r i a near K i e v , Korets and Baranivka i n V o l h y n i a , Tomashiv (Tomaszow Lubelski) i n the K h o l m region, and Volokytno i n the Cher­ nihiv region. Hand-shaped and dried dishes were painted by potters (after a first firing i n the kiln) w i t h white, yellow, and b r o w n clays or a combination of colors, w h i c h melted i n the second firing. G r e e n color was obtained from burnt copper filings, a n d various types of ocher provided different shades of red. Effective colored glazes were already being used i n the Renaissance and baroque periods, and by the end of the 18th century potters were using so-called granular glazes - w h i c h included i n the

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glaze colored coarse granules of metal oxides that, i n firing, melted w i t h the glaze and gave a lustrous (opallike) blue, green, or violet shade to the objects (this method is still i n use i n the K h a r k i v region). Some household pottery was covered w i t h a light green lead glaze, w h i c h has been replaced today by various artistic enamel glazes. Ornamentation was scratched out o n the surface of dried, unfired dishes w i t h a stylus, and painting was usually done w i t h a quill. The forms of these ceramic dishes and pots bring to m i n d the anthropomorphism of Grecian vases, yet they display a specific originality. Their stylistic peculiarities were based o n the local characteristics and traditions of folk art. U k r a i n i a n artists, u s i n g the so-called ribbon technique o n the potter's wheel, created various types of kitchenware and tableware: soup bowls, plates, cups, pots, m i x i n g bowls, pitchers, jugs, small vessels, flasks, jugs i n the form of wheels, and also candlesticks, candelabrums, a n d terra-cotta lamps. In the 18th century an important center of ceramic manufacturing was the pottery village of the Z a p o r o z h i a n Sich. It produced a rich variety of surprisingly skillfully made folk terra-cotta playthings, such as small whistles, and particularly figures of the animal w o r l d : cats, rams, cocks, etc. These small ceramic sculptures were often presented i n a humorous fashion and are true masterpieces. The ornamentation of Ukrainian ceramics is well thought out. The decorative elements used are similar to those that appear i n other forms of folk art. Some of the oldest elements used are geometric motifs such as dots, straight lines, w a v y lines, broken lines, crosses, meanders, and combinations of flat geometric figures such as squares, triangles, and circles - all logically connected w i t h the form of the i n d i v i d u a l piece. The floral ornamentation and natural patterns taken from the immediate surroundings, stylized into decorative motifs, contain a surprisingly wide range of artistic interpretations, ranging from naturalistic strokes to fantastical depictions. The same applies to the artistic, ornamental rendering of the h u m a n figure and various animals. The territorial distribution of ceramic production de­ pended o n the deposits of suitable kaolin clay. The first centers of ceramic manufacture i n Ukraine were the village of D y b y n t s i i n the K i e v region, an ancient pottery center w i t h the marvelous d y n a m i s m of the authentic Ukrainian baroque of the 18th century; the village of Vasylkiv, a rich center of ceramic ornamentation w i t h a potters' artel, w h i c h later became a majolica factory fa­ mous for its production of souvenirs; and the village of Obukhiv. The village of H o l o v k i v k a i n the Cherkasy region is a w e l l - k n o w n center, famous particularly for its individual style of decoration k n o w n as fliandrivka (a peculiarly Ukrainian technique of painting o n unbaked clay). In the old Cossack t o w n of O p i s h n i a i n the Poltava region, glazes were rarely used, but the pottery produced there was of very fine quality and decorated w i t h geometric motifs. F r o m the second half of the 19th century this creative decoration gave w a y to a form of fliandrivka, carefully executed w i t h restraint and great artistic taste. Today O p i s h n i a is a center p r o d u c i n g ceramic toys and small ceramic sculptures. W e l l - k n o w n m o d e r n ceramics artists from O p i s h n i a include O . Seliuchenko, N . Poshyvailo, and M . D i d e n k o . O n e of the late 19th-century

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masters of ceramic figurative sculpture i n O p i s h n i a was O. N o c h o v n y k . Great traditions continue to develop i n the w o r k of m o d e r n artists such as I. Bilyk, H . Koriachok, V . and P. O m e l c h e n k o , a n d T. a n d V . Demchenko. Other important ceramics centers i n the Poltava region are the cities of Z i n k i v a n d M y r h o r o d . In the C h e r n i h i v region Ichnia was r e n o w n e d throughout the 19th century for its production of original decorative tiles w i t h an almost total exclusion of the color red, but w i t h a technically brilliant facility of design. In the K h a r k i v region, ceramics produced i n the villages of N o v a Vodolaha a n d T o n i v k a were k n o w n for their brilliant colors, dominated b y bright yellow, orange, and green, their balanced slender compositions, and the widespread application of ancient geometric elements. In the V i n nytsia region the ceramic g u i l d i n the city of Bar was famous as early as the 15th century. Besides ceramic ware for everyday use, a variety of terra-cotta h u m a n figurines and anthropomorphic vases were produced there. Considerable originality and expert w o r k m a n s h i p are revealed i n the ware of a more folk character. In Transcarpathia the centers of ceramic production include U z h h o r o d , the village of V i l k h i v k a ( k n o w n for its decoration of ceramics b y the Sgraffito technique, w i t h convex objects appearing o n a dark background), and D u b o venka. In the T e r n o p i l region the centers include the village of Zalistsi; Tovste (renowned i n the past for beautiful fliandrivka ware); and the city of Berezhany ( k n o w n for pitchers, flasks, plates, a n d bowls that were mostly covered w i t h a white glaze ornamented w i t h fine fliandrivka bands). In the L v i v region the cities of Sokal, Yavoriv, K o m a r n e , a n d Sambir and the village of Potelych are a m o n g the m a i n ceramics centers; their ornamentation is unique i n content as w e l l as composition. Ceramics production developed intensively i n the H u t s u l region a n d i n Pokutia i n such w e l l - k n o w n centers as K o s i v , P i s t y n , K u t y , H a l y c h , a n d K o l o m y i a . K o s i v and adjacent Pistyn, as early as the 18th century, were k n o w n for their painted b o w l s , sculptured tiles, and elegant candlesticks w i t h ornamental and figurative scenes. Kosiv was also famous for its painted tile stoves w i t h distinctly original forms. D u r i n g the 19th century K o s i v craftsmen created over 400 tile stoves, some of w h i c h can still be seen today i n the s u r r o u n d i n g villages. (Most of them are n o w i n museums.) H u t s u l potters k n e w intuitively the rules of decorative art i n relation to the character of the object for w h i c h the decoration was intended. Distinct contrasts of a few colors are characteristic of the pictures o n dishes and hand-shaped objects: b r o w n clay, dark-brown d r a w i n g , and free brushstrokes of green a n d golden glaze, w h i c h do not always coincide w i t h the contours of the picture; this apparent carelessness or imperfection gives the decoration pictorial spontaneity and lightness. In figurative compositions the ceramists of K o s i v and P i s t y n use great detail and uniform lines and colors. Today these centers produce mostly souvenirs, decorative plates, flower vases, pitchers, flowerpots, statuettes, flasks, casks, etc. A m o n g the most prominent H u t s u l ceramists at the end of the 19th century were P. Baraniuk, O . Bakhmatiuk, a n d M . K o s h c h u k . The most prominent m o d e r n craftsmen include P. Lázarovych, I. Tabarkhaniuk, and the V o l o shchuk, K o s h a k , Tsvilyk, a n d T y m i a k families.

The development of ceramics was aided by trade schools. In Western U k r a i n e the first school was founded in 1874 i n K o l o m y i a , w h i l e i n L v i v , U z h h o r o d , and K h u s t there were pottery departments i n art schools. A native of M y r h o r o d , V . Trebushny, directed the ceramics workshop of the C r a c o w A c a d e m y of A r t s from 1928 to 1939. In the M y r h o r o d school artists such as V . K r y c h e v s k y , O . Slastion, O . Biloskursky, H . L e v y n s k y , and S. L y t v y nenko were teachers. Today m u c h w o r k is being done to develop a n d introduce n e w ceramics materials - varied glazes, enamels, and pigments - at the experimental workshop of ceramic art of the K i e v Scientific Research Institute of Experimental P l a n n i n g . M a n y artists have taken advantage of this research, i n c l u d i n g D . H o l o v k o , whose w o r k s are of a decorative-monumental nature and form an effective integral part of both public and residential interiors. BIBLIOGRAPHY Shukhevych, V. HutsuVshchyna (Lviv 1901-8) Pchilka, O. Maliuvannia na ukraïns'kykh myskakh (Kiev 1910) Ionov, N . Goncharskii promysel Kievskoi gubernii (Kiev 1912) Mykhailiv, l u . Shliakhy ukraïns koï keramïky (Kiev 1926) Fride, M . Forma i ornament posudu z Podillia (Kiev 1928) Sichyns'kyi, V . Ukrai'ns'ke uzhytkove mystetstvo (Prague 1944) Manucharova, N . Khudozhni promysly Ukraïns'koï RSR (Kiev 1953) Lashchuk, Iu. HutsuVs'ka keramika (Kiev 1955) Mateiko, K. Narodna keramika zakhidnykh oblastei Ukraïns'koï RSR xix-xx st. (Kiev 1959) Lashchuk, Iu. Zakarpats'ka narodna keramika (Uzhhorod i960) Pasternak, la. Arkheolohiia Ukraïny (Toronto 1961) Hurhula, I. Narodne mystetstvo zakhidnykh oblastei Ukraïny (Kiev 1966) Danchenko, L. Narodna keramika Naddniprianshchyny (Kiev 1969) Lashchuk, lu. Narysy z istoriï ukrai'ns'koho dekoratyvno-prykladnoho mystetstva (Lviv 1969) Lashchuk, lu. Ukraïns'ke narodne mystetstvo (keramika i sklo) (Kiev 1974) Choshko, Iu. Narodni khudozhni promysly Ukraïny (Kiev 1979) Shcherbakivs'kyi, V. Mystetstvo ukraïns'koï khaty (Rome 1980) Cercle des O u k r a i n i e n s à Paris. See Circle of U k r a i nians i n Paris. Chabanenko, Ivan [Cabanenko], b 17 December 1900 in C h y h y r y n , d 1972 i n K i e v . Play director and pedagogue. In 1930 he graduated from the L y s e n k o M u s i c and Drama Institute i n K i e v a n d i n 1931 began to lecture at the institute. F r o m 1935 to 1965 he w o r k e d as a lecturer and then professor (1961) at the K i e v Institute of Theatre A r t s , where he served also as director (1937-45) and as rector (1961-5). In 1931-3 he w o r k e d as a play director at the Zankovetska Theater i n Z a p o r i z h i a and the Y o u n g Workers' Theater i n K i e v . H e staged W . Shakespeare's Othello and L . Pervomaisky's Nevidomi soldaty (The U n k n o w n Soldiers). H e also wrote the play Hore namuchyf, hore nauchyf (Misfortune W i l l Torment, Misfortune W i l l Teach, 1943). C h a b a n i v s k y , M y k h a i l o [Cabanivs'kyj] (pen name of M . Tsyba), b 18 September 1910 i n the village of L y h i v k a , Kharkiv gubernia, d 4 M a r c h 1973. Writer and journalist. Chabanivsky began to w o r k as a journalist i n 1930; d u r i n g the Second W o r l d W a r he w o r k e d as a correspondent at the front. In 1931 he began to p u b l i s h poetry and then

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turned to prose. A t the end of the 1950s he was an official critic of the *Shestydesiatnyky. A m o n g his short novels and collections of stories are the following: Svizha skyba (The Fresh F u r r o w , 1949), Pid zoriamy balkans'kymy (Under Balkan Stars, 1951), StoiV iavir nad vodoiu (The M a p l e Stands over the Water, 1959), Doroha dodomu (The Road H o m e , 1966), Lebedyna saha (Swan Saga, 1969), Balkans'ka vesna (Balkan Spring, i - m , 1954- 60), and Teche voda v synie more (The Water F l o w s into the Blue Sea, 1961). H i s two collections of sketches, Sadok vyshnevyi kolo khaty (The Cherry O r c h a r d near the H o u s e , 1961) and Oberihaimo ridnu pryrodu (Let U s Protect O u r Natural Environment, 1968), deal w i t h the protection of the environment. Chaco. Northeastern province of Argentina, covering 100,000 sq k m and containing a population of 690,000 i n 1980, i n c l u d i n g about 25,000 Ukrainians. The climate is subtropical. M o s t of the population is occupied i n farming - raising cotton, sugarcane, corn, and sunflowers - and animal husbandry. Ukrainians, mostly from V o l h y nia and Polisia, began to settle i n Chaco after the First W o r l d War. The Ukrainians live for the most part i n the cities and suburbs: i n Presidencia Roque Sáenz Peña, where there is a U k r a i n i a n Catholic church and a monastery of the Sister Servants of M a r y Immaculate; i n Las Breñas, where the Ukrainian O r t h o d o x church has a parish; i n San Bernardo, where the U k r a i n i a n community has organized the credit u n i o n V i d r o d z h e n n i a ; and i n other cities. Chaha River. A river i n the Bessarabian U p l a n d and the Black Sea L o w l a n d , a left-bank tributary of the K o h y l n y k River i n Odessa oblast. Its length is 120 k m , and its basin area is 1,270 sq k m . The average w i d t h of the upper river is 6-8 m ; of the lower, 20-30 m . The waters are used for irrigation. Chahovets, Rostyslav [Cahovec'], b 21 September 1904 in Kiev. Biochemist, corresponding member of the A c a d emy of Sciences of the U k r a i n i a n SSR since 1957 and full member since 1967, son of V s e v o l o d *Chahovets. F r o m 1932 to 1950 Chahovets lectured at the Kiev Medical Institute. Since 1933 he has been an associate of the Institute of Biochemistry of the U k r a i n i a n academy of sciences. H i s works deal w i t h the biochemistry of muscles, water exchange, the experimental basis of vitamin therapy, and the use of vitamins i n animal husbandry. Some of his writings explore the philosophical problems of biology and the history of vitaminology. Chahovets, V a s y l [Cahovec', Vasyl'], b 30 A p r i l 1873 at Patychys homestead near Z a r u d i a i n Poltava gubernia, d 19 M a y 1941. Physiologist, one of the founders of electrophysiology, full member of the A c a d e m y of Sciences of the U k r a i n i a n SSR from 1939. A graduate of the St Petersburg Military M e d i c a l A c a d e m y (1897), Chahovets w o r k e d as an army physician until 1903, w h e n he joined the teaching staff of the academy. H e was appointed professor at K h a r k i v University i n 1909, at K i e v University i n 1910, and at the K i e v M e d i c a l Institute i n 1921. H i s works deal w i t h the application of the theory of electrolytic dissociation to explain electrical processes i n living organisms, the use of mathematical methods i n biology, electro-anaesthesia, etc. H e devoted m u c h attention to the construction of electrophysiological instruments i n Ukraine. The collected works of Chahovets and a mono-

Vasyl Chahovets graph about h i m by D . Vorontsov were published i n Kiev i n 1957. Chahovets, V s e v o l o d [Cahovec'], b 18 February 1877 i n Starokostiantyniv i n V o l h y nia, d 20 December 1950. Drama critic a n d scholar. After graduating from the historical-philological faculty of K i e v University i n 1900, Chahovets w o r k e d i n K i e v as a theater critic and publicist from 1901 to 1918. H e wrote the play Doina, the librettos to K . Dankevych's ballet Lileia (The Lily) and A . Svechnikov's ballet Marusia Bohuslavka, and a dramatization of N . Gogol's Taras BuVba. H i s memoirs are entitled Z temriavy mynuloho (From the Darkness of the Past). H e wrote studies of M . L y s e n k o , M . Zankovetska, I. Marianenko, P. Saksahansky, I. Patorzhynsky, O . Petrusenko, M . Solovtsov, and the Sadovsky Theater, and the book Zhyttia i stsena (Life a n d the Stage, 1956). Chaika. Type of boat, 18-20 m i n length, 3-3.5 m i n w i d t h , and 3.5-4 m i n depth, used by the Zaporozhian Cossacks. Its bottom was carved out of a single tree trunk, and the sides were built of planks. Reed bales were tied to the gunwales of the boat to protect it from enemy guns and from s i n k i n g . There were two helms, at the fore and aft, to avoid the need to turn the boat about. The chaika was also equipped w i t h a mast and sail. The crew consisted of 50-60 m e n . The boat carried several small cannon. G . de Beauplan left a precise description of the chaika. C h a i k a , A n d r o n y k [Cajka], b 29 M a y 1881 i n the village of R u c h k y i n Poltava gubernia, d 1968. Physician, urologist, major general of the medical service. H e graduated from the Military M e d i c a l A c a d e m y i n 1911. F r o m 1928 to 1944 he was a professor at the K i e v Institute for the U p g r a d i n g of Physicians and from 1944 to 1962 a professor at the K i e v M e d i c a l Institute. Chaika's publications deal w i t h general surgery, surgical treatment of adenoma and cancer of the prostate, tuberculosis of the urinarysexual organs, a n d the etiopathogenesis of infections of the urinary system. C h a i k a , Yakiv [Cajka, Jakiv], b 10 October 1918 i n Brodky, Lviv county, Galicia. Ceramicist, sculptor. Chaika studied at S. L y t v y n e n k o ' s ceramics studio and graduated from the School of Industrial A r t s i n L v i v (1939). A t first he d i d mostly ceramics (decorative vases, jugs, and figurines) and small sculptures (statuettes of terra-cotta). Since then he has specialized i n portrait and decorative

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sculpture. C h a i k a co-sculpted the I. Franko monuments i n L v i v and D r o h o b y c h . Exhibits of his w o r k were held i n 1956 and 1969 i n L v i v . C h a i k a , Yevhen [Cajka, Jevhen], b 25 February 1902 i n Rozbyshivka, Poltava gubernia. Pathologist and anatomist. C h a i k a graduated from the K i e v M e d i c a l Institute i n 1927 a n d became a professor there i n 1940. H e is the author of w o r k s devoted to the study of reactive changes i n connective tissue, brucellosis, Bright's disease, pancreatitis, b l o o d diseases, a n d changes i n the peripheral section of the nervous system caused by various illnesses.

Spomyny z-pered desiaty lit (Memoirs from before Ten Years, 1894) and Chorni riadky (Black Lines, 1930); a n u m ber of collections of short stories - Obraz honoru (The Insult, 1895), Khtovynen? (Who Is to Blame?, 1920), Krashche smerf, nizh nevolia (Better Death than Enslavement, 1920), Ne dlia vsikh vesna zeleniie (Spring Is N o t Green for Everyone, 1920); and a number of novels depicting G a l i cian life - Oliun'ka (1895), V chuzhim hnizdi (In Another's Nest, 1896), Brazyliis kyi harazd (Brazilian Prosperity, 1896), Malolitnyi (The M i n o r , 1919), and others. C h a i k o v sky's historical novels about the Cossacks were written i n a romantic style a n d had an important influence o n the national consciousness and outlook of y o u n g people; they include Za sestroiu (In Search of M y Sister, 1907), Viddiachyvsia ( A v e n g e d , 1913), Kozats'ka pomsta (Cossack Vengeance, 1919), Na ukhodakh (Escapees, 1925), Oleksii Korniienko (1924-9), Do Slavy (After G l o r y , 1929), Polkovnyk Mykhailo Krychevs'kyi (Colonel M y k h a i l o Krychevsky, 1935), and Vexed zryvom (Before the U p h e a v a l , 1937). In these novels a n d stories C h a i k o v s k y idealized the Zaporozhian Cossacks a n d their belief i n equality and condemned Russia for oppressing Ukraine. I. Franko and O . M a k o v e i gave a favorable critique of C h a i k o v s k y ' s work.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Mykola Chaikivsky C h a i k i v s k y , M y k o l a [Cajkivs'kyj], b 2 January 1 8 8 7 Berezhany, Galicia, d 7 October 1970. Mathematician and pedagogue, full member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society. F r o m 1914 to 1918 C h a i k i v s k y w o r k e d w i t h the U n i o n for the Liberation of U k r a i n e i n Freistadt, Germany. Subsequently he was a teacher i n Galicia; i n 1923 he became a professor at the Institute of People's Education i n Odessa. H e was persecuted i n the 1930s but was later appointed a professor at pedagogical institutes i n Kazakhstan a n d L v i v . C h a i k i v s k y wrote the manual Kvadratni rivniannia (Quadratic Equations) and the school textbooks AVgebra (Algebra) a n d Tryhonometriia (Trigonometry); he also compiled Slovnyk ukraïns'koï matematychnoï terminolohiï (Dictionary of U k r a i n i a n Mathematical Terminology, 1924) a n d Ukraïns'ka matematychna naukova bibliohrafiia (Ukrainian Scientific Mathematical Bibliography, 1931). i n

C h a i k o v s k y , A n d r i i [Caikovs'kyj, Andrij], b 15 M a y 1857in Sambir, Galicia, d 2 June 1935 i n K o l o m y i a . Writer, Galician civic a n d political leader, lawyer. C h a i k o v s k y was a classmate of I. Franko. In 1883 he graduated from L v i v University, where he h a d been head of the student group D r u z h n y i L y k h v a r . H e was active i n organizing Prosvita societies (and later became an honorary member) and Sich a n d V i d r o d z h e n n i a societies i n Berezhany, Sambir, Rohatyn, a n d K o l o m y i a . In 1924 he was elected president of the Society of U k r a i n i a n Writers and Journalists. H e belonged to the N a t i o n a l Democratic party and then to the U k r a i n i a n N a t i o n a l Democratic Alliance. C h a i k o v s k y was one of the organizers of the U k r a i n i a n Sich Riflemen a n d i n 1918-19 a county commissar of the Western U k r a i n i a n N a t i o n a l Republic i n Sambir. A s a writer C h a i k o v s k y published two sets of memoirs -

Makovei, O. 'Chaikovs'kyi. Literaturno-krytychna studiia,' LNV, 1898, no. 1 Franko, I. 'Z ostannikh desiatylit' xix v.,' LNV, 1901, no. 15 Mel'nychuk, Iu. Slovo pro pys'mennykiv (Lviv 1958) Bieliaiev, V. 'Ob'iektyvnist' chy ob'iektyvizm,' Radians'ke literaturoznavstvo,

i960, no. 1

C h a i k o v s k y , D a n y l o [Cajkovs'kyj], b 19 M a r c h 1909 i n M y s h k i v , Z a l i s h c h y k y county, Galicia, d 3 July 1972 i n Philadelphia. Journalist a n d political activist of the Bandera faction of the O U N , political prisoner incarcerated i n Polish prisons and G e r m a n concentration camps. A s an émigré i n G e r m a n y C h a i k o v s k y served as propaganda officer of the External U n i t s of the O U N a n d edited Ukraïns'ka trybuna. In 1948 he m o v e d to France, where he edited Ukrai'nets'-Chas (1948-55). In 1955 he became editor of Shliakh peremohy i n M u n i c h . In 1967 he emigrated to the U n i t e d States a n d w o r k e d o n the editorial board of the daily Ameryka. C h a i k o v s k y described his experiences i n prison i n Khochu zhyty (I W a n t to Live). H e also published a collection of short stories, Nashi dni (Our Times). C h a l k . White, friable, and finely granular sedimentary rock, a form of limestone composed of calcium carbonate (calcite) (90-99 percent), remains of minute marine organisms such as Foraminifera, a n d clay minerals. C h a l k is used i n agriculture a n d i n the paper, b u i l d i n g , chemical, and cosmetics industries. The m a i n areas w i t h chalk deposits i n Ukraine are the o u t l y i n g areas of the Donets Basin (the Lysychanske and Slovianske regions, w h i c h provide chalk for the Donbas chemical industry), the northeastern region of the Dnieper-Donets Trough, and the parts of the Belgorod and V o r o n e z h oblasts that are settled by Ukrainians. Smaller deposits are found i n the western part of the V o l h y n i a n and Podilian uplands. Chaly, B o h d a n [Calyj], b 24 June 1924 i n K i e v . Writer for children and y o u n g people. C h a l y has been a member of the editorial boards of the y o u t h magazines Molod'

CHARLES

Ukrainy and Pioneriia and has served as editor i n chief of Barvinok. H e has been secretary of the Writers U n i o n of Ukraine. H i s w o r k s , w h i c h conform to official literary norms, include poetry, prose, plays, and a film scenario, Zakon Antarktydy (The L a w of the Antarctic, 1963). 7

Chaly, D m y t r o [Calyj], b 2 July 1904 i n the village of Arkhanhelske i n the Donbas. Literary scholar, associate of the Institute of Literature at the A c a d e m y of Sciences of the U k r a i n i a n SSR i n K i e v . C h a l y is the author of Stanovlennia realizmu v ukrai'ns'kii literaturi (The Formation of Realism i n U k r a i n i a n Literature, 1956), a monograph o n H . Kvitka-Osnovianenko (1962), and many other literary studies. Chaly, M y k h a i l o [Calyj, Myxajlo], b 1816 i n N o v h o r o d Siverskyi, d 19 February 1907. Educator, scholar, friend of T. Shevchenko, and author of the first full biography of the poet, Zhizn' i proizvedeniia Tarasa Shevchenko (The Life and W o r k s of Taras Shevchenko, 1882). C h a l y was active in the U k r a i n i a n Sunday-school movement. F r o m 1882 he was one of the editors of Kievskaia starina. C h a l y , Sava [Calyj], b i n K o m a r h o r o d , Vinnytsia region, d 1741. Cossack colonel. After spending some time at the Z a p o r o z h i a n Sich, C h a l y served as captain of a private Cossack guard detachment o n the estate of a Polish noble family, the Czetwertyñskis. In 1734 he joined a Haidamaka u p r i s i n g led by Captain Verlan. After the uprising had been quelled, C h a l y again went over to the Poles, serving the Potocki family of magnates as colonel of their private army. H e was executed for treason by haidamakas from the detachment of H . H o l y . Chamber music. Vocal and instrumental music for small ensembles, intended for performance i n small settings. In the 16th and 17th centuries the term 'chamber music' was used i n reference to court music. Chamber music plays an important role i n the creative efforts of U k r a i n i a n composers. A m o n g the earliest pieces of U k r a i n i a n chamber music are M . Berezovsky's Sonata for V i o l i n and H a r p s i chord and D . Bortniansky's piano quintet. Chamber music, primarily for string quartet and piano trio, is prominent a m o n g the w o r k s of 20th-century U k r a i n i a n composers; for example, V . Kosenko's Classical Trio, V . Barvinsky's piano sextet, and B. Liatoshynsky's piano quintet. The most distinguished chamber music ensembles are the L e o n t o v y c h Quintet, the V u i l l a u m e String Quartet, the U k r a i n i a n State Trio, and the L y s e n k o String Quartet. Chancellor (kantsler). H e a d of the chancellery of the G r a n d D u c h y of Lithuania, responsible for drafting most state documents o n domestic and foreign policy. The chancellor was also i n charge of foreign policy. There was an analogous office i n the Polish C o m m o n w e a l t h . Chapaieve [Capajeve]. iv-16. T o w n smt (1976 pop 3,175) i n K e h y c h i v k a raion, K h a r k i v oblast. It has a sugar refinery and an asphalt-concrete plant. Chapelsky, Ivan [ C a p e l Y k y j ] , b 1858 i n R y b n y k , Drohobych county, Galicia, d 31 M a r c h 1918 i n L v i v . Priest, catechist, civic figure. Chapelsky studied at L v i v University. H e served as a village priest a n d later became

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prefect at the L v i v Theological Seminary and catechist i n L v i v schools. In 1895 he was appointed canon i n the L v i v metropolitan consistory a n d priest of St George's Cathedral. For m a n y years Chapelsky headed the Ridna Shkola Ukrainian pedagogical society. U n d e r his direction the society grew from a few h u n d r e d to 10,000 members, the number of branches grew to 60, and many new schools and residences were established. In 1918 the Apostolic See appointed h i m its domestic prelate. Chaplenko, V a s y l [Caplenko], b 18 M a r c h 1900 i n Ukraine. A graduate of the Dnipropetrovske Institute of People's Education, linguist, writer, and literary critic. After teaching at several institutions of higher learning i n the USSR, C h a p l e n k o emigrated i n 1945 to Western Europe and later to the U n i t e d States. H e is the author of the novels Pyvoriz (The Itinerant Tutor, 1943), Chornomortsi (Black Sea Cossacks, 1948), Liudy v tenetakh (Ensnared People, 1951), ZahybiV Peremitka (The Fall of Peremitko, 1961), Ioho taiemnytsia (His Secret, 1975), and several collections of short stories. A s a linguist C h a plenko's m a i n contribution is i n the area of the history of the U k r a i n i a n standard language, summarized i n his books Ukraïns'ka literaturna mova (xvn st.-i^iy r.) (The Ukrainian Literary Language [17th Century to 1917], 1955) and Istoriia novoï ukraïns'koï literaturnoï movy (XVII st.933 -) (History of the M o d e r n U k r a i n i a n Literary L a n guage [17th C e n t u r y to 1933], 1970). C h a p l e n k o has also written o n the U k r a i n i a n elements i n N . G o g o l , the U k r a i nian literary language, and the ethnogenesis of the Slavs. 1

r

C h a p l i burial ground. A site located near the village of C h a p l i o n the left bank of the Dnieper i n Dnipropetrovske oblast. Archeological study of it began i n 1950. It was used a burial g r o u n d from the eighth m i l l e n n i u m BC to the third m i l l e n n i u m BC (from the Mesolithic period to the Bronze A g e ) . Chaplyne [Caplyne]. v-17. T o w n smt (1977 pop 6,110) i n Vasylkivka raion, Dnipropetrovske oblast. The t o w n is a railroad junction and services the railway transport system. C h a p l y n k a [Caplynka]. vii-14. T o w n smt (1970 p o p 6,600), raion center i n K h e r s o n oblast located i n the Black Sea L o w l a n d . The t o w n has a food industry, brick factory, and a tractor repair plant. C h a p l y n k a irrigation system. A system built i n 19637 to supply water to about 19,000 ha of the dry C h a p l y n k a raion i n K h e r s o n oblast. C h a r d y n i n , Petr [Cardynin] (pen name of P. Krasavchikov), b 1873 i n C h e r d y n i n P e r m gubernia, Russia, d 14 A u g u s t 1934. F i l m director. C h a r d y n i n graduated from the M u s i c and D r a m a School of the M o s c o w Philharmonic Society. A t first he acted i n provincial Russian theaters; then from 1907, i n films. In 1921-3 he was an émigré. O n his return he w o r k e d i n U k r a i n e . H i s best films were Ukraziia (1925), Taras Shevchenko (1926), Taras Triasylo (1927), and Cherevychky (Little Shoes, 1928), a dramatization of N . Gogol's w o r k . Charles X Gustav, b 8 N o v e m b e r 1622 i n N y k ó p i n g Castle, Sweden, d 13 February 1660 i n Gôteborg. K i n g of

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CHARLES X GUSTAV

Sweden (1654-60); an ally of Hetmán B. K h m e l n y t s k y i n the war against P o l a n d . In 1655-6 Charles occupied most of the Polish C o m m o n w e a l t h a n d was recognized as k i n g by the majority of the Polish nobles. A general Polish revolt against Charles developed, however, and he was forced to relinquish the throne. Charles agreed to the division of P o l a n d a m o n g Sweden, Cossack Ukraine, and Transylvania. O n 6 October 1657 a Swedish-Ukrainian alliance against P o l a n d was formally concluded i n K o r sun w i t h the Cossack senior officers i n his name. Charles XII, b 17 June 1682 i n Stockholm, d 30 November 1718 i n Fredrikshald, N o r w a y . K i n g of Sweden from 1697. In the Great N o r t h e r n W a r (1700-21) against the coalition of Russia, D e n m a r k , a n d Saxony (headed by the Polish k i n g A u g u s t u s 11), Charles conquered Denmark, occupied P o l a n d , a n d forced A u g u s t u s to abdicate. In the course of the w a r w i t h Russia Charles entered into negotiations w i t h Hetmán I. *Mazepa (initially through the mediation of the n e w Polish k i n g Stanistaw 1 Leszczyñski, then directly), w h i c h were soon formalized i n a Ukrainian-Swedish alliance. In the fall of 1708 Charles advanced into U k r a i n e , where i n 1709 he suffered defeat by Russia i n the decisive Battle of *Poltava. W i t h the remainder of his army a n d his U k r a i n i a n allies Charles found refuge i n T u r k i s h territory at Bendery, M o l d a v i a . After M a z e p a ' s death Charles negotiated an alliance w i t h Hetmán P. *Orlyk a n d the C r i m e a n Tatars and induced the Tatars, for a time, to engage i n war w i t h Russia (the Prut campaign). Charnetsky, M y k o l a [Carnec'kyj], b 14 December 1884 i n Semakivtsi, H o r o d e n k a county, Galicia, d 2 A p r i l 1959 i n L v i v . Religious leader of the U k r a i n i a n Catholic church, from 1919 a member of the Redemptorist order, bishop. Charnetsky was ordained i n 1909 and from 1910 to 1919 was a professor at the Stanyslaviv seminary. In 1926 he was appointed abbot of the Kostopil and K o v e l monasteries i n V o l h y n i a . In 1931 he was appointed apostolic visitator for Byzantine-rite Catholics i n Poland and was consecrated bishop of K o v e l . Because of opposition from the P o l i s h government Charnetsky lacked jurisdiction, yet he ministered to the Greek Catholics from Galicia w h o settled i n V o l h y n i a . In 1939 the Soviet authorities prohibited Charnetsky from living i n V o l hynia, and u n t i l 1945 he lived i n L v i v . In 1945 he was arrested a n d exiled to Siberia for 10 years. F r o m Siberia he returned to L v i v , where he died. Charnetsky, Stepan [Carnets'kyj], b 21 January 1881 i n Shmankivtsi, C h o r t k i v county, Galicia, d 2 October 1944 i n L v i v . Poet, feuilleton writer, theatrical producer and director, drama critic, a n d a member of the M o l o d a M u z a writers' group. In 1913-14 he was i n charge of the Ruska Besida theater i n L v i v . H e co-edited the daily (1916-18) and then the w e e k l y (1922-5) *Ukraïns ke slovo and wrote feuilletons under the p s e u d o n y m Tyberii Horobets. H e published several collections of poetry: V hodyni sumerku (In the T w i l i g h t H o u r , 1908), V hodyni zadumy (In the H o u r of Contemplation, 1917), Sumni idem (Unhappy W e G o , 1920). H i s short stories and feuilletons appeared i n several collections: Dykyi vynohrad (Wild Grapes, 1921), Kvity i budiache (Flowers and Thistles, 1922), Z moioho zapysnyka (From M y Notebook, 1922), and the posthumous, abbreviated collection Vybrane (Selections, 1959). ,

Stepan Charnetsky Charnetsky also translated Polish a n d G e r m a n works and wrote Narys istoriï ukraïns'koho teatru v Halychyni ( A n Outline H i s t o r y of the U k r a i n i a n Theater i n Galicia, 1934). Charnysh [Carnys]. Surname of a Cossack officer family of the Poltava region, w e l l k n o w n from the 17th century. Fedir C h a r n y s h , as w e l l as his father, took part i n the C h y h y r y n campaigns of 1677-8. H i s son Ivan *Charnysh was colonel of Hadiache and general judge. The descendants of Ivan and his brother T y k h o n constituted two branches of the family - the Hadiache branch and the M y r h o r o d branch. Ivan's great grandson V a s y l (17591822) was a member of the Poltava patriotic circle (at the end of the 18th century a n d i n the first quarter of the 19th) and a freemason a n d served intermittently as marshal of the nobility of Poltava gubernia from 1801 to 1820. Petro, of the M y r h o r o d branch, was mayor of Poltava i n 1777 and then, i n 1793, a county marshal. H e belonged to Prince O . Bezborodko's U k r a i n i a n milieu. H i s and his brothers' descendants were zemstvo activists i n the Poltava region i n the 19th a n d 20th century. Charnysh, Ivan [Carnys], b?, d 10 December 1728 i n M o s c o w . A public figure of the M a z e p a period from the Poltava region. F r o m 1668 to 1708 he served (with interruptions) as military chancellor; he carried out Hetmán I. Mazepa's diplomatic assignments i n M o s c o w i n 1699 a n d Constantinople i n 1700 a n d acted as the hetmán' s resident at the court of Peter 1 i n H r o d n a i n 1705. H e took part i n the Great N o r t h e r n W a r as commander of the Hadiache Regiment. H i s participation i n V . K o c h u bei's and I. Iskra's conspiracy led to his imprisonment, but turned out to be useful for his advancement under Hetmán I. Skoropadsky. F r o m 1709 to 1715 he was the colonel of Hadiache and from 1715 to 1725 the general judge of Left-Bank U k r a i n e . C h a r n y s h accumulated a huge property by violent means. In 1723 he was summoned to St Petersburg w i t h acting hetmán P. Polubotok and was locked u p i n the Peter and P a u l Fortress. After Peter I'S death he was released. Chas. O n e of the largest and most productive publishing houses i n K i e v i n 1908-20. Established a n d directed by V . Koroliv-Stary, M . Synytsky, a n d P. Petrushevsky, it had 250 members and over a m i l l i o n rubles i n capital. Chas published school textbooks, selections from the classics of Ukrainian literature, popular low-priced books, w h i c h consisted of translations of foreign novels (most of them

CHAVDAROV

illustrated b y I. Buriachok), series of small publications (one of them devoted to T. Shevchenko), colored postcards by A . Z h d a k h a , and the m o n t h l y *Knyhar devoted to literary criticism a n d bibliography (1917-20). Chas had its o w n press a n d bookstore. The *Slovo publishing house i n K i e v continued (1922-6) the w o r k of Chas. Chas (Time). The only U k r a i n i a n daily i n Chernivtsi from 1 October 1928 to 26 June 1940. The first owner and editor was T. H l y n s k y . F r o m 1929 it was o w n e d by a publishing association that had its o w n press, directed by I. Ivanytsky. F r o m 1938 it was o w n e d by a joint-stock company directed b y E. Turushanko. The m a i n editors were V . M e h y d y n i u k (1928), Y u . Serbyniuk (1929-32), and L . K o hut (1932-40). Other staff members included O . M e h y d y niuk, S. Pihuliak, O . N a s y k e v y c h , V . Y a k u b o v y c h , V . Kmitsikevych, T. B r y n d z a n , A . K y r y l i v , I. Karbulytsky, O. Shevchukevych, a n d V . H u z a r . Chas published articles o n B u k o v y n i a n current affairs and history, belles lettres, a w o m e n ' s section (edited by O. Huzar), and a weekly issue for farmers. It had a liberal democratic profile and supported the ^Ukrainian National party i n elections to the R u m a n i a n parliament. Chas engaged i n heated polemics w i t h the O U N i n B u k o v y n a . It is a n important source for the history of B u k o v y n a i n the 1920s-1930s. Chas (Time). A liberal nationalist weekly published i n Fürth, Bavaria, from December 1945 to mid-1949; its chief editor was R. Ilnytsky, w h o was assisted by M . K o l i a n kivsky and Z . K u z e l i a . Chas had well-developed cultural, economic, and w o m e n ' s sections; leading émigré writers contributed to it. In 1949 Chas merged w i t h the Paris newspaper Ukraïnets' to form Ukraïnets'-Chas, w h i c h was published until 1961.

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of U k r a i n i a n law, legal terminology, a n d sociological questions. Chasoslov. A liturgical book, used b y cantors a n d singers, that contains the prayers of the daily church services. The name is derived from the w o r d chasy (hours), w h i c h refers to the parts of the church liturgy. Besides the unchanging prayers, the chasoslov contains changing liturgical h y m n s or chants (troparia, kontakia), paschal services, necessary instructions o n ritual, a n d other information. The chasoslov was the most popular liturgical book i n o l d Ukraine a n d went through many editions. It was w i d e l y used i n teaching pupils h o w to read, and m a n y of its texts were memorized. Chastii, M y k o l a [Castij], b 9 M a y 1905 i n V a l k y , K h a r k i v gubernia, d 18 N o v e m b e r 1962 i n Kiev. Singer, bass. Chastii was a soloist w i t h the K h a r k i v Opera and Ballet Theater i n 1930-5, the Tbilisi Opera i n 1935-41 and the K i e v Opera i n 1944-58. H i s m a i n roles were Karas i n S. H u l a k - A r t e m o v s k y ' s Zaporozhets' za Dunaiem (Zaporozhian Cossack beyond the Danube), Vyborny and Taras in M . Lysenko's Natalka Poltavka (Natalka from Poltava) and Taras BuVba, Ivan Susanin i n M . G l i n k a ' s opera of that name, and T s y n h a l i n Z . Paliashvili's Dais. Chatyr-Dag. A plateaulike, calciferous massif (1,525 m high) i n the major ridge of the C r i m e a n Mountains. It is characterized by karstlike relief formations. The slopes of the massif are covered w i t h beech, elm, and pine forests.

Chashnyk. In K i e v a n R u s ' a higher official of the princely administration. The chashnyk was i n charge of beekeeping and the preparation of mead for the prince's court. Chasiv Yar [Casiv Jar], v-18, DB 1-3. City (1974 p o p 23,000) i n Donetske oblast, subordinated to the A r t e m i v ske city soviet. It is the site of the largest plant of refractory products i n Ukraine and one of the largest i n the USSR. The plant exploits a large local field (2,000 ha) of high-quality fireclays a n d produces a great variety of refractory products. There is also a reinforced-concrete plant, a research institute, a n d a regional m u s e u m i n the city. Chasopys' pravnycha (Juridical Periodical). A professional legal journal published irregularly i n L v i v beginning i n 1889. The journal was founded b y K . Levytsky (editor), Y e . Olesnytsky, a n d A . Horbachevsky. F r o m 1893 it was published b y the Legal C o m m i s s i o n of the Historical-Philosophical Section of the Shevchenko Scientific Society. Ten issues were published. In 1900 the scope of the journal w a s broadened, a n d its title was changed to Chasopys'' pravnycha i ekonomichna. The editor was S. Dnistriansky. B y 1906 nine issues h a d been published; one issue was published i n 1912. Contributors to the journal i n c l u d e d I. Franko, M . Z o b k i v , Y u . Zaiats, V . Starosolsky, V . Paneiko, P . Stebelsky, a n d M . Shukhevych. Articles i n the journal dealt w i t h the history

Yelysaveta Chavdar Chavdar, Yelysaveta [Cavdar, Jelysaveta], b 23 February 1925 i n Odessa. Singer, lyric and coloratura soprano. In 1948 Chavdar graduated from the Odessa Conservatory (class of O . Aslanova) and since then she has been a soloist w i t h the K i e v O p e r a a n d Ballet Theater. H e r m a i n roles have included Maryltsia a n d V e n u s i n M . Lysenko's Taras Bulba a n d Aeneid respectively, Y o l a n i n H . M a i boroda's Mylana, G i l d a a n d Violetta i n G . Verdi's Rigoletto a n d La Traviata, Rosina i n G . Rossini's Barber of Seville, and L u c i a i n G . Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor. Since 1949 she has appeared o n stage i n m a n y European countries, Canada, C h i n a , a n d India. In 1951 she w o n first prize at the International Competition of Vocal Soloists i n Berlin. Chavdarov, Sava [Cavdarov], b 9 A u g u s t 1892 i n the village of Belshama, Bessarabia, d 20 September 1962. Ukrainian scholar, pedagogue, corresponding member of the A c a d e m y of Pedagogical Sciences of the Russian SFSR

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from 1947. F r o m 1929 to 1939 C h a v d a r o v lectured i n teachers' institutes i n K i e v . F r o m 1939 he was a professor at K i e v U n i v e r s i t y , a n d from 1944 he also served there as chairman of the department of pedagogy. H e was director of the Scientific Research Institute of Pedagogy of the U k r a i n i a n SSR from 1944 to 1956. H i s w o r k s deal w i t h such topics as approaches to educational w o r k i n the Soviet school system, influence o n the students' w o r l d v i e w , the history of pedagogical theory, the methodology of teaching U k r a i n i a n , a n d T. Shevchenko's views o n pedagogy. Chebotariv, M y k o l a [Cebotariv], b 24 October 1884 i n Poltava, d 4 February 1972 i n U l m , Germany. Military and political figure, a member of the Revolutionary Ukrainian party a n d the U k r a i n i a n Social Democratic Workers' party i n 1903-5. In 1917 Chebotariv was a member of the U k r a i n i a n M i l i t a r y General Committee and of the Central Rada. U n d e r the Directory he was a colonel i n the A r m y of the UNR, the organizer a n d chief of counterespionage, then director of the political department of internal affairs, and, i n 1920, chief of S. Petliura's bodyguard. H e lived as a n émigré i n W a r s a w and then i n Germany. Chebotarov, D m y t r o [Cebotar'ov], b 17 September 1908 i n K i e v . Specialist i n internal medicine, geriatrics, and gerontology, corresponding member of the A c a d e m y of M e d i c a l Sciences of the USSR from 1961. After graduating from the K i e v M e d i c a l Institute i n 1933, he w o r k e d at higher educational schools a n d research institutes i n Kiev. In 1961 he was appointed director of the Institute of Gerontology of the A c a d e m y of M e d i c a l Sciences of the USSR. H i s w o r k s deal w i t h illnesses of the stomach a n d intestinal tract, the state of internal organs d u r i n g pregnancy, gerontology, a n d geriatrics. In 1963 he became president of the Association of Gerontologists a n d Geriatricians of the USSR.

