Encyclopedia of Rusyn History and Culture 9781442674431

Table of contents :
Contents
Introduction
Technical Notes
Transliteration Tables
Authors
Advisors
Maps
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA
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D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
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M
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List of Entries

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RUSYN HISTORY AND CULTURE

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RUSYN HISTORY AND CULTURE Paul Robert Magocsi and Ivan Pop EDITORS Revised and Expanded Edition

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO PRESS Toronto Buffalo London

www.utppublishing.com

© University of Toronto Press 2002, 2005 Toronto Buffalo London First edition 2002 Revised and expanded edition 2005 Printed in Canada ISBN 0-8020-3566-3

Printed on acid-free paper

National Library of Canada Cataloguing in Publication Data Main entry under title: Encyclopedia of Rusyn history and culture ISBN 0-8020-3566-3 1. Carpatho-Rusyns - Encyclopedias. I. Magocsi, Paul R. II. Pop, Ivan DJK28.R87E53 2002

947'.000491791

C2002-900887-5

The editors acknowledge that preparation of this volume was made possible by research grants from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and the Carpatho-Rusyn Research Center, Inc. in the United States. University of Toronto Press acknowledges the financial assistance to its publishing program of the Canada Council for the Arts and the Ontario Arts Council. University of Toronto Press acknowledges the financial support for its publishing activities of the Government of Canada through the Book Publishing Industry Development Program (BPIDP).

Contents Introduction vii Technical Notes x Transliteration Tables xi Authors xii Advisors xiii Maps xiv

THE ENCYCLOPEDIA 1 List of Entries 557

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Introduction This is the first encyclopedia to deal with the historical past and culture of Rusyns in all countries where they live. It is intended to serve as a reference tool for specialists in Carpatho-Rusyn studies and for those in need of introductory information about one of the many peoples who live in central and eastern Europe. But the encyclopedia can also serve as a guide to those interested in acquiring a fuller picture of the history of eastern regions in the former Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and the various states that came to rule the Carpathian region in the twentieth century: Czechoslovakia, Slovakia, Poland, Hungary, the Soviet Union, and Ukraine. The Rusyns—also known as Carpatho-Rusyns, Carpatho-Russians, Carpatho-Ukrainians, Lemkos, Rusnaks, Ruthenians, and Uhro-Rusyns—are a Slavic people living in central Europe. Their homeland, Carpathian Rus', is according to present-day boundaries located within the borders of four states: Poland, Slovakia, Ukraine, and Romania. Carpathian Rus' forms a contiguous territorial unit whose numerically dominant population has traditionally been of Rusyn nationality. Other names have been used (and will be used in this encyclopedia) to designate Rusyn-inhabited territory in the various parts of Carpathian Rus'; namely, the Lemko Region in Poland, the Presov Region in Slovakia, Subcarpathian Rus' in Ukraine, and Maramure in Romania. There are also a few compact Rusyn settlements in present-day northeastern Hungary and in the Vojvodina region of Serbia, and communities of Rusyn immigrants and their descendants are found in the Czech Republic, Canada, and most significantly in the United States. Rusyns have never had their own state, and some of the governments which have ruled over them have ignored or actively tried to suppress the Rusyn historical past. For instance, in the second half of the twentieth century, Carpathian Rus' was ruled by Communist states (Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia) which banned the name Rusyn and refused to acknowledge that Rusyns comprise a distinct people, or nationality. During that period (1945-1989) state-imposed ideological guidelines in those countries actively discouraged research and tried to eliminate historical memory about much of Rusyn history and culture, where it did not conform to Communist ideology. Part of that ideology was the classification of Rusyns as Ukrainians. A similarly restrictive approach was adopted in scholarly and popular publications that appeared after World War II in countries where Rusyns lived, as well as elsewhere. In that regard, most writers in the West concurred with their counterparts in Communist-ruled Czechoslovakia, Poland,

Hungary, and the Soviet Union: Rusyns and their cultural heritage were described as Ukrainian, and those individuals, organizations, or publications that did not support the Ukrainian national orientation were, in general, disregarded. This encyclopedia represents in part an attempt to redress the loss of historical memory and knowledge experienced by Rusyns, lacunae that are reflected in most of the literature about the group produced during the last half century. Because Rusyns are and have been a stateless people—in the sense that they have never had their own nation-state with clearly-delineated political borders—the first problem faced by the editors of this encyclopedia was to define the subject and its parameters. As is evident from the entry, Carpathian Rus', this term appeared in the literature and was used by cultural and political activists from at least the mid-nineteenth century. Eventually, Carpathian Rus' came to mean those lands on both slopes of Carpathian Mountains where an East Slavic population known as Rusyns lived in the majority at the outset of the twentieth century. Since the term Rusyn was at times used by other East Slavs living beyond the Carpathian region, it became necessary to explain why Carpathian Rus' is defined the way it is in the encyclopedia. That explanation, which effectively serves as the conceptual underpining of the entire encyclopedia, is found in the entry, Ethnography. The reader who wants an introductory overview of the evolution of Carpathian Rus' is directed to the entry on History. The Encyclopedia of Rusyn History and Culture contains 1,119 alphabetically arranged entries. More than half are biographies of individuals (665), followed by descriptions of religious and secular institutions (136), periodicals (105), definitions of historical terms (67), and political parties (10). Other types of entries deal with geographic regions, historical events, and peoples/nationalities who have interacted with Rusyns throughout their history. Finally, eighteen thematic entries with a more synthetic and interpretive approach address the following subjects: archeological settlements, architecture, art (painting and sculpture), cinema, Communism, ethnography, genealogy, geography and economy, historiography, history, the Internet, language, the language question, literature—early manuscripts, nationalism, printing and publishing, and radio and television. The encyclopedia attempts to provide balanced coverage for all the subdivisions of Carpathian Rus' as well as other countries where Rusyns live. Since in population and territory Subcarpathian Rus' is the largest Rusyn-inhabited territory, the highest percentage of entries concern individuals and events related to that part of Carvii

viii pathian Rus', followed in terms of number of entries by the Presov Region, the Lemko Region, the United States, the Vojvodina, and other lands. The criteria for inclusion was based on the conceptual premise that this encyclopedia is not about Rusyns per se, but rather about Rusyn history and culture. This distinction was, in particular, crucial in determining the choice of biographical entries. Hence, a person was chosen for inclusion on the basis of what he or she has contributed to Rusyn history and culture. Thus persons of Rusyn background who, although they have had distinguished careers in public service, the natural sciences, or other walks of life, but have not contributed anything to Carpathian Rus', are not included, while persons of non-Rusyn background who have contributed to Rusyn culture and scholarship, or who played a role in the civic and political life of Rusyn-inhabited lands, are included. That contribution may have been positive or negative. Consequently, individuals who have been critical or even denied the existence of Rusyns as a distinct people are also included because they figure in the historic record of Rusyns and Carpathian Rus'. Some basic guidelines were followed in determining questions of inclusion and exclusion. For instance, among persons who functioned solely as scholars, their inclusion might require the publication of at least one major monograph on a Rusyn-related topic. With regard to Rusyn newspapers and journals, all those published for ten or more years were included, as were many other periodicals which, although short-lived, were historically significant. In the end, it must be admitted that the definition of "contribution" is to a degree subjective. The editors have nevertheless tried their best to include as many individuals, organizations, publications, and events which figure in the extensive published literature and which seem relevant for a fuller understanding ofRusyn history and culture. The presentation of biographical data varies, depending on the subject's place of birth. For those persons born in Carpathian Rus' or in Rusyn communities elsewhere, data is provided about their educational background and career development. Some of these persons may have made contributions to fields unrelated to Rusyn developments; it is the aspect of their career dealing with Rusyns, however, that is emphasized here. For persons of nonRusyn background data about their education or activity not related directly to Carpathian Rus' is generally not provided. A few individuals of Rusyn background who have distinguished careers but who have made no specific contribution to Rusyn history or culture (Mykhafl Baludians'kyi, Ihor Hrabar, Andy Warhol immediately come to mind) also have entries, because their persona have subsequently been used by Rusyn activists and

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture coopted into their understanding of Rusyn history and culture. One last conceptual issue: this encyclopedia has no limits on chronology. Included, therefore, are persons, organizations, and events dating from earliest historic times to the present. Four-fifths of the entries were written in whole or in part by the editors Paul Robert Magocsi (524) and Ivan Pop (401). Most of the entries dealing with the Lemko Region and with Lemko Rusyns in the United States were written by Bogdan Horbal (193). The entries by Ivan Pop and Bogdan Horbal were edited and translated into English by Paul Robert Magocsi. The short unsigned entries defining currency, weights, and measures were written for the most part by Ivan Pop. Other contributors are indicated in the list of authors following this introduction. The thirteen maps were created by Paul Robert Magocsi, who also compiled or determined the final form of the further reading sections. These sections are not meant to include all references to a given subject, but rather to direct a reader to one or more published sources providing greater information than that found in the entry it follows. The encyclopedia has no index. Instead, there are over 1,500 cross-references interspersed alphabetically among the entries. These include pseudonyms, different spellings of personal names, and foreign-language names of organizations. There are as well internal cross-references indicated by an asterisk, alerting the reader that there is an entry on this person or subject elsewhere in the encyclopedia. The preparation of the Encyclopedia of Rusyn History and Culture was an exciting and challenging task. The job was infinately more intellectually rewarding—and easier to complete—thanks to the efficient cooperation of all authors. Several specialists were asked to review parts or all of the manuscript and some helped in supplying difficult-to-obtain factual data. These persons are listed in the advisors section following the introduction. Among the advisors, special thanks are extended to} ubica Babotova, Catherine Chvany, Richard Custer, and Patricia A. Krafcik, who provided a careful proofread of virtually the entire manuscript. The final preparation of the text is the result of the inputting accuracy and linguistic skills of Natasha Papuga and Nadiya Kushko, and the technical skill and advice of Gabriele Scardellato in laying out the pages. The maps were drawn by Jane Davies at the University of Toronto's Office of Cartography. Finally, the staff at the University of Toronto Press has once again eased the editors' concerns by producing an elegant book. To all these individuals as well as to the others listed among the advisors the editors are deeply grateful. Despite the cumulative wealth of knowledge shared by

Encyclopedia of Rusyn History and Culture all who contributed to the encyclopedia, whatever errors may remain are solely the responsibility of the editors. They are well aware that the decisions regarding overall content or the interpretations found in entries do not represent the last word on the subject. Future editions are likely to include other entries, emendations, and answers to factual data that were impossible to determine at this

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time. One nevertheless hopes that this work will serve as a useful handbook for all those interested in and in need of information about the rich gamut of Rusyn history and culture.

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI DECEMBER 2001 JULY 2004

Technical Notes rendered in the Roman alphabet (Czech, Polish, Slovak, Hungarian, etc.). Patronymics are given for persons of Russian or Ukrainian ethnonational origin, but not for Rusyns. While it is true that patronymics were used by Rusyns living in the former Soviet Union, they are not common in traditional Rusyn culture and thus are absent here. The spelling of Rusyn names poses yet further problems, as at least three variants of the Rusyn language have been codified. Three spelling variants of literary Rusyn are used in this encyclopedia: Lemko Rusyn for persons, organizations, and titles pertaining to the Lemko Region; Vojvodinian Rusyn for items related to the Vojvodina; and an amalgam for items related to Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region. The differences are quite evident in adjectival endings; for instance, the adjective for Rusyn would be rusynskii in Lemko Rusyn; rusinski in Vojvodinian Rusyn; rusyn skyi in Presov Region Rusyn; and rusyns 'kyi in Subcarpathian Rus'. Given names also vary in Rusyn depending on region or time period. For instance, Mykhal is the common form used in the Presov Region and Lemko Region; Mykhailo in Subcarpathian Rus'; and Mykhai'l in all regions for persons living in the nineteenth century and earlier periods. Analogously, some persons used themselves or were described in the literature as Vasylii instead of Vasyl', or loanykii instead of loan. For Rusyns active primarily in North America, the encyclopedia adopts the form in which persons spelled their names in English. The names of Rusyn-American and Rusyn-Canadian organizations and publications, if originally in Rusyn and using the Roman alphabet, retain their original form in this encyclopedia (with the exception of capitalization; that is, only the initial word of a title and proper nouns are capitalized). The reality of the Rusyn language, with its different literary variants and the historic experience of individuals living and functioning under differing state languages and national orientations, makes consistency of form for personal names extremely difficult if not impossible. The editor responsible for the final version of this English text, Paul Robert Magocsi, has tried to achieve what is at best "relative" consistency. One hopes readers will understand that this is the most that is possible at this stage in Rusyn cultural and linguistic development.

By their very nature, encyclopedias need to follow certain patterns of consistency. This was a particular challenge in dealing with Rusyns and Carpathian Rus', a people and territory which have always been ruled by different states employing varying forms of place names and personal names. A further complication arises in transliterating names, titles, or terms from Cyrillic letters to the Roman (Latin) alphabet. Place names for villages, towns, and cities appear in the dominant language of the state in which the place is located at present; hence, Slovak for places in Slovakia, Ukrainian for places in Ukraine, etc. The names of rivers and other geographic features, some of which may be located in more than one country, follow the main form given in Merriam Webster's Geographical Dictionary, 3rd ed. (1997). Historic county names are given in Rusyn, often followed by their equivalent in Hungarian. Some towns or villages have entirely new names. In many cases, the present name is given first, followed by the older form. An exhaustive list of present and previous names of towns and villages is found in the index for the map by Paul Robert Magocsi, Carpatho-Rusyn Settlement at the Outset of the 20th Century, 2nd ed. (1998). The Library of Congress system is used for transliteration from the various Cyrillic alphabets. The transliterations reflect the original form (not modernized orthography) of a name or title, whether it is Russian, Rusyn, or Ukrainian. Texts in the uncodified iazychiie, or "traditional CarpathoRusyn language" are transliterated according to the system for Rusyn. The Rusyn transliteration system is similar to the Library of Congress system for Ukrainian, with the following additions: e = io; w = y; 6 = 6; t = i. In the Vojvodinian variant of Rusyn, the vowel H is rendered as i. One exception to the above principles is found in the entry Language, which uses the International system to transliterate Rusyn words and other linguistic examples. (See the Transliteration Tables at the end of this section). Forms for personal names are equally problematic. Because Rusyns lived and live in states with different official languages, an individual may have spelt his or her name in Rusyn and/or in one or more state languages. The encyclopedia's main entry for an individual of Rusyn background uses the transliterated Rusyn form of the name. This is usually followed by the form of the name commonly used in those states where the person generally resided or resides and whose official language is

X

Transliteration Tables A B B

r

r « E

e

E 3C 3 I I H bl H K JI M H O

n p c T

y y

—hard sign) adopted earlier in the century by the Soviet authorities just after the Bolshevik Revolution. Regardless of script, the Cyrillic alphabet has for many become a symbol of Rusyn identity, and its use is considered an important defense against national assimilation.

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Further reading: Avhustyn Voloshyn, "Oborona kyrylyky," Naukovyizbirnyk Tovarystva 'Prosvita', XII (Uzhhorod, 1937), pp. 85-117; V.A. Istrin, 1100 let slavianskoi azbuki, 2nd rev. ed. (Moscow, 1988); Gorazd A. Timkovic, "Cyrilika je starsia ako glagolika," Krdsnobrodsky zbornik, III, 1-2 (Presov, 1998), pp. 5-208.

Curkanovic, Ilarion. See Tsurkanovich, Ilarion lurievich Custer, Richard. See New Rusyn Times

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Cyril, Saint. See Constantine/Cyril Cyrkul. See District Cyril and Methodius Society. See Internet; Sydor, Dmytrii Cyrillic alphabet — generally considered the second oldest Slavic alphabet. Its creator is unknown, but may have been Clement of Ohrid. The name Cyrillic was given as an attribute of respect in recognition of *Constantine the Philosopher/St. Cyril, who had earlier created the first Slavic (*Glagolitic) alphabet. The Cyrillic alphabet was in the main based on the Greek alphabet and is first attested in the late ninth century in the *Bulgarian Khanate. Because some Slavs in the Balkans were already familiar with the Greek alphabet, Cyrillic proved to be more accessible and quickly replaced Glagolitic; between the tenth and twelfth centuries Cyrillic became the dominant script in Bulgaria, Macedonia, Serbia, and Kievan Rus'. Some authors have argued that Cyrillic was the first Slavic alphabet created by Sts. Constantine/Cyril and Methodius during their mission to the Slavs of central Europe, and that Glagolitic came into being only later among the Slavs of Dalmatia. The Cyrillic alphabet is used by those peoples who have maintained a Byzantine-rite Christian tradition: Russians, Belarusans, Ukrainians, Serbs, Bulgarians, and Romanians (until the mid-nineteenth century). The earliest written documents and texts among the

Czajkowski, Jerzy (b. April 4,1931, Kolomyia [Poland], Ukraine) — Polish ethnographer, museum administrator, and professor. After nearly two decades as a researcher (19531972) at the Ethnographic Museum in Cracow, Czajkowski served as director (1973-1999) of the Museum of Folk Architecture/Muzeum Budownictwa Ludowego in Sanok. The museum includes several examples of traditional domestic architecture from the Lemko and neighboring regions in southeastern Poland, and Czajkowski published a major work, Wiejskie budownictwo mieszkalne w Beskidzie Niskim, Bieszczadach iprzylegfym Pogorzu (1969), on that architecture. He is also responsible for a two-volume collection of studies on the *Lemko Region (Lemkowie w historii i kulturze Karpat, 1992-94), for which he contributed an extensive survey of the earliest settlement patterns along the northern slopes of the *Carpathian Mountains. Czajkowski takes the view that the Lower Beskyd ranges of the Carpathians, encompassing what was later referred to as the Lemko Region, remained unsettled until the early thirteenth century, when the first Vlach pastoralists made their appearance. Vlach settlement continued sporadically on both slopes of the Carpathians during the next two centuries; although of Romanian background, the * Vlachs quickly as-

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similated with Rusyn migrants from the east. Poland had built a few fortified settlements along the far western edge of the Lemko Region (Muszyna, Stary Sqcz) in the early thirteenth century, but it was not until the 1340s that Polish settlements (Iskrzynia, Rowne, Rogi, etc.) began to appear just north of the Lower Beskyd ranges. Czajkowski discusses the VlachRusyn settlement of the Lemko Region, providing detailed statistical and cartographic data, in Studia nad Lemkowszczyznq(1999).

wounded), the unit crossed Slovakia and Moravia, reaching Prague in early May 1945. It was soon thereafter disbanded. As a result of the *Czechoslovak-Soviet Treaty of 1945 and its clauses pertaining to choice of citizenship (*optatsiid), many Rusyn veterans of the Czechoslovak Army Corps opted not to remain in what was by then Soviet-ruled Subcarpathian Rus', but settled instead in postwar Czechoslovakia, where a certain number found employment in the military and Communist security services (secret police).

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Further reading: Ivan Vanat, "Zakarpats'ki ukrai'ntsi v chekhoslovats'komu viis'ku v SRSR," in Shliakh do voli/Naukovyi zbirnyk Muzeiu ukrains 'ko'i kul'tury u Svydnyku, II (Bratislava and Presov, 1966), pp. 183-202; Ludvik Svoboda, ZBuzuluku do Prahy, 6th ed. (Prague, 1970); Ludvik Svoboda, Cestami zivota, Vol. II (Prague, 1992); Karel Richter, Podkarpatsti Rusini v boji za svobodu (Prague, 1997); Omelian D. Dovhanych, Zakarpats'ki dobrovol'tsi (Uzhhorod, 1998); V. M. Kerechanyn, ed., U vyri kryvavoi viiny: urodzhentsi Zakarpattia—heneraly i ofitsery Chekhoslovats 'koiarmii u borot'bi zfashyzmom (Uzhhorod, 2000).

Czechoslovak Army Corps — military formation during World War II. The military unit was first established in February 1942 in the city of Buzuluk at the southern end of the Ural Mountains in the Soviet Union. At first called the Czechoslovak Brigade, it was comprised of citizens of Czechoslovakia who for various reasons found themselves on Soviet territory. Initially, 63 percent of the unit's 3,517 soldiers were Rusyns from *Subcarpathian Rus' who had fled from their homeland after it was annexed to Hungary (March 1939). Between the fall of Poland (September 1939) and June 1941, when the Soviet Union's borders extended to the crests of the *Carpathian Mountains, an estimated 7,500 mostly young Rusyn males crossed into Soviet territory. The refugees were immediately arrested for illegally entering the Soviet Union and imprisoned in various concentration camps of the Gulag. Since, according to international law, they still retained their Czechoslovak citizenship, General Heliodor Pika (1897-1949) of the Czechoslovak Military Mission in Moscow managed at the end of 1942 to obtain their release, on the understanding that they would serve in the newly formed military unit. In fact, not all Rusyns interned were allowed to join the brigade; those who did not were sent to work on Soviet state farms. The Czechoslovak military unit was headed by Brigadier General Ludvik Svoboda (1895-1979) and was popularly known as the Svoboda Battalion. In August 1944 the unit was transformed into the First Czechoslovak Army Corps in the Soviet Union. By that time it consisted of about 16,000 soldiers, of whom roughly 25 percent (3,177) were Rusyns. As the second largest nationality (after the Czechs), the Rusyns also had their own section in the unit's trilingual military newspaper, Nose vojsko v SSSR (1942-44). The Rusyn section was edited by lurko *Borolych, Illia Voloshchuk, and Fedor Ivanchov, among others. The Czechoslovak Army Corps fought alongside the Soviet forces in their campaign against the German Army. Although the corps participated in several battles across Ukraine and former Poland (Kiev, Bila Tserkva, Zhashkiv), it was not allowed to enter Subcarpathian Rus'. Instead, it was sent with the Soviet Army to fight at the Battle of the *Dukla Pass. Despite the corps' heavy losses (1,844 dead and 4,700

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Czechoslovak-Soviet Treaty of 1945—treaty signed in Moscow concerning Transcarpathian Ukraine/Subcarpathian Rus'. Underpressure from the Soviet leader, losif *Stalin, this treaty needed to be signed in order to obviate any discussion of the Subcarpathian problem within the framework of the eventual post-World War II peace conference (1947). On the recommendation of Czechoslovakia's president Edvard *Benes, the treaty (prepared in Russian, Czech, and Slovak) was signed by that country's prime minister, Zdenek Fierlinger, and its minister of foreign affairs, Vladimir Clementis; the Soviet signatory on the recommendation of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR was the vice-chairman of the Council of People's Commissars and the Soviet minister of foreign affairs, Viacheslav Molotov. The Czechoslovak-Soviet Treaty signed on June 29, 1945 consisted of two articles. According to article 1, "*Transcarpathian Ukraine (called * Subcarpathian Rus' according to the Czechoslovak constitution), which on the basis of the *Treaty of St. Germain (September 10, 1919) formed an autonomous component of the Czechoslovak republic, is, in accordance with the wishes of the inhabitants of Transcarpathian Ukraine and the fraternal agreement between the above-mentioned parties, being united with its age-old fatherland—Ukraine—and thereby being incorporated into the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic." Article 2 stated that the treaty was confirmed (ratified) by the Czechoslovak National Council (Parliament) and the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. On November 22, 1945, Czechoslovakia's Provisional National Council ratified the treaty. This was in violation of the Czechoslovak constitution, which allowed for decisions

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture of a constitutional nature, including changes in the country's borders, to be taken only by a parliament composed of deputies chosen through general elections, not the designated deputies who comprised the Provisional National Council. Hence, according to Czechoslovakia's constitution, the ratification of the 1945 treaty was not juridically valid. It was, in effect, a political act carried out under pressure from Stalin. From the standpoint of international law the political act carried out in 1945 between Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union was discriminatory against the subject of the treaty, Subcarpathian Rus'/Transcarpathian Ukraine, which had no representatives, even with observer status, during the negotiations. Nor did the treaty carry the signature of a representative from the Soviet Ukraine, the entity to which Subcarpathian Rus'/Transcarpathian Ukraine was being united, although the Soviet Ukraine was at the time a founding member of the United Nations and therefore legally an active party in international relations. Stalin had delegated Soviet Ukraine's right to act to the Soviet Union's minister of foreign affairs, V. Molotov. Consequently, the Czechoslovak-Soviet Treaty of 1945 was in violation of a whole series of international legal norms as well as of the Czechoslovak constitution; in other words, it had no legal force from its inception. With the demise of the Soviet Union (1991) and Czechoslovakia (1993) the states which had signed the 1945 treaty themselves disappeared. Their legal successors—Russia, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia—did not express any view regarding their relationship to the 1945 treaty, with the result that Subcarpathian Rus'/Transcarpathian Rus' found itself in a juridical vacuum. In other words, the Czechoslovak-Soviet treaty only confirmed a process that had already begun in the fall of 1944, namely the annexation of Subcarpathian Rus'/Transcarpathian Ukraine by the Soviet Union. The treaty included an addendum (protokol) guaranteeing to *Czechs and *Slovaks living in Subcarpathian Rus' the right to claim (*optatsiid) Czechoslovak citizenship, and to *Ukrainians and *Russians living in Czechoslovakia the right to claim Soviet citizenship. The addendum also established the principle of compensation for the property of Czechs and Slovaks who decided to leave Subcarpathian Rus'. The above procedures were to be carried out within 18 months of the signing of the treaty. Property owned by the Czechoslovak state in Subcarpathian Rus' was transferred outright to the Soviet Union without any compensation. The railroad hub at Chop and the immediately surrounding area, which had been a part of Slovakia before 1945, was likewise transferred to the Soviet Union. As compensation Slovakia received some territory along the western edge of the Uzhhorod district as well as the village of Lekarovce/Lekart, whose inhabitants had petitioned successfully for the transfer. Further reading: Sovetsko-chekhoslovatskie otnosheniia 1945-1960 rr.: dokumenty i materialy (Moscow, 1971); N.M. Barinova et al.,

83 eds., Vostochnaia Evropa v dokumentakh rossiiskikh arkhivov 19441953 gg., Vol. I: 1944-48 (Moscow and Novosibirsk, 1997); Karel Kaplan and A. Spiritova, eds., CSR a SSSR 1945-1948: dokumenty mezivlddnichjedndni (Brno, 1997); Tomas Brod, Ceskoslovensko a Sovetsky svaz v letech 1939-1945: Moskva, objeti a pouto (Prague, 1992); Jaromir Hofec, Podkarpatskd Rus—zeme nezndmd (Prague, 1993); Ivan Pop, "lak nas viddavaly, abo troiandy dlia prysluzhnykiv Mekhlisa—Praha 1945 roku: uriadovi i parlaments'ki dyskusii dovkola pytannia pro peredachu Zakarpattia SRSR," Karpats 'kyi krai, V, 5-8 [111] (Uzhhorod, 1995), pp. 82-88. IVAN POP

Czechs — a West Slavic people living within the borders of the present-day Czech Republic. Czech relations with Rusyns were at best sporadic before the twentieth century. Both Czechs and Rusyns shared a common religious experience as disciples of the ninth-century Christianization mission led by *Constantine/Cyril and Methodius, while during the fifteenth century Hussite soldiers led by Jan Jiskra z Brandysa spent several decades in the *Presov Region and the western part of * Subcarpathian Rus'. Somewhat later Rusyn intellectuals became aware of the educational reforms and ideas of the Czech pedagogue, Jan A. Komensky/Comenius, who lived in the early 1650s near Rusyn-inhabited lands in the town of Sarospatak. During the beginning of the national awakening in the early nineteenth century the Czech intellectual, Josef Dobrovsky, corresponded with the bishop of Mukachevo, Andrii *Bachyns'kyi, and interacted with Rusyn seminarians and cultural activists (Mykhai'l *Luchkai, Ivan *Fogarashii) studying and working in Vienna. After 1848 Czech writers and publicists did not maintain ties with Carpatho-Rusyns as much as with the Rusyns of eastern Galicia, in particular the populists (narodovtsi) who subsequently formed the basis of the Ukrainian national movement in that region. There were, however, some direct contacts with Rusyns living in the Presov Region. In the 1850s a small group of Czechs settled in the village of Vysne Remety (*Ung county), where they established iron works, and a few Czech teachers were assigned by the Austrian imperial government to teach in the gymnasia in Presov and Uzhhorod. It was not until after World War I, however, that Czechs were to interact directly and have a strong impact on Rusyn society, especially among those living in Subcarpathian Rus'. Not only did Rusyns south of the Carpathians live with Czechs in the same state during the period of the first Czechoslovak republic (1919-1938), but several thousand Czechs came to live in Subcarpathian Rus'. During the 1920s, when the central government in Prague initiated a land reform in Subcarpathian Rus', it also organized settlements of Czech farmers along the borderland region with Hungary just east of the railroad junction at Chop, in particular the villages of Svoboda, Bakosh/ Svobodka, and Bat'ovo-Ujbatyu/Dvorce, where Czechs made

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up the majority of the inhabitants. Most Czechs, however, settled in urban areas where they were employed in the government administration, health services, and schools. Of the estimated 27,000 Czechs living in Subcarpathian Rus' during the 1930s, nearly half lived in the province's largest cities and towns (Uzhhorod 6,500; Mukachevo 2,500; Berehovo 2,000; Khust 1,400). Czechs were associated with the dominant nationality in the Czechoslovak state, and because of that status they inevitably had an impact on Rusyn society. The relatively short (20-year) period of Czech rule during the interwar years of the twentieth century was to make a deep impression on the Rusyn historical consciousness, and traces of that experience are still felt today in many aspects of Subcarpathian life. Those experiences were both positive and negative. On the positive side it must be said that in 1919 Rusyns voluntarily joined the newly created democratic Slavic state, the Czechoslovak republic. Consequently, for the first time in their history Rusyns became an equal, co-founding people of a state in which they had their own administrative entity, the autonomous territory of Subcarpathian Rus'. In the context of these political changes the Czechoslovak Legionnaires, formed during World War I, were viewed by Rusyns as their liberators from the Hungarian Communist dictatorship and Romanian military occupation of their homeland in 1919 and 1920. Since the majority of Hungarian-appointed government civil servants boycotted the new state, many of the positions in the Subcarpathian administration were filled with Czechs. In the given situation this was a positive development, since these Czech civil servants (Jan Brejcha, Petr *Ehrenfeld, Ladislav *Kaigl, Viktor Klima, Jaroslav Meznik, Josef *Pesek, Josef Pesina, and Antonin *Rozsypal, among others) carried out the basic tasks in creating a new democratic governing structure in the country's far eastern province. They provided stability in a region torn apart by war, introduced agrarian reform, set up a modern health-care system, and reorganized the educational system so that there were schools at all levels of pre-university education with Czech, Slovak, Russian, and Ukrainian, as well as Rusyn, as languages of instruction. A whole gamut of Czech scholars undertook intensive research on Subcarpathian Rus', and beginning in the 1920s they published scholarly monographs, encyclopedic handbooks, and brochures in a wide variety of disciplines: ethnography and folklore (Jan *Husek, Amalie *Kozminova, Frantisek *Spala, Jan *Vondracek), traditional architecture (Bohumil Vavrousek, Florian *Zapletal), archeology (Jaroslav Bohm, Lubor *Niederle, Vojtech Ondrouch), history (Vaclav Chaloupecky, Frantisek *Gabriel, Kamil *Krofta), legal studies (Karel Kadlec, Zdenek Peska), geography (Vaclav Drahny, Jin *Kral, Karel Matousek), geology (Frantisek Drahny), and literary studies (Antonin *Hartl, Frantisek *Tichy). The highly developed Czech political culture also had

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture a positive impact on Rusyn society. The generally stable Czech political party structure, covering the entire spectrum from left to right, attempted to influence and gain the support of Subcarpathian voters. Several Czechs were dispatched to Subcarpathian Rus' as party organizers (Jan Brandejs, Emanuel Klima, Alois Rauser), of whom some were chosen to represent the province in the Czechoslovak parliament: the Social-Democrat Jaromir Necas (1924-1935) and the Agrarian Josef Zajic (1929-1938). Beginning in the mid-1920s, when the Subcarpathian electorate participated in its first electoral campaign and eventually chose deputies and senators to the Czechoslovak national parliament, the Rusyns learned the democratic process from their Czech mentors, actively participated in the work of legal political institutions, and created their own political parties. Czech engineers and technicians played a decisive role in creating a new infrastructure for Subcarpathian Rus', including roads and bridges and power lines for electrification. Czech agronomists taught Rusyns the techniques of intensive-style agricultural cultivation and mechanization, while Czech activists in the cooperative movement encouraged Rusyn peasants to create insurance organizations, markets to sell goods, and modern banking and credit systems. Rusyns from all levels of society, both in Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region, often expressed their appreciation of Czechoslovak rule through praise for "their" country's founding president, Tomas G. *Masaryk. Numerous publications and school books were filled with praise for Masaryk and a major statue in his honor was erected in the administrative center of Uzhhorod. Respect for the country's president continued after Masaryk's death, as many Rusyn parents named their children Eduard in honor of the new president, Edvard *Benes. In turn, Rusyn folk culture and the natural beauty of their homeland became a valuable source of inspiration for Czech creativity, whether among architects, art historians, artists, writers, or musicians. It would not be an exaggeration to say that Subcarpathian Rus' became a special phenomenon in twentieth-century Czech culture. Czech artists "uncovered" the *patriarchal nature of Carpatho-Rusyn society and the region's natural beauty, which, for them, was something unique in the framework of urbanized and industrialized Europe. As some Czech publicists wrote, the "Orient begins east of Kosice." For instance, the well-known painter and folklorist, Ludvik *Kuba, sought out and found in the world of CarpathoRusyns what he believed to be proto-Slavic archetypes and the remnants of prehistoric Slavic mythology. Graphic artists like Karel Vik, Josef Rericha, and Jaroslav Skrbek became enamoured with Rusyn wooden churches, which inspired images that became classics in twentieth-century Czech graphic art, as did the works of Vaclav Fiala, which were also inspired by Rusyn themes. The leading Czech expressionist painter of the twentieth century, Frantisek Foltyn, found his "Tahiti" in

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture the countryside around Presov, Mukachevo, and Uzhhorod, which was reflected in a series of his canvases. Czech belletrists and publicists developed a deep understanding of traditional Rusyn culture, which inspired the poetry of Jaroslav *Zatloukal and Jaromir *Hofec; the short stories and feuilletons of Jaroslav *Durych and Jaromir *Tomecek; the reportages of Vasek Kana, Stanislav K. *Neumann, and Frantisek Tovarek; and several novels by Karel Capek(//orcMa/, 1933), Jan Drozd(Dhuhdnoc, 1961), Amalie Kozminova (Olenina Idska, 1935), Zdenek Mate] Kudej (Horalskd republika, 1932), Jifi Marek (LidezPoljany, 1937), Vladislav *Vancura (Posledni soud, 1929), Jan Vrba (Duse na hordch, 1931), and Jindra Zoder (Petro, 1935). But the most famous of all works in the Czech literary repertoire was Ivan *Olbracht's novel, Nikola Suhaj loupeznik, which poeticized the fate of the last Carpathian Robin Hood-like bandit. The *Shuhai theme was destined to have a long life in Czech artistic circles: it served as the basis of two films, a play by the present-day dramatist and political activist Milan Uhde (Baladapro banditu), and it has inspired rock songs, ballads, and a Broadway-style musical (Kolocavd). Olbracht immortalized as well the patriarchal life-style of Subcarpathia's Hasidic *Jews in popular short stories ("Golet v udoli," "O smutnych ocich Hany Karadzicove"), which provided the scenarios for more recent Czech films (Hanele; Tak se stalo v Poliany). See Cinema. Avant-garde Czech architects were to leave their mark in Subcarpathian Rus'. Government officials working in the region commissioned Czech architects to construct entire urban complexes, which arose in Uzhhorod, Mukachevo, Khust, and Solotvyno. Elsewhere in smaller towns and villages a wide range of often monumental administrative buildings, hospitals, schools, and industrial enterprises were designed and built in the modern Czech functional style that derived from the country's leading architects (Jaroslav Fragner, Jifi Gocar, and Antonin Krupka, among others). On the other hand, some Czechs were so taken with Subcarpathian * architecture that between 1929 and 1936 they transferred six wooden churches, which still stand in small towns in Bohemia (Dobfikov from Kholmovets', Nova Paka from Obava, Hradec Kralove from Habura), in Moravia (Blansko from Nyzhnie Selyshche, Kuncice pod Ondfejnikem from Hlynianets'), and in the Kinsky Gardens in Prague (from Medvedivtsi). Hand in hand with the work of creative artists was tourism. Subcarpathian Rus' became a major destination for Czechs (nature lovers, boy scouts, hikers), who were attracted in everincreasing numbers to what for them was an exotic land within the borders of their own country. As early as 1922 branches of the Czechoslovak Tourist Club (KCST) were established in Mukachevo and Uzhhorod, and over the next two decades a network of hostels and other tourist facilities was set up throughout Subcarpathian Rus'. The interwar years of Czechoslovak rule also had their

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negative side. In fulfilling the clauses of the Paris Peace Conference's *Treaty of St. Germain (September 10, 1919) the Czechoslovak government formally created "an autonomous region for Rusyns living on the southern slopes of the Carpathians"; however, the "autonomous" province of Subcarpathian Rus' included only four of the eight historic counties in which Rusyns lived. Left out were *Spish, *Abov, *Sharysh, *Zemplyn, and the western part of *Uzh county, whose Rusyns became residents of Slovakia. The result for those Rusyns was their gradual adaptation and, for many, total assimilation into Slovak society. During the postwar political negotiations, Czechoslovak diplomatic circles categorically rejected any idea of allowing the Rusyns of Slovakia to unite with those in Subcarpathian Rus', just as they rejected the demands put forth by *Lemko Rusyns living on the northern slopes of the Carpathians for unification with Czechoslovakia. The tendency toward sociocultural unity that had characterized Rusyn society in all areas where they lived (Lemko Region, Presov Region, Subcarpathian Rus') within the former Austro-Hungarian Monarchy was broken with the formation of new states in central Europe after World War I, so that only in Subcarpathian Rus' could a Rusyn sociopolitical and cultural environment come into being. Yet not even Subcarpathian Rus' enjoyed the * autonomy it was promised. The Czechoslovak government and president simply refused to fulfill the provisions of the Treaty of St. Germain. This led to anger and displeasure among leaders of all political parties in the province as well as the appearance of an autonomist movement that was frequently exploited by extremist elements. The Czechoslovak president and government in Prague as well as the state administration in Subcarpathian Rus' were at their wits' end with regard to the Rusyn nationality question. From the outset it was clear that the Czechoslovak authorities had no idea that there might exist in the heart of central Europe a distinct ethnocultural and ethnopolitical Rusyn entity. During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries liberal-minded Czech politicians and cultural activists (Karel Zap, Karel Havlic'ek, Frantisek Rehof) had developed close ties with Ukrainian-oriented populists from Galicia, whom they met in Eviv, Chemivtsi, and Vienna. It was precisely from these people that the Czech public was informed that Carpatho-Rusyns were a part of a single Ukrainian ethnocultural mass that encompassed *Carpathian Rus', Galicia, and Bukovina, as well as large expanses of Dnieper Ukraine in the southern part of what was then the Russian Empire. For their part, conservative Czech politicians, who were favorably oriented toward Russia, received their information from Russian *neo-Slavists, who considered Carpatho-Rusyns to be "Carpatho-Russians" (karpatorossy), or "Little Russians" (malorosy), which in turn were considered part of a single Russian ethnocultural mass. The small group ofRusyn intellectuals who categorically rejected the view that their people

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were either Ukrainian or Russian were initially treated by the Czechoslovak administration with deep distrust and suspected of being *Magyarones imbued with patriotic sympathies for the Hungarian Kingdom. The Czechoslovak government and the president's office thus dispatched to Subcarpathian Rus' emigres from the former Russian Empire and Austrian Galicia, who were given positions in the provincial administration, in schools, and in cultural institutions. Those emigres, aside from their official duties, also undertook national and political activity among the Rusyn population. The result was the creation of opposing Russophile and Ukrainophile national orientations, which created deep divisions within the still politically immature Rusyn environment. As early as 1922 Czechoslovak officials in Subcarpathian Rus' were reporting on the anti-state nature of Ukrainian as well as Russian emigre politicians, yet the central government in Prague did not react. It was not until 1929 that the first group of radical Ukrainian activists as well as a few Russians were expelled from Subcarpathian Rus' and Czechoslovakia. In the end, Subcarpathian political life came to be dominated by three mutually antagonistic orientations—*Russophile, *Ukrainophile, and *Rusynophile. Having created this situation themselves, Czechoslovak government circles then went on to argue that they could not grant autonomy because there was a lack of political unity in the province, provoking exasperation among all political orientations in the province. The presence of Czech specialists and civil servants in the administration and economic life of Subcarpathian Rus' was at first an acceptable and even welcome phenomenon. It was, therefore, not by chance that the foremost Ukrainophile Subcarpathian leader, Avhustyn *Voloshyn, concluded: "in Rusyn history, the Czechs will be gratefully remembered as the mentors of Subcarpathian Rus'." Whereas this situation was mutually beneficial to the existence of Rusyns and Czechs in a single state during the 1920s, by the next decade things had begun to change and quite radically. At the outset of the 1930s a wave ofRusyn graduates began to return home from Czech universities. The Czech administrators and specialists who had come as "mentors" on a temporary basis in the early days of Czechoslovak rule, however, did not want to leave their posts for the newly trained Rusyns. Many Czechs, especially directors of state-owned firms, forests, and mines, had financially lucrative positions, and some even developed a "colonial syndrome" toward Subcarpathian Rus'. This situation provoked sharp criticism and opposition among the younger generation of university-trained graduates, the very group of Rusyns who otherwise would have been supporters of Czechoslovak rule in their homeland. The disintegration of Czechoslovakia in late 1938 and the annexation of Subcarpathian Rus' by Hungary in March 1939 signalled the end of the Czech presence in the region. All government officials, civil servants, directors of enterprises,

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture and most teachers returned home to Bohemia and Moravia. Others who remained were, after World War II, repatriated from Subcarpathian Rus' as part of the *Czechoslovak-Soviet treaty of 1945, which effectively put an end to direct ties between Rusyns and Czechs. Despite the problems which arose from political shortsightedness, the period when Czechs ruled Subcarpathian Rus' (pod chekhamy) produced some exceptionally positive results for both sides. The Czechs taught Rusyns about participatory democracy in a parliamentary system and how to function in a highly developed market economy. The Rusyns, through the natural beauty of their Subcarpathian homeland and their own traditional culture, provided an unending source of inspiration for Czech artistic creativity. During the subsequent 40 years of Soviet rule in Subcarpathian Rus' the Communist authorities tried, with limited success, to eradicate the generally positive memories that Rusyns had of their previous life in Czechoslovakia. And after 1948, when territorially reduced Czechoslovakia became a Communist-ruled satellite of the Soviet Union, the country's former eastern province, Subcarpathian Rus', became a kind of taboo subject, about which little was written or taught in schools. Since 1989, however, with the fall of Communist rule and the collapse of the Soviet Union, Czech-Rusyn ties have in some measure been restored. As part of the euphoria in post-Communist Czechoslovakia, Czech journalists, publicists, and filmmakers, no longer under government-imposed censorship, "discovered" their country's former eastern province. Numerous reports about Rusyns and Subcarpathian Rus' appeared in the Czech press, several television programs and a few documentary films were aired, and at least one right-wing Czech political group active in the early 1990s (the Republican party led by Miroslav Sladek) openly called for the return of Subcarpathian Rus' to Czechoslovakia. More long-lasting has been the work of the *Society for the Friends of Subcarpathian Rus'/Spolecnost pfatel Podkarpatske Rusi. Founded in 1990, with branches in Prague, Brno, and a few other cities, this group is comprised mainly of the children of Czech officials and civil servants who served in Subcarpathian Rus' during the interwar years, as well as younger Czechs interested in this previously little-known province of former Czechoslovakia. The society informs the current Czech public about Rusyn culture, has re-established Czech tourism to Subcarpathian Rus'/Transcarpathia, and sends humanitarian aid to its inhabitants. In turn, enthusiasts of Czech culture in Ukraine's Transcarpathia have established in Uzhhorod the Comenius Society of Czech Culture/Spolecnost ceske kultury J.A. Komenskeho and the Masaryk Club/Klub T.G. Masaryka. Both organizations issue publications about Czech and Rusyn historical relations and they were instrumental in having erected in Uzhhorod (2002) a monument to former Czechoslovakia's founding president, Tomajs G. Masaryk.