Chechel, D m y t r o [CeceF], 7-1708. Cossack officer, member of a n o l d family of U k r a i n i a n gentry i n the Bratslav region, official of Hetmán I. Mazepa's administration (1689-96), colonel of a serdiuk (mercenary) regiment (1696-1708). In 1700-4 Chechel fought i n the Great N o r t h e r n War. W h e n M a z e p a went to join Charles XII against Peter 1, he entrusted the defense of his capital, Baturyn, to C h e c h e l . D u r i n g A . M e n s h i k o v ' s siege of the city Chechel was w o u n d e d a n d captured by the Russians. H e was executed b y quartering i n H l u k h i v . Chechel, M y k o l a [CeceF], 1891-? Political leader, an engineer b y profession. C h e c h e l was a member of the Central Committee of the U k r a i n i a n Party of Socialist Revolutionaries (UPSR). H e was also a member a n d secretary of the Central Rada a n d a member of its Little Rada. H e w o r k e d w i t h M . H r u s h e v s k y . After emigrating to V i e n n a (1920-4), C h e c h e l belonged to the external delegation of the UPSR and co-edited the journal Boritesiapoborete. I n 1924 he returned to Ukraine a n d w o r k e d i n K h a r k i v at the U k r a i n i a n Scientific-Technological Society in 1927-31 a n d at the U k r a i n i a n State P l a n n i n g C o m m i t tee (Derzhplan), d o i n g research o n the productive potential of U k r a i n e . H e w a s arrested i n the 1930s, a n d his subsequent fate is u n k n o w n . C h e c h e l n y k [Cecel'nyk]. v-10. T o w n smt (1963 p o p 5,200), raion center i n V i n n y t s i a oblast, situated o n the

Savranka River i n eastern Podilia. The t o w n has a food industry, i n particular a sugar refinery, established i n 1875. Chechet-Volyniak, Petro. See V o l y n i a k , Petro. Chechviansky, Vasyl [Cecvjans'kyj, Vasyl'] (pen name of V . Hubenko), b 23 February 1898 at the C h e c h va homestead i n Poltava gubernia, d 26 October 1938. Writerhumorist, brother of O . " V y s h n i a . For m a n y years Chechviansky was secretary of the editorial board of Chervonyi perets' and contributed his w o r k s to the journal. H e was a member of the writers' organization P l u h a n d of the A l l - U k r a i n i a n Association of Proletarian Writers. H i s works began to appear i n the early 1920s. D u r i n g his brief but prolific life he p u b l i s h e d the following collections of humorous sketches: i n 1928, Tsari pryrody (The Tsars of Nature) and Ekh, tovaryshi... (Bah, Comrades ...); i n 1929, Kadylo (The Censer), Mizh inshym (By the Way), Ozdorovlennia aparatu (Reviving the Apparat), Oskudienie (Impoverishment), Perelyvannia krovy (Blood Transfusion), a n d Faktor (Factor); i n 1930, Ne vam kazhuchy (Without Telling You), Parodiï (Parodies), a n d Respublikantsi (Republicans); in 1933, Neshchasni (The Unfortunates); a n d i n 1934, Utyliu -pufovku! ( A Pass to the Scrap!). Chechviansky was shot d u r i n g the Y e z h o v terror and was rehabilitated in the 1950s. T w o of his collections were published i n 1959: Vybrani humoresky (Selected H u m o r o u s Sketches) and NFiakyi kharakter (A Softy). Checkers (shashky). O n e of the oldest games, played w i t h two sets of markers o n a checkered board. The game originated i n ancient Egypt. Archeological excavations of the *Cherniakhiv culture indicate that checkers was k n o w n o n U k r a i n i a n territory as early as the 3rd century AD. Soviet checkers players participate i n international competitions. In 1958-9 a n d 19611. K u p e r m a n , a player from Ukraine, w o n the w o r l d championship. In 1977 R. Leshchynsky w o n the European championship. Cheka ( V C h K or Vserossiiskaia chrezvychainaia komissiia po borbe s kontrrevoliutsiei i sabotazhem [All-Russian Extraordinary C o m m i s s i o n for Fighting Counterrevolution and Sabotage], popularly called C h K , Cheka, or chrezvychaika). Soviet security agency organized b y F. Dzerzhinsky at the beginning of the revolution and confirmed by the decree of the RSFSR of 20 December 1917. A l t h o u g h formally it was responsible to the government, i n reality the C h e k a constituted a state w i t h i n a state a n d acted independently. Whenever it could, it extended its operations into U k r a i n e , where it was formally established i n December 1918 by decree of the Provisional Workers' and Peasants' Government of U k r a i n e as the A l l - U k r a i n i a n Extraordinary C o m m i s s i o n for Fighting Counterrevolution, Speculation, Sabotage, a n d Administrative Crimes in the Department of Internal Affairs. In 1919 it was headed b y one of the chiefs of the Russian C h e k a - M . Latsis. O n 30 M a y 1919 the decree o n the A l l - U k r a i n i a n Extraordinary C o m m i s s i o n for Fighting Counterrevolution, Espionage, a n d Banditry a n d o n Local Extraordinary Commissions was adopted. In 1920 the Central Administration for the Extraordinary Commissions was created a n d was subordinated to the government of Ukraine. O n 5 M a y 1920 F. D z e r z h i n s k y came to Ukraine

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w i t h 1,400 Russian C h e k a agents a n d carried out a thorough purge of the C h e k a apparat. The C h e k a justified its repressions and terror as the struggle 'against counterrevolution, espionage, and banditry,' but 'banditry' encompassed every activity of the government's political opponents. The C h e k a carried out the policy of the so-called R e d Terror w i t h its mass killings, executions of hostages, coercion, and sadistic torture. It was notorious for its repressions i n Ukraine i n 1918-20, particularly i n the cities d u r i n g the retreat of the Red A r m y a n d d u r i n g every n e w occupation. In 1920-2 the Cheka fought Ukrainian insurgents and terrorized the peasants. It destroyed the nationally conscious Ukrainian intelligentsia, particularly members of U k r a i n i a n political parties. The atrocities that it carried out i n Ukraine, under M . Latsis i n K i e v , V . Yakovlev and M . Deich i n Odessa, S. Saienko i n K h a r k i v , and Y u . Piatakov i n the Donbas, were investigated by special commissions, w h i c h included civic leaders and foreigners, d u r i n g A . D e n i k i n ' s occupation of Ukraine i n the second half of 1919. W i t h the introduction of the N e w Economic Policy and positive contacts w i t h the West, the Soviet government tried to dissociate itself from the politics of terror and reorganized the C h e k a into the *GPU, w h i c h was succeeded by the OGPU, *NKVD, and *KGB. This, however, has changed little in the nature of the Soviet security machine.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chernov, V. (ed). Ch-Ka: Materialy po deiateVnosti chrezvychainykh kommissii (Berlin 1922) Melgunov, S.P. The Red Terror in Russia (London 1925) Scott, E J . The Cheka (Oxford 1953) Leggett, G. The Cheka: Lenin's Political Police (Oxford 1981) C h e k a n i u k , A n d r i i [Cekanjuk, Andrij], b 29 October 1906 i n Kamianka, Podilia gubernia. Soviet Party activist, corresponding member of the A c a d e m y of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR since 1964. C h e k a n i u k graduated from one of the C o m m u n i s t institutions of higher education i n 1937; from 1938 to 1943 he edited the newspaper Komunist, w h i c h later was published under the title * Radians'ka Ukraina. In 1946 C h e k a n i u k became director of the H i g h e r Party School of the c c CPU and later served as the school's rector. H i s w o r k s o n the history of the Party include Torzhestvo lenins'koï natsionaVnoï polityky KPRS (The T r i u m p h of Leninist Nationality Policy of the CPSU, 1972). C h e k a n i u k , V i l e n [Cekanjuk], b 12 October 1932 i n Z h m e r y n k a , V i n n y t s i a oblast. Painter, son of A . *Chekaniuk. H e graduated from the K i e v A r t Institute i n 1958. A m o n g his paintings are the following: Returning from Work (i960), Siberian Morning (1963), Whale Hunters (1966), For the Land (1967), Karmeliuk (1969), and Antiaircraft Gunners, Vietnam (1970-1). C h e k h i v s k y , M y k o l a [Cexivs'kyj], 1878-1938. P r o m inent member of the U k r a i n i a n Autocephalous Orthodox church, brother of V . *Chekhivsky. In 1917-19 C h e k h i v sky was a colonel i n the A r m y of the UNR. In 1921 he was ordained. H e w o n distinction as a preacher and debater against antireligious propagandists. In 1927 he was arrested and exiled to Saratov, Russia. In 1930 he was sentenced at the s h o w trial of the U n i o n for the Liberation of Ukraine to three years i n Yaroslavl Prison and was then exiled to Siberia, where he perished.

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Volodymyr Chekhivsky C h e k h i v s k y , V o l o d y m y r [Cexivs'kyj], b 19 July 1876 in the village of H o r o k h u v a t k a , Kiev gubernia, d ? Prominent civic, political, a n d church leader. A priest's son, C h e k h i v s k y graduated from the Kiev Theological A c a d e m y i n 1900. In 1901-5 he w o r k e d as the assistant inspector of the Kamianets-Podilskyi Theological Seminary. In 1906 he was elected to the first Russian State D u m a . After a year's exile to Vologda gubernia he lived i n Odessa (1907-17) and was active i n the Ukrainian Hromade and the Prosvita society. In 1917 he became the editor of Ukraïns'ke slovo. H e was a member of the Central C o m m i t tee of the U k r a i n i a n Social Democratic Workers' party, a member of the Central Rada, and i n 1918 the chairman of the U k r a i n i a n Military Revolutionary Committee, w h i c h planned the overthrow of Hetmán P. Skoropadsky. F r o m 26 December 1918 to 11 February 1919 he headed the C o u n c i l of Ministers of the UNR and served as the minister of foreign affairs. In M a r c h 1919 he was one of the founders of the Committee for the Defense of the Republic in Kamianets-Podilskyi. A t the same time he was a prominent figure i n the ^Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox church. It was under his leadership that the government of the UNR adopted the law o n the autocephalous status of the U k r a i n i a n O r t h o d o x church o n 1 January 1919. After the first church sobor (14-30 October 1921), he became a member of the " A l l - U k r a i n i a n Orthodox C h u r c h C o u n c i l and chairman of the Ideological C o m m i s s i o n of the church. O n 29 July 1929 C h e k h i v s k y was arrested i n connection w i t h the s h o w trial of the *Union for the Liberation of U k r a i n e a n d o n 19 A p r i l 1930 he was sentenced to be shot. The sentence was commuted to 10 years of solitary confinement. H e served his term i n the political prisons of K h a r k i v a n d Yaroslavl. In 1933 he was transferred to the prison o n the Solo vets Islands. After extending his sentence for another 20 years, i n 1936 the authorities transferred h i m to the strict-regime camps of the Far East (correspondence forbidden). N o t h i n g more is k n o w n of his fate. C h e k h i v s k y wrote a book-length study of the K i e v a n metropolitan G . Banulesko-Bodoni (TKDA, 1904, nos 2,3; 1905, no. 2). H e is also the author of historical articles i n the journal Ukraina, theological articles i n Tserkva i zhyttia, and the pamphlet Za Tserkvu, Khrystovu hromadu, proty tsarstva Vmy (For the C h u r c h , the C o m munity of Christ, against the K i n g d o m of Darkness, 1922). A. Zhukovsky Chekhove [Cexove] (to 1944: A u t k a ) . ix-15. T o w n smt (1963 p o p 4,900) i n C r i m e a oblast west of Yalta and

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under the administration of the Yalta city soviet. It is the home of the C h e k h o v M e m o r i a l M u s e u m . C h e k h o v y c h , Konstantyn [Cexovyc], b 21 M a y 1896 in K h y r y n a , P e r e m y s h l county, Galicia. A philologist and Slavist, lecturer at the U k r a i n i a n Free University i n Prague, a n d professor of Slavic philology at the Theological A c a d e m y i n L v i v . C h e k h o v y c h wrote a study of O . Potebnia's p h i l o s o p h y (1931) and published *Slovo, a journal of Slavic p h i l o l o g y (Lviv, 1936-8). In 1945 he was arrested a n d spent eleven years i n Soviet labor camps. Since 1956 C h e k h o v y c h has lived i n Poland. Chekmarov, Oleksander [Cekmar'ov], b 12 September 1902 i n V e l y k a Z n a m i a n k a , Katerynoslav gubernia, d 11 M a r c h 1975 i n Dnipropetrovske. Specialist i n the use of pressure i n metal forging. C h e k m a r o v was a full member of the A c a d e m y of Sciences of the U k r a i n i a n SSR from 1948 and a member of the A c a d e m y of Sciences of the USSR from 1968. A graduate of the Dnipropetrovske M i n i n g Institute (1927), he taught at the Dnipropetrovske Metallurgical Institute b e g i n n i n g i n 1930 (from 1934 as full professor) and w o r k e d at the Scientific Research Institute of Ferrous Metallurgy i n Dnipropetrovske from 1948 (as head of a department u n t i l 1970, and subsequently as a consultant). His scientific w o r k concerns the theory of metal rolling, the improvement of metal-rolling equipment, and the development of n e w technology. C h e k u n o v , A n a t o l i i [Cekunov, Anatolij], b 24 M a r c h 1932 i n K h a r k i v . Geologist-geophysicist, corresponding member of the A c a d e m y of Sciences of the U k r a i n i a n SSR since 1973. Since 1961 C h e k u n o v has w o r k e d i n the Institute of Geophysics of the A c a d e m y of Sciences of the U k r a i n i a n SSR a n d since 1976 has been its director. H i s publications deal w i t h the structure a n d evolution of the earth's crust a n d the tectonic-geophysical structure of Ukraine. Cheliad (collective n o u n ; singular - cheliadnyk). In Rus' a designation for members of the dependent population, consisting of kholopy (male slaves), *zakupy (slaves through loan defaults), dependent *smerds (free peasants), and others. In the Cossack period a n d later cheliad was applied to the servants and other permanent members of a noble's household. In some regions of Ukraine the term was used to refer to y o u n g people attending a w e d d i n g . C h e h n . See K h o l m . C h e l o m e i , V o l o d y m y r [Celomej], b 30 June 1914 i n Siedlce, P o l a n d . Mechanical engineer, specialist i n the dynamics of stability i n oscillating systems, since 1962 full member of the A c a d e m y of Sciences of the USSR. After graduating from the K i e v Polytechnical Institute i n 1937, Chelomei w o r k e d i n the institute. A t the beginning of the Second W o r l d W a r he was transferred to M o s c o w and i n 1952 was appointed professor at the B a u m a n A d v a n c e d Technical School. H e specializes i n the theory of nonlinear pneumatic a n d hydraulic servomechanisms and i n the theory of oscillation of vibrating systems and has made a number of brilliant discoveries i n these fields. M o s t of his publications are classified. In the prewar period he published a number of papers i n U k r a i n i a n . Since the 1950s he has participated i n numerous rocket-

building projects i n the USSR and has become one of the leading consultants o n p r o p u l s i o n systems for various spacecraft, mostly for the military. After the death of M . Yanhel i n 1971 C h e l o m e i was put i n charge of the entire Soviet space program. Chemerivtsi [Cemerivci]. iv-7. T o w n smt (1970 pop 4,000), raion center i n K h m e l n y t s k y i oblast, situated on the Z h v a n c h y k River i n eastern Podilia. The t o w n has a food industry. Chemerynsky, Orest [Cemeryns'kyj], b 1910 i n Zolochiv, Galicia, d 1942 i n K i e v . Political leader, publicist, editor. C h e m e r y n s k y was a member of the O U N i n Galicia and eventually became a member of the organization's leadership (PUN) responsible for propaganda and the d i rector of the U k r a i n i a n Press Service i n Berlin (1935-40). In 1941 he went to eastern U k r a i n e w i t h the O U N Expeditionary Forces ( M e l n y k faction) a n d was appointed coeditor of Ukraïns'ke slovo i n K i e v . C h e m e r y n s k y wrote several w o r k s under the p s e u d o n y m Y a . Orshan: De stoïmo? (Where D o W e Stand? 1937), Zakarpattia (Transcarpathia, 1938), Doha natsionalizmu (The A g e of Nationalism, 1938), and 'Der ukrainische politische Gedanke i n den letzten hundert Jahren,' i n Ukrainischer Nationalismus (1939). C h e m e r y n s k y was executed by the Germans together w i t h his wife, D . H u z a r , i n K i e v . Chemical industry. A heavy industry that produces minerals, fertilizers, plastics, synthetic fibers and textiles, organic and inorganic chemicals, herbicides, preservatives for the food industry, photographic and cinematographic film, synthetic rubber, cleaning fluids, disinfectants, and chemicals for military use. The basic branches of the chemical industry are the petrochemical industry, the carbochemical or coke industry, and industries specializing i n the processing of other chemical resources (iodine, sulfur, bromine, etc). A c c o r d i n g to the Soviet system of classification, however, some branches of the chemical industry constitute separate industries. A m o n g these are the petrochemical industry, the cellulose and paper industry, the coke-chemical industry, the pharmaceutical industry, and the newest branch - the microbiological industry. The products of the chemical industry are used i n all areas of the national economy a n d daily life. There has been a particularly rapid increase i n the use of chemical products from the m i d d l e of the present century because of the shortage of traditional forms of raw materials such as w o o l , leather, w o o d , furs, a n d even metals, and because of a large increase i n population. Because of the advancement of the chemical sciences a n d the automation of chemical production, the chemical industry needs little labor but requires costly equipment. Before 1917. A l t h o u g h the copper sulfate factory i n P u t y v l (est i n 1743) was one of the first chemical plants i n Ukraine, the development of the chemical industry i n Ukraine starts w i t h the rapid g r o w t h of g u n p o w d e r production i n the 18th century. In 1764 the Russian senate feared a Cossack u p r i s i n g a n d ordered all g u n powder factories i n Ukraine to be disassembled. But i n 1777 the factories were reopened, and by 1790-5 one factory i n Shostka alone produced half of the Russian Empire's g u n p o w d e r . Small quantities of g u n p o w d e r were manufactured i n other localities of Ukraine, includ-

CHEMICAL

ing L v i v . Saltpeter was also produced i n Ukraine, but by the 19th century its production h a d ceased. The production of lacquers a n d paints also forms one of the older branches of the chemical industry i n Ukraine. Paints and enamels were made i n U k r a i n e as early as the Kievan period ( i i t h - i 2 t h century). A t first raw minerals and plants were used i n this production, a n d then (14th century) natural tars a n d bitumen. The first producers of paint i n Ukraine were potters a n d m o n k s (for example, paint was produced at St Michael's Monastery i n Kiev). In the 14th-18th century home craftsmen made paints them­ selves. The first large lacquer-paint firms, however, were a factory i n Odessa (built i n 1856), one i n K h a r k i v (1857), one i n K i e v (i860), a n d one i n Poltava (1870). A t the end of the 19th century a lacquer-paint factory was built i n L v i v and another i n K h a r k i v . In 1910-14 the lacquer-paint industry was an exceptionally well-developed branch of the chemical industry i n U k r a i n e . A s i n other areas of the national economy of imperial Russia, foreign capital played an important role i n the early stages of the development of the chemical industry in Ukraine. O n e of the first industrial chemical plants was the Schultz factory i n the village of Ivanivka i n Khar­ kiv gubernia. It was built i n 1843 d was the first factory to produce sulfuric acid. Smaller plants were built in Kiev a n d C h e r n i h i v . Another older branch of the chemical industry was the ""salt industry. Potash, however, began to be processed only i n 1913-16, i n Stebnyk a n d K a l u s h i n Galicia. F r o m 1922 to 1932 Stebnyk supplied the farms of Western Ukraine w i t h potash fertilizers. The production of soda began i n U k r a i n e towards the end of the 19th century (see *Soda industry). The *coke-chemical industry originated in the 1870s. In the 1850s L v i v was the center for the production of matches. Its two factories produced three million boxes of matches annually i n the 1910s. W i t h time the C h e r n i h i v area also became a producer of matches. Rubber products began to be manufactured i n Ukraine at the beginning of the 20th century. The first rubber plant was built i n K i e v to s u p p l y military needs. In 1915 the K o k s o b e n z o l plant i n the Donbas began to produce some chemical substances, a n d i n 1916-17 a nitric acid plant was built i n Y u z i v k a (now Donetske) and at the soda plant i n Slovianske. C h e m i c a l plants were also built in Odessa (superphosphate a n d lacquer-paint plants), Kostiantynivka, a n d M a r i i u p i l . A plant p r o d u c i n g ani­ line dyes was established i n R u b i z h n e at this time. A l l of these plants were later expanded and are still productive today. Some of them - the ones i n Rubizhne and Donetske - are a m o n g the largest plants i n U k r a i n e . The production of the chemical industry i n Ukraine i n 1913 was valued at over 20 m i l l i o n gold rubles and accounted for 10 percent of the production i n imperial Russia. The b r e a k d o w n of the 1913 production was as follows (in millions of tonnes): (1) primary chemicals: anthracite tar, 38.6; 25 percent ammoniac water, 16.1; (2) secondary products: a m m o n i u m sulfate, 13.5; heavy l u ­ bricants, 10.9; pitch, 12.6. 1917-41. The First W o r l d W a r and the civil war d i d m u c h damage to the chemical plants i n Ukraine. In 1921-7 the industry was revived. In N o v e m b e r 1921 the K h e m vuhillia trust was formed; i n 1922 it was renamed P i v d e n khemtrest. Some of the chemical factories i n Ukraine became part of the a l l - U n i o n trust Fosfatot. In 1927-8 a

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Ukraine produced 15.4 percent of the chemicals i n the USSR. Its contribution was valued at 56.5 m i l l i o n gold rubles. In 1928 a chemical production committee (Komitet khemizatsii) was created at the C o u n c i l of People's C o m ­ missars of the U k r a i n i a n SSR. In that year chemical production i n Ukraine reached the 1914 level. The First Five-Year Plan p r o v i d e d for an investment of 320-340 million rubles i n the chemical industry of Soviet Ukraine. Emphasis was put on increasing the production of mineral fertilizer for agriculture a n d o n beginning the production of chemicals for military purposes. A series of new plants was built: a superphosphate plant i n Kostiantynivka, a celluloid film plant i n Shostka, the Kharplastmas plastics plant i n K h a r k i v , a n d a plastics plant i n Pryluka. O f the older plants, the ones i n Donetske, Odessa, and V i n nytsia were greatly expanded. W i t h greater centralization a n d the abolition of the system of the Supreme Economic C o u n c i l i n 1932, the chemical industry of U k r a i n e was brought under the control of the n e w a l l - U n i o n Commissariat of H e a v y Industry i n M o s c o w . A t the same time Ukrainian firms were subjected to the administration of all-Union organi­ zations such as Soiuzkalii, Lakokraska, Rezynoobiednannia, and Soiuzkhimplastmas. A m o n g the n e w plants that were built at the time were the synthetic ammoniac and coke-gas production complex i n H o r l i v k a , the casein plastic plant i n Dnipropetrovske, lacquer-paint factories in Dnipropetrovske a n d H u l i a i Pole, the ether factory i n Kiev, the m i n i u m plant i n K r y v y i R i h , and the first Ukrainian factory p r o d u c i n g synthetic silk - Kievovolokno. Of the projects proposed i n the T h i r d Five-Year Plan (1938-42), only the following plants were built: the nitrogen plant i n Dnipropetrovske, a n e w soda plant i n Slovianske, a n d the first departments of the Lysychanske chemicals complex. In 1940 the chemical industry i n Ukraine produced (in thousands of tonnes): mineral fertil­ izers, 1,012; caustic soda, 78; sulfuric acid, 407; soda ash, 413; potassium fertilizers, 82; lacquers, 45; paints and dyes, 8; synthetic fiber, 1.6. In 1941 Soviet Ukraine had a near m o n o p o l y o n the production of superphosphates i n the USSR. In 1939 a special commissariat of the chemical industry was separated from the commissariat of heavy industry and was put i n charge of the main U k r a i n i a n plants p r o d u c i n g primary chemicals. The rapid growth of the chemical industry i n U k r a i n e is reflected i n the growth of its capital funds, w h i c h were (in millions of rubles) 154 in 1928, 464 i n 1932, a n d 1,270 i n 1937. Since 1944. The Second W o r l d W a r brought destruc­ tion again to the chemical industry i n Ukraine. Its recon­ struction took longer than the reconstruction of other branches of industry, because the technology of produc­ tion, particularly of sulfuric acid, caustic soda, and potassium fertilizers, was m o d e r n i z e d at the same time. The prewar level of production i n these branches was attained again only i n 1952-6. The production of the chemical industry is s h o w n i n table 1. The chemical industry of Soviet Ukraine made only small advances until 1955, w h e n the republic's p l a n n i n g agencies had a somewhat better opportunity to supervise its development. In 1955-70 m a n y new, large chemical plants were built: plants of chemical reagents i n Shostka and Cherkasy; a bromine plant i n Perekop; a chemicals complex i n S u m y ; a chemical plant i n L v i v ; a sulfur chemi­ cal-mining complex i n R o z d i l ; a paint factory i n Donetske;

4io

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acetylene pipeline 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

ammonia pipeline

Rock salt Potassium Lime Chalk Limestone Apatite Phosphorus Sulfur Bromide Iodine Barite Mineral dyes Fertilizer industry Mining-chemical industry

synthetic-fiber plants i n Cherkasy, C h e r n i h i v , and Sokal; a tire plant i n Dnipropetrovske; a chemical-metallurgical plant i n K a l u s h ; a potash production complex i n Stebnyk; and a sulfur plant i n Yavoriv. A t the same time new depart­ ments were added to existing chemicals complexes i n the Donbas, primarily departments of plastics and compo­ sites. C h e m i c a l production i n U k r a i n e increased from 10 percent of imperial production i n 1913 to 21 percent of Soviet production i n 1940 and to 23 percent i n 1970. Ukraine's production of nitrate fertilizers reached 21 percent of USSR production; of sulfur, 64 percent; of

15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26.

Coke-chemical industry Petrochemical industry Tar and plastics industry Synthetic-rubber and rubber-products industry Chemical and syntheticfibers industry Soda industry Lacquer and paint industry Consumer-chemicals industry Pharmaceutical industry Synthetic-dyes industry Wood-chemicals industry Other chemical industries

sulfuric acid, 18 percent; of synthetic dyes, 32 percent; of soda ash, 15 percent; of caustic soda, 12 percent; of plastics, 25 percent; of chemical pesticides, 12 percent; of consumer chemicals, 33 percent. The importance of the chemical industry grew even more i n the 1970-80 period, w h e n n e w plants were built in Zhytomyr (synthetic fiber), Ivano-Frankivske (fine organ­ ic synthetics), Bila Tserkva (a tire complex), Rivne (nitro­ genous fertilizers), a n d the Crimea (titanium dioxide). Certain branches of the chemical industry i n Ukraine are noticeably b e h i n d their counterparts i n the West. The

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411

TABLE 1 Production of the chemical industry in Ukraine (thousands of tonnes) Product

1913

1928

1940

1945

1950

1960

1970

1979

Mineral fertilizers Sulfuric acid Soda ash (95%) Caustic soda (92%) Lacquers and paints Chemical fibers Chemical poisons for agriculture

36 45 113 36 10

57 72 167 39

1,012 407 413 77.6 45 1.6

136 72 122 8

1,536 395 531 41.4 93 2.9

3,853 1,311 773 104.4 205 14.2

11,541 2,223 871 217.7 400 65.3

19,547 4,742 1,073 397.9 1,100 156.3

34.6

84.4

-

-

-

-

-

-

automobile-tire plants were built late: the Dnipropetrov­ ske plant was built by British firms i n 1956 and reached its production capacity only i n 1965. The Bila Tserkva plant was built i n 1969-75. By 1980 both plants were supposed to produce eight million tires per year. V u l c a n i z i n g plants for retreading tires and manufacturing rubber belts, pipes, and consumer goods were built i n Ukraine only i n the 1960s. N o w there are eight factories producing synthetic leather a n d rubber footwear, of w h i c h the largest are i n Chernivtsi, L v i v , K i e v , and Odessa. In 1971 they produced 12 million pairs of footwear. In Ukraine there are only three carbon dust plants - i n Dashava, Kadiivka, and K r e m e n c h u k - and i n 1967 they produced 120,000 tonnes of carbon dust. The production of chemical fibers i n Ukraine is given i n table 2. The production of synthetic fibers i n Soviet Ukraine accounted for 19 percent of USSR production i n 1979, and the production of synthetic thread, for 37 percent. The production of plastics, synthetic resins, and fiberglass is, on the whole, satisfactory i n Ukraine. It is carried out by about 30 large factories, most of them built after 1950. In 1970, 14,400 tonnes of alkyd resins and 3,600 tonnes of organic silicon were produced. Because of the w i d e use of sulfur i n the western regions of Ukraine, the proportion of the basic raw materials for the production of sulfuric acid has changed (the 1975 percentages relative to all raw materials are given here w i t h the figures for i960 i n parentheses): pyrites, 48.9 (66.9); elementary sulfur 37.1 (16.8); associated gases, 14.0 (16.3). There have also been great changes i n the proportion of the basic materials i n the production of nitrogen compounds: the proportion of natural gas i n ­ creased from 49.3 percent i n 1965 to 76.1 percent i n 1975, while the proportion of coke gas declined from 50.7 to 23.9 percent i n the same period. One of the m a i n branches of the chemical industry i n Ukraine is the mineral-fertilizer industry. Figures for the production of mineral fertilizers are given i n table 3. The production of m e t h y l alcohol, acetaldehyde, acetic acid, vinyl-acetates, nitrene, and various emulsions that TABLE 2 Chemical-fiber production in Ukraine (thousands of tonnes)

Total chemical fibers Artificial fibers and thread Synthetic fibers and thread

-

1950

1965

1970

1979

2.9 2.9 -

44.0 20.4 23.6

65.3 23.3 42.0

156.3 55.7 100.6

-

7

TABLE 3 Mineral-fertilizer production in Ukraine (thousands of tonnes)

All fertilizers Phosphorus Nitrogen Potassium Boracic

1965

1970

1975

1979

7,312 2,777 3,905 630

11,541 3,761 6,810 959 11

18,265 6,302 10,840 1,096 27

19,547 7,562 11,145 815 25

-

are necessary for the manufacture of cloth substitutes (artificial leather, furs, materials for boat and automobile covers, etc) was also begun at this time. In the lacquerand-paint branch of the industry departments were created to manufacture transparent lacquers for furni­ ture. A l m o s t half of the lacquer and paint output of Ukraine is exported. Soviet Ukraine turned i n the 1970s to the production of ecologically and hygienically safer and more effective herbicides (ethersulfonate, s o d i u m trichloracetate, celitum, and others), but a sizable proportion of the her­ bicides still consists of DDT a n d DNOK. The contribution of Ukraine's chemical industry to the total chemical production of the USSR i n 1965-70 was as follows (in percentages): mineral fertilizers, 21; sulfuric acid, 18; soda ash, 25; caustic soda, 12; synthetic dyes, 32; refined sulfur, 64; poisons, 12; consumer chemistry (plastics, fibers, etc), 33. In the 1960s primary chemicals dominated i n Ukraine's chemical industry, but i n the 1970s the proportion of secondary chemical products i n the output of the industry rose sharply. The development of the chemical industry i n Soviet Ukraine is held back by the need to restrict the production of those compounds and synthetic materials that are the byproducts of oil and coal processing. The threat of a future shortage of these raw materials is forcing the chemical industry to look for alternatives. The chemical industry requires costly equipment and large sources of energy a n d raw materials. Its small work­ force has a large proportion of highly qualified specialists. A t the end of 1973 the chemical industry i n Ukraine employed 19,170 specialists w i t h a higher education and 36,000 workers w i t h a secondary education (6.4 percent and 4.5 percent of the industrial workforce i n Ukraine). In 1975-80 the value of the industry's production (at 1975 prices) i n comparison to the value of Ukraine's total i n ­ dustrial production remained unchanged at 6.3 percent. Chemical products accounted for 2.4 percent of all indus­ trial products for general consumption.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adadurov, I. Vyrobnytstvo nitratovoï kysloty (Odessa 1930) Turchenko, la. Osnovnye puti razvitiia obshchei, neorganiches-

koi ifizicheskoi khimii na Ukraine (xix vek i pervaia pol. xx v.)

(Kiev 1957) Rukavyshnykov, A . (ed). Khimichna promyslovisf Ukraïny (Kiev i960)

Dubovenko, T.; Anishina, N . ; Koziev, I. 'Khimichna promyslovist' URSR pered 1968 r.,' Voprosy razvitiia narodnogo khoziaistva USSR (Kiev 1967) Vilesov, G.; Rukavishnikov, A . (eds). Khimicheskaia promyshlennosf Ukrainy za 50 let sovetskoi vlasti (Kiev 1967) Klymenko, A . (ed). Razvitie khimicheskoi tekhnologii na Ukraine, 2 (Kiev 1976) Shcheka, I. (ed). Razvitie khimicheskoi tekhnologii na Ukraine, 1 (Kiev 1976) S. Protsiuk Chemical-products industry. A branch of the "chemical industry that produces synthetic products for washing and cleaning clothes, dishes, and furniture and that packages, i n small quantities for retail sale, lacquers, paints, photographic materials, pesticides, etc. Chemical products for consumers were produced i n a limited assortment before the 1930s by cottage industry and then by industrial co-operatives, w h i c h were abolished i n 1956, and by local industry. The chemical-products industry developed into an independent branch of the chemical industry at the e n d of the 1960s, w h e n it was organizationally unified under the U n i o n of C o n s u m e r Chemicals (Soiuzpobutkhim) (1965). In this period existing plants i n Odessa, Symferopil, a n d U z h h o r o d were reconstructed, and n e w plants were built i n K i e v , Donetske, and Dnipropetrovske. In 1978 chemical products accounted for 2.4 percent of the consumer goods produced i n the Ukrainian SSR. In 1969 Ukraine's production of chemical products amounted to 26 percent of USSR production. Chemical products are manufactured not only by 16 specialized plants, but also by other branches of the chemical industry; the total of 60 plants producing chemical products includes the A z o t complex i n Siverskodonetske a n d the chemicals complexes i n Cherkasy and Pervomaiske (pesticides), V i n n y t s i a (synthetic washing products), a n d R u b i z h n e (lacquers and paints). Plants under the M i n i s t r y of Local Industry are also producers of chemical products, the largest of them being the factory of chemical products i n Chernivtsi. Some chemical products are imported into U k r a i n e from other regions of the USSR and from the East European countries. Yu. Savchuk Chemistry. Scientific discipline concerned w i t h the physical a n d chemical properties of substances, their transformations, a n d the development and control of such transformations to attain specific goals. Practical utilization of chemical knowledge was made i n Ukraine l o n g ago i n connection w i t h the production and use of metals, their alloys, enamel, gunpowder, etc. A significant role i n the development of chemical sciences in Ukraine was played by societies of natural scientists that existed i n K h a r k i v , K i e v , and Odessa. Since 1897 the mathematics - natural sciences - medicine division of the Shevchenko Scientific Society i n L v i v and N e w York has published transactions that have included articles o n chemistry a n d o n U k r a i n i a n chemical terminology. The first scientific studies i n chemistry were done at the beginning of the 19th century at K h a r k i v University by V.

Karazin and F. Giese. F r o m 1864 to 1887 N . Beketov investigated thermochemistry a n d the theory of solutions there; later on his students and co-workers studied reaction kinetics, adsorption, a n d topochemical and molecular p o l y m o r p h i s m . Significant also were the studies of N . Izmailov i n the area of acids/bases and electrolytes. Other renowned scientists at K h a r k i v University were O . Danylevsky (physiological chemistry, 1886-92), V . Palladin (biochemistry, 1889-97), and A . E l t e k o v a n d K . Krasusky (organic chemistry). The first textbook of physiological chemistry, by A . K h o d n e v of K h a r k i v University, was published i n 1847. A t K i e v University i n 1867-89 V. Kistiakovsky w o r k e d in the area of biochemistry, o n the metabolism of carbohydrates, especially of glycogen. Important studies of molecular dissociation were conducted by M . Kaiander in 1879-84, and Y a . M y k h a i l e n k o investigated solution thermodynamics and A . Speransky the theory of solutions (1905-19). I. Borshchov w o r k e d from 1869 colloidal chemistry. This area was extensively developed by A . D u m a n s k y , w h o i n 1912 began to teach the subject at K i e v University and subsequently published a monumental monograph, Colloidal Solutions. N o t e d organic chemists at Kiev University were P. Alekseev and N . Bunge, as w e l l as the w o r l d - r e n o w n e d S. Reformatsky, w h o discovered the synthesis of /3-oxyacids by means of zinc-organic compounds. A t Odessa University d u r i n g the later part of the 19th century and i n the early part of the 20th century research in organic chemistry was carried out by P. M e l i k i s h v i l i and N . Zelinsky; i n colloidal chemistry, by F. Shvedov; and i n physical chemistry, by O . Sakhanov (electrochemistry of non-aqueous solutions), A . Rabinovich (conductivity anomalies), O . F r u m k i n (electrocapillary phenomena), a n d L . Pysarzhevsky (peroxides and peracids). D u r i n g his 1913-34 stay i n Dnipropetrovske, Pysarzhevsky established the Institute of Physical Chemistry, where, together w i t h his co-workers, he created the scientific basis for electronic chemistry and catalysis. A t L v i v University i n the 1850s and 1860s L . Pebal conducted studies i n organic and analytical chemistry. From 1872 to 1910 B. R a d z i s z e w s k i researched various problems of general and pharmaceutical chemistry; of significance also was the w o r k of S. Tolochko i n physical chemistry and of V . K e m u l a a n d E . L i n n e m a n i n organic chemistry. A noted U k r a i n i a n biochemist at Prague University was I. Horbachevsky, w h o i n 1882 synthesized uric acid from carbamide and glycine. After the revolution the level and development of chemical sciences i n U k r a i n e were uneven. M o s t research was still conducted at the universities and polytechnical institutes, although the function of d o i n g fundamental research was later taken over by the n e w l y founded institutes of the U k r a i n i a n A c a d e m y of Sciences. These were formed according to then-existing needs and possibilities; today they encompass the highest level of chemical research i n U k r a i n e . They possess the best means for doing research, and they usually collaborate w i t h the universities, polytechnical institutes, and other research centers, frequently co-ordinating their efforts o n specific tasks. The institutes of chemistry of the A c a d e m y of Sciences of the U k r a i n i a n SSR represent branches into w h i c h modern chemistry is d i v i d e d ; i n their research they m

CHEMISTRY

respond to the needs of the chemical industry, taking into account the characteristics of indigenous minerals and other types of natural resources found i n Ukraine. N o t all branches of chemistry have their o w n institutes. For instance, w o r k i n analytical chemistry is done at the institutes of physical a n d inorganic chemistry (theory and application of complexes, photometric analytical meth­ ods, polarography), although chairs of analytical chemis­ try exist at all nine universities, at four polytechnical institutes, a n d at some technical institutes. The branch of chemistry a n d chemical technology at the A c a d e m y of Sciences consists of eight centers, six of them i n Kiev: the Institute of General a n d Inorganic Chemistry; the Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry; the Institute of Physical Chemistry; the Institute of Physical-Organic Chemistry and C o a l C h e m i s t r y i n Donetske; the Institute of Colloidal Chemistry a n d Hydrochemistry; the Institute of Organic Chemistry; the Institute of Gas; and the Physical-Chemical Institute (est 1977) i n Odessa. The Institute of Physical C h e m i s t r y was established i n 1927 i n Dnipropetrovske; since 1944 it has been located i n Kiev. Its first director (after w h o m it is n o w named) was L . Pysarzhevsky. It consisted i n 1967 of the following departments: heterogeneous catalysis - the mechanism and macrokinetics of industrial processes (V. Roiter, H . Korniichuk); hydrogιnation - the relationship between structure a n d the surface condition of the hydrogιnation catalysts, catalysts for various industrial processes, the electronic theory of catalysis ( M . Rusov, V . Vlasenko); oxidative catalysis - the catalysts a n d mechanism of olefin oxidation, the theory of gas-phase chromatographic anal­ ysis ( M . Rubanyk); liquid-phase catalysis - heterogene­ ous catalytic processes i n the liquid phase, correlation of their specific features i n the gaseous a n d liquid phases (Ya. Horokhovatsky); sorbent synthesis - the preparation and modification of sorbents based o n silica, alumina, etc (I. Neimark); adsorption and i o n exchange - electrochem­ ical adsorption on carbon and o n i o n exchangers as a function of the surface layer; studies of colloids (D. Strazhesko); chemical structure a n d reactivity - isotope exchange, the structure-reactivity relationship, reaction mechanisms, as w e l l as studies of quantum chemistry (O. Brodsky, I. Hraherov, B . Heller); photochemistry - stud­ ies of chlorophyll, photosynthesis, and photolytic reac­ tions (B. Dain); radiation chemistry - modification of polymers by radiation ( A . Kabakchi). Outstanding scientists w h o have w o r k e d at the Insti­ tute of Physical C h e m i s t r y include I. Obreimov, A . Prykhotko, M . V u k s (spectroscopy), S. U r a z o v s k y , O . H o l y k (solid- a n d liquid-state physical chemistry), A . Mashovets, O . Afanasev (electrochemistry), V . Finkelshtein (theory of electrolytes), and P. B u d n y k o v (physical chemistry of silicates). F r o m 1966 the institute had a branch of physical-organic a n d coal chemistry i n Donet­ ske, where the mechanism a n d kinetics of organic reac­ tions were studied (L. L y t v y n e n k o , R. Kucher, S. Baranov). Since 1977 this branch has been a separate institute - the Institute of Physical-Organic Chemistry a n d C o a l Chemistry - w i t h a sector of petrochemistry i n Kiev. The institute's director is L . L y t v y n e n k o ; the sector's director is V. H u t y r i a . The Institute of General a n d Inorganic Chemistry was established i n 1931 i n K i e v . U n t i l 1945 it was called the Institute of Chemistry. Its directors have been V . Plotnikov, V . Yavorsky, A . K i p r i a n o v , A . D u m a n s k y , Y u .

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Delimarsky, and, since 1973, O . H o r o d y s k y . In 1965 the institute consisted of 6 departments, w h i c h encompassed 25 sections. The department of the chemistry of complex compounds (two sections) is concerned w i t h the theory and practice of complex formation a n d research o n sensitive analytical methods utilizing spectrometric, spectrophotometric, a n d polarographic methods (Ya. Fialkov, A . Babko, K . Yatsymyrsky). The department of electro­ chemistry (two sections) deals w i t h the kinetics and thermodynamics of electrode processes i n molten electro­ lytes, including n e w methods of studying electrochemical kinetics; polarography; electrometallurgy; studies on the corrosion of metallic alloys; the structure of electrolytes (Yu. Delimarsky, M . Hratsiansky, B . Markov). The de­ partment of colloidal chemistry (three sections) studies the electrical a n d rheological properties of dispersed metals; minerals a n d poly electrolytes; and the stabiliza­ tion of disperse systems a n d their practical application (A. D u m a n s k y , F. Ovcharenko, O . K u r y l e n k o , E. Natanson). The department of the physical chemistry of metallurgical processes (four sections) studies a number of problems connected w i t h the manufacturing processes of nonferrous a n d rare metals, particularly of those indigenous to Ukraine (I. Sheka, M . Fortunatov, V . Sazhyn, Y a . Horoshchenko). The department of the chemistry a n d technology of rare metals (seven sections) conducts research o n ways to improve the processes of producing rare metals a n d their compounds ( M . Poluektov, V . Nazarenko). The department of the chemistry a n d tech­ nology of water, w i t h four sections i n V y s h h o r o d , conducts research o n the purification of d r i n k i n g and industrial waters (L. K u l s k y ) . The Institute of Organic C h e m i s t r y was established i n 1939, replacing the Institute of Chemical Technology of the A c a d e m y of Sciences of the U k r a i n i a n SSR, and is n o w located i n K i e v . The directors of the institute have been V. Yavorsky, A . K i p r i a n o v , and, since i960, O . Kirsanov. The m a i n departments i n the institute are those of the chemistry of organophosphorus compounds (O. Kirsa­ nov), element-organic isocyanates ( H . Derkach), organo­ phosphorus complexing agents ( N . Feshchenko), organo­ phosphorus prιcipitants a n d non-flammable liquids (Ya. Vashchenko), the chemistry of herbicides (V. Cherkasov), chemical intermediates (S. Solodushenkov), fluo­ rine-containing intermediates a n d dyes (L. Yahupolsky), color a n d structure of organic compounds (A. Kiprianov), mechanisms of organic reactions (Ya. Shylov), synthetic physiologically active compounds (O. Svyshchuk), photo­ synthesis (O. Yasnykov), a n d the m o d e l i n g of techno­ logically important organic synthetic processes (R. Melnykov). The Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry has existed i n Kiev since 1958. Its first director was K . Kornev; since 1965 the director has been Y u . Lipatov. The main departments of this institute are polymer synthesis (K. Kornev), the physical chemistry of polymers ( Y u . L i p a ­ tov), polymer physics ( Y u . Yagorov), the kinetics and mechanism of polymerization (T. Lipatova), elastomers (T. Hryshchenko), three-dimensional polymers (S. O m e l chenko), oligomeric compounds ( Y u . Spirin), polymer modification (O. Kachan), a n d the technology of mono­ mers and polymers ( A . Shevliakov). In the early 1960s the m a i n thrust of research was i n the areas of the synthesis of thermally stable polymers; the chemical, photochemical, a n d radiation-chemical m o d i -

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fication of polymers; the synthesis of selective ionexchange resins; a n d technological developments i n the synthesis of monomers and polymers. Since 1965 the institute has been s t u d y i n g the causes for the specific physical a n d chemical properties of polyurethanes and investigating the relationship between the chemical structure of polyurethanes a n d their specific properties; working o n the syntheses of n e w d i - a n d tri-isocyanates and of oligomeric compounds; studying the mechanism and kinetics of the migrational polymerization and reactivity of the reactants; a n d establishing the basic relationships i n the conversion of polyurethanes to valuable polymeric products: elastomers, synthetic fibers, etc. The subdivision of petrochemistry (V. Hutyria) is concerned with the chemistry of hydrocarbons and their chemical transformations. The Institute of Gas was established i n 1949 under the directorship of M . Dobrokhotov; since 1952 it has been directed by V . K o p y t o v . The m a i n research areas of the institute are studies of chemical transformations of hydrocarbon gases, the utilization of combustible gases i n industry, the automation of chemical conversion, and the combustion of gases. The Institute of C o l l o i d a l Chemistry and Hydrochemistry replaced the section of the physical chemistry of dispersion systems a n d the section of hydrochemistry and hydrotechnology of the Institute of General and Inorganic C h e m i s t r y i n 1968. U n d e r the directorship first of F. O v c h a r e n k o a n d later of O . K u r y l e n k o and A . Pylypenko, the institute has been concerned with theoretical experimental studies i n the area of colloidal chemistry, the physical chemistry of natural sorbents, colloidal metals, and water purification. Some areas of chemistry are studied i n non-chemistry institutes of the A c a d e m y of Sciences of the U k r a i n i a n SSR. Thus, for instance, research concerned w i t h the synthesis of borides, carbides, suicides, nitrides, and sulfides of certain rare a n d rare-earth elements is conducted at the Institute of Materials Science of the A c a d e m y of Sciences. Physical properties of polymers are studied at the Institute of Mechanics of the A c a d e m y of Sciences. The founder of geochemistry was V . Vernadsky, w h o from 1919 studied the composition of various minerals and cataloged their abundance i n the earth's crust. Today problems of geochemistry are investigated i n the Institute of Geological Sciences, particularly the geochemistry of inert gases, scandium, and germanium. Scientific papers i n the area of chemistry are published i n the following journals: Ukrainskii khimicheskii zhurnal (1948-), formerly Ukraïns'kyi khimichnyi zhurnal (Kharkiv 1925-38), the b i m o n t h l y Ukrainskii biokhimicheskii zhurnal (1946-), the b i m o n t h l y Teoreticheskaia i eksperimentaV naia khimiia (1965-), the b i m o n t h l y Farmatsevtychnyi zhurnal (1930-41 and 1959-), formerly Farmatsevticheskii zhurnal (1928-9), a n d Visnyk Akademïï nauk URSR (1947-). The following publications have been discontinued: Zapysky Instytutu khimiï Akademïï nauk URSR (1934-48), Naukovotekhnichnyi visnyk (Kharkiv 1926-36), and Visti Instytutu fizychnoï khimiï (1936-47). Publications i n the area of chemistry also appear, albeit irregularly, i n the scientific periodicals of the universities of K i e v , K h a r k i v , a n d Dnipropetrovske and, from 1948, of L v i v , C h e r n i v t s i , a n d U z h h o r o d , as w e l l as of the Kiev, Odessa, K h a r k i v , a n d L v i v polytechnical institutes. (See also "Biochemistry.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY Rozvytok nauky v URSR za sorok rokiv (Kiev 1957)

Turchenko, Ya. Osnovnye puti razvitiia obshchei, neorganicheskoi ifizicheskoi khitnii na Ukraine (Kiev 1957) Istoriia Kyïvs'koho universytetu (Kiev 1959) Istoriia Akademïï nauk URSR (Kiev 1967) Akademiia nauk URSR (Kiev 1969) Tonkal', V.; Pelykh, V.; and Stohnii, B. Akademiia nauk Ukrains'koï RSR (Kiev 1980) S. Trofimenko C h e n d e i , Ivan [Cendej], b 20 M a y 1922 i n Dubove, Transcarpathia. Writer. Chendei's first published w o r k appeared i n 1940. F r o m 1945 to 1955 he was a member of the editorial board of the newspaper Zakarpats'ka pravda. H e is a member of the Writers' U n i o n of Ukraine; i n the 1960s he was secretary of the Transcarpathia oblast section of the writers' u n i o n . H e has written novels, sketches, stories, a n d film scripts, i n c l u d i n g the story collections Chaiky letiaf na skhid (The Seagulls A r e Flying East, 1955), Viter z polonyny ( W i n d from the M o u n t a i n Pasture, 1958), Chornoknyzhnyk (The Sorcerer, 1961), Teren tsvite (The Blackthorn Is i n Bloom, 1967), and Teplyi doshch (Warm Rain, 1979), and the novel Ptakhy polyshaiuf hnizda (The Birds Leave Their Nests, 1965). In the early 1970s he was criticized for idealizing the Transcarpathian past i n his novel Ivan, and he was dismissed from positions of responsibility. H e has also published translations from H u n g a r i a n . Chepa, A d r i i a n [Cepa, Adrijan], b ca 1760 i n the Poltava region, d ca 1822. A m a t e u r historian. F r o m 1779 to 1789 C h e p a served i n the chancellery of the governor general of Left-Bank U k r a i n e , C o u n t P. RumiantsevZadunaisky, whose estates he later managed. A U k r a i nian patriot and connoisseur of U k r a i n i a n antiquity, Chepa amassed a great collection of historical documents and materials (used by D . Bantysh-Kamensky and Y a . M a r k o v y c h i n their works). H i s intention of publishing these materials was never carried out, and the entire collection (with some possible exceptions) was destroyed i n a fire o n his estate. Chepiha-Zelenkevych, Yakiv [Cepiha-Zelenkevyc, Jakiv], b i 2 M a y 1875 i n M a r i a n i v k a , K h e r s o n gubernia, d 22 A u g u s t 1938. Pedagogue. F r o m 1918 to 1928 C h e p i h a taught at institutions of higher education i n Kiev; from 1928 he w o r k e d at the Scientific Research Institute of Pedagogy i n K h a r k i v . H e wrote studies o n pedagogy, especially o n child rearing and job training, as w e l l as primary school handbooks and manuals o n the U k r a i n i a n language a n d arithmetic. Cherche [Cerce]. iv-5. Village (1970 p o p 1,400) i n Rohatyn raion, Ivano-Frankivske oblast, situated i n the Opilia U p l a n d . Cherche is a health resort, k n o w n for its therapeutic baths and muds. Its medicinal mineral waters - hydrogen sulfide, sulfate-hydrocarbonate-calcium, and calcium sulfate - a n d peat m u d are helpful i n treating disorders of the motor system and peripheral nervous system and gynecological diseases. The resort was developed i n the 1930s by the association Zhyvets Cherche, headed by M . P a n c h y s h y n . Cherediiv, Volodymyr [Ceredijiv], 1885-1961. Agronomist. In 1918-19 C h e r e d i i v served as agronomist of the

CHERESHNOVSKY

Ivan Chendei

Marko Cheremshyna

Podilia zemstvo, a n d he became the director of the Ministry of Economics of the UNR i n 1919-20. A s a n émigré he was a founder of and professor at the Ukrainian H u s b a n d r y A c a d e m y i n Podëbrady a n d a professor at the Ukrainian Pedagogical Institute i n Prague. Cherednychenko, Varvara [Cerednyœnko], b 16 December 1896 i n K i e v , d 22 A p r i l 1949. Writer a n d pedagogue. Cherednychenko graduated from the history and philosophy faculty of the H i g h e r W o m e n ' s Courses school i n K i e v a n d , after the revolution, w o r k e d as a teacher i n Poltava (1917-23). F r o m 1928 to 1938 she lived in Ossetia a n d then returned to K i e v . H e r w o r k was first published i n 1912, a n d she was a member of the P l u h writers' group. She published collections of short stories: Z zhyttia ukratns'koho vchyteVstva (From the Life of U k r a i nian Teachers, 1919), Vesela kompaniia (Gay C o m p a n y , 1928), Vesnianyi driViazok (Spring C h i l d r e n , 1929), ZhuzhiV (Carabus, 1930), a n d Osetyns'ki opovidannia (Ossetian Tales, 1931). She wrote a pedagogical book DyHacha khata (The C h i l d ' s H o m e , 1921). Cheremosh River [Ceremos]. Right-bank tributary of the Prut River that flows through the eastern Carpathians (Hutsul region) a n d Subcarpathia. It is 80 k m long a n d has a basin area of 2,560 sq k m . The river is formed by the confluence of the C h o r n y i C h e r e m o s h (87 k m l o n g w i t h a basin of 856 sq km) a n d the Bilyi C h e r e m o s h (61 k m long w i t h a basin of 606 sq k m ) . The C h o r n y i a n d Bilyi Cheremosh a n d the upper part of the Cheremosh proper are mountain streams flowing through a picturesque gorge i n the ""Hutsul Beskyd. Further downstream, i n Subcarpathia, the C h e r e m o s h flows through a broad valley. Its waters come from various sources, mostly from rain. The average water flow below the confluence of the C h o r n y i a n d Bilyi C h e r e m o s h is 26.6 eu m per second. The major towns o n the rivers are V y z h n y t s i a , Vashkivtsi, and K u t y o n the Cheremosh, a n d V e r k h o v y n a (formerly Zhabie) o n the C h o r n y i Cheremosh. The rivers are navigable b y raft. The Bilyi C h e r e m o s h a n d the Cheremosh form the boundary between Galicia a n d B u k o v y n a and for centuries defined the border between Poland a n d M o l d a v i a (Turkey). Cheremshyna, M a r k o [Ceremsyna] (pseudonym of Ivan Semaniuk), b 13 June 1874 i n Kobaky, K o s i v county, Galicia, d 25 A p r i l 1927 i n Sniatyn, Galicia. Writer. Cheremshyna completed a law degree at the University of

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Vienna i n 1906 a n d maintained a law practice i n Sniatyn, where he was active i n civic life. H e began w r i t i n g short stories as early as 1896 and published them i n newspapers (Bukovyna) and journals (Literaturno-naukovyi vistnyk). O n the basis of regional origin, Cheremshyna is often placed together w i t h V . *Stefanyk a n d L . *Martovych i n the T o k u t i a triad.' Yet Cheremshyna's stories are more like chronicles of local peasant life a n d lack the tension a n d force of Stefanyk's w o r k s , as w e l l as the h u m o r and satire of Martovych's. They reflect the dialectal traits of Pokutia and are marked b y a r h y t h m a n d style reminiscent of folk laments (holosinnia) or of folk epics (*dumas). T w o collections of his stories appeared d u r i n g his lifetime: Karby (Notches, 1901) a n d Selo vyhybaie (The Village Is D y i n g Out, 1925). These have been followed posthumously b y many selected a n d collected w o r k s , published i n Galicia and i n Soviet U k r a i n e , i n c l u d i n g his last collection Verkhovyna (Highlands, 1929). Cheremskyna was also k n o w n for his translations of short stories from G e r m a n , Czech, and Hungarian. In 1949 the Cheremshyna memorial m u s e u m was founded i n Sniatyn. D . H . Struk Cherepyna settlement. A n early Slavic settlement of the i s t - 4 t h century A D near the village of Cherepyna i n L v i v oblast. The settlement belongs to the *Lypytsia a n d *Cherniakhiv cultures of the early Iron A g e . The remains of semipit a n d pit dwellings, a large quantity of pottery, vessels, iron knives, bronze ornaments, a n d implements have been discovered at the site. In the 1950s-1960s the settlement was investigated b y V . Baran.

Mykhailo Chereshnovsky Chereshnovsky, M y k h a i l o [Ceresn'ovs'kyj, Myxajlo], b 5 M a r c h 1911 i n the village of Stezhnytsia i n the L e m k o region. A sculptor of the neoclassical monumentalist school and a woodcarver. Chereshnovsky graduated from the School of Plastic A r t s i n C r a c o w i n 1939. After the war he emigrated to G e r m a n y a n d then to the U n i t e d States. H e does decorative woodcarving (for example, the iconostasis of St John the Baptist C h u r c h i n H u n t e r , N e w York), has sculpted busts of a number of prominent Ukrainians, i n cluding R. S h u k h e v y c h , S. Bandera, D , Dontsov, O . O l z h y c h , Y . H i r n i a k , V . Pereiaslavets, a n d R. P r y i m a Bohachevska, and produced several monuments i n bronze, such as the Monument to the Heroes at the resort of the Ukrainian Y o u t h Association i n Ellenville, N e w York, and the Lesia Ukrainka monuments i n Cleveland, Toronto (1976), a n d at the U k r a i n i a n resort i n K e r h o n k s o n , N e w York. Chereshnovsky's w o r k is characterized by a classi-

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CHERESHNOVSKY

cal simplicity a n d a m o n u m e n t a l style. Since 1973 he has served as president of the U k r a i n i a n Artists' Association i n the USA. C h e r i n , H a n n a [Cerin'] (pen name of Hrybinska), b 29 A p r i l 1924 i n U k r a i n e . Poet a n d prose writer. C h e r i n has lived i n the U n i t e d States since 1949. She is the author of collections of poetry - Crescendo (1949), Chornozem (Black Earth, 1962), Travnevi mrii (May Dreams, 1970) - of the novel i n verse Slova (Words, 1980), a n d of stories for children. Several of her poems have been set to music.

A l l - U k r a i n i a n A c a d e m y of Sciences, a n d co-editor of Rosiis'ko-ukraïns'kyi slovnyk pravnychoï movy (RussianUkrainian Dictionary of Legal Language, 1926). H e directed the w o r k o n Slovnyk ukraïns'koï iurydychnoï starovyny (Dictionary of U k r a i n i a n Juridical History), w h i c h was prohibited i n the early 1930s. H e is the author of a number of articles a n d books o n the history of Ukrainian law, among them Hromads'kyi (kopnyi) sud na Ukraïni-Rusi xvi-xviii vv. (The C o m m u n i t y [Kopnyi] Court i n UkraineRus' i n the 16th-18th Century, 1928), a n d articles o n domanial courts a n d Hetmán K . R o z u m o v s k y ' s legal reforms. Cherkasky was arrested i n 1934 a n d again i n 1941. H i s ultimate fate is u n k n o w n . Cherkasky, Teofan [Cerkas'kyj], b 12 M a r c h 1892 i n Rososha, K i e v gubernia. Political leader, economist, graduate of the K i e v C o m m e r c i a l Institute. Cherkasky was a member of the U k r a i n i a n Party of Socialist Revolutionaries. In 1919 he served as minister of the national economy i n the UNR government of B. Martos, a n d then as minister for the press a n d propaganda i n the government of Isak M a z e p a . H e remained i n Ukraine w h e n the Soviets came to power a n d was eventually sentenced to 25 years in exile. H i s subsequent fate is u n k n o w n .

Spyrydon Cherkasenko Cherkasenko, S p y r y d o n [Cerkasenko], b 24 December 1876 i n N o v y i B u h , K h e r s o n gubernia, d 8 February 1940 i n Prague. Writer, dramatist, journalist, pedagogue. Beginning i n 1895, he w o r k e d as a teacher, primarily i n the Donbas (1899-1908). H e wrote for the K i e v daily Rada, the journal Svitlo, a n d other magazines. In 1917-18 he w o r k e d for the U N R M i n i s t r y of Education, preparing readers a n d primers for U k r a i n i a n schools. A n émigré from 1919, he edited school textbooks i n V i e n n a . F r o m 1929 he lived near Prague. Cherkasenko, whose pseudonyms were Petro Stakh a n d Provintsial, made his literary debut as a poet i n Literaturno-naukovyi vistnyk i n 1904. H e published story collections, i n c l u d i n g Na shakhti (In the M i n e , 1909) a n d Vony peremohly (They Conquered, 1917). H i s lyric poetry appeared i n three volumes of his Tvory (Works, 1920-2), p u b l i s h e d i n V i e n n a . H i s most successful dramas were Kazka staroho mlyna (Tale of the O l d M i l l , 1914) a n d Pro shcho tyrsa shelestila (What the Steppe Grass M u r m u r e d A b o u t , 1916). H i s w o r k is i m b u e d w i t h the national aspirations of Ukraine's struggle for independence a n d is modernist - predominantly symbolist - i n style. Cherkas'ka pravda (Cherkasy Truth). A daily newspaper of the C o m m u n i s t Party of Ukraine a n d the oblast a n d city soviets i n Cherkasy. The paper began publication under its current name i n 1954, after Cherkasy oblast h a d been established.

Cherkasy. The official name used i n the laws a n d state documents of M u s c o v y i n the second half of the 16th a n d the 17th century for U k r a i n i a n Cossacks a n d for the Ukrainian population i n general. Eventually the Russians substituted the term malorossiiskie kazaki (Little Russian Cossacks) for this name. There are two theories about the origin of the name cherkasy: (1) that it derived from the t o w n of Cherkasy, i n whose vicinity there were many Cossack settlements i n the given period; (2) according to some Russian historians, that it derived from the Caucasian Cherkess peoples. T h e latter school of thought associates the U k r a i n i a n Cossacks w i t h the *Chorni K l o b u k y to support the theory that the U k r a i n i a n Cossacks were not of U k r a i n i a n origin. Cherkasy [Cerkasy]. iv-13. A city (1983 p o p 259,000) o n the right bank of the K r e m e n c h u k Reservoir, the capital of Cherkasy oblast, a n d a river port, w i t h a n airfield. Cherkasy was first mentioned i n documents i n 1394 as a fortified city i n the K i e v a n appanage principality of the G r a n d D u c h y of L i t h u a n i a . F r o m the e n d of the 15th century Cherkasy w a s a n important defense outpost against surprise attacks by the Tatars (in 1532 Cherkasy withstood a 30-day siege b y the armies of the C r i m e a n khan Seadet-Girei). In the early 16th century Cherkasy was the center of the Cherkasy starostvo (district). A m o n g its administrators were E. Dashkevych and D . Vyshnevetsky. After the U n i o n of L u b l i n i n 1569 Cherkasy became part of

Cherkaske [Cerkas'ke]. v-18, DBII-2. T o w n smt (1975 p o p 4,900) i n Slovianske raion, Donetske oblast. Its major industries are chalk a n d lime production and canning. Cherkasky, Irynarkh [Cerkas'kyj, lrynarx], 1869-? Historian of law, member of the ^Commission for the Study of the H i s t o r y of Western-Ruthenian a n d U k r a i n i a n L a w , chairman of the C o m m i s s i o n for Legal Terminology at the

Cherkasy

CHERKASY

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. Poland. M o s t of its population was Cossack, and the city played an important role i n the Cossack insurrections against Poland. F r o m 1648 Cherkasy was one of the principal cities i n the state of Hetmαn B. K h m e l n y t s k y ; it was a regimental city until 1686. After the Treaty of A n d r u s o v o i n 1667, Cherkasy again fell under Polish rule. In 1793 the city became part of the Russian Empire, and i n 1797 it became a county center of K i e v gubernia. Industry developed i n Cherkasy d u r i n g the second half of the 19th century, especially after the construction of a railroad, a sugar factory (1854), and a tobacco factory (1878). The population grew from 29,600 i n 1 8 9 7 39/6oo in 1910. U n d e r Soviet rule, from 1923 to 1930, Cherkasy was the center of Cherkasy (from 1927, Shevchenko) okruha. In 1926 the city's population was 39,500, of w h i c h Ukrainians constituted 61.9 percent, Jews 27.6 percent, and Russians 8.6 percent. Industry, especially the food industry and light industry, was expanded d u r i n g the First Five-Year Plan. The chemical industry was intro­ duced i n the late 1950s. In 1954 Cherkasy became the capital of Cherkasy oblast. This stimulated a rapid growth in population (51,600 i n 1939; 85,000 i n 1959 [Ukrainians 70 percent, Russians - 22 percent, Jews - 6 percent]; 158,000 i n 1970; and 229,000 i n 1977). Today Cherkasy is an important economic and culturaleducational center. The m a i n branches of industry are: the chemical industry (a chemical complex [1964], a synthetic fibers and thread factory [1958], a chemical reagents plant); light industry (a silk complex [1965], factories producing knitted fabrics, clothing, hygroscopic cotton w o o l , and fine leather products); the machinebuilding industry (outfitting and equipment for the food t o

417

Sosnivka resort Machine-building plant Chemical-reagents plant Metal-constructs plant Reinforced-concrete plant Telegraph-equipment plant Brick and block works Azot Nitrogenous Fertilizers Plant Artificial-silk-fabrics manufacturing complex Artificial-fibers plant Hygroscopic-cotton-fabrics plant Sugar refinery Meat-packing complex Dnieper harbor Railway station Airport Pedagogical institute Cherkasy Music and Drama Theater Planetarium Regional museum Oblast hospital City hospital Central heat plant Military barracks City cemetery (with V. Symonenko's grave marked) Auto repair plant City park Tobacco factory

industry; an auto repair plant); the food industry (sugar refinery, dairy, brewery, canning factory [1936, today one of the largest i n Ukraine], meat-packing plants); and the construction industry (reinforced-concrete products, silicate bricks, housing construction). There are other factories and plants (tobacco [1878], handicrafts, etc). A n important cultural and educational center, Cher­ kasy is the home of a pedagogical institute; of the General Technical Faculty of the K i e v C i v i l Engineering Institute; of various tekhnikums specializing i n electrification and agricultural construction, finances, Soviet trade, and co-operative management; of music, drama, and puppet theaters; of a philharmonic society, a planetarium, and a regional m u s e u m (est 1918). The oblast newspaper Cher­ kas'ka pravda is published here. The poet V . Symonenko lived and wrote i n Cherkasy. Cherkasy is a modern and well-planned city, developed according to several comprehensive plans, primarily those of V . Hest i n 1826 a n d of the K i e v Dnipromisto con­ struction firm i n 1932, 1950, and 1962-5. The city has no major historical architectural monuments. A m o n g the finer public buildings, erected between 1959 and 1971, are the House of Soviets, the railway station, the M u s i c and Drama Theater, the Turyst Hotel, and the covered collective-farm market (1971). The Sosnivka health resort for treating tuberculosis of the lungs and bones is situated south of Cherkasy i n a pine forest o n the Dnieper River.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Tkanko, O.; Naiden, S. Cherkasy (Kiev 1956) Kilesso, S. Cherkasy (Kiev 1966)

4i8

CHERKASY

Iastrebova, L. Pam'iatni mistsia Cherkas (Dnipropetrovske 1971) Istoriia mist i sil Ukraïns'koï RSR. Cherkas'ka oblasV (Kiev 1972) Cherkasy bentonite clay field. Located i n Z v e n y horod raion, Cherkasy oblast; one of the largest such deposits i n the USSR. The field contains some 10 billion t of bentonite clay at a depth of 10-40 m ; its surface area is approximately 120 sq k m . It was discovered i n 1954 and has been m i n e d since i960. Cherkasy oblast. Cherkasy oblast lies o n both banks of the Dnieper i n the forest-steppe belt of central Ukraine. It was formed o n 7 January 1954. Its area is 20,900 sq k m , and its p o p u l a t i o n was 1,538,000 i n 1982, of w h i c h 47 percent was urban. The oblast has 20 raions, 416 rural soviets, 15 cities, and 19 towns (smt). Physical geography. The larger, right-bank part of Cherkasy oblast lies i n the Dnieper U p l a n d (maximum elevation, 270 m). This part is an undulating plateau dissected by river valleys, ravines, and gullies. The steep bank of the Dnieper, w h i c h rises to 150 m above the riverbed (forming the K a n i v H i l l s and the M o s h n o h i r s k y i Ridge), is picturesque. The left-bank part of the oblast (with an elevation of u p to 150 m) is part of the Dnieper L o w l a n d . The climate of the oblast is temperate-continental: the July temperature is i 9 . 5 ° C , the January temperature - 3 . 9 ° C , and the average annual temperature is 7.2°C. The temperature is above i o ° C for 160-170 days of the year. The annual precipitation is 450-520 m m . The main river is the Dnieper, w i t h the K r e m e n c h u k and K a n i v reservoirs a n d the tributaries Desna, V i l s h a n k a , and T i a s m y n o n the right a n d the Supii o n the left. O n the right bank of the Dnieper the soils are mostly p o d z o l i z e d chernozems a n d moderate-humus chernozems. O n the left bank the soils are light and moderate clayey, chernozemmeadow, a n d peat-bog soils. Forests cover 4.5 percent of the oblast's area. In the past the right-bank part of Cherkasy oblast belonged to Right-Bank Ukraine and u n t i l 1793 was under P o l i s h sovereignty, w h i l e the left-bank part belonged to the Hetmán state. U n d e r the Russian Empire three-quarters of the oblast belonged to K i e v gubernia, and one-quarter to Poltava gubernia. Population. The average population density i n 1978 was 73.9 people per sq k m . It is highest i n the areas bordering the Dnieper and lowest i n Left-Bank Ukraine. The proportion of urban population is rising rapidly: it was 14.1 percent i n 1940, 23.6 percent i n i960, 36.4 percent i n 1970, a n d 44.8 percent i n 1979. There is hardly any population growth: the population was 1,571,000 i n 1940, 1,488,000 i n i960, 1,535,000 i n 1970, and 1,544,000 i n 1978. The natural population g r o w t h i n 1975 was 2.1 percent (cf 5.1 percent for all of Ukraine). More population flows out of than into the oblast. The largest towns (according to 1978 figures) are Cherkasy (234,000), U m a n (82,000), Smila (61,000), Z v e n y h o r o d k a , Zolotonosha, K a n i v , and Shpola. The ethnic composition of the population i n 1979 (1959 figures i n parentheses) was Ukrainians, 91.7 (94) percent; Russians, 6.8 (4.5) percent; and Jews, 0.7 (0.9) percent. Economy. Cherkasy oblast is an agrarian-industrial region. It is a region of intensive farming w i t h specialization i n grain, sugar beets, and meat and dairy cattle. Industry is an important part of the oblast's economy and is based o n the processing of local agricultural products.

After the war most enterprises were reconstructed, and some n e w branches of industry were established (equipment m a k i n g , precision-instruments b u i l d i n g , etc). Industry. Cherkasy oblast is an important region for the food industry, w h i c h i n 1970 accounted for 55.2 percent of the oblast's industrial production. The machinebuilding a n d metalworking industries are less important, producing only 13.5 percent of the oblast's industrial goods. The chemical industry a n d light industry are gaining i n importance. P o w e r to r u n industry comes from the Cherkasy Thermoelectric Station and to some extent from the thermoelectric stations of U m a n , Talne, and Y u r k i v k a and from the K a n i v Hydroelectric Station. The C h y h y r y n Regional P o w e r Plant, w h i c h w i l l produce 4.8 million k W , is under construction. The lignite industry is concentrated i n Z v e n y h o r o d k a , and the peat industry is centered i n the Cherkasy area. N a t u r a l gas is brought i n from Shebelynka, a n d the pipeline from O r e n b u r g to the western border of the USSR runs through the oblast. Sugar is the m a i n product of the food industry. There are 24 sugar refineries, w h i c h are located mostly i n the right-bank part of the oblast, i n such places as V e r k h n i a , Shpola, a n d Z h a s h k i v . The m i l k industry is well developed. It has six plants, the largest being i n Smila and Talne. O f the six meat-packing plants i n the oblast the largest are i n Cherkasy a n d V a tu tine. There are also six distilleries, several breweries, a n d flour mills. The canning factory a n d tobacco plant i n Cherkasy are the largest i n Ukraine. The machine-building a n d metalworking industries serve mostly the needs of the local food industry, light industry, a n d agriculture. Food-processing equipment is made i n Cherkasy a n d Smila. Textile and chemical machinery is built i n Kamianske. C o m m e r c i a l and foodservice equipment is made i n Monastyryshche; agricultural machines are built i n U m a n . Machine-repair and auto-repair plants are found i n Cherkasy and K o r s u n Shevchenkivskyi. Photographic equipment and telephone equipment are made i n Cherkasy, w h i l e electronic measuring instruments are manufactured i n U m a n . A t Zolotonosha railway cranes a n d transportation machinery are built. Light industry includes textile and clothing manufacturing (silk, cotton, knitwear, hemp-working) and shoemaking. The largest plants of this industry are i n Cherkasy, where silk, knitwear, felt, and handicraft products are produced. There is a cotton plant i n Stebelske. Shoes are made i n Cherkasy a n d U m a n . Syntheticfiber plants a n d chemical plants are concentrated i n Cherkasy. U m a n has a vitamin plant, and Zolotonosha has an ether plant. The furniture plant i n Cherkasy, metalw o r k i n g plant i n Zolotonosha, a n d willow-products factory i n K o r s u n - S h e v c h e n k i v s k y i are of less importance. The largest bentonite deposits (estimated at 10 billion t) i n U k r a i n e , indeed i n Europe, as w e l l as gneiss, granite, a n d limestone, are the foundation of the b u i l d ing-materials industry. There are 11 reinforced-concrete plants, 6 rock-crushing plants, and 18 building-materials plants. Granite is quarried i n the U m a n , Horodyshche, and Z v e n y h o r o d k a raions. There is a refractory-clay plant i n Vatutine, a n d a bentonite clay plant operates i n Lysianka raion. Agriculture. In 1976 there were 389 collective farms (457 i n 1970) and 58 state farms (38 i n 1970) i n Cherkasy oblast. Arable l a n d covers 70 percent of the area. O f this, 91 percent is cultivated land; 7 percent is hayfield and

CHERNETSKY

pasture; and 2 percent is orchard, berry patch, etc. The total area seeded i n 1976 was 1,320,700 ha, of w h i c h 609,000 ha (46.1 percent) was devoted to grain, 201,000 (15.2 percent) to industrial crops, 410,000 (31 percent) to fodder, and 96,000 (7.3 percent) to potatoes a n d vegetables. The principal grains are winter wheat (273,400 ha) and seed corn (54,400 ha). Millet, barley, legumes, a n d buckwheat are also g r o w n . For industrial crops the largest area is given to the sugar beet (152,000 ha) and sunflower (36,600 ha). Orchards, berry patches, and vineyards take u p 48,000 ha. The Korsun-Shevchenkivskyi and H o r o d y s h c h e regions produce apples, pears, apricots, p l u m s , a n d sweet a n d sour cherries. In 1970-5 the average grain yield was 30,400 centners per ha, and the winter wheat yield was 35,400 centners per ha (one of the highest i n Ukraine). The productivity of sugar beets was 267 centners per ha, a n d of potatoes, 120 centners per ha. A n i m a l husbandry consists mainly of dairy- a n d beefcattle farming a n d h o g raising. Sheep, poultry, a n d rabbits are also raised. Cattle feed, consisting of cultivated grasses a n d the wastes of the food industry (particularly the sugar refining a n d distilling industries), is abundant. In 1975 there were 887,000 head of cattle (320,000 cows), 936,400 hogs, and 280,900 sheep and goats in the oblast. The m a i n breed of cattle was the Simmenthal; of hog, the Large White a n d M y r h o r o d ; of sheep, Precocious. In the M o s h n y region m i n k farming is developing. Transportation. A p a r t from the subsidiary track there are 605 k m of railroad track i n the oblast. The m a i n railway lines are those from K i e v to Dnipropetrovske, from Donetske to L v i v , a n d from M o s c o w to Odessa. The m a i n railway junctions are Shevchenkove, Cherkasy, K h r y s tynivka, a n d Tsvitkove. There are 6,500 k m of motor highways, of w h i c h 4,700 k m are hard surface. The m a i n highways run from Kiev to Odessa, from Kiev to Dnipropetrovske, a n d from U m a n to L v i v . River transportation plays an important role i n the economy. Cherkasy has one of the largest river ports i n Ukraine, as w e l l as airline connections w i t h the m a i n cities of U k r a i n e . Tourism is an important industry. The m a i n tourist areas are the picturesque right bank of the Dnieper (particularly K a n i v w i t h its Shevchenko monument) and the K r e m e n c h u k Reservoir area.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hudzenko, P. Cherkas'ka oblasf (Kiev 1959) Slava Cherkashchyny, 1917'-1967 (Dnipropetrovske 1967) Istoriia mist i sil Ukraïns'koï RSR. Cherkas'ka oblast' (Kiev 1972) Yu. Savchuk Cherkavsky, M y k h a i l o [Cerkavs'kyj, Myxajlo], b 7 November 1879, d 6 N o v e m b e r 1929. C o m m u n i t y figure in V o l h y n i a , pedagogue, publicist. In 1918 he became director of the teachers' seminary i n D e r m a n , a n d he served as commissar of education d u r i n g the UNR period in V o l h y n i a . F r o m 1922 to 1926 he was a member of the Polish senate a n d head of the U k r a i n i a n parliamentary representation. H e was one of the founders of the U k r a i nian National Democratic Alliance and served as its vicepresident. H e was active i n V o l h y n i a ' s U k r a i n i a n organizations, particularly those i n Kremianets. Cherkes, Oleksander [Cerkes], b 2 M a y 1894 i n Kharkiv. Pharmacologist a n d toxicologist; full member of

Mykhailo Cherkavsky

419

Oleksander Cherkes

the A c a d e m y of M e d i c a l Sciences of the USSR from i960. Cherkes graduated from K h a r k i v University i n 1917 and taught at the K h a r k i v M e d i c a l Institute (1921-44; from 1930 as full professor) a n d from 1944 at the K i e v Medical Institute. H i s scientific studies were devoted to experimental pharmacology a n d toxicology. Together w i t h his associates Cherkes developed a n d introduced the use of new hypotensive drugs, as w e l l as an antidote for arsenic poisoning. Cherkes was the author of a number of textbooks a n d monographs. C h e r n [Cern'] or Chorne M i s t o (Black City). A n O l d Ukrainian city, situated between the Prut and Dniester rivers. A c c o r d i n g to some experts, the ruins of C h e r n are located near the village of A l c h e d a r (Rezina raion, M o l davian SSR) o n the right bank of the Dniester; they are the ruins of a Tivertsian settlement of the 9th-11th century. A c c o r d i n g to others, the C h e r n ruins are i n the village of Lenkivtsi, near Chernivtsi, o n the left bank of the Prut River, and date from the 12th to the m i d - i 3 t h century. Chernai, A l e k s a n d r [Cernaj], b 19 A p r i l 1821 i n St Petersburg, d 18 February 1898. Zoologist, professor at K h a r k i v University (1848-73). In his works o n the fauna of K h a r k i v gubernia a n d the surrounding regions he i n fact gave the first analysis of the mammals and birds of Ukraine as a w h o l e . H e also studied insect pests. Chernai headed the Society of Naturalists at K h a r k i v University. Chernenko, Oleksander [Cernenko], 1864-1921. O n e of the founders of the co-operative movement i n Ukraine, a teacher by profession. C h e r n e n k o organized credit and consumer co-operatives i n the K i e v region and trained Ukrainian co-operative cadres, including the prominent co-operative leader K h . Baranovsky. Chernetsky, A n t i n [Cernec'kyj], b 8 A p r i l 1887 i n Berezhany, Galicia, d 15 February 1963 i n Switzerland. Civic a n d political leader, trade unionist, noted member of the U k r a i n i a n Social Democratic party (USDP), journalist. Chernetsky fought for the autonomy of U k r a i n i a n workers i n the A u s t r i a n central trade-union organizations. H e set u p separate U k r a i n i a n sections w i t h their o w n secretariat, w h i c h he headed, a n d organized U k r a i nian railway workers. H e was a member of the Ukrainian National Rada of the Western Ukrainian National Republic a n d its secretary of labor a n d social security. In 1924 he

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CHERNETSKY

Antin Chernetsky became the president of the U n i o n of U k r a i n i a n Private Employees, a n d i n 1925-8 he served as director of the Pension Institute of Private Employees i n L v i v . H e edited and co-edited the periodicals of USDP: Zemlia i volia (1908), the weekly (1911) and daily (1919) Vpered, and Profesiinyi visnyk (1920-1). After emigrating to Germany and Switzer­ land, he wrote brochures o n the history of the workers' and professionals' movement. In 1964 his Spomyny z moho zhyttia (Memoirs from M y Life) was published. Cherniaev, V a s i l i i [Cernjaev, Vasilij], b 1796 i n Kalytva (now N o v a Kalytva) i n the V o r o n e z h region, d 21 February 1871. Botanist. A graduate of K h a r k i v Univer­ sity, Cherniaev w o r k e d as full professor at the institution from 1829 to 1859. In 1859 published Konspekt rastenii, dikorastushchikh i razvodimykh v okresnostiakh Khafkova i v Ukraine (Conspectus of W i l d a n d Cultivated Plants i n the K h a r k i v Region and Ukraine). H e collected a large herbarium of U k r a i n i a n flora (now preserved at the Institute of Botany of the A c a d e m y of Sciences of the U k r a i n i a n SSR), w h i c h contained over 1,700 plant species, including 17 that he first discovered. Cherniaev also studied mushrooms of the K h a r k i v and neighboring gubernias. n

1

e

Cherniakhiv [Cernjaxiv]. 111-9. T o w n smt (1965 pop 9,000) i n Polisia, a raion center i n Z h y t o m y r oblast. The t o w n has a food industry, brickyards, an asphalt factory, and a granite plant. Cherniakhiv culture. A n ancient culture of the 2 n d 5th century A D , discovered i n 1899 by V . K h v o i k a near the village of C h e r n i a k h i v i n the K i e v region. The culture was widespread i n the forest-steppe o n both banks of the Dnieper between the D o n and the Dniester rivers and along the B o h River, as w e l l as i n southeastern Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Rumania, and Bulgaria. M o n u ­ ments of the C h e r n i a k h i v culture consist of moundless burial grounds and settlements. The settled tribes of the culture lived i n large, unfortified settlements and engaged i n farming and animal husbandry. They also practiced various trades - bronze w o r k i n g , iron w o r k i n g , jewelry m a k i n g , and pottery m a k i n g , w h i c h was usually executed by means of a potter's wheel. There was a well-developed trade w i t h nearby R o m a n centers, from w h i c h the tribes imported amphoras, glass cups, and clay pottery. R o m a n coins were used i n internal and external trade. M o s t scholars believe that the C h e r n i a k h i v culture

2 T H E CHERNIAKHIV CULTURE

1) Early Slavic pagan idols found at various sites in the middle Dniester Valley, 2nd-5th century (according to I. Vynokur, 1972). 2) Calendar on the rim of a vessel found in Lepesivka, Volhynia; the 12 panels correspond to the 12 months; the cycles of the sun, rain, and snow, as well as related agricultural activities, are symbolized (according to B. Rykov, 1962).

was the product of various ethnic tribes - the Dacians, Sarmatians, Germans, Scythians, a n d Antes - mentioned by ancient writers. The culture perished, probably d u r i n g the invasion of the H u n s at the end of the 4th century. A m o n g the better-known monuments of the C h e r n i a k h i v culture i n Ukraine are the burial grounds at C h e r n i a k h i v and the settlements at Z h u k i v t s i and Y a h n i a t y n .

CHERNIGOVSKII

Cherniakhivsky, Oleksander [Cerniaxivs'kyj], b 1 October 1869 i n M a z e p y n t s i , V a s y l k i v county, Kiev gubernia, d ? H u s b a n d of L . *Starytska-Cherniakhivska. Physician-histologist, civic leader, professor at Kiev U n i versity a n d then the K i e v M e d i c a l Institute, where for many years he was chairman of the department of histology. H e d i d research i n histology i n M a d r i d and Berlin. In 1926 he founded a school of U k r a i n i a n histologists. In his department he established a large collection of his own, unique, histological preparations. H e wrote many scientific works o n various problems of histology and a dictionary of medical terminology. H e was chairman of the medical section of the A l l - U k r a i n i a n A c a d e m y of Sciences i n 1927 and a full member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society. D u r i n g the trials of the *Union for the Liberation of Ukraine i n 1930, he was sentenced to five years of strict solitary confinement. H i s consequent fate is unknown. Cherniata (Chorniata), Ivan [Cernjata (Cornjata)], birth a n d death dates u n k n o w n . Close associate of Hetmán B. K h m e l n y t s k y , participant i n the campaigns against Poland, and general quartermaster of the Cossack Host i n 1648-9. Cherniata was given diplomatic missions by K h m e l n y t s k y . After the Treaty of Z b o r i v i n 1649 he presided over the commission that drew u p the 40,000-Cossack register (see ^Registered Cossacks). After 1649 Cherniata is n o longer mentioned i n historical documents. Cherniavshchenko, D e m i a n [Cernjavscenko, Dem'jan]. Zaporozhian Cossack and rebel leader. Cherniavshchenko took part i n the *Koliivshchyna rebellion, serving i n the detachments of M . Zalizniak, A . Zhurba, and M . Shvachka. In 1768 he conducted negotiations on behalf of the *Haidamakas w i t h the K i e v governor general, F. Voeikov, concerning a joint campaign against the Poles. Treacherously arrested by V o e i k o v and sentenced to hard labor, Cherniavshchenko escaped to the Volga region, where he took part i n the Pugachev rebellion of 1773-5. His fate is unknown. Cherniavsky, M y k h a i l o [Cerniavs'kyj, Myxajlo]. E n graver i n w o o d i n the C h e r n i h i v region d u r i n g the m i d - i 8 t h century (1740-60). C h e r n i a v s k y produced engravings for ecclesiastical books published i n C h e r n i h i v , including Ispovidaniie pravoslavnoï viry (Confession of the Orthodox Faith, 1745), Novyi Zavit (New Testament, 1759), and Psaltyr (Psalter, 1763). Cherniavsky, M y k o l a [Cernjavs'kyj], b 3 January 1868 in the village of Torska Oleksiivka i n Katerynoslav gubernia, d 28 November 1948 i n K h e r s o n . Writer, pedagogue, and zemstvo activist. A priest's son, Cherniavsky graduated from the Katerynoslav Theological Seminary. F r o m 1889 he taught at the church school i n Bakhmut. In 1901-3 he w o r k e d as a zemstvo statistician i n C h e r n i h i v and then moved to K h e r s o n , where he w o r k e d i n the gubernial zemstvo until 1919 and then returned to teaching. Cherniavsky's earliest poems are dated 1889. H e published several collections of poetry, i n c l u d i n g Pisni kokhannia (Songs of L o v e , 1895), Donets'ki sonety (Donets Sonnets, 1898), and Zori (Stars, 1903). H e frequently collaborated in publishing almanacs: Dubove lystia (Oak Leaves), Z votoku zhyttia (From the Stream of Life), and Persha lastivka

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Mykola Cherniavsky (The First Swallow). H i s w o r k appeared i n such journals as Literaturno-naukovyi vistnyk, Pravda, Kievskaia starina, and, in the Soviet period, i n Zhyttia i revoliutsiia, Chervonyi shliakh, and Zoria. H i s lyrical poetry is thematically rich, but m u c h of it consists of love poetry that was composed under the influence of T. Shevchenko and U k r a i n i a n folklore. H i s historical poems are devoted to the Cossack era, particularly to B. Khmelnytsky's period. Cherniavsky was one of the masters of the sonnet i n the pre-Soviet period: in Donets''ki sonety he described the daily life of the Donbas peasants and workers for the first time i n Ukrainian poetry. H e also wrote 80 short stories, 5 novellas, and memoirs. A l t h o u g h he welcomed Ukrainian independence, he d i d not w o r k for its preservation. U n d e r the Soviet regime C h e r n i a v s k y was not very active as a writer and i n 1933 ceased to p u b l i s h . Later he suffered political persecution, and his works were prohibited. H e was rehabilitated after Stalin's death, but Soviet critics still accuse h i m of U k r a i n i a n nationalism. The fullest edition of his works is Tvory (Works, 10 vols, 1927-31). After his rehabilitation, a few short collections were published: Poeziï (Poetry, 1 v o l , 1959) a n d Tvory (Works, 2 vols, 1966). I. Koshelivets Cherniavsky, V o l o d y m y r [Cernjavs'kyj], b 1893 i n Odessa, d 13 N o v e m b e r 1939. C o m m u n i s t party activist. Cherniavsky joined the Bolshevik party i n 1911 and took part in the struggle against Ukrainian governments i n Kiev from 1917 to 1920. H e served as first secretary of oblast committees of the CP(B)U i n Dnipropetrovske and Vinnytsia. F r o m 1930 to 1937 he w a s a candidate member of the Politburo and secretary of the c c of the CP(B)U. Chernigovskii listok (Chernihiv Newsletter). RussianUkrainian weekly newspaper published i n C h e r n i h i v from July 1861 to A u g u s t 1863 (61 issues). The editor and publisher was L . *Hlibov. Besides literary works by P . K u l i s h , P. K u z m e n k o , M y k o l a Verbytsky, L . H l i b o v , O . K o n y s k y , a n d S. O v e c h k o , the newspaper published articles o n the C h e r n i h i v region and other areas (concerning Sunday schools, school textbooks, cultural and literary life), valuable material o n ethnography and folklore by S. N i s , P . Yefymenko, a n d M . N o m y s , criticism and reviews (including H l i b o v ' s theater criticism), and bibliographic articles. W i t h the onset of a n official policy of reaction (especially after the arrest of I. A n d r u s h c h e n k o , w h o wrote for Chernigovskii listok), the newspaper was forbidden to publish. F r o m October 1862 until its closing, Chernigovskii listok was the only periodical i n the Russian Empire that published Ukrainian-language material.