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Further reading: Gustav Bianchi, ed., Publikace pro zem Podkarpatskd Rus (Banska Bystrica, 1932; repr. 2001); Jaromir Musil, ed., Technickd prdce v Zemi podkarpatoruske, 1919-1933 (Uzhhorod, 1933); A. Gartl' [Haiti], "Podkarpatskaia Rus' v sovremennoi cheskoi literature," Tsentral'naia Evropa, VI, 3 (Prague, 1933), pp. 187-196; Kamil Krofta, "Cechoslovaci a Podkarpatska Rus," in Jaroslav Zatloukal, ed., Podkarpatskd Rus (Bratislava, 1936), pp. 19-29; FrantisekTovarek, "Zakarpatsko v naSi literature," in idem, Hory a lide (Hradec Kralove, 1985), pp. 112-123; Jan Havranek, "Pohled ceskych odborniku na Rusiny na pocatku dvacatych let," in Rusini: otdzky dejin a kultiiry (Presov, 1994), pp. 117-121; Viktor Budin, Podkarpatskd Rus ocima Cechu (Prague, 1996); Jaromir Hofec, ed., Stfedni Evropa a Podkarpatskd Rus (Prague, 1997); Petr Skala, "Turistika na Podkarpatske Rusi v mezivale6nem ob-

dobi," in Nds cesko-rusinsky kdlendaf/Nash ches'ko-rusyns'kyi kalendar 2000 (Uzhhorod, 1999), pp. 40-45; Ivan Latko, ed., Tomds Garrigue Masaryk a Podkarpatskd Rus/T.G. Masaryk ta Zakarpattia (Uzhhorod, 2000); Ivan Pop, "Podkarpatska Rus v Ceskoslovenske republice," mNdrodnostnimensiny: historicke souvislosti nekterych aktudlnich problemu v Evrope av CR (Prague, 2000), pp. 35-46. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Cziple, Sandor. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region Czlowiek zwany Nikiforem. See Cinema

D Dajbkowski, Przemyslaw (b. February 23, 1877, Eviv [Austrian Galicia], Ukraine; d. December 18, 1950, Eviv [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — Polish legal historian. DaJ)kowski taught the history of law and the state at Eviv University under post-World War I Polish and later Soviet rule. He undertook research on the history of Galicia, in particular the Sanok region during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Several of his publications contain extensive data on social, ethnic, and legal relations between Lemko-Rusyn peasants and Polish landlords in the eastern part of the *Lemko Region: Stosunki koscielne ziemi sanockiej w XVwieku (1922); Stosunki narodowsciowe ziemi sanockiej w XVstuleciu (1922); Ziemia sanocka w XV \vieku: stosunki gospodarcze, 2 vols. (1931). BOGDAN HORBAL

Dacia — a territory in central Europe controlled by a tribe of northern Thracians called Dacians. Dacia reached its largest extent during the reign of the chieftain Burebista (82-44 BCE), when in the west it extended as far as the middle Danubian River valley (present-day Hungary), in the east and north to the Carpathians (in Slovakia), and in the south to the lower Dniester valley (southwestern Ukraine) and western coast of the Black Sea as far as Apollonia (modern-day Sozopol in Bulgaria). Around 60 BCE, following the defeat of two Celtic tribes, the Boii and Taurisci, the Dacians appeared in the Upper Tisza/Tysa Region, including *Subcarpathian Rus', where they built a series of hill-forts (horodyshche) at Zemplin, Mala Kopania, Oncesti, and Solotvyno. After the death of Burebista (44 BCE) and an agreement among various tribal leaders, Dacia was divided into three and later into five parts. Dacia's power was revived in the third quarter of the first century CE, when, in the years 85-86, the Dacians under Diurpaneus and Decebal led successful military campaigns against the Roman Empire, completely destroying the Fifth Roman Legion. However, during the last stages of the DacoRoman Wars (105-106 CE) Decebel's forces suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Emperor Trajan's army. In the year 107 Rome created a new province of Dacia centered in present-day Romania, and whose northern boundary (limes) was just about 70 kilometers south of Subcarpathian Rus'. As a result the entire Upper Tisza/Tysa Region found itself within a transitional zone in contact with the Roman Empire. Further reading: Vasile Parvan, Dacia: An Outline of the Civilizations of the Carpatho-Danubian Countries (Cambridge, 1928); Jordan, Oproiskhozhdenii i deianiiakh getov (Moscow, 1960); The Geography of Strabo, 8 vols. (Cambridge, Mass., 1917-32); Ion Horafiu Crisan, Burebista and His Time (Bucharest, 1978); V.G.

Kotigorosko, "Antichitati dacice pe lisa superioara," Thraco-Dacia, XII, 1-2 (Bucharest, 1991), pp. 115-132; Sever Dumitrascu, Dacia apuseana (Oradea, 1993); Viacheslav G. Kotigoroshko, Frakiitsy Verkhnego Potis'ia: III v. do n.e.- IVv.n.e. (Uzhhorod, 1995). VIACHESLAV KOTIGOROSHKO

Dacia Society. See Romanians Damaskin (Grdanicki). See Orthodox Eparchy of Mukachevo-Uzhhorod Dami, Aldo (b. March 23, 1898, Geneva, Switzerland; d. October 9, 1977, Geneva) — Swiss-Italian professor of historical geography and ethnic studies at the University of Geneva (1944-1968). Dami published several works on national minorities in central Europe, and among his early interests was * Subcarpathian Rus'. While recognizing the achievements of the Czechoslovak regime during the interwar years, Dami also emphasized that Hungary's claims for border revision needed to be addressed. He published a major monograph, La Ruthenie subcarpathique (1944), describing the geographical setting, demography, and history of Rusyn-inhabited lands. Rusyns also figure prominently in his Les nouveaux martyrs: le destin des minorites (1936). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Dancak, Frantisek. See Blahovistnyk Danilak, Michal. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region Danilovics, Janos. See Danylovych-Korytnians'kyi, Ivan Danko, Joseph/Osyp. See Historiography: United States Danyliuk, Dmytro (b. September 19,1941, Teresva [Karpatalja, Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine) — professor and historian of Ukrainian national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus'. Danyliuk completed the middle-level school in Teresva (1957) and the historical faculty at Uzhhorod State University (19601965); he was subsequently awarded the degrees ofkandidat nauk from Eviv University (1975) and doctor of historical

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture sciences from Uzhhorod State University (1994). He taught in elementary schools (1965-1971) in far southern Ukraine, then in his native Subcarpathia in ViFkhivtsi-Lazivs'kyi and at the middle school in Teresva. Since 1971, Danyliuk has taught history at Uzhhorod State University, initially at its preparatory branch in Vynohradovo and from 1975 at its main campus in Uzhhorod (docent/associate professor, 1984; professor 1996). Danyliuk has published widely on aspects of CarpathoRusyn *historiography, in particular on the manner in which *Subcarpathian Rus' has been treated in Soviet-Marxist writings (Istoriia Zakarpattia v novitnii chas 1917-1985, 1987). He has also compiled several volumes on pre-Soviet historians of Subcarpathian Rus': Rozvytok istorychnoinauky na Zakarpatti: kinets' XVIII do seredyny XIX st. (1994), Istoriia Zakarpattia v biohrafiiakh i portretakh (1997), and Istorychna nauka na Zakarpatti (1999). Danyliuk's writings consist primarily of descriptive biographies with limited historiographical analysis; they are almost exclusively limited to scholars who have written in East Slavic languages and show little awareness of the rich heritage of historical literature about Rusyns by authors outside Subcarpathian Rus'. Further reading: Hanna Danyliuk, ed., Dmytro Danyliuk: bibliohrafichnyi pokazhchyk (Uzhhorod, 2001); "Dmytro Danyliuk," in Mykola M. Vegesh and L. V. Horvat, Karpats 'ka Ukraina 1938-1939 rokivv portretakh (Uzhhorod, 2000), pp. 137-150. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Danylovych-Korytnians'kyi, Ivan/Danilovics, Janos (pseudonyms: I.I. Korytnians'kyi, Lopukh Maksymovych, Dr. Lopuchius) (b. 1834, Strazske [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. October 21, 1895) — church official and dramatist in Subcarpathian Rus'. After completing his religious formation at the Uzhhorod Theological Seminary, Danylovych-Korytnians'kyi was ordained a Greek Catholic priest (1862) and from that year served in the chancellery office of bishop of Mukachevo, Vasylii *Popovych, who encouraged the cultural activity of Rusyn national awakeners. Danylovych-Korytnians'kyi contributed to the literary activity of the newly established *St. Basil the Great Society (1866) and its newspaper *Svit (1867-71). In the tradition of Aleksander *Dukhnovych, Danylovych-Korytnians'kyi published a play, Semeinoeprazdnestvo (1867), whose performance at the Uzhhorod orphanage under the direction of the gymnasium teacher Kyryl *Sabov proved to be an important event in Subcarpathian cultural life. Following the appointment in 1867 of Shtefan Pankovych as Greek Catholic bishop of Mukachevo, DanylovychKorytnians'kyi was appointed episcopal secretary and raised to the rank of a canon (1871). He followed the ideological lead of Bishop Pankovych, became a staunch *Magyarone, and spearheaded the new bishop's drive to remove the

Russophile leadership from the St. Basil Society. DanylovychKorytnians'kyi proceeded to publish a series of articles in the newspaper *Novyi svit that were critical of his former colleagues in Rusyn literary and cultural circles. On the other hand, he did oppose Bishop Pankovych's efforts to replace the Julian with the Gregorian church calendar, and for this act of insubordination he was dismissed as episcopal secretary and eventually taught for a while at the Uzhhorod Theological Seminary. Under Pankovych's successor, Bishop loann Pastelii (r. 1874-1891), Danylovych-Korytnians'kyi became vicar general of the newly established Hungarian-oriented Greek Catholic Vicariate of Hajdudorog and from that time had no further contact with Rusyn cultural life. During his last years at Hajdudorog he translated several religious texts from Church Slavonic into Hungarian. Further reading: Vasyl' Mykytas', Haluzka mohutn'oho dereva (Uzhhorod, 1971), esp. pp. 186-195. IVAN POP

Datsko, lurii. See Nove zhyttia De Camelis, Joseph (b. 1641, Chios [Ottoman Empire], Greece; d. 1706, Presov [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia) — church official and cultural activist in Subcarpathian Rus'. De Camelis was a *Basilian monk of Greek origin from the Aegean island of Chios. He lived in the Basilian monastery of Grotta-ferrata outside Rome and worked for a while in the Vatican Library. In 1690, he was the first bishop-archimandrite of the *Eparchy of Mukachevo to be appointed by Rome instead of being elected by a monastic council (sobor). Rome hoped that De Camelis would strengthen the *Unia/Church Union among Rusyns. He achieved this in part through cultural activity, arranging for the printshop in the Roman Catholic center of Trnava in western Slovakia to obtain Slavonic typefaces and to publish the first books for Rusyns: a catechism (Katekhizis dlia naouki Ouhrorouskim liudem, 1698) and an elementary reader (Boukvar' iazyka sloven 'skapisanii chteniia ouchitisia khotiashchim poleznoe rukovozhenie, 1699). During the anti-*Habsburg revolt of Prince Ferenc II *Rakoczy, De Camelis was forced to flee (1703) westward to Presov, where he died three years later and was buried, at his request, in the local Roman-rite Franciscan (Minorite) church. Further reading: lurii Zhatkovych, "loann losyf de Kamelys," in Misiatsoslov na 1893-yi obyknovennyi hod (Uzhhorod, 1893), pp. 111-119; Paul Robert Magocsi and Bohdan Strumins'kyj, "The First Carpatho-Ruthenian Printed Book," Harvard Library Bulletin, XXV, 3 (Cambridge, Mass., 1977), pp. 292-309. IVAN POP

Decsy, Antal. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region

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Dee, Sandra. See Cinema Deerhunter, The. See Cinema; Lemko Hall Dekhterov, Aleksii. See Ladomirova Monastery; Russians Dem"ian, Luka (b. June 6, 1894, Verkhni Vorota [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. May 16, 1968, Mukachevo [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — folklorist and writer in Subcarpathian Rus'. Dem"ian was a self-educated cultural activist who, with his brother, compiled throughout his lifetime 25 handwritten volumes ofRusyn folktales, legends, kolomyika songs, proverbs, historical songs, ballads, Christmas stories, and anecdotes. During the years 1936-1938 he also collected material for the *Ethnographic Museum of Subcarpathian Rus' in Uzhhorod. In the 1920s Dem"ian began publishing his own tales and short stories written exclusively in Rusyn; some of these were published separately: Chart na vesilliu (1920), Vid'ma (1924), and Yzsela (1943). Several more volumes of his tales and short stories appeared during the Soviet era— Vesillia bez zhenykha (1956), Zustrich (1961), Opovidannia synikh Karpat (1964), Holodnyi pokhid (1977), Krutohory Verkhovyny (1984), De hory Karpaty (1985)—although the texts were significantly ukrainianized by editors during publication. Several folk texts Dem"ian had been compiling since the interwar years have subsequently been published. Again the Rusyn originals have been significantly ukrainianized in the collectionsZacharovanapidkova(\959), Charivnesertse (1964), Kazky (1969), Lehendy Karpat (1968), and Lehendy nashoho kraiu (1972). Further reading: A.M., "Luka Demian 50 rochnyi," in Velykyi sel'sko-hospodarskyi kalendar' Podkarpatskoho obshchestva nauk na rok 1944 (Uzhhorod, 1944), pp. 60-66. IVAN POP

Demko, Mykhai'l (b. September 13, 1894, Novosad/ Bodzaujlak [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. 1946, Uzhhorod [Soviet Ukraine], Ukraine) — teacher, journalist, and pro-Hungarian political activist ofRusyn national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus'. Demko completed his studies at the *Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College (1913), then taught elementary school for a year in the village of Pistrialovo before being mobilized into the Austro-Hungarian Army (1914). After the close of World War I and the collapse of Austria-Hungary he remained a loyal Hungarian patriot and refused to swear an oath of allegiance to the new state of Czechoslovakia. He was therefore released from his job as a teacher. Interested in journalism, Demko founded and edited in Mukachevo the Hungarian-language daily newspaper, Karpdtifutdr (1920-1924). In 1920 he co-founded and became

party secretary of the Subcarpathian (later *Autonomous) Agricultural Union, for whom he published the annual almanac, Zemledil'skii kalendar' (1934-43). His publications were consistently critical of Czechoslovakia, and during the 1920s and 1930s he spoke out against Prague's rule in * Subcarpathian Rus' at various congresses of "Russian minorities" held in Riga, Warsaw, and Belgrade as well as at the congress of European national minorities in Geneva. In an attempt to promote his views among young people, he became head in 1936 of the cultural and sports organization, the Carpatho-Russian Eagle/Obshchestvo "Karpatorusskii orel." During Czechoslovakia's political crisis in 1938 Demko openly called for the return of Subcarpathian Rus' to Hungary. When Hungary annexed Uzhhorod in November 1938 Demko was appointed an advisor to the government for the city's economic affairs and a deputy to the lower house of the Hungarian parliament. In early 1945 he was arrested by the SMERSH counter-espionage unit of the Soviet Army, found guilty of collaboration, and executed sometime the following year. Since Demko always considered himself a Hungarian patriot his wartime activity in the Hungarian parliament can in no way be considered collaboration. Further reading: Antonii Yvanchov, "Mykhayl Demko," in Zemledil'skii kalendar' na hod 1939 (Uzhhorod, 1938), pp. 97-100. IVAN POP

Demjanovics, Emil. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Hajdudorog Demko, Kalman. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Hajdudorog; Nedilia Den '/Den — the only Rusyn-language daily newspaper ever published in the United States. It was published and edited by Michael *Hanchin in New York City from 1922 to 1926. Articles were written in Rusyn (Roman alphabet) and carried a wide body of information about the Rusyn homeland in interwar Czechoslovakia. Den' also functioned as the official organ of the Carpatho-Russian Cultural League/ Karpato-russka kulturna liga, established (1923) in Hazleton, Pennsylvania, and it also published a few issues of an annual almanac, Kalendar "Dna ". Further reading: Georgij Sabov, "Jak voznikla perva karpatorusska jezednevna gazeta v Ameriki," in 1973 Calendar of the Greek Catholic Union of the U.S.A. (Homestead, Pa., 1972), pp. 78-82. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Department of Rusyn Language and Literature. See University departments

Department of Ukrainian and Rusyn Philology. See University departments

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Derzhavna koedukatsiina uchytel'ska

Diadia, Petro. See Riznich-Diadia, Petro

semynariia v Mukachevi. See Mukachevo State

Teachers' College

Derzhavnoe samouriadovania menshyny rusynuv. See State Administration for Rusyn SelfGovernment Deshko, Andrei. See Carpathian Rus' De-Vollan, Grigorii Aleksandrovich (b. 1847; d. 1916) — Russian diplomat, folklorist, and ethnographer. While serving in Vienna as the tsarist Russian consul to Austria-Hungary, Devollan traveled to *Subcarpathian Rus', where he collected a wide body of folkloric and ethnographic material. This material, together with that collected by other folklorists, comprised the 525 texts of Rusyn folksongs he published in Russia under the title Ugro-russkiia narodnyia piesni (1885), a volume which also included an essay by Devollan on the material culture of Hungary's Rusyns as well as an ethnographic map of the Hungarian Kingdom. He also published in the journal Russkii arkhiv an introductory survey about Subcarpathian Rus', "Ugorskaia Rus'" (1878), and a description of the impact of magyarization and national assimilation among Rusyns, "Ocherk istorii ugorskikh russkikh i ikh noveishei bor'by s mad'iarami" (1879). IVAN POP

Deutsch-ruthenische-Freundschaft. See German-

Rusyn Friendship Society

Diadia Rusyn National Theater/Ruski narodni teatr "Diadia" — theater company among the Vojvodinian Rusyns of Serbia. The theater began in 1969 within the framework of the first annual Festival of Drama, named after the early twentieth-century promoter of Vojvodinian Rusyn theater, Petro *Riznich-Diadia (Dramski memoriial Petra Riznicha Diad'i). By the time of the second festival in 1970 the Diadia Rusyn Amateur Theater was formally established, with stages in Ruski Kerestur and Novi Sad. In 2003, part of the company was transformed into the professional Petro Riznich Diadia Rusyn National Theater/Ruski narodni teatr "Petro Riznich Diadia." The amateur theater continues to exist as a separate institution, although there are plans to unite the two theaters, both of which are based in Ruski Kerestur. During its first quarter of a century (1969-1995) the theater performed works by local Voj vodinian Rusyn playwrights and classic works from the world repertory under the direction of Diura *Papharhai, lovgen Medieshi, and Dragen *Koliesar, among others. All plays are performed in the Voj vodinian variant of the Rusyn language. Of the 460 actors who performed between 1969 and 1995 those who appeared most frequently include: Mikola *Skuban, Vitomir Bodianets, Ana Rats, luliian Striber, lanko G. Rats, Mikhailo *Varga, and Mikhailo Zazuliak. Further reading: Diura Latiak, Dvatsetspeits rokiART—RNT "Diadia" (Novi Sad, 1995); Mikhailo Bodianets, ed., Tritsets Dramski memoriali Petra Riznicha Diadi (1969-1998)—khronologiia (Ruski Kerestur, 1998). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Dezso, Armin. See Communist party; Jews Did Marko. See Markush, Aleksander Dezso, Laszlo (b. October 26, 1927, Budapest, Hungary) — Hungarian linguist, Slavist, and professor at the Lajos Kossuth University in Debrecen (1975-1985) and the University of Padua in Italy (1988- ). Dezso has published widely on the history of Subcarpathian Rusyn dialects, with particular emphasis on developments between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries: Ocherki po istorii zakarpatskikh govorov (1967). He has also analyzed manuscripts from this period, in particular the Niagovo postilla, chancellery correspondence, and urbarial documents, for which he has compiled three dictionaries ofRusyn words—Materialy kslovariu Zakarpatskoi literatury XVI - XVII vv. (1965), Ukrainskaia leksika ser. XVI veka: Niagovskie poucheniia (1985), Delovaia pis 'mennost' rusinov vXVII - XVIII vekakh (1996)—as well as a dictionary and analysis of Hungarian loanwords found in early Rusyn texts: A XVI - XVIII szdzadi kdrpdtukrdn nyelvemlekek magyar jovevenyszavai (1989). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Dido Mykula. See Bobul's'kyi, Antonii Dido Zagradkav. See Kovach, Mikhal Dietstvo i iunost' vo Khristie. See Pravoslavnaia karpatskaia Rus' Diky za kdzde nove ratio. See Cinema Dilets'.&eTelek Directorate/Directorium — short-lived advisory body appointed by the Czechoslovak government for "autonomous * Subcarpathian Rus'." Created in November 1919, the five-member Directorate headed by Gregory *Zhatkovych was established in response to the proposals outlined in the

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*General Statute for the Organization and Administration of Subcarpathian Rus' (September 18, 1919). Its five members, aside from Zhatkovych, included lulii *Brashchaiko, lulii *Hadzhega, Emilii Torons'kyi, and Avhustyn *Voloshyn. Neither Zhatkovych's recommendation of his brother Teofil Zhatkovych nor the candidacy of levhen Puza was accepted by the Czechoslovak government, although Puza was invited to participate in the Directorate's meetings, which began on December 18, 1919. The Directorate had six sections: (1) external affairs; (2) culture and schools; (3) religion, industry, and commerce; (4) agriculture and food-processing; (5) internal matters; and (6) finance. The body made several demands on the Czechoslovak government, including the implementation of *autonomy, delimitation of the boundaries of Subcarpathian Rus', its intervention to remove Romanian troops from the province's eastern regions, the abolition of church dues (*koblyna and *rokovynd), the regulation of the monetary system, and the implementation of an effective land reform. The Directorate ceased functioning on February 19, 1920, when its members resigned in protest over the failure of the Czechoslovak government to implement autonomy in Subcarpathian Rus'. IVAN POP

District (German: Kreis, Bezirk; Polish: cyrkul, powiai) — territorial and administrative unit of the imperial Austrian province of Galicia. In 1772 Galicia, including the *Lemko Region, was annexed from the Polish Kingdom by the Habsburg-ruled Austrian Empire. By the end of the eighteenth century the *Habsburgs had abolished Poland's former *palatinates/wojewodztwa and replaced them with districts, initially called Kreise. Three of these districts covered the Lemko Region: Nowy Sacz (11 percent Lemko Rusyn inhabitants), Jaslo (16 percent), and Sanok (ca. 30 percent). In 1867 the Habsburgs introduced an administrative reform that redivided Austrian Galicia into a smaller district unit called Bezirk in German and powiat in Polish. The Lemko Region was divided into eight districts named after their administrative centers. In each district the Lemkos were a minority, usually living in the southern, mountainous parts of these administrative units. The districts from west to east, with their percentage of Lemko Rusyn inhabitants in 1910, were: Nowy Targ (3 percent), Nowy Sa^cz (2 percent), Grybow (17 percent), Gorlice (23 percent), Jaslo (9 percent), Krosno (15 percent), Sanok (ca. 40 percent), and Lesko (2 percent)—see Map 9. The districts were administered by a prefect/starosta. Each district also had a form of self-government with a district council/radapowiatowa (to which Lemkos managed to elect representatives) and an executive committee/wydzial powiatowy. After the collapse of Habsburg-ruled Austria-Hungary in 1918 the new Polish state retained the district system,

although the degree of local self-government was largely restricted (see Palatinate). BOGDAN HORBAL

Diul. See Latiak, Diura Diurych, Igor. See Kercha, Igor Dmytryk, Ivan. See Historiography: Lemko Region Dni lemkivskoi kul'tury. See Lemko Society Do peremohy. See Revai, luliian Dobosh, Andrew. See United Societies of Greek Catholic Religion Dobosh, Andrii. See Art Dobosh, Shtefan/Dobo§, Stefan (b. Decembers, 1912, Obava [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. February 23,1978, Presov [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — professor and literary scholar of Russian national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region. Dobosh studied at the Russianlanguage gymnasium in Mukachevo (1923-1931), where he developed a strong affinity for Russian literature and considered himself and all Rusyns to be a branch of the Russian nationality. He studied history and the Russian language at Charles University in Prague (1932-1937). He began teaching at the gymnasium in Berehovo (1937-1938) and then, after Hungary annexed Subcarpathian Rus', at the gymnasium in Mukachevo (1939-1945). Dobosh adapted to the Hungarian regime and its tolerance of the Rusyn national orientation, and he wrote (but did not sign) a history of Rusyn literature that stressed its evolution as distinct from both Russian and Ukrainian literary developments: Ystoriiapodkarpatorus 'koi lyteratury (1942). When Subcarpathian Rus' was annexed to the Soviet Union it seemed as if Dobosh might be able to function under the new regime, which appointed him the first rector of Uzhhorod State University (1945). But even before the school year began he was persuaded by the Soviet authorities to give up his new post. Dobosh joined his wife (a Czechoslovak citizen) in Slovakia, where he began a long career teaching at the Russian gymnasium in Presov (1945-1949), at the Medical Institute in Kosice (1951-1953), and at the Advanced School of Education in Presov (1954-1959). For nearly two decades (1959-1977) he served as chairman of the Department of Russian Language and Literature at Safarik University (associate professor/docent, 1961). Despite the introduction of the Ukrainian language and a Ukrainian national identity in the Presov Region in the early 1950s, Dobosh continued to

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture publish in Russian, including the first book-length biography of the nineteenth-century Rusyn political activist, Adol'f *Dobrians'kyi (1956), and a biography and literary analysis of the Rusyn writer, lulii *Stavrovs'kyi-Popradov (1975). Further reading: Illia Halaida, "Siiach na nyvi narodnii: do 85richchia S.V. Dobosha," Duklia, XLV, 6 (PreSov, 1997), pp. 70-74; Il'ia Galaida, lurii Bacha, Miron Sisak in Zbornik venovany nedozitym 85. narodeninam doc. PhDr. Stefana Dobosa, CSc./Acta Facultatis Philosophicae Universitatis Presoviensis: Rossica Slovaca, Vol. VI (Presov, 1998), pp. 7-14, 102-108, and 142-146. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Dobosh, Vasyl'. See Nashi stremleniia

Dobrians'ka, Iryna (b. September 11, 1892, Sanok [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. March 14, 1982, Eviv [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — pedagogue, ethnographer, and cultural activist of Ukrainian national orientation in the Lemko Region. After completing her studies at the gymnasium in Eviv (1911) and the Teachers' Seminary in Przemysl (1921) Dobrians'ka began teaching in various schools throughout the *Lemko Region, where she consistently promoted the view that Lemkos are a branch of the Ukrainian nationality. She was a co-founder (1930) and the vice-director of the *Museum of the Lemko Region in Sanok, for which she amassed, mostly from the eastern Lemko Region, over 300 embroideries, 100 examples of domestic painted wall designs (in particular from the village of Komancza and its environs), and Easter egg designs. Before the outbreak of World War II she managed to write an ethnographic survey of the Lemko Region and created a map of archeological sites, both of which remained unpublished. In 1945 Dobrians'ka was resettled to the Soviet Ukraine, where she worked at the Museum of Ethnography and Industrial Arts in Eviv and continued to publish articles on Lemko folklore for scholarly journals in Ukraine and for the Ukrainian-language newspaper in Poland, Nashe slovo. BOGDAN HORBAL

Dobrians'ka, Ol'ga. See Hrabar, Ol'ga

Dobrians'kyi, AdoFf/Dobrzansky, Adolf (pseudonyms: Aidin, Slaven, Sriemets) (b. December 19, 1817, Rudlov [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. March 18, 1901, Innsbruck [Austrian Tyrol], Austria) — Carpatho-Rusyn political theorist and activist of Russian national orientation in Slovakia and Subcarpathian Rus'. The son of a Greek Catholic priest, Dobrians'kyi attended gymnasia in Levoca, Roznava, and Miskolc (1827-1831) and then studied philosophy in Kosice (1833), law in Eger (1834-1836), and mining at the Academy for Mines and Forests in Banska Bystrica. His

93 education, completed in Vienna (1846), provided him with fluency in a wide variety of languages, including German, Hungarian, English, French, Italian, and Greek. While working as a mining engineer he visited Bohemia and met with the Czech political and cultural activists Frantisek Palacky, Frantisek Rieger, and Karel Havlicek-Borovsky. Dobrians'kyi initially welcomed the revolution of 1848 in Hungary, expecting that its liberal government under Lajos Kossuth would accord civil rights to Rusyns. It was because of a sense of loyalty to Hungary that Dobrians'kyi did not participate in the Slavic Congress that met in Prague (June 1848). When, however, Dobrians'kyi was elected that same year to the Hungarian Parliament from the Slovak district of Banska Bystrica, his mandate was not accepted and he was accused of being a pan-Slavist. Barred from the Hungarian Parliament, Dobrians'kyi moved to Presov, where he headed a group of activists that formulated a political program calling for the union of Rusyns in the Hungarian Kingdom with those in Austrian Galicia (that is, eastern Galicia as well as the *Lemko Region). At the end of January 1849 he submitted to the new Austrian emperor, Franz Joseph I (r. 1848-1916), a petition "Concerning the Union of Rusyn Crown Lands into a Single Political and Administrative Unit" and then travelled to Eviv to coordinate his efforts with the Supreme Ruthenian Council, which had become the representative body of Galicia's Rusyns. In April 1849 the Austrian government appointed Dobrians'kyi its civilian commissioner and liaison with the tsarist Russian Army of General Paskevich, which Emperor Franz Joseph invited to help crush the Hungarian Revolution. After the defeat of the Hungarian forces (August 1849) Dobrians'kyi led a delegation of Rusyns (including his brother Viktor Dobrians'kyi, Vikentii Aleksovych, Mykhailo Vysianyk, losyf Sholtes, and Aleksander lanyts'kyi) that held talks with high governmental officials in Vienna (October) and submitted another petition to the emperor. Among the petition's 12 points were demands for the recognition of the Rusyn nationality in Hungary, the demarcation of Rusyninhabited territory, the introduction of the Rusyn language in schools and the local administration, the appearance of a Rusyn press, the appointment of Rusyn officials and civil servants, and fellowships for students from the Hungarian Kingdom to attend the University of Eviv. The demand for union with Galicia, which had figured in the previous January 1849 petition, was dropped in recognition of Vienna's displeasure with the idea. When Austria imposed martial law in Hungary and reorganized the kingdom's administrative structure Dobrians'kyi was appointed advisor (October 1849) to assist the head of the Uzhhorod Civil District (comprising *Ung, *Bereg, *Ugocha, and *Maramorosh counties). Dobrians'kyi considered the civil district to be the first step toward the creation of an autonomous *Rusyn District/Rus'kyi okruh. He issued the Uzhhorod District's official documents and proclamations in Rusyn, had

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Rusyn introduced in schools, and appointed Rusyns to governmental posts. After the Uzhhorod Civil District was abolished in March 1850 Dobrians'kyi moved to Kosice, where in 1861 he was again elected to the Hungarian Parliament and where again his mandate was rejected. It was at this time that he formulated a proposal to have the Hungarian Kingdom administratively divided into five national districts: German-Magyar, Serbian, Romanian, Rusyn, and Slovak. In 1865 Dobrians'kyi was elected for a third time to the Hungarian Parliament and was finally allowed to take up his seat. He was particularly active in promoting cultural activity among both Rusyns and Slovaks, serving as first co-chairman of the *St. Basil the Great Society in Uzhhorod (1866) and as a co-founder of the Slovak Cultural Foundation/Matica slovenska (1867) in Turciansky Sv. Martin. Such "pan-Slavic" activity was frowned upon by Hungarian leaders, who in 1869 succeeded in having him removed from his parliamentary seat. Dobrians'kyi retired to his property in the Rusyn village of Certizne in northeastern Slovakia, but displeased with increasing surveillance by the Hungarian authorities, he decided in 1875 to emigrate to Russia. He returned to Austria-Hungary in 1881, settling this time in Galicia's administrative center of Eviv, but within a year Hungary's Prime Minister Kalman Tisza succeeded in convincing the Austrian authorities to organize a trial (June 12-July 29,1882) accusing Dobrians'kyi, his daughter Ol'ga *Hrabar (living at the time in Eviv), and a group of Galician *Russophiles of state treason. Although acquitted for lack of evidence, Dobrians'kyi was forced to move to Vienna and from there to Innsbruck in Austria's far western province of Tyrol, where he was to spend the last two decades of his life. During that time he continued to publish essays that outlined his belief in the idea of a federalized Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (Programm zur Durchftihrung der nationalen Autonomie in Oesterreich, 1885) as well as the Russophile view that Rusyns are a branch of the Russian nationality (O sovremennom religiozno-politicheskom polozheniiu avstro-ugorskoi Rusi, 1885). Whereas he maintained contacts with political and cultural activists in the Russian Empire, his ties with Subcarpathian Rus' during his Innsbruck years were basically non-existent. Dobrians'kyi was buried in the Greek Catholic cemetery in Certizne. In recognition of his achievements, the *Dukhnovych Society in Uzhhorod erected memorial busts of him by the sculptor Olena Mandych in Michalovce (1928) and Uzhhorod (1929). Further reading: Anton Budilovich, Ob osnovnykh vozzreniiakh A. I. Dobrianskago (St. Petersburg, 1901); Fedor F. Aristov, Karpatorusskiepisateli, Vol. I (Moscow, 1916), pp. 145-223; Pavel S. Fedor, Kratkii ocherkdieiatel'nostiA.I. Dobrianskago (Uzhhorod, 1926); Florian Zapletal, A.I. Dobrjanskij a nasi Rusini r. 1848-1851 (Prague, 1927); Stepan Dobosh, Adol'flvanovich Dobrianskii: ocherk zhizni i deiatel'nosti (Bratislava and PreSov, 1956). IVAN POP

Dobrians'kyi Carpatho-Russian Student Society/ Obshchestvo karpatorusskikh studentov "Dobrianskii" — organization for Rusyn university students of Russian national orientation in Bratislava. The Dobrians'kyi Student Society was established in 1932 by Rusyns, mostly from the *Presov Region, studying at Comenius University in Bratislava. Aside from its social functions, the society was concerned with reinforcing in its members the view that they are part of the Russian nationality. To this end it established a balalaika ensemble; sponsored a series of lectures, for the most part on Russian literature; and published the Russian-language literary and cultural magazines, Studencheskii zhurnal (1942) andIar'(\ 943), edited by Mykhail Zarichniak/Michael Zarechnak. After World War II, in response to the new political situation, the organization was renamed the Dobrians'kyi Society of Russian and Ukrainian Students/Obshchestvo russkikh i ukrainskikh studentov "Dobrianskii," headed by Emilian *Stavrovs'kyi, but after the onset of Communist rule it was merged in 1949 with the Union of Czechoslovak Youth. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Dobrians'kyi Society of Russian and Ukrainian Students. See Dobrians'kyi Carpatho-Russian Student Society; Stavrovs'kyi, Emilian Dobrians'kyi, Viktor. See Presov Literary Society; Stadtkonvikt Dobrodiev, M. See Transcarpathian Folk Choir Dobryipastyr. See Il'nyts'kyi, Aleksander Dobryk, VasyP. See Markus, Vasyl Dobrzansky, Adolf. See Dobrians'kyi, Adol'f Dohovics, Bazil. See Dovhovych, Vasyl' Doklia/Dokla, Teodor (b. November 11,1931, Jasionka, Poland; d. December 31, 1982, Yonkers, New York, USA) — Lemko journalist, poet, and civic activist ofRusyn national orientation in Poland and the United States. Because of the absence of specifically Lemko organizations in Communist Poland, Doklia worked on behalf of his native culture during the post-World War II decades within the framework of the Ukrainian Civic and Cultural Society based in Warsaw. In 1961 he emigrated to the United States, where he published a series of articles in the Lemko newspaper, *Karpatska Rus', which outlined the recent tragic fate of *Lemkos in Poland. In 1967 Doklia became supreme secretary/chairman of the

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture *Lemko Association/Lemko Soiuz of the USA and Canada and with Stephen *Kitchura he broke the organization's longstanding sympathies toward Communist rule in the homeland, so that for the first time the Lemko Association openly condemned the resettlement (1945-1946) and forced deportation (1947) of Lemkos and demanded their right to return home. Two years later, at the Lemko Association's 25th congress (1969), pro-Communist elements reasserted their influence, removed Doklia, and banned him from the organization. Together with Kitchura he established a new publication, Biuletyn Lemkovyny, renamed Lemkovyna (1971-1982), which criticized both Communist Poland and Czechoslovakia for their denationalization and assimilationist policies toward Lemkos/Rusyns living within those countries. Doklia was also co-founder (1971) of the Lemkovyna Association/Soiuz Lemkovyny, a short-lived organization which in 1973-1974 joined the World Federation of Lemkos but then dropped out in protest against its pro-Ukrainian orientation. Doklia wrote in Lemko-Rusyn vernacular, and aside from poetry he published a booklet on three Lemko villages: Nasha hromada: mynule sil lasiunka, Kryva y Banytsia na Lemkovyni (1969). Further reading: Petro Trokhanovskii, "Teodor Doklia," in Lemkivskii richnyk 2002 (Krynica and Legnica, 2002), pp. 108113. BOGDAN HORBAL

Dolhosh, Ivan. See Karpats 'kyi krai Dolynai, Mykola (b. July 22, 1894, Cimpulung la Tisa [Hungarian Kingdom], Romania; d. March 29, 1970, Prague [Czechoslovakia], Czech Republic) — physician and cultural and political activist of Ukrainian national orientation in Subcarpamian Rus'. Dolynai completed the gymnasium in Uzhhorod (1904-1912) and the Faculty of Medicine at Budapest University (1912-1918). At the end of World War I he returned to *Subcarpathian Rus', where during the interwar years of Czechoslovak rule he worked as a doctor and later hospital director in Uzhhorod and played an active role in the province's cultural and political life. He initially supported the Ukrainian-oriented * Social-Democratic party, but after 1926 became a leading activist in the *Christian People's party headed by Avhustyn *Voloshyn. Dolynai was also a founding member (1920) of the Ukrainophile *Prosvita Society. During the period of Subcarpathian autonomy, he was elected deputy to the diet of *Carpatho-Ukraine (February 1939) and appointed minister of health and welfare in the last cabinet of Avhustyn * Voloshyn (March 9,1939). After the Hungarian annexation and fall of Carpatho-Ukraine (March 1939) Dolynai emigrated to Prague, where he spent the World War II years in Nazi Germany's Protectorate of Bohemia-Moravia. In June 1945 he was arrested by the Soviet Army's counter-espionage unit, SMERSH, brought to the Soviet Union, and sentenced to

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a Gulag forced labor camp (1945-1950) and internal exile. He was amnestied in 1950 on condition that he leave the Soviet Union. Dolynai went back to Prague and spent the rest of his days in relative seclusion. Further reading: Omelian D. Dovhanych, "Mykola Dolynai: dolia ministra," in idem, V tenetakh "SMERSHu": represovani diiachi Karpats 'koi Ukrainy (Uzhhorod, 2002), pp. 42-45. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Dolyniane/Dolyshniany/Lowlanders — the numerically largest Carpatho-Rusyn ethnographic group. Dolyniane Rusyns inhabit * Subcarpathian Rus' from the Teresva River valley in the east to the present-day boundary of Ukraine and Slovakia, and still farther west to the Laborec river below the Vihorlat ridge in southeastern Slovakia. The southern extent of Dolyniane-inhabited territory coincides with the Rusyn-Magyar ethnographic boundary. Its northern extent coincides with a line of settlements that begins in the west near the town of Michalovce on the Laborec river, skirts along the southern edge of the Vihorlat ridge through the villages of Klokocov, Poruba, Hlivistia, and Benatina, and from there eastward into present-day Ukraine along a line that includes Zavosyno—Zabrid'—Sil'—Stavne—Liuta—Rodnykova Huta—Han'kovytsia—Mizhhiria—Synevyrs'ka Poliana to the crest of the Carpathians. The eastern boundary of Dolyniane-inhabited territory falls between the Shopurka and Chorna Tysa rivers from the mountain crests in the north to a few villages (Craciunesti/Krachunovo, Tisa/Mikovo, Rona de Sus/Vyshnia Runa) along the southern bank of the Tisza/Tisa River in Romania. Within this territory there are just over 400 villages (see Map 3). Based on local differences, the Dolyniane may be divided into several sub-groups determined largely by the river valleys they inhabit: the Teresva, Tereblia, Rika, Borzhava, and Tuna. More or less homogeneous in terms of their ethnolinguistic characteristics are the Dolyniane who live below the Vihorlat ridge, and along the lower valley of the Uzh and central valley of the Latorytsia rivers, including the villages southeast of Mukachevo. Among the various Carpathian ethnographic groups, the Dolyniane are the primary representatives of Rusyn distinctiveness. As early as the ninth and tenth centuries this group of Rusyns, owing to geographic and political factors, had become separated from the rest of the East Slavic world and became a part of the socioeconomic and cultural sphere shared by those peoples living in central Europe, in particular in the Danubian Basin. Beginning in the late eleventh century, Rusyn-inhabited territory became an integral part of the Hungarian Kingdom which, in terms of political and cultural life, had definitively separated the Dolyniane from other East Slavs, who were part of Kievan Rus'. The differences between the political

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institutions and historical-cultural processes of Kievan Rus' and those of the Hungarian Kingdom were a crucial factor in the distinct ethno-cultural evolution of the Dolyniane Rusyns. They acquired cultural characteristics, historical experiences, and a life-style—norms of conduct in family and economic relations—similar to those of neighboring peoples in central Europe, with whom they lived in the same state structures in the Hungarian Kingdom until the early sixteenth century, and from then until 1918 in the Habsburg Monarchy. The Dolyniane continue to earn their livelihood through agriculture. In most cases, livestock raising at best only supplements the growing of crops. Dolyniane settlement patterns consist generally of large villages with as many as a hundred homes clustered along one main street and, in some cases, along other, parallel streets. In contrast to *Boiko and *Hutsul homesteads, Dolyniane houses and farm buildings are laid out in an unstructured fashion and are not connected to each other. Until the end of the nineteenth century all structures were built with wood. Since the early twentieth century, however, as timber became less available and more expensive for dwellers in the lowlands and foothills, the Dolyniane increasingly used for building material unbaked bricks made from blocks of dried earth, whose production became the specialty of local *Gypsies. Only in the upper mountain valleys did the Dolyniane continue to build wooden structures. Among the Dolyniane there are several local or sub-regional differences. These are most evident in the Maramorosh region, where Dolyniane live in the lowlands around the town of Khust and in the Teresva, Tereblia, Rika, and Tisza/Tysa river valleys. To a certain degree residents in this region have been influenced by the cultures of neighboring Transylvania and by cultures in the Balkans, which in earlier times had been the source of the so-called *Vlach colonization. The distinctiveness of the Maramorosh Dolyniane is evident in their building techniques (largely in wood), the layout of their courtyards, their ornamental traditional dress, their folk music and food, and the relatively higher degree of livestock raising, in particular of what for Rusyns is a relatively exotic animal, the buffalo. Among Dolyniane west of Khust, that is, between the Borzhava and Latorytsia valleys, intensive agriculture, orchards, and vineyards are the norm and livestock raising is less common. The Dolyniane life-style is heavily influenced by that of their *Magyar neighbors, so much so that both cultures have blended and are basically indistinguishable from one other. The same applies to Dolyniane Rusyns still farther west and northwest of Mukachevo as far as Uzhhorod. Farther north, however, in the upper valleys of the Borzhava, Latorytsia, and Uzh rivers, livestock becomes important among the Dolyniane, whose life-style and work patterns are similar to those of neighboring Boikos farther north. Finally, among the Dolyniane along the lower valley of

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture the Uzh River and in Rusyn villages in Slovakia below the Vihorlat ridge as far west as the Laborec River the influence of neighboring Slovaks is evident. Intensive agricultural practices are typical for this region. Farther north, in the mountainous areas along the Slovak-Polish border, livestock raising has long been the predominant form of livelihood, and the techniques employed, moreover, reflect those brought during the period of Vlach colonization. When, in the nineteenth century, national awakenings spread among the peoples of central Europe, it was among the Dolyniane that a distinct Rusyn identity developed, one which was clearly differentiated from neighboring Rusyns (Ukrainians) in eastern Galicia. Gradually, the ethnographic differences of the Dolyniane Rusyns were transformed into national differences. These differences found political expression in national programs based in large part on the repeated demand of Rusyns for self-government or *autonomy, which began in 1848 and were to continue throughout the rest of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Further reading: Hryhorii Kupchanko, Uhorska Rus'y ey russky zhytely (Vienna, 1897), esp. pp. 46-62; Sandor Bonkalo, A Rutenek (Ruszinok) (Budapest, 1940; 2nd ed. Basel and Budapest, 1996)— English ed.: Alexander Bonkalo, The Rusyns (New York, 1990); Th. Beregiensis [Hiiador Stryps'kyi], "lak narod dilyt' sebe," Lyteraturna nedilia, II, 18 (Uzhhorod, 1942), pp. 185-188; Mykhailo Tyvodar, "Etnoistorychnyi ta etnokul'turnyi rozvytok ukrai'ntsiv Zakarpattia," in Carpatica/Karpatyka, No. 6 (Uzhhorod, 1999), esp. pp. 32-44. IVAN POP

Dom "Prosvita." See Prosvita Society Dominium/Latifundium — an estate or domain including agricultural lands, forests, villages, and towns that belonged to the king (royal estate/kameral'na dominiid) or to a powerful landlord (manorial estate). Among the larger dominia/latifundia were, in *Subcarpathian Rus', the royal estates of *Ung/ Uzhhorod (initially owned by the *Drugeth family), Velykyi Bychkiv, Maramorosh, and Mukachevo-Chynadiievo (eventually owned by the *Schonborn family) and, in the *Presov Region, the manorial estates of Makovytsia/Zborov, Stropkov, and Humenne (initially owned by the Drugeth family). In the *Lemko Region, among the few dominia, *Muszyna held a special place. It functioned as a semi-autonomous territorial entity with its own courts and military units. Other dominia which included some villages in the Lemko Region were: the Nawojowa estate (later owned by the Lubomirski, Sanguszko, and finally the Stadnicki family); an estate owned by the Gladysz family, with holdings in the central Lemko Region; and the estates centered on the town of Jasliska owned by the Roman Catholic bishop of Przemysl, which encompassed some villages in the eastern Lemko Region. Further reading: Antoni Prohaska, "Jasliska i klucz biskupow

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture przemyskich," Przewodnik Naukowy i Literacki, XVII (Eviv, 1889), pp.58-77, 181-188, 263-270, 368-375,464-473, 563-572, 650-662; Oleksander Mytsiuk, Narysy z sotsial'no-hospodars 'ko'i istori'i b. Uhors 'koi nyni Pidkarpats 'koi Rusy, 2 vols. (Uzhhorod, 1936-38), Vol. I, esp. pp. 39-50 and Vol. II, pp. 70-78; A. Wqjcik, Gladysze: pionierzy osadnictwa na Pogorzu (Gorlice, 1948); Maria Marcinkowska, Lubomirscy: starostowie sqdeccy i spiscy (Nowy Sa^cz, 1998). BOGDAN HORBAL PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Donskii, Ivan. See Rusyn Sector Donskii, Mykhal/Donski, Michal (b. March 15,1919, Wola Cieklinska, Poland; d. March 2,2001, Gorlice, Poland) — Lemko partisan and political activist in Poland of Ukrainian national orientation. During World War II, in Nazi German-occupied Poland, Donskii participated in the Polish Communist underground movement. He was a co-founder of branches of the Polish Workers' (Communist) party in the *Lemko Region and an organizer of its military wing, the People's Guard/Gwardia Ludowa. Arrested by the Gestapo (1943), he was freed by a unit of the Home Army/Armja Krajowa, the Polish non-Communist underground movement. Until the end of the war he served as commander-in-chief of the People's Guard for the Subcarpathian district (which included the Lemko Region). He led as well a Lemko partisan unit, which carried out several successful operations against the Nazi German authorities and the Ukrainian police serving that regime. Following the arrival of the Soviet Army in late 1944 Donskii headed the Lemko Region *Peasants' and Workers' Committee/Seliansko-robitnychyi komitet Lemkovyny, which supported Poland's Communist government. The initial success of this cooperation, which gave Lemkos national rights, was soon overshadowed by Communist plans to create a Polish state without national minorities. These plans resulted in the removal of the Lemkos from their Carpathian homeland, whether eastward to the Soviet Ukraine (1944-1946), or later to the western regions of postwar Poland (1947). Donskii himself moved in October 1946 to the Soviet Ukraine. He returned to Poland in 1958, however, and in the following year he became head of the Section for the Development of Lemko Culture, the so-called *Lemko Section/Lemkivs'ka sektsiia of the Communist government's minority organization, the Ukrainian Civic and Cultural Society (USKT). Under Donskii's leadership the section shifted toward more independent Lemko activity, which Ukrainian activists and the Polish Communist authorities condemned as "Lemko separatism." Donskii and his supporters were dismissed from the Lemko section in 1965. Eventually, he was removed from the USKT executive board and completely ousted from the organization in 1970.

Dismayed at this turn of events, Donskii emigrated to the United States (1975), settling in Yonkers, New York, where he maintained contact with the *Lemko Association/Lemko Soiuz of the USA and Canada. When, in the late 1980s, Communist Poland entered a more liberal phase Donskii, after 12 years abroad, returned home. Once critical of what during the Communist era was described as "Ukrainian bourgeois nationalism," Donskii returned to Poland as a self-declared Ukrainian and soon joined the pro-Ukrainian *Union of Lemkos/Ob"iednannia Lemkiv. His skepticism of the new Lemko-Rusyn national revival and comments on his own complex career were published in an extensive interview in Poland's Ukrainian-language journal Zustrichi (1989). Further reading: Andrzej Daszkiewicz, Ruch Oporu w Regionu Beskidu Niskiego 1939-1945 (Warsaw, 1975); Myroslav Trukhan, Ukraintsi v Pol'shchi pislia druhoi svitovoi viiny 1944-1984, Zapysky Naukovoho tovarystva im. Shevchenka, Vol. CCVIII (New York, Paris, Sydney, and Toronto, 1990), esp. pp. 303-312. BOGDAN HORBAL

Doroshenko, Dmytro. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region Dositei (Vasic). See Orthodox Eparchy of MukachevoUzhhorod Dovhanych, Omelian (b. May 8, 1930, Nyzhnie Selyshche [Czechoslovakia], Ukraine) — journalist, editor, professor, and historian of Ukrainian national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus'. After completing the gymnasium, later middle school/desiatyrichka, at Khust (1942-1949), Dovhanych studied at the Advanced [Communist] Party School for Journalism in Kiev (1953-1956). He began his career as a journalist for a district newspaper in * Subcarpathian Rus' and as a *Communist party propagandist (1961-1968), then served as director (1968-1972) of Karpaty Publishers in Uzhhorod. For over two decades (1972-1995) he worked as researcher and later assistant professoT/docent (1975) at Uzhhorod State University. Since the onset of the post-Communist era, Dovhanych has published extensively on the World War II period, in particular on Subcarpathians who fought with the *Czechoslovak Army Corps or as "volunteers" in the Red Army (Zakarpats 'ki dobrovol'tsi, 1998) and on the fate of soldiers and civilians persecuted on political grounds by the Hungarian and Soviet regimes (Roky lykholittia: nevidomi storinky i trahichni doli, 1995). He is also the main compiler for a collection of documents, most of which were previously published, dealing with the annexation of * Subcarpathian Rus' to the Soviet Union at the close of World War II (Vozz"iednannia, 2000). Whereas Dovhanych is not reluctant to show the darker sides of Soviet totalitarian rule, he nevertheless is convinced that the "*re-

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unification" of "Ukrainians" in Subcarpathian Rus' with their "Ukrainian motherland" was a historically justified act. Further reading: Ivan Khlanta, Omelian Dovhanych: bibliohrafichnyi pokazhchyk (Uzhhorod, 1995)

Further reading: Volodymyr Birchak, "Vasyl' Dovhovych-

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

S. Hrushevs'koho, Vol. II (Kiev, 1928), pp. 455-460; P.P. [Fedor

Dovhanych," in Misiatsoslov na 1922 hod (Uzhhorod, 1921), pp. 68-74; Volodymyr Birchak, "Ukrai'ns'kyi filosof VasyF Dovhovych," in lubileinyi zbirnyk naposhanu akademyka Mykhaila Potushniak], "Korotkyi narys fylozofii Podkarpatia," Lyteraturna

Dovhanych, Vasyl'. See Dovhovych, Vasyl'

nedilia, III, 4 and 5 (Uzhhorod, 1943), pp. 43-47 and 54-56; Ivan Matsyns'kyi, "Kinets' XVIII—persha polovyna XIX st. ta zhyttia i diial'nist' Vasylia Dovhovycha," Naukovyi zbirnyk Muzeiu

Dovhovych, Vasyl'/Dohovics, Bazil (b. Vasyl' Dovhanych, March 1783, Zolotar'ovo [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. December 13, 1849, Khust [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine) — priest, philosopher, and poet. Dovhanych completed the Latin school (classical gymnasium) in Sighet (1800-1805), studied philosophy at the academy in Oradea/ Nagyvarad (1805-1807), and received his theological formation at the seminaries in Trnava (1807-1809) and Uzhhorod (1809-1811). After ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1811) he served in four parishes: Dovhe (1811-1824), Velyki Luchky (to 1844), and Khust (to 1849). At Velyki Luchky he took up the cause of the so-called free peasants (*libertinilsabodashi/slobodnyky), that is, peasants who had been absolved of their feudal duties but whose privileges were revoked and whose best lands taken by the *Schonborn family landlords in the 1730s. He assisted the free peasants in their century-old legal suits by writing on their behalf to the highest courts in Vienna and to the emperor himself. Aside from priestly and social concerns Dovhovych was a student of philosophy, in particular of the German philosophers Kant, Fichte, and Schelling. He wrote several works in Latin on God the Creator (1823), on a visible world more perfect than that of Descartes and Newton (1825-30), and on philosophic principles that prove the existence of God (1829). As a disciple but critic of Kantian idealistic philosophy Dovhovych's sympathies lay closer to Positivism. For his philosophical achievements he was elected a corresponding member (1831) of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. In the history ofRusyn culture Dovhovych is best known as a poet. In 1832 he compiled a manuscript collection, "Poemata Basilii Dohovits," consisting of 190 poems in Latin (131), Hungarian (41), and Rusyn (18). The Latin and Hungarian poems were written primarily during his student years, the Rusyn poems while he was a priest in Dovhe and Velyki Luchky. Dovhovych was the last Rusyn poet to use Latin, writing in a classical style heavily influenced by the late Baroque. His Hungarian-language poetry was influenced by Romanticism, while his Rusyn works were characterized by the abandonment of archaic *Church Slavonic forms in favor of the spoken vernacular. His poetic corpus did not influence subsequent Rusyn writers, since they remained unaware of the existence of Dovhovych's 1832 manuscript, which was not published until a century and a half later (1982).

ukrains 'koi kul'tury u Svydnyku, X (Bratislava and Presov, 1982), pp. 23-110; Nataliia Vyhodovanets', Vasyl'Dovhovych: liudyna Baroko (Uzhhorod, 2000). IVAN POP

Dragula, Nykolai. See Dukhnovych Society

Drahomanov, Mykhailo Petrovych (pseudonyms: M. Halyts'kyi, P. Kuz"mychevs'kyi, M. Petryk, M. Tolmachov, Ukrai'nets) (b. September 18/30,1841, Hadiach [Russian Empire], Ukraine; d. July 2, 1895, Sofia, Bulgaria) — Ukrainian political theorist, historian, philosopher, economist, literary scholar, and publicist. Drahomanov was a leading proponent of political and socioeconomic reform in the Russian Empire and a supporter of the fledgling Ukrainophile movement that was periodically weakened by restrictions imposed by the tsarist government. In the early 1870s he was dismissed from his university post and urged by Kiev's Ukrainophile movement to promote their cause abroad. Among Drahomanov's first stops was * Subcarpathian Rus', where in 1875-1876 he met with the Rusyn writer, Anatolii *Kralyts'kyi, and the editor of the newspaper *Karpat, Nykolai *Homichkov. Drahomanov was deeply struck by the low level of Rusyn national life and he called on young Galician *Ukrainophiles to study and eventually assist the Rusyns of Subcarpathia. Among those who heeded his call were Ivan *Franko and Volodymyr *Hnatiuk. Drahomanov elaborated his "program" for Subcarpathian Rus'. In two works, Austro-rus'ki spomyny (1867-77) and Spravy Uhors 'koiRusy (1895), he provided an objective analysis of the *Russophile movement in the region, which he viewed as the only means for the local Rusyn intelligentsia to defend itself against the reactionary magyarization policies of the Hungarian government. He also included folkloric material from Subcarpathian Rus' in his two collections of "Little Russian" (Ukrainian) folksongs and tales: Istoricheskiepiesni malorusskago naroda, 2 vols. (1874-75) and Malorusskie narodnyepriedaniia i rasskazy (1876). Further reading: O.S. Mazurok, "Drahomanov i Zakarpattia," Novyny Zakarpattia (Uzhhorod), September 18, 1991. IVAN POP

Drohobets'kyi, lulii. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Krizevci; Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College Dronov, Mikhail. See Aristov Society of Friends of Carpathian Rus'

Druzhno vpered. See Cultural Union of Ukrainian Workers; Grendzha-Dons'kyi, Vasyl'

Druzhtvo za ruski iazik, literaturu i kulturu. See Society for Rusyn Language, Literature, and Culture

Drovniak, Epifanii. See Nykyfor Krynytskii Drozd, M. See Halas, Kyrylo Drugeth family (Drugeth de Homonna) — a ducal family of Hungarian magnates of French-Italian origin. The founders of the family line in the Hungarian Kingdom were Jean/Ioann and Philippe Drugeth, who were in the service of Charles II, the king of Naples (r. 1285-1309) and count of Anjou and Provence. The Drugeths came to Hungary at the outset of the fourteenth century during the reign of the Hungarian king, Charles I/Karoly (Charles of Anjou, r. 1308-1342). To assist the latter in consolidating his rule, Jean/Ioann Drugeth was appointed the royal palatine (1329) and the following year the royal sheriff (*zhupan/ispdri) of *Ung and *Zemplyn counties, and temporarily of Tolna, Somod, and Feher counties. The Drugeth family held the hereditary post of royal lord sheriff in Ung and Zemplyn counties until the end of the seventeenth century. They were also granted the hereditary manorial estates of the Humenne and Uzhhorod *dominia. By the fifteenth century the Drugeth estates were the largest in all of Hungary, encompassing 106 villages with 3,200 households comprised of Rusyn, Magyar, and Slovak inhabitants. After the defeat of the Hungarian Kingdom at the hands of the Ottomans (1526) and the subsequent struggle for succession to Hungary's throne, the Drugeths supported the *Habsburg claimants. During the religious struggles of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation they remained loyal to Catholic Rome. For instance, at the outset of the seventeenth century Count Gyorgy III Drugeth (r. 1583-1620) invited the Jesuit Order to establish missions throughout his estates and he was behind the first attempt (1614) at introducing the *Unia/Church Union among the Orthodox Rusyns. While this attempt failed, more successful was the wife of Janos X Drugeth (r. 1610-1645), Anna Jakusich de Orbova. Together with her brother (the Roman Catholic Bishop of *Eger Gyorgy Jakusich) she was instrumental in convening the 63 Orthodox priests who, in 1646, proclaimed the Union of Uzhhorod and the creation of the Uniate/Greek Catholic Church, which initially survived only in those territories controlled by the Drugeths. The male line of the Drugeth family died out in 1691 with the passing of Bishop Valentin Drugeth. The property remained briefly with the bishop's sister, Kristina Drugeth, but after her own death (also in 1691) her husband, Count Miklos Bercsenyi, administered the estate until he was driven from Hungary in 1711. IVAN POP

Dubai, Mykhail/Dubaj, Michal (b. June 4, 1910, Hacava [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. October 4,1993, Presov, Slovakia) — painter, pedagogue, and cultural activist in the Presov Region. After spending his youth in Rusyn villages in northeastern Slovakia Dubai went to *Subcarpathian Rus', where he completed the Russian gymnasium at Mukachevo (1929), and then went on to Comenius University in Bratislava, where he studied history and geography as well as painting. He taught history, geography, and drawing at the Russian gymnasium in Presov (1939-1948) and edited a Russian-language collection of studies on Rusyn history and culture: Obrazovanie—sbornikpouchitel'nykh stat'ei (1942). After World War II, he served as educational administrator in the Commission/Referat for Ukrainian Schools in the * Presov Region (1948-1949) and in the East Slovak regional office for secondary schools (1949-1952). He gradually adapted to the Ukrainian national orientation, was a long-term executive member of the *Cultural Union of Ukrainian Workers, and served as editor-in-chief (1964-1975) of the Division for Ukrainian Publications of the Slovak Pedagogical Publishing House based in Presov. Throughout his life Dubai continued to paint. Most of his works were in the Cubist style and based on themes and landscapes from the Rusyn countryside as well as sacred subjects. Among his best-known canvases in these genres are Smereky (Pine Trees, 1939) and Khrystos (Christ, 1940). Dubai also played an active role in promoting Rusyn art. His paintings dominated the first exhibit of Rusyn painters held in Presov in 1940, and after World War II he played an active role in the establishment of the Gallery of Art in Presov and the *Museum of Ukrainian-Rus' Culture in Svidnik. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Dubai/Dubay, Orest (b. August 15, 1919, Vel'ka Pol'ana [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — graphic artist, painter, and professor in Slovakia. After completing his gymnasium studies in Presov (1930-1936) and Mukachevo (1936-1939) Dubai studied at the Department of Drawing and Art of the Advanced Technical School in Bratislava (1939-1943). He remained in Bratislava, where he did illustrations for newspapers and became a member of the Hollar and Ales group of artists. Dubai developed a distinct graphic style using wood and was particularly fond of creating small-scale works in relief made from wood, ceramics, and stone. Among his compositions is a cycle of graphics entitled In memoriam Tokajik (1949), dedicated to the Rusyn village in eastern

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Slovakia destroyed by Nazi German forces in 1944. By the 1960s Dubai was working in the Op-Art style. He was commissioned to do several decorative sculptural pieces for the interiors of public buildings in Slovakia, for which he used metal, glass, and industrial materials. Among his best-known works is a series of five tapestries in relief (a combination of kilim and Gobelin styles) for the state reception room at the Castle of Bratislava (1983). Beginning in 1949 Dubai taught at the Advanced School of Fine Arts in Bratislava (associate professor/docent, 1962; professor, 1967), where he also served as rector (1968-1971). For his contributions he was named a Merited Artist (1969) and State Artist (1977) of Czechoslovakia and an honorary member of art academies in Florence (1964) and Rome (1972). Further reading: Ivan Matsyns'kyi, "65 rokiv Oresta Dubaia ta soniachnyi svit ioho hrafichnoi' tvorchosti," Naukovyi zbirnyk Muzeiu ukrains 'koi kul'tury u Svydnyku, XII (Bratislava and PreSov, 1985), pp. 347-409; Ladyslav Pushkar, "Kamerna hrafika Oresta Dubaia v 1945-1985 rokakh," ibid., XXII (2001), pp. 358-371. IVAN POP

Dubets'/Dubec, Adam — (b. Aleksander Dubets', August 14, 1926, Florynka, Poland) — priest and church hierarch in the Lemko Region of Ukrainian national orientation. Dubets' was deported from the *Lemko Region in 1947, after which he completed his religious formation at the Orthodox Theological Academy in Warsaw. Following ordination as an Orthodox priest in 1965, he returned to his native Lemko Region, where the following year he was appointed dean at Rzeszow and also served in several parishes: Wysowa, Gorlice, and Sanok. In early 1983 Dubets' became a monk (taking the name Adam), was soon consecrated bishop, and later in the year he became the first bishop of the restored Orthodox Eparchy of Przemysl-Nowy Sa^cz with a residence in Sanok. In 1996 he was raised to the rank of archbishop within the Polish Autocephalous Orthodox Church. Although Ukrainophile in orientation, Bishop Dubets' is somewhat tolerant of the Lemko-Rusyn national revival within his eparchy. Further reading: am, "Wladyka Adam Arcybiskupem," Przeglqd Prawosiawny, XI, 6 (Biafystok, 1996). BOGDAN HORBAL

Duc-Fajfer, Helena. See Duts'-Faifer, Olena Duchnovic, Alexander. See Dukhnovych, Aleksander Duda, Tadeusz. See Historiography: Lemko Region Dudash, Ernest. See Russkii narodnyi golos Dudash, Nataliia (b. December 15, 1958, Ruski Kerestur [Yugoslavia], Serbia) — belletrist, critic, dramatist, translator,

publisher, and civic and cultural activist of Rusyn national orientation among the Vojvodinian Rusyns. After graduating from the gymnasium in Ruski Kerestur (1977) Dudash studied general literature and the theory of literature at the University of Belgrade (1977-1982). She worked as editor (1981-1989) of Literaturne slovo (the supplement to the Rusyn weekly newspaper *Ruske slovo) and as the Rusyn correspondent (1983-1984) for Radio Novi Sad and Ruske slovo. After 1984 she wrote plays for Radio Novi Sad and was director (1993-2000) of the *Ruske Slovo Press and Publishing House in Novi Sad. She also served as deputy minister of culture in Serbia (1998-2000). Dudash published her first work while still a gymnasium student (1973). A collection of poetry appeared in 1980 (Dzivi taniets), followed by several others: the dual-language RusynSerbian Naradzovanie muzikilRadjanje muzike (1985), O literaturnim (1987), Hadvab (1989), O melangolichnikh remeslokh (1996), and a collection of critical essays, Shkarupina (1991). As a poet she is affiliated with the Belgrade school of post-modernists. Her writing attempts to unite the "rhythm of Rusyn verse with elements not otherwise characteristic to it," and it therefore contributes to the creative potential of world literature. Her poetry has met with praise among Rusyn and Serbian critics and has been translated into several languages, including Serbo-Croatian, Ukrainian, Slovak, Hungarian, and Macedonian. Since the early 1990s Dudash has been an active participant in the Rusyn national revival. She has served as chairman of the Vojvodinian *Rusyn Cultural Foundation/Ruska Matka (2000), has actively participated in several *World Congresses of Rusyns since 1991, and has compiled a large anthology of Rusyn poetry from all countries where Rusyns live, in Europe as well as in North America, Rusinski/ruskipisn'i (1997). ALEKSANDR D. DULICHENKO

Dudick, Michael J. (b. February 23,1916, St. Clair, Pennsylvania, USA) — priest and church hierarch among Rusyns in the United States. Upon completion of his theological studies at St. Procopius Seminary in Lisle, Illinois (1945), Dudick was ordained a Byzantine (Greek) Catholic priest. He served in several parishes in the northeast United States until 1968, when he was appointed bishop of the Byzantine Ruthenian Eparchy of Passaic, a post he held until his retirement in 1995. During that time he created the Heritage Institute Museum and Library (1972) in Passaic, later West Paterson, New Jersey, an institution with a wide range of materials related to CarpathoRusyn culture, including icons, paintings by twentieth-century Subcarpathian artists, ethnographic materials brought to the United States by Rusyn immigrants, antimensia and vestments of Rusyn bishops in Europe and United States, and *Church Slavonic old printed and other Rusyn-related books and newspapers. Dudick also provided financial support to establish (1978) the quarterly *Carpatho-Rusyn American as

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture well as several publications dealing with Rusyns in Europe and the United States. Further reading: E. Kasinec and R.A. Karlowich, "The Shepherd as Collector," Diakonia, XXVIII, I (Scranton, Pa., 1995), pp. 30-36.

101 Further reading: Michael Lucas, 50th Anniversary, 1929-1979: Society of Carpatho-Russian Canadians/Obshchestvo karpatorusskykh kanadtsev (Toronto, 1979). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Dudra, lakov (b. November 3, 1894, Losie [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. November 6,1974, Losie, Poland) — folk poet in the Lemko Region. Despite completing only four classes of elementary school, Dudra began writing poetry in his native Lemko vernacular at an early age. In 1947 he was deported from the *Lemko Region during the *Visrula Operation, although he managed to return from western Poland to his native Carpathian village in the early 1960s. His poems are didactic in character and began to appear in the late 1950s and 1960s in the Lemko section ("Lemkivske slovo," *"Lemkivska storinka") of Poland's Ukrainian-language newspaper, Nashe slovo, and in the publications of the *Lemko Association/Lemko Soiuz of the USA and Canada. Some of Dudra's poetry was published in a separate volume, Urodyvsia ia khlopom (1982). Further reading: Olena Duts'-Faifer, "lakov Dudra 1894-1974," in Lemkivskii kalendar 1994 (Legnica and Krynica, 1994), pp. 96-102. BOGDAN HORBAL

Dudra, Mykhailo. See Organization for the Defence of Lemko Western Ukraine Dudra, Stefan. See Historiography: Lemko Region Dukhnovich Society of Carpatho-Russian Canadians/Obshchestvo karpatorusskikh Kanadtsev im. Aleksandra Dukhnovicha — cultural and civic organization founded in Toronto in 1940 to serve the interests of the Carpatho-Rusyn community in Canada, particularly in southern Ontario. It was first known as the Carpatho-Russian Society for the Struggle Against Fascism/Karpatorusske obshchestvo bor'by s fashyzmom, and after World War II was renamed the Carpatho-Russian Society of Canada/Karpatorusske obshchestvo Kanady. Its present name was adopted during the 1970s. In Toronto, the society had its own Carpatho-Russian Choir, dance group, and dramatic circle which performed during the 1940s and helped to raise funds to assist the Red Army during World War II. The organization's pro-Soviet orientation has been promoted by its leading activist and later president, Michael Lucas (b. 1926), a native of the *Presov Region, whose views were expressed in two magazines published in Rusyn vernacular: Club 280 (1943-60) and Nash holos (1964-70).

Dukhnovych, Aleksander (b. April 24, 1803, Topol'a [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. March 29, 1865, Presov [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia) — priest, belletrist, historian, ethnographer, publicist, and publisher in the Presov Region and Subcarpathian Rus'. Known as the "national awakener of the Carpatho-Rusyn people," Dukhnovych was born into a family of priests; he was educated at the gymnasium in Uzhhorod (1813-1821), the academy in Kosice (1821-1823), and the Theological Seminary in Uzhhorod (1824-1827). After ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1827) he was assigned to work in the chancery office of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov. But his conduct clashed with the conservative views of Bishop Hryhorii *Tarkovych, who in 1833 sent him to serve as a parish priest in the remote *Presov Region Rusyn villages of Chmel'ova/Komlosa and Beloveza. In 1838 he was transferred to the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo and worked for the next five years in the eparchial administration in Uzhhorod. After the death of Bishop Tarkovych Dukhnovych's relationship with the Eparchy of Presov improved and in 1843 he was appointed eparchial *canon; the following year he returned to the city of Presov, with which he was to remain closely associated for the rest of his life. There he was to become the central figure in the Rusyn national awakening (see also Literature). During his younger years Dukhnovych's poetic works, whether odes or intimate lyrical verse, were written in Hungarian and characterized by a sentimentalism influenced by Hungarian Romanticism. His later literary works were determined more by practical than aesthetic concerns. Because these writings were basically intended to enlighten and educate the population at large, they have value only in the context of the Rusyn national awakening. Of particular importance in this regard is a series of school texts written in Rusyn (Knyzhytsia chytalnaia dlia nachynaiushchykh, 1847—repr. 1850, 1852, 1967, 2003; Kratkyi zemlepys dlia molodykh Rusynov, 1851—repr. 1967), a russified grammar (Sokrashchennaia grammatika pis 'mennago russkago iazyka, 1853; repr. 1967), a pedagogical guide for teachers (Narodnaia pedagogiia vpol'zu uchilishch i uchitelei sel'skikh, 1857; repr. 1967), and several Rusyn-language prayerbooks and liturgical texts Liturgycheskii katekhyzys, 1851,1854; Molytvennyk dlia russkykh ditei, 1854), including the most popular of all: Khlib dushyyly nabozhnyia molytvy y pisny dlia vostochnyia tserkvy pravoslavnykh-khristiian (1851; 9th ed., 1889; further ten varied editions, 1892-1937). In 1850 Dukhnovych established the first Rusyn cultural association, the *Presov Literary Society, which published a

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series of books, including the first Rusyn literary *anthologies, issued annually and entitled Pozdravlenie Rusynov. The anthology for 1851 included his poem "Vruchanie," whose opening lines, "I Was, Am, and Will Remain a Rusyn/ la Rusyn byl, esm 'y budu" were to become the national credo of all Rusyns. Dukhnovych is also traditionally credited with having written the text which later became the Rusyn national *anthem, "Subcarpathian Rusyns, Arise From Your Deep Slumber," although recent scholarship suggests he was not its real author. Among his scholarly works were a history of the Eparchy of Presov, originally written in Latin and published posthumously in Russian (Istoriia Priashevskoi eparkhii, \ 877; repr. 1967) and in English (The History of the Eparchy ofPrjasev, 1971), and a general history of Carpatho-Rusyns, completed in 1853 and published posthumously in the Russian original, Istinnaia istoriia Karpato-Rossov Hi Ugorskikh Rusinov (1914; repr. 1967,2003) and in a Vojvodinian Rusyn translation (1981). Dukhnovych considered that his main task was to enlighten or raise the educational and cultural standards of the Rusyn people, which first required the codification of a literary language. He did not, however, opt to create a literary language on the basis of the most widespread spoken dialects, as his contemporary friends and colleagues, the Slovak national awakeners, had done for their language. Instead, Dukhnovych accepted the principle of two styles. He used the "low style," or Rusyn vernacular, for works intended for mass consumption, including school texts, patriotic poetry, and plays like the very popular Dobroditel'prevyshaet bohatstvo (Virtue is more Important than Riches, 1850,1921,1923; English translation 1994). For scholarly and other more "serious" texts he used the "high style," that is, the Slaveno-Rusyn language. This was an amalgam of Russian, *Church Slavonic, and Rusyn, which his later disciples called the "traditional Carpatho-Rusyn language" but critics derided as the *iazychiie (macaronic jargon). Dukhnovych categorically rejected the language used by the *Ukrainophiles and the idea that Ukrainians form a distinct nationality. While he did maintain contacts with brethren "beyond the mountains who were not foreign to him," those contacts were exclusively with *Old Ruthenian and *Russophile activists (Bohdan Didyts'kyi, lakiv *Holovats'kyi) and with cultural organizations in I!viv, such as the Rus' National Center/Narodnyi Dom, the Stauropegial Institute, and the Galician-Rus' Cultural Foundation/Matitsia, all of which rejected the view that Ukrainians formed a distinct nationality. Dukhnovych also maintained close contacts and learned from the experience of Slovak national awakeners (Jonas *Zaborsky, Jan Andrascik, Jan Francisci-Rimavsky, Andrej Radlinsky, Viliam Pauliny-Toth) and Russian scholars (Izmail *Sreznevskii, Mikhail *Raevskii). Responding to the political crisis in the Habsburg Empire and the increase in magyarization during the late 1850s and early 1860s, Dukhnovych, together with the political activist

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Adol'f *Dobrians'kyi, attempted to consolidate Rusyn national forces by creating new cultural organizations, such as the *St. John the Baptist Society in Presov (1862) and the *St. Basil the Great Society in Uzhhorod (1866). Their efforts met with only limited success, however, because the traditional Rusyn *patriarchal society, whose educated elite, for the most part Greek Catholic clerics, were becoming increasingly favorably inclined toward the Hungarian state and the idea of belonging to a single Hungarian political nation. Some of Dukhnovych's correspondence with Galician Russophiles has been published by Mykhailo *Demko (1927); his autobiography first appeared in 1928. Since then, many of his other writings have been republished in general anthologies as well as in volumes devoted specifically to him; the most important among the latter is the planned four-volume Tvory (Works) edited by Mykhailo *Rychalka and Olena *Rudlovchak, of which three volumes have already appeared (1967-89). Soon after his death Dukhnovych was considered by an albeit gradually decreasing number of national patriots as the "father" and national symbol of the Rusyn people. During these same pre-World War I decades scholars in the Russian Empire (Konstantin *Kustodiev, Fedor * Aristov) saw Dukhnovych as the preserver of a "Russian identity" in what they described as the so-called Rus'Abroad (Zagranichnaia Rus'). After World War I and during the "second" Rusyn national renaissance, which took place under Czechoslovak rule, numerous books and articles were dedicated to Dukhnovych. Statues or busts were erected to him in Sevliush (1925), Kolochava (1930), Khust (1932), Presov (1933), Poliana (1991) near Svaliava, and in his native village of Topol'a (1965), and one of Subcarpathia's leading cultural societies was named after him: the *Dukhnovych Society/Obshchestvo im. Aleksandra Dukhnovicha (1923). His name also served as a catalyst and symbol of national unity among Rusyn immigrants in North America; a statue of him was erected in Cleveland, Ohio (1952), and in the 1970s a society in Toronto, Canada was renamed in his honor, the *Duchnovich Society of Carpatho-Russian Canadians. During the four decades of Communist rule following World War II Marxist scholars were allowed to treat Dukhnovych as an acceptable, "progressive" national awakener from the past. His career as a Greek Catholic priest went virtually unmentioned, however, as was his open rejection of the Ukrainophile movement. Instead, literary scholars in both the Soviet Union (Vasyl' *Mykytas', Oleksa *Myshanych) and Czechoslovakia (lurii *Bacha, Olena Rudlovchak, Mykhailo Rychalka) transformed Dukhnovych into a "Ukrainian writer" and a "national awakener of the Transcarpathian Ukrainians." This view continues to be espoused by Ukrainophiles in the post-Communist era. The years since the Revolution of 1989 have also seen

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Dukhnovych become the primary symbol for the "third" Rusyn national revival, not only in the Presov Region and *Subcarpathian Rus', but also for Rusyns in the *Lemko Region, Hungary, and Yugoslavia. In Presov, the professional Ukrainian National Theater was renamed the Aleksander *Dukhnovych Theater (1990); in Uzhhorod, the Dukhnovych Society (banned by the Soviet regime) was revived (1994) and a monumental statue to him was erected (1997); and an annual international Dukhnovych Prize for the best work in Rusyn literature was established by the Canadian-Rusyn philanthropist Steven *Chepa (1997). Further reading: Oleksander Dukhnovych (1803-1865): bibliohrafichnyi pokazchyk (Uzhhorod, 1996); Fedor F. Aristov, "Aleksandr Vasil'evich Dukhnovich," in idem, Karpato-russkie pisateli, Vol. I (Moscow, 1916; repr. Trumbull, Conn., 1977), pp. 49-61—3rd rev. ed. (Uzhhorod, 1929); Kyrylo Studyns'kyi, "Aleksander Dukhnovych i Halychyna," Naukovyi zbornyk Tovarystva "Prosvita, " III (Uzhhorod, 1924), pp. 28-94; Aleksandr V. Popov, Aleksandr Vasil'evich Dukhnovich: kritiko biograficheskii ocherk (Mukachevo, 1929); Nikolai A. Beskid, A. V. Dukhnovich i egopoeziia (Uzhhorod, 1930); Nikolai A. Beskid, Dukhnovichi (Homestead, Pa., 1934); Vasyl' L. Mykytas', O. V. Dukhnovych (Uzhhorod, 1959); Mykhailo Rychalka, O. V. Dukhnovych: pedahoh i osvitnii diiach (Presov, 1959); lurii Bacha, Literaturnyi rukh na Zakarpatti seredyny XIX stolittia (Bratislava and Presov, 1961); Fedir I. Naumenko, Osnovy pedahohiky O.V. Dukhnovycha (Eviv, 1964); Literaturna i pedahohichna spadshchyna O. Dukhnovycha (Uzhhorod, 1965); Mykhailo Rychalka, ed., Oleksandr Dukhnovych: zbirnyk materialiv naukovo'i konferentsi'i prysviacheno'i 100-richchiu z dnia smerti (Presov, 1965); Olena Rudlovchak, "Priashivs'ka literaturna spilka Dukhnovycha i literaturni problemy," Duklia, XIII, 1,2,3,4 (Presov, 1965), pp. 88-93, 56-68, 79-88, and 76-87; Oleksii V. Mashtaler, Pedahohichna i osvitnia diial'nist' O. V. Dukhnovycha (Kiev, 1966); Olena Rudlovchak, "Oleksandr Dukhnovych: zhyttia i diial'nist'," in Oleksandr Dukhnovych, Tvory, Vol. I (Bratislava and Presov, 1968), pp. 15-168; Aleksander Dukhnovich i rusinskepitanie/Studia Ruthenica, Vol. II (Novi Sad, 1990-91); Elaine Rusinko, "Aleksander Dukhnovych and the Origin of Modern Drama in Subcarpathian Rus'," in Aleksander Dukhnovych, Virtue is More Important than Riches (New York, 1994), pp. xi-xiii; Elaine Rusinko, "The National Awakening in Subcarpathian Rus': Aleksander Duchnovyc's Reconfiguration of Cultural Identity," Canadian Slavonic Papers, XLI, 1 (Edmonton, 1999), pp. 1-18; Dmytro D. Danyliuk, ed., O. Dukhnovych: z naukovo'i spadshchyny budytelia (Uzhhorod, 2003); Oleksandr Dukhnovych—vyznachnyi pedahoh, myslytel'i hromads 'ko-politychnyi diiach Zakarpattia (Uzhhorod, 2003). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Dukhnovych Festival of Drama and Literary Recitation. See Cultural Union of Ukrainian Workers Dukhnovych Literary Circle. See Presov Greek

Catholic Teachers' College Dukhnovych Society/Obshchestvo im. Aleksandra Dukhnovicha — cultural organization of Russophile orientation in Subcarpathian Rus' and later in the Presov Region. Formally called the Aleksander Dukhnovich Russian Cultural and Enlightenment Society/Russkoe kul'turnoprosvietitel'noe obshchestvo imeni Aleksandra Dukhnovicha, it came into being on March 23, 1923, at a meeting in Mukachevo of 163 cultural activists in * Subcarpathian Rus' of both Rusyn and Russian national orientations, including the province's governor, Antonii *Beskyd; the Greek Catholic bishop of Mukachevo, Petro *Gebei; levmenii *Sabov; losyf *Kamins'kyi; Konstantyn *Nevyts'kyi; Nykolai Dragula; Petro Petrigala; Nykolai *Beskyd; and lulii *Hadzhega. The society was based in Uzhhorod; its first chairman (1923-1934) was levmenii Sabov, although its actual administrator was Shtefan *Fentsyk. The Russophile orientation of the Dukhnovych Society and its clear anti-Ukrainian stance was in large part a reaction to the intense activity of Ukrainian emigres in Subcarpathian Rus', where three years earlier they had established the *Prosvita Society, and since that time published numerous Ukrainian-language or Ukrainian-oriented newspapers, journals, and brochures, and took up several positions in newly established *gymnasia and the Czechoslovak school system in general. Ukrainian activists provoked among many members of the local Rusyn intelligentsia a fear of ukrainianization and loss of a distinct Rusyn ethnic identity. In response, the Dukhnovych Society's symbol became the "common-Russian (obshcherusskii) tri-colored [red, white, and blue] national flag..., an external badge showing that we are Russians (russkie) and that we are a part of the Great Russian nation." Its organizers also stressed their affinity with the Russophile *Kachkovs'kyi Society in Galicia and with Russian emigre organizations in Prague, Sofia, Belgrade, Paris, Berlin, and the United States. At the same time, the society expressed full loyalty to the Czechoslovak state. The Dukhnovych Society was divided into 12 sections: popular enlightenment; scholarship and literature; publications; theater; music; choral ensembles; sports; Russian scouting movement; national center; national archive; women's affairs; and hygiene. Among the society's activities was the annual Russian Day festival, which became a generally recognized national holiday among Rusyns. It also organized the erection of statues and busts of nineteenth-century Rusyn national activists in Uzhhorod, Mukachevo, Khust, Michalovce, and in several villages. A major achievement was the building in Uzhhorod of the Russian National Center/Russkii narodnii dom (1932) as the society's headquarters. The publications section issued two journals, *Karpatskii krai (1923-24) and *Karpatskii sviet (1928-38); an annual almanac, Russkii