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Chernihiv, general view of the city C h e r n i h i v [Cernihiv]. 11-12. C i t y (1983 p o p 263,000) i n the Dnieper L o w l a n d situated o n the h i g h right bank of the Desna River, principal city of the *Chernihiv region and capital of *Chernihiv oblast, railway and h i g h w a y junction, w i t h a port o n the river and an airport. History. Traces of settlements from the Neolithic period and the Bronze A g e have been found o n the site of present-day C h e r n i h i v . In historical times C h e r n i h i v was a center of the *Siverianians. The city was incorporated into K i e v a n R u s ' i n the 9th century and became one of the most important a n d wealthiest cities of the realm. The first mention of C h e r n i h i v i n the chronicles occurred i n 907. In the 11th-13th century C h e r n i h i v was the capital of *Chernihiv principality, whose first ruler was Prince Mstyslav V o l o d y m y r o v y c h , the son of V o l o d y m y r the Great. The o l d city was situated o n an elevated terrace between the Desna a n d its tributary the Stryzhen. The city center consisted of the *ditynets, w h i c h was encircled by the t o w n proper, the suburbs, and a third section k n o w n as Tretiak, w h i c h was inhabited by merchants and artisans. Each part of the city had its o w n protective walls. The commercial section k n o w n as the P o d i l stretched along the river's edge. In the 12th century the area of the city was about 120 ha, excluding the P o d i l . In 1239 the Tatars devastated C h e r n i h i v . It fell under the control of Briansk principality i n the second half of the 13th century a n d was incorporated into the G r a n d D u c h y of Lithuania i n the second half of the 14th century. In 1503 Chernihiv, along w i t h the whole Chernihiv-Siverskyi land, came under M u s c o v y ' s rule. D u r i n g this period the ditynets was fortified, and the suburbs were enlarged. The city was laid waste by the Tatars several times, particularly i n 1482 and 1497. In accordance w i t h the Truce of D e u l i n o (1618), C h e r n i h i v was transferred to the Polish C o m m o n w e a l t h and i n 1635 became the principal city of *Chernihiv voivodeship. In 1623 C h e r n i h i v was granted the M a g d e b u r g law, a n d i n 1648 it became part of the Cossack Hetmαn state a n d the capital of C h e r n i h i v regiment. After the abolition of the Cossack Hetmαn state C h e r n i h i v became the capital of C h e r n i h i v vicegerency (in 1781), of ""Little Russia gubernia (in 1797), and of *Chernihiv gubernia (in 1802). A t the time the city had 4,000 inhabitants. Its population increased to 12,000 by 1844, to 27,000 by 1897, a n d to 35,000 by 1913. D u r i n g this time C h e r n i h i v was an administrative, commercial, and manufacturing center w i t h a small food industry; brick, candle, a n d soap factories; and other enterprises. The city

1. Churches: 1, Church of the Holy Trinity; 2, Cathedral of the Assumption of Yeletskyi Monastery; 3, Cathedral of the Transfiguration and ss Borys and Hub Cathedral; 4, Church of the Holy Protectress; 5, Church of Good Friday; 6, St Nicholas's Church; 7, Church of the Elevation of the Cross; 8, Church of the Resurrection; 9, ss Michael and Theodore's Church; 10, Church of the Ascension 2. Industrial enterprises 3. Cemeteries 4. Parks and wooded areas $ Port on the Desna expanded towards the west and the northwest. After the revolution of February 1917 a U k r a i n i a n administration was established i n the city. In 1919 C h e r n i h i v found itself i n the territory contested by the UNR, the Red A r m y , and G e n A . D e n i k i n , and by the e n d of that year Soviet authority was established i n the city. It was the center of Chernihiv okruha from 1925 to 1932, w h e n it became the capital of C h e r n i h i v oblast. A c c o r d i n g to the 1926 census the population of the city of that time was 35,200, of w h o m 57 percent were U k r a i n i a n , 20 percent Russian, and 10 percent Jewish. In the 1930s, as industry developed rapidly, the population increased to 69,000. D u r i n g the German-Soviet war i n 1941-4 C h e r n i h i v suffered exten­ sive damage. After the war the city's industrial capacity reached its prewar level by the beginning of the 1950s, and the population grew rapidly; it was 90,000 i n 1959, of w h i c h 69 percent was U k r a i n i a n , 20 percent Russian, 8 percent Jewish, and 1 percent Polish; 159,000 i n 1970; and 250,000 i n 1980. Economy. The m a i n branches of industry located i n Chernihiv are chemicals, food-processing, light industry, building materials, and w o o d w o r k i n g . The major indus­ trial enterprises include the C h e r n i h i v Synthetic Fibers Plant (est 1959), the *Chernihiv W o o l e n Fabrics M a n u ­ facturing C o m p l e x (est 1963), the *Chernihiv M u s i c a l

CHERNIHIV

CHERNIHIV,

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CENTER

1. School attended by M . Kybalchych and P. Tychyna 2. The home where V. Samiilenko and M . Kotsiubynsky worked 3. Cemetery, with graves of O. Markovych, L. Hlibov, and M . Kotsiubynsky 4. Chernihiv Oblast Ukrainian Music and Drama Theater 3. M . Kotsiubynsky Memorial Museum 6. State Historical Museum 7. Historical Museum, Art Section 8. Symphony Hall 9. Kuibyshev Square 10. M . Kotsiubynsky Park 11. T. Shevchenko monument 12. M . Kotsiubynsky monument Instruments Factory (est 1934), a primary woolprocessing factory, a clothing factory, a footwear factory, a meat-packing plant, a dairy, a brewery, a confectionery factory, a macaroni factory, a dry-fruits processing plant, a reinforced-concrete plant, a mechanical-repair plant, and a w o o d w o r k i n g plant. Education and culture. C h e r n i h i v is the home of many educational, academic-research, and cultural institutions, among them the Shevchenko Pedagogical Institute; a branch of the K i e v Poly technical Institute; an evening mechanical-technological t e k h n i k u m ; a co-operatives tekhnikum; a commercial tekhnikum; a pedagogical and a musical school; branches of the A l l - U n i o n Scientific Research Institute of O i l and Gas Exploration, the A i l - U n i o n Scientific Research Institute of M a c h i n e r y for the Manufacture of Synthetic Fibers, and the Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Agricultural Microbiology; two museums - a historical m u s e u m and the Kotsiubyn­ sky Literary-Memorial M u s e u m ; a branch of the St Sophia Cathedral M u s e u m ; the C h e r n i h i v Oblast Ukrai­ nian Music and Drama Theater; and the oblast philharmonic orchestra.

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C u l t u r a l history. C h e r n i h i v has always played a prominent role i n Ukraine's cultural life. Its cultural traditions date back to K i e v a n Rus', w h e n the broad national scope of the C h e r n i h i v dynasty's political activity secured favorable conditions for cultural develop­ ment and promoted the culture of C h e r n i h i v to an all-Ukrainian level, particularly i n the areas of architec­ ture and painting. The city's monumental structures of the n t h - 1 2 t h century, especially its churches, were remarkable achievements of the age. In the first half of the n t h century the Cathedral of the ^Transfiguration was erected at the center of the ditynets. The *SS Borys and H l i b Cathedral, the D o r m i t i o n Cathedral of *Yeletskyi Monastery, *St Elijah's C h u r c h , the C h u r c h of the A n ­ nunciation, and St Michael's C h u r c h , w h i c h has not survived, were built i n the 12th century. The C h u r c h of *Good Friday, erected at the turn of the 13th century, was devastated i n The Second W o r l d W a r and was later reconstructed. C h e r n i h i v also made contributions to the development of O l d Rus' literature. H e g u m e n *Danylo from C h e r n i h i v wrote an account of his travels to the H o l y L a n d at the turn of the 12th century. A l t h o u g h the Chernihiv Chronicle has been lost, fragments of this w o r k have been preserved i n later chronicle compilations. The Tatar invasions and the destruction of Chernihiv i n 1239 interrupted its cultural growth for many years. Chernihiv's location o n the border between the warring Lithuanian-Polish and Muscovite states d i d not favor its cultural renaissance. The first signs of a cultural rebirth i n Chernihiv appeared only i n the 17th century. The Uniate archimandrite of the Yeletskyi Monastery, K . Stavrovetsky (Trankvilion), the author of poems and theological works, set u p the first printing press i n C h e r n i h i v i n about 1646. The flourishing cultural life of the second half of the 17th century was connected w i t h the w o r k of the archbishop of C h e r n i h i v , L . Baranovych, w h o i n 1679 moved to C h e r n i h i v the p r i n t i n g press he had founded i n Novhorod-Siverskyi i n 1675. The circle of writers and artists associated w i t h Baranovych included I. Galiatovsky, the archimandrite of the Yeletskyi Monastery; A . Radyvylovsky, the archdeacon of the C h e r n i h i v eparchy; L . Tobolynsky, elder of the T r i n i t y - S t Elijah Monastery; the poet I. Velychkovsky; l o a n M a k s y m o v y c h , the future archbishop of Chernihiv; the engravers I. Shchyrsky, L . Tarasevych, and N . Zubrytsky; and the architects A . Zτrnikau and J. Baptist. O w i n g to Baranovych's initiative and funds p r o v i d e d by the Hetmαn administration and Chernihiv's Cossack starshyna, the city's architectural monuments, and particularly the Trinity Cathedral (built in the 16th century), were renovated and reconstructed i n the baroque style. O f particular significance was the founding i n 1700 of ""Chernihiv College, w h i c h became one of the m a i n centers of learning i n the Hetmαn state. In the first half of the 18th century the Chernihiv Chronicle and the L y z o h u b Chronicle were written. G r a n d new churches such as the baroque St Catherine's C h u r c h (1715) and secular buildings such as the regimental chan­ cellery k n o w n as Mazepa's b u i l d i n g and the building of Ya. L y z o h u b were erected. In the second half of the 18th century C h e r n i h i v preserved its importance as a great cultural center. D u r i n g this period the principal cultural figures were O . Shadunsky, D . Pashchenko (the author of a monograph describing C h e r n i h i v vicegerency, 1731), the general judge H . M y l o r a d o v y c h , the writer O . Lobysevych, and

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the historian M . M a r k o v . A t the turn of the 19th century a circle of U k r a i n i a n 'patriotic nobles' grew out of the cultural milieu of C h e r n i h i v . A m o n g its members were the C h e r n i h i v gubernia marshal, A . Poletyka; the amateur historian A . C h e p a ; R. M a r k o v y c h ; and T. K a l y n s k y . They devoted themselves to history, collected historical documents a n d chronicles, and composed memoranda based o n them about the history a n d rights of the Ukrainian gentry. These memoranda were k n o w n all over Left-Bank U k r a i n e . The purposes of the circle were to defend Ukraine's right of autonomy and to obtain for the Cossack estate rights enjoyed by the nobility. F r o m the m i d d l e of the 19th century cultural life i n C h e r n i h i v developed rapidly. In contrast to the earlier period, i n w h i c h regional and nobility interests and aspirations were dominant, general national objectives came increasingly to the fore. The following scholars and writers w o r k e d i n C h e r n i h i v d u r i n g this period: the historians O . Lazarevsky, C o u n t H . M y l o r a d o v y c h , O . Khanenko, the brothers M y k o l a and Mytrofan Konstantynovych, A . V e r z y l o v , and P. Doroshenko; the ethnographers Opanas M a r k o v y c h , O . Shyshatsky-Illich, and S. N i s ; the writer L . H l i b o v ; and the statisticians O . Rusov, V . Vyrzar, P. C h e r v i n s k y , and O . S h l y k e v y c h . Some of these individuals belonged to the C h e r n i h i v H r o m a d a , one of the more radical *hromadas i n Ukraine. Towards the end of the 19th century intellectual life i n C h e r n i h i v expanded i n scope and intensity. Its m a i n centers were the Statistical Committee; the Gubernia A r c h i v a l C o m m i s s i o n , established i n 1896 through the efforts of O . Lazare v s k y a n d H . M y l o r a d o v y c h ; and the Tarnovsky M u s e u m , founded by V . Tarnovsky, Jr. Scholars, pedagogues, writers, and artists of the Chernihiv zemstvo, whose w o r k and interests often extended b e y o n d the boundaries of the C h e r n i h i v region, were active i n these institutions. A t the turn of the century the writers M . K o t s i u b y n sky, B. H r i n c h e n k o , V . Samiilenko, M . V o r o n y , and M . Cherniavsky, the painter I. Rashevsky, and the historian V . M o d z a l e v s k y lived in>Chernihiv. Y o u n g Ukrainians, most of them graduates of the C h e r n i h i v g y m n a s i u m or seminary, gathered at the homes of these prominent artists or scholars. Some of these y o u n g people made important contributions to Ukraine's cultural and scholarly life after the revolution of 1917. The writers P. Tychyna, I. K o c h e r h a , and V . Blakytny, the historians P. Savytsky, Y e . Onatsky, M . Petro vsky, V a s y l D u b r o v s k y , and V . Shuhaievsky, and the art scholar O . Hutsalo spent at least some years of their y o u t h i n C h e r n i h i v . In 1911 the 14th Archeological Conference took place i n Chernihiv. The city maintained its importance as a cultural center i n the 1920s a n d the early 1930s. It was the home of such institutions as the *Chernihiv State Historical M u s e u m (the greatly expanded former Tarnovsky M u s e u m ) , a historical archives, a learned society, a n d an institute of people's education. The w o r k of these institutions was closely connected w i t h the w o r k of the A l l - U k r a i n i a n A c a d e m y of Sciences a n d particularly w i t h the w o r k of its historical section of the academy; the Archeological Committee; the central historical archives of Ukraine i n Kiev and K h a r k i v ; a n d the Scientific Research Institute of Ukrainian C u l t u r e i n K h a r k i v . Their further development was curtailed by Soviet political repression i n the 1930s and by the Second W o r l d War.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ocherk istorii goroda Chernigova 907-1907 gg. (Chernihiv 1908) Hrushevs'kyi, M.(ed). Chernihiv i Pivnichne Livoberezhzhia (Kiev 1928) Rybakov, B. Drevnosti Chernigova (Moscow 1949) Ignatkin, N . Chernigov (Kiev 1955) Iedomakha, I. Chernihiv (Kiev 1958) Logvin, G. Chernigov, Novgorod-Severskii, Glukhov, PutivV (Moscow 1965) Asieiev, lu. Arkhitektura Kyïvs'koï Rusi (Kiev 1969) Karnabida, A . Chernihiv. Istorychno-arkhitekturnyi narys (Kiev 1969)

Derykolenko, O. (ed). Istoriia mist i sil Ukraïns'koï RSR. Chernihivs'ka oblast' (Kiev 1972) Asieiev, lu. Dzherela. Mystetstvo Kyïvs'koï Rusi (Kiev 1980) V. Kubijovyc, O. Ohloblyn

Chernihiv College Chernihiv College. One of the oldest secondary schools i n Ukraine, the C h e r n i h i v College was established i n 1700 on the m o d e l of the *Kievan M o h y l a A c a d e m y by the archbishop of C h e r n i h i v , l o a n M a k s y m o v y c h . It was generously supported by Hetmán I. M a z e p a . The college replaced the Slavonic-Latin school that h a d been m o v e d to C h e r n i h i v from N i z h e n . It had a six-year program and provided a general education (no theology or philology classes). The students were mostly the sons of priests (in 1743-4, 78 out of 253 students) and Cossacks. In 1776 the college was reorganized into a theological seminary, w h i c h functioned until 1917. Chernihiv gubernia. Administrative territorial unit i n Left-Bank Ukraine created i n 1802. Its center was the city of *Chernihiv. The gubernia was composed of 15 counties, 11 of w h i c h (Borzna, H l u k h i v , H o r o d n i a , Kozelets, Konotip, Krolevets, N i z h e n , N o v h o r o d - S i v e r s k y i , Oster, Sosnytsia, Chernihiv) lay w i t h i n the boundaries of Ukrainian ethnic territory. The remaining four northern counties ( M g l i n , N o v o z y b k o v , Starodub, Surazh) were part of a mixed Ukrainian-Belorussian-Russian ethnic territory. C h e r n i h i v gubernia covered 52,396 s q k m and, according to the 1897 census, had a population of 2,298,000 (cf U k r a i n i a n ethnic territory, w h i c h covered 38,324 sq k m and had a population of 1,663,000). The 1914 population figure was 2,340,000, of w h i c h Ukrainians numbered 1,525,000. In 1919 the four northern counties were transferred to H o m e l gubernia and, i n 1926, to Briansk gubernia, RSFSR. In 1925 the territory of C h e r n i h i v gubernia became part of Hlukhiv, Konotip, N i z h e n , and Chernihiv okruhas.

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plain, sloping from the northeast (200-220 m i n elevation) to the southwest (120-150 m i n elevation). The climate here is moderate-continental: the July temperature is 18.4 to i9-7°c, a n d the January temperature - 6 ° to — 8°c. A n n u a l precipitation is 500-600 m m . The length of the growing season is 190-200 days. The Dnieper flows along the western boundary of C h e r n i h i v oblast. The main river of the oblast is the *Desna, w h i c h flows from the northeast to the southwest. The left-bank tributaries of the Desna are the Seim, D o c h , and Oster; its right-bank tributaries are the U b i d , M e n a , Snov, and Bilous. There are mainly p o d z o l sandy soils i n the northern, Polisian part and chernozems i n the southern part. M i x e d forests of pine, oak, birch, hornbeam, aspen, alder, and poplar predominate i n the northern part, while small oak forests predominate i n the southern, forest-steppe part. Forests cover 20.1 percent of the oblasts's territory. In the past C h e r n i h i v oblast was part of the Hetmαn state. U n d e r the Russian E m p i r e it constituted Chernihiv gubernia. Population. The average population density is 47.3 persons per square kilometer. In the forest-steppe the density exceeds 50 persons per square kilometer. The proportion of urban population has risen rapidly i n recent years: it was 15.3 percent i n 1940, 23.6 percent i n i960, 34.6 percent i n 1970, and 44.1 percent i n 1978. D u r i n g the Second W o r l d W a r the population declined considerably. T h e n , u n t i l the beginning of the 1960s, the population increased slowly a n d later declined again: it was 1,787,000 i n 1940, 1,478,000 i n 1950, 1,558,000 i n i960,1,560,000 i n 1970, a n d 1,501,000 i n 1978. The natural population g r o w t h here is one of the lowest i n Ukraine (in 1975 the rate was the lowest, at 0.9 percent). The balance of migration is constantly negative. The largest cities i n 1980 were C h e r n i h i v (pop, 242,000), N i z h e n (pop 71,000), and Pry luka (pop 67,000). The ethnic composition of the population i n 1979 (1959 figures i n parentheses) was Ukrainians, 92.5 (94.5) percent; Russians, 5.8 (3.9) per­ cent; and Jews, 0.7 (0.8) percent. Economy. Chernihiv oblast is one of the industrial-agrar­ ian regions of Ukraine. Industrial production accounted for 66.4 percent of the oblast's gross output i n 1970. M o s t enterprises were built i n the postwar years, a n d new branches of industry were established - petrochemicals, equipment b u i l d i n g , textiles, machine building, fuel (55 percent of Ukraine's petroleum). Agriculture also plays an important role i n the oblast's economy. It is varied a n d intensive, w i t h an emphasis o n grain, potatoes, meat, and dairy products. Industry. In 1970 light industry accounted for 44.5 percent of industrial production, the food industry for 24.5 percent, the machine-building and metalworking industry for 9.4 percent, the chemical industry for 8.4 percent, the fuel industry for 5.3 percent, a n d the w o o d ­ w o r k i n g and paper industry for 3.2 percent. The energy to r u n the industry is derived from local peat deposits (the Zamhlai peat-brick plant), o i l fields (at H n i d y n t s i , Pryluka, Leliaky, a n d Monastyryshche), natural-gas fields (Bohdanivka a n d M i l k y ) , the C h e r n i h i v Thermo­ electric Station, the K y i v e n e r h o p o w e r system, and coal from the Donets Basin. The most developed branches of light industry are the textile, knitted-materials, garment, flax-and-hemp-manufacturing, and leather-goods branches. O n e of the largest o

Chernihiv State Historical Museum Chernihiv State Historical M u s e u m . Established i n 1925 by the merger of the Tarnovsky M u s e u m of A n t i q u i ­ ties, founded i n 1897, the collection of the A r c h i v a l C o m ­ mission, and a number of other collections. The m u s e u m has two departments: the department of prerevolutionary history and the department of the history of Soviet society. It contains valuable archeological materials excavated at the sites of various cities of K i e v a n Rus', such as K n i a z h a H o r a , R o d e n , Peplava, a n d Chernihiv. O n display are clay pottery, tools of the skilled trades, farm implements, bone carvings, porcelain, carved crys­ tal, church articles, arms (particularly the arms of B. Khmelnytsky, Y a . O s t r i a n y n , a n d S. Nalyvaiko), w o v e n articles, old printed documents from the K i e v , Ostrih, and Pochaiv presses, universals issued by hetmans, icons, portraits, etc. In the department of the history of Soviet society there are documents of the 1917-45 period, the October Revolution, the Second W o r l d War, a n d the partisan movement. There are also displays illustrating the development of industry a n d farming i n the C h e r n i h i v region a n d urban-development plans. C h e r n i h i v M u s i c a l Instruments Factory. Estab­ lished i n 1934, the factory produced stringed folk instruments until 1950. It then specialized i n pianos and in 1955 began to produce the first small upright pianos i n the Soviet U n i o n . In 1970 the factory produced 26,300 pianos, 75,900 guitars, 16,500 balalaikas, and 1,500 banduras. The production figures for i960 were 14,270 pianos, 33,200 guitars, 48,200 balalaikas, and 586 banduras. Chernihiv oblast. C h e r n i h i v oblast lies i n the northern part of Left-Bank Ukraine. In the north the oblast borders on the Belorussian SSR a n d the Russian SFSR. For centuries the oblast s territory was part of the geographicalhistorical *Chernihiv region. C h e r n i h i v oblast was estab­ lished on 15 October 1932. Its area is 31,900 sq k m . Its 1982 population was 1,472,000, of which 47 percent was urban. The oblast has 22 raions, 462 rural soviets, 15 cities, and 30 towns (smt). Physical geography. M o s t of C h e r n i h i v oblast lies w i t h i n the ^Dnieper L o w l a n d . It is a somewhat swampy 7

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textile plants i n U k r a i n e - the ""Chernihiv W o o l e n Fabrics Manufacturing C o m p l e x - a n d a w o o l w o r k i n g plant are located i n C h e r n i h i v . There are textile mills i n N o v h o r o d Siverskyi a n d Oster; garment factories i n C h e r n i h i v , Pryluka, a n d N i z h e n ; a leather-goods factory, hosiery factory, a n d k n i t t i n g a n d s p i n n i n g mills i n Pryluka; and a felt factory i n C h e r n i h i v . Eight flax-working plants, two h e m p - w o r k i n g plants, a n d several shoe factories are found i n C h e r n i h i v , P r y l u k a , a n d Semenivka. The oblast is famous for its handicraft industries: k i l i m w e a v i n g and artistic embroidery. In the food industry sugar refining, distilling, meat packing, butter a n d cheese m a k i n g , flour milling, and canning are h i g h l y developed. Sugar refineries are located i n Bobrovytsia, N o s i v k a , Parafiivka, L y n i v k a , a n d N o v y i B y k i v . Distilleries are found i n the Borzna, K o r i u k i v k a , H o r o d n i a , a n d Kozelets raions. C h e r n i h i v and N i z h e n have breweries. There are meat-packing plants i n C h e r n i h i v , N i z h e n , P r y l u k a , Bakhmach, and N o v h o r o d - S i v e r s k y i . Butter a n d cheese factories are located i n Ichnia a n d Bakhmach. In N i z h e n there is a large canning factory a n d an oil-and-fat rendering plant. The chemical industry has become very important i n the oblast's economy. In C h e r n i h i v there is a large syntheticfibers plant, the K h i m v o l o k n o plant (built i n 1957); i n Pryluka there is a synthetic-resins plant; and i n N i z h e n there is a lacquer a n d paint factory. The machine-building and metalworking industries serve for the most part the needs of agriculture a n d the chemical industry. A g r i c u l tural machinery is built i n N i z h e n , P r y l u k a , and M a k o shyne; firefighting equipment and construction machinery are manufactured i n Pryluka; fishing equipment and chemical machinery are produced i n Bakhmach. In C h e r n i h i v auto parts are made at a branch of the G o r k y auto w o r k s , a n d instruments are manufactured. In the w o o d w o r k i n g a n d paper industry there are six furniture factories, the *Chernihiv M u s i c a l Instruments Factory, and an industrial paper a n d carton plant i n K o r i u k i v k a . The building-materials industry produces reinforcedconcrete structures, roofing materials, brick, etc. Agriculture. In 1976 there were 503 collective farms (614 i n 1970) a n d 57 state farms (40 i n 1970). Sixty-eight percent of the oblast's area was devoted to agriculture. O f this, 72 percent was cultivated l a n d , a n d 26 percent was pasture a n d meadow. The total l a n d under cultivation i n 1976 covered 1,587,100 ha; 44.8 percent (711,800 ha) of this l a n d was devoted to grain, 6.3 percent (100,500 ha) to industrial crops, 12.2 percent (193,300 ha) to potatoes, 1.2 percent (19,400 ha) to fruit, particularly melons, and 35.4 percent (562,100 ha) to fodder crops. The m a i n grains g r o w n are winter wheat (243,300 ha), barley (194,600 ha), rye, a n d corn. In terms of industrial crops most of the land is devoted to flax (45,900 ha), barley (45,900 ha), sugar beets (41,800 ha), a n d tobacco. The oblast is Ukraine's largest producer of potatoes (2,943,000 t i n 1975) a n d flax (28,9001). In the period 1970-5 the average grain yield was 19.5 centners per ha. Winter-wheat yield was 23 centners per ha, sugar-beet yield was 244.2 centners per ha, a n d potato yield was 141.8 centners per ha. In 1976 there were 1,305,500 head of cattle i n Chernihiv oblast (of w h i c h 505,100 were cows), 847,600 hogs, and 245,500 sheep a n d goats. The predominant breed of cattle was Simmenthal; of hogs, Large White; of sheep, Perekos. Poultry farming, rabbit raising, apiculture, and fishing are expanding.

Transportation. The length of effective railroads is 892 k m 1976). The oblast is crossed by such railway lines as the Kiev-Nizhen-Konotip-Moscow line, the Homel-Bakhmach line, the Kiev-Nizhen-Chernihiv-Homel-Leningrad line, the C h e r n i h i v - N i z h e n - P r y l u k a line, the Chernihiv-Korysten line, and the N o v h o r o d - S i v e r s k y i - N o v o z y b k o v - H o m e l line. The m a i n railway junctions are Bakhmach, N i z h e n , and Pryluka. There are 7,500 k m of h i g h w a y , of w h i c h 3,600 k m are hard surfaced. The motor highways KievChernihiv-Leningrad, K i e v - N i z h e n - M o s c o w , a n d Chernihiv-Pryluka-Cherkasy cut across the oblast. There is boat transportation on the Dnieper, Desna, a n d Sazh rivers, and on parts of the Snov a n d Seim. C h e r n i h i v ' s port o n the Desna is important. C h e r n i h i v has airline communications w i t h the larger cities of the USSR a n d w i t h the distant raion centers of the oblast. The Dashava-Kiev-Moscow gas pipeline runs through the oblast. M a n y tourists are attracted to the region of the K i e v Reservoir, the banks of the Desna, the Trostianets Dendrological Park, a n d the cities of C h e r n i h i v , N i z h e n , and Novhorod-Siverskyi. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Iatsura, M . ; Iedomakha, I. Chernihiv (Kiev 1958) Symonenko, V. Chernihivs'ka oblast' (Heohrafichnyi narys) (Kiev 1958) Istoriia mist i sil Ukraïns'koï RSR. Chernihivs'ka oblast' (Kiev

1972) Chernihivs'ka oblast' (Ekonomiko-heohrafichna kharakterystyka)

(Kiev 1975)

Yu. Savchuk

Chernihiv principality. O n e of the largest and mightiest political entities of K i e v a n R u s ' i n the 11th-13th century. The principality was formed i n the 10th century and retained some of its distinctiveness until the 16th century. Its basic territory consisted of the basins of the Desna and Seim rivers i n Left-Bank Ukraine, w h i c h were settled by the *Siverianians a n d partly by the *Polianians in the south. Eventually the principality expanded to encompass the territory of the *Radimichians a n d some of the lands settled by the *Viatichians a n d *Drehovichians. Chernihiv was the capital of the principality, w h i c h included a number of towns a n d cities, such as N o v horod-Siverskyi, Starodub, Briansk, P u t y v l , Kursk, L i u bech, H l u k h i v , Chechersk, Kozelsk, H o m e l , and V y r . U n t i l the 12th century the d o m a i n a n d influence of the principality expanded far into the northeast (the M u r o m Riazan land) a n d into the southeast (*Tmutorokan principality). U n t i l the 11th century C h e r n i h i v principality was governed by local (tribal) elders a n d by vicegerents w h o were sent from K i e v to collect tribute, administer justice, a n d organize a defense against foreign enemies, particularly the nomadic hordes. In 1024-36 the principality was ruled by Prince Mstyslav V o l o d y m y r o v y c h , w h o came from Tmutorokan. After the reign of the K i e v a n grand prince Yaroslav the Wise, w h o unified the right-bank and left-bank territories of the K i e v a n state, the principality was inherited by his son Sviatoslav 11, w h o founded the Chernihiv house of the R i u r y k dynasty. The *Riurykids governed the principality until the 14th century by transferring power either from father to son (dynastic inheritance) or from older to younger members of the family. K i e v a n grand prince V o l o d y m y r M o n o m a k h ruled the principality for a time, but i n accordance w i t h the

CHERNIHIV PRINCIPALITY

decision of the *Liubech congress of princes (1097) the principality and its appanages went to Sviatoslav's sons, O l e h and D a v y d Sviatoslavych, and their descendants, the O l h o v y c h i . A l t h o u g h some of the appanages, particularly Novhorod-Siverskyi, developed into independent principalities, the authority of the C h e r n i h i v prince as the head of the princely house and the supreme ruler was great enough to preserve for h i m the title 'grand prince.' The power possessed by the C h e r n i h i v princes, the unity of the house, and the wealth and ability of its leading members played an important role i n the economic and cultural development of the principality i n the i 2 t h - m i d - i 3 t h century. The policies of the C h e r n i h i v princes were determined by the historical development of the principality and its economic and military importance and were characteristic of a great state. The Riurykids of C h e r n i h i v always aspired to gain the great throne of Kiev and to h a n d it o n to their descendants. The Chernihiv house ruled K i e v i n the n t h - 1 3 t h century during the reign of the grand princes Sviatoslav 11 (1073-6); his grandsons V s e v o l o d (1139-46) and Ihor (1146-7) O l h o v y c h , the sons of O l e h Sviatoslavych; Iziaslav D a v y d o v y c h (1157-61); Sviatoslav 111 Vsevolodovych (1176-94, with interruptions); Vsevolod Chermny (Sviatoslavych) (1206-12, w i t h interruptions); and M y k hailo V s e v o l o d o v y c h (1238-46). A t the same time these princes or their relatives retained direct control of Chernihiv principality. W i t h the title, authority, and influence of the grand prince of K i e v and the resources of C h e r n i h i v principality at their disposal, the C h e r n i h i v princes conducted an ongoing expansionist policy. In the n t h - m i d - i 2 t h century their foreign policy was focused mostly on the southeast - the D o n and L o w e r Volga region (the former Khazar state), Caucasia, and Tmutorokan principality. This policy determined the relations between the Chernihiv princes and the *Cumans, w h o acted at various times either as allies of the princes i n foreign undertakings and internal struggles or as opponents to their eastward expansion. O n e of the last attempts of the Chernihiv Riurykids at eastward expansion was Ihor Sviatoslavych's disastrous campaign of 1185, w h i c h is described i n the epic Slovo 0 polku Ihorevi (The Tale of Ihor's Campaign). The C u m a n b a r r i e r enabled Byzantium to consolidate its influence over the territory of Tmutorokan principality. A s the eastern ties of C h e r n i h i v principality grew weaker, the attention of the princes turned westward towards the Belorussian territories of the K i e v a n realm. W i t h the consent of the Polotsk princes C h e r n i h i v assumed the role of guardian and even sovereign over *Polotsk principality. Towards the end of the 12th century the C h e r n i h i v princes both held the G r a n d Principality of K i e v a n d enjoyed sovereignty over Polatsk principality. Thus, they were i n a favorable position, after their attempts to consolidate their influence i n N o v gorod failed, to b i d for control over all U k r a i n i a n territories, i n c l u d i n g the Principality of ""Galicia-Volhynia, and thus for the primacy of C h e r n i h i v principality among the principalities of Rus'. The attempt of the Ihorevychi of Novhorod-Siverskyi to gain control of Galicia ended i n failure and the violent death of the brothers i n 1211. In 1229 M y k h a i l o V s e v o l o d o v y c h of C h e r n i h i v began a prolonged struggle w i t h his brother-in-law D a n y l o Romanovych of Galicia for the K i e v a n and Galician thrones.

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These ambitions were undermined by the M o n g o l Tatar invasions. In 1223 the grand prince of C h e r n i h i v , Mstyslav Sviatoslavych, died at the battle o n the Kalka River. O n 18 October 1239 C h e r n i h i v was captured and plundered by the Tatars, and Prince Mstyslav H l i b o v y c h died i n battle. In 1245 Prince Rostyslav M y k h a i l o v y c h , the C h e r n i h i v pretender to the Galician throne, was decisively defeated at Peremyshl. In 1245 and 1246 Danylo R o m a n o v y c h of Galicia suffered the humiliation of submitting to the M o n g o l khan's authority, while M y k h a i l o V s e v o l o d o v y c h , w h o refused, suffered a martyr's death. C h e r n i h i v principality was divided into a number of appanage principalities, w h i c h for a long time remained directly controlled by the G o l d e n Horde. The G r a n d Principality of C h e r n i h i v ceased to exist, but Chernihiv principality, devastated and plundered by the Tatars, restricted i n its rights, borders, and aspirations, survived w i t h Briansk as the n e w capital. In the second half of the 13th century and at the beginning of the 14th century it was governed by princes of the C h e r n i h i v house, beginning w i t h R o m a n M y k h a i l o v y c h of Briansk and C h e r n i h i v (1263-85). T h e n it passed into the hands of the R i u r y k i d princes of the H o u s e of Smolensk. In the second half of the 14th century C h e r n i h i v principality became a vassal of the G r a n d D u c h y of Lithuania and was ruled, as were all the northern Rus' principalities, by the Lithuanian princes of the Gediminas dynasty. D u r i n g his reign as grand duke of Lithuania, Casimir i v of Poland granted C h e r n i h i v principality to émigré princes of the M o s c o w Riurykids, i n particular to Prince Ivan A n d r e e vich of M o z h a i s k . H i s son, Semen, submitted to M u s c o v y in 1500, and i n 1515, d u r i n g the rule of Semen's son, V a s y l Semenovych, C h e r n i h i v principality was annexed by M u s c o v y , w h i c h i n 1523 also annexed Novhorod-Siverskyi principality, the last independent U k r a i n i a n principality. The state traditions of C h e r n i h i v principality outlasted its historical existence by m a n y centuries. They were reflected i n the political projects of the Cossack Hetmán state of the 17th-18th century (the so-called K u n a k o v Articles, 1649); i n P. Ivanenko's Zaporozhian Cossack treaty w i t h the C r i m e a n Tatars i n 1692, w h i c h mentions Chernihiv principality; i n Hetmán I. Mazepa's use of the title 'Prince of C h e r n i h i v ' i n negotiations w i t h Poland and Sweden i n 1708; i n the Russian tsars' use of the title ' G r a n d Prince of C h e r n i h i v , ' adopted after the Treaty of Pereiaslav (1654); and finally i n the history of the Ukrainian national renaissance of the i 9 t h - 2 o t h century and the founding of a n e w U k r a i n i a n state i n 1917. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bagalei, D. Istoriia Severskoi zemli do poloviny xiv st. (Kiev 1882) Hrushevs'kyi, M . Istoriia Ukra'iny-Rusy, 8 vols (Lviv 1898-1918) Andriiashev, O. 'Narys istoriï kolonizatsiï Sivers'koï Zemli do pochatku xvi v.,' ZIFV, 20 (Kiev 1928) Kuczyñski, S.M. Ziemie Czernihowsko-Siewierskie pod rzqdami Litwy (Warsaw 1936) Mavrodin, V. Ocherki istorii Levoberezhnoi Ukrainy (Leningrad 1940)

Kuczyñski, S.M. Studia z dziejów Europy Wschodniej x-xvn w. (Warsaw 1965) Zaitsev, A . 'Chernigovskoe Kniazhestvo,' in Drevnerusskie kniazhestva x-xin vv. (Moscow 1975) Dimnik, M . Mikhail, Prince of Chernigov and Grand Prince of Kiev, 1224-1246 (Toronto 1981) O. Ohloblyn

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C H E R N I H I V P R I N T I N G PRESS

C h e r n i h i v printing press. F o u n d e d ca 1675 by "Baranovych i n N o v h o r o d - S i v e r s k y i a n d m o v e d to Cher­ nihiv i n 1679. A t the b e g i n n i n g of the 18th century it was the third-largest p r i n t i n g house, i n terms of size and production, i n U k r a i n e , after the K i e v and L v i v presses, and h a d its o w n paper factory. The press printed litur­ gical books, the polemical w o r k s of I. Galiatovsky, the poems of Ihnatii M a k s y m o v y c h , the historical a n d theo­ logical w o r k s of D . Tuptalo, translations of works i n Latin, etc. A m o n g the famous engravers w h o w o r k e d at the C h e r n i h i v p r i n t i n g press were Leontii Tarasevych, I. Shchyrsky, I. Strelbytsky, a n d N . Zubrytsky. In spite of prohibitions a n d threats from the H o l y S y n o d , w h i c h demanded that all books be ' i n agreement w i t h M u s c o ­ vite b o o k s / the C h e r n i h i v p r i n t i n g press maintained its independence u n t i l 1724 a n d printed books on various topics i n U k r a i n i a n , P o l i s h , Latin, a n d C h u r c h Slavonic. The press began to decline i n 1724 and was closed d o w n i n 1820. L

C h e r n i h i v region (Chernihivshchyna). A historical and geographical territory i n northeastern Ukraine on the border w i t h Russia a n d Belorussia. In the west the C h e r n i h i v region borders o n the K i e v region; i n the east, o n Slobidska U k r a i n e ; i n the northwest, o n Belorussia; a n d i n the north, o n Russia (Briansk region). The precise boundaries of the C h e r n i h i v region have changed over the centuries. The territory has an area of about 55,700 sq k m . D u r i n g the Princely era the C h e r n i h i v region formed the nucleus of " C h e r n i h i v principality, w h i c h also encom­ passed large territories i n the north (Briansk region), the northeast (Kursk, M u r o m - R i a z a n lands), a n d the south­ east (Tmutorokan principality). In 1239 the C h e r n i h i v region was captured b y the Tatars, i n 1356 most of the region was annexed by the G r a n d D u c h y of Lithuania, and i n 1503 it came under the control of M u s c o v y . The Truce of D e u l i n o (11 December 1618) transferred the region to P o l a n d , a n d it became " C h e r n i h i v voivodeship. In 1648 the C h e r n i h i v region became part of the Hetmαn state a n d encompassed the C h e r n i h i v , Starodub, a n d N i z h e n regiments as w e l l as parts of the Pereiaslav and Pryluka regiments. After the abolition of Ukraine's autonomy the C h e r n i h i v region was d i v i d e d into two vicegerencies i n 1782 - the C h e r n i h i v a n d N o v h o r o d Siverskyi vicegerencies - w h i c h survived until 1797 and then became part of the Little Russia gubernia (covering the territory of the Hetmαn state). In 1802 the gubernia was reorganized into two gubernias - " C h e r n i h i v guber­ nia and Poltava gubernia (see "Poltava region) - w h i c h endured u n t i l 1917. In 1917-19 the C h e r n i h i v region, including its northern part (the counties of Starodub, M g l i n , Surazh, a n d N o v o z y b k o v ) , belonged to the UNR. In 1919 the C h e r n i h i v region was captured by the Soviets, a n d the four northern countries were transferred to H o m e l gubernia a n d then i n 1926 to Briansk gubernia of the Russian SFSR. In 1925 C h e r n i h i v gubernia was divided into okruhas, a n d i n 1932 it was reorganized into " C h e r n i h i v oblast. In 1939 the eastern part of the oblast was transferred to the n e w S u m y oblast, and a small southwestern part was transferred to left-bank K i e v oblast, w h i l e C h e r n i h i v oblast acquired the Pryluka area. In general the C h e r n i h i v region is not rich i n natural resources a n d has a moderate population density. Farm­ i n g i n this region has been less profitable than i n other

regions of Ukraine. Hence there have been frequent migrations from the C h e r n i h i v region to other territories, such as southern U k r a i n e a n d the Far East. F r o m the historical, cultural, a n d ethno-linguistic viewpoint the Chernihiv region has always been an integral part of Ukraine and has often rivaled the K i e v region as the center of U k r a i n i a n territory a n d the U k r a i n i a n people. Geography. The C h e r n i h i v region encompasses the northern part of the "Dnieper L o w l a n d , w h i c h is a somewhat s w a m p y p l a i n sloping from the northeast (elevation, 200-220 m) towards the southwest (elevation, 120-150 m). The climate is moderate-continental: the temperature i n July is usually 18.4 i9-7°c and i n January - 6 . 7 to -y.6°c. The annual precipitation is 500-600 m m . The g r o w i n g season is 190-200 days. The Chernihiv region lies i n the Desna Basin, w h i c h includes the left-bank tributaries of the Desna - the Oster, D o c h , and Seim - a n d the right-bank tributaries - the Bilous, Snov, M e n a , U b i d , a n d Sudost. The Dnieper a n d Sozh mark the western boundary of the C h e r n i h i v region. The forests i n the northern part of the region consist mostly of pine, oak, birch, hornbeam, a n d alder; i n the southern, forest-steppe part small oak forests are predominant. Forests occupy one-fifth of the region's l a n d area. The soils i n the northern, Polisian part are sandy podzolic, and i n the southern part, chernozems. P o p u l a t i o n . The C h e r n i h i v region has been inhabited from the earliest times. In the 8th century AD the "Siverianians appeared i n the region. Besides the native U k r a i ­ nian population, there were some Russians, mainly Rus­ sian O l d Believers fleeing religious persecution, w h o established homesteads a n d settlements i n the C h e r n i h i v region i n the 17th-18th century, mostly i n Starodub, N o v o z y b k o v , Surazh, a n d H o r o d n i a counties. K l y n t s i became their cultural center. F r o m the end of the 18th century there was also an exodus. It consisted of peas­ ants, w h o fled from the C h e r n i h i v region to the south (to the Katerynoslav region, Tavriia, the K u b a n , and C a u ­ casia) and to the east. In the brief period 1782-91, about 700,000 peasants emigrated from the C h e r n i h i v a n d Novhorod-Siverskyi vicegerencies. Emigration contin­ ued at the e n d of the 19th a n d the beginning of the 20th century. Between 1893 and 1903,11,300 peasants per year on the average left C h e r n i h i v gubernia to resettle i n remote regions of the Russian Empire, such as the Central A s i a n steppe, the Urals, Siberia, or the Far East. In 1906-12, 157,600 peasants emigrated to Siberia. Large numbers of peasants from the region - about 133,000 per year i n 1893-7 - took u p seasonal w o r k i n other parts of Ukraine such as Katerynoslav, K h e r s o n , and Tavriia gubernias, the Donbas, a n d the K r y v y i R i h region. Thirty-five percent of the miners i n K r y v y i R i h came from the C h e r n i h i v region. In spite of emigration a n d migra­ tion, the population of the C h e r n i h i v region (and later Chernihiv gubernia, w h i c h i n c l u d e d most of the region) increased steadily from 964,500 i n 1764 to 1,176,570 i n 1782, to 1,374,746 i n 1851, to 1,471,866 i n 1858, to 2,321,900 i n 1897, 3,132,000 i n 1914 (according to S. Rudnytsky). N a t u r a l population g r o w t h i n 1897 was 17.8 percent. Yet the population density i n C h e r n i h i v guber­ nia (area, 52,400 sq km) was one of the lowest for the Ukrainian gubernias: 26.2 inhabitants per sq k m i n 1851, 44.3 i n 1897, a n d 59.8 i n 1914. M o s t of the population (91.1 percent) was peasant; only 207,390 people lived i n cities (in 1897). There were 19 cities i n the gubernia, the o

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CHERNIHIV REGION

largest being C h e r n i h i v (27,000), N i z h e n (32,000), Starodub (26,000), K o n o t i p (23,800), H l u k h i v (17,600), N o sivka (15,500), Borzna (15,000), N o v o z y b k o v (15,000), Berezna (13,100), Krolovets (12,800), Klyntsi (12,000), and Ichnia (10,000). A t the end of the 19th century C h e r n i h i v gubernia was d i v i d e d into 15 counties. In i860 the gubernia s population consisted of the following social strata: enserfed peasants (38.8 percent), state peasants (44.5 percent i n c l u d i n g Cossacks, w h o accounted for 30.8 percent), burghers (9.4 percent), nobles (1.6 percent), clergy (0.9 percent), merchants (0.6 percent), and military and others (4.5 percent). Eighty-four percent of the population i n 1897 were peasants, and 16 percent were of other social classes. In 1913, 308,720 of the 2,956,000 inhabitants were urban residents; of these, 79,700 were tradesmen and 18,100 were factory workers. By national composition the population of the gubernia i n 1897 was as follows: Ukrainians, 85 percent; Belorussians (who settled i n Surazh county i n the 17th century), 6 percent; Russians, 5 percent; and other nationalities, such as the Jews, Poles, and Germans (who had four colonies i n Borzna county and two i n K o n o t i p county), 4 percent. S. R u d n y t s k y gave similar statistics for 1914: Ukrainians, 85.6 percent; Russians, 9.0 percent; Jews, 4.9 percent; Germans, 0.4 percent; and Poles, 0.1 percent. In terms of religious affiliation, 91.8 percent of the guber­ nia's population i n 1897 was Orthodox; 0.9 percent, Edinovertsy; 0.9 percent, O l d Believers; 0.2 percent, Protestants; 0.3 percent, Catholics; 5.0percent, Jews; and 1 percent, other. D u r i n g the Soviet period changes occurred i n the region's administrative division and i n the national com­ position of its population. A c c o r d i n g to the 1926 census, the territory of former C h e r n i h i v gubernia was inhab­ ited by 2,906,000 people, of w h o m 73 percent were Ukrainians; 23.1 percent, Russians; 2.6 percent, Jews; and 1.2 percent, Belorussians. The population of the part of the C h e r n i h i v region that belonged to the U k r a i n i a n SSR (excluding the four counties of K l y n t s i , N o v o z y b k o v , Starodub, and Pochep, where the population was 14.7 percent U k r a i n i a n and 79.3 percent Russian) was 92.7 percent U k r a i n i a n , 4.9 percent Russian, and 2.2 percent Jewish. The later official censuses recorded population statistics by oblast, and the boundaries of C h e r n i h i v oblast d i d not coincide w i t h the boundaries of C h e r n i h i v gubernia or w i t h those of the C h e r n i h i v region. The total population of C h e r n i h i v oblast has been steadily decreas­ ing over the last 40 years: i n 1940 it was 1,787,000; i n 1959, 1,573,000; i n 1970, 1,560,000; and i n 1981, 1,483,000. This decline has coincided w i t h urban growth and a popula­ tion transfer from country to city: the rural population fell from 1,504,000 i n 1940 to 796,000 i n 1981, w h i l e the urban population rose from 282,000 to 686,000. Population density i n the oblast is one of the lowest i n Ukraine: 46.5 inhabitants per sq k m . Since the 1960s C h e r n i h i v oblast has had the lowest natural population growth of all Ukrainian oblasts: 0.9 per cent i n 1976. A c c o r d i n g to the 1959 census the national composition of the population was: Ukrainians, 94.5 percent; Russians, 3.9 percent; and Jews, 0.8 percent. In 1970 the respective figures were 93.8, 4.7, and 0.7 percent. These data indicate that the national profile of the C h e r n i h i v region, where Ukrainians account for a higher proportion of the population than i n any other region of U k r a i n e , remains stable. History. The C h e r n i h i v region has been inhabited 7

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since the middle Paleolithic period (Chulativ village near Novhorod-Siverskyi). The number of settlements i n ­ creased i n the U p p e r Paleolithic period (40,000-8,000 years ago), w h e n temporary settlements were built on the Desna River (the sites *Pushkari and * M i z y n north and south of Novhorod-Siverskyi), at Novhorod-Siverskyi, and at Z h u r a v k a o n the U d a i River. Neolithic relicts have been found i n the vicinity of K u d l a i v k a and Sosnytsia on the Desna. The settlements at Y e v m y n k a village and Morivske i n Kozelets raion belong to the Trypilian culture. The remains of Scythian fortified settlements of the 5th century B C , w h i c h are k n o w n as the Y u k h n o v e settlements, are found along the Desna near N o v h o r o d Siverskyi. A t the beginning of our era Slavic settlements appeared i n the C h e r n i h i v region at Tabaivka, Sosnytsia, and Petrivka. In the 7 t h - 8 t h century the Siverianians settled on the Desna, Seim, a n d Sula rivers and made C h e r n i h i v their center. In the 9th century the region became a part of Kievan Rus', and C h e r n i h i v became an important polit­ ical, cultural, a n d economic center i n the new state (see *Chernihiv principality). In the m i d - i 4 t h century Algirdas, the grand duke of Lithuania, defeated the Tatars and gained control of the Chernihiv region. A t first Lithuania respected the auton­ omy of the appanage principalities, leaving them i n the hands of local princes. A t the beginning of the 15th century, however, the small principalities were abol­ ished, and administrators were appointed. In this period the C h e r n i h i v region was plundered frequently by the Tatars. In the war of 1500-3 Lithuania lost the region to M u s c o v y . Poland obtained the territory by the Truce of

CHERNIHIV LAND, 11TH A N D 12TH C E N T U R I E S 1. Borders of the Kievan state 2. Eastern border of the Chernihiv land after the separation of Murom-Riazan principality 3. Mongol invasions 4. Borders of the Chernihiv land 5. Borders of Novhorod-Siverskyi principality 6. Defensive wall Numerals associated with cities indicate the founding dates of the cities.