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narodnyi kalendar' (1927-42); and 115 brochures in a series called "Izdanie" (1924-37), which included historical and literary works by well-known Russian emigres as well as by local Subcarpathian *Russophiles. In Subcarpathian circles, however, these publications proved to be elitist. The Russian language used was decidedly less accessible to the average Rusyn reader than was the language employed by the Ukrainophile Prosvita Society (based largely on the more vernacular-oriented Galician-Ukrainian grammar of Ivan *Pan'kevych), which issued many more practical booklets appropriate for peasant needs. The Dukhnovych Society was active in the creation of reading rooms, which during the interwar years served as centers of civic and cultural activity both in villages and in towns. By 1937/1938 the society had established nearly 300 reading rooms throughout Subcarpathian Rus', in comparison to the Prosvita Society's 260. The Dukhnovych Society was particularly well represented in the areas around Mukachevo and Svaliava, as well as in the Latorytsia valley as far north as the Carpathian crests. In the Uzhhorod district the Dukhnovych Society had twice as many reading rooms as Prosvita which, for its part, was much more influential in the far southeast (former *Maramorosh county). By the late 1930s, however, the Dukhnovych Society grew weaker in comparison with its rival: whereas the Prosvita Society maintained a clear focus and systematically worked with young people, Dukhnovych Society activists often got caught up in short-term problems of secondary importance. This was particularly the case following the death of levmenii Sabov in 1934, after which Shtefan Fentsyk effectively transformed the society into an instrument of his own political interests. For a brief period in 1936, Edmund *Bachyns'kyi was elected chairman and tried to change the situation, but he was unable to do so and resigned. The Dukhnovych Society was greatly damaged by reports in 1937 that its actual administrator, Fentsyk, was cooperating with the anti-Czechoslovak Polish and Hungarian secret services and that he was personally sympathetic to fascist movements throughout much of Europe, especially of the Italian variety. Consequently, the last Russian Day sponsored by the Dukhnovych Society during the period of Czechoslovakian rule was a fiasco. On that day in Mukachevo (September 12,1938), the society managed to turn out a mere 190 participants. After Subcarpathian Rus' was annexed in two stages to Hungary (November 1938 and March 1939) the Dukhnovych Society managed to survive but basically carried out little activity until it was formally abolished by the pro-Soviet authorities of *Transcarpathian Ukraine in early 1945. In the wake of the collapse of Communist rule and the fall of the Soviet Union the Dukhnovych Society was revived in Subcarpathian Rus'. Since 1994 it has functioned as a regional (oblast)-wide organization based in Uzhhorod, with independent branches in several towns. The branches

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture in Mukachevo and Svaliava are particularly active; each has acquired its own center and sponsors annual cultural festivals and lectures. The regional and various local branches of the renewed Dukhnovych Society basically support the Rusyn national orientation and have sponsored a few publications in that language, including a grammar (1999) and dictionary (2001) of Rusyn. The Dukhnovych Society also exists among Rusyns in the *Presov Region of eastern Slovakia. Its first branch was established in Presov in 1925, and in 1930 it became an independent organization in Slovakia. Aside from cultural activity and celebration of the annual Russian Day festival, the major achievement of the Dukhnovych Society in Slovakia was the erection (1933) of a large statue to Aleksander *Dukhnovych on the main square in Presov (it still stands today but in another location in the city). The Dukhnovych Society was banned in 1939 by the Slovak state, revived after World War II, banned again in 1948 by the Czechoslovak Communist regime for its alleged "bourgeois nationalist" activity, and after the fall of *Communism revived once more in Presov (1991) initally under the direction of Mykhailo *Rychalka and Shtefan *Krushko. Although the present organization in Presov includes members of various national viewpoints it has basically adopted the Russian national orientation. It publishes in Ukrainian on an irregular basis the newspaper Holos Karpat (1992- ) and the scholarly journal Karpats 'kyi svit (\991- ). Further reading: Stepan A. Fentsik, ed., Dieiatel'nost' Obshchestva im. A. Dukhnovicha, 1922-1926 (Uzhhorod, 1926); Stepan A. Fentsik, "Russkoe kurturno-prosvietitel'noe obshchestvo imeni Aleksandra V. Dukhnovicha v Uzhgorodie na Podkarpatskoi Rusi," in A.V. Popov, ed., Karpatomsskiia dostizheniia (Mukachevo, 1930), pp. 89-116; Vasylii Sochka-Borzhavyn, Ystoryia Obshchestva ym. A. Dukhnovycha y narodnikh domov Rusynov (Uzhhorod, 1997); Vasylii Sochka-Borzhavyn and Liudvih Filip-Radvans'kyi, Ystoriia Obshchestva ym. Aleksandra Dukhnovycha, 1923-2003 (Uzhhorod, 2003). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Dukhnovych Theater/Teater Aleksandra Dukhnovicha (TAD) — professional theater based in Presov, Slovakia. Established in 1946 as the Ukrainian National Theater (Ukrai'ns'kyi natsional'nyi teatr—UNT), the institution was intended to be a touring company to serve the cultural needs of Rusyn-inhabited villages in the *Presov Region of northeastern Slovakia. During its early years, the theater performed plays in both Ukrainian and Russian, but by the 1950s it accepted Czechoslovakia's policy of Ukrainianization and for over three decades gave performances only in literary Ukrainian. During the 1960s and 1970s, many of its actors were sent to the Soviet Ukraine for training. In 1956, a separate

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture company within the theater was created for song and dance known as the Dukla Ukrainian Folk Ensemble—*PULS. The UNT/TAD has performed over 400 plays by local authors (both Ukrainian- and Rusyn-language writers), by classical Ukrainian dramatists, by Czech and Slovak authors, and by world classical dramatists. Beginning in late 1960s, there was criticism that the theater was unpopular because Rusyn villagers could not understand literary Ukrainian. By 1986, the first plays were performed in Rusyn, and in 1990, under the direction of laroslav *Sysak, the theater changed its national orientation. Renamed that year the Aleksander Dukhnovych Theater/Teater Aleksandra Dukhnovicha, its repertory since then has been entirely in the Rusyn language. During the 1990s the Dukhnovych Theater worked closely with the *Rusyn Renaissance Society in Slovakia and since then has become a kind of all-Rusyn national theater, staging plays by Rusyns from countries other than Slovakia and performing with some frequency for Rusyns in Poland, Ukraine, Hungary, and Serbia. The company also operates an experimental theater, translates dramatic works from other languages into Rusyn, and has participated with its Rusynlanguage repertory at theater festivals in Britain, Sweden, Spain, and Italy. Among the directors of individual plays have been: lurii *Sheregii, lurii Zagrebel'skii (1897-1957), losyf Fel'baba (1921-1995), Ivan Ivancho (1935-1994), and laroslav *Sysak. Most of its post-1989 Rusyn-language repertoire has been staged by Vasyl' *Turok-Hetesh. Popular actors have included losyf Korba (1921-1988), Mykola Symko (1921-1982), Pavlo Symko (1926-1981), Tamara SymkoPazdernyk (1930-1993), Anna Symko-Klets' (b. 1931), Ivan Stropkovs'kyi (b. 1942), Aleksander Kucherenko (b. 1945), and, during the Rusyn-language phase of the theater, Igor Latta (b. 1947), Vasyl' Rusyniak (b. 1953), Osyf Tkach (b. 1950), and Mariian Marko. Further reading: Ivan Matsyns'kyi, ed., lOrokiv UNT(Bratislava, 1958); losyf Fel'baba, ed., 25 [/AT (Presov and Bratislava, 1971); lurii Datsko, ed., Pionery ukrains'koho profesional'noho teatru v ChSSR (Presov, 1981); lurii Datsko, ed., Sorok rokiv £/AT (Presov, 1985). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Originally planned to last a week, the battle for the Dukla Pass took a month and resulted in great loss of life. The Soviet Army alone lost 95,000 dead or wounded; German casualties were estimated at some 52,000. The Czechoslovak Army Corps incurred 1,844 dead and 4,700 wounded, a high percentage of whom were Rusyns from *Subcarpathian Rus'. The Dukla Battle caused as well numerous casualties among the Lemko/Rusyn civilian population living on both slopes of the Carpathians. Several of their villages were totally destroyed or severely damaged, a situation which prompted many surviving *Lemkos to opt for emigration to the Soviet Union. The campaign also had a secret political aspect. Dragging out the military operations reduced the possibility of any effective assistance to the Slovak army revolt (Slovak National Uprising) with the result that its participants were thereby doomed to isolation and defeat. The Soviet Army had a few weeks earlier reacted in the same way to the Warsaw Uprising of August 1944. Quite simply, *Stalin did not want either the Polish or Slovak uprisings to be successful. The Rusyn soldiers in the Czechoslovak Army Corps were not permitted to participate in the liberation of their Subcarpathian homeland. As early as summer of 1944, the Czechoslovak Corps was on the threshhold of the eastern Carpathian passes, yet despite the request of the corps commander to include his forces with Soviet troops crossing into Subcarpathian Rus' (the 18th Army), they were instead sent to southern Poland to participate in the Dukla Campaign, where most were killed. The Soviet security service (NKVD), in particular Lev I. Meklis, who had already arranged for the '^reunification of Transcarpathia with Mother Ukraine," could not allow Rusyn troops, who had previously experienced Soviet reality in the prison camps of the Gulag (1939-1942), to return to their homeland. Thus, they were dispatched and destined to be laid to rest in the fields of the Dukla "human meat-grinder." Further reading: Daniil M. Proektor, Cherez Duklinskii pereval (Moscow, 1960); Ludvik Svoboda, Z Buzuluku do Prahy, 6th ed. (Prague, 1970; Ukrainian ed., 1964, 1968); K.S. Moskalenko, Na iugo-zapadnom napravlenii (Moscow, 1975); O. Kvapil, Boufe v Karpatech (Prague, 1989); V. Sacher, Pod rozstfilenym praporem (Prague, 1990); Ludvik Svoboda, Cestami zivota, Vol. II (Prague, 1992). BOGDAN HORBAL

Dukla, Battle of/Carpathian-Dukla Campaign — World War II Soviet military campaign against the German Army and its allies for control of the Dukla/Dukl'a pass connecting Poland and Slovakia, lasting from September 8 to the end of October 1944. The campaign was led by Soviet forces of the First Ukrainian Front, including the 38th Army under General Kirill S. Moskalenko and the Czechoslovak Army Corps under Brigadier General Ludvik Svoboda. The official goal of the Soviet campaign was to take control of the Dukla Pass and then to link up with troops in revolt within the Slovak Army and with partisans in eastern Slovakia.

IVAN POP

Dukla Printshop. See Printing and Publishing Dukla Ukrainian Folk Ensemble. See PULS Duklia —journal of literature, art, and civic affairs, published in Presov from 1953 for the Rusyns of eastern Slovakia. It began as a quarterly publication, but since 1965 has appeared bimonthly; among its long-time editors have been

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Fedir *Kovach (1972-1989) and Ivan latskanyn (1992- ). The pages of Duklia have reflected the complex nature of the Rusyn nationality question in eastern Slovakia during the decades following World War II. The journal was published first by the Group of Ukrainian Writers in Czechoslovakia (1953-71), then by the *Cultural Union of Ukrainian Workers (1972-89), the *Union of Rusyn-Ukrainians in Slovakia (1990-92), and the Union of Ukrainian Writers of Slovakia (1993-). Its first issues were written in Russian and Ukrainian, but by the 1960s they were entirely in Ukrainian. The primary goal of Duklia has been to function as an organ for Ukrainian-language writers in Slovakia. It has also consistently promoted the view that the Rusyns in eastern Slovakia and in neighboring countries are part of the Ukrainian nationality. Aside from poetry and prose by local Ukrainian-language authors, the journal publishes literary criticism and studies on Rusyn history, ethnography, and art. With the exception of a few years (1966-1969) Duklia supported the ideology of Communist Czechoslovakia, with its call for "fraternal relations" with the Soviet Union. Since the fall of Communist rule in 1989 the journal has maintained its Ukrainian orientation and is strongly critical of the Rusyn national revival, which is dismissed as a "separatist" and "anti-Ukrainian" phenomenon. Further reading: Articles by Fedir Kovach, Mykhailo Roman, Olena Rudlovchak, lurii Kundrat, and Zuzana Osavchuk in Naukovi zapysky,No. 11 (Presov, 1985), pp. 13-102. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Dulichenko, Aleksandr Dmitrievich (b. October 31, 1941, Novoalekseevskaia stanitsia, Krasnodar region [Soviet Union], Russia) — Slavic philologist, linguist, and professor. Dulichenko completed his studies at the University of Turkmen in Ashkhabad, Turkmenia (1966), at the Institute of Slavic and Balkan Studies in Moscow (kandidat nauk, 1974), and at the Institute of Linguistics of the Belarusan Academy of Sciences in Minsk (Ph.D., 1981). He has taught at the University of Samarkand in Uzbekistan (1968-1970) and since 1976 at the University of Tartu in Estonia (professor, 1982). A specialist in general linguistics and Slavic languages, Dulichenko published a comparative study of what he called Slavic "literary micro-languages" (Slavianskie literaturnye mikroiazyki, 1981), among which are Vojvodinian Rusyn and the Carpatho-Rusyn written language in the United States. Since 1972 he has published, in particular, numerous studies on Vojvodinian Rusyn, many of which were republished in Jugoslavo-Ruthenica(\995). Through his extensive publications, lectures, and teaching, Dulichenko has promoted awareness of the Vojvodinian Rusyn language within the larger Slavic scholarly community. He has also compiled an anthology of texts from all Rusyninhabited regions to illustrate the historical development of

the Carpatho-Rusyn literary language from the seventeenth century to the present. Further reading: Vasil Mudri, "Ruska besheda odhukovala i na Moskovskim univerzitetu," Shvetlosts, XXVI, 5 (Novi Sad, 1988), pp. 551-564. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Dulishkovych, Arnold. See Gerovskii, Aleksei lulianovich; Maramorosh Sighet Trial; Uhro-Rusyn party Dulishkovych, Ivan/Ioann (b. November 14,1815, Holiatyn [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. February 21, 1883, Chynadiievo [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine) — priest and historian in Subcarpathian Rus'. After completing the gymnasium and Theological Seminary in Uzhhorod, Dulishkovych studied philosophy at the Kosice Academy. Ordained a Greek Catholic priest (1841), he served in the Rusyn-inhabited villages of Skotars'ke, in Verkhni and Nyzhni Verets'ky/Vorota, and from 1869 until his death in Chynadiievo. Responding to a challenge put forth by the poet Aleksander *Pavlovych, Dulishkovych undertook to write a history of Rusyns. The result was the three-volume Istoricheskie cherty Ugro-Russkikh (1874-77), covering the period to the end of the eighteenth century. A fourth volume was written but never published and has subsequently been lost. In this work Dulishkovych concentrated on the history of the early settlement of the Slavic peoples, their first appearance in * Subcarpathian Rus', and the region's church history. He accepted the view that the Slavs were the autochthonous population of central and eastern Europe, that their very presence among the Indo-European inhabitants of the continent dates back to the first millennium before Christ, and that Slavic peoples were present in Subcarpathian Rus' long before the arrival of the Magyar tribes in the Danubian Basin. Dulishkovych was also one of the first Rusyn historians to question what he considered the fantastic nature of the story about Prince *Koriatovych having allegedly come to Subcarpathia with 40,000 peasants from Podolia. He argued that if Koriatovych had had that many people at his disposal, the prince could easily have defended his landed estates in Podolia and would not have to had to flee to Hungary for protection. Dulishkovych's history is basically a compilation of facts, and despite its size it had no real impact on the evolution of Carpatho-Rusyn *historiography. Further reading: Dmytro D. Danyliuk, "Ivan Dulishkovych iak istoryk," Carpatica/Karpatyka, III (Uzhhorod, 1995), pp. 50-60; Dmytro Danyliuk, Istoriia Zakarpattia v biohrafiiakh i portretakh (Uzhhorod, 1997), esp. pp. 183-193. IVAN POP

Dumen — an internment camp in Subcarpathian Rus' located in a former exercise field of the Czechoslovak Army

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture near the town of Rakhiv. The camp was established through a decree issued on November 20,1938 by Avhustyn *Voloshyn, the prime minister of the Ukrainian-oriented autonomous government of *Subcarpathian Rus'/*Carpatho-Ukraine. The purpose of the Dumen camp was to intern: "deserters and refugees from abroad; political offenders from our own region; and persons who act against the interests of our state [Carpatho-Ukraine] and republic [Czechoslovakia], but who cannot be detained through judicial means." From the very outset Dumen became less a destination for terrorists sent by Hungary and Poland to infiltrate Subcarpathian Rus'/Carpatho-Ukraine than it did a camp for Rusyns of both *Rusynophile and *Russophile orientation opposed to Voloshyn's *Ukrainophile regime. During its few months of existence (December 1938 to March 1939) Dumen held anywhere from 15 to 30 internees under guard by members of the *Carpathian Sich. Although the existence of an internment camp at Dumen suggests authoritarian tendencies in Carpatho-Ukraine's government, it should be noted that control was lax and internees were even allowed to leave the camp for social visits to nearby Rakhiv. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Dumki z Dunaiu. See Kostelnik, Vlado; Union of Rusyns and Ukrainians in Croatia

creation of cooperatives throughout the Lemko Region, but in the wake of the economic crisis and agrarian famine after 1929 he began to support the view that in order to improve their economic situation *Lemkos should emigrate en masse to Siberia. To promote his plan Durkot published in Eviv under the pseudonym Sergei Zynin the propaganda booklet, Lemkovyna-Sybyr' (1934), and he established at the village of Labowa a committee which gathered over 4,000 signatures from Lemkos in the surrounding area who petitioned both the Polish and Soviet governments to allow them to emigrate. The *Lemko Association/Lemko Soiuz in the USA and Canada supported Durkot's activity and lobbied the Soviet Embassy in Washington, D.C., on his behalf. The Polish government was initially receptive to the idea of emigration but in 1937 arrested Durkot, who was accused of anti-state activity and spreading Bolshevik ideas in Poland. After Poland was invaded by Nazi Germany (September 1939) Durkot moved to eastern Galicia, and during the period of Soviet rule in that part of former Poland (1939-1941) he served as a director of a coal mine. When, in 1944, Ukrainian nationalist armed bands (perhaps associated with the *Ukrainian Insurgent Army [UPA]) began a campaign of attacks on local *Russophiles and Poles, Durkot was shot, together with his wife and young children. Further reading: V.R. Vavryk, "Serhei Ivanovych Durkot," in Karpatorusskyi kalendar' Lemko Soiuza 1961 (Yonkers, N.Y., 1961), pp. 67-74. BOGDAN HORBAL

Dumnych, lurii. See Podkarpats 'ka Rus' Durnovo, Nikolai. See Language Duplak, Maria. See Organization for the Defense of Lemko Western Ukraine Duplak, Nicholas. See Ukrainian Lemko Museum Durdynets', Vasyl'. See Communism Durkot, Serhii (pseudonym: Sergei Zynin) (b. 1901, Szlachtowa [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. 1944, Monastyrok [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — civic and cultural activist of Russian national orientation in the Lemko Region. The son of a Greek Catholic priest, Durkot was sent to study at the Mining Academy in Loeben, Austria. There he came under the influence of leftist student circles, interrupted his studies, and left for the Russian Empire to witness the Russian Revolution and eventually to join the Bolshevik forces during their efforts to regain Siberia from the Whites. At the end of Russia's Civil War, Durkot returned to Austria and finished his studies at Loeben (1925). As a hydrotechnical engineer, he returned to his native *Lemko Region, where after 1928 he assisted in improving agricultural lands in the village of Hanczowa. He was also an active member in the local *Kachkovs'kyi Society, where he organized a choir and dramatic circle. He campaigned for the

Durych, Jaroslav (b. December 2,1886, Hradec Kralove [Austrian Bohemia], Czech Republic; d. April 7,1962, Prague [Czechoslovakia], Czech Republic) — Czech belletrist, publicist, dramatist, and editor of Roman Catholic orientation. Durych worked as a medical doctor (1921-1922) in Uzhhorod, and while there he wrote several essays for the Prague newspaper, Lidove listy, on various aspects of life in * Subcarpathian Rus'. Several of these were published in the collection Toulky po domove (1938), and after his death in Duse Podkarpatske Rusi (1993). Further reading: Vaclav Durych, "Jaroslav Durych a Podkarpatska Rus," in Jaromir Hofec, ed., Stfedni Europa a Podkarpatska Rus (Prague, 1997), pp. 12-16; Jin Kudrna£ and Karel Komarek, Jaroslav Durych: zivot, ohlasy, soupis dila a literatury o nem (Prague, 2000). IVAN POP

Dushpastyr' — monthly magazine and official organ of the *Greek Catholic Eparchies of Mukachevo and Presov that appeared between 1924 and 1941 in Uzhhorod. From 1924 it was edited by Aleksander *Il'nyts'kyi on behalf of the Soci-

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ety of Cathechists of the Eparchy of Mukachevo/Tovarystvo katekhytov Mukachevskoi eparkhii. Dushpastyr' appeared in Rusyn and carried articles of religious and theological content and texts of sermons, as well as official statements by each eparchy and reports on activities in individual parishes. Further reading: M. M. Romaniuk, ed., Periodyka Zakhidnoi Ukrainy 20-30-kh rr. XXSt.: materialy do bibliohrqfii'(L'viv, 2001), pp. 76-82. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Duts'-Faifer, Olena/Duc-Fajfer, Helena (b. August 9, 1960, Udanin-Ujazd Gorny, Poland) — poet, literary scholar, pedagogue, and cultural and civic activist ofRusyn national orientation in the *Lemko Region. Duts'-Faifer's family was deported from the Lemko Region during the * Vistula Operation. Although born "abroad" in Poland's southwestern region of Silesia, the Duts' family returned in 1961 to the Lemko Region, where Olena was raised and received her elementary education. She studied at Jagiellonian University in Cracow (1979-1985), where she earned advanced degrees in Slavic philology (M.A., 1985), psychology (M.A., 1987), art history (M.A., 1992), and East Slavic literature (Ph.D., 1997). In all these fields she has published on Lemko-related topics. Of greatest significance is her revised doctoral thesis, which is the first substantive history of Lemko-Rusyn literature covering the decades before World War I: Literatura temkowska w drugiejpolowie XIX i na poczqtku XX wieku (2001). Duts'-Faifer is one of the leading figures in the Rusyn-oriented Lemko national revival that began in Poland during the mid-1980s. She was the co-organizer of the first few annual "homeland" *Vatra festivals and is the author of a modernist bilingual Rusyn and Polish collection of poetry: Wmodlitewnym bluznierstwie (1985). Since 2001 she teaches language, literature, and ethnography at the newly-established program in Lemko-Rusyn studies at the Advanced School of Education/ Akademia Pedagogiczna in Cracow. Further reading: Petro Trokhanovskii, "Z lemkivskym iazykom pershyraz do akademichnykh sal': na 40. litia narodzhynia Dr Oleny Duts'-Faifer," in Lemkivskii kalendar 2000 (Krynica and Legnica, 2000), pp. 138-146. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Dux Ruizorum. See Marchia Ruthenorum

1947). Since 1951 he has taught Ukrainian dialectology at Uzhhorod State University (associate professor/docent, 1952; doctor of philological science, 1961; professor, 1963). There he developed a detailed plan for creating regional linguistic atlases, implemented in a three-volume atlas ofRusyn dialects in Subcarpathian Rus': Linhvistychnyi atlas ukra'ins'kykh narodnykh hovoriv Zakarpats'koi oblasti URSR (1958-93). All of Dzendzelivs'kyi's writings are based on the assumption that Rusyn dialects are part of the Ukrainian language. He has also transcribed for publication and analyzed two previously inaccessible eighteenth-century Rusyn grammars of Arsenii *Kotsak (1990); he has described in some detail the unpublished dialectal dictionary of Mykola *Hrytsak (1993); and he has helped to rehabilitate the scholarly reputation of Ivan *Haraida (1993), except for what Dzendzelivs'kyi calls his "odious" 1941 Rusyn grammar. Further reading: Oleksander D. Kizlyk, losyp Oleksiiovych Dzendzelivs'kyi: bibliohrafichnyipokazchyk (L'viv, 1981); Zuzana Hanudel', "luvilei doslidnyka: do 70-richchia vid dnia narodzhennia I.O. Dzendzelivs'koho," Duklia, XXXIX, 2 (Presov, 1991), pp. 58-60; Oleh Kupchyns'kyi, "losyp Dzendzelivs'kyi—nevtomnyi pratsivnykh nauky ta pedahoh" and "Bibliohrafiia prats' profesora losypa Dzendzelivs'koho za 1951-2000 r.," in Ukrains'ke i slovians'ke movoznavstvo: mizhnarodna konferentsiia na chest'... losypa Dzendzelivs'koho (Uzhhorod, 2001), pp. 13-48. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Dzindz'o, Mykhailo (b. July 19, 1925, Krasna, Poland; d. August 8, 1993, Boryslav, Ukraine) — Lemko poet and journalist in Ukraine. In 1945 Dzindz'o was resettled from the *Lemko Region to the Soviet Ukraine, where he completed studies at a technical school for petroleum in Drohobych (1962). Ever since youth he wrote poetry in Lemko Rusyn, and during the 1950s he began to collect examples of folklore from among *Lemkos resettled in Ukraine. Beginning in 1971, the folkloric texts compiled by Dzindz'o as well as his own tales, short stories, and humorous sketches appeared in the Lemko section/*"Lemkivska storinka" of Poland's Ukrainianlanguage newspaper, Nashe slovo. Among the manuscripts left unpublished at his death are descriptions of traditional Lemko wedding practices in the Gorlice region and in his native village of Krasna. BOGDAN HORBAL

Dvan-Sharpotokii, VasyP. SeeArt

Dzendzelivs'kyi, losyp Oleksiiovych (b. February 17, 1921, Mazurove [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — linguist and professor in Subcarpathian Rus'. A native of the Mykolai'v region in southern Ukraine, Dzendzelivs'kyi completed his education at the University of Odessa (1939-1941, 1945-

Dyma. See Vakarov, Dmytrii Dyrud, Keith. See Historiography: United States Dzhudzhar, Diura. See Bachka/Backa Apostolic Administration

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Dzhugashvili, losif. See Stalin, losif Vissarionovich Dzhunia, Mikhailo. See Literature: Vojvodina Dzielnica Ruska. See Rusyn Sector Dziiak, Aleksander. See Presov Greek Catholic Teachers' College Dzubay, Alexander (b. February 27,1857, Kal'nyk [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. April 2, 1933, Garrison, New York, USA) — priest, church hierarch, and community activist among Rusyns in the United States. After graduating from the Theological Seminary in Uzhhorod (1880) Dzubay was ordained a Greek Catholic priest (1881) and served in several Rusyn parishes throughout *Subcarpathian Rus'. In 1889 he was sent as the first priest from Hungary (Subcarpathian Rus') to minister to Rusyn Greek Catholics in the United States. He organized several Greek Catholic parishes, he convened in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania the first "congress" of American Greek Catholic priests (1890), and he served as vicar-general (1913-1916) under Bishop Soter Ortynsky. Angered at not being appointed the successor to Ortynsky, Dzubay left the Greek Catholic Church and was consecrated Bishop Stephen (1916) of the Russian Orthodox Church, under whose jurisdiction he headed the "Carpatho-Russian

Sub-Diocese of Pittsburgh." Dzubay was able to convince several Greek Catholic parishes to join the Russian Orthodox Church but he failed to establish a distinct Carpatho-Russian Orthodox diocese. In 1922 he proclaimed himself acting head of the entire Russian Orthodox Church in the United States but two years later he renounced Orthodoxy and returned to the Greek Catholic Church, spending the rest of his life in monastic seclusion. Dzubay represented that faction ofRusyn Americans who welcomed the "return to Orthodoxy" but who wanted to maintain their distinct Rusyn (Carpatho-Russian) religious traditions and national identity instead of adopting a Russian one. Further reading: "Vladyka Stefan, pervyi karpatoruskii pravoslavnyi episkop v Amerike—osnovatel' Pittsburgskoi karpatorusskoi eparkhii," in D.O. Seniuk, Andrei Stepanovich Shlepetskii (Presov, 1967), pp. 96-110. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Dzvinochok. See Grendzha-Dons'kyi, Vasyl' Dzvonchok. See Varga, Mikhailo Dzvoni. See Miz, Roman Dzvony Lemkivshchyny. See Lemko Region Society in Ukraine; Vatra

E Ea Semper — papal decree concerning the status of Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholics in the United States. From the very beginning of large-scale Carpatho-Rusyn immigration to the United States in the 1880s, friction arose between the immigrant Greek Catholic clergy and the Roman Catholic Church. In an effort to regulate those relations, the Vatican appointed in 1907 a bishop, Soter *Ortynsky, for America's Greek Catholics, and in June of the same year the pope issued the Ea Semper decree. The decree's 35 articles effectively subordinated the Greek Catholic clergy and its new bishop to local Roman Catholic bishops in the United States. Ortynsky was not an ordinary bishop in his own right but essentially an auxiliary to the Roman-rite bishops where Rusyn Greek Catholics resided. He could not even visit his own Greek Catholic parishes without prior written permission of the Roman-rite bishop. Other provisions of the Ea Semper decree instructed that: married men could not be ordained to the priesthood; new Greek Catholic priests were not to be sent to the United States without the advance approval of the American Catholic hierarchy; and all title to church property (in almost all cases the immigrant churches were legally owned by lay parish councils) was to be turned over to the bishop. The Ea Semper caused great displeasure among Rusyn Greek Catholic priests and the lay faithful. Protests to Rome were coordinated by the influential lay fraternal organization, the *Greek Catholic Union of Rusyn Brotherhoods. Ortynsky himself urged the Vatican to repeal the decree, but to no avail. In practice, however, the basic provisions of the Ea Semper decree were ignored: the laity did not turn over church property to the bishop; married priests continued to arrive from Europe; and the ordination of married men to serve in the *Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic Church likewise continued. The Vatican essentially turned a blind idea to these "infringements" until 1929, when it issued a new decree, the *Cum Data Fuerit. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

The East. See Vostok Eastern Catholic Life. See Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic Church in the USA Economy. See Geography and Economy Education. See Barbareum; Greek Catholic Central Seminary; Gymnasium; Horozhans 'ka shkola; Mukachevo State Teachers' College; Mukachevo Theological School; Presov

Greek Catholic Teachers' College; Ruska Bursa; Shkol'naia pomoshch'; Stadtkonvikt; Trnava Albertine College; University Departments; Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College

Egan, Ede/Edmund (b. July 13, 1841, Csaktorna [Hungarian Kingdom], Hungary; d. September 20,1901, Uzhhorod [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine) — Hungarian economist and government functionnary of Scottish descent. Educated at the School of Economics in Halle, Germany, Egan also studied law in Vienna. For over a decade (1883-1896) he worked for Hungary's Ministry of Agriculture as a supervisor for the kingdom's milk production and he wrote a series of studies on economic questions and the history of agriculture in Hungary, including an essay on the Carpathian region (Karpdtaink kozgazdasdgi hivastdsa, 1890), in which he first put forth his views on improving production in the high mountain pastures (polonyny). In the history of Subcarpathian Rus' Egan's name is connected with the *Highlands Program of 1897, outlined in a memorandum he submitted to the Hungarian government. The second part of Egan's program was later published in a somewhat abridged form in Ukrainian (1901) and in a bilingual Czech and Ukrainian edition, Hospoddfsky stav msinskych venkovanu v UhrdchlEkonomichne polozhenie rus 'kykh selian v Uhorshchyni (1922; repr. 2001). Egan was appointed head of the *Highlands Office, established in Mukachevo to implement the Highlands Program. In 1898, he submitted a memorandum to the Ministry of Agriculture outlining the means "to improve the moral and material condition of the Rusyn-speaking inhabitants in the *Carpathian Mountains and foothills." The memorandum proposed a system to protect peasant agriculturalists from exploitative money lenders, including state aid for peasants to recover lands lost because of indebtedness. It also called for the creation of cooperatives, an effective credit system, and the transformation of subsistence-level agriculture into a profitable business. Not surprisingly, Egan's activity and proposals met with negative reaction on the part of local money lenders, and in 1901 he was found murdered on the road between Uzhhorod and Mukachevo near the village of Dravtsi. No less than 12,000 Rusyn peasants attended his funeral, and with funds that they collected a monument was erected in the form of a stone cross at the place of his death. The monument was dismantled in the 1960s on orders from the Communist authorities but restored in 1996. Further reading: Vikentii Shandor, "Edvard Egan i ioho

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture 'Verkhovyns'ka aktsiia'," Ukrains 'kyi istoryk, XIV, 1-2 (New York, Toronto, and Munich, 1977), pp. 109-117; Maria Mayer, The Rusyns of Hungary: Political and Social Developments, 1860-1910 (New York, 1997), pp. 111-123. IVAN POP

Eger — seat of one of the oldest Roman Catholic dioceses in Hungary, created in the year 1009. The Eger diocese had jurisdiction over the Catholic Church in the northeastern part of the Hungarian Kingdom, which before World War I included the Rusyn-inhabited *Presov Region and *Subcarpathian Rus'. After 1646, when the Byzantine-rite *Eparchy of Mukachevo accepted the *Unia/Church Union with Rome, its bishops were formally reduced to the status of vicars (auxiliary bishops) jurisdictionally subordinate to the Roman Catholic bishop of Eger. This was justified on the grounds of Roman practice, outlined in the 9th constitution of the Fourth Lateran Council (1215), according to which there cannot be two bishops in one diocesan territory. Since precedence was given to Roman Catholic dioceses in the Hungarian Kingdom, the bishops of Byzantine-rite (Uniate) eparchies (dioceses) were made subordinate to a Roman Catholic bishop. Responding to his new responsibilities, the Roman Catholic bishop provided places at the seminary in Eger to train priests for the Mukachevo Eparchy. The seminary also included a rich library of *Church Slavonic religious books gathered by the Byzantine-rite theologian and seminary professor of Rusyn origin, Luka Habina/Habina Lukacs. The eighteenth century also witnessed efforts on the part of the Uniate bishops of Mukachevo to attain full episcopal authority and recognition for a self-governing eparchy that would not be subordinate to Roman Catholic Eger. The bishops of Eger opposed these efforts, and in the polemical debates and writings that ensued, Eger became for defenders of the Eastern Byzantine rite a symbol of opposition to the "struggle" (borbd) launched by the bishops of Mukachevo for their "independence." These debates had a direct impact on Rusyn *historiography, since the defenders of the Mukachevo Eparchy tried to justify their arguments by turning to the past: the first published and unpublished histories of Rusyns and their church came into being as a direct by-product of the conflict with Eger. Eventually, the Habsburg Empress Maria Theresa intervened, creating in 1771 a jurisdictionally independent Eparchy of Mukachevo. The Vatican approved the Habsburg decision, so that the Uniate (soon-to-be renamed Greek Catholic) Eparchy of Mukachevo was finally "liberated" from the "bonds" of Eger. Further reading: Mykhailo Luchkai, Istoriia karpats 'kych rusyniv, Vol. IV (1843) (Uzhhorod, 2003); Kalman Zsatkovics, "Az egri befolyas es az ez ellen vivott harcz a munkacsi gorog szertatasu egyhazmegye tortenelmeben," Szdzadok, XVIII (Budapest, 1884), pp. 680-696, 766-786, and 839-877—Russian translation in Latin

alphabet: Koloman Zatkovic, Jagerskoje vl'ijanije: bor 'ba protiv toho v istorii mukacevskoje greceskoho obrjada diocezii (Homestead, Pa., 193?); Sandor Foldvari, "Eger szerepe a karpataljai ruszin gorog katolikus kulturaban," in Margit Beke and Istvan Bardos, eds., Magyarok kelet es nyugat metszesvonaldn (Esztergom, 1994), pp. 297-308; Shandor Fel'dvari, "Staropechatnye knigi kirillovskogo i glagolicheskogo shriftov Egerskoi arkhiepiskopskoi biblioteki," Slavica, XXVII (Debrecen, 1995), pp. 83-95. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Egry, Ferenc. See Magyars

Ehrenfeld, Petr (b. 1866, Brno [Austrian Moravia], Czech Republic; d. 1936) — Czech official in Subcarpathian Rus'. Ehrenfeld was appointed the first vice-governor of * Subcarpathian Rus', a position which in fact carried more authority than that of the governor, who was chosen from among the local Rusyn population. During his nearly three years in office (1921-1923) he succeeded in consolidating the economic and political situation in Czechoslovakia's far eastern province. He established in Uzhhorod the short-lived Rusyn-language newspaper *Rusyn (1923), which also published a weekly illustrated supplement, *Nedilia Rusyna, and a series of pamphlets, "Knyzhky Rusyna." Ehrenfeld was the first to identify the anti-state character of activity carried out by Russian and especially Ukrainian emigres in Subcarpathian Rus'. He tried to limit their immigration to the province, but the Czechoslovak government ignored his warnings. Following a financial scandal involving Jewish merchants, Ehrenfeld was forced to resign in 1923. IVAN POP

Ekspozytura hirs'kykh raioniv. See Highlands Office Ekzekutsiia — a term used during the period before 1944 in Rusyn-inhabited lands to describe the foreclosure or confiscation of property, usually from peasants who were unable to pay their feudal dues or who defaulted on loans. Elko, Nicholas. See Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic Church in the USA Endredy, Gyorgy. See Art

Enlightenment. See Prosvita/The Enlightenment Eparchy of Hajdudorog. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Hajdudorog Eparchy of Khust-Vynohradovo. See Orthodox

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Eparchy of Mukachevo-Uzhhorod Eparchy of Krizevci. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Krizevci Eparchy of Mukachevo. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo; Orthodox Eparchy of MukachevoUzhhorod Eparchy of Mukachevo-Presov. See Orthodox Eparchy of Mukachevo-Uzhhorod Eparchy of Parma. See Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic Church in the USA Eparchy of Passaic. See Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic Church in the USA Eparchy of Pittsburgh. See Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic Church in the USA Eparchy of Presov. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov Eparchy of Przemysl. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Przemysl; Orthodox Eparchy of Przemysl Eparchy of Van Nuys. See Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic Church in the USA Erdeli, Adal'bert/Erdelyi, Bela (b. Ivan Hryts'/Hrz, May 25, 1891, Zahattia [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. September 19, 1955, Uzhhorod [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — painter, pedagogue, and cultural activist of part German (Swabian) background in *Subcarpathian Rus'. Educated at the Academy of Art in Budapest (1911-1915), Erdeli was one of the founders of the *Subcarpathian School of Painting. After returning home from study in Budapest Erdeli spent the rest of the World War I years living in Mukachevo, where in 1921 he became a member of the short-lived union of painters created by lulii *Virag. Between 1922 and 1926 Erdeli worked in Munich, where his first personal exhibition abroad was held in the Glass Palace (1923). With the knowledge and experience he had gained, Erdeli decided to apply his talents to help carry out the moral and cultural regeneration of his homeland and its people. Returning to Subcarpathian Rus', Erdeli together with losyf *Bokshai founded in Uzhhorod the Public School for Painting (1927), but within two years he left home again, this time for Paris, where he worked (1929-1931) among a circle of artists that included the post-Impressionists Henri Matisse, Max Vlaminck, and Andre Derain. The greatest influence on

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Erdeli, however, was the artistic legacy of Paul Cezanne. It was his experience in Paris that transformed Erdeli into a European artist of post-Impressionism. He became a master of portraiture (^v/o/?or/re//Self-Portrait, 1930; For tret Anders a Osterlanda/Portrait of Anders Osterland, 1930; Dvatsiatyi v/A/The 20th Century, 1931; Portret A.S./A Portrait of A.S., 1930s), of landscapes (Mukachivs 'kyi zamok/The Mukachevo Castle, 1930s; Litnyi kraievydlA. Summer Landscape, 1930s), and of still lifes (Natiurmortz pliashkoiu ifruktamy/Still-Life with a Bottle and Fruit, 1930s). Upon his return to Uzhhorod, Erdeli took an active part in the establishment (1931) of the Society of Fine Arts in Subcarpathian Rus'/Obshchestvo dieiatelei izobrazitel'nykh iskusstv na Podkarpatskii Rusi, which became in effect the organizational basis of the Subcarpathian School of Painting. For many years he served as the society's chairman, organizing for its members numerous exhibitions throughout Subcarpathian Rus' and other parts of Czechoslovakia (Presov, Brno, Bratislava, Prague). His own works during the interwar decades were exhibited in Paris, Rome, Florence, Venice, Naples, Milan, Brussels, Vienna, Munich, Warsaw, Eviv, and Budapest. Erdeli was also a pedagogue who, during the 1920s and 1930s, when he was not abroad, taught painting and the history of art at the gymnasium in Mukachevo and at the *Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College and the Public School of Painting. World War II had a negative as well as a positive impact on Erdeli. On the one hand, the wartime disruptions in communication greatly restricted the contacts he had previously enjoyed with centers of world culture in other parts of Europe. On the other hand, the enforced isolation gave him the opportunity to become more deeply familiar with life in his native Subcarpathian Rus'. As a result it was during the war years that he created some of his best paintings, in particular portraitures (Verkhovynky/The Highlanders, 1940; Rusyns 'ha para/'A Rusyn Couple, 1942; Selianky/Villagers, 1942; Staryi hutsull The Old Hutsul, 1942; Staryi koniukh/The Old Stable-Hand, 1942) and a series of landscapes (Karpaty/The Carpathians, 1940; Rakhiv, 1940; Hirs 'kyipeizazhi'A Mountain Landscape, 1942; Pidradvans'kym lisom/ln the Radvanyi Forest, 1942; and Karpats 'kyi osin 7A Carpathian Autumn, 1943). Under the new post-World War II Soviet regime Erdeli taught at Uzhhorod's School of Applied Art (1945-1955), but these last ten years of his life in "reunited Transcarpathia" became a time of personal tragedy. Erdeli was mocked for wanting to transform Uzhhorod's Public School of Painting into an academy of arts on the model of those in western and central Europe. The voluntary association of Subcarpathian artists he had created and headed just after the war was abolished and replaced by a standard Soviet-style Transcarpathian Branch of the Union of Artists of Soviet Ukraine. This Communistinspired body immediately began a sharp propagandistic campaign against "formalism," "cosmopolitanism," and "kowtowing before the West" that allegedly were character-

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture istic of Erdeli's corpus, and it set out to educate this European artist about the "principles of Socialist Realism." Pressured by the Union of Artists and the Soviet authorities, Erdeli painted a few canvases in the spirit of Socialist Realism, but these must be considered works that were forced from his brush and that carried banal titles like Liknep (The End of Illiteracy, 1947), Komsomolka (The Girl in the Communist Youth League, 1949), Molot'ba (Threshing in the Fields, 1950), and Zarucheni molodi kolhospnyky (The Betrothed Young Collective Farmers, 1954). Typical of the Soviet regime, these works marked a deliberate effort to camouflage his artistic originality, which at the time could only be expressed in his still-lifes and genre scenes (Peizazh z n&om/Landscape with a River, 1947; Okolytsia UzhhorodafNear Uzhhorod, 1948; Khata v Stavnomu/A Peasant Hut in Stavne, 1951; Osin'v horakh/Autumn in the Mountains, 1954). In effect, Erdeli remained alienated from the Soviet system, as it was alienated from him. As evident from several self-portraits completed during the 1950s, Erdeli was completely isolated from the world around him and was to remain so until his death in 1955 at the height of his creative power. Further reading: Grigorii Ostrovskii, Adalbert Mikhailovich Erdeli (Moscow, 1966); V. Pavlov, Adalbert Erdeli (Kiev, 1972); Hryhorii Ostrovs'kyi, Tvorets' nezbahnennoho prekrasnoho svita: do storichchia z dnia narodzhennia A.M. Erdeli (Uzhhorod, 1992); Laszlo Balla, Erdelyi Bela es kortdrsai: Kdrpdtalja kepzomiiveszeinek hdrom nemzedeke (Uzhhorod and Budapest, 1994). IVAN POP

Erdeli, Ivan. See Art

Ethnographic Museum of Subcarpathian Rus'. See Ethnographic Society of Subcarpathian Rus'

Ethnographic Society of Subcarpathian Rus'/ Etnohrafichne tovarystvo Pidkarpats'ko'i Rusi — scholarly association established in Mukachevo at the end of 1934. Among its co-founders were Avhustyn *Voloshyn, Oleksa *Prykhod'ko, Adalbert Balazh, Ivan *Pan'kevych, Luka *Dem"ian, Aleksander *Markush, and Mykhailo Obidnyi (1889-1938); by 1936 it had 88 members. The main goal of the Ethnographic Society was to collect examples of traditional material culture in * Subcarpathian Rus' for deposit in a future regional ethnographic museum; in the interim it sponsored research and public lectures on ethnographic themes. The society's goals were outlined in a statute that was supported by the Subcarpathian provincial government, and it reported on its work in Vlsti Etnografichnoho tovarystva Pidk. Rusy (1935-37), which from its second issue appeared as a supplement to the Ukrainophile teachers'journal, *Uchytel's'kyi holos. In 1937 the society managed to open in Mukachevo the Ethnographic Museum of Subcarpathian Rus'/Etnohrafichnyi muzei Pidkarpats'ko'i Rusi. Because

the Ethnographic Society was founded primarily by local *Ukrainophiles, it was forced to end its activity after Hungary annexed Subcarpathian Rus' in March 1939. Further reading: Hanna Posysen', "Palaiucha hlyna mynuvshyny: pro Etnohrafichne Tovarystvo Pidkarpats'ko'i Rusi," Tysa, I, 1-2 (Uzhhorod, 1993), pp. 120-128. IVAN POP

Ethnography. The Eastern Carpathian mountain ranges and adjacent foothills where Rusyns live form a complex ethnographic setting. This territory, known in its totality as *Carpathian Rus', has from earliest historic times been a contact zone between Europe's eastern, central, and southeastern (Balkan) cultural spheres. Since about 500 CE, it has been inhabited by Slavs who, in terms of their eventual linguistic affiliation, belong to the East Slavic world. The geographical configuration of Carpathian Rus', with its high mountain crests, river valleys, and isolated mountain basins, has contributed to the formation and preservation of specific ethnographic characteristics among several peoples within this otherwise Rusyn-inhabited Slavic realm. Not only have the Carpatho-Rusyns contributed their own experiences to other peoples within this zone of contact, they have also acquired certain characteristics from their neighbors. The result has been the formation of a highly specific Carpatho-Rusyn cultural entity. By the same token, the Rusyns living in the lowlands and Carpathian foothills have always interacted with neighboring peoples: the *Ukrainians in the east; the West Slavic *Poles and *Slovaks in the north and west; the Finno-Ugric *Magyars in the southwest; and the *Romanians in the southeast. With the exception of the Rusyn-Romanian cultural border, the boundary between Rusyns and other neighboring peoples has never been static. In their relations with Carpatho-Rusyns the Magyars, Poles, Ukrainians, and Slovaks have each functioned, and still function, as the numerically dominant and at times ruling people. Consequently, each of these peoples represents an assimilationist force that works to the disadvantage of Rusyns, whose ethnolinguistic territory continues to decrease in size. Somewhat beyond this general pattern, and therefore rather unique, is the experience of the few enclaves of Rusyns living in the *Vojvodina and Srem (present-day Serbia and Croatia). These communities represent Rusyns who emigrated beginning in the eighteenth century from lands now within eastern Slovakia, northeastern Hungary, and the *Transcarpathian oblast of Ukraine. The indigenous Slavic inhabitants in Carpathian Rus' have traditionally designated themselves by several ethnonyms: *Rusyns or Rusnaks throughout virtually the entire area and Subcarpathian Rusyns, Lemkos, or Hutsuls in certain regions. The first ethnographic descriptions of the Rusyns in the Carpathians, or Carpatho-Rusyns, date from the first half

114 of the nineteenth century. Toward the end of that century ethnographic scholarship came to be dominated by the view that the Carpatho-Rusyns are divided into three ethnographic subgroupings—*Lemkos, *Boikos, and *Hutsuls. This tripartite schema arose among the Galician-Ukrainian (populist) intelligentsia before World War I and was subsequently adopted by Soviet scholars, in particular after 1945, when the entire East Slavic Carpathian region had become part of the Soviet Union and its satellite countries. The schema was, in turn, adopted uncritically by ethnographers outside the region. The tripartite Lemko-Boiko-Hutsul schema does not, however, reflect actual ethnographic distinctions within Carpathian Rus'. First of all, the inhabitants throughout much of the region do not themselves recognize these distinctions. Traditionally, they have called themselves Rusyns, or Rusnaks; only in the far southeastern corner of Carpathian Rus' (within presentday Ukraine and Romania) has another ethnonym been used. There the inhabitants call themselves Hutsuls. With regard to the rest of Carpathian Rus' it would seem more apropriate to divide the Rusyn/Rusnak inhabitants into two ethnographic categories: (1) the *Dolyniane, who inhabit the vast part of Subcarpathian Rus'; and (2) the Lemkos, or more precisely the Lemkos/Rusnaks who inhabit the *Lemko Region and the *Presov Region. The Dolyniane and Lemkos/Rusnaks account for the vast majority (81 percent) of the population and territory in Carpathian Rus' (861 out of a total of 1062 villages). Aside from the 24 Hutsul villages in the far southeast, there are also 149 villages in the high mountain area of Subcarpathian Rus' (*Verkhovyna) and southeastern Poland that are generally classified as Boiko. (See Map 3). The most serious mistake committed by virtually all ethnographers, and for that matter most linguists, was to exclude from their research the numerically largest of all Rusyn ethnographic groups, the *Dolyniane, that is, the Lowlanders living in both the foothills and lowland plain drained by the Tisza/Tysa River and its tributaries from the Laborec and Uzh Rivers in the west to the Shopurka River in the east. In the tripartite schema the Dolyniane were designated as Boikos and in general not given much attention. Their exclusion may be explained by the fact that ethnographers in the second half of the nineteenth and, even more so, in the first half of the twentieth century, were interested primarily in peoples characterized by a so-called *patriarchal culture or, at the very least, by the remnants of such a culture that could still be observed. Inspired by "populist" notions, these ethnographers believed that only patriarchal societies—or their remnants—preserved the elements of a "true national culture" (istynno narodnoi kul'tury). By the late nineteenth century, Dolyniane/Lowlander culture had lost completely whatever patriarchal characteristics it may once have had. Aside from language, the Rusyn Dolyniane did not culturally differ very much from their immediate neighbors, the Magyars, Slovaks, and Romanians.

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture In many ways, the Dolyniane epitomize Rusyn distinctiveness. It is in their territory that archeologists have uncovered the oldest Slavic settlements (see Slavs, Early settlement patterns) inhabited by people who inherited the agricultural culture established by the previous Celtic inhabitants. And it was this part of the Rusyn population (numerically the most substantive part of the entire group), which, as a result of geographic and political conditions, had by the ninth and tenth centuries distanced itself from the rest of the East Slavic world. In fact, the Rusyn Dolyniane became integrated into the nexus of social and cultural influences among the peoples of central Europe, in particular those living within the Danubian Basin. With the fall of the tribal union associated with *White Croats in the seventh century CE, several new political centers arose: the Baltic-Dnieper axis of Novgorod and Kiev among the East Slavs; the Morava River basin and southern slopes of the Western Carpathian Mountains among the Slavs of Central Europe; and territory south of the Danube detached from the Byzantine Empire among the South Slavs. The invasion of the * Avars into central Europe and their plunderous raids hastened the formation of states among the South Slavs (seventh century). Some accepted within their midst another Turkic tribe, the Bulgars, to help organize a defense system against the Avars. In general, however, the Avar presence caused for nearly two centuries a delay in the development of state formations among the Slavs of the Danubian-Carpathian Basin. It was only after the fall of the Avar Kaganate, which took place in the early ninth century at the hands of the Prankish emperor Charlemagne (aided by Slavic auxiliary troops), that the Slavic state of *Greater Moravia came into being. As for the Slavs living in the Upper Tisza valley and Carpathian foothills, that is, the ancestors of the Rusyn Dolyniane, they found themselves within a contact zone where the cultural influences and political interests of two Slavic states interacted: the *Bulgarian Khanate and the Greater Moravian Empire. It is also possible that as part of this cultural and political nexus the Dolyniane Rusyns accepted Christianity via missionaries from Byzantium sometime in the ninth century. After the fall of Greater Moravia at the hands of invading Magyar tribes (906), the Dolyniane Rusyns became the first among the Slavs living in the Carpathians to come under the political control of Hungary's princes (and from the eleventh century its kings). Beginning in the late eleventh century, the territory inhabited by Rusyn Dolyniane became an integral part of the Hungarian Kingdom, which by that time had extended its borders to the crests of the Carpathian Mountains. As a result, the Rusyns living on the southern slopes of the Carpathians were politically and culturally separated from the rest of the East Slavic population, which was united under the rule of Kievan Rus'. Even religious ties between the Eastern Christian Rusyn Dolyniane and the Slavic Orthodox center of Kiev declined during the period of the medieval Hungarian

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture state (tenth to mid-sixteenth centuries). As a result of these weak ties with the east, religious life among the Rusyns of Hungary was instead oriented southward toward the neighboring Balkan Orthodox peoples. Only among the far western Rusyns (the Rusnaks and Lemkos in present-day eastern Slovakia and southeastern Poland) did contacts continue with the eastern Rus' church, specifically with the geographically closer *Orthodox Eparchy of Przemysl, north of the Carpathians. The point is that by the early middle ages the Rusyn Dolyniane were culturally, politically, and economically distanced not only from the main East Slavic center of Kiev but even from their nearest eastern neighbor, the principality of Galicia-Volhynia. While it is true that there were sporadic political relations between Hungarian Rus' and Galician Rus', cultural ties between the two were virtually non-existent. Despite the fact that the inhabitants of both lands called themselves by the same name, Rusyn, each territory followed its own distinct spiritual, political, and economic life. In the absence of political institutions and of any impact of historical and cultural factors from Kievan Rus', the Galician-Volhynian Principality and the Hungarian Kingdom became the dominant factors in the autonomous evolution of, respectively, the Galician Rusyns (later Ukrainians) and the Rusyn Dolyniane living south of the Carpathians. A sense of political and cultural unity among the various peoples of the Carpathian-Danubian Basin was, until the early twentieth century, made possible by the existence of the Habsburg Monarchy. Within this sphere, whose existence lasted uninterrupted for nearly a thousand years, there developed among Magyars, Slovaks, Rusyns, Croats, Romanians, *Germans, *Jews, Slovenes, and Serbs (north of the Sava River) a common cultural framework or, better still, a political culture common to all inhabitants of the Carpathian-Danubian Basin. It is precisely this mentality—characterized by several factors such as historical tradition, norms of conduct in family and economic life, and the acceptance of various ethnic and confessional differences among the groups living in the region—that clearly differentiates the Rusyn Dolyniane from the Ukrainians of Galicia and from the inhabitants of eastern, Dnieper Ukraine. Marxist and Ukrainian nationalist historians and ethnographers have written of a "national struggle" among the Rusyns of Hungary that began as early as the fourteenth century, and in so doing have deliberately ignored the evidently positive relations that Rusyn Dolyniane had had with the Hungarian Kingdom as a state. In fact, the Dolyniane Rusyns considered the Hungarian Kingdom their own homeland at least until the revolutionary era of 1848-1849. It is not surprising, therefore, that they joined in large numbers the anti-Habsburg wars of the *kurucz during the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. For instance, it was during the last of these wars that the revolutionary leader, Prince Ferenc II *Rakoczy, dubbed

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Rusyns with the epithet gens fidelissima—the people most loyal [to the fatherland]. Even the first Rusyn national awakener, Aleksander *Dukhnovych, admitted that during his youth in the 1830s and 1840s he had been a believer in the principle that "beyond Hungary there is no life" (extra Hungarian non est vitae). The eventual separation between Rusyn interests and the Hungarian state came only after the appearance of *nationalism during the second half of the nineteenth century. This was a time when the nationalist views of the Habsburg Monarchy's dominant nationalities, the Magyars and AustroGermans, clashed with the nationalist views of the stateless peoples, including the Rusyns. The appearance and growth of Rusyn nationalism, in particular among the Dolyniane, evolved as a reaction to the nationalism of the dominant peoples. Although slowly at first, nationalist feelings strengthened among Rusyns an awareness of their own historical traditions and the formation of a Carpatho-Rusyn identity distinct from the identity of Rusyns in eastern Galicia (many of whom were at the same time beginning to take on a Ukrainian national identity). Such differentiation had effectively existed by the middle of the nineteenth century, even though initially it was not understood by the leading Rusyn political activist of the day, Adol'f *Dobrians'kyi. Hence, he formulated a plan to unite politically the Rusyns of Galicia, Bukovina, and Hungary (Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region), not realizing that there was no real basis for unity among them. Whatever linguistic and religious affinities may have existed between the inhabitants of eastern Galicia and Rusyns of northern Hungary, they were insufficient to overcome the differences between these two societies, which had, in the course of several centuries, evolved into absolutely different cultural, political, and geopolitical spheres. The appearance of the Ukrainian national movement in the second half of the nineteenth century and the subsequent development of a Ukrainian national identity among the East Slavs of Galicia and eastern Ukraine, combined with the rejection by Ukrainians of the idea of a common heritage among all the Rus' peoples (Russians, Belarusans, and Ukrainians), only served to strengthen a sense of distinctiveness between the Rusyns of Carpathian Rus' and their neighbors to the east. The specific political and historical conditions within which the Rusyns of Hungary and the Ukrainians of Galicia and eastern Dnieper Ukraine developed had an even greater impact on the distinctiveness of the groups than did the geographical barriers created by the crests of the Carpathian Mountains. Ethnographic differences between Rusyns living south of the Carpathians (in particular the Dolyniane) and the Galician Ukrainians living to the north of the Carpathian crests were, in the course of the nineteenth century, transformed into national distinctions. Carpatho-Rusyn identity was expressed concretely in efforts to attain political *autonomy. In fact, this has been a constant theme in Rusyn political thought

116 and political life during the last 150 years, and has been realized in the form of several autonomous entities—the *Rusyn District (1849-1850), *Rus'ka Kraina (1918-1919), *Subcarpathian Rus' (1919-1938), *Carpatho-Ukraine (1938-1939), *Transcarpathian Ukraine (1944-1945)—as well as in the 1991 referendum and the resultant unresolved problem of "self-rule" (samovriadnist'). It is significant that the territorial extent of each of the above-mentioned entities was always the same, encompassing the historic countries of *Ung, *Bereg, *Ugocha, and *Maramorosh. It should also be mentioned that at least until 1945 political activists among the Dolyniane repeatedly expressed the hope that their own Rusyn core lands would be united with the Rusyn-inhabited regions in the Presov Region of northeastern Slovakia and the *Maramures region of the lower Viseu/Vyshova and Ruscova valleys of Romania. Whereas the Rusyns/Rusnaks in the Presov Region shared from earliest times a common historical destiny with the Dolyniane of Subcarpathian Rus', the relationship of the latter to the Lemko Rusyns along the northern slopes of the Carpathian Mountains may at first glance seem tenuous. It is necessary to recall two factors, however. First, all branches of the Rusyn people had, until the year 1918, lived and developed within the framework of a single state, the Habsburg Monarchy. Second, geographical factors did not hinder communication between Lemko Rusyns and Rusyns on the southern slopes most particularly in the Presov Region. In that westernmost Rusyn area communication was easily maintained through the lowest and most accessible of all the Carpathian passes—Tylicz/Tylic, Dukla/Dukl'a, and Lupkow/ Lupkov. It is, therefore, not surprising that during the epochmaking years of 1918-1919 in central European history, Rusyn political activists on both sides of the mountains called for their lands to be amalgamated with the new state entity within Czechoslovakia known as Subcarpathian Rus'. It was the negative reaction to such goals on the part of the Czechoslovak government and diplomats at the Paris Peace Conference that prompted Rusyns living north of the Carpathians to proclaim their own *Lemko Republic of Florynka. In the southeastern corner of Subcarpathian Rus' live the Hutsuls, a Carpathian ethnographic group whose ethnic identity differs from that of the Rusyn Dolyniane and Lemkos/ Rusnaks. The relatively few Hutsuls found on the southern slopes of the Carpathians inhabit the narrow Chorna and Bila Tysa valleys near the towns of lasynia and Rakhiv. They inhabit 24 villages, 15 in present-day Ukraine, the remainder in neighboring Romania. It was only relatively recently, in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, that this population settled there. With regard to their ethnocultural characteristics, Subcarpathia's Hutsuls are most closely related to the inhabitants of the Hutsul Region on the other side of the mountains in both Galicia and Bukovina (present-day Ivano-Frankivs'k and Chernivtsi oblasts of Ukraine), where they originated.

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture With the rise of nationalism in Galicia and Bukovina toward the end of the nineteenth century, the Ukrainian orientation grew in strength through contacts and mutual influences among Hutsuls on both the northern and southern slopes of the Carpathians. The Ukrainian political orientation among those in Subcarpathian Rus' was most evident during the period of the Hutsul Republic, based in lasynia (1918-1919), and during the period of autonomous *Carpatho-Ukraine (1938-1939), which encompassed all of Subcarpathian Rus'. The evolution of ethnic self-identity among the various branches of the Rusyn people throughout Carpathian Rus' was negatively affected by the activity of Ukrainian and Russian emigres during the 1920s and 1930s. But the most destructive impact upon Rusyn self-identity came as a result of the ukrainianization policies carried out by the dictatorial Communist regimes of the Soviet Union in Subcarpathian Rus' (1945-1991), of Czechoslovakia in the Presov Region (1948-1989), and of Poland, where the entire Lemko-Rusyn population was deported (1945-1947). Most of the Rusyns in the Presov Region of northeastern Slovakia reacted against forced ukrainianization by adopting what seemed to them a much closer Slovak ethnopolitical orientation. As a result of strong pressure by the Communist regime, including a ban on the very use of the terms Rusyn and Rusnak, there developed among the Rusyn Dolyniane of Subcarpathian Rus' (the Transcarpathian oblast of Ukraine) a passive effort to preserve and to demonstrate their distinctiveness from Ukrainians in neighboring Galicia and the rest of Ukraine. This took the form of adopting the regional term TranscarpathianlZakarpatets' as a self-identifier raised almost to the level of an ethnonym. Since the fall of Communist regimes in central and eastern Europe the revival and development of a Rusyn identity has taken only partial root, in particular among the Lemko Rusyns of Poland and Rusyns of Slovakia and Hungary. Meanwhile, the largest concentration of Rusyns, those who live on the territory of Subcarpathian Rus' (Ukraine's Transcarpathian oblast), have because of certain political and economic factors been unable to promote effectively the development of their national self-identity. The very term Rusyn is not recognized by the government of independent Ukraine as an ethnonym to indicate a distinct nationality, but rather as an antiquated term to designate a "sub-ethnos" of the Ukrainian people. The Rusyns living in the *Vojvodina (Serbia) and the Srem (Croatia) continue to preserve their distinct Rusyn identity. Despite their small numbers at the outset of the twentieth century (ca. 12,000 in 1900) the Vojvodinian-Srem Rusyns succeeded in becoming a distinct national minority in the multinational regions they inhabited. Their distinct evolution was enhanced by the fact of their physical distance from the homeland of Ukrainians and the East Slavs in general. Consequently, a pro-Ukrainian orientation among the Vojvodinian-Srem Rusyns has existed in the twentieth century but has had only minimal impact on their community

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture life. Finally, the Vojvodinian-Srem Rusyns were completely spared the ukrainianization policy imposed by Moscow on other Rusyn lands during the decades after World War II. That Vojvodina's Rusyns did not experience forced ukrainianization was in large part due to the 1948 political rift in the Communist world between the Soviet leader * Stalin and Yugoslavia's Tito. The ethnocultural development among the Rusyn-inhabited enclaves in the Balkans was interrupted during the mid-1990s war in former Yugoslavia, but it has gradually been renewed. Further reading: Hermann Ign. Bidermann, Die ungarischen Ruthenen: ihr Wohngebiet, ihr Erwerb und ihre Geschichte,Vo\. I (Innsbruck, 1862), esp. pp. 71-100; lakov Golovatskii, "Karpatskaia Rus': geografichesko-statisticheskie i istorichesko-etnograficheskie ocherki Galichiny, sievero-vostochnoi Ugrii i Bukoviny," Slavianskii sbornik, I (St. Petersburg, 1875), pp. 1-30 and II (1877), pp. 55-84; Aleksei L. Petrov, "Zamietki po etnografii i statistikie Ugorskoi Rusi," Zhurnal Ministerstva narodnago prosvieshcheniia, CLXXIX, 2 (St. Petersburg, 1892), pp. 439-458—repr. in idem, Stat'i ob Ugorskoi Rusi, Zapiski istoriko-filologicheskago fakul'teta imp. S. Peterburgskago universiteta, LXXXI (St. Petersburg, 1906), pp. 1-18; Hryhorii Kupchanko, Uhorska Rus'y ey russky zhytely (Vienna, 1897), esp. pp. 46-62; Volodymyr Hnatiuk, "Rusyny Priashivs'koi eparkhi'i i i'kh hovory," Zapysky Naukovoho tovarystva im. Shevchenka, XXXV-XXXVI, 3-4 (Eviv, 1900), pp. 1-70; idem, "Slovaky chy rusyny?: prychynok do vyiasnenia sporu pro natsional'nisf zakhidnykh rusyniv,"/'6/t/.,XLII, 4 (1901), pp. 1-81; Stepan Tomashivs'kyi, "Uhors'ki rusyny v svitli madiars'koi uriadovoi' statystyky," Zapysky Naukovoho tovarystva im. Shevchenka, LXI (Eviv, 1903), pp. 1-46; idem, "Prychynky do piznannia etnografichnoT teritorii' Uhors'koi Rusy, teper i davni'ishe," ibid, LIX (1905), pp. 1 -8; idem, "Etnohrafichna karta Uhors'koi' Rusy," in Vladimir Lamanskii, ed., Stat'i po slavianoviedieniiu, Vol. Ill (St. Petersburg, 1910), pp. 178-269; Oleksandr Nazarii'v, "Etnohrafichna terytoriia uhors'kykh ukrai'ntsiv-rusyniv," Zapysky Naukovoho tovarystva im. Shevchenka, CII (Eviv, 1911), pp. 164-191; Aleksei L. Petrov, Ob etnograficheskoi granitsie russkago naroda v Avstro-Ugrii: o somnitel'noi 'vengerskoi' natsii i o nedielimosti Ugrii (Petrograd, 1915); Jan Husek, Ndrodopisnd hranice mezi Slovaky a Karpatorusy (Bratislava, 1925); Roman Reinfuss, "Lemkowie jako grupa etnograficzna," in Prace i materiafy etnograficzne, Vol. VII (Lublin, 1948-49), pp. 77-210;

117 Olena Rudlovchak, "Do istorii' vyvchennia zakarpatoukrai'ns'koho forkloru i etnohrafii v XIX ta na pochatku XX St.," Naukovyi zbirnyk Muzeiu ukrdins 'ko'ikul'tury v Svydnyku, VII (Bratislava and Presov, 1976), pp. 337-387; lurii H. Hoshko, ed., Boikivshchyna: istorykoetnohrafichne doslidzhennia (Kiev, 1983); idem, Hutsul'shchyna: istoryko-etnohraflchne doslidzhennia (Kiev, 1987); Bohdan O. Strumins'kyi, ed., Lemkivshchyna: zemlia—liudy—istoriia—kul'tura, 2 vols. (New York, Paris, Sydney, and Toronto, 1988); Eudovit Haraksim, "K problematike rusinskej narodnosti," in Ndrod, ndrodnosti a etnicke skupiny v demokratickej spolocnosti (Bratislava and Prague, 1991), pp. 185-190; Roman Reinfuss, "Zwiajzki kulrurowe po obu stronach Karpat w rejonie Lemkowszczyzny," in Jerzy Czajkowski, Lemkowie w historii i kulturze Karpat, Vol. I (Rzeszow, 1992), pp. 167-182; Olena Duc'-Fajfer, "The Lemkos in Poland," and Ljubomir Medjesi, "The Problem of Cultural Borders in the History of Ethnic Groups: The Yugoslav Rusyns," in Paul Robert Magocsi, ed., The Persistence of Regional Cultures (New York, 1993), pp. 83-103 and 139-162; Ivan Pop and Volodymyr Halas, "Stanii sa Zakarpatci statotvornym narodom?," Medzindrodne otdzky, III, 2 (Bratislava, 1994), pp. 33-42; Ivan Pop, "Homo totalitaricus?: istoriia Zakarpattia: krytychni rozdumy, Karpats 'kyi krai, VI, 5-7 [114] (Uzhhorod, 1996), pp. 4-22; Alexander Duleba, "'Rusinska' otazka a jej hrany," OS: Forum obcianskej spolocnosti, No. 2 (Bratislava, 1997), pp. 46-51; Paul Robert Magocsi, "Mapping Stateless Peoples: The East Slavs of the Carpathians," Canadian Slavonic Papers, XXXIX, 3-4 (Edmonton, 1997), pp. 301-331; Mykhailo Tyvodar, "Etnoistorychnyi ta etnokul'turnyi rozvytok ukrai'ntsiv Zakarpattia," Carpatica—Karpatyka, VI (Uzhhorod, 1999), p. 4-64. IVAN POP

Etnohrafichne tovarystvo Podkarpats'koi Rusi. See Ethnographic Society of Subcarpathian Rus' Evlogii (Georgiievskii). See lablochyn Monastery of St. Onufrius Evseev, Ivan F. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region Executive Committee of Emigrant Ruthenians. See Illes-Illyasevits, Jozsef

F Falkowski, Jan. See Historiography: Lemko Region Fall, Endre. See Magyars/Hungarians Farebne kamienky. See Cinema Farinic, Aleksej. See Farynych, Aleksei Farkas, Lajos. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Hajdudorog Farynych, Aleksei/Farinic, Aleksej (pseudonyms: Alesha Makovichanin, Leshko Makovichanin, Kum Leshko Makovichanin) (b. June 20,1911, Becherov [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. July 1, 1991, Presov [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — pedagogue, belletrist, journalist, and cultural activist of Russian national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region. Farynych studied at the Russian gymnasium in Mukachevo (1922-1929) and at Charles University in Prague (1929-1934). In the 1930s he taught philosophy and the Russian language at the Uzhhorod, Mukachevo, and Khust gymnasia. He also edited for the *Renaissance Carpatho-Russian Student Society in Prague the Russianlanguage journal Molodaia Rus' (1930-1931) and two literary anthologies, Almanakh Vozrozhdentsev (1933 and 1936). His own Russian-language works appeared in Russophile newspapers and journals and in separate editions, including the short story Stal'naia roza (1934) and the collection of poetry Snopik (1939). After Hungary annexed * Subcarpathian Rus' (March 1939) Farynych returned to his native *Presov Region, where he remained and later served as director (1945-1953) of the Russian gymnasium in Presov. He did not accept the ukrainianization of schools introduced in the Presov Region by the Communist regime of Czechoslovakia in the early 1950s and was removed as director of the Presov gymnasium (1953). Two years later he was arrested by Czechoslovakia's secret police on charges of being a "bourgeois nationalist." He spent over a year in prison (1955-1956) until his sentence was annulled by the Czechoslovak Supreme Court. He returned to teaching Russian language and literature at the Orthodox Theological Seminary in Presov, but after one year (1957-1958) was forced by the Communist authorities to leave that post as well. Until being pensioned (1976) he served as a tutor in student dormitories. Further reading: Ivan Halaida, "Nezakinchenyi literaturnyi portret Oleksiia Farynycha," Duklia, XXXIX, 5-6 (PreSov, 1991), pp. 50-55. IVAN POP

Fastnacht, Adam (b. July 27, 1913, Sanok [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. February 16, 1987, Wroclaw, Poland) — Polish historian and archivist. Fastnacht worked for many years as head of the Manuscript Division of the Ossolineum Library in Wroclaw. Ever since his student days in the 1930s at the University of Eviv he had had an interest in the history of the Sanok district, which included the eastern *Lemko Region. The results of his detailed research on settlement patterns and the historical geography of this district from the fourteenth to seventeenth centuries appeared in several scholarly monographs during his lifetime and posthumously: Osadnictwo ziemi sanockiej w latach 1340-1650 (1962); Stownik historyczno-geograficzny Ziemi Sanockiej w sredniowieczu (1991); and Materiafy do his tor ii Sanoka do XVII wieku (1992). Further reading: Anna Fastnacht-Szczepaniak, Doc.dr Adam Fastnacht—historyk dawnej Ziemi Sanockiej (Brzozow, 1987). BOGDAN HORBAL

Faustina Galichanka. See Polianskii, Petro Fedak, Vasyl'. See Rus' Sports' Club

Fedaka, Pavlo (b. March 3,1945, Kal'nyk [Transcarpathian Ukraine], Ukraine) — ethnographer, museum administrator, publicist, and cultural activist of Ukrainian national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus'. Since completing his studies at Uzhhorod State University (1968) Fedaka has worked at the Transcarpathian Regional Museum in Uzhhorod as researcher/curator and associate director (1981). He has published several short stories focusing on traditional domestic dwellings in * Subcarpathian Rus' in the second half of the nineteenth and the early twentieth centuries. After the fall of the Soviet Union Fedaka became a leading Ukrainian national activist and chairman of the restored *Prosvita Society (1990). His goal is to repeat in post-Soviet Subcarpathian Rus'/Transcarpathia the popular educational and enlightenment experience of Prosvita during the 1920s and 1930s. Since 1993 he has edited the society's revived annual almanac, Kalendar "Prosvita ", which is filled with praise for past and present *Ukrainophiles in Subcarpathian Rus', and he has published a short history of the Prosvita Society during the interwar years: Narys istorii tovarystva "Prosvita" Karpats'ko'i Rusi-Ukrainy, 1920-1939 (1991). Fedaka's organizational activity has been welcomed by a small circle of Ukrainophiles in the region as well as among emigres in North America. He has frequently criticized the recent Rusyn national revival, which he describes as "ethno-

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture political engineering." Further reading: Pavlo Mykhailovych Fedaka: bibliohrafichnyi pokazhchyk (Uzhhorod, 1995); "Pavlo Fedaka," in Mykola M. Vegesh and L. V. Horvat, Karpats 'ka Ukraina 1938-1939 rokiv vportretakh (Uzhhorod, 2000), pp. 151-159. IVAN POP

Fedelesh, Vira (b. January 24, 1879, Topol'a [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. February 26, 1967, Prague [Czechoslovakia], Czech Republic) — pedagogue and historian of Russian national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus'. Fedelesh completed her studies at the gymnasium in Debrecen and at the Advanced School of Pedagogy in Satu Mare. She began a teaching career in 1903 and until 1939 helped to train several generations of Rusyn elementary school teachers at the *Mukachevo State Teachers' College, at that city's Russian gymnasium, and at the gymnasium in Berehovo. During the period of Czechoslovak rule after World War I she wrote several history textbooks that were approved for use in Subcarpathia's schools, including Uchebnik istorii Podkarpatskoi Rusi (1924), Kratkaia istoriia Chekhoslovakii (1924), and, with Aleksandr *Popov, Podkarpatska Rus'—Chekhoslovakii (1925). In these and in textbooks she translated from Czech Fedelesh used the Russian literary language, which she believed was the most appropriate linguistic medium for Rusyns. As a loyal citizen of Czechoslovakia, she left * Subcarpathian Rus' when its southern cities were annexed by Hungary in November 1938 and spent her remaining years in Prague. Further reading: Yvan Shlepetskyi, "Vira Yvanovna Fedelesh," Karpatorusskyi kalendar Lemko-Soiuza na hod 1968 (Yonkers, N.Y., 1968), pp. 142-144. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Federated Russian Orthodox Clubs. See Russian Orthodox Church in North America

Fedinec, Vasilij V. See Council of Free Sub-Carpathian Ruthenia in Exile Fedor, Michal. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region Fedor, Pavel (pseudonym: Tsirokhin) (b. January 14, 1884, Slanske Nove Mesto [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. March 2, 1952, Presov [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — pedagogue, belletrist, and cultural and civic activist of Russian national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region. After completing his studies at the *Presov Greek Catholic Teachers' College (1899-1903) Fedor taught in several elementary schools throughout the *Presov Region. Under the new Czechoslovak regime he moved to Uzhhorod,

where he worked in the office of the district school inspector (1920-1922), then as the department heady'referent for education (1922-1939) in the governmental administration of Subcarpathian Rus'. He co-authored a popular Russianlanguage primer (Karpatorusskii bukvar', 1925), which went through four editions. He was also among the co-founders and officers of the Russophile-oriented Teachers' Society of SubCarpathian Rus'/Uchitel'skoe tovarishchestvo Podkarpatskoi Rusi (1920) and on the editorial board of its youth journal, *Narodna shkola, where he continually stressed the need for maintaining high standards for teachers. Fedor was particularly active in the Russophile-oriented * Dukhnovych Society as head of its choral section, editorial board member of its journal *Karpatskii sviet, and organizer of numerous reading rooms and dramatic circles, for whom he wrote several plays (Neshchastnaia sud'ba, 1927; Skromnost' pobiezhdaet, 1929; Verkhovinets', 1935; Lishnii student, unpublished). He also published a collection of poetry (Mysli, 1929) and completed a novel, "Tsar'—muzhyk," whose unpublished text was subsequently lost. Fedor was strongly influenced by the Russian specialist on Rusyn literature living in Moscow, Fedor F. *Aristov, about whom he wrote a biography (1931). Agreeing with Aristov's call for more research into Rusyn literature and history, Fedor published a general survey of Rusyn literature since the nineteenth century (Ocherki karpatorusskoi literatury so vtoroi poloviny XIX stoletiia, 1929), a short biography of Adol'f *Dobrians'kyi (1926), and a historical survey of the Dukhnovych Society (1941). Fedor was a long-time activist in the pro-government Czechoslovak * Agrarian/Republican party, and he later helped to establish with Shtefan *Fentsyk the oppositional *Russian National Autonomist party (1935) as an alternative to Andrii Brodii's * Autonomous Agricultural Union. At the time of the political crisis in Czechoslovakia (1938) he broke with Fentsyk over the latter's pro-Hungarian machinations, and along with other Subcarpathian *Russophiles he remained loyal to Czechoslovakia, helping to establish in November 1938 the *Central Russian National Council in order to defend Russophile interests in the face of restrictions imposed by the pro-Ukrainian government under Avhustyn *Voloshyn. Fedor stayed in Subcarpathian Rus' after Hungary annexed the province (1939). He was retired from the school administration soon after but remained an active participant in the Dukhnovych Society and editor-in-chief (until 1941) of the teacher's journal *Narodna shkola. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Fedorenko, Szymon. See Orthodox Eparchy of Przemysl Fedorinko, lulii. See Fel'deshii, lulii

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Fedoronko, Joseph (b. March 5,1884, Czertez [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. March 31, 1971, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA) — priest, editor, and political activist of Russian national orientation among Rusyn immigrants in the United States. Fedoronko was ordained a Greek Catholic priest (1909) and during his brief service in parishes throughout Galicia (1909-1913) he frequently spoke out against what he described as the latinization of the Greek Catholic Church. He emigrated to the United States (1913), where he joined the Russian Orthodox Church; he was to serve in Terryville, Connecticut, and other parishes for over half a century (1914-1971). Aside from priestly duties, Fedoronko played an active role in immigrant political life as founding head (1914-1917) of the Russian National Organization and editor of its official organ, Novaia Rus' (1915-1917). Anticipating that the end of World War I would bring about great political changes in Europe, he organized in 1917 the *League for the Liberation of Carpatho-Russia/Soiuz osvobozhdeniia Prikarpatskoi Rusi, for whom he authored or co-authored several memoranda, declarations, and protests in defense of Rusyn political interests in the homeland. Fedoronko supported the view that Lemkos, together with other Rusyns, were part of the Russian nationality and that their Carpathian homeland should be united with a democratic (non-Bolshevik) Russia. If this were not possible, they should be granted *autonomy within a neighboring, friendly Slavic state such as Czechoslovakia. He expressed these opinions in various forums, as a delegate to all three *Carpatho-Russian Congresses held in New York City (1917, 1919, 1920), at the Lemko Congress (1920), and during World War II as a member of the American League of Russians and Carpatho-Russians/Amerikanskii russkii i karpatorusskii soiuz. The latter nominated Fedoronko as its delegate to Poland, Czechoslovakia, and the Soviet Union, but those countries refused to grant him an entry visa. After World War II he helped to raise funds for the * Lemko Relief Committee/Lemkovskyi relifovyi komytet and participated in its discussions regarding the Lemko problem with diplomatic representatives of Poland and the Soviet Union (1957). Further reading: Bohdan Herbal', "losyf Fedoronko," inLemkivskii richnyk 2001 (Krynica and Legnica, 2001), pp. 137-139. BOGDAN HORBAL

Fedynets', Atanasii/Fedinecz, Atanaz (pseudonym: Fuci) (b. December 2, 1936, Uzhhorod [Czechoslovakia], Ukraine) — physician and painter. Like his father Aleksander Fedynets', the renowned Uzhhorod surgeon, Atanasii Fedynets' is by profession a physician (M.D., Uzhhorod State University, 1960). In 1980 he emigrated to Hungary, where he continues to practice medicine in the town of Azsod. Before leaving his native *Subcarpathian Rus' Fedynets' had become an accomplished painter of landscapes, portraits, and stilllifes. He works primarily in a variant of the Expressionist style

and virtually all his subjects are based on scenes, characters, and symbolic images from his Subcarpathian homeland. Further reading: Miklos Losonci, Fedinecz Atanazfestoi latomdsai (Aszod, 1991). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Fedynyshynets', Volodymyr (pseudonym: Volodymyr Tarakhonych) (b. May 9, 1943, Repynne [Karpatalja, Hungary], Ukraine) — belletrist, pedagogue, journalist, publicist, literary theorist, and cultural activist ofRusyn national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus'. After completing studies at the Pedagogical School in Mukachevo (1961) and the philological faculty of Uzhhorod State University (1966) Fedynyshynets' taught at a school for special students in eastern Ukraine, then worked as a journalist for the *Transcarpathian Regional Museum and various newspapers in Uzhhorod. He is a prolific writer who has published in various genres and mostly in the Ukrainian language. His publications include several individual volumes of poetry as well as a two-volume anthology, Sribni syluety (1994); two historical novels based on the Rusyn past (Brantsi lisu, 1993; Otets'Dukhnovych, 1994); and extended biographical essays on contemporary scholars Paul Robert *Magocsi (1995) and Petro Lyzanets' (1996) and on the nineteenth-century historian of Uzhhorod, Karoly *Meszaros (1994, 1996). He has also published essays on local history, musicology, ethnography, folklore, literary criticism, and he has completed several literary translations. Fedynyshynets' can be considered the initiator of the Rusyn movement in Subcarpathian Rus' during the last years of Soviet rule. Among his goals for the movement is the creation of a Rusyn literary language, which he has argued for in a series of passionate essays, some of which were republished in a Rusyn-Slovak-English collection, Myrna nasha rusyns 'kaput'/Our Peaceful Rusyn Way (1992), and in four other collections: la esm 'vechnyi Rusyn (1995); Sud'ba Karpat (1996); Karpato-ruteny u XXI storochi (1999); and Kraiovi literaturni zdvyhy (2000). He was among the founders of the *Society of Carpatho-Rusyns (1990) and founding editor (1992) of its newspaper, *Podkarpats'ka Rus'. In recent years he has established the literary and public affairs journal Aino (1997- ), is vice-chairman (1997- ) of the Rusyn Scholarly and Enlightenment Society, and has begun to publish in Rusyn: My—slyzynka nazemly (1999), Ruteniio moia, Ruteniio (2001), and Avante, avangarde! (2002). Fedynyshynets's writings are frequently controversial in nature and have thus elicited a wide range of praise or criticism by Rusyns and non-Rusyns alike. In 2004 Fedynyshynets' was awarded the Aleksander Dukhnovych Prize for the best work in Rusyn literature. IVAN POP

Feher/Fejer, Herman. See Communist party; Jews

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Feisa, lanko/Fejsa, Janko (b. August 13,1904, Kucura [Hungarian Kingdom], Serbia; d. October 3, 1983, Kucura [Yugoslavia], Serbia) — pedagogue, belletrist, and translator among the Vojvodinian Rusyns. Feisa completed the teachers' training school in Krizevci, Croatia, then taught school for several years in his native Kucura and other villages in the *Vojvodina. His first literary works (1921) appeared in Croatian, but from 1925 he published in his native Vojvodinian Rusyn. He was the first Vojvodinian Rusyn writer to publish a separate volume of verse for children (Pupche: pisrii za dzetsi, 1929; repr. 1999). This was followed much later by a collection of poetry (Klashe sushchatse, 1970), another volume of verse for children (Zhelieni listochka, 1964), and, posthumously, sketches and poems for children (Zarenka shchiroho serden 'ka, 1995). Much of Feisa's poetry is traditional in character, full of pathos and sentimentality as well as motifs of love for the homeland and friendship between nations and peoples. He also translated poetry from other South Slavic and Ukrainian authors into Vojvodinian Rusyn, and in the year of his death published a short autobiography in the journal *Shvetlosts (1983). Further reading: luliian Tamash, "Poetichni status lanka Feisi," Shvetlosts, XII, 3 (Novi Sad, 1974), pp. 236-239; luliian Tamash, "Poeziia lanki Feisi," Shvetlosts, XVIII, 1 (Novi Sad, 1980), pp. 7-13. ALEKSANDR D. DULICHENKO

Feisa, Mikhailo/Fejsa, Mihajlo (b. October 5, 1957, Kucura [Yugoslavia], Serbia) — professor, translator, linguist, and cultural activist ofRusyn national orientation in the Vojvodina. After graduating from the Rusyn-language gymnasium in Ruski Kerestur (1972-1976), Feisa studied English language and literature at the University of Novi Sad (1976-1980; Ph.D., 2000). Since 1984 he has taught at the Department of Rusyn Language and Literature at the University of Novi Sad (docentl'associate professor, 2000). He has published a linguistic analysis of English loanwords in the Vojvodinian variant ofRusyn, Angliiski elementi u ruskim iaziku (1990), as well as the first translations into that language of two classics: Shakespeare's Hamlet (1985) and Lewis Carroll's Alice in Wonderland (Alisa u zhemi chudokh, 1988). He is also co-editor of the monumental two-volume Serbian-Rusyn dictionary (1995-97), has prepared a Vojvodinian Rusyn version of Paul Robert *Magocsi's popular phrasebook, Let's Speak Rusyn and English/Besheduime po angliiski ipo ruski (1997), and since 2001 serves as chairman of the *Society for Rusyn Language, Literature, and Culture/Druzhtvo za ruski iazik, literaturu i kulturu. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Fejer, Herman. See Communist party; Jews