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REGION

Deulino i n 1618 and i n 1635 formed Chernihiv voivodeship out of its northern part (Chernihiv, N o v h o r o d - S i v e r s k y i , K o n o t i p , P u t y v l , a n d H l y n s k ) , w h i l e attaching the south­ ern part ( N i z h e n , Oster, and Baturyn) to K i e v voivode­ ship. The P o l i s h administration exploited the local p o p u ­ lation, a n d the P o l i s h nobility seized lands belonging to U k r a i n i a n peasants or burghers. Hence the population of the region took part i n the Cossack uprisings of P. Pavliuk (1637) a n d Y a . Ostrianyn (1638) against the Poles. D u r i n g B. K h m e l n y t s k y ' s rebellion M . Nebaba was the chief of the insurgent detachments i n the C h e r n i h i v region. A t the e n d of 1648 the C h e r n i h i v , Starodub, N i z h e n , a n d P r y l u k a regiments were formed a n d incor­ porated into the Hetmαn state. After the Treaty of Bila Tserkva (1651) the Polish nobles began to return to their estates under the protection of Polish troops. To escape Polish oppression, m a n y peasants emigrated to M u s c o v y and settled mostly o n the T y k h a Sosna River, establishing the t o w n of Ostrohozke. The Polish-Ukrainian reconcilia­ tion under Hetmαn I. V y h o v s k y (Treaty of Hadiache) led to the Ukrainian-Russian war, i n w h i c h the tsar's army was crushed at K o n o t i p o n 8 July 1659. The Treaty of A n d r u s o v o , signed o n 30 January 1667, d i v i d e d Ukraine between P o l a n d a n d Russia. The C h e r n i h i v region, along w i t h the rest of Left-Bank U k r a i n e , was annexed by Russia. The capitals of the Russian-ruled Hetmαn state were Baturyn (1669-1708 a n d 1750-64) and H l u k h i v (1708-50). The region's proximity to Russia was convenient for trade; hence trade centers developed i n the C h e r n i h i v region. A c c o r d i n g to the census of 1666, a m o n g the important cities i n the region were N i z h e n , w i t h 642 taxpaying households; K o n o t i p , w i t h 474; and Baturyn, w i t h 365. C h e r n i h i v and N i z h e n obtained the privileges of M a g d e b u r g l a w . In the 18th century the number of manufacturing enterprises i n the C h e r n i h i v region i n ­ creased: i n 1728 sailcloth began to be manufactured i n Pochep, a n d i n 1737 w o o l e n cloth began to be produced i n Riashky village near P r y l u k a (700 workers) and i n Sheptaky village near N o v h o r o d - S i v e r s k y i . Flour m i l l i n g developed rapidly: i n the 18th century there were 2,759 w i n d m i l l s a n d 1,511 watermills i n the C h e r n i h i v region. N i z h e n became the largest economic center of the region. Beginning i n 1657, large fairs that attracted merchants from various cities i n Ukraine and abroad were held i n N i z h e n . B y the e n d of the 18th century the urban population h a d increased significantly: i n 1786 N i z h e n had a population of 11,000; P r y l u k a , 6,200; a n d Cher­ nihiv, 3,900. In the 17th-18th century the region played a leading cultural role i n Left-Bank Ukraine, a n d indeed the whole of Ukraine. Such cultural and religious leaders as L . Baranovych, I. Galiatovsky, and loan Maksymovych lived and w o r k e d there. In 1700 M a k s y m o v y c h founded "Cher­ nihiv College o n the m o d e l of the K i e v a n M o h y l a A c a d ­ emy. The famous physician D . Samoilovych studied at this college i n 1755-61. The general flag-bearer M . K h a n e n k o p u r s u e d his political career i n the C h e r n i h i v region. In the m i d - i 8 t h century parochial elementary schools were opened i n the cities a n d villages: there were 215 of them i n N i z h e n regiment and 144 i n C h e r n i h i v regiment. P r i n t i n g was an important factor i n the growth of culture a n d education: i n 1675 a printing press was established i n N o v h o r o d - S i v e r s k y i a n d was later trans­ ferred to C h e r n i h i v . The 16 monasteries and 4 convents i n

the C h e r n i h i v region played an important cultural as w e l l as religious role i n the 18th century. The most prominent ones were the T r i n i t y - S t Elijah Monastery and the Yeletskyi Monastery i n C h e r n i h i v , the Monastery of the Transfiguration i n N o v h o r o d - S i v e r s k y i , the Monastery of the A n n u n c i a t i o n i n N i z h e n , the H u s t y n i a Monastery near P r y l u k a , a n d the monasteries i n L i u b e c h , R y k h l y , Domnytsia, a n d M a k o s h y n e . D u r i n g the Hetmαn period and at the end of the 18th century architecture i n the C h e r n i h i v region attained a high degree of development. M o n u m e n t s of the Princely era were restored, a n d n e w architectural ensembles were erected. In C h e r n i h i v the Yeletskyi Monastery was re­ stored a n d the C h u r c h of SS Peter a n d P a u l was added to it, and the T r i n i t y - S t Elijah Monastery acquired the Cathedral of the Trinity (1679-95), the C h u r c h of the Presentation at the Temple, a n d the belfry. The most prominent secular buildings that appeared i n C h e r n i h i v were the regimental chancellery a n d the college (17002). In N i z h e n the following churches were built: St Nicholas's Cathedral (1668), St Michael's C h u r c h (171431), the Cathedral of the A n n u n c i a t i o n (1716), the C h u r c h of the H o l y Protectress (1757), and the Cathedral of the Presentation at the Temple (1772). N e w churches and secular buildings, such as the D o r m i t i o n Cathedral (1796), the C h u r c h of SS Peter and P a u l , the student residence, and the t r i u m p h a l arch, were built, and the Cathedral of the Transfiguration (1796) was rebuilt i n Novhorod-Siverskyi. The complex of the Hustynia Monas­ tery, particularly its Cathedral of the Trinity (1674), was an important architectural achievement. The two-story building of the regimental chancellery (1760) and the Cathedral of the N a t i v i t y of the M o t h e r of G o d (1752-63), w h i c h were built by A . K v a s o v a n d I. H r y h o r o v y c h Barsky, as w e l l as the many-storied belfry, have been preserved i n Kozelets. The palace of K . R o z u m o v s k y was built i n Baturyn b y A . R i n a l d i a n d C . C a m e r o n . After the abolition of the Hetmαn state and the destruc­ tion of the Z a p o r o z h i a n Sich, u n t i l the beginning of the 19th century the traditions of Cossack statehood and aspirations to autonomy were strongest i n the C h e r n i h i v region. The U k r a i n i a n Cossack officers and the region's prominent families d i d not collaborate w i t h the Russian authorities a n d d i d not assimilate into the Russian cul­ ture. O n the contrary, they propagated I. Mazepa's and P. Polubotok's ideal of independence, informed foreign­ ers about Ukraine's past, a n d published materials o n history, literature, ethnography, and the U k r a i n i a n church. The U k r a i n i a n patriots w h o served as gubernial marshals of C h e r n i h i v vicegerency - I. H o r l e n k o (17825), A . Poletyka (1785-8), and V . Tarnovsky (1790-4) encouraged this k i n d of w o r k . A separate Cossack estate w i t h its o w n rights and privileges survived i n the Chernihiv region u n t i l 1917. The most active groups i n the national movement were the "Novhorod-Siverskyi patri­ otic circle and the C h e r n i h i v circle, w h i c h consisted of prominent cultural a n d political figures tied to the Cher­ nihiv region by birth or career. M a n y U k r a i n i a n auton­ omists were active at the end of the 18th century i n the Chernihiv region: H . D o l y n s k y , P . Koropchevsky, A . H u d o v y c h , I. K h a l a n s k y , F. T u m a n s k y , A . Rachynsky, M . M y k l a s h e v s k y , P. K o r o p c h e v s k y , O . L o b y s e v y c h , A . K h u d o r b a , P. S y m o n o v s k y , Bishop V . Shymatsky, A r c h i ­ mandrite M . Znachko-Yavorsky, Rev A . Pryhara, O . Shafonsky, a n d others.

CHERNIHIV

CHERNIHIV REGION Administrative Division from the Hetmαn State to the Present 1. Borders of the Hetmαn State according to the Treaty of Zboriv 2. Borders of the Hetmαn State according to the Treaty of Bila Tserkva 3. Borders of the regiments 4. Capitals of the regiments 5. Campaign of Charles xn (1708) 6. Borders of Chernihiv gubernia 7. Borders of the Ukrainian National Republic 8. Borders of the Ukrainian SSR 9. Borders of present oblasts 10. Railway lines D u r i n g Napoleon's invasion of Russia i n 1812 the Ukrainian upper class d i d not side w i t h h i m because of his pro-Polish orientation. Six Cossack cavalry regiments and eight infantry regiments of 25,000 soldiers were mobilized i n C h e r n i h i v gubernia a n d were supported by the local population. In the 1820s some professors of the N i z h e n L y c e u m maintained ties w i t h the T i t t l e Russian Secret Society. Some Ukrainians from the C h e r n i h i v region were also involved i n the * Decembrist movement. In the first half of the 19th century there was an upsurge i n education and cultural life i n the region. A t the beginning of the 19th century there were gymnasiums i n C h e r n i h i v and Novhorod-Siverskyi (est 1808). The latter was attended by such outstanding cultural figures as M . M a k s y m o ­ vy ch, K . U s h y n s k y , P. K u l i s h , a n d M . Kybalchych. In 1820 a g y m n a s i u m was also opened i n N i z h e n , w h i c h i n 1832 became a l y c e u m and i n 1875 the Historical-Philo­ logical Institute. A m o n g its prominent graduates were such figures as N . G o g o l , Y e . H r e b i n k a , V . Tarnovsky, and O . Lazare vsky. Important contributions to Ukrainian culture and scholarship were made by individuals born i n

REGION

43*

the C h e r n i h i v region: for example, the composer M . Berezovsky, the sculptor I. Martos, and the Slavist O . Bodiansky. In the first half of the 19th century the economy of the C h e r n i h i v region underwent some changes. The land area devoted to industrial crops, particularly tobacco, hemp, and sugar beets, was increased. U p to 800,000 poods of tobacco and 10 million poods of sugar beets were harvested annually d u r i n g the 1840s. In 1847 there were 25 sugar refineries i n C h e r n i h i v gubernia, and i n 1866 there were as m a n y as 66 refineries, producing 316,000 poods of sugar annually. The sugar industry employed 11,000 workers. A liquor industry also developed: i n i860 there were 336 distilling factories i n the gubernia, includ­ ing 91 w h i s k e y distilleries and 52 breweries. A n o t h e r important branch of industry i n the C h e r n i h i v region was woolen-cloth manufacturing. The first woolens factory was built i n 1810 i n Masheve near Novhorod-Siverskyi. By 1851 there were 13 such factories. In i860 these factories employed 4,233 workers and produced over one million arshins of w o o l e n cloth. K l y n t s i was the indus­ try's center, a n d it is still noted for its w o o l e n cloth. In i860 there were 62 leather-manufacturing enterprises i n the region, of w h i c h the m a i n ones were located i n Sedniv, Semenivka, Dobrianka, and Starodub. There were also four glassworks, i n Oleshnia, Stara H u t a , and Bleshnia. After the abolition of serfdom and the agrarian reforms i n 1861, of the C h e r n i h i v region's 3,805,000 desiatins of agricultural land, 1,889,000 desiatins belonged to the peasants, 1,625,000 desiatins were i n private hands (of nobles and members of other estates), and 290,000 desia­ tins were held by the state and other owners (as of 1877). The reforms stimulated the expansion of industrial labor: 2,000 enterprises i n the region employed about 30,000 workers. The principal branches of industry were sugar refining, w i t h 12 plants (the largest being i n Koriukivka), employing 30 percent of the gubernia's workers; liquor distilling (68 distilleries w i t h 940 workers); textile manu­ facturing (for w h i c h C h e r n i h i v was the most important region i n Ukraine); match manufacturing, concentrated i n N o v o z y b k o v ; lumbering (12 sawmills); and hemp spin­ n i n g (some small mills). Beginning at the end of the 1860s, zemstvos were introduced to manage the economic, social, and educa­ tional affairs of the gubernia. In 1869 a zemstvo collection, Chernigovskaia zemskaia nedelia, began to be published i n Chernihiv, and i n 1913 it was turned into a newspaper. A m o n g the region's zemstvo activists there were many individuals w i t h liberal, Ukrainophile attitudes: O . Rusov, I. Shrah, F. Umanets, P. Doroshenko, M . Savytsky, O . Tyshchynsky, I. Petrunkevych, and others. The zemstvos of the C h e r n i h i v region played an important cultural and political role i n supporting the w o r k of such prominent figures as M . K o t s i u b y n s k y and B. Hrinchenko. Education i m p r o v e d i n the second half of the 19th century, and 50,700 children (of a total of 210, 000) were enrolled i n the gubernia's 604 schools by 1897. A t the end of the 1850s Sunday schools were founded at existing public schools and gymnasiums: i n H l u k h i v , Chernihiv, N i z h e n , and Novhorod-Siverskyi. D a y schools for girls were opened at county schools i n Starodub, H o r o d n i a , and Surazh. The C h e r n i h i v H r o m a d a (1861-3), founded by O . T y s h y n s k y , L . H l i b o v , S. N i s , O . M a r k o v y c h , D .

CHERNIHIV

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Lavrinenko, P. Borsuk, and others, published * Chernigov­ skii listok, the only U k r a i n i a n periodical i n the entire Dnieper region. The journal was edited by H l i b o v and had such contributors as O . M a r k o v y c h , O . Lazarevsky, and O . K o n y s k y . In the second half of the 19th century some natives of the C h e r n i h i v region - the brothers I. and V . D e b a h o r i i - M o k r i i e v y c h , D . L y z o h u b , and M . K y b a l chych - belonged to the Russian populists. The following Ukrainian writers l i v e d and w o r k e d i n the C h e r n i h i v region: L . H l i b o v , M a r k o V o v c h o k , P. M y r n y , B. H r i n chenko (who i n 1894-1902, w h i l e living i n the region, published 50 U k r a i n i a n books w i t h a printing of 50,000), M . Kotsiubynsky, and V . Samiilenko. The U k r a i n i a n historians O . M a r k o v y c h , O . K h a n e n k o , A . V e r z y l o v , and O . Lazarevsky lived i n the C h e r n i h i v region and wrote m a n y studies of the region, using its archival collections. Such w e l l - k n o w n painters as I. R e p i n , M . Samokysha, V . and K . M a k o v s k y , I. Rashevsky, M . V r u b e l , and L . Z h e m c h u z h n i k o v w o r k e d i n the C h e r n i h i v region. The famous actress and civic leader M . Zankovetska per­ formed there. The noted bandura players O . Veresai, T. Parkhomenko, and A . Shut were born i n the region. In 1893-1917 the U k r a i n i a n H r o m a d a , consisting of I. Shrah, A . V e r z y l o v , O . Tyshchynsky, V . A n d r i i e v s k y , V . Samiilenko, B. H r i n c h e n k o , M . Kotsiubynsky, O . and S. Rusov, and others, was active i n C h e r n i h i v . In 1905 the Prosvita society was established there. The C h e r n i h i v Committee of the Revolutionary U k r a i n i a n party (RUP), i n w h i c h M . Porsh and M . Rusov were active and w h i c h had peasants and workers organizations i n Chernihiv, Oster, Kozelets, Shostka, Chemer, and other towns, was established i n 1902. D u r i n g the revolutionary period of 1905-6 peasant strikes and unrest broke out i n the C h e r n i h i v region. The C h e r n i h i v Committee of RUP issued proclamations to the workers and peasants, and the C h e r n i h i v U k r a i n i a n H r o m a d a sent greetings to the Finnish diet, supporting the struggle for liberty. The Spilka i n 1906 had local organizations i n N i z h e n , Ichnia, K o n o t i p , and Bakhmach. I. Shrah was elected deputy of C h e r n i h i v gubernia to the First State D u m a . A t the beginning of the 20th century economic and social conditions i n the C h e r n i h i v region were difficult. The peasants,. w h o accounted for 90 percent of the population, o w n e d only 42 percent of the land. The other 58 percent of the land was i n the hands of landowners w i t h large or medium-sized holdings. In 1905 there were 267,300 small farms (about 73 percent of the farms) i n the gubernia, and m a n y peasants hired themselves out as farm laborers or migrated to distant regions i n search of land. After the 1905-6 revolution the number of small factories increased, reaching 334 i n 1913, w i t h a w o r k force of 28,000. A b o u t 80,000 tradesmen plied their trade i n the cities and villages. Small landholders or landless peasants emigrated to Siberia. By the eve of the First W o r l d W a r the state of education had improved some­ what: 142,300 children, i n c l u d i n g 38,400 girls, attended the 1,746 schools i n the gubernia i n 1912. Yet 40 percent of the children received no schooling. W i t h the outbreak of the 1917 revolution the C h e r n i h i v region became i n v o l v e d i n Ukraine's political and na­ tional life. A t the U k r a i n i a n National Congress I. Shrah, H . Odynets, and M . Rubisov were elected deputies of C h e r n i h i v gubernia to the Central Rada. D u r i n g the Bolshevik invasion of Ukraine the C h e r n i h i v region 7

7

became one of the first battlegrounds: o n 29 January 1918 a decisive battle between U k a i n i a n and Soviet troops took place at K r u t y o n the Bakhmach-Kiev railway line. Some Bolshevik activists, such as Y u . Kotsiubynsky, B. A n t o n o v - O v s i i e n k o , M . Podvoisky, and V . Prymakov, were natives of the C h e r n i h i v region. U n d e r the Soviet occupation the distinctive features of the different re­ gions of Ukraine began to disappear. Yet, i n the 1920s a commission for Left-Bank Ukraine, chaired by O . Hermaize, was formed w i t h i n the historical section of the Ukrainian A c a d e m y of Sciences to study the C h e r n i h i v and other regions. The commission published a number of works dealing w i t h northern Left-Bank Ukraine. The A l l - U k r a i n i a n A c a d e m y of Sciences maintained the Cher­ nihiv Historical A r c h i v e under the direction of P. Fedorenko. A m o n g the prominent figures of this period the following were from the C h e r n i h i v region: the writers P. Tychyna, S. Vasylchenko, V . Ellan-Blakytny, and I. Kocherha; the film director O . D o v z h e n k o ; the com­ poser and conductor H . Verovka; the musician L . Revutsky; the economist and statistician M . Ptukha; and the historian O. Ohloblyn. D u r i n g the Second W o r l d W a r the C h e r n i h i v region suffered severe losses. Soviet partisan detachments under the leadership of O . Fedorov and M . Popudrenko were organized i n the region. In October 1943 the Germans retreated from the region, w h i c h reverted to Soviet control. (For the history of the region after 1944 see "Chernihiv oblast.) C h u r c h . The C h e r n i h i v eparchy w i t h C h e r n i h i v as its see was established at the end of the 10th century after the Christianization of Rus'. D u r i n g the Lithuanian-Polish period the eparchy declined and for a time was part of other eparchies, such as the Smolensk eparchy. The eparchy was renewed i n 1622 under the leadership of Bishop I. K o p y n s k y and then of Bishop Z . P r o k o p o v y c h , and flourished under the care of Bishop L . Baranovych, w h o i n 1667 was appointed archbishop of C h e r n i h i v and Novhorod-Siverskyi. In 1688 the C h e r n i h i v eparchy was removed from the control of the K i e v metropolitanate and subordinated directly to the M o s c o w patriarch. St Fedosii U h l y t s k y (1692-6) and I. M a k s y m o v y c h (1697-1712) were noted C h e r n i h i v hierarchs. C h e r n i h i v College was even­ tually turned into a theological seminary. In 1861 A r c h ­ bishop F. G u m i l e v s k y began to publish the semimonthly Chernigovskie eparkhiaVnye vedomosti. D u r i n g the existence of the U k r a i n i a n Autocephalous Orthodox church Y u . M i k h n o v s k y (1921-2), I. Pavlovsky (1922-6), and O . Chervinsky (1927-30) served as bishops of Chernihiv. After 1945 the C h e r n i h i v eparchy of the Russian Ortho­ dox church was revived. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Shafonskii, A . Chernigovskogo namestnichestva topograficheskoe opisanie 1786 g. (Chernihiv 1851) Domontovich, M . Statisticheskoe opisanie Chernigovskoi gubernii (St Petersburg 1865) Filaret [Gumilevskii]. Istoriko-statisticheskoe opisanie Chernigov­ skoi eparkhii, 7 vols (Chernihiv 1867-73) Lazarevskii, A . 'Ocherki stareishikh dvorianskikh rodov Chernigovskoi gubernii/ Zapiski Chernigovskogo gubernskogo statisticheskogo komiteta, 2 (Chernihiv 1868) Khanenko, O. Istoricheskoe opisanie nekotorykh mestnostei Chernigovskoi gubernii (Chernihiv 1887) Lazarevskii, A . Opisanie staroi Malorossii, 3 vols (Kiev 18881902)

CHERNIVTSI Zotov, R. O Chernigovskikh kniaz'iakh po Liubetskomu sinodiku i o Chernigovskom kniazhestve v Tatarskoe vremia (St Petersburg 1892) Trudy Chernigovskoi gubernskoi arkhivnoi komissii, 12 vols (Chernihiv 1897-1918) Rusov, A . Opisanie Chernigovskoi gubernii, 2 vols (Chernihiv 1898-9) Modzalevs'kyi, V . Huty na Chernihivshchyni (Kiev 1926) Shcherbakov, V. Zhovtneva revoliutsiia i roky hromadians'koi borot'by na Chernihivshchyni (Chernihiv 1927) Andriiashev, O. 'Narys istoriï kolonizatsiï Sivers'ko'í zemli do pochatku xvi v.' ZIFV, 20 (1928) Hrushevs'kyi, M . (ed). Chernihiv i Pivnichne Livoberezhzhia. Ohliady, rozvidky, materiialy (Kiev 1928) Hrinchenkova, M . ; Verzilov, A . 'Chernihivs'ka Ukrains'ka Hromada/ ZIFV, 25 (1929) Fedorenko, P. (ed). Opys Novhorod-Sivers'koho namisnytstva (1779-1781) (Kiev 1931) Shcherbakov, V. Narysy z istoriï sotsiial-demokratiï na Chernihivshchyni (1902-1917 rr.) (Kharkiv 1931) Tkachenko, M . 'Narysy z istoriï selian na Livoberezhnii Ukra'ini v XVII-XVIII w . , '

ZIFV, 26 (1931)

Tyshchenko, M . 'Narysy z istoriï zovnishn'oï torhivli Starodubshchyny v xvm v. / ZIFV, 26 (1931) Vynohrads'kyi, Iu. 'Do istoriï kolonizatsiï seredn'oï Chernihivshchyny/ Istorychno-heohrafichnyi zbirnyk, 3 (1929); 4 (1931) Chernihivs'ka oblast': Korotkyi statystychno-ekonomichnyi dovidnyk (Chernihiv 1932) Lysenko, M . Povstannia Chernihivs'koho polku (Kiev 1956) Telychko, R. Sil's'ke hospodarstvo Chernihivshchyny za 40 rokiv (Chernihiv 1957) Diadychenko, V. Narysy suspiVno-politychnoho ustroiu Livoberezhnoï Ukrainy kintsia xvn-pochatku xvm st (Kiev 1959) Ohloblyn, O. Liudy Staroï Ukrainy (Munich 1959) Stetsiuk, K. Narodni rukhy na Livoberezhnii i Slobids'kii Ukra'ini v 50-70-kh rr. xvii st. (Kiev i960) Reva, I. Selians'kyi rukh na Livoberezhnii Ukra'ini 1905-1907 rr. (Kiev 1964) Tsapenko, M . Arkhitektura Levoberezhnoi Ukrainy XVII-XVIII vekov (Moscow 1967) Simentov, lu.; Iatsura, M . Kraieznavchi materiialy z istoriï Chernihivshchyny (Kiev 1968) Derykolenko, O. (ed). Istoriia mist i sil Ukraïns'koï RSR. Chernihivs'ka oblast' (Kiev 1972) A. Zhukovsky Chernihiv voivodeship. Adrmnistrative-territorial unit in the Polish-Lithuanian C o m m o n w e a l t h , created i n 1635. Its center was the city of *Chernihiv. The voivodeship was composed of C h e r n i h i v , N o v h o r o d , and Siverskyi counties. A s a result of the Cossack-Polish War of 1648-54, Chernihiv voivodeship was abolished, and its territories became part of C h e r n i h i v and N i z h e n regiments. Chernihiv W o o l e n Fabrics Manufacturing C o m plex ( C h e r n i h i v s k y i k a m v o l n o - s u k o n n y i kombinat). One of the largest enterprises of the ""textile industry in Ukraine. The complex began production i n 1963. Its basic operations are w o o l carding and combing, w o o l spinning, weaving, and finishing. Its basic products are worsted yarn and thread, and w o v e n w o o l e n fabrics. C h e r n i h i v k a [Cernihivka]. vi-17. T o w n smt (1980 pop 8,250), raion center i n Z a p o r i z h i a oblast, situated o n the banks of the T o k m a k River. The major industry is food processing. Chernivtsi [Cernivci] (German: C z e r n o w i t z ; Rumanian: Cernáuti). v-6. The historical capital and the political,

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Chernivtsi, an engraving from 1845 cultural, and religious center of *Bukovyna and eventually of ^Chernivtsi oblast. The city (1983 pop 232,000) lies o n the border of Subcarpathia a n d o n the boundary separating the U k r a i n i a n and R u m a n i a n ethnic territories. Situated o n both banks of the Prut River, it covers the valley and s u r r o u n d i n g hills and has an elevation ranging from 250 m at its highest point to 160 m i n the Prut Valley. Chernivtsi is a h i g h w a y and railway junction and has an airport. History until 1774. H u m a n settlements at the site of Chernivtsi date back to the Paleolithic period. Traces of the Trypilian culture and Bronze A g e and Iron A g e settlements have been discovered i n the suburbs of the city. Archeological finds i n the environs of Chernivtsi give evidence of a Slavic population i n the 2 n d - 5 t h century AD. In the period of Kievan Rus' the area was inhabited by White Croatians and Tivertsians ( 9 t h - n t h century). The defensive fortifications of C h e r n i v t s i were erected on the left bank of the Prut i n the second half of the 12th century by the H a l y c h prince Yaroslav O s m o m y s l . The fortress endured until the m i d d l e of the 13th century, w h e n it was destroyed by the Tatars. The n e w t o w n was built on the high right bank of the Prut. The ruins of the old fortress are still preserved. In the middle of the 14th century Chernivtsi belonged to M o l d a v i a and stood o n its border w i t h Poland. The trade route from L v i v to Suceava, w h i c h linked Western Europe w i t h the countries of the south and the east, ran through C h e r n i v t s i . The city collected an excise tax (Chernovskoe my to), and the earliest reference to Chernivtsi appears i n a document of Prince Alexander of M o l d a v i a of 1408 i n connection w i t h an excise treaty that he concluded w i t h the merchants of L v i v . In 1488 Chernivtsi became the center of Chernivtsi county. D u r i n g the M o l d a v i a n period the t o w n enjoyed self-government based on M a g d e b u r g law and as a 'free city' was directly subordinate to the prince. In the 15th-16th century Chernivtsi was a trade center w i t h w i d e l y k n o w n international fairs o n the left bank of the Prut. F r o m the m i d - i 6 t h century, however, the t o w n began to decline economically because of continuous wars and sieges. The t o w n was sacked d u r i n g the M o l d a v i a n - P o l i s h wars i n 1497, 1509, and 1688; the T u r k i s h wars i n 1476 and 1714; and the Tatar wars i n 1626, 1646, 1650, and 1672. In 1538 Chernivtsi came under T u r k i s h control. The Cossacks, under T. K h m e l n y t s k y , came to C h e r n i v t s i i n 1650 and 1653. 1- Mazepa's troops spent the winter of 1709-10 there after the defeat at the Battle of Poltava. That winter

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electric streetcar system i n 1897, d the introduction of a water-supply and a sewage disposal system i n 1895-1912. Some important buildings that appeared i n this period were the Orthodox cathedral, the residence of the Bukovy­ nian metropolitan, the Armenian church, the Jesuit church, and the Jewish synagogue. A t the beginning of the 20th century the city theater a n d the railway station were built. The center of the city acquired the appearance of a European city and was often referred to as 'Little V i e n n a . ' In 1895 over 2,500 workers were e m p l o y e d i n the factories of Chernivtsi. In 1910 there were 2,140 tradesmen and 1,400 merchants i n the t o w n . C h e r n i v t s i was the seat of the Orthodox bishop and, from 1873, the metropolitan. U n t i l 1781 there was only one elementary school (a Rumanian one) i n C h e r n i v t s i . The A u s t r i a n authorities subsequently opened G e r m a n schools, a n d by 1869 there were six schools w i t h 26 teachers. The first classical gymnasium was set u p i n 1808, a n d the first non-classical secondary school (realgymnasium) i n 1862. A teachers' seminary was established i n 1870 and expanded i n 1872 by the addition of a w o m e n ' s division. In the second half of the 19th century trade schools for agronomy, weaving, and handicrafts were organized. A higher theological school to educate candidates for the priesthood had been i n existence since 1827. In 1875 ^Chernivtsi University was founded. It h a d three faculties: philosophy, law, and Orthodox theology. The language of instruction was Ger­ man, but chairs of U k r a i n i a n language and literature and of practical theology a n d homiletics i n U k r a i n i a n were established from the very outset. The university attracted students from both Bukovyna and Galicia. In the secondary schools the language of instruction was G e r m a n , but i n 1851 Ukrainian was introduced as a subject; subsequently it was taught i n the teachers' seminary. In 1896 the *Chernivtsi U k r a i n i a n G y m n a s i u m was established. By the end of the A u s t r i a n period there were four elementary schools i n C h e r n i v t s i u s i n g U k r a i n i a n as the language of instruction. The w o r k of such writers as Y u . F e d k o v y c h , S. Vorobkevych, and O . Kobylianska was closely connected with Chernivtsi. Ukrainian organizations began to appear i n Chernivtsi i n the second half of the 19th century: the association *Ruska Besida was founded i n 1869, the *Ruska Rada society i n 1870, a n d the student society *Soiuz i n 1875. A t first a Russophile tendency held sway in these organizations, but i n 1884 the populists (narodovtsi; see ^Populism, Galician) - Y e . Pihuliak, O m e l i a n Popo­ vych, S. Smal-Stotsky, and others - gained the upper hand. F r o m then o n the U k r a i n i a n national movement de­ veloped rapidly. In 1884 the society U k r a i n s k y i N a r o d n y i D i m was founded, and its b u i l d i n g became the center of Ukrainian c o m m u n i t y a n d cultural life. In 1887 the educa­ tional society *Ukrainska Shkola was founded, followed by two economic organizations - the savings and loan asso­ ciation *Ruska Kasa i n 1896 and the central u n i o n of agri­ cultural credit associations *Selianska Kasa i n 1903 - the cultural and educational society M i s h c h a n s k a Chytalnia in 1880, the W o m e n ' s H r o m a d a i n 1906, the sports central Sich U n i o n i n 1904, the F e d k o v y c h Bursa (students' resi­ dence) i n 1896 (with its o w n b u i l d i n g i n 1906), the musical societies B u k o v y n s k y i Boian i n 1895 a n d M i s h c h a n s k y i K h o r i n 1901, and the B u k o v y n i a n People's Theater i n 1897. U n t i l 1914 C h e r n i v t s i was one of the more important a

Chernivtsi Town Hall, built in 1845 Russian forces, i n pursuit of M a z e p a and the Swedes, entered the t o w n for the first time, and Chernivtsi was pillaged by both Swedes a n d Russians. Russian troops entered C h e r n i v t s i again i n 1739 d u r i n g the RussoTurkish W a r , taking w i t h them o n their retreat a large number of the town's citizens. A s the result of frequent wars and invasions, by the 18th century Chernivtsi had shrunk to a small settlement: i n 1762 there were scarcely 200 w o o d e n buildings. Its population of 1,200 consisted of boyars, merchants, moneylenders, and the poor, w h o revolted against social injustice and joined the ranks of the *opryshoks i n the 17th-18th century. 1774-1918. D u r i n g the Russo-Turkish W a r of 1768-74 Chernivtsi was occupied by Russian troops and then be­ came part of A u s t r i a (1774-1918). F r o m the beginning of Austrian rule C h e r n i v t s i became the capital of B u k o v y n a - as the seat of the military administration at first (1774-86) a n d of the civil government afterwards. In 1786-1849 the t o w n was the center of the B u k o v y n i a n district, a part of the c r o w n l a n d of Galicia, and from 1849 to 1918 it was the capital of the c r o w n land of B u k o v y n a , receiving full m u n i c i p a l self-government o n 8 M a r c h 1864. The town's transfer from the Turkish-Balkan to the Western European sphere of influence and its renewed administrative importance led to an increase i n its popula­ tion. By 1779 C h e r n i v t s i h a d 3,200 inhabitants, and it continued to g r o w as a result of the influx of Germans (civil servants, teachers, a n d merchants), Rumanians, Ukrainians, Poles, a n d others. In 1783 craft guilds were established i n the t o w n , and by the end of the 18th century industry began to develop. A t the beginning of the 19th century various public buildings were construc­ ted: the g y m n a s i u m (1813-17), a number of churches, private four-to-five story buildings, as w e l l as a public park i n 1830. In 1832 a m u n i c i p a l council, headed by a burgomaster, was set u p . The revolutionary events of 1848 led to the abolition of serfdom, the establishment of B u k o v y n a as a c r o w n land, and increasing political competition between the U k r a i ­ nian and R u m a n i a n nationalities i n B u k o v y n a . In the middle of the 19th century C h e r n i v t s i experienced an upsurge i n economic development: a brewery, steam mill, distillery, a n d tile factory were built. In 1850 a chamber of commerce was established, followed by a stock exchange i n 1877. Development was stimulated by the introduction of telegraph communications i n 1855, the construction of the L v i v - C h e r n i v t s i railroad i n 1866, the b u i l d i n g of an electric p o w e r station i n 1895, the establishment of an

n

CHERNIVTSI

The People's Theater in Chernivtsi, built in 1905 Ukrainian p u b l i s h i n g centers. Here were published the monthly Bukovynskaia zoria (1870-1); the daily * Bukovyna (1885-1918); the m o n t h l y Biblioteka alia molodezhi, selian i mishchan (1885-93); the children's book series *Kreitsarova biblioteka (1902-8); Pravoslavnyi kalendar (18741918); Hash (1902-3); the political journals Narodnyi holos (1909-15, 1921, 1923), Narodna sprava (1907-10), Hromadianyn (1909-11), and Borba (1908-14); and literary, stu­ dent, and teachers' publications. Chernivtsi was also an important political, cultural, educational, and p u b l i s h i n g center for the Rumanians, Jews, Germans, a n d Poles. The G e r m a n writer K . - E . Franzos popularized T. Shevchenko's poetry, and the historian-ethnographer R. K a i n d l studied the history of Bukovyna, particularly that of the Hutsuls. D u r i n g the First W o r l d W a r Chernivtsi was thrice occupied by the Russians, i n the periods 30 A u g u s t - 2 1 October 1914, 26 N o v e m b e r 1914-18 February 1915, and 18 June 1916-2 A u g u s t 1917. It was the policy of the occupational regime to persecute nationally conscious Ukrainians, and the situation i m p r o v e d somewhat only after the Russian Revolution of M a r c h 1917 w h e n O . *Lototsky became governor of B u k o v y n a . After the U k r a i ­ nian Regional Committee of B u k o v y n a was formed on 25 October 1918, a large public assembly was convened i n Chernivtsi o n 3 N o v e m b e r 1918, w h i c h approved Bukovyna's u n i o n w i t h the U k r a i n i a n state. O n 6 November 1918 the Ukrainians took control of Chernivtsi and appointed Y . Bezpalko mayor. Five days later, however, Rumanian troops occupied the city, and o n 28 November the R u m a n i a n General Congress of B u k o v y n a proclaimed Bukovyna's u n i o n w i t h Rumania. 1918-44. D u r i n g the R u m a n i a n period, Chernivtsi remained the administrative center of B u k o v y n a , and i n spite of the persecution of Ukrainians by R u m a n i a n authorities, continued to be the center of U k r a i n i a n life. N e w organizations were founded alongside earlier ones: the B u k o v y n s k y i K o b z a r musical society, the U k r a i n i a n Male Choir, the U k r a i n i a n Theater, and the sport clubs D o v b u s h and M a z e p a . The headquarters of the ""Ukrai­ nian National party were located i n Chernivtsi. U k r a i n i a n publications were severely reduced: the weeklies Borofba, Ridnyi krai, Rada, a n d Samostiinisf'; the daily Chas; and the journals Promiri a n d Samostiina dumka d i d appear, but very few books were published. A new b u i l d i n g of Chernivtsi University and the H o u s e of Culture were erected i n this period.