Fekula, VasyP. See Pravdal The Truth Fel'baba, losyf. See Dukhnovych Theater

Fel'deshii, lulii/Foldesi, Julius/Foldessy, Gyula (b. lulii Fedorinko, September 7, 1875, Sobrance [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. 1947, Sambir [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — printer, publisher, and political activist ofRusyn national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus'. After completing the Uzhhorod gymnasium and the *Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College Fel'deshii learned the printing trade in that city while working in the Bartolemy Jager printshop. He then managed the printshop of the *St. Basil the Great Society (1899) and its successor, *Unio (1902). In 1907 Fel'deshii bought out the Jager shop and he operated his own Fel'deshii Printing Company for almost four decades, until it was nationalized by the Soviet regime in 1945. His shop printed a wide variety of publications, including brochures in Rusyn for the popular reading public. During the interwar years of Czechoslovak rule Fel'deshii consistently supported the autonomist movement and published for the * Subcarpathian Agricultural Union its official party organ, *Karpatorusskii viestnik (1921-1923). As a member of the *Autonomous Agricultural Union, he represented that party as senator (1935-1938) in the Czechoslovak parliament. A pro-Hungarian activist, Fel'deshii remained in Uzhhorod after it was annexed to Hungary (November 2, 1938); when the rest of * Subcarpathian Rus' was annexed as well (March 1939), he was named an advisor to the regent's commissar for Subcarpathia and appointed a deputy (19391944) to the Hungarian parliament. With the arrival of the Soviet Army in Subcarpathian Rus' in late 1944, Fel'deshii was arrested on charges of collaboration. He died three years later during interrogation in a prison in Sambir before final sentencing. IVAN POP

Felvidek. See Irredentism; Treaty of Trianon Fencik, Stepan. See Fentsyk, Shtefan Fenczik, Edmundus. See Fentsyk, levhenii Fenczik, Istvan. See Fentsyk, Shtefan Fenczik, Jeno. See Fentsyk, levhenii

Fentsyk, levhenii/Fenczik, Edmundus/Jeno (pseudonym: Vladimir) (b. October 5, 1844, Mala Martynka [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. December 5,1903, Horinchovo [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine) — priest, journalist,

122 belletrist, and publicist of Russian national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus'. After studying at the gymnasium in Uzhhorod and Satu Mare, Fentsyk completed his theological formation at the *Greek Catholic Central Seminary at the University of Vienna (1865-1868). His student years coincided with the transformation of Austria into a constitutional and dual monarchy, marked initially by a period of liberalism. It was in such an environment that he participated in patriotic Slavic student groups active in the imperial capital. After ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1869) he served for the rest of his life in the Rusyn villages of Liuta, Boharevytsia, Bukovets', Dusyno, Poroshkovo, Velykyi Rakovets', and Horinchovo. Fentsyk was a follower of Adol'f *Dobrians'kyi and Ivan *Rakovs'kyi, the co-founders of the *St. Basil the Great Society, and he helped to revive the organization in their spirit during the 1890s. In terms of his literary works, Fentsyk may be considered the last of the generation of nineteenth-century Rusyn national awakeners. None of his plays, poetry, short tales, and historical/ethnographic sketches were ever published in a separate volume, but rather appeared in the first Subcarpathian newspapers (*Svit,*Novyisvif)\ the Russophile newspaper in Galicia, Slovo (at a time when magyarization was on the increase at home); and later in his own journal *Listok. Fentsyk always wrote in Russian and he adopted an idealized view of Russian culture and the Russian state, viewing it as the Messiah-like savior of the Slavic peoples. In 1885 Fentsyk began to publish a literary and public affairs journal, Listok; because it was written in Russian and thus not easily understood by village readers, in 1891 he began to issue a supplement, Dodatok, written in Rusyn vernacular. Like other national awakeners Fentsyk tried his hand at writing about all aspects of contemporary Rusyn society, even though many of his views, as in a proposed historical project ("Mysli 0 sostavlenii istorii Ugorskoi Rusi," 1886), were based on a limited knowledge of the given subject. He also published serially in Listok an extensive outline history ofRusyn literature ("Ocherk ugro-russkoi pis'mennosti," 1892-96), the texts of over 200 sermons covering the entire church year, and in the Dodatok supplement articles for peasants with practical advice about fanning. Finally, Fentsyk compiled pedagogical tools, including language, mathematics, physics, geography, and history textbooks for Rusyn schools, and religious texts (Liturgika, 1878; Molitvennik, 1892) for the Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo. Further reading: Fedor F. Aristov and Nikolai A. Beskid, "Khronologicheskii perechen' napechatannykh sochinenii Evgeniia Andreevicha Fentsika," Karpatskii sviet, V, 4 (Uzhhorod, 1932), pp. 1282-1294; Dmitrii N. Vergun, Evgenii Andreevich Fentsik 1 ego miesto v russkoi literaturie (Uzhhorod, 1926); Petro Lintur, "Publitsystyka Evheniia Fentsyka," in Tezy dopovidei i povidomlennia do XIX naukovo'i konferentsi'i: Seriia literaturoznavstva (Uzhhorod, 1965), pp. 79-84; Petr Lintur, "Khudozhestvennaia proza E. Fentsika," in Tezy dopovidei do XXnaukovo'i konferentsi'i:

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Seriia literaturoznavstva (Uzhhorod, 1966), pp. 47-55; Andrei Shlepetskii, "K nekotorym problemam izucheniia literaturnogo nasledstva Evgeniia Andreevicha Fentsika (Vladimira)," in Zbornik Pedagogickej fakulty v Presove Univerzity P.J. Safdrika XVII, 3: Slavistika (Bratislava, 1983), pp. 293-322; Vasyl' Mykytas', Haluzka mohutn'oho dereva: literaturnyi narys (Uzhhorod, 1971), pp. 111123, 160-170, 195-201; Liubytsia Babota, Zakarpatoukrains'ka proza druhoi polovyny XIX stolittia (Bratislava and PreSov, 1994), pp. 179-193. IVAN POP

Fenych, Volodymyr. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region

Fentsyk, Shtefan/Fencik, Stepan/Fenczik, Istvan (b. October 13, 1892, Velyki Luchky [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. March 30, 1946, Uzhhorod [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — priest, pedagogue, musical director, publicist, and cultural and political activist of Russian national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus'. A relative of the nineteenth-century cultural activist, levhenii *Fentsyk, Shtefan Fentsyk attended the gymnasia in Uzhhorod and Berehovo, then studied theology and philosophy at the University of Budapest (1910-1914, Ph.D., 1918) and the University ofVienna (1914-1916, Th.D., 1916). He also studied the French language and law in Paris, music at the academies in Vienna and Budapest (1918), and finally law at the academy in Sarospatak (1918) and at the University of Debrecen (1922). In the interim, Fentsyk was ordained a Greek Catholic priest (1918), and while still doing post-graduate studies he began a pedagogical career in Uzhhorod at the *Greek Catholic Teachers' College (19161918), the Theological Seminary (1918-1922), and the classic gymnasium (1922-1926). It was during this period that he directed the Uzhhorod cathedral church choir, Harmoniia (1917-1920), the chorus of the Boian' Society (1920-1933), the Philarmonia Orchestra and Chorus/Filarmonia (1920s), and published a two-part collection of Rusyn songs (Pisny podkarpatskykh rusynov, 1921-1923), which included his music for the Rusyn *national anthem based on the poem, "Subcarpathian Rusyns, Arise from Your Deep Slumber," erroneously attributed to Aleksander *Dukhnovych. Fentsyk was the most ambitious ofRusyn political leaders during the interwar years of the twentieth century. He began this activity within the framework of the Russophile-oriented *Dukhnovych Society, of which he was a co-founder (1923) and actual administrator. He also served as chairman (1920s) of a coalition of cultural organizations, the Subcarpathian Rusyn Popular Enlightenment Union/ Podkarpatorusskii narodoprosvietitel'nyi soiuz, and as founding head (19301944) of the Dukhnovych Russian Scout movement which he represented at numerous meetings of Russophile and other international organizations throughout Europe (Belgrade,

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture 1923; Paris, 1926; Eviv, 1928,1929; Riga, 1929; Sofia, 1930; Bucharest, 1930; Rome, 1931). He frequently published accounts of these visits, including an extended one among Rusyn immigrants in the United States (1934-1935) described in the book Uzhgorod-Amerika (1936). Fentsyk also attempted, without success, to be named in 1931 bishop of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo. In 1934 he was defrocked by the new bishop for conduct "unbecoming a priest." By that time Fentsyk had become fully engaged in Subcarpathian political life, maintaining since the first of his many "engagements" at international conferences a position strongly critical of Czechoslovakia for not having fulfilled those provisions of the *Treaty of St.Germain (1919) that had called for * autonomy to be granted to * Subcarpathian Rus'. Accused of anti-state activity, he was arrested by the Czechoslovak authorities upon his return from the United States (1935). In the same year, however, he was chosen to serve as deputy (1935-1938) in the Czechoslovak parliament representing the *Russian National Autonomist party he had recently founded, and was therefore released from custody. To promote his autonomist and Russophile views Fentsyk published several newspapers: *Karpatorusskiigolos (193234), Nash put'(\935-18), and Molodaia Rus' (1938). Most of the funding for these ventures came from Russophile-oriented immigrant organizations in the United States and from the Polish government via its consulate in Uzhhorod. Impressed by the Italian variety of fascism, Fentsyk even tried to create a single "Carpatho-Russian party" for which he would be the "supreme leader" (vozhd'\ During Czechoslovakia's political crisis (1938) Fentsyk reached an accord with his rival Russophile autonomist leader Andrii *Brodii and accepted a post in the latter's government (October 1938), with specific responsibility for determining Subcarpathia's final boundary with Slovakia. In the course of these negotiations Fentsyk embarked on an intense irredentist campaign directed at uniting the Rusyn-inhabited *Presov Region with Subcarpathian Rus'. While unsuccessful in this goal, Fentsyk's activity resulted in strained relations between the new autonomous governments of Slovakia and Subcarpathian Rus'. On October 26, 1938, Fentsyk, together with the Subcarpathian prime minister Brodii, was accused by the Czechoslovak government of political agitation on behalf of Hungary. Fearing arrest, he fled to Budapest, where he was named a deputy to the Hungarian parliament and entrusted with organizing a paramilitary youth organization, the socalled chornorubashechniki (Black Shirts). Working from the southern part of Subcarpathian Rus' annexed by Hungary on November 2, 1938, the Black Shirts were to enter what remained of Czechoslovakia's autonomous eastern province (the Voloshyn-led Carpatho-Ukraine) in order to provoke political destabilization. After Hungary annexed the rest of Subcarpathian Rus' (March 1939) Fentsyk was appointed a member (1939-1944)

of the upper house of the Hungarian parliament, but in stark contrast to what he was able to do under Czechoslovak rule, he and other pro-Hungarian Rusyn activists were effectively barred from any serious role in political life. Fentsyk continued to publicize the need for Subcarpathian *autonomy in Hungarian publications (A Kdrpdtaljai autonomia es a kisebbsegi kerdes, 1941), but to no avail. When the Soviet Army reached Subcarpathian Rus' in late 1944, Fentsyk decided not to flee. He was arrested by the Soviet military counter-intelligence force SMERSH on March 31,1945, and placed on trial by the "people's court" of *Transcarpathian Ukraine. Sentenced to death, he was shot on March 30,1946, in the Uzhhorod prison. Nearly half a century later the sentence was overturned by the post-Communist Transcarpathian Regional Court of Ukraine and Fentsyk was posthumously rehabilitated (February 24, 1992). IVAN POP

Feodul, Mykhai'l. See Orosvygovs'kyi-Andrella, Mykhai'l Ferdinand II. See Habsburg family

Festival of Culture of the Rusyn-Ukrainians of Slovakia. See Svidnik Folk Festival Festival of Culture/Song and Dance of the Ukrainian Inhabitants/Workers of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. See Svidnik Folk Festival Filevich, Ivan Porfir'evich (b. August 20,1856 [Lublin province, Russian Empire], Poland; d. January 7, 1913, St. Petersburg [Russian Empire], Russia) — Russian historian, professor, and publicist. Filevich was the son of a Greek Catholic priest who served in what is today the borderland region between Poland and Ukraine. A graduate of St. Petersburg University, Filevich taught for nearly two decades until his retirement in 1908 at the University of Warsaw, which at the time was in the western part of the Russian Empire. Aside from the history of Kievan Rus' and relations between Poland-Lithuania and Muscovy/Russia, Filevich was interested in the peoples of the Danubian Basin and the Carpathian region. He undertook three tours to Austria-Hungary (1884, 1892, 1895), as a result of which he completed a study on the *historiography of Carpatho-Rusyns (Ugorskaia Rus' i sviazannye s neiu voprosy i zadachi russkoi istoricheskoi nauki, 1894) and a detailed description of the physical and human geography of *Carpathian Rus' ("Ocherk karpatskoi territorii i naseleniia," 1895). Filevich argued not only that Rusyn-inhabited lands "represented the farthest [western] extent of the Russian world," he also adduced toponymic

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evidence (names of mountains, rivers, and villages) for his claims that the original East Slavic population, which later formed Kievan Rus', had come from the Carpathians. Further reading: K. Grot, "Ivan Filevich," Zhurnal Ministerstva narodnago prosvieshcheniia, No. 45 (St. Petersburg, 1913), pp. 2646 — separately (St. Petersburg, 1913). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Filharmoniia. See Fentsyk, Shtefan Film. See Cinema Finciczky, Mihaly (b. September 22, 1842, Ungcsepely, now part of Vel'ke Kapusany [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. January 27, 1916, Uzhhorod [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine) — lawyer, civic activist, folklorist, and translator in the Hungarian Kingdom. Finciczky studied at the gymnasia in Uzhhorod, Eger, and Pest, where he was exposed to nineteenth-century Russian literature. After completing the juridical faculty of the University of Pest (1867) he worked in a law firm in Uzhhorod. Aside from legal work, he translated into Hungarian a wide range of Russian poetry and prose (Pushkin, Turgenev, Gogol', Lermontov). He also turned to his local surroundings and published a short historical survey of *Ung county ("Das Unger Comitat," 1900) for the illustrated encyclopedia of Austria-Hungary. He served as mayor of Uzhhorod (1890-1894, 1904-1916) and compiled three volumes of reports on the status of the city (Polgdrmesteri jelentesek Ungvdr vdros kozallapotdrol, 1907-1912; repr. 2001). Finciczky is best remembered, however, for his collections ofRusyn folk songs and tales. He published over 300 songs in Hungarian translation (Magyarorosz nepdalok, 1870). A century later Finciczky's collection ofRusyn tales appeared in his original Hungarian translation (A vasorru Indzibdba, 1970) and then in a Ukrainian translation by lurii Shkrobynets' (Taiemnytsia skliano'i hory, 1974). Further reading: Hiador Sztripszky, "Finciczky Mihaly (184219\6\"Ethnografia, XXVII, 1-3 (Budapest, 1926), pp. 140-142; losif V. Kaminskii, "Mikhail Ivanovich Fintsitskii," inNauchnyisbornikv pamiat'Evmeniia Ivanovicha Sabova (Uzhhorod, 1935), pp. 27-30; lurii Shkrobynets', "Vidnaideni skarby," in Mykhailo Fintsyts'kyi, Taiemnytsia skliano'i hory (Uzhhorod, 1974), pp. 178-188. MYKHAILO ALMASHII PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Fine Arts. See Art Firak, Mykhailo. See Ruski novini Firtsak, Georgii/ Firczak, Gheorghe. See Cultural Society of Rusyns in Romania

Firtsak, luIii/Firczak, Gyula (b. August 22, 1836, Khudl'ovo [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. June 1, 1912, Uzhhorod [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine) — priest, pedagogue, church hierarch, and civic and political activist in Subcarpathian Rus'. After studying at the Theological Seminary in Uzhhorod, Firtsak completed the *Central Theological Seminary at the University of Vienna (1856-1859) and in 1861 was ordained a Greek Catholic priest. He taught at the Uzhhorod Theological Seminary (1861-1876) and served as its rector (1876-1887), then was elected a deputy (1887-1890) to the lower house of the Hungarian parliament. Well-known in Hungarian ruling circles, Firtsak was consecrated bishop of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo in 1891. During his over two decades as bishop Firtsak tried to convince the Hungarian government to address what he described in a memorandum (1896) as the catastrophic social conditions among Rusyn peasants, many of whom were forced to seek relief by emigrating en masse to the United States. He reached a secret agreement with the government, promising his political support in return for social assistance. The bishop submitted a project that outlined concrete terms of assistance for Rusyn peasants (1897). It was in the main approved by the government in the form of the *Highlands Program/Hegyvideki akcio administered by Ede *Egan. At the parish level Firtsak called on his eparchial priests to create "sobriety (anti-alcoholic) brotherhoods" and credit associations. He also directed eparchial funds to build or refurbish nearly 200 schools, to revive the orphanage in Uzhhorod for priests' daughters (subsequently transformed into the Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College for Women/Uzhhorodska hreko-katolytska zhenska uchytel'ska semynariia, 1902), to open a dormitory for priests' sons in Sighet and for orphans in Uzhhorod, and to create scholarships for talented peasant children. Firtsak was particularly concerned with preserving *Church Slavonic in the liturgy and using Rusyn in sermons. IVAN POP

Firtsak, Vasyl'. See Nova Svoboda Florynka Lemko Republic. See Lemko Republic of Florynka Fogarashii, loann/Fogorashii, Ivan (pseudonym: Ivan *Berezhanyn) (b. March 25, 1786, Velyki Kom"iaty [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. December 11, 1834, Vienna [Habsburg Empire], Austria) — priest, linguist, and ethnographer in Subcarpathian Rus' and Austria. Fogarashii studied at the theological seminaries in Uzhhorod (1808-1810) and Trnava (1811-1912). After ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1813) he served briefly in the village of Rokosovo until his appointment as rector (1814-1818) of the Uzhhorod

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Theological Seminary. In 1818 he was transferred to Vienna and became the parish priest at the Greek Catholic Church of St. Barbara—the *Barbareum, a post he held until his death. In Vienna he was an active member of a group of Slavists under the leadership of the Slovenian scholar, Jernej Kopitar, which met at the St. Barbara parish. Moved by his reading of Ivan *Orlai's history of CarpathoRusyns, Fogarashii decided to write a study of the language of his Carpatho-Rusyn people. He sent a manuscript ("V obshche o razlichii Slavianskikh nariechii, sobstvenno zhe o malo i karpato ili Ugrorusskikh") to Orlai in St. Petersburg, where it remained until published in Eviv (1906) by Ilarion *Svientsits'kyi. In this work Fogarashii supported the idea of unity among the "Carpathian or Hungarian Russians" (karpato ili ugro-rossiany), the "Little Russians'YUkrainians (malorossy), and the Russians (rossiany). In the spirit of *pan-Slavism, he called upon all Slavic peoples to use the Church Slavonic language for literary purposes. He repeated these views in his grammar for Rusyns (Rus 'ko-ouhorska 'ili madiarska hrammatyka, 1833) and in other works. Fogarashii also wrote an extensive ethnographic description of Hungary's Carpatho-Rusyns ("Istorichesko-topograficheskoe Karpato ili Ugrorussiian opisanie"), although the manuscript was never published and its whereabouts remain unknown. Most of the ethnographic material about Rusyns in Jan Caplovic's unpublished study, "Etnografia Rumenorum," came from Fogarashii's research. In one of his last works, dealing with the origins of the Hungarian language ("Origo et formatio Linguae Ugoricae, rectius Magyaricae...," 1833), Fogarashii emphasized how extensively the Hungarian language was influenced by the indigenous Slavs living in the Danubian Basin, a view that elicited displeasure in Hungarian ruling circles as well as among the hierarchy of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo, which subsequently distanced itself from the Rusyn scholar working in Vienna. Further reading: Vasylii Hadzhega, "loan Fogarashii," Podkarpatska Rus', V, 10 (Uzhhorod, 1928), pp. 207-224; Ivan Pan'kevych, "Khto buv Ivan Berezhanyn—Mykhailo Luchkai chy Ivan Fogarashii?," Naukovyi zbornyk Tovarystva 'Prosvita', VII-VIII (Uzhhorod, 1931), pp. 168-188. IVAN POP

Foispan. See Zhupan/Ishpan Foldesi, Julius/Foldessy, Gyula. See Fel'deshii, lulii Folklore Festival of Slovakia's Ukrainians. See Cultural Union of Ukrainian Workers Fontahski, Henryk (b. January 30, 1947, Cz?stochowa, Poland) — Polish linguist and university professor. Fontariski

has taught Russian philology at the Advanced School of Education in Opole (1971-1978) and the University of Silesia in Katowice (1978- ; professor, 2000). Since the early 1990s he has actively consulted with Lemko Rusyns in Poland regarding language codification and published several studies on Lemko Rusyn. He is also the co-author (with Myroslava *Khomiak) of the standard grammar for the Lemko variant of the Rusyn literary language (Gramatyka lemkivskoho iazyka, 2000). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Forced deportations/population resettlement. See Lemko population resettlement; Vistula Operation Franko, Ivan lakovych (b. August 27,1856, Nahuievychi [Austrian Galicia], Ukraine; d. May 28, 1916, Lviv [Austrian Galicia], Ukraine) — Ukrainian belletrist, literary scholar, editor, publicist, and cultural and political activist in Austrian Galicia. Franko was one of the major Ukrainian writers of the nineteenth century and a leading figure in the Ukrainian national movement in Galicia. He was among a small group of younger activists who, in the 1870s, heeded the call of the Ukrainian political theorist from the Russian Empire, Mykhailo *Drahomanov, challenging Galician Ukrainians to take an interest in their "brother Rusyns" south of the Carpathians in the Hungarian Kingdom. Franko took up Drahomanov's challenge and devoted extensive attention to the social and cultural life of *Subcarpathian Rus' and, in particular, to Rusyn literature. In response to the upcoming millennial celebrations commemorating the arrival of the *Magyars in the Danubian Basin, Franko co-authored with fellow Galician *Ukrainophiles a protest against the magyarization and national assimilation of Rusyns ("I my v levropi: protest halyts'kykh rusyniv proty mad'iars'koho tysiacholittia," 1896). He devoted much of his research to the study of early literary manuscripts from the Subcarpathian and *Lemko regions, publishing the original texts as well as a critical analysis in the scholarly journal of the Ukrainophile Shevchenko Scientific Society in Eviv: "Karpatorus'ka li'teratura XVII-XVIII vikiv" (1900) and "StudyT na poll karpatorus'koho pys'menstva XVII-XVIII v." (1901). He also studied Carpatho-Rusyn folklore, contributing to Volodymyr *Hnatiuk's multi-volume collection of folk texts, Etnohrafichni materialy z Uhors 'ko'i Rusi, and publishing in various Galician Ukrainian journals the Rusyn folk texts transcribed by Anatolii *Kralyts'kyi and Hiiador *Stryps'kyi. As with his native Galicia, Franko was critical of the Russophile movement in Subcarpathian society, in particular of those writers who scorned the Rusyn vernacular in favor of the uncodified Russian/Church Slavonic amalgam known as the *iazychiie. Further reading: Ivan Pankevych, "Ivan Franko i zakarpats'ki

126 ukrai'ntsi," Duklia, V, 3 (Presov, 1957), pp. 76-82; lurii Bacha and I. Ivan'o, "I. la Franko v borofbi za rozvytok literatury na Zakarpatti," Duklia, VII, 2 (Presov, 1959), pp. 120-131; Vasyl' I. Netochaiev and lurii lu. Kachii, comps., Ivan Franko i Zakarpattia: korotkyi bibliohrafichnyi pokazhchyk (Uzhhorod, 1966); lurii Kachii, "Ivan Franko na Zakarpatti," Arkhivy Ukrainy, VIII, 1 (Kiev, 1967), pp. 34-38; Petro Lisovyi, "Ivan Franko v oboroni interesiv trudiashchykh Zakarpattia," Ukrains'ke literaturoznavstvo, No. 5 (Eviv, 1968), pp. 49-55; Roman A. Ofitsyns'kyi, "Etnopsykholohichna model' Zakarpattia u pratsiakh Ivana Franka ta ioho poslidovnykiv," in Ukrains 'ka mova na Zakarpatti u mynulomu i suchasnomu (Uzhhorod, 1993), pp. 129-133. IVAN POP

Front molodezhy. See Shereghy, Basil Frantsev, Vladimir Andreevich (pseudonym: Putnik) (b. April 4, 1867, Modlin/Nowy Dwor Mazowiecki [Novogeorgievsk, Warsaw province, Russian Empire], Poland; d. March 19, 1942, Prague [Protectorate of Bohemia-Moravia, Germany], Czech Republic) — Russian professor, historian, and Slavic philologist. Frantsev taught at the Russian Empire's University of Warsaw (1900-1915) until he was evacuated during World War I. He continued teaching at the University of Rostov-na-Donu (1916-1921) until he left Bolshevik Russia (1921) and settled in Prague, where he taught at Charles University. While still a student at the University of Warsaw, Frantsev became interested in *Subcarpathian (Uhors'ka) Rus'. He traveled to the region (1899) and met with the local Rusyn activists levmenii *Sabov, levhenii *Fentsyk, and lulii Chuchka, among others. His first publications about Subcarpathian Rus' were written for journals in the Russian Empire and included a description of contemporary conditions in the region ("Sovremennoe sostoianie Ugorskoi Rusi," 1900, under the pseudonym Putnik), a historiographic study ("Obzor vazhniei-

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture shikh izuchenii Ugorskoi Rusi," 1901), and correspondence with commentary from the time of the Rusyn national revival ("Iz epokhi vozrozhdeniia Ugorskoi Rusi," 1902). After emigrating to Czechoslovakia, Frantsev published a short study on the Rusyn student poet, Andrii Val'kovs'kyi ("Iz istorii pis'mennosti Podkarpatskoi Rusi," 1929) and an extensive discussion of the language question in the writings of loann *Rakovs'kyi ("Iz istorii bor'by za russkii literaturnyi iazyk v Podkarpatskoi Rusi v polovine XIX St.," 1930). Like most other Russian Slavists from the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Frantsev supported the view that Rusyns were a branch of the Russian people; not only did they have no ties with Ukrainians, but Ukrainians themselves allegedly did not exist as a distinct nationality. Further reading: luliian lavorskii, "Vladimir A. Frantsev," in idem, Iz istorii izsliedovaniia Zakarpatskoi Rusi (Prague, 1928), pp. 1926; Theodor Syllaba, V.A. Francev: bibliograficky soupis vedeckych pracisprehledemjeho cinnosti (Prague, 1977); L.P. Lapteva, "V.A. Frantsev: biograficheskii ocherk i klassifikatsiia trudov," Slavia, XXXV, 1 (Prague, 1966), pp. 79-95. IVAN POP

Franz Joseph I. See Habsburg family Fuci. See Fedynets', Atanas

Fundatsiia doslidzhennia Lemkivshcyny. See Lemko Research Foundation Fundatsiia 'Karpaty'. See Printing and Publishing

Fundatsiia doslidzhennia Lemkivshchyny u Evovi. See Lemko Research Foundation in Eviv Fushchych, Vasyl' See Communist party Fushchych, Vil'hel'm. See Communism

G

Gabriel, Frantisek (b. May 3, 1901, Prague [Austrian Bohemia], Czech Republic; d. January 19, 1975, Prague [Czechoslovakia], Czech Republic) — Czech pedagogue, historian, and civil servant in Subcarpathian Rus'. Gabriel came to * Subcarpathian Rus' in 1927, where he worked for the provincial school administration and taught (1930-1938) at the Czech-language gymnasium in Uzhhorod. After Hungary took over the city in late 1938 he returned to Prague. While in Uzhhorod, Gabriel published several studies dealing with Subcarpathian Rus'. His major concerns were socioeconomic and demographic developments on the *Ung/Uzhhorod estate (dominium) during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries ("Vyvoj kolonisace drugetovskeho panstvi uzhorodskeho," 1932; "Selsky stav v uzhorodskem komornim panstvi na sklonku XVIII St.," 1932; "Poddanske pomery na uzhorodskem panstvi ke konci XVIII St.," 1935; "Pohyb obyvatelstva v byvale uzske zupe v prvni polovici XVIII st.," 1935). These and his other scholarly works were based on a close familiarity with documentary sources and a solid knowledge of the economic history of central Europe as well as the specific conditions in Rusyn-inhabited lands. Czech publishers frequently turned to Gabriel for information about Subcarpathian Rus'. Consequently, he wrote historical surveys about the province for Czech encyclopedias and handbooks, including a detailed description for the extended section on Subcarpathian Rus' in volume three of the most comprehensive guidebook on interwar Czechoslovakia (Pruvodce po Ceskoslovenske republice,\931). Gabriel's last work on the region was an anthology of Rusyn tales on historic themes translated into Czech (Povesti ze Zakarpatske Ukrajiny, with Jan Dusanek, 1946). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Gaganets', losyf (b. April 10, 1793, Vysny Tvarozec [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. December 22, 1875, Presov [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia) — priest and church hierarch in the Presov Region. Gaganets' attended gymnasia in Satoraljujhely (1804-1809) and Levoca (1809-1810) and studied philosophy at Oradea before receiving his theological formation at the "Trnava Albertine Roman Catholic Seminary (1812-1816). Following his ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1817) Gaganets' spent the subsequent two decades as a parish priest in several Rusyn villages: Ruske Pekl'any (1817-1820) near Presov, and in Viszlo (1820-1828) and Hejokerezstur (1828-1835) in what is today northeastern Hungary. In 1835 he was appointed eparchial canon by the ailing

Bishop *Tarkovych, whom he succeeded in July 1842. Gaganets' was formally consecrated in Vienna (June 25, 1843) as bishop of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov. During the early years of his episcopate he was sympathetic to the cultural work of one of his priests, the Rusyn national awakener and founder of the *Presov Literary Society, Aleksander *Dukhnovych. Under pressure from Hungarian patriots in Budapest, however, Gaganets' forced Dukhnovych to close his Rusyn cultural society in 1853. Nevertheless, in contrast to Mukachevo's Bishop Shtefan *Pankovych, Gaganets' did not after 1868 implement the official policy of magyarization among Rusyns in the Eparchy of Presov. In 1997 a memorial to Gaganets' inscribed in Rusyn was erected in his native village. Further reading: A. Pekar, "Priashivs'kyi vladyka losyf Gaganets', vizytator oo. Vasyliian," Analecta Ordinis S. Basilii Magni, Series II, SectioII, Vol. X, 1-4 (Rome, 1971), pp. 379-393; Olena Rudlovchak, "losyf Hahanets' i chotyry tovarystva zakarpats'kykh ukrai'ntsiv," Duklia, XLIV, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 (Pre§ov, 1996), pp. 41-51, 40-50, 40-46, 43-52, and 47-55. IVAN POP

Gagatko, Andrei Mikhailovich (b. August 24, 1884, Andrushkivtsi [Austrian Galicia], Ukraine; d. 1944) — Galician Russophile lawyer and political activist in Subcarpathian Rus'. After the Bolshevik Revolution (November 1917) Gagatko lost hope in the possibility of Galicia's unification with Russia, and at the same time opposed the short-lived West Ukrainian National Republic established in eastern Galicia (1918-1919). In early 1919 he emigrated to Subcarpathian Rus', where he promoted the idea of unification of both * Subcarpathian Rus' and the *Lemko Region with Czechoslovakia. His proposal to include Lemko-Rusyn territory north of the Carpathians within the new state was blocked, however, by the Czechoslovak diplomatic delegation led by Edvard *Benes at the Paris Peace Conference. Gagatko was elected secretary of the *Central Rusyn National Council in Uzhhorod, which proclaimed the unification of Rusyns with Czechoslovakia (May 1919) and he was one of the initiators of the subsequent division of that council between Russophile and Ukrainophile factions, with Gagatko defending a strict "Russian" line. Gagatko served briefly as director (1919-1920) of the Uzhhorod gymnasium, then concentrated his energies in Subcarpathian political life. In the summer of 1920 together with the Bukovinian Russophile Ilarion *Tsurkanovich, Gagatko founded the *Carpatho-Russian Workers' party. The new party maintained

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ties with the Socialist-Revolutionaries among Russian emigres and with the Czechoslovak National-Democratic party. Gagatko and his party demanded that the boundaries of Subcarpathian Rus' be extended westward to include Rusyns in the *Presov Region, that the Russian language be introduced as the official language in Subcarpathia's schools and in its government administration, and that the Czechoslovak government cease its alleged anti-Russian, anti-Orthodox, and pro-Ukrainian policies. In the course of his anti-government political agitation Gagatko did not hesitate to cooperate with Hungarian irredentists and Communists, if necessary. He was chosen by the Carpatho-Russian Workers' party to serve as its deputy (1924-1929) in the Czechoslovak parliament, and was active in the educational foundation, *Shkol'naia Pomoshch', which built a few student dormitories and assisted financially needy students. By the 1930s Gagatko was pushed into the political background by the ambitious Subcarpathian-born Rusynophile-Russophile politicians, Andrii *Brodii and Shtefan *Fentsyk. IVAN POP

Gai, Andrii/Gaj, Andrej (b. January 29, 1932, Sukov [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — painter, illustrator, and professor in the Presov Region. After completing the Russian gymnasium in Humenne (1952) Gai studied at the Advanced School of Fine Art in Bratislava (1952-1958). He returned permanently to eastern Slovakia, where he taught fine art at Safarik University in Presov (1960-1973). Gai's works are primarily landscapes, still-lifes, portraits, and figurative compositions characterized by bright colors and decisively heavy contours. He has also completed largescale works, mostly in mosaic, for public buildings in several towns and cities throughout eastern Slovakia. Initially, Gai exhibited his works at home and abroad as a Slovak or as a Ukrainian artist; after 1989 he joined with other Presov-based artists in their exhibits ofRusyn art. His national orientation remains unclear. Further reading: Martin Gabani, Andrej Gaj (Presov, 1987). ALEXANDER ZOZUL'AK

Gaidosh, Nykolai. See Art Gajdos, Marian (b. June 30, 1948, Smolnik [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — Slovak historian (kandidat historickych vied, 1987) and specialist on the history of Rusyns of Slovakia during the second half of the twentieth century. Since 1975 Gajdos has worked at the Institute of Social Sciences/Spolocenskovedny ustav of the Slovak Academy of Sciences in Kosice. As head of its historical section (1992) he has helped to promote several research projects and scholarly conferences dealing with the social and national status of

Rusyns in Slovakia during and after the era of Communist rule. His writings are noted for their impartiality regarding the Rusyn-Ukrainian identity controversy; among these are two monographs (co-authored with Stanislav *Konecny), K politickemu a socidlnoekonomickemu postaveniu RusinovUkrajincov na Slovensku v povojnovych rokoch (1991) and Postavenie Rusinov-Ukrajincov na Slovensku v rokoch 19481953 (1994). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Galician-Russian Benevolent Society. See lablochyn Monastery of St. Onufrius Galloway, Julian. See Magocsi, Paul Robert GambaF, Mytrofan. See Lubov Russian Orthodox Fraternity Gardos, Julius. See American National Council of Uhro-Rusyns

Garianski, Vladimir (b. July 2, 1959, Osijek [Yugoslavia], Croatia; d. July 3, 1996, Presov, Slovakia) — belletrist, literary critic, and professor among the Vojvodinian Rusyns. After completing his secondary education (Vrbas), Garianski studied Rusyn, Serbo-Croatian, and other Yugoslav literatures at the University of Novi Sad (1987). He then taught in the Department of Rusyn Language and Literature at the University of Novi Sad (1988-1992) before moving to Slovakia, where he taught the languages and literatures of Yugoslavia at the University of Presov (1992-1995). Garianski began publishing his first literary works in 1979, and during the next decade they appeared in Vojvodinian periodicals in both Rusyn and Serbian. His first volume of poetry, Risunok slunka, appeared in 1982, followed by five more, including two in Rusyn, Tsverchok u kotski liadu (1987) and Kurniava (1990). His work consists of poems in prose with philosophical reflections on the fragility of life. Considered among the best Vojvodinian Rusyn poets at the end of the twentieth century, Garianski's works have been translated into Slovak, Hungarian, Ukrainian, Macedonian, and Romanian. In 1995 he was awarded the Mikola M. *Kochish prize by the literary journal *Shvetlosts. Further reading: Mikola M. Tsap, "Hradza za bibliografiiu Vladimira Garianskoho," Shvetlosts, XXXV, 1-2 (Novi Sad, 1997), pp. 60-70. ALEKSANDR D. DULICHENKO

Gati, Joszef. See Communist party; Jews Gbur, luliian. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Przemysl

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture GCU Messenger. See Amerikansky russky viestnik

Gebei, Petro/Gebej, Petr (b. July 20, 1864, Kal'nyk [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. April 26,1931, Uzhhorod [Czechoslovakia], Ukraine) — priest, pedagogue, church hierarch, and political and cultural activist in Subcarpathian Rus'. Gebei was educated at the Uzhhorod gymnasium and the Central Theological Seminary in Budapest. Before ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1892) he was appointed professor of church history and canon law at the Theological Seminary in Uzhhorod, where he was also the prefect (1899-1906). Other posts in Uzhhorod included spiritual advisor to the gymnasium for girls (1892), professor at the gymnasium for boys (1905-1912), director of the Alumneum boarding school (1906), and resident priest at the Greek Catholic cathedral church (1912-1924). Gebei played an active role in Rusyn cultural life as a member (1895-1902) of the executive board of the *St. Basil the Great Society, as one of the founders (1902) and later director of the *Unio Book Publishing Company, and as editor of its annual almanac (Misiatsoslov). As a member (1915) of the Central Commission for Hungary's Greek Catholic Eparchies, he protested against the government's magyarization policies. He nonetheless remained a Hungarian state patriot and, after Austria-Hungary collapsed, urged the creation of the pro-Hungarian Uzhhorod National Council (November 1918) and participated in the Rusyn Congress in Budapest (December), which worked to keep Subcarpathia's Rusyns under Hungarian rule. After the Communists came to power in Hungary (March 1919), however, Gebei switched his political allegiance to Czechoslovakia and was elected to the executive board of the *Central Rusyn National Council which, in May 1919, called for the unification of * Subcarpathian Rus' with Czechoslovakia. Gebei rose further through the ranks of the Greek Catholic Church; he was appointed vicar-general (1922) and then consecrated bishop (1924) of the *Eparchy of Mukachevo. As bishop, he encouraged a *Rusynophile cultural policy. Even though he considered Rusyns to be a people distinct from both Ukrainians and Russians, he was able to cooperate with both *Ukrainophiles and *Russophiles and their respective cultural organizations, the *Prosvita Society and *Dukhnovych Society. He allowed the Galician *Basilian monks to reform the Basilian monasteries in Subcarpathian Rus', and as the influence of the order increased he did not see the need to distinguish the Rusyn patriotic movement from Ukrainophile populism. He also attempted to stem the tide of Orthodoxy, which had reached its height during the last years of his episcopacy (1924-1931). Supported from the outset by the Czechoslovak regime, Gebei tried to overcome the pro-Hungarian tendencies of many of his clergy and to convince the government in Prague of the loyalty of the Greek

Catholic Church toward Czechoslovakia. Further reading: Athanasius B. Pekar, "Bishop Peter Gebey— Champion of the Holy Union," Analecta OSBM, Series II, Sectio II, Vol. IV, 1-2 (Rome, 1963), pp. 293-326. IVAN POP

Gebei, Viktor. See Novyi svit

GeL See Latiak, Diura Gemer/Gomor. See County Genealogy—the study of the origins and descent of families. Genealogy is the written history of the descent of a person or family from an earlier ancestor, which links each successive generation using documented facts. Genealogical research among Carpatho-Rusyns is at times practiced in Europe, but it is limited to scholars who are interested in knowing the family history of a particular individual of some historical prominence. It is in the United States and Canada where immigrants, and in particular their descendants, are anxious to learn about their origins, that the practice of genealogy has attracted widespread interest. Two events were pivotal in promoting an interest in genealogy among the descendants of Rusyns in North America. The first was the television mini-series based upon the epic novel, Roots: Saga of an American Family, by Alex Haley (1976). The enormously popular television broadcasts encouraged persons of every possible ethnic origin to discover their place in history. The second pivotal event was the fall of * Communism in central and eastern Europe in the early 1990s. This development made it possible for Americans and Canadians to visit their ancestral homeland (basically off-limits since the onset of Communist rule after World War II), in order to find relatives and reestablish familial connections. There is a wide body of genealogical sources in the United States and the European homeland. Within the first category are the exceedingly important Rusyn-American church records that contain baptism, marriage, and burial information about individual Rusyn immigrants and their families. These records are found in the *Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic and Ukrainian Catholic churches and in the various Orthodox Church jurisdictions, particularly in the *American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Diocese and the *Russian Orthodox Church in North America among others. They document the immigrant's ancestral village of origin as well as his or her date of birth, baptism, marriage, and death. Individual families may also have important sources of genealogical information, such as naturalization papers, military records, Bible records, United States and foreign passports, family photographs, birth certificates from the homeland, and newspaper obituaries. One source in a class by itself is the

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family burial plot, often with genealogical information from the grave marker or from interment records maintained by the cemetery. United States government resources include decennial federal censuses, military records, naturalization records, passenger arrival manifests, and civil vital records of birth, marriage, and death. Many of these can be accessed using the resources of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (LDS—the Mormons). The Mormon Family History Library in Salt Lake City, Utah is the largest genealogical resource in the world and is accessible to the general public. The collection contains over 2.2 million rolls of microfilmed genealogical records from all over the world and some 300,000 books on genealogy and related topics. The records can be accessed at the library in Salt Lake City or at one of the church's many LDS Family History Centers located throughout the world. The library's * Internet website (www.familysearch.org) provides information on holdings, databases, and locations of the various LDS Family History Centers. The Mormon Family History Library holdings of American, Canadian, Hungarian, Polish, and Ukrainian records are of the utmost importance to Carpatho-Rusyn genealogical research on persons of Carpatho-Rusyn origin. In the European homeland, the primary genealogical source are Greek Catholic parish records (matriky) generated within the ancestral village of birth or a larger nearby village of a given individual. Parish registers originating on the northern side of the ""Carpathian Mountains (the *Lemko Region) usually begin in 1784. On the southern slopes of the mountains in the former Hungarian Kingdom (*Subcarpathian Rus' and the *Presov Region) most registers begin about 1800, although some may date as early as 1735 (Lukov). Access to Greek Catholic parish records for the Lemko Region are held for the most part in the branch of the Polish State Archive/Archiwum Panstwowe in Przemysl, Poland. Other branches of the Polish State archival system may also hold Greek Catholic registers, which are indicated on the system's website (http://baza. archiwa.gov.pl/sezam). The Mormon Family History Library holds microfilm of a small portion of the Greek Catholic parish records held by the Polish State Archive in Przemysl. The Greek Catholic parish records for the Presov Region are held by the State Archive in Slovakia/Statny slovensky archiv. They have been microfilmed for the Mormon Family History Library and can be easily accessed via that institution's LDS Family History Centers. The original records are housed in the regional branches of the State Archive located in the eastern Slovak cities of Presov, Levoca, and Kosice. Parish records for Subcarpathian Rus' (present-day Transcarpathian oblast in Ukraine) are located in local civil registry offices and various regional archives, but are not yet available for public perusal. Census records are another good source of information. For example, the 1869 census of Hungary enumerates entire