435

In the 1930s Chernivtsi became an important economic center. In 1936, 155 large and 61 small firms were located i n the city, among them 5 mills, 8 large bakeries, 6 distil­ leries, 7 meat-packing plants, 16 food-processing plants, 21 chemical plants, 18 metalworking plants, 51 textile fac­ tories, 6 furniture factories, a n d 7 printing shops. F r o m June 1940 to July 1941 Chernivtsi was occupied by the USSR and then by R u m a n i a . D u r i n g the Second W o r l d War drastic changes occurred i n the national composi­ tion of the city's population: i n 1940 the Germans were repatriated to G e r m a n y , and some of the Rumanians returned to Rumania. The city was considerably damaged. Ukrainian civic a n d cultural life was completely dis­ rupted, a n d m a n y U k r a i n i a n leaders were arrested. After 1944. After Soviet troops occupied Chernivtsi for the second time, o n 29 M a r c h 1944, the political order of 1940-1 was restored. Chernivtsi became the oblast capital. F r o m 1956 the city began to be developed along the m a i n arteries, and industrial sections were established i n the north, central, a n d southern districts. In 1956 a naturalgas system was installed. The outlying t o w n of Sadhora was incorporated into the city i n 1965, w h i c h extended it to the left bank of the Prut. In 1971-3 a new railway bridge was constructed over the Prut River. Chernivtsi possesses a labor force of about 70,000 workers and encompasses 60 percent of the oblast's industry. The major branches of industry are light i n ­ dustry, consisting of the textile complex V o s k h o d , the clothing complex Trembita, a hosiery complex, three knitting factories, two haberdashery factories, a shoe factory, and a glove factory; the food-processing industry, consisting of a sugar a n d alcohol plant, an o i l and fats processing complex, a meat-packing plant, and a brewery; and the machine-building and metalworking industry, consisting of the light-machine plants L e h m a s h , Industriia, and E m a l p o s u d , an instruments plant, a metalwork­ ing plant, and a petroleum-machinery plant. The chemical industry encompasses a rubber-footwear plant and a consumer-chemicals plant. The electronic industry boasts the complex Elektromash. There is also a w o o d w o r k i n g industry and a construction-materials industry. Street­ cars have been replaced by trolley buses i n the city's transportation system. In 1970 there were 50 general-education schools, w i t h 30,000 students, i n C h e r n i v t s i , i n c l u d i n g 12 secondary schools, 8 tekhnikums, 8 vocational schools, a music school, a teachers' college, a n d a medical school. The three insti­ tutions of higher learning - Chernivtsi University, w i t h 10,000 students; the Medical Institute, established i n 1944; and a branch of the K i e v Institute of Trade and Economy had an enrollment of 15,000. Branches of institutes of the A c a d e m y of Sciences of the U k r a i n i a n SSR are active i n Chernivtsi; these include a branch of the Institute of Semi­ conductors, a branch of the Institute for Social and Eco­ nomic Problems of Foreign Countries, and a branch of the Institute of H i s t o r y (specializing i n the history of north­ ern Bukovyna). The city is the home of the *Fedkovych M e m o r i a l M u s e u m , the Kobylianska M e m o r i a l M u s e u m , and a regional-history m u s e u m . Population. Since 1775 the population of Chernivtsi has g r o w n continuously (except between 1939 and 1941), as follows (in thousands): 1775-2.3; 1779-3.2; 1794-5.0; 1816-5.4; 1832-11.0; 1843-16.6; 1851-20.4; 1869-34.0; 1880-45.6; 1890-54.2; 1900-65.8; 1910-87.1; 1919-91.9;

436

CHERNIVTSI

1. Railways 2. Roads 3. Cemetery

nians inhabited the city. U n t i l 1918, however, the G e r m a n language, w h i c h was used by the Germans and Jews (together constituting 50 percent of the city's population) and partly also by other ethnic groups, was dominant. The city was the most easterly G e r m a n cultural center and had the largest proportion of Germans among the major cities of Ukraine. The accompanying table presents the changes i n the national composition of the city's p o p u ­ lation. The 1941 census testified to the great changes that had taken place at the beginning of the war: the resettlement of Germans a n d of some Ukrainians, Poles, and R u m a ­ nians i n G e r m a n y and R u m a n i a , a n d the influx of Jews from the surrounding areas. D u r i n g the Soviet period the Germans and Poles disappeared from the city, and the number of Rumanians and Jews declined, while the number of Ukrainians and Russians increased. Today Chernivtsi has the largest percentage of Jews a m o n g the cities of Ukraine. The religious composition of the city's population i n 1910 was as follows: Orthodox, 24 percent; Greek Catho­ lic, 11 percent; R o m a n Catholic, 27 percent; Protestant, 5 percent; and Jewish, 33 percent. Architectural monuments. The oldest church i n Cher­ nivtsi is St Nicholas's C h u r c h , built of w o o d i n 1607 and restored i n 1954. Prominent churches constructed i n the 18th century include the stone baroque-style St George's C h u r c h i n Horecha (1767); the w o o d e n C h u r c h of the Trinity, built near the village of M a h a l a i n 1774 and m o v e d to K l o k u c h k a i n 1874; ^ the w o o d e n C h u r c h of the Dormition i n Kalichanka (1783). The city hall, w i t h a 45-m tower, was constructed by A . M y k u l y c h i n 1843-7 d houses the city soviet today. Nineteenth-century church architecture is represented by the baroque-style Greek Catholic church (1825-30); the Orthodox cathedral, built i n the Byzantine style by R o l l (1844-64); and the C h u r c h of St Paraskeviia, built by A . Pavlovsky i n the R o m a n ­ esque style (completed by 1862). The residence of the B u k o v y n i a n metropolitan is the most impressive b u i l d i n g i n Chernivtsi. It was designed and constructed by J. H l a v k a i n 1864-82 and combines Romanesque and Byzan­ tine architectural forms w i t h motifs of U k r a i n i a n folk art. In 1956 the residential ensemble, w i t h its 12-ha park, became part of C h e r n i v t s i U n i v e r s i t y . The complex of Chernivtsi University was built i n 1874-5. The city theater was designed by F. Fellner and H . Helmer i n the Viennese baroque style w i t h elements of the modern i n 1904-5; today it houses the ^Chernivtsi Oblast U k r a i n i a n M u s i c and D r a m a Theater. The railway station was built i n the m o d e r n style i n 1898-1903. M o r e recent prominent constructions dating from the 1930s include the new

4. Streets 5. Parks and wooded areas 6. Residential areas

a n c

Numerals on map

1. 2. 3. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Railway station 4. Airport Symphony hall 5. Bus terminal Radio station 6. University St Nicholas's Church (Ukrainian Catholic, built in the 17th century) Central offices of Ukrainian organizations under the Rumanian occupation Cathedral State Regional Museum Chernivtsi Oblast Ukrainian Music and Drama Theater O. Kobylianska Memorial Museum

a

1930-112.4; 1941-78.8; 1959-152.3; 1970-187.0; and 1981224.0. The increase i n population was a result of an influx from the countryside a n d an even greater influx from Galicia, M o l d a v i a , A u s t r i a , and Germany. After 1775 the city acquired a cosmopolitan character w i t h an ethnically heterogeneous population. Besides Ukrainians a n d Rumanians, Jews, Germans, Poles, and, i n smaller numbers, Russians, Hungarians, and A r m e Population of Chernivtsi by nationality /o

/o

/o

/o

/o

/o

Year

Total population

Ukrainians

Rumanians

Germans

Jews

Poles

other

1857 1880 1900 1910 1919 1930 1941 1959

21,600 45,600 65,800 87,100 91,900 112,400 78,800 152,300

16.2 18.5 19.8 17.5 10.4 11.3 10.2 42.0

22.2 14.4 14.3 15.4 13.8 25.9 23.6 11.0

35.3 25.3 19.6 14.7 15.9 23.3 2.6

21.7 25.6 32.8 32.8 47.4 29.1 58.1 25.0

3.7 15.0 13.1 17.1 11.8 7.5 4.5

0.8 1.1 0.4 2.5 0.7 2.9 1.0 22.0 (Russians)

-

-

R

CHERNIVTSI

OBLAST

437

Chernivtsi University building of Chernivtsi University, the H o u s e of Culture, and the present b u i l d i n g of the M e d i c a l Institute. The city has m a n y parks a n d squares, such as the People's G a r d e n (1830), w h i c h is n o w K a l i n i n Park of Culture and Rest; the Botanical Garden; Schiller Park; Shevchenko Park; a w o o d e d park i n Horecha; B u k o v y n a Stadium; Central Square; A u s t r i a n Square (now Soviet Square); a n d Theater Square.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Wickenhauser, F. Bochotin, oder Geschichte der Stadt Czernowitz und ihrer Umgebung (Vienna 1874) Kaindl, R. Geschichte von Czernowitz von den àltesten Zeiten bis zur Gegenwart (Chernivtsi 1908) Gronich, J. Album von Czernowitz (Chernivtsi 1925) Novosivs'kyi, I. 'Misto Chernivtsi: Ukrai'ns'kyi natsional'nokul'turnyi i politychnyi tsentr Bukovyny,' in Bukovyna ïï mynule i suchasne (Paris-Philadelphia-Detroit 1956) Novyts'kyi, L.; Tymoshchuk, B. Chernivtsi: Dovidnyk-putivnyk (Chernivtsi 1959) Sternberg, H . 'Zur Geschichte der Juden in Czernowitz,' Geschichte der Juden in der Bukowina, 2 (Tel Aviv 1962) Komarnyts'kyi, A . Chernivtsi (Kiev 1965) Khokhol, lu.; Koval'ov, Iu. Chernivtsi. Putivnyk po mistu (Uzhhorod 1967) Demchenko, B.; Misevych, V. Chernivtsi (Uzhhorod 1975) Tymoshchuk, B. Tverdynia na Pruti: Z istoriï vynyknennia Chernivtsiv (Uzhhorod 1978) Valyhura, K. Chernivtsi. FotoaVbom (Kiev 1980) A. Zhukovsky Chernivtsi oblast. Chernivtsi oblast lies i n southwestern Ukraine, bordering o n R u m a n i a and M o l d a v i a . It was formed on 7 A u g u s t 1940 out of the northern parts of Bukovyna and Bessarabia. Its area is 8,100 sq k m , and its population is 904,000 (1982), of w h i c h 38 percent is urban. The oblast has 10 raions, 207 rural soviets, 10 cities, and 9 towns (smt). O n l y 70 percent of the oblast's population is Ukrainian. The oblast can be d i v i d e d into the following regions according to economic a n d geographic conditions: the plateau region between the Prut a n d the Dniester, w i t h its intensive agriculture a n d concentration of foodprocessing and building-materials plants; the city of Chernivtsi a n d the s u r r o u n d i n g region, w i t h welldeveloped machine-building, light, a n d chemical industries; the foothill regions (on the right bank of the Prut) w i t h light industry a n d an agriculture based on grain, potatoes, flax, a n d cattle raising; and the mountain region, where lumber a n d w o o d w o r k i n g industries and sheep raising are concentrated.

Physical geography. Chernivtsi oblast lies w i t h i n three geographical regions: the southwestern, mountainous part is i n the Carpathian M o u n t a i n s (more precisely, the *Maramure§-Bukovynian U p l a n d and the *Hutsul Beskyd, w i t h a m a x i m u m elevation of 1,565 m); the middle part, consisting of the foothills, is i n ^Subcarpathia (maximum elevation 537 m); a n d the northern part, an undulating plateau, is i n the *Pokutian-Bessarabian U p l a n d (reaching an elevation of 515 m). The climate is moderate continental except i n the Carpathians, where it is of the mountain type. The July temperature is i o ° - i 8 ° c i n the mountains, i 7 ° - i 9 ° c i n the foothills, and i 9 ° - 2 o ° c o n the plateau. The January temperatures are - 6 ° to - 1 0 , - 5 to - 6 ° , and - 4 to - 5 c respectively. The annual precipitation is 800-1,200 m m i n the mountains, 650-800 m m in the foothills, and 500-650 m m o n the plateau. In the mountains the g r o w i n g season is 136-162 days; i n the other parts it is 205-215 days. The m a i n rivers i n the oblast are the Dniester, Prut, a n d Seret. The soils i n the foothills are mostly peat-podzolized soils, a n d i n the mountains they are brown forest soils and peat-brown soils. The mountains and foothills lie i n the forest belt (beech is dominant on the lower slopes, fir o n the higher), a n d the plateau lies i n the forest-steppe belt. Forests cover 31.4 percent of the oblast's area. History. U n t i l the 13th century the present Chernivtsi oblast formed part of K i e v a n Rus'. T h e n it belonged to the Principality of Galicia-Volhynia, a n d from the second half of the 14th century to M o l d a v i a . In 1774 the western (Bukovynian) part of the territory was incorporated into Austria. The northeastern part belonged to Russia after 1812 and was called Bessarabia oblast (later gubernia). F r o m 1919 the whole territory was controlled by Rumania. Since A u g u s t 1940 it has belonged to the Ukrainian SSR. Population. The average population density is 109.7 people per sq k m (1978 figures). The density is highest (140-160) i n the northwestern part, w h i c h is one of the most densely populated regions of Ukraine. The lowest density occurs i n the mountains. The percentage of urban population has increased from 19.5 percent i n 1940 to 27.3 percent i n i960, 34.6 percent i n 1970, a n d 37.5 percent i n 1978. The population has g r o w n steadily: it was 820,000 i n 1940, 782,000 i n i960, 845,000 i n 1970, a n d 896,500 i n 1979. The birthrate is quite h i g h (7.3 percent per year). Out-migration slightly exceeds in-migration. The oblast has only one large city, Chernivtsi (pop 232,000 i n 1983). The other cities, such as K h o t y n a n d Storozhynets, have fewer than 15,000 inhabitants. Because the U k r a i n i a n - R u m a n i a n border does not 0

0

0

0

4 3

8

CHERNIVTSI

OBLAST

coincide exactly w i t h the ethnic boundary, a large proportion of the oblast's inhabitants are Rumanians. The ethnic composition of C h e r n i v t s i oblast i n 1979 (1959 figures i n parentheses) was U k r a i n i a n s , 70.1 (66.9) percent; R u m a nians, 19.6 (19.6) percent; Russians, 6.6 (6.6) percent; and Jews 3.0 (5.4) percent. Economy. C h e r n i v t s i oblast is an industrial-agrarian region. Industry, w h i c h is the leading branch of the economy, developed m a i n l y after the war, w h e n existing enterprises were reconstructed a n d n e w industries were established; these i n c l u d e d machine building, metalw o r k i n g , a n d equipment m a k i n g . The m a i n branches of agriculture are grain g r o w i n g , industrial crops, and cattle feeding. Industries of the oblast usually process imported metals and local agricultural products. The food industry is the main industry, accounting for 41 percent of industrial production i n 1970. Light industry comes second (28.5 percent), followed by machine b u i l d i n g and metalworki n g (11.7 percent), a n d lumber a n d w o o d w o r k i n g (9 percent). Energy to r u n industry comes from oil brought i n from L v i v a n d Ivano-Frankivske oblasts, coal from the Donbas a n d the L v i v - V o l h y n i a C o a l Basin, a n d natural gas p i p e d i n from K o s i v . The largest power station is the thermoelectric station i n Chernivtsi. The m a i n branches of the food industry are sugar refining (concentrated i n Chernivtsi, Kostryzhivka, N e lypivtsi, and Zarozhany), meat packing and dairy processing (Chernivtsi a n d Novosilka), oil and fat production (in Chernivtsi), distilling, a n d fruit processing. The largest enterprises i n light industry are the textile plant Svitanok a n d the hose, knitwear, a n d clothes factory Trembita, both i n Chernivtsi. The oldest branch of industry is the lumber, w o o d w o r k i n g , furniture, and veneer industry, w i t h plants i n Chernivtsi, V y z h n y t s i a , Berehomet, Storozhynets, K h o t y n , and Putyliv. Bukov y n i a n furniture is r e n o w n e d b e y o n d Ukraine. The m a i n enterprises of the machine-building a n d metalworking industries are located i n Chernivtsi: a machine-building plant for the o i l , chemical, a n d electric industries; L e h mash (a light-industry plant); a n d a factory producing farm implements. The chemical industry is n e w (a chemical a n d a rubber footwear plant i n Chernivtsi). Building materials such as brick, tiles, ceramic products, reinforced concrete, a n d w a l l materials are produced by plants i n Chernivtsi, K o s t r y z h i v k a , Kelmentsi, Storozhynets, and Sokyriany. The H u t s u l region is famous for its handicraft industries - w o o d carving, k i l i m weaving, and embroidery. Agriculture. In C h e r n i v t s i oblast the m a i n branches of agriculture are grain a n d sugar-beet g r o w i n g , dairying, and meat-livestock raising. In 1976 there were 151 collective farms (208 i n 1970) a n d 33 state farms (2 i n 1970) i n the oblast. F a r m l a n d constituted 59 percent of the oblast's area i n 1976. Seventy-three percent of this l a n d was cultivated, 7 percent was hayfields, 14 percent was pasture; 351,900 ha were seeded i n 1976. O f this, 147,300 ha (41.9 percent) were devoted to grains, 40,800 ha (11.6 percent) to industrial crops, 32,000 ha (9.1 percent) to potatoes a n d vegetables, a n d 126,300 ha (35.9 percent) to fodder. A m o n g the grains, corn (47,700 ha) a n d winter wheat (45,800 ha) are predominant. The m a i n industrial crops are sugar beet (35,800 ha), sunflower, and flax (particularly i n the foothills). Fruit orchards i n the K h o t y n a n d Sokyriany regions produce apples, p l u m s , pears, a n d

cherries. The area devoted to fruits, berries, a n d grapes is 33,100 ha. In 1970-5 the average grain yield was 28.3 centners per ha (the winter-wheat yield was 26.8), the sugar-beet yield was 333.8 (the highest i n Ukraine), and the potato yield was 136.8. The leading branch of animal husbandry, w h i c h accounts for half of the agricultural income, is beef- a n d dairy-cattle raising. H o g farming and sheep farming (particularly i n the mountain regions) are expanding. Poultry farming a n d apiculture are of less importance. In 1976 there were 448,700 head of cattle (of w h i c h 154,000 were cows), 266,200 hogs, a n d 169,800 sheep a n d goats. Transportation. The oblast has 466 k m of railway track. The following railway lines r u n through Chernivtsi: the C h e r n i v t s i - Z h m e r y n k a - K i e v line, the ChernivtsiChi§inau-Odessa line, and the Lviv-Chernivtsi-Bucharest line. C h e r n i v t s i is the m a i n railway junction. There are 3,000 k m of road, of w h i c h 2,800 k m are hard surface (1976 figures). The C h e r n i v t s i - L v i v , Chernivtsi-Kiev (through Ternopil), a n d Chernivtsi-Chi§inau-Odessa highways r u n through the oblast. A i r routes connect Chernivtsi w i t h K i e v a n d the oblast capitals of Ukraine. Tourism is an important industry i n the Carpathians, along the C h e r e m o s h River, a n d i n Chernivtsi. (See also ""Bessarabia a n d ""Bukovyna.) BIBLIOGRAPHY Vashchenko, P. Pryrodni resursy zakhidnykh raioniv

URSR.

Ekonomichno-heohrafichnyi narys (Lviv 1959) Komarnyts'kyi, A . Bukovyna (Uzhhorod 1966) Istoriia mist i sil Ukraïns'koï RSR. Chernivets'ka oblasf (Kiev 1969) Rozkvit ekonomiky i kuVtury Radians'koï Ukraïny (Lviv 1969) Ukraina. Raiony (Moscow 1969) A. Zhukovsky Chernivtsi Oblast U k r a i n i a n M u s i c and D r a m a Theater (Chernivetskyi oblasnyi u k r a i n s k y i m u z y c h n o dramatychnyi teatr i m . O . Kobylianskoi). Formerly the K h a r k i v State Theater of the Revolution, w h i c h h a d been founded i n 1931 a n d transferred to C h e r n i v t s i i n 1940. From 1941 to 1944 the theater operated i n northern Caucasia a n d i n the Tatar a n d M a r i ASSR. A part of the company's repertoire consists of plays based o n Bukovynian life, such as dramatizations of O . Kobylianska's novels (Zemlia [Earth], U nediliu rano zillia kopala [On Sunday M o r n i n g She Gathered Herbs], Vovchytsia [SheWolf]); L . Balkovenko a n d H . M i z i u m ' s historical drama Lukiian Kobylytsia; a n d Z . Prokopenko's Vesnianyi potik (Spring Stream). The director B. Borin, the stage designer O . Plaksii, a n d the actors V . Sokyrko, P. StoliarenkoMuratov, P. M y k h n e v y c h , H . Y a n u s h e v y c h , and K . Tsypa have been associated w i t h the theater. Chernivtsi U k r a i n i a n G y m n a s i u m (Ukrainska h i m naziia v Chernivtsiakh). A secondary school i n Chernivtsi, w h i c h was opened i n 1896 a n d w h i c h offered courses i n both U k r a i n i a n a n d G e r m a n . U n d e r the R u m a n i a n occupation it was steadily R u m a n i a n i z e d , beginning i n 1920. By 1925 the U k r a i n i a n language was taught only as a subject, a n d i n 1927 it was abolished from the curriculum altogether. In 1918 the school became the U k r a i n i a n State G y m n a s i u m , but i n 1922 the Rumanians changed the name to the F o u r t h G y m n a s i u m , a n d i n 1930 to Liceul Marele V o i e v o d M i h a i . A m o n g the gymnasium's principals were K . K o z a k , A . A r t y m o v y c h , a n d P. K l y m . Teachers at the g y m n a s i u m i n c l u d e d M . K o r d u b a , V .

CHERNOV

Kmitsykevych, Y u . K o b y l i a n s k y , A . K l y m , and M . Ravliuk. In 1913 the g y m n a s i u m had an enrollment of 560 and a faculty of 34. After 1940 the g y m n a s i u m was transformed into a ten-year school. Chernivtsi University (Chernivetskyi derzhavnyi u n i versytet). The university was founded i n 1875, succeeding the H i g h e r Theological School, w h i c h had existed since 1827. U n t i l 1918 it was k n o w n as Franz-Josefs Universitàt, w i t h G e r m a n as the language of instruction and separate departments of U k r a i n i a n and R u m a n i a n language and literature. F r o m 1919 to 1940 it was the Universitatea Régele C a r o l 1 d i n Cernàuji, w i t h instruction i n R u m a n i a n , and since 1940 it has borne its present name. D u r i n g the A u s t r i a n period C h e r n i v t s i University had three faculties: O r t h o d o x theology, law, and philosophy. The department of U k r a i n i a n language and literature was i n the faculty of p h i l o s o p h y a n d was chaired by K . H a n k e v y c h a n d O . K a l u z h n i a t s k y (1875-6), H . O n y s h kevych (1877-82), a n d S. Smal-Stotsky (1885-1918). The department of Slavic languages was headed by O . K a l u zhniatsky (1875-99) a n d Y e . K o z a k (1899-1923). The department of practical theology was under the direction of D . Yeremiichuk-Yeremiiv (1899-1919). In this period the university was attended not only by Bukovynians, but also by m a n y Galician students, among w h o m were I. Franko, L . M a r t o v y c h , and D . Lukiianovych. V . M i l k o v y c h defended a doctoral thesis on the history of Eastern Europe and eventually was appointed professor at the university (1895-1919). O . Kolessa received a doctorate i n the U k r a i n i a n language. The following rectors of the university were Ukrainians: K . Tomashchuk (1875-6), O . K a l u z h n i a t s k y (1889-90), and Y e . Kozak (1907-8). U k r a i n i a n students constituted, on the average, about 20-25 percent of students enrolled: 41 out of a total of 208 i n 1875, and 303 out of a total of 1,198 i n 1914. There were about as many Rumanians, w i t h the majority of students being Jewish or G e r m a n . In 1918-40 C h e r n i v t s i University was Rumanianized: the U k r a i n i a n departments were dissolved, and the Ukrainian professors dismissed. The faculty of philosop h y was split into the faculty of p h i l o s o p h y and literature and the faculty of natural science. For many years the university's rector was I. Nistor, w h o was hostile towards Ukrainians. In 1920 there were 239 Ukrainians i n a student body of 1,671. In 1933 the b o d y of 3,247 students consisted of 2,117 Rumanians, 679 Jews, 199 Germans, 155 Ukrainians, 57 Poles, and 40 of other nationalities. In 1940 northern B u k o v y n a was annexed to the U k r a i nian SSR, and U k r a i n i a n became the language of instruction at Chernivtsi University. The university was reorganized at first into 7 faculties and by 1982 had g r o w n to 10 faculties: history, philology, foreign languages, geography, biology, chemistry, physics, mathematics, oriental studies, and general engineering. The theological faculty was abolished. Evening-school, correspondence-school, and graduate-school programs were introduced. In 19823 there were close to 10,000 students enrolled at the university, 54 percent of w h o m were correspondence and evening students. The teaching faculty numbered about 500, i n c l u d i n g 26 full professors. The university's m a i n b u i l d i n g is the previous residence of the metropolitan. There are a number of research institutions associated w i t h the university: a botanical

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garden (est 1877), a biological research base i n Z h u c h k a , a physics laboratory for semiconductor and thermodynamic research, an experimental fish farm, seismological and meteorological stations, and four museums (of zoology, botany, geology, and the university's history). The library possesses about 1.7 m i l l i o n books. The university has published Naukovi zapysky (58 vols, as of 1967), monographs, textbooks, and m a n y other works. In 1982 its rector was K . C h e r v i n s k y . Public efforts to rename the university i n honor of Y u . F e d k o v y c h , led by the literary scholar Y e . K y r y l i u k , d i d not gain the consent of the authorities. In the 1970s a faculty- and student-exchange program was established between Chernivtsi University and the University of Saskatchewan i n Canada. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Prokopowitsch, E. 'Gründung, Entwicklung und Ende der Franz-Josefs Universitàt in Czernowitz,' in Schriften zur Geschichte des Deutschtums in der Bukowina (Clausthal-Zellerfeld 1955)

Turczynski, E. 'Die Universitàt Czernowitz,' in Buchenland. Hundertfiinfzig Jahre Deutschtum in der Bukowina (Munich 1961) Systematychnyi pokazhchyk do vydari Chernivets'koho

derzhavnoho universytetu (1948-cherverf 1965) (Chernivtsi 1965) Alma Mater Francisco Josephina. Die deutschsprachige Nationalitaten-

Universitat in Czernowitz (Munich 1975) Kobylians'kyi, I. Chernivets'kyi universytet (Uzhhorod 1975) A . Zhukovsky Chernobaiev, M y k o l a [Cernobaiev], b 1797 i n the C h e r n i h i v region, d 7 M a r c h 1868. Physician. F r o m 1820 Chernobaiev served i n the military, becoming chief physician of K i e v Military Hospital i n 1847. D u r i n g the C r i m e a n War (1853-6) he was i n charge of the medical service of the Southern A r m y . Chernobaiev's works deal w i t h the care and treatment of victims of plague epidemics, hemorrhoids, and other diseases c o m m o n i n the army. H e was the first to describe cases of tularemia (in 1836). Chernov, L e o n i d [Cernov] (pen name of M a l o s h y i chenko), b 15 January 1899 i n Oleksandriia, K h e r s o n gubernia, d 13 January 1933 i n K h a r k i v . Writer. H e traveled i n the Far East and Siberia and i n 1924 visited India, returning and settling d o w n i n K h a r k i v i n 1926. Chernov belonged to the writers' organization A v a n hard. H e published i n the journals Literaturnyi iarmarok and Prolitfront. H e wrote a book of travel sketches, 125 dniv pid tropikamy (125 Days i n the Tropics, 1928), and collections of short stories: Sontse pid veslamy (Sun under the Oars, 1929), Stantsiia Znam'ianka (Znamianka Station, 1930), and Liudyna z inshoïplanety (A Person from A n o t h e r Planet, 1931). H e also p u b l i s h e d humorous stories, such as Chudaky prykrashuiuf svit (The Oddballs M a k e the W o r l d M o r e Beautiful, 1929) a n d Podarunok molodym kinematohrafistam ( A Gift to Y o u n g Cinematographers, 1930). A collection of his poetry, entitled Na rozi bur ( O n the Corner of Storms), was published posthumously i n 1933Chernov, L e o n i d [Cernov], b 18 June 1915 i n Starobilske, K h a r k i v gubernia. Painter and graphic artist. Chernov graduated i n 1941 from the K h a r k i v Institute of Arts, where he studied w i t h M . Samokysha. H i s works include the landscapes Blue Evening, Spring Morning, and Wind; the portraits Mother and Natalochka; a series of color

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autolithographs; watermarks; watercolors, such as In the Carpathians (1954) Through Bulgaria (1956) and Through India (1957); a n d book illustrations. Chernov, V a s i l i i [Cernov, Vasilij], b 18 September 1852 near Tbilisi i n Georgia, d 29 A p r i l 1912. Pediatrician. In 1889 C h e r n o v became a professor at K i e v University, where he organized the first clinic for children's diseases. He was the author of w o r k s o n the theory a n d practice of pediatrics, particularly studies of the absorption of fats, diseases of the digestive tract, a n d children's infections. Chernozem (Ukrainian: chornozem). Soil that forms on a lime-rich loess substatum under the conditions of a moderate continental or continental, h u m i d or dry climate and steppe vegetation. Soil bacteria decompose the organic remains of the steppe plants a n d produce n e w organic colloidal compounds, which are k n o w n as humus. C h e r n o z e m soil usually occurs as a thick layer (20-30 cm) of dark gray soil w i t h a definite granular-lumpy structure and a h i g h content (4-14 percent) of decomposed matter. It is soft a n d absorbs water a n d air w e l l . These properties promote plant nourishment a n d bacterial development. The soil's fertility is h i g h a n d can be increased by proper treatment, particularly b y deep p l o w i n g . C h e r n o z e m covers about 44 percent of the territory of Ukraine, but only 8.4 percent of the USSR as a whole and 6 percent of the w o r l d . C h e r n o z e m soils cover almost all of the forest-steppe belt, except i n the western part of Ukraine, a n d the steppe belt. Various types of chernozem can be found i n Ukraine, d e p e n d i n g o n climatic condi­ tions, varieties of forest, a n d types of vegetation. Typical or deep chernozems, w i t h 6-9 percent h u m u s , a depth of 1.5-2 m , a n d the highest fertility, are prevalent i n the forest-steppe belt. Ordinary chernozems, having a humus content of 6-8 percent a n d a depth of about 1 m , are widely found i n the northern steppe. Southern cherno­ zems are widespread i n the southern steppe of Ukraine. They have the lowest h u m u s content (4-6 percent) and a depth of 60-75 - The depth of carbonate occurrence is 0-30 cm. Their fertility is h i g h if there is enough moisture. U n d e r proper tillage chernozems produce the highest possible yields of every type of agricultural crop. Their fertility is greatly increased by deep p l o w i n g and the addition of mineral fertilizers. c

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C h e r n u k h a , V a l e n t y n [Cernuxa], b 27 December 1929 i n K h a r k i v . G r a p h i c artist. C h e r n u k h a graduated from K h a r k i v A r t School i n 1951. H e has produced series of lithographs o n h u m o r o u s subjects a n d illustrated such collections as Suchasni ukrains'ki baiky (Contemporary U k r a i n i a n Fables, 1962), M . Hodovanets's Baiky (Fables, 1963), a n d J. Korczak's Matsiusevi pryhody (The A d v e n ­ tures of Matsius, 1969). In collaboration w i t h V . Vasyliev and Y u . Severyn, he executed a monumentalist panel i n the cafι A v a n h a r d i n K h a r k i v (1964). C h e r n y s h , Oleksander [Cernys], b 25 July 1918 i n Kholmy, Chernihiv gubernia. Archeologist; research asso­ ciate of the archeology section of the Institute of Social Sciences of the A c a d e m y of Sciences of the U k r a i n i a n SSR. C h e r n y s h has studied a number of Paleolithic sites. H i s works devoted to the history of the inhabitants on U k r a i n i a n a n d M o l d a v i a n territory d u r i n g the Stone A g e include Volodymyrivs'ka paleolitychna stoianka (The Volody-

myrivka Paleolithic Site, 1953), Paleolitychna stoianka Molodove v (The Paleolithic Site M o l o d o v e v, 1961), and 'Karta paleolitu URSR' ( M a p of the Paleolithic Era i n the U k r a i ­ nian SSR) i n Naukovi zapysky Instytutu suspiVnykh nauk AN URSR (vol 2, 1954), a n d m a n y others. Chernyshevsky, N i k o l a i [Cernysevskij, Nikolaj], b 24 July 1828 i n Saratov, Russia, d tνtere 29 October 1889. Eminent Russian publicist a n d writer, ideologue of the revolutionary Russian intelligentsia. Chernyshevsky wrote for the journal Otechestvennye zapiski and later became the chief writer of the journal Sovremennik, the major organ of the revolutionary movement opposed to tsarist rule. Sentenced to penal servitude a n d exile for his participation i n the u n d e r g r o u n d organization Zemlia i Volia, C h e r n y s h e v s k y spent the years 1864-83 i n Siberia. He wrote studies i n political economy, philosophy, and literary criticism. C h e r n y s h e v s k y was a critic of capitalism and economic liberalism; his socioeconomic views were those of a Utopian socialist. In philosophical outlook Chernyshevsky was a materialist, but he d i d not sub­ scribe to Marxist dialectics. H e strongly identified himself w i t h the populists (see ^Populism, Russian and Ukrai­ nian) and w i t h the Russian Westernizers, opposing the Slavophiles. In his literary criticism Chernyshevsky was a consistent realist. H i s n o v e l Chto delaV (What Is to Be Done, 1863) became a programmatic w o r k for the Russian revolutionary intelligentsia. Chernyshevsky considered the political movements of the oppressed peoples to be a positive phenomenon. In his works he defended the right of Ukrainians to develop their o w n culture based o n their native language. H e gave favorable evaluations of the w o r k of T. Shevchenko and other U k r a i n i a n writers. In an article entitled ' N a tsional'naia beztaktnost' ' (National Tactlessness), Cher­ nyshevsky sharply attacked the L v i v journal Slovo for its anti-Russian stance. Chernyshevsky's w o r k was p o p u l a r i z e d by I. Franko and M . Pavlyk, w h o translated Chto delat\ Soviet histo­ riography, maintaining its thesis concerning the invariably 'beneficial influence of the Russian revolutionary demo­ crats' o n 19th-century U k r a i n i a n figures, exaggerates Chernyshevsky's influence o n a number of Ukrainian writers, i n c l u d i n g T. Shevchenko, P. M y r n y , I. Franko, P. Hrabovsky, a n d Lesia U k r a i n k a . P. Tychyna wrote his poem ' C h e r n y s h e v s ' k y i i Shevchenko' (Chernyshevsky and Shevchenko) i n this spirit. Chernyshov, Borys [Cernysov], b 27 January 1888 at Yasenka stanytsia i n the K u b a n , d 31 A u g u s t 1950. Geo­ logist and paleontologist, professor at Dnipropetrovske, Leningrad, and (from 1939) K i e v universities, full member of the A c a d e m y of Sciences of the U k r a i n i a n SSR from 1939. F r o m 1939 to 1946 C h e r n y s h o v served as vicepresident of the academy a n d as director of the academy's Institute of Geological Sciences. H e conducted research in the Urals a n d the Donets Basin a n d wrote valuable studies o n pelecypod, brachiopod, a n d crustacean fos­ sils, especially i n the Mesozoic a n d Paleozoic deposits of the Donets Basin. Cherry, sour (Cerasus vulgaris or Prunus cerasus; U k r a i ­ nian: vyshnia). A tree or b u s h of the rose family that grows up to 7 m i n height. The cherry is believed to have originated i n Caucasia a n d the Balkans. Because of its

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valuable, juicy fruit, w h i c h is consumed i n large quanti­ ties whether fresh, dried, cooked, or preserved, the cherry tree is widespread throughout Ukraine. Cherries are also used to make w i n e and liquor, and dried cherries are exported. The best-known varieties of cherry i n Ukraine are the Ukrainian Griotte, Ostheim Griotte, Lihel's Griotte, Early Shpanka, U k r a i n k a , K a n i v , and the Melito­ pil dessert cherry. W i l d species grow i n the steppe gullies: the mahaleb cherry (Prunus mahaleb), w h i c h is a bush or tree up to 8 m i n height, and the ground cherry (Cerasus fruticosa), w h i c h is a b u s h u p to 2 m i n height. Chersonese T α u r i c a or Chersonesus ( k n o w n as Kher­ son i n the M i d d l e A g e s and as K o r s u n i n Slavic sources). Ancient Greek city and city state i n the southwestern part of the C r i m e a , near present-day *Sevastopil. The city was established i n 422-21 BC by Megarian Greek colonists from Heraclea Pontica, a city o n the southern coast of the Black Sea. In ancient times the city of Chersonese was an important manufacturing and trade center as w e l l as the political center of a city state that encompassed the south­ western coast of the C r i m e a . The city flourished i n the 4 t h - 2 n d century BC. It h a d a democratic system of govern­ ment and coined its o w n money. Its economy was based o n viticulture, fishing, manufacturing, and trade (grain, cattle, fish) w i t h other Greek cities, the Scythians, and the Taurians. In the 1st century BC Chersonese recognized the sovereignty of the Bosporan prince Mithradates v i and, later, of Rome. A t the end of the 4th century AD the city became part of the Byzantine Empire. In the 5 t h - n t h century it was the largest city o n the northern coast of the Black Sea and an important center of Byzantine culture. A t the end of the 10th century Chersonese was captured and held briefly by the K i e v a n prince V o l o d y m y r the Great. F r o m that point o n Byzantine cultural influences often entered K i e v a n Rus' through Chersonese. A t the beginning of the 13th century, w h e n Constantinople was captured by the Crusaders, Chersonese came under the protection of the Trabzon (Trebizond) Empire. In the second half of the century the city suffered a rapid decline as Genoa established a trade m o n o p o l y o n the Black Sea. The Tatars sacked the city i n 1299 and at the end of the 14th century, bringing about its depopulation. The remaining ruins a n d the site of the former city were studied and excavated m a n y times, beginning i n 1827 (by K . Kostsiushko-Valiuzhynych) a n d systematically from 1876 (by R. Lener, K . H r y n e v y c h , G . Belov, A . Yakobson, and others). Chersonese covered an area of u p to 40 ha. Excavations uncovered the remains of Greek, R o m a n , and Byzantine city walls, residential blocks w i t h rectilinear streets, homes w i t h rainwater reservoirs, workshops, over 50 Christian churches, palaces, a theater seating over 3,000 people, etc. The graves outside the city walls contained a rich inventory of ancient artifacts. (See also "Kherson Historical-Archeological M u s e u m . ) BIBLIOGRAPHY

Shestakov, S. Ocherki po istorii Khersonesa v vi-x vekakh po r. Khr. (Moscow 1908) Khersonskii sbornik, nos 1-2 (Sevastopil 1926-30) Belov, G. Khersones Tavricheskii (Leningrad 1948) Iakobson, A . Srednevekovyi Khersones xn-xiv vv. (MoscowLeningrad 1950) Piatysheva, N . luvelirnye izdeliia Khersonesa (Moscow 1956)

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Kadeev, V. Ocherki istorii ekonomiki Khersonesa Tavricheskogo v i-ivv.n.e. (Kharkiv 1970) M . Labunka Cherven towns. G r o u p of towns and fortresses on V o l h y n i a n territory - C h e r v e n , V o l y n , Lutske, Suteiske, Y u r o d y , etc - w h i c h were situated o n the left bank of the B u h River o n the border between P o l a n d and Rus'. The area controlled by these towns was also k n o w n as the Cherven L a n d (Chervenska zemlia). Historians have offered many hypotheses and have argued for a long time about the extent of the territory and the political affiliation of the C h e r v e n towns, w h i c h were united around the t o w n of C h e r v e n o n the H u i v a River. In 981 Prince V o l o d y m y r the Great captured the Cherven towns from the Polish princes, but i n 1018 the Polish prince Boleslaw 1 the Brave w o n them back. In 1031 Yaroslav and Mstyslav V o l o d y m y r o v y c h finally annexed the towns. The towns played an important role i n K i e v a n Rus' as trade links between K i e v and B y z a n t i u m (through Hungary) w h e n the Black Sea route was severed by the C u m a n s . In the 11th-12th century the C h e r v e n towns belonged partly to the V o l h y n i a n principality; i n the 13th-14th century they belonged to the Principality of Galicia-Volhynia. Chervinsky, Petro [Cervins'kyj], b 1849 C h e r n i h i v , d 1931. Civic leader and zemstvo statistician. After graduating from the St Petersburg Institute of A g r i c u l ­ ture, C h e r v i n s k y returned to the C h e r n i h i v region. For his participation i n U k r a i n i a n civic life he was exiled to K h o l m o g o r y and lived there i n 1870-5. After returning from exile, he w o r k e d as a statistician i n the C h e r n i h i v gubernia zemstvo (1876-90). A l o n g w i t h I. Shrah, F. Umanets, and other liberal civic activists he made an important contribution to the improvement of farming i n the C h e r n i h i v region. C h e r v i n s k y published many works on this subject. H i s best-known w o r k dealt w i t h the problems of c o m m u n a l life. H e also helped to prepare a collection of materials o n the evaluation of agricultural land, w h i c h was assembled by the C h e r n i h i v statistical department of the gubernia zemstvo executive (1877-87, 15 vols). U n d e r the Soviet regime C h e r v i n s k y lived mostly i n Russia and w o r k e d for a l o n g time at an agricultural research station near Viatka. m

Chervona hazeta (Red Newspaper). U k r a i n i a n news­ paper published from 1926 to 1932 i n Rostov-na-Donu by the N o r t h Caucasian Regional Committee of the CPSU, under the editorship of C h a p a l . For those readers w i t h a low level of literacy, a special Ukrainian-language edi­ tion, entitled Chervona hazeta dlia malopys'mennykh, was published from 1931 to 1936. Chervona K a l y n a (Red Guelder Rose). A publishing co-operative founded i n 1921 i n L v i v by former members of the U k r a i n i a n Sich Riflemen a n d the U k r a i n i a n Galician A r m y for the purpose of collecting and publishing materi­ als, documents, and memoirs about the U k r a i n i a n strug­ gle for independence (1917-21). The board of directors was chaired by S. S h u k h e v y c h , the president of the publishing house was O . N a v r o t s k y , and the members of the executive were M . Matchak, P . Postoliuk, I. Tyktor, and L . L e p k y . Its membership grew from 103 i n 1921 to over 1,000 by 1939. Chervona K a l y n a published the annual Istorychnyi

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kalendar-aVmanakh Chervonoï Kalyny (1921-39, 18 issues, eds O . Navrotsky, L . L e p k y , a n d , from 1937, I. Ivanets) and the m o n t h l y journal Litopys Chervonoï Kalyny (October 1929 to July-August 1939, eds V . Sofroniv-Levytsky and L . L e p k y ) . Both periodicals were devoted to U k r a i nian military history, i n particular to the period 1914-21, and contained valuable bibliographies (contributed by K . K u p c h a n k o , I. Shendryk, a n d others) a n d a wealth of photographs. Articles o n the Princely era and the Cossack period also appeared, contributed by such authors as M . A n d r u s i a k , M y k h a i l o A n t o n o v y c h , M . Holubets, T. Kostruba, I. K r y p i a k e v y c h , I. L o s k y , and V . Sichynsky. In a period of 18 years C h e r v o n a K a l y n a published about 80 titles. Belles lettres o n military themes included O . Babii's HutsuVs'kyi kuriri (The H u t s u l Battalion), Y a . Vilshenko's Zhyttia i pryhody Tsiapky Skoropada (The Life and A d v e n t u r e s of Tsiapka Skoropad), F. D u d k o ' s trilogy V zahravi (In the R e d G l o w ) , R . K u p c h y n s k y ' s trilogy ZametiV (The Snowstorm), works b y M . Brylynsky, B. L e p k y , V . Sofroniv-Levytsky, V . Lopushansky, M . M a t i i v - M e l n y k , a n d Y u . Shkrumeliak, and the historical works of E. Borschak (Mazepa, Hryhor Orlyk, and Napoleon i Ukraïna [Napoleon and Ukraine]). A large number of memoirs were also published, i n cluding those by M . H a l a h a n , V . Petrov, S. S h u k h e v y c h , D . Doroshenko, I. M a k s y m c h u k , and Ye. Chykalenko; K . Levytsky's Velykyi zryv (The Great Upheaval): H . Koch's Dohovir z Denikinom (The Treaty w i t h Denikin); V . Y u r chenko's Shliakhamy na Solovky ( A l o n g the Roads to the Solovets Islands) a n d Peklo na zemli (Hell o n Earth); A . Krezub's Party zany (The Partisans); a n d O . Stepaniv's Na peredodni velykykh podii ( O n the Eve of M o m e n t o u s Events). Several historical monographs were published by C h e r v o n a K a l y n a : Beresteis'kyi myr (The Peace Treaty of Brest-Litovsk) a n d Zoloti vorota (The G o l d e n Gate), both edited by I. K e d r y n - R u d n y t s k y ; O . D u m i n ' s Istoriia Legionu uss, 1914-1918 (The H i s t o r y of the Legion of the U k r a i n i a n Sich Riflemen, 1914-1918) a n d , under the p s e u d o n y m A . K r e z u b , Narys istoriï ukraïns'ko-poV s'koï viiny ( A n Outline of the H i s t o r y of the Ukrainian-Polish War); a n d O . K u z m a ' s Lystopadovi dni 1918 r. (The N o v e m b e r Days of 1918). T w o albums rich i n photographic materials came out Ukraxns'ki Sichovi StriVtsi, 1914-1920 (The U k r a i n i a n Sich Riflemen, 1914-1920, e d B . Hnatevych) a n d Pam'iati vozhdia (In M e m o r y of the Leader, dedicated to G e n M . Tarnavsky, ed V . Lasovsky). The musical heritage of the U k r a i n i a n soldiers was preserved i n two published song collections - Surma (The Bugle) a n d Velykyi spivanyk Chervonoï Kalyny (The Great Songbook of Chervona K a l y n a , e d Z . Lysko). T h e publications of Chervona K a l y n a played a n important role i n fostering the traditions of the U k r a i n i a n liberation struggle and the ideals of political independence among the public i n Western Ukraine. After being closed by the Soviets i n 1939 i n L v i v , the p u b l i s h i n g house was restored i n N e w York i n 1949 as a result of the efforts of P . Postoliuk, w h o served as its president u n t i l September 1978. The following i n d i v i d u als have served as chairmen of the board of directors i n the U n i t e d States: V . Galán, I. Porytko, and Y a . Rak. K h . Navrotska, R. D a n y l i u k , V . O n y s h k e v y c h , S. Shuhan, O . Slupchynsky, R. Haietsky, and L . Pryshliak were members of the executive and active members of the enterprise. R. K u p c h y n s k y , S. Ripetsky, L . Lutsiv, M . Ostroverkha, a n d I. K e d r y n - R u d n y t s k y belonged to the edi-

torial committee. C h e r v o n a K a l y n a h a d published 22 works i n the U n i t e d States by 1981, i n c l u d i n g O . U d o v y chenko's Tretia Zalizna Dyviziia (The T h i r d Iron Division), V . Galan's Bateriia smerty (The Death Battery), M . L o z y n sky's Halychyna v rokakh 1918-1920 (Galicia i n the Years 1918-1920), a n d second editions of O . K u z m a ' s Lystopadovi dni, E . Borschak's Hryhor Orlyk, a n d the album Ukraïns'ki Sichovi StriVtsi (Ukrainian Sich Riflemen). BIBLIOGRAPHY

Shankovs'kyi, L. 'Narys ukraïns'koï voiennoï istoriohrafiï/ Ukraïns'kyi istoryk, 1973, nos 3-4; 1974, nos 1-3; 1975, nos

1-2

I. Kedryn-Rudnytsky, O. Navrotsky

Chervona Rus' (Red Rus' or Red Ruthenia). The historical name of Galicia, w h i c h w a s used mostly b y nonUkrainian writers i n the 16th-19th century, and never by the populace. Some historians a n d geographers of the 17th- 18th century, such as S. Starowolski and J.B. H o m a n n , applied this name to all Ukraine or to the part of it west of the Dnieper River. M o s t frequently, however, the term Red Rus' was used i n documents to designate the former Galician principality, w h i c h i n the 15th-18th century constituted the Rus' and Belz voivodeships. After 1772 Red Rus' was officially designated as Galicia a n d Lodomeria. The artificial term Chervenska Rus', used i n certain Polish and Russophile circles, was a n attempt to associate R e d Rus' w i t h the *Cherven towns and stems from the tendentious hypothesis about the 'non-Ukrainian' character of these towns. Chervone [Cervone]. iv-9. T o w n smt (1964 pop 4,700) i n A n d r u s h i v k a raion, Z h y t o m y r oblast. The t o w n has a food industry that produces sugar, alcohol, and cheese. Chervone [Cervone]. 11-15. T o w n smt (1970pop 2,900) i n H l u k h i v raion, S u m y oblast. Chervone has a sugar refinery and a distillery. Called Y e s m a n u n t i l 1957, it was a raion center from 1923 to 1963. Chervone pravo (Red L a w ) . Biweekly legal journal published i n K h a r k i v b y the People's Commissariat of Justice of the U k r a i n i a n SSR i n 1926-31. The first t w o issues bore the title Chervonyi iuryst (The Red Jurist). In 1931 it was merged w i t h the journal Visnyk radians'koï iustytsiï and began to appear under the title *Revoliutsiine pravo. O n e h u n d r e d and fourteen issues were published. Chervone selo (Red Village). Popular monthly published for C o m m u n i s t village activists. It appeared i n K h a r k i v from 1925 to 1933 as a publication of the A l l - U k r a i n i a n Central Executive Committee. Special sections were printed i n the languages of the national minorities: i n G e r m a n (Das rote Dorf), i n Bulgarian (Cherveno selo), and i n Y i d d i s h . In 1933 Chervone selo merged w i t h the newspaper Komunist (later *Radians'ka Ukraïna). Chervonenko, Stepan [Cervonenko], b 16 September 1915 i n O k i p i n Poltava gubernia. Soviet public figure and diplomat. H e is a graduate of K i e v University and of Party schools i n K i e v and M o s c o w and has lectured o n M a r x i s m - L e n i n i s m . In 1949 he w o r k e d i n the c c of the CPU. H e is a member of the c c of the CPSU a n d was a

candidate to its P r e s i d i u m (1957-9). H e is also a deputy to the Supreme Soviet of the U k r a i n i a n SSR and the Supreme

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Soviet of the USSR. Since 1959 he has been i n the diplomatic service as the USSR representative to C h i n a (until 1965), then to Czechoslovakia (1965-75), and until 1982 to France. Chervonets. C o m m o n name for Polish, Lithuanian, Hungarian, a n d other gold coins (ducats, sequins), also k n o w n as chervoni zoloti (red gold coins), that were i n circulation i n Eastern Europe a n d Ukraine i n the 17th18th century. A t the beginning of the 18th century the Russian government tried to replace these coins b y introducing its o w n chervonets; later the two-ruble chervo­ nets containing about four grams of gold was w i d e l y circulated. In 1922-47 the notes issued by the State Bank of the USSR i n various denominations were called chervintsi. The chervonets of this period was valued at 7.74234 grams of gold and was equivalent to 10 n e w rubles. After the monetary reform of 1947 the chervonets was no longer used (see also ""Currency and coins). Chervoni kvity (Red Flowers). A n illustrated children's biweekly published b y the Central Committee of the C o m m u n i s t Y o u t h League of Ukraine and the Office of Socialist Education of the People's Commissariat of Educa­ tion of the U k r a i n i a n SSR i n K h a r k i v (1923-31) and i n Kiev (1930-1). In 1931 it merged w i t h the magazine BiVshovycheniata (1924-31) to form the n e w magazine *Pioneriia.

New housing in Chervonohrad G o d . I n the 19th century the K r y s t y n o p i l Apσstol (see *Horodyshche Apσstol) a n d the famous chronicle of 176379, w h i c h was reprinted several times, were part of the town's valuable collection of historical monuments. After 1951 C h e r v o n o h r a d became one of the centers of the recently established L v i v - V o l h y n i a C o a l Basin, a n d it grew rapidly. Its population increased from 3,000 i n 1939 to 12,000 i n 1959, 44,000 i n 1970, and 53,000 i n 1977. The city has a reinforced-concrete products plant, a w o o d ­ w o r k i n g plant, a dairy, a clothing and stocking factory, a branch of the L v i v Polytechnical Institute, and a m i n i n g tekhnikum.

Chervoniuk, Y e v h e n [Cervonjuk, Jevhen], b 21 A p r i l 1924 i n Brusyliv, n o w i n Korostyshiv raion, Z h y t o m y r oblast. Operatic bass, graduate of K i e v Conservatory, student of I. Patorzhynsky (1950). In 1950 he was laureate of the International Vocal Competition i n Prague. In 1950 he was appointed soloist of the K i e v Opera and Ballet Theater, and i n 1952 he joined the K h a r k i v Opera and Ballet Theater. Since i960 he has been teaching at the Kharkiv Institute of A r t s . C h e r v o n i u k has given concerts in the countries of Eastern Europe, Canada, Israel, and elsewhere.

Chervonohryhorivka [Cervonohryhorivka]. vi-15. T o w n smt (1977 p o p 8,125) o n the K a k h i v k a Reservoir i n N y k o p i l raion, Dnipropetrovske oblast. Its major indus­ try is food processing. The t o w n was established i n the late 18th century a n d was formerly called C h e r n y s h i v k a .

Chervonoarmiiske [Cervonoarmijs'ke]. 111-9. T o w n smt (1967 pop 3,700), raion center i n Z h y t o m y r oblast. The t o w n was established i n the late 16th century and was called P u l y n y u n t i l 1935. The town's industries are food processing and brick making; it also has a m u s e u m of history and ethnography.

Chervonozavodske [Cervonozavods'ke]. 111-14. City (1970 p o p 8,300) i n L o k h v y t s i a raion, Poltava oblast, situated o n the Sula River. It was established i n 1928 w h e n a sugar-refining complex was built o n the site; today food processing is still the m a i n industry. The city also has a distillery a n d a food-processing t e k h n i k u m .

Chervonoarmiiske [Cervonoarmijs'ke]. 111-6. City (1966 pop 5,500) i n western V o l h y n i a ; raion center i n Rivne oblast. It has a food industry. Established i n the late 16th century, it was called Radziviliv u n t i l 1939. F r o m the second half of the 19th century to 1914 Radziviliv was an important trade center; its proximity to the RussianAustrian border allowed it to participate i n the active trade between the two empires. The city's 1910 popula­ tion was 14,600.

Chervonyi Donets [Cervonyj Donee'], iv-17. T o w n smt (1976 pop 7,000) i n Balakliia raion, K h a r k i v oblast. The t o w n is located o n the banks of the Donets River near the Shebelynka gas field.

Chervonohrad [Cervonohrad]. 111-5. City (1983 p o p 62,000) i n L v i v oblast, located i n the B u h Depression on the B u h River. The t o w n was built i n 1692 by the Polish magnate F . K . Potocki a n d was called K r y s t y n o p i l u n t i l 1953. In 1736 Potocki built a palace and funded a Basilian monastery (including the baroque C h u r c h of St George). U n t i l 1946 the t o w n was a k n o w n religious center, attract­ ing pilgrims by its miracle-working icon of the M o t h e r of

Chervonopartyzanske [Cervonopartyzans'ke]. v-20, DB 111-7. City (1976 p o p 25,000) i n Sverdlovske raion, Voroshylovhrad oblast, founded i n 1947. The city has coal mines a n d coal-processing plants, as w e l l as a regional m u s e u m .

Chervonyi Ekskavator (Red Excavator). A construc­ tion- a n d road-machine-building plant i n K i e v , estab­ lished i n 1898 as a small sowing-machine plant. In 1975 it became the m a i n plant of a large manufacturing associa­ tion that includes excavator plants i n other oblasts and republics. Since 1955 the plant has specialized i n hydrau­ lic excavators. It produces many-scooped excavators, concrete mixers, lifting machines, trailers, etc. Chervonyi K h u t i r burial site. The burial ground, located near the C h e r v o n y i K h u t i r suburb of Kiev, on the left bank of the Dnieper River, belongs to the late period of the *Trypilian culture, dating back to the end of the

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3rd m i l l e n n i u m BC. The site was excavated i n 1950-1 b y V . D a n y l e n k o and M . M a k a r e v y c h , w h o discovered the remains of 260 cremations i n urns a n d pits. Decorated pottery, weapons, ornaments, a n d implements were also found. The large quantity of arms (daggers, arrowheads, and spears) unearthed indicates that the region was inhabited b y warlike herdsmen. Chervonyi perets' (Red Pepper). Semimonthly maga­ zine of h u m o r a n d satire published i n K h a r k i v i n 1922 and then from 1927 to 1934 by *Visti VUTsVK. It was edited by V . "Chechviansky. Contributors i n c l u d e d O . V y s h n i a , Y u . V u k h n a l (I. K o v t u n ) , Y u . G e d z (O. Yasny), A n t o s h a K o ( A . H a k ) , B . Simantsiv, a n d K . K o t k o ( M . L i u b chenko). A m o n g the artists whose w o r k appeared i n the magazine were O . K h v o s t e n k o - K h v o s t o v , O . D o v z h e n ko, A . Pettytsky, K . A h n i t - S l e d z e v s k y , O . K o z i u r e n k o , and L . K a p l a n . Besides political satire (invariably presen­ ted from the official Soviet viewpoint), Chervonyi perets' devoted considerable attention to the campaign against speculation, administrative incompetence, bureaucratiza­ tion, deficiencies i n food s u p p l y and transportation, and everyday difficulties. After most of its contributors fell victim to Stalinist repression, Chervonyi perets' ceased publication. It was revived i n 1941 under the title Perets' and is n o w p u b l i s h e d i n K i e v . Chervonyi prapor (Red Flag). Semimonthly organ of the " U k r a i n i a n Social Democratic party, published i n Ternopil i n 1906-7 under the editorship of Y a . Ostapchuk. F r o m 1907 to 1914 the C h e r v o n y i Prapor p u b l i s h i n g house issued popular brochures under the editorship of M . Hankevych. Chervony prapor (Red Flag). The first U k r a i n i a n social­ ist newspaper i n N o r t h A m e r i c a . It was published by the U k r a i n i a n local of the Socialist Party of Canada (SPC) i n W i n n i p e g , M a n i t o b a , a n d appeared i n 18 issues from 15 N o v e m b e r 1907 to A u g u s t 1908. P . Krat, V . Holovatsky, a n d M . Stechishin were its editors. A s the vanguard of socialism a m o n g U k r a i n i a n workers and farmers it stimu­ lated the creation of U k r a i n i a n branches of the SPC. It was succeeded by *Robochyi narod (1909-18). Chervonyi prapor was the first periodical to use the term U k r a i n i a n (spelled 'Ookrainian') i n Canada. Chervonyi shliakh (Red Pathway). L e a d i n g U k r a i n i a n monthly journal i n the 1920s. It was published from 1923 to 1936 i n K h a r k i v . The first editorial board consisted of O . S h u m s k y (editor), P . T y c h y n a , H . H r y n k o , V . Blakytny, S. P y l y p e n k o , a n d M . K h v y l o v y and reflected an independent, although official, attitude. Later H r y n k o became the editor i n chief, and, still later, many personnel changes occurred d u r i n g the purges of U k r a i n i a n intellec­ tuals. A m o n g the contributors were the leading writers, critics, a n d scholars of the day, i n c l u d i n g many from abroad. The journal printed poetry, prose, criticism, and articles i n the field of theater, drama, economics, a n d history. It also h a d a good book-review section. Chess (shakhy). T h e game of chess was brought to Ukraine from the N e a r East by traders i n the 9th century. Chess pieces discovered by archeologists i n the C h o r n a M o h y l a k u r h a n i n C h e r n i h i v are estimated to belong to the 10th century, w h i l e those found i n K i e v and V y s h -

horod belong to the 11th-12th century. N u m e r o u s refer­ ences to the game i n medieval oral literature, and particu­ larly i n the bylyny, testify to the popularity of chess among the boyars a n d princes. Later the Orthodox church's prohibition of the game (similar to that of the Catholic church i n the West) u n d e r m i n e d its popularity. Yet chess was played at gentry manors i n the 16th-17th century, and i n the 18th century it spread among the intelligentsia. In Russia the so-called Russian school of chess playing emerged by the end of the 19th century, and imperial and international competitions were h e l d . Chess became very popular i n U k r a i n e at the turn of the 20th century, w h e n chess clubs were founded a n d individual tourneys for local championships were orga­ nized i n m a n y cities, such as K i e v , K h a r k i v , Odessa, Y u z i v k a , and M y k o l a i v . In 1924 the first competition for the chess championship of U k r a i n e was held i n Kiev. It was w o n by Y a . V i l n e r of Odessa. Subsequent republican competitions were h e l d almost every year, usually i n K i e v but sometimes also i n K h a r k i v , Odessa, and Dnipropet­ rovske. The following players have been chess cham­ pions of the U k r a i n i a n SSR: V . Rauzer, Y . Pohrebysky, M . S h u m y l i n , A . Bannyk, I. L y p n y t s k y , O . Sokolsky, Y u . Geller, A . K h a v i n , L . Shtein, and Y u . Nikolaievsky. F . Bohatyrchuk attained the level of international master. In 1927 he shared first place at the USSR championship tournament a n d i n 1938 captured second place. Y u . Boholiubov (1889-1952), w h o w o n several international competitions, i n particular the tournament i n M o s c o w i n 1925 where he placed ahead of two w o r l d champions (E. Lasker and }. Capablanca), was a player of w o r l d rank. Boholiubov played A . A l e k h i n e for the w o r l d champion­ ship i n 1929 and 1934. In the 1970s-1980s the following U k r a i n i a n grand mas­ ters, w h o belong to the Soviet extra class of players, advanced to the level of w o r l d players: O . Bilia vsky, Y . Dorfman, H . K u z m y n , A . M y k h a l c h y s h y n , S. Palatnyk, I. Platonov, O . R o m a n y shy n, V . Savon, and V . T u k m a k o v . Ukraine does not appear as an independent participant i n the biannual international olympiads; U k r a i n i a n chess masters participate i n the competitions as members of the USSR team. A t the beginning of the 1980s about one million chess players were registered i n Ukraine. A m o n g U k r a i n i a n chess players the following w o m e n deserve to be noted: L . R u d e n k o , w h o was the first women's w o r l d c h a m p i o n i n 1950-3; grand master M . Litynska, w h o is considered to be one of the five best w o m e n players i n the w o r l d ; and the masters L . Semenova and L . M u l e n k o . Several grand masters of w o r l d rank w h o are of Jewish origin were b o r n i n Ukraine: I. Boleslavsky, a noted theoretician and author of several important chess books; Y u . Geller; L . Shtein; and L . A l b u r t , w h o n o w lives i n the U n i t e d States a n d is one of the top A m e r i c a n chess players. In Galicia Ukrainians began to play chess i n an orga­ nized fashion only i n the 1920s. In 1926 a chess club called Shakhovyi K o n y k was founded i n L v i v a n d was soon renamed the Society of U k r a i n i a n Chess Players. U n 1er the G e r m a n occupation this club formed a section of the sports association U k r a i n a . Its membership consisted of the best Western U k r a i n i a n chess players, a n d i n the 1930s the society was one of the two best chess clubs i n L v i v . The first competition for the U k r a i n i a n champion­ ship of L v i v was held i n 1928. Ten players took part, and S. Popel captured first place, O . Slobodian second, and

CHICAGO

Ya. O n y s h c h u k third. The second competition was held in 1943 w i t h 14 players participating. The first three places were captured by P o p e l , M . Turiansky, and M . R o m a n y s h y n . P o p e l and E. Y a n i v w o n the championship of Western U k r a i n e (Sianik, 1944), and that year Popel drew a match w i t h F. Bohatyrchuk i n Cracow. In the diaspora Ukrainians began to organize chess clubs and competitions after 1945. M . Turiansky was one of the best players i n V i e n n a i n 1945-7. France S. Popel w o n the championship of Paris three times - i n 1951, 1953, and 1954. In Switzerland V . Bachynsky captured the championship of Geneva several times. In Australia Y a . Shevchyk took first place several times i n the competitions of N e w South Wales. F. Bohatyrchuk, I. Teodorovych, L . T u r k e v y c h , Y a . O n y s h c h u k , D . K u l y k , A . Y u s y p , a n d R. T u r k e v y c h were w e l l - k n o w n players i n Canada. B. N a z a r k o , B. Stepanenko, and V . Dzera competed i n the 1960s-1970s for the championships of Canada, Ontario, a n d Toronto. Some U k r a i n i a n players i n the U n i t e d States achieved high marks from the A m e r i c a n Chess Federation and the rank of master or senior master. M . Turiansky took second place i n the tournament of the Marshall Chess Club i n N e w Y o r k i n 1950, w o n the championship of Chicago i n 1952 and 1953, and received the title of master. S. Popel m o v e d from Paris to the U n i t e d States i n 1956 and w o n the championship of the midwestern states and the title of master. O . P o p o v y c h , a key player i n the eastern states, attained the rank of senior master d u r i n g the 1960S-1970S. B . Bachynsky, a senior master, has the highest ranking among U k r a i n i a n chess players i n the United States. A tournament for U k r a i n i a n chess players from Canada and the U n i t e d States held i n Toronto i n 1969 was w o n by the U n i t e d States team. The first U k r a i n i a n chess club i n the U n i t e d States was organized i n N e w Y o r k i n 1949 under the name Shak h o v y i K o n y k . It h a d about 30 members. Eventually, almost every sports club that belonged to the Association of U k r a i n i a n Sports C l u b s i n N o r t h America ( U S T s A K ) had its o w n chess team; starting i n 1966, these teams participated i n annual tournaments for the i n d i v i d u a l championship of U S T s A K . The following players w o n first place i n these competitions: O . P o p o v y c h (1966-8, 1972), S. Popel (1969), S. Stoiko (1970), L . Blonarovych (1971, 1973), V . Dzera (1974, 1981, 1983), B. Bachynsky (1975-9), and M . Turiansky (1982). A m o n g U k r a i n i a n contributors to chess literature, O . Selezniv (1888-1965) w o n recognition i n the West for his studies, w h i c h were published i n the chess journals of various countries and appeared i n Berlin i n a separate collection under the editorship of E . Lasker. Selezniv's collection Sto shakhmatnykh etiudov (100 Chess Moves) came out i n M o s c o w i n 1940. A . H r y n (problemist), T. Horhiiev, and P. Bondarenko, the author of Shakhovyi etiud na Ukraïni (Chess M o v e s i n Ukraine, K i e v 1966), have written o n chess. A m o n g Western U k r a i n i a n writers on chess, O . Slobodian, Y e . O n y s h c h u k , and T. K u k y c h deserve to be mentioned.

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Chestakhivsky, H r y h o r i i [Cestaxivs'kyj, Hryhorij], b 1820 i n K h e r s o n gubernia, d 1893. Painter, close friend of T. Shevchenko. In 1861 he painted T. Shevchenko's Grave at the Smolensk Cemetery, T. Shevchenko's Coffin in Transit, and A Peasant beside the Coffin ofT. Shevchenko. H e left a memoir of Shevchenko as a student at the St Petersburg A c a d e m y of A r t . A t Chestakhivsky's initiative, a hill near K a n i v was chosen as Shevchenko's burial site.

m

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Popel', S. Pochatky shakhista (Cracow-Lviv 1943) Lypnyts'kyi, I.; Ratner, B. Vybrani partit' shakhistiv Ukraïny (Kiev 1952) Richards, D. Soviet Chess (Oxford 1965) Semenko, lu. Shakhy v Ukraïni (Munich 1980) M . Turiansky

Chevalier, Pierre, dates of birth and death u n k n o w n . French officer of the 17th century. In 1646 he commanded a detachment of U k r a i n i a n Cossacks. H e served i n the French army from 1648 to 1654 and was secretary of the French embassy i n P o l a n d . Between 1653 and 1663 he wrote Histoire de la guerre des Cosaques contre la Pologne. Avec un discours de leur origine, pays, mœurs, gouvernement et religion, w h i c h was translated into English (1672) and Ukrainian (i960). Chevalier's w o r k is a valuable source o n the history a n d ethnography of Ukraine, particularly o n the history of the Cossack-Polish W a r of 1648-54. Chicago. C i t y o n the shore of Lake M i c h i g a n i n the state of Illinois, second-largest city i n the U n i t e d States, and important industrial, commercial, and cultural center of the midwest. In 1980 the population of Chicago proper was 3,005, 072 and of the metropolitan area, 7,102,328. O f metropolitan Chicago's inhabitants, 50,000-60,000 are of Ukrainian origin. Ukrainians began to settle i n the city i n the 1880s. The earliest settlers came from Transcarpathia, the later ones from Galicia. In 1892 V . *Simenovych, a physician, arrived i n Chicago and began to organize the Ukrainian community. The first Greek Catholic parish the parish of the Blessed M o t h e r of G o d - was established i n 1902; its congregation was predominantly CarpathoRuthenian. The U k r a i n i a n immigrants resided close to the meatpacking plants, the railway stations, and later the steel plants, i n w h i c h most of them w o r k e d . T h e n they gradually m o v e d north from the southern part of the city. For a long time West T o w n had the highest concentration of Ukrainians i n Chicago, and i n the 1980s it became officially k n o w n as ' U k r a i n i a n Village.' Smaller numbers of Ukrainians lived i n Burnside, West P u l l m a n , Cicero, and Harvey. In the 1950S-1960S Ukrainians began to move into the western and northwestern suburbs, such as O a k Park, River Forest, Park Ridge, and Palatine. According to V . Simenovych's estimates there were 25,000-30,000 Ukrainians i n Chicago i n 1930. The wave of postwar immigrants from Western Europe added another 7,000-8,000 Ukrainians to Chicago's population. Natural population growth a n d the influx from other A m e r i c a n cities brought the U k r a i n i a n population of Chicago up to 60,000 by 1980. Yet only 25,000-30,000 Chicagoans are members of U k r a i n i a n parishes a n d active i n U k r a i n i a n organizations. The socioeconomic profile of the U k r a i nians has gradually become more diversified. By the 1930s there were over 100 small U k r a i n i a n enterprises and businesses i n Chicago, a n d after 1950 the number of Ukrainians i n the professions a n d civil service increased rapidly. There are five to six large companies or factories owned by Ukrainians. The parishes were the earliest centers of organized community life for the Ukrainians i n Chicago. For a long time the m a i n center of U k r a i n i a n life was the Greek Catholic C h u r c h of St Nicholas, w h i c h was founded i n

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1905. Its present i m p o s i n g edifice was erected i n 1913-15 i n the style of the Cossack baroque. In 1961 the church was elevated to a cathedral w h e n Chicago became the seat of the U k r a i n i a n Catholic Eparchy of St Nicholas, headed by bishops J. Gabro a n d (since 1981) I. Lotocky. There are six other U k r a i n i a n Catholic parishes i n Chicago. The Carpatho-Ruthenians have two Greek Catholic churches. There are five U k r a i n i a n Orthodox churches and one Carpatho-Ruthenian O r t h o d o x church i n Chicago. The first U k r a i n i a n O r t h o d o x church - the C h u r c h of the H o l y Trinity - was established i n 1915 by former Greek Catholics as an 'independent national church,' and eventually it became the source of the Ukrainian Ortho­ dox movement i n the U n i t e d States. In 1925-30 I. Teodorovch, the archbishop of the Ukrainian Orthodox church, resided at the C h u r c h of the H o l y Trinity, and i n 1922-6 the parish published the periodical Dnipro. In 1945 the church was m o v e d to the present 'Ukrainian Village', its name was changed to St V o l o d y m y r ' s C h u r c h , and it was elevated to a cathedral. The bishops have been H . S h y p r y k e v y c h , O . N o v y t s k y , and C . Buggan. The C h u r c h of the H o l y Protectress is the seat of the Ukrainian Autocephalous O r t h o d o x church (Conciliar) and is under the care of M e t r o p o l i t a n H . O h i i c h u k . A Ukrainian Baptist church has been i n existence i n Chicago since 1915. There is also a congregation of U k r a i n i a n Pentecostals i n the city. The first k n o w n secular organization was the St N i c h o ­ las Brotherhood, w h i c h was founded by V . Simenovych and S. Y a n o v y c h . Rev. M . Strutynsky was an active community organizer w h o was responsible for founding the *Sich societies a n d the savings-and-loan association D n i p r o . After the First W o r l d W a r the Sich societies, w h i c h adopted the program of the U n i t e d Hetmαn Organization, were quite active. For a time Chicago was the A m e r i c a n center for the U k r a i n i a n monarchist move­ ment. Its magazine *Sich was published there i n 1924-34, and its prominent leaders, such as O . Shapoval, O . Nazaruk, O . Tamavsky, S. Hrynevetsky, and M . SiemensSimenovych, resided there. In 1930, under the influence of the O U N , S. K u r o p a s founded the ^Organization for the Rebirth of U k r a i n e . Some Ukrainians came under the influence of leftist-socialist groups and founded the U n i o n of U k r a i n i a n W o r k e r s ' Organizations. O n the occasion of the W o r l d ' s Fair i n Chicago i n 1933 the founding congresses of the U k r a i n i a n Y o u t h League of N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d of the U k r a i n i a n Professional Asso­ ciation were h e l d i n the city. In 1940 a broadly based organization - the League of A m e r i c a n Ukrainians (led by I. D u z h a n s k y for m a n y years) - was established and became the local branch of the U k r a i n i a n Congress Committee of A m e r i c a . N e w immigrants arriving after the war developed a network of political, social, cultural, and professional organizations, w h i c h numbered about 120 by 1980. In 1981 the central office of U k r a i n i a n N a t i o n a l A i d was m o v e d to Chicago. There are eight branches of the Ukrainian N a t i o n a l W o m e n ' s League of America, several branches of the Organization for the Defense of Four Freedoms for Ukraine, and a number of veterans' associa­ tions i n the city. The central office of the Association of Ukrainian Cooperatives of A m e r i c a , the chief executive of the U k r a i n i a n Veterinary M e d i c a l Assocation, and the executive of the U k r a i n i a n M e d i c a l Association of N o r t h America are located i n the city. The national executives of

The Ukrainian pavilion at the Century of Progress World Fair in Chicago, 1933 the Ukrainian Librarians' Association, the Association of Ukrainian Businessmen and Professionals, and the Ukrai­ nian Cossack Brotherhood also have their offices there. Several y o u t h organizations are active i n Chicago and o w n their o w n camping grounds i n Wisconsin - Plast Ukrainian Y o u t h Association has a campsite i n Westfield, and the U k r a i n i a n Y o u t h Association of America has a campsite i n Baraboo. U k r a i n i a n sports associations flour­ ished i n Chicago as early as the 1930s. Since the 1950s the most active among them has been the L e v y sports club. A m o n g the more important U k r a i n i a n institutions i n Chicago are the credit unions S a m o p o m i c h (Selfreliance) and Pevnist; the U k r a i n i a n bank T r y z u b , w h i c h existed until 1970; the consumer co-operative Samodopomoha, w h i c h runs a summer resort o n R o u n d Lake and a Ukrainian senior citizens' home i n Chicago; the "Ukrai­ nian Institute of M o d e r n A r t , w h i c h supports a perma­ nent art gallery; and the U k r a i n i a n N a t i o n a l M u s e u m , w h i c h houses a research library. The first U k r a i n i a n school was established i n 1906 at St Nicholas's C h u r c h , and by 1922 it h a d 300 students. In 1936 this school was expanded into a Ukrainian Catholic day school, w h i c h i n c l u d e d the U k r a i n i a n language i n its school program. In the 1950s-1960s the C h u r c h of the Nativity of the Blessed V i r g i n M a r y ran a day school. In 1980 there were five Saturday schools for Ukrainian studies, the largest of w h i c h was the school r u n by the association R i d n a Shkola. In 1966 two-year pedagogical courses were established for teachers of U k r a i n i a n studies; since 1978 they have been r u n by the Chicago branch of the U k r a i n i a n Catholic University. The Slavic department at the University of Illinois (Chicago Circle) offers a program i n U k r a i n i a n language and literature. A number of U k r a i n i a n newspapers have been pub­ lished i n Chicago: Ukraina (1917-20, 1930-2, ed. V . Simenovych), the biweekly Sich (1924-34), the weekly Nash stiah (1934-41), the weekly, and then biweekly, Ukrains'ke zhyttia (1955-), the Catholic weekly Nova zoria (1965-), and the Catholic biweekly Tserkovnyi visnyk (1968-). Several important magazines and journals have also been published there: the monthly, and then b i ­ monthly, Samostiina Ukraina (1948-), the illustrated quar­ terly, Ovyd (1957-76), the quarterly Ukrains'ke kozatstvo (1964-80), the illustrated b i m o n t h l y Ekran, the Orthodox

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bimonthly Tserkva i zhyttia (1957-), a n d the quarterly Likars'kyi visnyk (1961-). In the 1950s-1960s the N o v a Stsena theater and the choirs Surma (conducted b y O . Pleshkevych and I. Trukhly) a n d later Prometei (conducted by R. A n d r u shkiv) were active i n Chicago. There are a number of dance and music ensembles, mostly connected w i t h y o u t h organizations. The following U k r a i n i a n writers a n d poets have lived or still live i n Chicago: O . Babii, T. Kurpita, R. Zavadovych, H . C h e r i n , B. Rubchak, a n d Y u . Kolomyiets. The painters M . Harasovska-Dachyshyn and A . Kolomyiets a n d the sculptors K . M i l o n a d i s and M . U r b a n work i n Chicago. U k r a i n i a n musicians such as M . M a l k o (the conductor of the Chicago S y m p h o n y Orchestra), I. Bilohrud (a composer and pianist w h o conducts his o w n music school), a n d the singer I. Matsiuk-Hrytsai contribute to the musical life of the city. Some Ukrainians are active i n A m e r i c a n politics: I. H i m k a a n d J. Kulas are leading members of the D e m o cratic party, w h i l e I. Z a d r o z h n y a n d M . Kuropas (President G . Ford's adviser o n ethnic affairs) are active i n the Republican party. B . A n t o n o v y c h (Republican) and M . Kulas (Democrat) were elected i n the 1970s a n d 1980s to the Illinois H o u s e of Representatives. R. Smook, a lawyer from Chicago, was the director of the European office of the U n i t e d U k r a i n i a n A m e r i c a n Relief Committee. The following events can be v i e w e d as the highlights of Ukrainian life i n Chicago: the delegating of K . Bilyk i n 1919 to represent the A m e r i c a n Ukrainians o n the U k r a i nian delegation to the Paris Peace Conference; Metropolitan A . Sheptytsky's visit to Chicago i n 1921; Ukrainian participation i n the 1933 Century of Progress Exposition, at w h i c h the Ukrainians h a d a separate pavilion, 'Ukraine,' a n d an exhibit of A . A r c h i p e n k o ' s sculptures; the large demonstrations for U k r a i n i a n independence staged i n 1918 a n d 1933. In the 1960s Chicago was the center of bitter strife a m o n g U k r a i n i a n Catholics over whether to adhere to the Julian or the Gregorian calendar of holy days, w h i c h led to the organization of the new parish of ss V o l o d y m y r a n d O l h a . BIBLIOGRAPHY

Kochii, S. 'Ekonomichnyi rozvytok. Do istoriï ukraïntsiv v Chikago,' Ukraïns'ke zhyttia (Chicago), 1962, nos 1-5 Kuropas, M . Ukrainian Chicago,' in Ethnic Chicago, ed P. d'A. Jones and M . G . Holli (Chicago 1981) Semchyshyn, M . 'Deshcho z istoriï Chikago i ioho ukraïns'koho poselennia,' Narodna volia (Scranton), August-September 1981

D. Markus Child-care institutions. State institutions for raising children w h o are orphans or wards of the state. They developed out of orphanages, w h i c h were first established by monasteries a n d from the 19th century to the 1917 revolution were mostly under the jurisdiction of the Department of Empress M a r i a ' s Institutions. The first U k r a i n i a n foster home was established i n 1917 in Kiev for children from Galicia w h o had lost their parents i n the war. In that year other child-care institutions were opened i n the vicinity of K i e v a n d i n other cities of Ukraine. A s soon as the Soviet regime was established i n Ukraine, a large network of child-care institutions was set up to care for children w h o h a d been left homeless by the war and revolution. (See ^Children, homeless.) Such

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institutions appeared first i n 1919, a n d by the end of 1921 there were 1,644 of them, supporting 98,890 children. O w i n g to the terror a n d collectivization, child homelessness remained a permanent feature of the Soviet system; hence, the number of child-care institutions, i n spite of fluctuations, stayed h i g h . In 1940 there were 553 institutions w i t h 68,770 children. After the Second W o r l d War the number of homeless children increased again and so did the number of institutions. In 1950 there were 821 institutions w i t h 99,940 children. The return to normal, peaceful life brought a decline i n the number of institutions: i n 1955, 621 institutions cared for 64,230 children; in i960, 518 institutions cared for 56,600 children (the figures include institutions for b l i n d , deaf-mute, and retarded children). There are four types of child-care institutions: (1) preschool institutions for children aged three to seven; (2) institutions for school-age children between the ages of seven and sixteen; (3) m i x e d institutions for entire families of preschool a n d school-age children; and (4) special institutions for cripples, etc. M o s t of the institutions come under the M i n i s t r y of Education of the Ukrainian SSR. Some institutions are connected w i t h certain enterprises and come under the appropriate government ministries, but agencies of public education are i n charge of their wards' education. The program i n preschool institutions coincides w i t h the nursery a n d kindergarten program, and i n school institutions, w i t h the general curriculum. W h e n a w a r d reaches the age of eighteen, the agencies of public education determine whether he/she should continue his/her studies or begin w o r k i n g . In 1959 the Soviet authorities decided to change the institutions for school children gradually into *boarding schools. Since 1963 there have been no statistics o n child-care institutions i n the U k r a i n i a n SSR, but statistics for the USSR s h o w almost a four-fold reduction i n childcare institutions between 1958 a n d 1971. C h i l d labor laws. O n 21 September 1921 the C o u n c i l of People's Commissars of the U k r a i n i a n SSR approved the Code of L a w s C o n c e r n i n g the W o r k of M i n o r s and C h i l d r e n . The code became ineffective i n 1926, at w h i c h time some of its provisions were incorporated into the Labor C o d e of the U k r a i n i a n SSR, w h i c h n o w regulates the w o r k of minors. M a n y of the provisions have been superseded by later legislation of the USSR and the Ukrainian SSR. C h i l d r e n , homeless. The number of homeless children in Ukraine reached alarming proportions i n the 1920s as a result of the economic devastation, famine, and epidemics brought o n by the First W o r l d W a r and the revolution. In 1922, according to official statistics, there were seven million homeless children i n the USSR. A large proportion of them lived i n Ukraine, w h i c h h a d been a theater of war and terror for four years a n d suffered from severe famine in 1921, w h e n grain was confiscated and exported to Russia. A c c o r d i n g to official statistics, out of a total of 3,861,000 children, 1,734,000 suffered famine i n the five southern gubernias of the U k r a i n i a n SSR i n 1922. O n l y 228,000 of these h u n g r y children received organized aid. W i t h the revival of economic life i n 1922 the problem of homelessness was not solved. *Child-care institutions, refectories, a n d hostels were established haphazardly at first. Later, a network of hostels a n d foster homes for

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preschool a n d school-age children a n d handicapped children was set u p . C h i l d settlements were also organized. This network came under the jurisdiction of the People's Commissariat of Education a n d the public control of children's commissions that were members of the Central Committee for the A i d of the C h i l d r e n of the U k r a i n i a n SSR. In 1925, according to official statistics, there were 788 institutions aiding 72,400 children i n Ukraine. Fifty percent of the children were of peasant origin, a n d 71 percent were between the ages of eight and fourteen. Some orphans were entrusted to the care of peasant, artisan, a n d worker families. M a n y homeless children were also placed i n colonies for delinquents r u n by the People's Commissariat of Education and the security police, such as the GPU labor colony near Kharkiv. Yet gangs of homeless, destitute children w h o survived by begging a n d stealing and turned into professional criminals or d i e d of disease could still be found i n the cities a n d towns of U k r a i n e . The forced collectivization a n d the anti-kulak drive of 1929-31, followed by the famine of 1932-3, swelled the ranks of homeless children. Thousands of peasant children perished, w h i l e the survivors became homeless. The Soviet authorities adopted severe measures against them: o n 1 June 1935 the Central Committee of the A l l - U n i o n C o m m u n i s t Party (Bolshevik) a n d the C o u n c i l of People's Commissars of the USSR issued the decree O n Liquidating Homelessness and Neglect a m o n g C h i l d r e n , a n d i n 1941 the Supreme Soviet of the USSR passed a decree m a k i n g 14-year-olds subject to criminal prosecution generally a n d 12-year-olds subject to prosecution o n charges of theft, rape, assault, etc. A t the end of the 1930s the number of homeless children appeared to decline, since m a n y of them were imprisoned in labor colonies or concentration camps. D u r i n g the Second W o r l d W a r the number of orphans increased dramatically. The destruction of cities and villages, economic devastation, a n d famine caused a swift rise i n the numbers of homeless children. After the war the network of foster homes was expanded to accommodate the orphans. In 1947 there were 702 institutions, caring for 109,340 children. Teenage orphans were put into labor-reserve schools a n d were ruthlessly exploited in industry. Deportation from Ukraine was w i d e l y practiced, a n d thus m a n y of these youths lost touch w i t h their country. M . Hlobenko Children's folklore. O r a l literature created by adults for children, some of the folklore created for adults that has turned into oral poetry for children, and the oral poetry created by children. The characteristic feature of children's folklore is its clear educational purpose. The material i n this field differs according to the ages of the children at w h i c h it is aimed. The basic genres of children's folklore are cradle songs, lullabies, humorous songs, nonsense stories, teasing jests, counting songs, song games, children's ritual songs of the annual cycle (carols, N e w Year's songs, spring songs), proverbs and sayings, riddles, a n d folk stories for children (particularly stories about animals). Cradle songs are the first examples of children's folklore that children hear from their mothers. They are remarkable for their poetic beauty, tenderness, sincerity, v i v i d imagery, a n d playful language. In them one often comes across the image of the p u r r i n g cat, the personifica-

tion of sleep a n d drowsiness, a n d the figures of various animals a n d birds. Lullabies a n d soothing songs have a pronounced r h y t h m a n d a w i d e range of sounds. They are often sung w h i l e the child is being fondled. C o u n t i n g songs help the child memorize the number sequence. A special place i n children's folklore is occupied by folk stories. Each age group has its o w n stories. For the smallest children there are ' K o l o b o k ' (The Ball), ' R i p k a ' (The Turnip), 'Ivasyk-Telesyk,' a n d ' R u k a v y c h k a ' (The Mitten). For children of school age there are 'Kotyhoroshok' (Pea-roller) a n d m a n y magic stories that end i n the victory of good over evil. C h i l d r e n ' s folklore contains many ancient inventions, such as games ('We S o w e d Millet,' 'Poppies A r e G r o w i n g o n the H i l l , ' and 'The Quail') a n d dance games ( T h e Sad Rabbit' and 'The Noise'). Children's folklore began to be published i n the 1830s1840s. U k r a i n i a n poets such as Lesia U k r a i n k a , S. R u d a n sky, M . Shchoholiv, a n d O . Oles have written many poems o n the m o d e l of popular cradle songs. Folk stories have inspired m a n y prose w o r k s a n d literary adaptations of folk stories. They have h a d an important influence o n such writers as M a r k o V o v c h o k , I. Franko, a n d M . K o t s i u b y n s k y . (See also "Children's literature.) BIBLIOGRAPHY

Kosach, L. (ed). Teksty - Dytiachi hry, pisni, kazky z KoveVshchyny, Lushchyny ta ZviaheVshchyny na Volyni. Voice notation by K. Kvitka (Kiev 1903) Vynohradov, H . Dytiachyi foVklor i poeziia pestuvannia, 2 vols (Kiev 1947) Ukra'ins'kyi dytiachyi foVklor (Kiev 1962) Nad kolyskoiu. Ukraïns'ki kolyskovi pisni ta virshi (Kiev 1963) Stupak, Iu. 'Narodna poetychna tvorchist' dlia ditei/ in D. Bilets'kyi and Iu. Stupak, Ukraïns'ka dytiacha literatura (Kiev 1963) Hoshovs'kyi, B. 'Ukraïns'kyi dytiachyi folkl'or,' in My i nashi dity, 1 (Toronto-New York 1965) P. Odarchenko Children's literature. U k r a i n i a n literature for children follows the development of U k r a i n i a n literature i n general, sharing w i t h it some authors a n d works as w e l l as the general impediments i n development (see "Ems Ukase). The earliest w o r k c o m m o n to both children's and adult literature is the Azbuka (ABC, 1574) published by the printer I. Fedorovych i n L v i v . The first book w h o l l y devoted to children was Chytanka dlia malykh ditei do shkiVnoho i domashrïoho upotrebleniia (A Reader for Small C h i l d r e n for School a n d H o m e Use, L v i v 1850), compiled by M . Shashkevych. Other primers soon followed, notably i n eastern Ukraine (P. K u l i s h ' s Hramatka [Grammar, St Petersburg 1857]; T. Shevchenko's Bukvar' [Primer, St Petersburg i860]; M . Hattsuk's Ukraïns'ka abetka [Ukrainian Alphabet, 1861]). The interest of the U k r a i n i a n romantics i n folklore led inadvertently to the g r o w t h i n children's literature. Thus, L . Boro vy ko vsky's Baiky i prybaiutky (Fables and Sayings, Kiev 1852) and the first fables of L . H l i b o v (which began to appear i n 1853) beginnings for entertaining as well as didactic children's literature (see "Fable.) Artistic prose written specifically for children, however, appeared only w i t h the writings of M a r k o Vovchok, w h o may be called the founder of m o d e r n U k r a i n i a n children's literature. H e r Opovidannia Marka Vovchka (The Stories of M a r k o Vovchok, St Petersburg 1865) contained the first t

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real stories for children: 'Dev'iat' brativ i desiata sestrytsia H a l i a ' (Nine Brothers a n d a Tenth Sister Halia), ' V e d m i d " (The Bear), ' N e v i l ' n y c h k a ' (The Slavegirl), and ' K a r m e l i u k . ' H o w e v e r , her most famous w o r k for children, Marusia, o w i n g to the prohibition of publications i n U k r a i n i a n , appeared first i n a Russian translation from U k r a i n i a n (1871). It also appeared i n a French translation edited by P.J. Stahl (Maroussia, d'après la légende de Marko Wovzog, 1878) before it finally came out i n the original U k r a i n i a n (1905). The French redaction has enjoyed great popularity a n d countless editions. It is still recommended literature for children i n France. Some authors circumvented the restrictions o n original Ukrainian literature by translating works from other literatures; these translations included M . Starytsky's Kazky Andersena z korotkoiu ioho zhyttiepyssiu (Fables of H . C . A n d e r s e n w i t h a Short Biography, 1873), O . Pchilka's Ukraïns'kym ditiam (For U k r a i n i a n C h i l d r e n , 1882); and B. H r i n c h e n k o ' s Robinzon, opovidannia pro te, iakodyn cholovik po chuzhykh kraiakh mandruvav i iak vin sam na ostrovi sered moña zhyv (Robinson, the Story of H o w O n e M a n Traveled i n Foreign L a n d s a n d H o w H e L i v e d A l o n e on an Island i n the M i d d l e of the Sea, 1891). M o s t eastern Ukrainian writers contributed their stories and works for children to publications i n Western Ukraine, where a series of ""children's magazines h a d been established. In L v i v children's literature came under the special care of the Ruthenian Pedagogical Society (see *Ridna Shkola society), w h i c h undertook the publication of U k r a i n i a n children's books as a means of combating Polonization. Between 1884 and 1910 the society published about 150 books for children, some w i t h illustrations. The society's most noted contribution to the development of children's literature, however, was the outstanding magazine *Dzvinok (1890-1914). D u r i n g its existence it had among its contributors the most noted U k r a i n i a n writers and illustrators of the time ( M . Kotsiubynsky, Lesia Ukrainka, B. H r i n c h e n k o , V . Shchurat, I. N e c h u i - L e v y t s k y , K . Hrynevycheva, a n d others). The most important contributor was I. Franko; Dzvinok serialized several of his stories for children - ' L y s M y k y t a ' (Mykyta the Fox; nos 3-21, 1890), ' A b u K a s y m o v i kaptsi' ( A b u Casim's Slippers, nos 1-23, 1895) - and published many of his individual animal stories, fables, a n d translations (in 1896-8). A notable first was also the appearance i n Dzvinok of the first opera for children, Koza Dereza (Billy Goat's Bluff) by M . L y s e n k o . Publication activity spread into eastern Ukraine w i t h the relaxation of Russian censorship after the 1905 revolution. O . Lototsky's collection of stories Vinok (Wreath, 1905, 2d e d n 1911) was issued by the n e w l y established N a s h y m D i t i a m publishing house i n St Petersburg. Translations of children's books were published by Ya. Orenshtein i n K i e v (1903-14). Some translations, as well as original w o r k s , were published by L . Kyselytsia i n the series Dytiacha Biblioteka (Children's Library) i n Chernivtsi (1909-14). The translations of H . C . A n d e r sen's tales a n d M a r k T w a i n ' s Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn were issued by B. H r i n c h e n k o ' s p u b l i s h i n g house, V i k . The most notable children's authors at this time were A . C h a i k o v s k y a n d A . Kashchenko, w h o both wrote Cossack adventure stories. Children's literature continued to be written and published i n the period between the two w o r l d wars. In Western Ukraine some 500 titles appeared d u r i n g this