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture households with the following information: house number, surname, given name and status of the individual within the household, sex, year of birth, religion, marital status, occupation, birthplace, status as native or foreigner, literacy, and other remarks by the enumerator. The earlier Hungarian land census of 1828 lists the heads of households with their status (farmers, citizens, tenants, subtenants, etc.), grain production, vineyards, ownership of large and small farm animals, forest lands, and occasional notes by the enumerator. The 1828 census is especially important for those whose ancestry lies in Subcarpathian Rus', since it can be used to determine whether a particular surname is found within a given locale. Both the 1869 and 1828 Hungarian censuses are available on microfilm at the Mormon Family History Library and at regional LDS Family History Centers. The closing decade of the twentieth century witnessed a marked interest in genealogy among second-, third- and fourth-generation Americans and Canadians of CarpathoRusyn descent. Such interest manifests itself in many ways: the desire of an individual to locate his or her ancestral village on a modern map; relating stories about growing up in a poor immigrant household; and discussions regarding the various Byzantine-rite church rituals and holydays that were often totally foreign to their American neighbors. This knowledge now induces pride in one's newly discovered (or rediscovered) Carpatho-Rusyn identity. Others pursue their lineage as far back as written records will allow. Some will locate all the descendants of a Rusyn immigrant ancestor in the North America and organize family reunions for extended families on a regular basis. There are even reunions of descendants of particular Rusyn villages. Such events were unheard of twenty years ago, before the rise of interest in genealogy. Genealogy for descendants of Carpatho-Rusyns becomes particularly meaningful because it allows them to carve out an identifiable place in the context of present-day multicultural North America. As a minority people who were often forced to assume ethnic identities at odds with their own choice, Carpatho-Rusyns use genealogy to reinforce a distinct ethnic identity and cultural heritage. All these factors have fostered in the last quarter of the twentieth century the reestablishment of Carpatho-Rusyn cultural and historical societies in North America, which have helped re-awaken an ethnic pride that had been lying dormant since the immigrant generation came to America. It is an axiom of genealogy that you understand yourself only by studying those who came before you. Genealogical studies do indeed foster pride in the Rusyn heritage, which in turn assures the continued existence of Carpatho-Rusyns as a distinct people. Further reading: John-Paul Himka and Frances A. Swyripa, Sources for Researching Ukrainian Family History, Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Research Report No. 6 (Edmonton, 1984); Daniel M. Schlyter, Czechoslovakia: A Handbook of Czechoslovak

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Genealogical Research (Orem, Utah, 1985); John-Paul Himka, Galicia and Bukovina: A Research Handbook about Western Ukraine, Late I9th-20th Centuries (Edmonton, 1990); Brian J. Lenius, Genealogical Gazetter of Galicia, 2nd ed. (Anola, Manitoba, 1994); Thomas A. Peters, "How To Find Your Roots," CarpathoRusyn American, XVIII, 2, (Fairfax, Va., 1995), pp. 4-6; Richard D. Custer, "Rusyn Testaments Etched in Granite: The Genealogical Treasure ofRusyn Immigrant Gravestones," The New Rusyn Times, IX, 3 (Pittsburgh, 2002), pp. 1, 6-9; Joe Palmo, "Great-Great-GreatGrandpap Was a Serf: Researching Your Rusyn Ancestors Through Urbarial Census Records," The New Rusyn Times, IX, 4 (Pittsburgh, 2002), pp. 1, 8-9, 13-14; Bill Tarkulich, "Fact Versus Perception: Confidently Drawing Conclusions From Ancestral Records," The New Rusyn Times, IX, 5 (Pittsburgh, 2002), pp. 1,8-10; Bill Tarkulich, "Searching for Surnames (Last Names) and Village Names," The New Rusyn Times, X, 3 (Pittsburgh, 2003), pp. 1, 8-11. THOMAS A. PETERS

General Statute/General'nyi statut — Czechoslovak government decree announced in Uzhhorod on September 18, 1919, that created an administration for Subcarpathian Rus'. The General Statute was proclaimed in the government's name by the French general Edmond Hennocque (1860-1933), who represented the victorious Allied and Associated Powers in the province, and by the Czechoslovak civil servant Jan Brejcha (1867-1924). The statute was divided into four parts. The first reiterated the basic provisions of the *Treaty of St. Germain (September 10, 1919) as they pertained to * Subcarpathian Rus'. The second part provided for a provisional boundary (demarcation line) between Slovakia and Subcarpathian Rus'. The third part stipulated Subcarpathian Rus' (Czech: Podkarpatska Rus) as the name of the territory and the Rusyn vernacular as the language for school instruction and general official use. The fourth part gave the Czechoslovak government the right to appoint a provisional administrator and to create "a provisional Rusyn autonomous *Directorate," which would serve as an advisory body for legislation and administration concerning linguistic, educational, and religious matters; local self-rule; elections; and the appointment of civil servants in the Subcarpathian administration. The General Statute remained in effect until April 26, 1920. Further reading: Ihor Lichtej, "Podkarpatska Rus v Ceskoslovensku: formovani systemu statniho zfizeni," in Frank Boldt, ed., Velke dejiny, maly ndrod (Prague, 1995), pp. 175-184. IVAN POP

gensfidelissima. See Dolyniane; Rakoczy, Ferenc II Georgiievskii, Evlogii. See lablochyn Monastery of St. Onufrius Geography and Economy. *Carpathian Rus', the terri-

tory inhabited by Carpatho-Rusyns, is located in the far eastern portion of central Europe; its geographical coordinates are 20.5°E to 24.38°E and 47.53°N to 49.35°N. The land mass covered by Carpathian Rus' extends about 375 kilometers from the Poprad river valley of Slovakia and Poland in the northwest to the Viseu (Rusyn: Vyshova) river valley of Romania in the southeast. This area, which ranges from only 50 to 100 kilometers in width, encompasses the foothills and mountainous regions of the Eastern Carpathians. Among the rivers flowing through Rusyn-inhabited lands are, on the northern slopes of the mountains, the Biala, Ropa, and Wisloka, which are tributaries of the Vistula river, and the Wislok, Oslawa, and Solinka tributaries of the San River. On the southern slopes are the Torysa, Topl'a, Ondava, Laborec, Cirocha, Uzh, Latorytsia, Vicha, Borzhava, Rika, Tereblia, Teresva, Shopurka, Chorna Tysa, Bila Tysa, Ruscova (Rusyn: Rus'kova), and Vis. eu, all of which flow directly or via tributaries into the Tisza (Rusyn: Tysa) river. (See Map 5). According to present-day political boundaries, most of Carpathian Rus' lies within Ukraine (the *Transcarpathian oblast). To the west it extends into Slovakia and, on the northern slopes of the Carpathians, into Poland; to the east it encompasses a small part of Romania along the lower Vis.eu river and its tributary, the Ruscova. Rusyn-inhabited territory in each of these countries has its own local name: the *Lemko Region (Rusyn: Lemkovyna) in southeastern Poland; the *Presov Region (Rusyn: Priashevshchyna or Priashivs'ka Rus') in northeastern Slovakia; * Subcarpathian Rus' (Rusyn: Podkarpats'ka Rus') in far western Ukraine; and the *Maramure§ Region in northcentral Romania. For the most part, Carpathian Rus' is a mountainous region. With the exception of the Western Beskyds, all other ranges in Carpathian Rus' are classified as part of the Eastern Carpathians (also known as the Forested, or Ukrainian Carpathians). The Eastern Carpathians comprise two distinct geological formations: the sedimentary Beskyds and the Volcanic Carpathians (see Map 4). These are subdivided into several ranges which generally form parallel longitudinal belts that stretch from the northwest to the southeast. The outermost belt, which is the highest in altitude, is located just beyond Carpathian Rus' in southern Galicia and consists of the Middle Beskyds and the High Beskyds (which together in Polish are called the Bieszczady) and the Gorgany. The next belt is a mountain syncline known as the Mid-Carpathian Depression which in the far west forms a flat basin between the towns of Sanok and Gorlice. The main belt within Carpathian Rus' proper is that of the Beskyds subdivided into the Western Beskyds (Polish: Beskid Sajdecki) from the Upper Dunajec to the Topl'a rivers; the Lower Beskyds (Polish: Beskid Niski) to the Oslawa and Laborec rivers; and the Polonyna Beskyds, which stretch eastward from Poland and Slovakia through the length of Subcarpathian Rus' and beyond. This range derives its name from the Carpathian upper mountain pastures known

132 as the polonyna; the part of the range located in Poland is referred to as the Western Bieszczady/Bieszczady Zachodnie. The Polonyna Beskyds become progressively higher toward the east and are characterized by several high massifs: Rivna, Borzhava, Krasna, Svydovets', and Chornohora. Along the eastern edges of the Polonyna Beskyds are the Gorgany and Hutsul Alps. South of the Polonyna Beskyds is a long inner Carpathian valley that begins at the mouth of the Cirocha River in the west and continues southeastward to the large basin along the upper Tisza/Tysa River between Khust and Sighet. Along this valley's southern flank are the Volcanic Carpathians, a belt that begins in the west with the Slanske Ridge and Zemplyn Highlands (Tokaj Hills) and continues with interruptions eastward through Subcarpathian Rus' into the Maramures Region of northern Romania. The Volcanic Carpathians are crossed by several transverse river valleys which define several mountain clusters or massifs: Vihorlat in eastern Slovakia and Makovytsia, Syniak, Velykyi Dil, and Tupyi in Ukraine's Transcarpathia. From the Slanske mountain ridge in Slovakia, along the far western edge of the Volcanic Carpathians, begins the Tysa Lowland. Known in Slovakia as the East Slovak plain (Vychodoslovenska rovina), it stretches eastward to encompass the southwestern corner of Ukraine's Transcarpathia from Uzhhorod to Vynohradovo. The several long, tonguelike valleys that cut through the Volcanic Carpathians from the north find their outlet in the Tysa Lowland. This plain is dotted with knolls and isolated cones, the highest of which is Chorna Hora (568 m.) near Vynohradovo. The lowland itself has its own massifs such as the Zemplyn hills (400 m.) between the lower Hernad and Bodrog river valleys in northeastern Hungary and several others in Transcarpathia: Palanok (275 m.) on which Mukachevo castle sits just south of the city and Muzhiievo (367 m.) and Kosyny (224 m.) respectively east and west of Berehovo. These hillocks in southwestern Transcarpathia represent the volcanic remains of the old Pannonian Highland Massif, most of which was depressed during the Pliocene Epoch to form the Great Hungarian Basin. A part of the lowland is composed of alluvial sediment and remains of Neocene Epoch sandstone. The gently sloping and only moderately deep river valleys slow down the flow of the mountain water, resulting in the presence of lowland marshes. The largest of these is the Chornyi Mochar (Black Wetland) near Berehovo. The high upper river valleys and narrow gorges are filled with water from innumerable brooks, creeks, and riverlets. The water from all these eventually reaches the Tisza/Tysa River on the southern slopes of the Carpathians or the San and Vistula Rivers on the northern slopes. The uniquely beautiful Carpathian lakes were formed by ancient glaciers or by massive mountain floods. The best known are the Vihorlat and Synevyr lakes, each about 1000 meters above sea-level and

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture each popularly referred to as Morske/Morskoe oko. Since the 1970s several dams have been built to create reservoirs, most especially in the upper river valleys of northeastern Slovakia (Cirocha, Domasa along the Ondava) and southeastern Poland (Solinka Lake where the Solinka River meets the San), as well as the large artificial Zemplinska Sirava lake south of the Vihorlat slopes in eastern Slovakia. As a result of these projects several Rusyn villages were displaced or destroyed. Several passes cut through the watershed crests of the Eastern Carpathians, and from time immemorial they have connected central Europe to eastern Europe. They include the Tylicz/Tylic (Rusyn: Tylych, 688 m.), Dukla/Dukl'a (Rusyn: Duklia, 502 m.), Lupkow/Lupkov (Rusyn: Lupkiv, 657 m.), Rus/Rusz (Rusyn: Rus', 797 m.), Uzhok (889 m.), Verets'kyi (841 m.), Serednii/Middle Verets'kyi or Vorits'kyi (839 m.), Volovets' or Skotars'kyi (1014 m.), Vyshkiv or Torun' (988 m.), and lablunets' or Tatar (931 m.) passes. The highest mountain peaks are just over 2000 meters and are all located in the far eastern part of the Polonyna Beskyds: Hoverla (2061 m.), Brebeneskul (2035 m.) Pop Ivan-Chornahora (2022 m.), Petros (2020 m.), Hutyn-Tomnatyk (2018 m.), and Rebra (2007 m.). The next highest peaks are in the Hutsul Alps in Ukraine (Pop Ivan, 1940 m.) and in Romania (Farcau, 1962 m.). The climate in Rusyn-inhabited territory is temperate and moderated by warm and moist winds from both the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. There is rarely any extreme temperature variation, although the higher the elevations, the more severe the climate. The warm summer in the mountains lasts only two months and is much shorter than in the lowlands. Hence, when in the lowland plain orchards are already in bloom, in the oak forests and mountain slopes only the first buds are beginning to appear, while in the higher mountains the peaks are still covered with snow. Winter temperatures can fall to as low as -34°C in the mountains, while in the lowlands and foothills the temperature in January can be as high as +10°C. The vegetation in Carpathian Rus' is part of the central European geobotanical sphere and is divided into basically west-east horizontal zones, whose differences are determined by changes in elevation and microclimatic local landscape conditions. Intense human economic activity has over the centuries changed the territory's flora. On the lowland plains and foothills, where oak and elm forests once existed, all that remain are small islets of trees surrounded by agricultural land. The nearby foothills and lower mountain zones are covered with mixed beech and oak forests; most of the Beskyd ranges and Gorgany are covered with oak. The central and upper mountain zones (600 to 1300 m.) are covered by fir and spruce forests, which beyond the river valleys can grow at elevations reaching 1500 meters. Near the village of Ubl'a (on the Slovak side of the border with Ukraine) are remnants of ancient yew forests. Few extensive contiguous forest zones remain. The

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture largest of these, near the high mountain meadows (polonyny), are covered with pine, Siberian spruce, and Eastern Carpathian rhododendron. Sub-alpine and alpine meadows (polonyny) cover most of the High Beskyds, Gorgany, and Polonyna Carpathian ranges. The fauna in Carpathian Rus' includes a wide variety of mammals (63), birds (267), reptiles (10), and fish (50), many of which are not found in the neighboring lowlands or plateaus. Cut off from the forest zones of eastern Europe by the intermediary western Ukrainian mixed forest-steppe zone, the Eastern Carpathians consequently form a kind of mountain taiga zone that is home to Carpathian deer, forest wild-cats, Carpathian woodcocks, black crones, Carpathian whitebacked woodpeckers, Carpathian black adders, mountain and Carpathian Triton salamanders, and river and rainbow trout, among others. As a result, the Carpathian mountain region is considered to form a distinct zoological zone. The Rusyn population has traditionally lived in rural villages. Throughout Carpathian Rus', there are nearly 1,100 villages, most of which contain between 600 and 800 inhabitants. The settlement pattern as well as natural and man-made transportation networks have generally followed the north-south direction of the several valleys that cut across of the Carpathian ranges. The earliest towns and cities are virtually all on the periphery of Rusyn-inhabited territory. These include on the northern slopes of the Carpathian crests, Nowy Sa^cz, Grybow, Gorlice, Jaslo, Krosno, and Sanok, and on the southeastern slopes, Stara Eubovna, Bardejov, Presov, Humenne, Snina, Michalovce, Uzhhorod, Mukachevo, and Sighet. These places have traditionally been inhabited by peoples other than Rusyns, including * Slovaks, *Poles, *Jews`, *Magyars, *Germans, and, in the case of Subcarpathian Rus'/ Transcarpathia since the second half of the twentieth century, *Russians. Rusyns have also lived in these towns and cities, but almost always as a minority. Out-migration from villages has increased the number of Rusyns in all of these cities, especially after World War II. Nevertheless, even in Uzhhorod and Mukachevo, the cities with the highest number of Rusyns, they represent only 67-68 percent of the inhabitants. Because of their location along valleys from which descend river routes and roads, the cities and towns have become the natural economic, political, educational, and cultural centers for the Rusyn population. Consequently, these "foreign" urban areas have functioned as "Rusyn centers," even though Rusyns themselves have been numerically in the minority. The few towns located within Rusyn-inhabited areas—Svidnik, Medzilaborce, Velykyi Bereznyi, Svaliava, Irshava, Khust— have never had more than a few thousand inhabitants and have not been able to replace the "historic" Rusyn centers. The economy of Rusyn-inhabited lands is basically agricultural, and nearly 70 percent of the working population is still engaged in farming or in farm-related activity. The region, however, has traditionally been characterized by a shortage

133

of arable land, so that on average only two-tenths of a hectare of land per person is available. The high population density in the lowland plains and foothills (110 persons per square kilometer), together with the lack of intensive agricultural practices, has resulted in what might be called an "agrarian famine," and chronic rural overpopulation has led to extensive out-migration. Rusyns first emigrated to the Backa and Srem regions of southern Hungary (the *Vojvodina in today's Serbia) in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, then abroad to the United States and Canada during the four decades before World War I. The low level of industrialization in Rusyn-inhabited territory, a result of its marginal location in various states, has created large-scale unemployment, which in turn has led to large-scale migrant labor, whereby men are forced to seek seasonal employment. This was common during the decades before World War I, when Rusyns from all parts of Carpathian Rus', including from the Lemko Region north of the mountain crests, worked on the fields during harvest season on Hungary's lowland plains. This occurred even during the Communist era of "full employment," when Rusyns from eastern Slovakia sought work in the Czech lands (Bohemia and Moravia), and Rusyns from Transcarpathia/Subcarpathian Rus' went eastward to other parts of the Soviet Union. In the post-Communist era the unemployed from Subcarpathian Rus' look for work in all neighboring countries, in particular Hungary, Slovakia, and the Czech Republic. While it is true that during the final decades of Communist rule the Soviet and Czechoslovak regimes built factories in or near Rusyninhabited lands as part of their military-industrial complex, the collapse of those regimes and their command economies has resulted in numerous factory closings. At the same time, the workforce that had been imported from other parts of Ukraine and the Soviet Union has remained in Subcarpathian Rus', thereby increasing local unemployment rates. The resolution of such problems depends on the implementation of changes in property law, restructuring the agricultural sector, and in promoting the creation of finishing and light industries. The geological evolution of the Eastern Carpathians and their present structure has allowed for the formation of more than 30 varieties of minerals, although less than half are being exploited. The band of Volcanic ranges is rich in several mineral ores applicable for industrial use, including zinc, lead, zeolite, and gold. The discovery in the 1990s of gold deposits at Muzhiievo in Subcarpathian Rus' resulted in the beginning of gold production, although the region itself has yet to see any financial gain or even new employment opportunities, since the miners used to extract the mineral are brought from eastern Ukraine. These same Volcanic ranges have an inexhaustible supply of building materials, such as andesite rock, sand, limestone, various sandstones, and clay. In the upper Tisza valley there are large veins of variously colored industrial marble, whose

134 purity approaches that of carrara marble from Italy. The marble is extracted, however, in a most primitive and rapacious manner, that is, by using dynamite to blast it free. As a result, the marble is shattered and can only be used as crushed rock in the building of roads and as a mixture for cement. Subcarpathian Rus' in particular has large coal reserves of the lignite variety, but it is not used sufficiently for industrial purposes, even though the region is weak in energy resources. The Rusyn-inhabited Carpathian foothills are rich in domestic salt. Salt veins stretch from as far as Presov (Solivar) in Slovakia through Khust in Subcarpathian Rus' and further eastward, culminating in what for Europe are the unique salt deposits at Solotvyno. According to geological data, the Solotvyno salt field is in the form of an unevenly cut cone that measures 200 to 300 meters in height, 2,160 meters in length, and 1,700 meters in width. The vast majority of extracted salt is unprocessed and exported beyond the region. Solotvyno's salt lake has medicinal properties similar in quality to the Dead Sea, while specially fitted rooms within the mine are used as centers for treating patients afflicted with asthma. Despite the natural beauty of Rusyn-inhabited lands in the Eastern Carpathians, the potential for recreation and tourism remains largely untapped. A few spas were established already in the nineteenth century, such as at Krynica-Zdroj, Zlockie, and Wysowa in the Lemko Region; at Bardejovske Kupele in the Presov Region; and at Nelipyno, Poliana, Vyshkovo (Shaian), and Solotvyno in Subcarpathian Rus'. During the Soviet period after World War II, a large number of spas with sanatoria were expanded or newly developed. Among the most popular were the sanatoria with facilities for medical treatment at Karpaty (based in the former *Schonborn family manor house), Syniak, Poliana, Shaian, and Soimy. Nevertheless, of the estimated 400 mineral springs of various kinds throughout Carpathian Rus', no more than a quarter of them are exploited. Some have been able to ship bottled mineral water abroad, including from Krynica-Zdroj in the Lemko Region, Sulin in the Presov Region, and Luzhans'ka, Poliana, and Soimy in Subcarpathian Rus'. Forests remain the most important natural resource in Carpathian Rus'. Traditionally, however, the various states which have ruled the area have exploited the forests without any positive value or profit accruing to the local Rusyn inhabitants. In the Lemko Region, the forests were nationalized in the wake of the 1947 * Vistula Operation; to this day, they have not been returned to their original Lemko owners. A large portion of the forested area in the Lemko Region has been declared by Poland to be off limits because it is now a national park. In Subcarpathian Rus', forest use has been and is still characterized by rapacious stripping and uncontrolled exploitation. For instance, in the five-year period 1921-1925, a total of 514,000 cubic meters of wood were cut, while during 1991 alone as much as 1.7 million and in 1992 over 1.8 million cubic meters were cut. Since Ukraine's independence

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture in 1991, even forests that had been designated specifically to prevent erosion or to regulate the water balance, or that are located within "protected" zones and sanatoria, are being cut down. One result of such "economic practices" has been periodic flooding (1947, 1993,1998,2001), a phenomenon that before Soviet rule had rarely occurred on such large scale in Subcarpathian Rus'. For instance, in the fall of 1998 several mountain slopes collapsed, causing widespread suffering and damage to the lives and property of nearly one-third of Transcarpathia's population. Another potentially valuable economic resource are vineyards located in Subcarpathian Rus' on the slopes of low hills around Uzhhorod, Mukachevo, Seredne, Vynohradovo, and Berehovo. As early as 1720, these areas had nearly 4,000 hectares of vineyards; by the mid-nineteenth century that number had more than doubled. Since that time Subcarpathia's wine industry has suffered two major disasters. After the 1870s nearly all the vineyards were destroyed by phylloxera. They slowly recovered and expanded, and under Soviet rule after 1945 over 12,000 hectares made possible the production of 150 varieties of wine, mostly whites. Then in the 1980s nearly three-quarters of the vineyards were deliberately destroyed in the course of Mikhail Gorbachev's anti-alcohol campaign. In post-Communist Ukraine, Subcarpathia's vineyards have been restored, and with the help of foreign investment an increasingly successful wine industry produces a wide range of red and most especially white wines, some of which are beginning to be exported. Further reading: Jifi Krai, Geografickd bibliografie Podkarpatske Rusi (Prague, 1923); Jifi Krai, Geografickd bibliografie Podkarpatske Rusi za rok 1923-1926 (Prague, 1928); Jin Krai, Podkarpatskd Rus (Prague, 1924); Karel Matousek, Podkarpatskd Rus: vseobecny zemepis se zvlastnim zfetelem k zivotu lidu (Prague, 1924); Vadim Vladykov, Ryby Podkarpatskoi Rusi i ikh glavnieishie sposoby lovli (Uzhhorod, 1926); Aleksander Hrabar, "Ptatstvo Podkarpatskoi Rusy," Podkarpatska Rus', VIII, 7, 8, 9-10 (Uzhhorod, 1931), pp. 153-162, 181-188, and 198-212; Stepan Rudnyts'kyi, "Osnovy morfol'ogii i geologii Pidkarpats'koi Rusy i Zakarpattia vzahali," Naukovyi zbornyk Tovarystva 'Prosvita', IV and V (Uzhhorod, 192527), pp. 17-116 and 63-124; Jifi Krai et al., Borzava v Podkarpatske Rusi, 3 vols. (Bratislava, 1932-36); FrantiSek Wiesner, Vodstvo a minerdlni prameny Zeme podkarpatoruske (Uzhhorod, 1935); Aleksander Hrabar', "Khyzhoe ptatstvo Podkarpatia," Zoria/Hajnal, I, 1-2 and II, 1-2 (Uzhhorod, 1941-42), pp. 114-146 and 145-186; Vsevolod A. Anuchin, Geografiia Sovetskoho Zakarpat'ia (Moscow, 1956); S.M. Bradis, Polonyny Zakarpats'koi oblasti (Kiev, 1961); E.K. Lazarenko et al., Mineralogiia Zakarpat'ia (Eviv, 1963); O.T. Dibrova, Zakarpats'ka oblast': heohrafichnyi narys (Kiev, 1967); E.A. Lazarenko, Po Vulkanicheskim Karpatam (Uzhhorod, 1979); Kalynyk I. Herenchuk, ed., Pryroda Zakarpats'koi oblasti (Kiev, 1981); Jerzy Wrona, W Bieszczadach (Warsaw, 1985); V.L. Bodnar, ed., Pryrodni bahatstva Zakarpattia (Uzhhorod, 1987); Bohdan Strumins'kyi and Ihor Stebel's'kyi, "Heohrafiia," in Bohdan

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Strumins'kyi, ed., Lemkivshchyna: zemlia, liudy, istoriia, kul'tura, Vol. I (New York, 1988), pp. 25-146; Mikhail A. Golubets et al., Ukrainskie Karpaty: priroda (Kiev, 1988); Jadwiga Warszynska, ed., Karpaty Polskie:przyroda, czlowiek ijego dzialalnosc (Cracow, 1995); Robert Istok and Rene Matlovic, "Geografia Zakarpatska," in Zakarpatsko (Bratislava, 1995), pp. 15-80; Janusz Gudowski, Ukrainskie Beskidy Wschodnie, 2 vols. (Warsaw, 1997); Laszlo Boros, ed., Kdrpdtalja (Nyiregyhaza, 1999); I. Lemko and M. Petrovtsi, eds., Krashchi mineral 'ni vody Zakarpattia: putivnyk (Uzhhorod, 2002); Peter Jordan and Mladen Klemencic, eds., Transcarpathia—Bridgehead or Periphery? Geopolitical and Economic Perspectives of a Ukrainian Region (Frankfurt am Main, 2004), esp. pp. 97-194. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Gerbery, Sandor. See Presov Greek Catholic Teachers' College Gerlakhov Interpretive Epistle. See Literature: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region

German-Rusyn Friendship Society/Rusnaci (Ruthenen) Deutsch-Ruthenische-Freundschaft — the first Rusyn organization in western Europe. Founded in 1995 in Munich, Germany, the German-Rusyn Friendship Society has a membership of about 50 families, and another 150 participate in its activities. Most of its members are post-World War II Vojvodinian Rusyn immigrants and their descendants from former Yugoslavia who settled in Germany. The society also serves Vojvodinian Rusyn communities in neighboring Switzerland, Austria, and France. The organization's main goals are to maintain the cultural traditions and language of Vojvodinian Rusyns and to keep the German public and government circles informed about the minority status of Carpatho-Rusyns throughout Europe. It sponsors two major annual cultural events (the Kirbai in October and a midwinter ball), interacts with Rusyns in the Carpathians and Vojvodinian homeland (including participation in the *World Congress of Rusyns), and plans to support students studying Rusyn topics in German universities. The founding chairman (1995-2001) of the German-Rusyn Friendship Society was Silvester *Kukhar. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Germans — peoples from German and Austrian lands who have lived among Rusyns since the early medieval period. Individual Germans were attested in the Spish region as early as the tenth and early eleventh centuries. In subsequent centuries Hungary's kings invited German settlers not only to * Spish (in German: Zips) but also farther east to * Subcarpathian

Rus' as artisans, agriculturalists, and salt miners. The influx of German settlers rose sharply following the Mongolo-Tatar invasions of Hungary in the early 1240s. At that time colonists from Saxony (in Rusyn: Sasy) and other German states settled in the Subcarpathian foothills and Tisza/Tysa River valley, where they revived villages and towns plundered by the Mongolo-Tatar invaders. They also founded several new towns: Levoca, Kezmarok, Presov, Bardejov, Mukachevo-Palanok, Berehovo-Lamprechtsas, Vynohradovo/Sevliush, Khust, Vyshkovo, Tiachovo/Teutsch-Au, Sighet, and Solotvyno. The presence of German colonists initiated a body of legal relationships between the royal authority and free settlers on the basis of self-government and a system of privileges that resulted in a new system of urban law, such as the Sevliush Law. It was not long before Germans came to dominate the artisan trades, while German miners, who brought with them the newest technologies available at the time, controlled the salt industry. German colonization continued during the first decades of the sixteenth century, as the Reformation and peasant wars throughout German lands drove many people from their homeland. This was followed by a long lull in further colonization following the subsequent collapse of the Hungarian Kingdom after 1526 and the subsequent threeway struggle between the *Habsburgs, the Ottoman Empire, and Transylvania's Protestant Hungarian princes, during which Subcarpathian Rus' and the *Presov Region became the scene of numerous military conflicts. It was not until the eighteenth century, under Hungary's new rulers (by then the Habsburg dynasty based in Austria) that German colonization was renewed. The new owners of destroyed and often depopulated landed estates, in particular the *Schonborn magnate family, invited German colonists from their properties in Franconia. Between 1730 and 1750 they were settled on the Schonbora's Subcarpathian estates in villages around Mukachevo, including Verkhnii Koropets'/Ober-Schonborn, Shenborn/Unter-Schonborn, Pavshyn/Pausching, Kuchava/ Deutsch-Kutschowa, Berezynka/Birkendorf, Lialovo/ Madchendorf, and Barbovo/Barthaus. During the 1770s and 1780s, the Austrian imperial government took the initiative to develop a fledgling forest industry by settling Austro-German lumbermen from Upper Austria (the Salzkammergut) in the mountainous areas of *Maramorosh county, in particular to the villages of Komsomol's'k/Deutsch-Mokra and Ust'Chorna/Konigsfeld in the upper Teresva River valley. The last wave of settlement took place during the first half of the nineteenth century, again under the direction of the Schonborn landlords, who brought Austro-German colonists from Bohemia and Upper Austria to the area around Mukachevo at Sofiia/Sophiendorf and mostly north of the city along the Latorytsia valley toward Svaliava, at Suskovo Nove Selo/Erwinsdorf, Drachyny/Dorndorf, Klenovets'/UnterHrabowitz, and Syniak/Blaubad. Although the German colo-

136 nists in Subcarpathian Rus' were not from Swabia, the local Rusyns referred to them as Shvaby, perhaps because many German colonists in other parts of the Hungarian Kingdom were Danube Swabians. By 1910, in the six most heavily inhabited Rusyn counties (*Sharysh, *Zemplyn, *Ung, *Bereg, *Ugocha, and Maramarosh), 18,500 Germans lived in towns and another 94,000 lived in the countryside. In four villages in Bereg and Maramarosh counties (Komsomol's'k/Nimets'ka Mokra, Suskovo Nove Selo, Sofiia, and Syniak) Germans comprised over 90 percent of the inhabitants, while in another seven (Shenborn, Berezynka, Dubov/Dubi, Kuchava, Drachyny, Palianok/Plankendorf, and Pavshyn) they constituted over 70 percent of the population. Spish county had the highest number of Germans—38,500 (22 percent)—with particularly large concentrations in the towns of Kezmarok/Kasmark (51 percent) and Levoca (18 percent). The magyarization process at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries also had an impact on the Germans. As a result of the *Apponyi Law (1907) all German-language schools were replaced by Hungarian schools, and during World War I even privately operated German schools were closed. Following the collapse of Austria-Hungary in late 1918 a portion of Germans, especially those living in Subcarpathia's towns, left for Austria or Germany. Within the new Czechoslovak state German cultural life was gradually revived in the country's far eastern regions. Particularly important in this regard was the work of the German Cultural Union/Deutsche Kulturverband founded in 1921. By 1936,24 German-language schools were operating in Subcarpathian Rus', with a total of 2,021 students. The vast majority of the German population in Subcarpathian Rus' and eastern Slovakia did not welcome or support pro-Nazi fascist movements during the 1930s. Nevertheless, a significant number of Germans left their homes and fled westward with the German Army as it retreated before the advancing Soviet Army during the last months of World War II. Those who remained were stripped of their legal and civil rights by the post-World War II regimes in the Carpathian region. In Czechoslovakia the Spish Germans (Zipserdeutsche) were forcibly deported along with the Sudeten Germans to the eastern and western zones of Germany. In Soviet-ruled Subcarpathian Rus'/Transcarpathia German men were mobilized into work brigades and, on the basis of an order issued on January 1, 1946, by the Soviet secret police (NKVD), deported to the Donbas region of eastern Ukraine or to prison camps in the Gulag in Siberia. It should be noted that in Subcarpathian Rus' (as well as in the Presov Region) there was never any nationality conflict between Rusyns and Germans. Those Subcarpathian Germans who survived the rigors of deportation and internment in Siberia's Gulag began slowly to return semi-legally to their native villages in 1955. It was not until 1959, however, that they were legally permitted to return, and by that time there

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture were 4,230 living in Subcarpathian Rus'. Considering their unenviable fate in the Soviet Union after 1945, it is not surprising that many Germans took advantage of the Khrushchev political thaw to return to their ancestral homeland. By 2001 there were only about 3,600 Germans in Subcarpathian Rus'. In the post-Communist era they have established organizations (Wiedergeburt/Rebirth and Palanok) that sponsor German cultural events and promote the revival of German-language instruction in elementary schools. The economic crisis in independent Ukraine, however, has had a negative impact on the efforts of these cultural organizations and the exodus of Germans from Subcarpathian Rus' continues. In Slovakia only a few thousand Germans managed to survive the post-war deportations. Since the fall of Communism German cultural life has been revived in the Spish region, including the establishment of cultural organizations and German-language radio broadcasts from the studio for minority languages in Kosice. Further reading: Raimund Kaindl, Geschichte der Deutschen in den Karpathenldndern, 3 vols. (Gotha, 1907-11); Eduard Winter, Die Deutschen in der Slowakei und in Karpathorussland (Munster, 1926); Nikolaus G. Kozauer, Die Karpaten-Ukraine zwischen den beiden Weltkriegen unter besonderer Berticksichtigung der deutschen Bevolkerung (Esslingen am Neckas, 1979); Peter Svorc, ed., Spis v kontinuite casu/Zips in der Kontinuitdt der Zeit (Presov, Bratislava, and Vienna, 1995); Hryhorii V. Pavlenko, Nimtsi na Zakarpatti (Uzhhorod, 1995); Mykola Makara and Roman Ofitsyns'kyi, eds., Nimtsi na Zakarpatti, X-XX St., in Carpatica-Karpatyka, Vol. IV (Uzhhorod, 1995); Fedir Kulia/Kulja, Nimets 'kishkoly na Zakarpatti/ Deutsche Schulen in Transkarpatien (Uzhhorod, 1998); Georg Melika, Die Deutschen der Transkarpatien-Ukraine: Entstehung, Entwicklung ihrer Siedlungen und Lebensweise im multietnischen Raum (Marburg, 2002). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Gerovskii, Aleksei lulianovich (b. August 31, 1883, Eviv [Austrian Galicia], Ukraine; d. April 17,1972, New York, New York, USA) —journalist and political activist of Russian national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus' and the United States. Gerovskii's grandfather was the renowned nineteenthcentury Rusyn political leader, Adolf Dobrians'kyi, his father, the Galician Russophile cultural activist and politician, luliian Gerovskii. Together with his younger brothers *Georgii and Roman, Aleksei Gerovskii received his basic education from his grandfather Dobrians'kyi, who at the time was living in internal exile at Innsbruck in the Austrian province of Tyrol. Gerovskii received his entire formal education in German, first at the gymnasium in Innsbruck, which he completed in Chernivtsi, the administrative center of Austrian Bukovina, where he also attended university. In 1903, Aleksei, together with his brother Georgii, trav-

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture eled to Subcarpathian Rus', in particular to the village of Iza, which at the time was a center of the Orthodox revival. The brothers were arrested by the Hungarian authorities and held in prisons in Sighet and Budapest until released through the intervention of a Slovak member of the Hungarian Parliament (and future prime minister of Czechoslovakia), Milan Hodza. Aleksei eventually returned to Chernivtsi, where he published the Russian-language newspaper, Russkaia pravda (19101913). A Hungarian secret police agent ofRusyn background, Arnold Dulishkovych, got Aleksei and his brothers involved in the Orthodox movement in Subcarpathian Rus', encouraging them to attend the anti-Orthodox *Maramorosh Sighet trial (1913-1914), where they were again arrested by the AustroHungarian authorities and accused of Russophile agitation and anti-state activity. The brothers managed to escape to Russia; within a few months, Aleksei returned with the tsarist army when in September 1914 it invaded Austrian Galicia and Bukovina at the outset of World War I. This allowed Gerovskii to return to Chernivtsi, this time as the new tsarist Russian administration's "senior official for special matters." When the tsarist Russian Army was forced to retreat eastward during the spring of 1915 Gerovskii went as well; he served for the next two years as an advisor to Russia's Ministry of Foreign Affairs office for Austria-Hungary and the Balkans. Following the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia (November 1917) the pro-tsarist Gerovskii joined the White movement, publishing in lekaterynodar (present-day Krasnodar) the newspaper Edinaia Rus' (1918) and participating in General Denikin's Volunteer Army, then operating in Ukraine. The collapse of the anti-Bolshevik White movement and the annexation of Galicia by Poland and Bukovina by Romania left only one place for Gerovskii's political activity: Subcarpathian Rus'. In the 1920s he attempted to unite the various Russophile and Orthodox factions in the province. He became noted for his extremist views and harsh criticism of the Czechoslovak regime for not having fulfilled its treaty obligations (*St. Germain) concerning *autonomy for Subcarpathian Rus'. Gerovskii took part in the international minority congresses held in Geneva, Switzerland, where he spoke out against Czechoslovakia and its minister of foreign affairs, Edvard *Benes. Consequently, in 1927, he was expelled from Czechoslovakia. He then went to Yugoslavia, where he promptly established the Carpatho-Russian Committee/ Karpatorusskii komitet (1927-1929). In search of financing for his political activity, he emigrated to the United States. There he founded the Carpatho-Russian Union/Karpatorusskii soiuz (1935-1938), and with the funds received from Rusyn Americans he financed Russophile activity in Subcarpathian Rus'. He also established in New York City the ICARUS press agency (1936) to inform Rusyn Americans about the situation in Subcarpathian Rus' and Carpatho-Rusyns in Europe about the life of Rusyn Americans. Documents from Czechoslovakia's Ministry of Foreign Affairs seem to prove

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that the KARUS press agency was financed by Nazi Germany and Hungary. At Gerovskii's initiative a *Carpatho-Russian Congress was held in New York City (February 12-13,1937); it submitted an ultimatum to the Czechoslovak government demanding that autonomy for Subcarpathian Rus' be implemented within 60 days. This move prompted further discussion in the Czechoslovak Parliament, which led to a law (1937) creating the first phase of Subcarpathian autonomy. During the critical months leading up to the Munich Pact of September 1938 Gerovskii actively supported Subcarpathia's autonomous movement. He led a delegation of Rusyn Americans that met with Czechoslovak government officials in Prague and then tried to unite *Russophiles and *Ukrainophiles in Subcarpathian Rus' behind a joint anti-Czechoslovak platform. As a result of this activity Gerovskii was again expelled from Czechoslovakia. He went this time to Budapest, where he held talks (October 1938) with government officials about their possible support of the Russophile orientation should Subcarpathian Rus' be annexed to Hungary. Following the failure of these talks he left for Yugoslavia. After Subcarpathian Rus'/Carpatho-Ukraine was annexed by Hungary (March 1939), Gerovskii traveled once more to the region (June) to support Andrii *Brodii's campaign for autonomy. When it became clear that the autonomy promised by Hungary was not to be granted, Gerovskii returned to the United States. During the course of World War II he began to believe that the Soviet Union might be transformed. Hence he criticized the intention of the Czechoslovak governmentin-exile to include Subcarpathian Rus' once again within its borders after the war, and he wrote a letter to Stalin calling on him to annex the province to the Soviet Union. Once more Gerovskii's plans proved to be illusory, for while Stalin annexed Subcarpathian Rus', the Soviet Union declared all Rusyns to be Ukrainians. This was something that Gerovskii had always opposed. He spent his last years writing numerous articles for the Russophile American magazine, Svobodnoe slovo Karpatskoi Rusi, criticizing Soviet Communist rule in his homeland, in particular its Ukrainianization policies, as well as the papacy and what he derisively called the "Uniate" Church in exile. Further reading: A. Verkhovinets, "Aleksei lulianovich Gerovskii," in Oleg A. Grabar, ed., Putiami istorii, Vol. II (New York, 1979), pp. 246-260. IVAN POP

Gerovskii, Georgii lulianovich (b. October 6, 1886, Eviv [Austrian Galicia], Ukraine; d. February 5,1959, Presov [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — pedagogue and linguist of Russian national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region. Like his older brother, *Aleksei Gerovskii, Georgii began his gymnasium studies in the Austrian town