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time. In Transcarpathia P. K u k u r u z a published a magazine for children, Pchilka (The Bee, 1923-33), as w e l l as a series, Dytiacha Biblioteka, of 88 titles (1923-38). The Svit D y t y n y p u b l i s h i n g house i n L v i v (1919-40) produced about 200 titles as w e l l as the magazine Svit dytyny. A m o n g its most prominent authors were A . Lototsky and I. L y p a . A l s o of interest were the poetic stories and plays by O . Oles (Solom'ianyi bychok [The Straw O x , 1927] and others) published by C h a i k a publishers i n Prague. In Soviet Ukraine children's literature took o n a special significance as a means of educating future C o m m u n i s t cadres. The most prominent Soviet U k r a i n i a n children's authors i n the interwar years were A . H o l o v k o , author of such stories as ' C h e r v o n a khustyna' (Red Kerchief, 1926); S. Vasylchenko, author of 'Aviiatsiinyi hurtok' (The A v i a tion G r o u p , 1924); O . K o p y l e n k o , author of novels of school life (Desiatyklasnyky [Tenth Graders, 1938]); and M . Trublaini. A l s o very popular were the translations from Russian of K . C h u k o v s k y ' s works (Likar Aibolyf [Doctor O w i t h u r t s , 1926], Vid dvokh do p'iaty [From T w o to Five, 1928], and others). Some excellent poetry for children was written by P. T y c h y n a . O f other writers w h o wrote for y o u n g children the most noted was N . Zabila (Derev'ianyi bychok [The W o o d e n O x , 1935], Kazka pro pivnyka ta kurochku i pro khytru lysychku [A Tale about the Rooster and the H e n a n d the Crafty Fox, 1936], and other books). Other authors of note were O . Ivananenko, M . Pryhara, V . Bychko, and I. N e k h o d a . Currently the most prolific Soviet U k r a i n i a n writer of children's literature is V . Nestaiko, w h o combines boys' adventures w i t h some science fiction and h u m o r (Suputnyk 'Lira-3' [Sputnik 'Lira-3,' i960], Pryhody Robinzona Kukuruzo [Adventures of Robinson K u k u r u z o , 1964], Taiemnytsia tfokh nevidomykh [The Secret of Three Strangers, 1970], etc). The war years brought an interruption to the publishing of children's literature. The only exception was the Ukrainske V y d a v n y t s t v o p u b l i s h i n g house i n Cracow, w h i c h published not only the journal Mali druzi but also some notable titles: a jubilee edition of I. Franko's Lys Mykyta (1941), illustrated by E . Kozak; R. Zavadovych's Pryhody Gnomyka Romtomtomyka (The Adventures of G n o m e Romtomtomyk), and his poetic tale Khloptsi z zelenoho boru (The Boys from the Green W o o d , 1943). After the war activity i n children's literature was resumed by the establishment of the ^Association of Ukrainian Writers for Y o u n g People (OPDLM) i n 1946 i n Germany. The OPDLM has since spread to many Western countries and has established, under the direction of B. H o s h o v s k y , its p u b l i s h i n g firm N a s h y m Ditiam i n Toronto; it has more than 100 titles to its credit, among them: Pryvit, Ukraïno, tobi (Greetings to Y o u , Ukraine, 1950), consisting of poems and stories illustrated by V . Tsymbal, O . Sudomora, and M . M y k h a i l e v y c h ; M a r k o Vovchok's Sestra Melassia (Sister Melassia), illustrated by J. H n i z d o v s k y ; and N . M u d r y k - M r y t s ' s Pryhody horishka (Adventures of a Little N u t , 1970). Prior to the arrival of the postwar emigration some Ukrainian books for children had appeared i n Canada. The first was a U k r a i n i a n - E n g l i s h dictionary compiled by I. B o d r u g a n d M . Shcherbinin i n 1905. In 1913 the first bilingual U k r a i n i a n - E n g l i s h reader, Manitoba-Ruthenian Reader, appeared. A l t h o u g h few original books were written, children's needs were served by the establishment of several magazines (Tsvitka, Jersey City, NJ 191417; Dzvinochok, W i n n i p e g 1918). Nevertheless, prior

450

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LITERATURE

Children's magazines to 1945 most books for children were imported from Ukraine. A l t h o u g h O P D L M is the primary publisher of books for children, other U k r a i n i a n associations (Plast, the U k r a i nian N a t i o n a l W o m e n ' s League of America), publishing houses (Howerla, K n y h o s p i l k a ) , newspapers, and even i n d i v i d u a l authors (R. Zavadovych) p u b l i s h children's books. In recent years some U k r a i n i a n books for children have appeared also i n English: K . U s h i n s k y ' s How a Shirt Grew in the Field, 1967; Tusya and the Pot of Gold, 1971; several books illustrated by Y . Surmach-Mills; the collections Ukrainian Folk Tales, 1964, illustrated by J. H n i z d o v sky, and The Flying Ship and Other Ukrainian Folk Tales, 1975; M . H a l u n Bloch's Bern, Son of Mikula, 1972, illustrated by E . Kozak; and a prose adaptation of I. Franko's classic, Fox Mykyta, 1978, by B. M e l n y k , illustrated by W . Kurelek). BIBLIOGRAPHY Mariienhof, Ye. Trydtsiaf rokiv dytiachoï literatury v URSR (Kiev 1949) Za ridnu knyzhku ditiam (Toronto 1951) Shcho povynna chytaty ukrains'ka dytyna (Toronto 1957) Ukraïns'ka dytiacha literatura: Khrestomatiia krytychnykh material™ (Kiev 1962) Hoshovsky, B. (ed), My i nashi dity: Dytiacha literatura, mystetstvo, vykhovannia, 1 (Toronto-New York 1965) Wynar, C.L. 'Ukrainian Children's Literature in North America,' Phaedrus, 6, no. 1 (spring 1979) D . H . Struk

Children's magazines. The first children's magazine published i n Ukraine was Lastivka i n 1869, weekly supplement to the journal UchyteV, edited by M . Klemertovych. In 1875, starting w i t h the 15th issue, Lastivka became an independent b i w e e k l y a n d was published until 1881. In 1881-3 I. Trembitsky published the semimonthly *PriiateV ditei i n K o l o m y i a . A t the same time Novosf was p u b l i s h e d i n L v i v b y O . Shcherban (edited by H . K u p c h a n k o ) ; one time it issued a supplement also called PriiateV ditei. A l l these journals of Russophile sympathies served the readership i n Galicia for a period of over 10 years but failed to become firmly rooted. The children's magazine *Dzvinok (1890-1914) i n L v i v marked a turning point a n d h a d a lasting influence o n the development of children's periodicals. It was professionally edited i n Galicia a n d i n c l u d e d a m o n g its contributors writers from central a n d eastern U k r a i n e . It fulfilled its purpose w e l l . A m o n t h l y supplement to Misionar, *Malyi misionarchyk, was p u b l i s h e d a n d edited by the Basilian fathers i n Z h o v k v a i n 1903-14. It gave special attention to religious matters. The only children's magazine i n central a n d eastern Ukraine before the First W o r l d W a r was a m o n t h l y supplement to the paper Ridnyi krai, entitled *Moloda Ukraina, published a n d edited b y O l e n a Pchilka i n K i e v i n 1908-14. D u r i n g Ukraine's independence a literary, illustrated, semimonthly, Voloshky, came out i n K i e v from October 1917 to January 1918 under the editorship of N . Romano vych-Tkachenko a n d w i t h the support of V . and K . A n t o n o v y c h . In Kamianets-Podilskyi S. Rusova a

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MAGAZINES

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Children's magazines edited the short-lived Ranok (1919). It was illustrated by P. K h o l o d n y , Sr, a n d others. After the war the m o n t h l y *Svit dytyny began to appear i n L v i v . It was published a n d edited by M . Taranko and played an important educative role i n Western Ukraine and i n the diaspora. The religious a n d national traditions of Malyi misionarchyk were assumed i n 1921-39 by *Nash pryiateV, w h i c h was published b y the M a r i a n Y o u t h Society i n L v i v a n d edited by the Basilian fathers. In 1931-9 the U k r a i n s k a Presa publishers, o w n e d by I. Tyktor, published *Dzvinochok, a mass m o n t h l y aimed especially at peasant children. For a brief period children's magazines of a nationalist orientation appeared: the illustrated monthlies Veselka, published i n 1933 by H . Hanuliak; luni druzi, published b y U k r a i n s k a Rekliama publishers a n d edited by P . Polishchuk i n 1933-4; Orlenla, published by Desheva K n y z h k a publishers; and *Mali druzi (1937-8), edited b y B . H o s h o v s k y , w h i c h after a two-year interruption was published by Ukrainske Vydavnytstvo publishers i n C r a c o w (1940-2) and L v i v (1942-4). The Polish authorities prohibited the distribution of Galician children's magazines i n V o l h y n i a , Podlachia, and Polisia. This p r o m p t e d the O r t h o d o x metropolitanate in Warsaw to p u b l i s h the magazine Dytyna i n 1937-9 f ° these regions. Its editor was I. Korovytsky. In Rivne the U k r a i n s k a Shkola educational society published *Sonechko (1935-7). The magazines published i n V o l h y n i a during the Second W o r l d W a r i n c l u d e d Shkoliaryk, edited by A . Kolomyiets, w h i c h appeared i n D u b n o (1941-2), r

and Orlenla, issued i n Rivne (1942-3). The children's press i n U k r a i n i a n territories under Polish rule was very important i n instilling a national consciousness i n U k r a i nian children (something that the P o l o n i z e d schools could not do). In Chernivtsi, B u k o v y n a , the Ruska Besida society published a m o n t h l y book series, Biblioteka dlia M o l o dezhy (Library for Y o u t h , 1885-95), and Lastivka (1894-6). The U k r a i n s k a Shkola society published Ukraïns'ka lastivka (1933-9). In U z h h o r o d , Transcarpathia, the Basilian monastic order published a m o n t h l y bulletin, Svitlo (1913-14 and 1916). Later *Vinochok dlia podkarpats'kykh ditochok (1920-4) and Dzvinochok came out i n U z h h o r o d ; both were edited by I. Pankevych. *Nash ridnyi krai, published i n Tiachiv by O . M a r k u s h i n 1922-39, was aimed at older children. *Pchilka, a children's journal, was published and edited b y P. K u k u r u z a i n U z h h o r o d i n 1923-32. In Soviet Ukraine children's magazines have served and continue to serve Communist upbringing. The Central Bureau of the C o m m u n i s t C h i l d r e n ' s M o v e m e n t published the following magazines: for younger children, the monthlies *Zhovtenia (Kiev, 1928-41) a n d *Tuk-tuk (Kharkiv 1929-35); for older children, *Chervoni kvity (Kharkiv, 1923-31), w h i c h i n 1931 was amalgamated w i t h BiVshovycheniata (1924-31), a magazine for peasant children, and i n 1937 w i t h the magazine Vesela bryhada (1931-7), formi n g a n e w magazine, *Pioneriia (1931-41). This last magazine was revived i n 1950 and is currently published i n Kiev i n U k r a i n i a n and i n Russian. In 1922 the Central

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Committee of the C o m m u n i s t Y o u t h League a n d the People's Commissariat of Education of the U k r a i n i a n SSR began p u b l i s h i n g Iunyi spartak for members of the Pioneer organization a n d schoolchildren. Since 1923 it has ap­ peared i n Russian under the title Iunyi leninets and briefly (1938-41) i n U k r a i n i a n under the title Iunyi pioner. In 1923 Na zminu began to appear i n K h a r k i v ; i n 1943 it was renamed *Zirka. *Barvinok, an illustrated m o n t h l y for younger school­ children, has been published i n K i e v i n U k r a i n i a n since 1945 and i n Russian since 1950. A magazine for preschool children, *Maliatko, has appeared since i960. Both mag­ azines are p u b l i s h e d by the Central Committee of the C o m m u n i s t Y o u t h League. Magazines i n specialized areas - art, technology, science, etc - are published only in Russian for all of the USSR.

The Ukrainians of Backa, Yugoslavia, published the magazine *Nasha zahradka (Ruski Krstur, 1937-40), edited by M . K o v a c h . Since 1945 Pionerska zahradka has ap­ peared. Since 1956 Svitanok (entitled Dytiache slovo u p to 1958) - a b i w e e k l y supplement for schoolchildren i n the paper *Nashe slovo - has appeared i n W a r s a w . In Presov the biweekly *Veselka has appeared since the 1950s. U k r a i n i a n ιmigrιs published briefly i n Regensburg, Germany, i n 1945 Shkoliar and Shkoliaryk, two children's journals edited by L . Poltava. In M u n i c h V . Orenchuk published Vovcheniata (1946), a n d i n N e c k a r s u l m L . Haievska p u b l i s h e d Sonechko (1947). B. H o s h o v s k y issued Mali druzi i n A u g s b u r g (1948) a n d Iuni druzi i n M u n i c h (1947-8). In 1947 the almanac Nashym ditiam appeared i n M u n i c h . The Association of Ukrainians i n Great Britain published the magazine Iuni druzi (1956-74). Before the Second W o r l d W a r children's magazines i n Canada a n d the U n i t e d States were not successful. Several magazines appeared briefly i n W i n n i p e g : i n 1918 Dzvinochok; i n 1924 Ditochyi svit, published by the Canadian-Ukrainian P u b l i s h i n g Association; i n 1925-8 Promin\ p u b l i s h e d by S. Doroshchuk; and i n 1931 lahidka, published by M . Borysyk. After the Second W o r l d W a r the following children's magazines appeared i n Canada: *Mii pryiateV (1949-66), published by the Central Office of U k r a i n i a n Catholics i n Canada i n W i n n i p e g a n d edited b y Rev S. Izhyk; the monthly Soniashnyk (1956-61), published by P. V o l y n i a k i n Toronto; a children's page i n the magazine Zhinochyi svit entitled ' D y t i a c h y i svit' a n d i n Ukratns'kyi holos entitled ' V i d d i l dlia m o l o d i , ' both published i n W i n n i p e g . In the U n i t e d States the first children's magazine was the illustrated quarterly Zirka, w h i c h began to appear i n 1913 i n N e w Britain, Connecticut, as a supplement to Dushpastyr a n d was edited by Rev M . Zalitach. The U k r a i n i a n N a t i o n a l Association published Tsvitka i n Jersey C i t y i n 1914-17. After this, Ukrainians i n the U n i t e d States subscribed to children's magazines pub­ lished i n Galicia. O n l y i n 1954 d i d the U k r a i n i a n National Association resume publication of children's literature, first as a supplement to the daily *Svoboda (1954-5), and from 1956 as a separate magazine, *Veselka, w h i c h has been edited b y B . H o s h o v s k y , R. Z a v a d o v y c h , and V . Barahura. Since 1953 Plast, the U k r a i n i a n scouting or­ ganization has p u b l i s h e d *Hotuis\ a magazine for its youngest members, i n N e w York. Since 1951 the woman's magazine *Nashe zhyttia i n Philadelphia has had a perma­ nent children's page entitled ' N a s h y m maliatam' (For O u r Little Ones). B. Hoshovsky

Children's music. M u s i c written for child performers or listeners. C h i l d r e n ' s operas were written by M . *Lysenko (especially the popular Koza dereza [Billy-Goat's Bluff]), K . Stetsenko, and others. There is a large b o d y of U k r a i n i a n piano music for children, i n c l u d i n g w o r k s b y V . K o s e n k o , V . Barvinsky, N . N y z h a n k i v s k y , a n d M . Fomenko. C h i l ­ dren's music occupies a prominent place i n the w o r k of modern U k r a i n i a n composers, i n c l u d i n g M . D r e m l i u h a , H . M a i b o r o d a , Y u . Rozhavska, G . Fiala, V . Ovcharenko, A . Filipenko, B . Filts, and I. Sonevytsky. C h i m y , Isidore (Jerome) [Xymij, Jeronim], b 12 M a r c h 1919 i n Radway, Alberta. Religious leader. C h i m y en­ tered the Basilian monastic order i n 1934 and was ordained into the U k r a i n i a n Catholic priesthood i n 1944. H e was Basilian provincial superior of Canada (1958-61), secretary to the superior general i n Rome, Italy (1961-3), a member of the General C u r i a (1963-74), and acting superior (1964-6). F r o m 1966 to 1974 C h i m y was rector of *St Josaphat's U k r a i n i a n Pontifical College i n Rome; he also belonged to the Sacred Congregation for Eastern Churches and Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. In 1974 C h i m y was appointed and consecrated bishop of the U k r a i n i a n Catholic church i n Canada, Westminster eparchy, British C o l u m b i a . C h i n a . C o u n t r y i n eastern a n d central A s i a w i t h a territory of 9,561,000 sq k m a n d a population i n 1982 of I, 008,175,288. In 1949 the Chinese C o m m u n i s t s estab­ lished the People's Republic of C h i n a , w h i l e the Chinese Nationalists, led by C h i a n g Kai-shek, retained control only over the island of T a i w a n (Formosa). It is difficult to trace the origin a n d development of Ukrainian-Chinese relations, w h i c h u n t i l recent times were only sporadic. A t the end of the 17th century they were a part of Russian-Chinese relations (Ukrainian monks took part i n Russian O r t h o d o x missions to C h i n a , etc). Later, several U k r a i n i a n travelers were acquainted w i t h C h i n a : Y u . T y m k i v s k y , M . Bantysh-Kamensky, a n d Y . Voitsekhivsky, a physician w h o d u r i n g his lifetime was honored by the Chinese w i t h a m o n u m e n t (1829) for his contribution to the struggle against epidemics. After the revolution about 1,000 Chinese lived i n Ukraine. In 1926 Huangun-bao (Chinese W o r k e r s ' Newspaper) was pub­ lished i n K i e v . Systematic research o n C h i n a was devel­ oped i n the 1920s, mostly by the A l l - U k r a i n i a n Scholarly Association of Oriental Studies (1926-30). W h e n the association was abolished, Chinese studies died out i n Ukraine; they were revived only after the C o m m u n i s t s came to power i n C h i n a . Beginning i n 1949 cultural ties between U k r a i n e and C h i n a were cultivated as part of the Soviet policy o n closer economic and cultural relations w i t h C h i n a . In 1957 a secondary boarding school offering the Chinese language from the first year was established in Kiev, w i t h an enrollment of 700 students. In 1958 specialization i n the Chinese language was introduced at L v i v University. In the 1950s over 100 Chinese delegations visited Ukraine. A b o u t 400 Chinese students studied at institu­ tions of higher learning i n Ukraine, and several thousand Chinese received training at U k r a i n i a n enterprises. D u r ­ ing this period the works of T. Shevchenko (beginning i n 1934), I. Franko, V . Stefanyk, and other classics, as w e l l as about 50 titles of contemporary Soviet writers such as O . Korniichuk, O . Honchar, A . H o l o v k o , O . D o v z h e n k o ,

CHINA

and Y u . Zbanatsky were translated into Chinese. A com­ parable number of w o r k s were translated from Chinese into U k r a i n i a n . B e g i n n i n g i n 1949, many U k r a i n i a n engineers, writers, scholars, and actors visited C h i n a . A continuous exchange i n theater and musical ensembles, dance groups, a n d art exhibits was instituted between Soviet Ukraine a n d C h i n a , w h i l e institutions of learning and libraries exchanged publications. The U k r a i n i a n Chinese Friendship Society was established i n 1958 i n Kiev as a branch of the a l l - U n i o n society. In the 1960s cultural relations between Ukraine a n d C h i n a were discontinued. There were no important economic ties between Ukraine and C h i n a i n the pre-Soviet period. In 1925 the short-lived Ukrainian-Oriental Trade Chamber was set up, and it conducted trade, w h i c h never attained sizable proportions, w i t h C h i n a . In 1926-7, for example, Ukraine's exports to C h i n a totaled only 2.8 million rubles. Ukraine's economic relations w i t h C h i n a expanded rapidly after 1949. In the 1950s at least 35 percent of the Soviet U n i o n ' s economic aid to C h i n a came from Ukraine. From 1950 to 1958 Ukraine contributed o n the average 500 million rubles per year i n aid to C h i n a (7 percent of China's annual capital investment). C h i n a imported auto­ mated machine shops, metallurgical equipment, coal­ m i n i n g machines, electric motors, cars, tractors, farm machinery, pipes, ferrous metals, chemical fertilizer, etc, from Ukraine. In 1958 Ukraine p r o v i d e d the equipment for b u i l d i n g about 100 industrial enterprises i n C h i n a . Ukrainian plants and scientific institutes designed and constructed industrial plants i n C h i n a . C h i n a paid the USSR for this aid i n products, of w h i c h Ukraine received raw silk, ferroalloys, tea, canned goods, and textiles. H o w e v e r , even after the break i n relations between C h i n a and the USSR i n the 1960s, interest i n Ukraine d i d not completely disappear. In 1972 the Beijing S h a n g w u p u b l i s h i n g house pub­ lished I. Dziuba's Internationalism or Russification? (Guoji-zhu-yi-hai-shi-e-luo-si hua?), translated by X i n H u a and L i n H a n - d a . In 1974 the h i g h l y respected San-Lian publishing house i n Beijing released P. Shelest's O Ukraine, Our Soviet Land (Wuo-men-de-su-wei-ai-wu-kelan), translated by a collective of the X i a n - W i n g Cadre School of the M i n i s t r y of Culture. Since the Great Proletarian C u l t u r a l Revolution and the reorganization of the universities and research institutes, the study of the Soviet U n i o n and of the Soviet national­ ities, i n c l u d i n g Ukrainians, has undergone considerable revival. The Institute of Nationality Studies and the Institute of Soviet and East European Studies of the Chinese A c a d ­ emy of Social Sciences (CASS) are the two leading centers among several i n C h i n a where U k r a i n i a n problems are studied. O n the university level the important centers, to mention just a few, are Heilongjiang University i n Harbin, Beijing University a n d the Central School for Nationali­ ties i n Beijing, the University of Nanjing, and various centers i n Shanghai. Chinese information about Ukraine is still quite inade­ quate, however. For example, i n a h i g h l y authoritative reference w o r k , Ci-Hai (3 vols, Shanghai 1979), edited by Xia Zheng-nong, there are a total of 30 references per­ taining to U k r a i n e . O f these, 16 are geographical i n nature; 3 pertain to historical figures (the princes Ihor, O l e h , and Yaroslav the Wise); a n d the remainder include

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T. Shevchenko, I. Franko, Lesia U k r a i n k a , M . Kotsiubynsky, O . K o r n i i c h u k , N . G o g o l , V . K o r o l e n k o , H . Skovoroda, M . Tuhan-Baranovsky ('bourgeois econo­ mist'), T. L y s e n k o , a n d H . K u l i s h e n k o , a colonel of a Soviet volunteer unit w h o died fighting the Japanese i n C h i n a i n 1939. N e a r l y all the information comes from Soviet Russian sources. In 1979 three U k r a i n i a n scholars i n the West - B. Bociurkiw, P. Potichnyj, a n d B. Lewytzkyj - visited C h i n a as guests of the CASS. Since then a number of scholarly contacts have been established between various Ukrainian-studies centers i n the West and Chinese insti­ tutions, w i t h the a i m of furthering the exchange of knowledge and publications about Ukraine. Chinese scholars interested i n U k r a i n i a n problems include R u a n X i h u , author of 'The U k r a i n i a n Nationality Problem' i n Shi-jie-min-zhu-wen-ti-chu-tan (Brief Survey of W o r l d Nationality Problems, Beijing 1981); G u o Simian; Shen Y u n at Heilongjiang University; and C h e n Y i - y u n , an editor of Sociology Today, a CASS journal. The journal Shijie Wenxue of the CASS Institute of Foreign Literature occasionally publishes translations of U k r a i n i a n litera­ ture. Ukrainians in China. U n t i l the end of the 19th century only those Ukrainians w h o w o r k e d for various imperial Russian institutions o n Chinese territory (diplomatic missons, postal service, steamship lines, trade missions, and the P e k i n g church mission) lived i n C h i n a . M a n y more Ukrainians settled i n C h i n a w h e n the Chinese Eastern (Manchurian) Railway was built by Russia i n 1898 on M a n c h u r i a n territory that belonged to C h i n a . Ukrainian colonies sprang u p at stations and towns along the railway, particularly i n H a r b i n , w h i c h became the Ukrainian center for all of northern M a n c h u r i a . Smaller Ukrainian communities appeared i n central and southern Manchuria - i n M u k d e n , Dairen, and K i r i n - and i n Shanghai, C h i n a . O n the eve of the revolution there were over 20,000 Ukrainian families i n M a n c h u r i a , mostly families of employees of the Chinese Eastern Railway. These U k r a i ­ nians maintained close ties w i t h Ukraine and w i t h U k r a i ­ nians living i n the *Far East. A m a t e u r and professional theater groups were organized, usually at railway workers' clubs (the first professional troupe was Myroslavsky's). A U k r a i n i a n hromada was organized i n Shanghai in 1906, a n d a U k r a i n i a n club i n 1907 i n H a r b i n and elsewhere. There was no U k r a i n i a n press, but the official publication of the Chinese Eastern Railway - Kharbinskii vestnik - contained m u c h information about Ukrainians. The Revolution of 1917 p r o v i d e d a stimulus to U k r a i ­ nian cultural life a n d led to the founding of various institutions and organizations, w h i c h were represented by the M a n c h u r i a n District C o u n c i l (Mandzhurska O k r u zhna Rada). The council's chairman was I. M o z o l e v s k y , and its members were P. Tverdovsky, S. K u k u r u z a , and M . Yurchenko. The Ukrainians i n M a n c h u r i a partici­ pated i n U k r a i n i a n political life i n the Far East, particu­ larly i n the *Far Eastern U k r a i n i a n congresses, and maintained close contact w i t h K i e v . A t the end of 1917 a Ukrainian military unit c o m m a n d e d by P. Tverdovsky was dispatched from H a r b i n to U k r a i n e , and i n the fall of 1918 Tverdovsky returned to H a r b i n as the U k r a i n i a n consul. A U k r a i n i a n school, a g y m n a s i u m , a U k r a i n i a n Orthodox parish, and a number of U k r a i n i a n institutions that were housed i n the b u i l d i n g of the U k r a i n i a n club

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(the U k r a i n i a n People's H o m e ) were established i n Harbin. A weekly newspaper, Zasiv, was published there (34 issues). Refugees from the Far East after the Bolshevik occupation enlarged the U k r a i n i a n population i n C h i n a . In 1922-31 the flourishing U k r a i n i a n community i n M a n c h u r i a suffered a setback as a result of its loss of ties w i t h the Far East a n d , more important, because of the hostile attitude adopted by the Chinese administration, w h i c h was influenced by Russian circles. The U k r a i n i a n People's H o m e i n H a r b i n was confiscated by the authorities, and the Ukrainian gymnasium and other institutions were abolished. A t this time the Prosvita society i n H a r b i n , w h i c h to survive operated under the auspices of the local branch of the Y M C A , played an important cultural role. The w e e k l y Ukraxns'ke zhyttia was published i n H a r b i n over a Japanese signature to avoid control by the Chinese administration. Ukrainians met w i t h fairer treatment i n M a n c h o u k u o , the buffer state set u p by Japan i n 1931, although the Japanese military m i s s i o n m e d d l e d i n the internal affairs of the U k r a i n i a n c o m m u n i t y . U k r a i n i a n organized life again became centered o n the U k r a i n i a n People's H o m e i n H a r b i n , w h i c h housed a number of organizations, such as the U k r a i n i a n N a t i o n a l H r o m a d a , the U n i o n of Ukrainian Emigrants, Prosvita, the U n i o n of U k r a i n i a n Teachers, the U k r a i n i a n Y o u t h Association, and the Zelenyi K l y n Y o u t h Association. In 1935 the U k r a i n i a n National C o l o n y was founded as an umbrella organization for all Ukrainians i n M a n c h u r i a . W h e n the Japanese dissolved all other U k r a i n i a n organizations i n 1937, the Ukrainian N a t i o n a l C o l o n y became the center of all Ukrainian life. In 1932-7 the weekly *Mandzhurs'kyi visnyk was published under the editorship of I. S vit. In 1934 U k r a i n i a n radio programs were established i n Harbin and i n 1942 i n Shanghai as w e l l . In the Prometheus club i n H a r b i n U k r a i n i a n representatives collaborated w i t h the émigrés of other nations oppressed by Russia. W h e n the Soviet army occupied M a n c h u r i a i n 1945, most of the Ukrainians there were arrested and deported, and all U k r a i n i a n organizations were outlawed. O n the territory of C h i n a proper i n the 1920s-1940s U k r a i n i a n organizations functioned i n Shanghai, where a U k r a i n i a n bureau for all of C h i n a was located for a time and the newspapers Shankhais'ka hromada and Ukraïns'kyi holos na Dalekomu Skhodi were published; i n Tientsin; i n Tsingtao, where the newspaper Na Dalekomu Skhodi was published; i n H a n k o w ; and i n other cities. Virtually all Ukrainians i n C h i n a emigrated to the West by 1949, before the C o m m u n i s t s came to power. Accurate figures for the number of Ukrainians w h o lived i n C h i n a are unavailable. It is estimated that i n the 1930s there were about 30,000 Ukrainians living i n C h i n a including M a n c h u r i a , half of them i n H a r b i n . L. Holubnycha, P. Potichnyj, I. S vit, Tsui Tsien-hua Chirovsky, Nicholas [Cyrovs'kyj, Mykola], b 5 August 1919 i n V o i n y l i v , K a l u s h county, Galicia. Economist, pedagogue, a n d c o m m u n i t y leader i n the U n i t e d States. Chirovsky studied at the universities of Louvain (Belgium) and G r a z (Austria) a n d the U k r a i n i a n Free University i n M u n i c h . H e is n o w a professor at Seton H a l l U n i versity i n N e w a r k , N e w Jersey. C h i r o v s k y has served as vice-president (1967-74) and secretary (1974-80) of the Shevchenko Scientific Society i n the United States. H e has published studies o n the history of Ukraine and Russia,

as w e l l as o n the development of economic ideas. H i s major publications are Old Ukraine (Madison, NJ 1963), An Introduction to Russian History ( N e w Y o r k 1967), Ukraine and the European Turmoil, 1917-1919 (co-authored w i t h M . Stakhiv and P. Stercho, 2 vols, N e w Y o r k - S c r a n t o n 1973), Philosophy in Economic Thought (co-authored w i t h V . M o t t , M a d i s o n , N J 1972), a n d the first volume of a planned three-volume Introduction to Ukrainian History (New Y o r k 1981). Chistovich, Ilarion [Cistovic], b 1828 i n Kaluga gubernia, d 1893. Russian church historian, professor at St Petersburg Theological A c a d e m y . In m a n y of his works Chistovich touched o n the history of the U k r a i n i a n church; for example, i n Arsenii Matsievich (1861-2), Neizdannyepropovedi S. lavorskogo (The U n p u b l i s h e d Sermons of S. Iavorsky, 1867), Teofan Prokopovich i ego vremia (T. Prokopovych and H i s Time, 1868), a n d Ocherk istorii zapadno-russkoi Tserkvi ( A n O u t l i n e H i s t o r y of the West Russian C h u r c h , 2 vols, 1882-4). C h m e l o v , Serhii [Cmel'ov, Serhij], b October 1896 i n Nova Vodolaha, Kharkiv gubernia, d 16 November 1941 i n Kharkiv. Writer-humorist. H e graduated from the faculty of law at K h a r k i v University and w o r k e d as a public judge i n the t o w n of V a l k y i n the K h a r k i v region. H i s works began to appear i n print i n 1925. H e was a member of P l u h . H e published a number of collections of satire and humorous stories: Horokhom ob stinu (Like T h r o w i n g Peas against a W a l l , 1929), PaVtsem u nebo ( A Finger S k y w a r d , 1929), A vy kazhete (So Y o u Say), Kino-ideolohiia (Cinema Ideology, 1930), Vashi znaiomi (Your Acquaintances, 1930), Svyniacha sprava (Dirty Business, 1931), Mertvi dushi (Dead Souls, 1931), Sobi dorozhche (More for Oneself, 1931), Perekvalifikatsiia (Requalification, 1933), NaviV dyvnol (Strange, Even!, 1934). r i i s Klaptyk istoriï ( A Piece of History) was published posthumously i n 1961.

Ivan Chmola C h m o l a , Ivan [Cmola], b 6 M a r c h 1892 i n Solotvyna, N a d v i r n a county, Galicia, d? Military and pedagogical activist i n Galicia. Before 1914 he was one of the founders of the *Plast U k r a i n i a n Y o u t h Association and of the Sich Riflemen movement i n Galicia. In 1914 he became an officer of the U k r a i n i a n Sich Riflemen, and i n 1917 a colonel and organizer of Sich Riflemen units i n K i e v . In 1919 he commanded a battalion and then a regiment of Sich Riflemen. After the war he taught i n gymnasiums i n Yavoriv and

CHOMIÑSKI

Drohobych and continued to organize and instruct Plast groups. For his activities i n Plast he was arrested by the Polish authorities i n 1930 a n d jailed for one and a half years. U p o n his release he continued to w o r k i n the then-clandestine Plast movement u p to the Second W o r l d War. In 1941 he was deported by the Soviets and disappeared without trace. Choirs. The earliest choirs i n Ukraine were found i n monasteries and princely courts. In the n t h century choral singing was taught at the w o m e n ' s monastery school i n Kiev. F r o m the 16th century church brotherhoods organized choirs; the better-known of these were in Kiev, L v i v , and Lutske. The choir of the K i e v a n M o h y l a A c a d e m y was particularly famous and had over 300 singers. A t the e n d of the 19th a n d the beginning of the 20th century amateur choirs sprang u p spontaneously all over Ukraine and became one of the forms of expression of the national awakening. The best choirs demonstrated the excellence of U k r a i n i a n choral art abroad: the *Ukrainian Republican Kapelle, conducted by O . Koshyts, toured Western Europe and A m e r i c a i n 1919-20, and the Kiev choir *Dumka, conducted by N . Horodovenko, performed i n France, particularly i n Paris i n 1929. A m a t e u r choirs are very popular i n U k r a i n e and can be found i n almost every village. A b r o a d , almost every larger center of U k r a i n i a n émigrés supports a choir. The best professional Ukrainian choirs today are D u m k a and the *Verovka State C h o i r i n Kiev, *Trembita i n L v i v , the T r a n s c a r p a t h i a n Folk C h o i r i n U z h h o r o d , and the *Byzantine C h o i r i n Utrecht i n the Netherlands. Chokratske Lake [Cokrats'ke]. A saltwater lake i n the Kerch Peninsula of the C r i m e a , separated from the Sea of A z o v by a broad sand strip. The lake is 3.5 k m i n length and 2.5 k m i n w i d t h ; its area is 8.5 sq k m . The sediment on the lake bottom has curative properties. Salt is produced from the lake. Cholera. C o m m o n name for Asiatic cholera, an acute, bacterial, contagious infection of the small intestine, characterized by severe diarrhea and a rapid depletion of body fluids. U n d e r favorable conditions it quickly assumes epidemic or even pandemic proportions. The bacillus causing the disease was identified by the G e r m a n bacteriologist R. K o c h i n 1884 as Vibrio cholerae. Cholera spreads through contact w i t h an infected person or by means of contaminated water and foods. Flies and roaches also contribute greatly to its spread. The incubation period lasts usually from 12 to 28 hours. D u r i n g chronic epidemics almost two-thirds of the infected die w i t h i n the first two days. Several methods are practiced n o w i n combating the disease: hospitalization, isolation of suspected carriers and their contacts, vaccination, and even quarantine. Drugs such as an alkaline solution of sodium chloride to replenish body fluids and salt, antibiotics, sulfa drugs, vitamins, and glucose are administered. The disease is checked by sanitary control and disinfection of food a n d water supplies, fly control, a n d the like. Cholera was little k n o w n i n Europe before 1817. O n l y after the British colonization of India (1757-1817) and the growth of international ties d i d cholera begin to spread far beyond its original Asiatic habitat. In Europe, including the Russian Empire and Ukraine, it appeared i n the

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1820s. There were six major cholera epidemics i n the Russian Empire. D u r i n g the first epidemic (1817-23) the incidence of cholera i n Ukraine was only sporadic and occurred only i n 1823. D u r i n g the second epidemic (1826-37) cholera spread into Ukraine i n 1830, facilitated by the Russian-Turkish War, especially w h e n the troops returned home. Cholera also appeared among the Russian soldiers sent to quell the Polish uprising (November 1830), and it reached its height i n Ukraine i n 1831. Exact figures are not available, but it is k n o w n that i n the village of Podosakh i n Berdychiv county, for example, eight persons died daily from cholera at this time. The third epidemic (1846-61) reached the coasts of the Black Sea a n d the Sea of A z o v i n 1847, spreading first through Odessa and then the whole of Ukraine and Poland. The Russian army deployed i n Galicia lost 7,400 men to cholera i n 1849. In 1853-5, d u r i n g the Crimean War, cholera was especially severe: the French army lost 11,200 of the 20,000 m e n w h o were contaminated w i t h the disease; the English lost 4,500 out of 7,600 contaminated. The fourth epidemic (1863-75) spread i n A u g u s t 1865 from Constantinople into Odessa and i n 1866 to almost all of Europe. The epidemic d i e d d o w n i n Europe i n 1869-70 but continued i n Ukraine and Russia. The fifth epidemic (1881-95) reached A u s t r i a i n 1885 and H u n g a r y and Germany i n 1886, from where it again returned to Galicia, central and eastern U k r a i n e , and Russia. In Galicia and Bukovyna 2,300 persons died from cholera i n 1892-4. D u r i n g these epidemics the mortality rate from the disease in Ukraine and other territories of the Russian Empire fluctuated between 36.8 percent a n d 44.9 percent of those infected. The sixth epidemic (1902-26) spread through the Russian Empire and reached Ukraine i n 1907. It peaked i n 1910, infecting 230,000 and killing 11,000. In 1912 the epidemic d i m i n i s h e d (there were only 9 incidents of contamination i n Odessa and Astrakhan), but i n 1913 a new upsurge occurred, especially i n Podilia gubernia (1,600 contaminations). The epidemic waxed and waned d u r i n g the First W o r l d W a r . It affected mainly the soldiers but also spread to the civilian population (in 1914 there were 7,700 contaminations among the military and 1,800 among the civilian population; i n 1915, 11,400 soldiers and tens of thousands of civilians were infected). A t the end of the war there was a great upsurge i n the epidemic (owing to the movement of refugees, prisoners of war, and demobilized troops), w h i c h spread through all of Ukraine and central Russia. The mortality rate from cholera was exceptionally h i g h - i n Odessa it reached 55.8 percent of the infected i n 1918, 47.2 percent i n 1919, 65.0 percent i n 1920, and 48.8 percent i n 1921 - and was particularly h i g h a m o n g the youngest and the oldest groups of the population. After the civil war and the introduction of NEP, an intensive campaign to combat cholera was begun, a n d by 1926 the disease was virtually eliminated from the w h o l e territory of the USSR. Since that time cholera has officially been considered w i p e d out, although i n d i v i d u a l incidents (of the El-Tor strain) were recorded i n Odessa i n 1970. H . Schultz C h o m i ñ s k i , Józef, b 24 A u g u s t 1906 i n Ostriv, near Peremyshl. Musicologist of U k r a i n i a n origin. Chomiñski graduated from L v i v U n i v e r s i t y i n 1936 and i n 1950 was appointed professor at W a r s a w University. H e has writ-

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CHOMIÑSKI

ten books a n d articles o n the w o r k of F. C h o p i n and K . S z y m a n o w s k i , o n the analysis of musical forms, o n the history of h a r m o n y a n d counterpoint, a n d o n the imitative technique of the polyphonists of the 13th-14th century. Chomiñski was editor of the annual publication Studia muzykologiczne (1953-6) a n d i n 1956 became the editor of the quarterly Muzyka. C h o p [Cop] (Hungarian: Czap). v-3. City (1969 pop 6,300, mostly H u n g a r i a n a n d Ukrainian) i n U z h h o r o d raion, Transcarpathia oblast, situated i n the Tysa L o w land on the border between Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Soviet Ukraine. F o u n d e d i n the late 19th century, it is an important border railway junction a n d contains railwayservicing shops a n d a brick-and-tile factory. In 1944 C h o p was the site of a month-long battle between G e r m a n and Soviet troops. Choral music. M u s i c written for performance by choirs. In U k r a i n e the development of choral music is linked closely w i t h the church. In the Eastern church choral singing is unaccompanied by musical instruments; hence, Ukrainian church choral music was and remains a cappella. Early choral music was monodic. P o l y p h o n y developed only i n the 16th century. A t the time a unique form of choral concerts k n o w n as partesnyi arose. The number of voices increased from the simple three a n d four to the more complicated eight, w h i c h were typical at the end of the 17th century. Some composers tried an even greater number and, i n one case, even eighteen voices. The richness of the U k r a i n i a n choral repertoire is evident from a preserved list of notes of the L v i v brotherhood, made i n 1697, w h i c h contains 396 choral compositions, 151 of w h i c h are vocal concertos a n d 56, liturgies. In the second half of the 18th century there were several famous composers of church choral music: M . ^Berezovsky, D . *Bortniansky, a n d A . *Vedel. Their w o r k s , w h i c h were choral music a cappella, called concerts, are remarkable for their cyclical structure of several movements and contrasting solo a n d choral parts. In their works the four-voice choir becames the basic form. The development of secular choral music i n Ukraine began i n the first half of the 19th century. M . *Lysenko made an enormous contribution, particularly i n the area of original creativity. H e is famous for his cantatas for choir and orchestra a n d his choral arrangements of folk songs. After L y s e n k o the most noted composers of choral music were M . *Leontovych, K . *Stetsenko, O . *Koshyts, S. *Liudkevych, a n d P. *Kozytsky. In the period 1920-60 choral music received relatively little attention from U k r a i n i a n composers. O n l y among younger composers such as L . D y c h k o a n d I. Karabyts does choral music retain some of its former importance. W. Wytwycky C h o r n a M o h y l a (Black Barrow). A n O l d R u s ' 10thcentury k u r h a n i n C h e r n i h i v . A c c o r d i n g to local beliefs it is the grave of Prince C h o r n y , the legendary founder of C h e r n i h i v . The k u r h a n is 1 1 m h i g h , 125 m i n circumference, a n d surrounded by a trench 7 m w i d e . It was excavated by D . Samokvasov i n 1872-3. A funeral pyre and the bones of at least two warriors a n d a slave girl, weapons a n d armor, tools, pots, ornaments, items of daily life, coins, etc, were discovered. In the upper part of the kurhan, at a height of 7 m , the remains of a funeral

banquet (helmets, shirts of mail, Byzantine coins, and an iron kettle w i t h sheep bones) were found. Chorna rada (black council). A Cossack council consisting not only of the starshyna, but also of a large number of c o m m o n Cossacks. The term chorna is derived from chern, w h i c h was the officers' designation for the c o m m o n Cossacks a n d the lower estates. The most famous chorna rada took place o n 17-18 June 1663 near N i z h e n , w h e n thousands of c o m m o n Cossacks, Zaporozhians, and 'non-Cossack volunteers' (peasants a n d poor townsfolk) assembled to elect a n e w hetmán for Left-Bank Ukraine. A large rift appeared between the interests of the officers and those of the commons (chern). The officers proposed the acting hetmán, Y a . S o m k o , a n d the N i z h e n colonel V . Zolotarenko as candidates. The commons proposed I. Briukhovetsky, the otaman of the Z a p o r o z h i a n Sich, w h o promised to lower taxes. The tsar supported Briukhovetsky, counting o n his help i n increasing Russian influence in Ukraine. S w a y e d by Briukhovetsky's demagoguery, the commons elected h i m a n d eventually put Somko, Zolotarenko, a n d other officers to death. Chorna Rus' (Black Rus'). Medieval name of northwestern Belorussia. F r o m the 10th century AD it belonged to Kievan Rus'. In the 13th century the Principality of Galicia-Volhynia a n d the G r a n d D u c h y of Lithuania fought over the territory, a n d i n the 1240s Lithuania conquered it. F r o m 1255 to 1258 it was ruled by the son of Danylo of H a l y c h , R o m a n D a n y l o v y c h , w h o was a vassal of the L i t h u a n i a n prince M i n d a u g a s . In the 1270s C h o r n a Rus' was finally taken over by L i t h u a n i a . C h o r n i K l o b u k y (Black Hats). The name that appears i n O l d U k r a i n i a n chronicles for the Turkic tribes that at the end of the n t h century settled south of the K i e v and Pereiaslav principalities. The name is derived from the headdress of these tribes. In the 12th century some of the Chorni Klobuky changed to a settled form of life. The Rus' princes used them for the defense of their southern borders. Chornobai [Cornobaj]. iv-13. T o w n smt (1970 p o p 7,000) i n the Dnieper L o w l a n d ; a raion center i n Cherkasy oblast. C h o r n o b a i has a food industry a n d a regional museum. The t o w n was first mentioned i n the 1720s. C h o r n o b y l [Cornobyl']. 11-11. C i t y (1971 pop 10,000), raion center i n K i e v oblast, port o n the Prypiat River i n Kievan Polisia. Before 1917 C h o r n o b y l was an autonomous (zashtatne) t o w n i n R a d o m y s h l county w i t h a population e m p l o y e d i n agriculture a n d small trades. The city has experienced periods of decline: i n 1897 i * ^ 9,300 inhabitants, w h i l e i n 1926 it h a d 9,000. The m a i n industry is food processing, but the city also has a pig-iron foundry a n d a ship-repair base. Since 1972 a nuclear power plant has been located there. C h o r n o b y l was first mentioned i n 1193. n a