138 of Innsbruck where his parents (and grandfather *Adol'f Dobrians'kyi) were living. In 1895 the family moved to Chernivtsi, the administrative center of Austrian Bukovina; here Gerovskii completed the German gymnasium and then studied Slavic philology at the University of Chernivtsi (1907-1909). He continued work in Slavic and Indo-European linguistics at the University of Leipzig in Germany (1909-1911). During visits to Subcarpathian Rus' (1903 and 19131914) Georgii was twice arrested with his brother Aleksei by the Austro-Hungarian authorities, who accused them of Russophile and anti-state activity. The second time he fled with Aleksei to the Russian Empire (early 1914), where during World War I he served in the tsarist army on the southwestern front. Following the Bolshevik Revolution he taught Russian and German at the gymnasium in Saratov (1918-1922) and then worked at the University of Saratov library (1922-1924). In 1924 Georgii was invited by his brother to come to Czechoslovakia and to settle in *Subcarpathian Rus'. Georgii's efforts to establish a scholarly career there were blocked by local *Ukrainophiles; nevertheless, he published an extensive analysis of Mykha'il *Luchkai's *Church-Slavonic grammar (1930) and he was invited by the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences to undertake a study ofRusyn dialects. The result was a major article for the new Czechoslovak thematic encyclopedia, "Jazyk Podkarpatske Rusi" (1934; Russian trans., 1995). In this work and in a book-length critique of Volodymyr *Birchak's history of Rusyn literature (1943) Gerovskii rejected the view that Rusyn dialects and literature should be considered within the framework of Ukrainian. He was the first to create a cartographic framework for Subcarpathian Rusyn dialects, which he classified according to eight basic groups—Southern Maramorosh, Northern Maramorosh, Bereg, Uzh, Eastern Zemplyn, Western Zemplyn, Sharysh, and Spish—plus a few transitional dialects and the Verkhovyna dialects in northern Subcarpathian Rus', which he considered to be of "foreign (Galician) origin." In 1938 Gerovskii organized in Subcarpathian Rus' the short-lived Society of Scholarship and the Arts/Obshchestvo nauk i iskusstv. He remained in Uzhhorod after the return of Hungarian rule and published an elementary school grammar of the Russian language (1939) in the hope that it would be adopted for use in Subcarpathia's schools. When it was not accepted, he organized a publication that was critical of the government-sponsored grammar, Razbor grammatiki ugrorusskogo iazyka (1941). After the arrival of the Soviet Army Gerovskii was appointed a department head (referent) in the pro-Soviet National Council of Transcarpathian Ukraine (March 1945) but he soon came under the surveillance of the Soviet secret services, which seized his personal library and archive. Fearing the worst, he emigrated to Presov in Slovakia, where he taught the Russian language at Safarik

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture University and continued to publish (in Russian) on Rusyn themes. His publications included surveys of Rusyn history, dialects, and folk culture in northeastern Slovakia for a onevolume encyclopedia of the Presov Region (Priashevshchina: istoriko-literaturnyi sbornik, 1948). Further reading: P. Shima, "G.Iu. Gerovskii," Duklia, VII, 2 (Presov, 1959), pp. 65-66; I.S. Shlepetskyi, "Georgii lulianovich Gerovskii," Karpatorusskyi kalendar' Lemko-Soiuza na 1964 (Yonkers, N.Y., 1964), pp. 101-113. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

GertS, lurii. See Herts, lurii Gesta Hungarorum. See Anonymous Gets, Lev/Getz, Leon (b. April 13, 1896, Eviv [Austrian Galicia], Ukraine; d. December 16, 1971, Cracow, Poland) — artist, pedagogue, and cultural activist in the Lemko Region. After completing his training at the Academy of Art in Cracow (1925) Gets taught at the gymnasium in Sanok. There he became a co-founder and was director of the *Museum of the Lemko Region/Muzei Lemkivshchyna during its entire period of existence (1930-1944). After World War II Gets was under the constant surveillance of Poland's Communist authorities (provoking a suicide attempt in 1953), although by the 1960s he received several state awards for his art work. Many of his 3,500 paintings and drawings, depict scenes of Lemko life. Further reading: Leon Getz and Bronislaw Jaskiewicz, "Dzialahiosc artystyczno-malarska i muzealna Leona Getza ze szczegolnym uwzgl^dnieniem Ziemi Sanockiej," Materiafy Muzeum Budownictwa Ludowego w Sanoku, No. 15 (Sanok, 1972), pp. 49-56; Oleh Sydor, "Lev Gets i Muzei Lemkivshchyna v Sianotsi," Pamiatky Ukrainy, XXVII [110] (Kiev, 1995), pp. 153-158. BOGDAN HORBAL

GiritS, Vira. See Rusyn Minority Self-Government Glagolitic alphabet/Glagolitsa — generally considered the first alphabet for the Slavs. Created by *Constantine the Philosopher/St. Cyril, its name derives from the Slavonic glagol, which means "the word". Scholars disagree as to the source of Glagolitic letters, although the most widely accepted theory considers that they were derived from Greek cursive writing. The alphabet was used in Greater Moravia until the death in 885 of Constantine's brother and fellow missionary, Methodius; thereafter, it was used for a while in Bulgaria and Macedonia. It was from the Bulgarian Empire, which extended far north into the middle Danubian Basin, that the Glagolitic alphabet reached the Slavs living in the Upper Tisza/Tysa Region and as far east north as Novgorod (Kievan Rus'). Because

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture it was a complicated script (39 letters) the Glagolitic alphabet was gradually replaced by the *Cyrillic alternative. Virtually all manuscripts written in Glagolitic (with the exception of the so-called Kiev Folios) were destroyed in * Greater Moravia by Roman-rite monks and priests following the death of Methodius and the banishment of his disciples to the Balkans. There were short-lived attempts in the late fourteenth century to revive Glagolitic at the Emmaus Monastery in Prague and to introduce it in the Benedictine monastery at Kleparz near Cracow in Poland. It survived, however, only in a few Roman Catholic parishes in northwestern Croatia, particularly on the islands off the Dalmatian coast, where it was still being used in the early twentieth century. There has been much controversy concerning the Glagolitic alphabet, with some scholars (including the Rusyn Basilian monk Gorazd A. Tymkovych) arguing that Constantine/St. Cyril and Methodius created instead Cyrillic as the first alphabet for the Slavs. Beginning in the early tenth century, when the Cyrillo-Methodian tradition was being pushed out of central Europe, persecution was especially strong in Roman-rite Dalmatia. There the local Slavic (Croatian) priests, wanting to preserve the cultural heritage brought to them by the Byzantine missionaries, deformed the Cyrillic letters into angular forms that did not resemble Greek. The result was Glagolitic, a new Slavic (Croatian) alphabet. Wherever the Cyril and Methodian tradition was persecuted, including in Greater Moravia and at times in the *Bulgarian Khanate, the visually non-Greek and therefore more acceptable (from the standpoint of the Roman Church) angular script was introduced, which allegedly explains the appearance of Glagolitic texts in those areas. When persecution ended, the Cyrillic alphabet was used widely once again, most especially in lands under the political hegemony of Bulgaria. Further reading: Vatroslav Jagic, "Glagolicheskoe pis'mo," in Entsiklopediia slavianskoifilologii, Vol. Ill (St. Petersburg, 1911), pp. 53-262; Alexander M. Schenker, The Dawn of Slavic (New Haven and London, 1995), pp. 165-182; Gorazd A. Timkovic, "Cyrilika je starsia ako glagolika," Krdsnobrodsky zbornik, III, 1-2 (Presov, 1998), pp. 5-207. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Glas Soiuzu. See Union of Rusyns and Ukrainians in Serbia and Montenegro Gliuk, Havrylo (b. May 19, 1912, Sighet [Hungarian Kingdom], Romania; d. November 2,1983, Uzhhorod [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — painter of Jewish heritage in Subcarpathian Rus'. After completing his training (1931-1933) at the Advanced School of Fine Arts in Budapest Gliuk moved to Romania, living in his native town of Sighet as well as in Bucharest and Chisinau/Kishenev in Bessarabia. After the

annexation of Bessarabia by the Soviet Union in 1940 Gliuk served in the Soviet Army during World War II. Following the war, he initially stayed in Chisinau and participated in several exhibitions of Moldavian painters, but in 1947 he moved to Uzhhorod in what was by then Soviet Transcarpathia. Gliuk was best known for his genre scenes and landscapes, which were within the style of the *Subcarpathian School of Painting. The work that brought him the most renown was the monumental Socialist Realist canvas, Lisoruby (The Wood Cutters, 1954), which was exhibited in Eviv, Kiev, Moscow, Warsaw, and Venice and at the 1958 World's Fair in Brussels. In the 1960s and 1970s Gliuk discontinued his Socialist Realist themes and painted neo-Impressionistic landscapes and still-lifes. His genre scenes, like Divchata vyishly vpole (Girls on Their Way to the Fields, 1960) and Vechir v pole (An Evening in the Fields, 1969), attest to the artistic crisis he was experiencing at that time. Further reading: Laslo Shandor, Havrylo Martynovych Hliuk (Kiev, 1959). IVAN POP

Glova, Ivan. See Rusyn National Union Goch, Fedor/Gocz, Teodor (b. June 28, 1929, Zyndranowa, Poland) — Lemko civic and cultural activist in Poland. Goch's elementary education begun in his native village was disrupted by the outbreak of World War II and the fall of Poland. He was never able to return to school, but did military service, first in the Soviet Army during the last year of the war and then in the Polish Army (1948). By then both his parents had settled permanently in Canada: his father had left before the war; his mother followed in 1945, as the entire Lemko population was beginning to be resettled and deported from their homes. Zyndranowa had become bereft of its inhabitants during the * Vistula Operation (1947), although as early as 1954 Goch was the first Lemko to return and live there. That same year he founded the first postwar cultural organization for *Lemkos, the *Zyndranova Amateur Artistic Ensemble. By the 1960s Goch had become one of the leading activists in the *Lemko Section of the government-supported Ukrainian Civic and Cultural Society, for which he helped to establish the *Lemkovyna Song and Dance Ensemble (of which he was a member) and several smaller ensembles in villages where Lemkos were beginning to return (Bielanka, Komancza, Grab, Olchowiec, Tylawa, Polany, and others). He was also able to encourage relations with Lemkos living abroad, including the *Lemko Association of the USA and Canada (during several visits to his parents) and the *Lemko Region Society in Ukraine. In 1968 Goch established the *Museum of Lemko Culture in the original house of his parents in Zyndranowa. It was initially opposed by Poland's Communist authorities, which at one point had even destroyed

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some of its outdoor displays. Goch managed, however, to restore and expand the museum, so that by the late 1980s it had become an important center of the Lemko revival and, at his initiative, the site of an annual cultural festival, Od Rusal' do lana (1992- ), and the editorial office of a new Lemkolanguage quarterly magazine, *Zahoroda (1994- ). Goch is the author of several one-act plays; the scenario to a film, Lemkivske vesillia (Lemko Wedding, 1956); a collection of satirical and humorous poems, Kume Hnate (1997); an autobiography, ZhytiaLemka (1999); and numerous articles and reports on Lemko life published in the Lemko and Ukrainian press in North America and Europe. Goch has consistently attempted to work with all Lemkos, regardless of their national orientation. While emphasizing the specificity of Lemko culture and language, he has never taken a definitive stance on Lemko national identity. Such a conciliatory and "ecumenical" approach has not always met with success. For instance, he was one of the founding executive board members (1990) of the *Union of Lemkos in Poland/Ob"iednannia Lemkiv v Pol'shchi, but soon after that organization adopted an uncompromising Ukrainian national orientation Goch was removed. He has since cooperated with the *Lemko Society/Stovaryshynia Lemkiv and other Rusynoriented Lemko organizations in Poland. Further reading: "Fedir Goch: in Honor of his 60th Birthday," in A Lemko People's Calendar, 1988-1991 (Yonkers, N.Y., 1991), pp. 40-42; laroslav Zvolin'skii, "Z dida-pradida," in Lemkivskii kalendar 1999 (Krynica and Legnica, 1999), pp. 102-104. BOGDAN HORBAL PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Goer, Mikhail. See Anthems Goga, Lawrence A. (b. July 25, 1932, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA) — community activist of Rusyn descent in the United States. Goga worked for many years in law enforcement as a detective in his native city. In the 1980s he became interested in the Rusyn revival in the United States and in 1983 founded with John Haluska the *Rusin Association based in the state of Minnesota. Goga served as the association's first president (1983-2001) and founding editor (1987-2001) of its magazine, Trembita. He was also instrumental in establishing a distinct Carpatho-Rusyn section in the Immigrant History Research Center at the University of Minnesota. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Goida, Georgii/Hoida, lurii (pseudonym: G. Karpatskii) (b. March 15, 1919, Zniatsevo [Rus'ka Krai'na, Hungarian Soviet Republic], Ukraine; d. June 2,1955, Uzhhorod [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — poet and publicist in Subcarpathian Rus'. Goida studied at the Uzhhorod gymnasium, then at the faculty

of science and geography at the University of Debrecen in Hungary. While still a gymnasium student he began to write poetry in Russian, and his first collection in that language, filled with social themes and lyric romanticism, appeared during World War II, Zhivaia sin' (1943). Under the new post-1945 Soviet regime Goida began to write in Ukrainian (1947) and was appointed the head (1947-1954) of the Transcarpathian regional branch of the Union of Writers in Ukraine. As the official representative of Socialist Realism he sang the praises of his homeland "reborn" under Soviet auspices and of the joy over "reunification" with Ukraine. These themes were repeated each year in a new volume of his poetry and in several re-editions after his death. The only works of literary value in Goida's corpus are some of his lyric poems, his verses for children, and translations of Hungarian poetry. Further reading: Vasyl' Pop, lurii Hoida: literaturno-krytychnyi narys(Kiev, 1963). IVAN POP

Goidych, Pavel/Gojdic, Pavel (b. Petro Goidych, July 17, 1888, Ruske Pekl'any [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. July 17, 1960, Leopoldov [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — priest, theologian, and church hierarch of Rusyn national orientation in the Presov Region. After completing his gymnasium studies in PreSov (1907) Goidych received his theological formation at the Greek Catholic Seminary in Presov (1907-1908) and at the Central Theological Seminary in Budapest (1909-1911). Following his ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1911) he served a short time in Rusyn parishes in the *Presov Region until he was appointed prefect (1912) of the Alumneum boarding school for boys in Presov and then secretary (1918-1922) of the episcopal office in Presov. In 1922 Goidych joined the *Basilian order at the *Mukachevo Monastery of St. Nicholas in * Subcarpathian Rus'. He then served as vice-superior of the Basilian Monastery in Uzhhorod (1924-1926) until being summoned back to Presov to serve as apostolic administrator of the eparchy. Early in 1927 he was consecrated bishop of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov. Goidych was particularly concerned with maintaining Rusyn as the language of instruction in Greek Catholic elementary schools throughout the *Presov Region, a policy which often angered patriotic Slovak publicists and local officials. He gradually became convinced that the only way for local Rusyns to avoid slovakization was if the Presov Region were united with Subcarpathian Rus', a position he emphasized during the critical months of 1938. Such attitudes, and his continuing defense of Rusyn national interests, did not endear him to the government of the World War II Slovak state. He even submitted his resignation; it was not, however, accepted by the pope, who instead raised him to the rank of eparch (ruling bishop) of the Eparchy of Presov (1940).

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture It was also during those years that Goidych helped to save hundreds of * Jews living in the territory within his eparchy from deportation to death camps in 1944. After the Communist takeover of Czechoslovakia in February 1948 Goidych refused to compromise his church's relations with the new government. When, following the Soviet model, the Czechoslovak Communist authorities organized a Church Council/Sobor at Presov (April 28, 1950) to abolish Greek Catholicism, Goidych remained intransigent in defending the Eparchy of Presov. In 1951 he was arrested, accused of anti-state activity (including support for Ukrainian bourgeois nationalists), and sentenced in a trial broadcast on Czechoslovak radio to life imprisonment. He died a decade later in Slovakia's political prison at Leopoldov. The canonization process urging the Vatican to declare Bishop Goidych a saint was begun by the *Byzantine Ruthenian Catholic Church in the United States in 1986 and has continued in Slovakia in 1995. In 2001, Goidych was beatified by Pope John-Paul II. Further reading: K. Barriova and E. Blaskova, Pavel Gojdic, OSBM, greckokatolicky biskup, 1888-1960: personalna bibliografia (Kosice, 1998); J.E. Pavel Gojdic, CSWJepiskopPrjasevskij, 19271947 (Presov, 1947); Athanasius B. Pekar, Bishop Paul P. Gojdich, O.S.B.M.: Confessor of Our Times (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1980); Mar"ian Potash, Zhyttia, viddane Bohovi: zhyttiepys preosviashchennoho Pavla Hoidycha, 2 vols. (Eviv, 1994-95); Marian Potas, Dar lasky: spomienky na biskupa Pavla Gojdica, OSBM (Presov, 1999).

based on the text of one of his literary works. Although he taught Russian literature and language Goidych wrote his own works in the traditional "CarpathoRusyn language" of *Dukhnovych and among hundreds of new teachers in the Presov Region promoted the view that Carpatho-Rusyns form a distinct nationality. Such views were most evident in the official newspaper of the Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov, *Russkoe slovo, of which he was founding editor (1924-1928). When the post-World War II Communist regime came to power in Czechoslovakia it abolished the Greek Catholic Church (1950) and imprisoned Goidych's brother, Bishop Pavel *Goidych. In turn, Shtefan Goidych was forced with his family to leave the Presov Region. He spent the last years of his life living off charity in old people's homes in various parts of Slovakia. Further Reading: Mykhailo Roman, "Dyrektor 'Nashoi shkoly'," Druzhno vpered, XLII, 6 (Presov, 1992), pp. 17-18; Mykhailo Rychalka, "luvilei nashoi kul'tury: D-r Stepan Goidych," Nove zhyttia (Presov), August, 19, 1995, p. 3. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Golos russkago naroda. See Beskyd, Nykolai; Pryslopskii, Roman; Vyslotskii, Dymytrii Golovatskii, lakov. See Holovats'kyi, lakiv Fedorovych

IVAN POP

Gomichkov, Aleksander. See Homichkov, Aleksander Goidych, Shtefan/Gojdic, Stefan (b. January 9,1889, Ruske Pekl'any [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. July 11, 1968, Modra [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — priest, pedagogue, and cultural activist of Rusyn national orientation in the Presov Region. After graduating from the gymnasium in Presov (1905) Goidych studied at the Central Theological Seminary (1906-1909) and the Advanced School of Education/Pedagogium (1909-1913) in Budapest. He completed his doctoral studies in Budapest in 1917 but was unable to publish his thesis until 1920, when under the changed political circumstances of the new state of Czechoslovakia he was awarded a Th.D. degree that was confirmed by Charles University in Prague. Goidych was ordained a Greek Catholic priest (1915) and appointed to the staff of the *Presov Greek Catholic Teachers' College, where for nearly four decades (1912-1939) he taught several subjects, in particular Russian language and literature, pedagogical thought, and psychology. He also served as director of the *Presov Teachers' College (1931-1939) and of its successor, the Rusyn State Teachers' Academy/Rus'ka derzhavna uchytel's'ka akademiia (19461949). During the interwar years, Goidych encouraged the formation at the Teachers' College of the student-run Dukhnovych Literary Circle, which performed several plays in Rusyn throughout the *Presov Region, including an operetta

Gomichkov, Nikolai. See Homichkov, Nykolai Goremyka, Vania. See Kercha, Ivan Gorgany. See Geography Gor'kust. See Kercha, Ivan Gorlice. See District Gorlice, Battle of— major battle during World War I (May 2-5,1915) near the Lemko Region in present-day southeastern Poland. In September 1914 the tsarist Russian Army invaded Austria-Hungary, occupied eastern Galicia and the *Lemko Region, and gained control of the Carpathian passes into Hungary. By the winter of 1914-1915 the Russian Army drove back the Austro-Hungarian Army from the southern side of the passes and threatened to enter the Danubian Basin. A turning point came in May 1915 when the Austro-Hungarian Army, together with its German allies, achieved a breakthrough between Gorlice and Tarnow resulting in what became known as the Battle of Gorlice (May 2-5). The battle also marked the beginning of the "great retreat" eastward of the tsarist

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army, which led to the Russian Empire's loss of its Polish, Belarusan, Lithuanian, and in part Latvian provinces as well Galicia and Bukovina, which it had only recently occupied. After its defeat at Gorlice, the Russian Army lost the strategic initiative in World War I. During the Battle of Gorlice several Lemko villages were partially destroyed (Tylawa, Bartne, Bodaki, SwiajJcowa Wielka, Ropica Gorna, Krempna, Nieznajowa, and Rozstajne, among others). In those villages taken back by the Austro-Hungarian forces on the eve of the battle (Gladyszow, Wysowa, Blechnarka) the Lemko population was evacuated to the *Presov Region on the southern slopes of the mountains. The villages themselves were destroyed during the fighting. In villages held by the Russian Army the Lemko inhabitants were encouraged to join the Russians in their retreat eastward. Perhaps as many as 10,000 did so. Some managed to return home after the war, others remained in Russia permanently. Further reading: Leonhard Alfred Graf von Rothkirch, Gorlice— Tarnow: Unter Benutzung amtlicher Quellen, Der Grosse Krieg in Einzeldarstellungen, Vol. XXI (Oldenburg, 1918); M. Klimecki, Gorlice 1915 (Warsaw, 1991); Niel M. Heyman, "Gorlice—Tarnow: the Eastern Front in 1915," Army Quarterly and Defense Journal, CIX, 1 (Tavistock, England, 1979). BOGDAN HORBAL

Gorog katolikus szemle — a Hungarian-language newspaper and magazine serving the Greek Catholic Eparchies of Mukachevo and Hajdudorog at various times in the twentieth century. The Gorog katolikus szemle first appeared in Uzhhorod (1899-1918) as a weekly newspaper and official organ of the *St. Basil the Great Society; it continued to be published after 1902 by that organization's successor, the *Unio Book Publishing Company. For virtually its entire existence the newspaper was edited by Viktor *Kamins'kyi. The Gorog katolikus szemle reflected the views of that group of Greek Catholic clergy who, while remaining loyal to the Hungarian state and *Habsburg imperial throne, were nevertheless Rusyn patriots opposed to assimilation (magyarization) and in favor of Greek Catholic liturgical traditions and the use of *Church Slavonic and the *Cyrillic alphabet as a symbolic badge of their national identity. Among the newspaper's most important contributors were levmenii *Sabov, Vasylii *Hadzhega, Avhustyn *Voloshyn, and losyf *Kamins'kyi. Following the collapse of Austria-Hungary, the newspaper ceased publication in December 1918 and was replaced by the short-lived Hungarian-language Kdrpdt (1919). In the new post-World War I political conditions, Greek Catholics in post-Trianon Hungary established the National Union of Magyar Greek Catholics/Magyar Gorog Katolikusok Orszagos Szovetsege, which published a bi-weekly newspaper also called Gorog katolikus szemle (Budapest and Nyiregyhaza, 1929-44). Edited by Istvan Groh, it served the

*Greek Catholic Eparchy of Hajdudorog. The newspaper was not published during the period of Communist rule in Hungary, but was restored in 1990 in a magazine format; it is still published in Nyiregyhaza by the Greek Catholic Seminary of the Eparchy of Hajdudorog. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Gorogkatolikus hirlap. See Kutkafalvy, Miklos Gorzo, Valentine (b. 1869, Bilky [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. October 22, 1943, McKeesport, Pennsylvania, USA)—priest, community activist, and writer among Carpatho-Rusyns in the United States. After completing his high school (gymnasium) studies in Uzhhorod and Mukachevo, Gorzo attended the Greek Catholic Theological Seminary in Uzhhorod. In 1892 he was ordained a priest in the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo and assigned to the parish at Samudovce, in that part of the eparchy now in eastern Slovakia. In 1905, he emigrated to the United States and three years later was appointed priest to the large Ruthenian Greek Catholic parish in the Pittsburgh suburb of McKeesport, Pennsylvania, a post he was to hold nearly four decades until his death in 1943. Gorzo played an active role in Rusyn-American community life as spiritual advisor (1908-1943) to the *United Societies /Sobranije fraternal society and as editor (1917-1931) of its newspaper, *Prosvita/The Enlightenment. From this position as well as that of legal prosecutor for the Pittsburgh Greek Catholic Exarchate, Gorzo remained a loyal defender of the bishop during the celibacy controversy of the late 1920s and 1930s. He also maintained an on-going concern about the fate of his European homeland. He was a founding member of the * American National Council of Uhro-Rusyns, part of the delegation that met with President Woodrow Wilson to gain support for the Carpatho-Rusyn homeland, and a patron of the Subcarpathian Bank in Uzhhorod. Gorzo was a prolific writer and translator of liturgical books. Among his best known works is a didactic threeact "drama about the life of American Rusyns" entitled Fedorisinovy (1925), frequently performed by church-affiliated amateur theatrical groups, and a Rusyn-language history of the United States, Osnovna amerikanska istorija (1924), written as a textbook for use in parochial schools offering courses about the Carpatho-Rusyn heritage. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Gotval'd, Ivan. See Nashi stremleniia Goverla, I. See Nedzel'skii, Evgenii Graban, Wladyslaw. See Hraban, Volodyslav Grabar', Emmanuil Ivanovich. See Hrabar, Emanuil

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Grabar', Igor Emmanuilovich. See Hrabar, Ihor Grabar', Ol'ga Adol'fovna. See Hrabar, Ol'ga Grabets, Miroslav. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region Graitsar. See Kreitsar Grammaticus, J. See Haraida, Ivan Grazhdanka. See Cyrillic Alphabet Grdanicki, Damaskin. See Orthodox Eparchy of Mukachevo-Uzhhorod Grease. See Cinema Greater Bulgaria. See Bulgarian Khanate Greater Croatia. See White Croats Greater Moravian Empire — an early medieval West Slavic state based along the Morava River in what is the present-day eastern Czech Republic and western Slovakia. Following the disintegration of the *Avar Kaganate in the early ninth century a political vacuum opened up along the middle Danube River and the eastern fringes of the Prankish Empire. This vacuum was in large part filled by a Moravian state founded by the West Slavic leader Mojmir (r. 833-836). From its core in Moravia and western Slovakia the state's political influence rapidly expanded during the ninth century, so that during the reign of prince Svatopluk (870-894) it came to control much of Pannonia (the former center of Avar rule) toward the south and Bohemia and Lusatia in the northwest, as well as what is present-day southern Poland and eastern Slovakia, including part of * Subcarpathian Rus'. This larger entity, which came to be known as the Greater Moravian Empire, was destroyed by Magyar tribes at the outset of the tenth century. The cultural significance of Greater Moravia was to last long after the state ceased to exist. This is largely due to the fact that the second of Moravia's rulers, Rastislav (846869), had invited in 862-863 the Byzantine missionaries *Constantine/Cyril and Methodius to convert his people to Christianity and provide them with a written language. Subsequent Rusyn historical tradition attributes the establishment of the * Eparchy of MukachevO either to Constantine/ Cyril and Methodius themselves or to their disciples. The establishment of the Byzantine-rite *Eparchy of Przemysl in the 890s, which eventually had jurisdiction over Slavs and their Rusyn descendants living in the *Lemko Region,

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was also connected with the eastward expansion of Greater Moravia. Over a millennium later, when at the close of World War I an entirely new political configuration was being formed in central Europe, ideologists in Czechoslovakia argued that their recently created state marked the resurrection of a political unity among Czechs, Slovaks, and Carpatho-Rusyns that had supposedly existed in Greater Moravia. Such views were acceptable to most Rusyn intellectuals, who claimed as their own the heritage of St. Cyril and Methodius and, by extension, that of Greater Moravia. Further reading: Francis Dvornik, Les Slaves, Byzance et Rome au IXsiecle (Paris, 1526); Francis Dvornik, The Slavs: Their Early History and Civilization (Boston, 1956); esp. pp. 80-102; Lubomir E. Havlik, Velka Morava a stfedoevropsti Slovane (Prague, 1964); Imre Boba, Moravia's History Reconsidered (The Hague, 1971); Josef Poulik and Bohuslav Chropovsky, eds., Velka Morava a pocdtky ceskoslovenske stdtnosti (Prague, 1985); Martin Eggers, Das "Grossmahrische Reich": Realitat oderFiktion? (Stuttgart, 1995); Dusan Tfestik, Vznik Velke Moravy (Prague, 2001). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic Church in the USA/Amerikanska greko-katoliceska russka cerkov vostocnoho obrjada — the oldest church serving Rusyn immigrants and their descendants in the United States. The first Greek Catholic parishes were established in the 1880s in eastern Pennsylvania; by World War I there were 152 parishes with about 500,000 members concentrated primarily in the northeast and northcentral United States. The churches not only provided a place of worship according to the Eastern Byzantine rite, they also became centers for Rusyn-American social, educational, and cultural activity. All Greek Catholic East Slavic immigrants from AustriaHungary were initially united in one jurisdiction under Bishop Soter *Ortynsky (reigned 1907-1916). In 1916, the Vatican established separate jurisdictions for Greek Catholics from Hungary (Rusyns, Magyars, Croats) and Greek Catholics from Galicia (Ukrainians as well as Lemkos). In 1924 Bishop Basil *Takach (r. 1924-1948) was appointed to head the newly established Ruthenian Catholic Exarchate of Pittsburgh under the jurisdiction of the Holy See in Rome. At the time it comprised 155 parishes with over 288,000 members. Subsequently, the exarchate became the Eparchy of Pittsburgh and new eparchies were established in Passaic, New Jersey, and Parma, Ohio (and later a third eparchy in Van Nuys, California), which in 1969 became part of an independent Metropolitan See of Munhall, later renamed the Metropolitan Province of Pittsburgh. By the late 1980s the four eparchies of the Pittsburgh Metropolitanate had about 284,000 members in 227 parishes. Throughout its early history the Greek (Byzantine

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Ruthenian) Catholic Church suffered discrimination from the American Roman Catholic bishops and it was required by Vatican decrees (*Ea Semper, 1907; * Cum Data Fuerit, 1929) to adapt to American Catholic norms, including celibacy for priests and the transfer of legal ownership of church property to the bishop. Such restrictions provoked protests from both priests and the laity, many of whom abandoned Greek Catholicism for the *Russian Orthodox Church of America (especially before World War I) and subsequently for the newly established *American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic Diocese (especially during the 1930s). In the second half of the twentieth century the Byzantine Ruthenian Catholic Church, particularly during the espiscopates of Bishops Daniel Ivancho (r. 1948-1954) and Nicholas Elko (r. 1955-1967), embarked on a policy of americanization, which meant adoption of English in the liturgical services, acceptance of Americans of non-Rusyn background into the church, and abandonment of some Byzantine-rite traditions, including removal of iconostases. Despite this trend toward de-ethnicization there were always priests and lay members who strove to preserve the Eastern traditions and the original Rusyn national character of the church. Among these have been priests such as Nicholas Chopey (1876-1961) and Valentine *Gorzo, who after World War I took an active part in the *American National Council of Uhro-Rusyns. During the interwar years priest-writers, including Joseph *Hanulya, Emilij A. *Kubek, George/Jurion Thegze (1883-1962), and Stefan *Varzaly and laypersons Peter *Zeedick and Adalbert Smor promoted Rusyn cultural identity while defending the Eastern Christian traditions of the church. Even during the americanization period following World War II priest-historians such as Stephen Gulovich (1910-1957), John *Slivka, Basil *Shereghy, and Athanasius *Pekar published widely on Rusyn themes in the church's official newspapers, the * Byzantine Catholic World and Eastern Catholic Life (1965- ). Efforts to restore the traditional Eastern practices and to revise an interest in the Rusyn heritage were particularly noticeable during the episcopates of Metropolitan Stephen *Kocisko of Pittsburgh (1969-1991) and Bishop Michael J.*Dudick of Passaic (1968-1995). Aside from the establishment of heritage museums for the Archeparchy of Pittsburgh (1971) and the Eparchy of Passaic (1972), the Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic Church in the USA has also provided assistance to Rusyn Greek Catholics in the eparchies of *Presov (Slovakia), *Nyiregyhaza (Hungary), and *Mukachevo (Ukraine). The Greek Catholic seminaries in each of those eparchies have received financial support from Rusyn-American Greek Catholics both in the interwar years and in the postCommunist 1990s. Further reading: Stephen C. Gulovich, "The Rusin Exarchate in the United States," Eastern Churches Quarterly, VI (London, 1946), pp. 459-485; Walter C. Warzeski, Byzantine Rite Rusins in Carpatho-

Encyclopedia of Rusyn History and Culture Ruthenia and America (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1971); and John Slivka, Historical Mirror: Sources of the Rusin and Hungarian Greek Rite Catholics in the United States of America, 1884-1963 (Brooklyn, N.Y., 1978); Paul Robert Magocsi, "Rusyn Catholics in America," in The Encyclopedia of American Catholic History (Collegeville, Minn., 1997), pp. 1221-1224. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Greek Catholic Carpatho-Russian Benevolent Association Liberty. See Liberty Association Greek Catholic Central Seminary — institution connected to the University of Vienna for the training of Rusyn and other Greek Catholic seminarians from all parts of Austria-Hungary. After the *Stadtkonvikt Seminary was closed in 1848 the Greek Catholic bishops from Galicia and Hungary petitioned the emperor to establish a new institution. They argued that a seminary in Vienna would allow students access to better educational facilities and libraries, help them learn German, and in general promote greater unity among the various nationalities of the Habsburg Empire. In 1852 the new institution was opened in the building of the former Stadtkonvikt, where it was to function until 1893. The number of students ranged from 30 to 50, and their geographical (eparchial) composition changed often. Whereas seminarians from Galicia (including the *Przemysl Eparchy covering the *Lemko Region) were always present, those from Hungary (the *Eparchies of Mukachevo and Presov) were enrolled only until 1873. After that year, seminarians from the Eparchies of Mukachevo, Presov, and Krizevci were sent to seminaries in the Hungarian Kingdom, including the Central Seminary in Budapest. Of the 368 students who attended the Greek Catholic Central Seminary in Vienna during its entire existence, 28 were from the Eparchy of Presov, 25 from Mukachevo, 13 from *Krizevci, and 40 were of Lemko origin. Several were to rise to prominent rank, including the future Greek Catholic bishops lulii *Firtsak of Mukachevo and luliian Pelesh of Przemysl. Other alumni—Kyryl *Sabov, Aleksii *Toronskii, and levhenii *Fentsyk—became leading Rusyn and Lemko cultural activists. Further reading: Dmytro Blazejovskyj, Byzantine Kyivan Rite Students, Analecta OSBM, Series II, Sctio I, Vol. 43 (Rome, 1984), pp. 236-272. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Greek Catholic Eparchy of Hajdudorog — eparchy serving Byzantine-rite Christians in union with Rome living within the current boundaries of Hungary. The idea for the creation of the Hajdudorog Eparchy was connected with the

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture increasing demands put forth by priests and the laity in the second half of the nineteenth century for the use of the Hungarian language in Greek Catholic parishes located for the most part in what is currently northeastern Hungary. This came to be known as the Hajdudorog Movement and was headed by the military officer Lajos Farkas (1821-1884). From the outset (1866), the Vatican made it clear that it forbade the use of the Hungarian language in the Divine Liturgy. In 1873 the Hungarian government created the Vicariate of Hajdudorog (33 parishes with nearly 50,000 faithful) for "Greek Catholic Hungarians" in the southwest corner of the *Eparchy of Mukachevo. The entire Byzantine-rite liturgy was translated into Hungarian (1879), and despite Vatican restrictions the language was used in homilies and in several parts of the Divine Liturgy. When, in 1896, this situation came to the attention of Rome, the pope issued a decree prohibiting the use of Hungarian liturgical books and ordering the clergy of the Hajdudorog Vicariate to restore Church Slavonic in the Divine Liturgy. For the next 15 years pro-Hungarian Greek Catholic activists sent several petitions to the Vatican and participated in a large-scale pilgrimage to Rome (1900) calling for recognition of Hungarian as a legitimate liturgical language. When this tactic failed they proposed the creation of a separate Greek Catholic eparchy to encompass all parishes where Hungarian was spoken. The leading activists behind this movement were the magyarized Rusyn banker and member of the upper house of the Hungarian Parliament, Jeno Szabo (1843-1921), and his son-in-law, Emil Melles (1857-1932), the priest at the Greek Catholic parish in Budapest, who, despite the Vatican's restrictions, continued to celebrate the liturgy in Hungarian. To mobilize fellow assimilated Rusyns in support of their goals, Szabo and Melles established in 1898 the National Committee of Magyars of the Greek Catholic Faith/Gorogkatolikus szertartasu magyarok orszagos bizottsaga. In short, the drive to create a new Greek Catholic eparchy came from the Hajdudorog Movement and from priests (Emil Melles, Aladar Romanecz, and Andor Hodobay) and secular professionals living in Budapest (Jeno Szabo, Endre Rabar, Kalman Demko, Emil Demjanovics, Ignac Roskovics, and Jozsef *Illes) of Rusyn heritage who had assimilated to Hungarian culture and who wanted to promote Hungarian state patriotism and a Magyar national identity among the largest number of their co-religionists, regardless of whether they were of Rusyn or Magyar nationality. For its part, the Hungarian government's support for a new eparchy was motivated by two concerns: (1) it was responding to the demands of Greek Catholic *Magyars and magyarized Rusyns who felt alienated from a church structure (the Eparchy of Mukachevo) headed by a different nationality (Rusyns); and (2) it was trying to strengthen the number of Magyars vis-a-vis other nationalities as part of its general magyarization policy throughout the kingdom.

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While the Vatican upheld its 1896 decree and repeatedly rejected requests for recognition of Hungarian as a liturgical language, it eventually accepted the Hungarian government's proposal (spearheaded by the lobbying efforts of Jeno Szabo and others) for the creation in June 1912 of the Eparchy of Hajdudorog. In contrast to the Hajdudorog vicariate created in 1873, the new eparchy was much larger, consisting of 162 parishes (70 from the Eparchy of Mukachevo, 8 from Presov, 44 from Oradea/Nagyvarad, and 4 from Gherla/Szamosujvar —see Map 6). To these were added another 35 parishes (mostly Hungarian-speaking Szekelys) from the Fagaras/Fogaras Eparchy in southeastern Transylvania and the Greek Catholic parish in Hungary's capital of Budapest. Of the 215,000 faithful in the Hajdudorog Eparchy, an estimated 87 percent were Hungarian-speaking (including magyarized Rusyns), 10 percent Romanian, and 3 percent "Slavic." Included within the eparchy's boundaries was the Basilian Monastery and popular pilgrimage site at *Mariapocs. The first bishop was Istvan Miklosy (1857-1937, consecrated 1913), who in 1914 made Nyiregyhaza the episcopal residence, which it remains to this day. With regard to the controversial *language question, Rome agreed that the new eparchy could be created, provided that Greek (the alleged original liturgical language of Eastern Christians in that part of Hungary) would be used in the liturgy. A papal decree required that the Hajdudorog clergy learn Greek within three years but this never happened: the Hungarian language was simply used in direct violation of the Vatican's proscription against "living" languages (vernaculars). In the end, the Eparchy of Hajdudorog effectively became an instrument of magyarization within the remaining Rusyn villages located in *Borshod/Borsod county and in the southern parts of *Abov-Turna/Abauj-Torna and *Zemplyn/ Zemplen counties. After World War I the parishes that came under Romanian rule were returned to the Greek Catholic Eparchy of Oradea, so that Hajdudorog's eparchial boundaries coincided with the new international borders of Hungary. Hajdudorog has approximately 279,000 faithful (1995) in 126 parishes located primarily in the northeastern part of Hungary as well as in its capital Budapest. Further reading: Jeno Szabo, A gorog-katolikus magyarsdg utolso kdlvdria-utja, 1896-1912 (Budapest, 1913); Jeno Szabo and Emil Melles, eds., Emlekkonyv a gorog szertartasu magyarok romai zarandoklatdrol (Budapest, 1901; repr. 2000); Gyula Grigassy, A magyar gorog katolikusok legujabb tortenete (Uzhhorod, 1913); Cyril Korolevsky, Living Languages in Catholic Worship (London, New York, and Toronto, 1957), pp. 23-45; Gabriel Adrianyi, "Die Bestrebungen der ungarischen Katholiken des byzantinischen Ritus um eigene Liturgie und Kirchenorganisation um 1900," Ostkirchliche Studien, XXI (Wurzburg, 1972), pp. 116-131; Imre Timko,ed.,Jubileumiemlekkdnyve, 1912-1987 (Nyiregyhaza, 1987); Istvan Pirigyi, A magyarorszdgi gorogkatolikusok tortenete, 2 vols.

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(Nyiregyhaza, 1990); Istvan Pirigyi, A gorogkatolikus magyarsag tortenete (Budapest, 1991); James Niessen, "Hungarians and Romanians in Habsburg and Vatican Diplomacy: The Creation of the Diocese of Hajdudorog in 1912," The Catholic Historical Review, LXXX, 2 (Washington, D.C., 1994), pp. 238-257; Maria Mayer, The Rusyns of Hungary: Political and Social Developments, 1860-1910 (New York, 1997), pp. 153-189. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Greek Catholic Eparchy of Krizevci — administrative entity for Byzantine-rite Christians in union with Rome residing throughout the former Yugoslavia. The eparchy traces its origins to the first half of the seventeenth century, when Rome formed the Marca, or Vratanija Eparchy. It was intended for Orthodox Serbs and Croats (known as uskoky and zumbercany}, who fled from Ottoman Turkish rule, settled in the Austrian Empire, and accepted the *Unia/Church Union with Rome. The bishops of Marca/Vratanija were initially subordinate to the Roman Catholic bishops of Zagreb until 1777, when Rome created the independent Eparchy of Krizevci for all Greek Catholics living at the time under Austrian Habsburg rule, that is, in the territories of Croatia-Slavonia and the Bachka (i.e., the present-day *Vojvodina region west of the Danube River) within the Hungarian Kingdom. Of the approximately 5,000 faithful in the new eparchy, about four-fifths were zumbercany (Croats) living in the Slavonia region of Croatia, the remainder were Rusyns, who since 1745 had begun settling in the *Bachka from where some moved to the neighboring eastern Slavonia and Srem regions. For these three regions (Bachka, Srem, eastern Slavonia) the Krizevci Eparchy established the so-called Osijek Vicariate. After World War I Rome extended the authority of the Eparchy of Krizevci to the entire territory of the new state of Yugoslavia. Consequently, the eparchy came to include among its faithful Ukrainians and some *Lemkos from Galicia, who had migrated to Bosnia during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, as well as some Orthodox adherents in Macedonia who, in 1860, had accepted the union with Rome. By the mid-twentieth century the nationality composition of the eparchy had changed; of the 50,000 faithful at the time, over half were Vojvodinian Rusyns with the remainder divided among Croats, Ukrainians, and Macedonians. From its beginnings the seat of the eparchy has been in the small town of Krizevci in Croatia (western Slavonia); its priests are trained in the Greek Catholic Seminary in Zagreb, which dates from 1690. Beginning with its first bishop, Vasilije Bozickovic (r. 1777-1785), until 1891 all the eparchy's bishops were of Croatian background. lulii Drohobets'kyi (r. 1891-1920) was the first bishop ofRusyn background and after him all have been Rusyn natives of the *Vojvodina: Dionisii *Niaradii (r. 1920-1940), Havrii'l Bukatko (r. 1952-1981), loakim Segedi (r. 1981-1984), and Slavomir Miklovsh (r. 1983- ).

Although some of these bishops may have received advanced theological training in Ukrainian Greek Catholic seminaries and equally might have become sympathetic to the Ukrainian national orientation, they have remained strong supporters of the local Vojvodinian Rusyn culture and language. Religious publications intended for Vojvodinian Rusyns have always been published in their own language; *Church Slavonic is used in the Divine Liturgy, and Rusyn is used in homilies and other church celebrations. Bishop Niaradii was a strong financial supporter of the group's first cultural organization, the *Rusyn National Enlightenment Society, whose only two chairmen, Mikhailo *Mudri and Diura *Bindas, were Greek Catholic priests in the Krizevci Eparchy. The Rusyn Enlightenment Society's clerical leaders were instrumental in the decision to adopt the vernacular Rusyn language spoken in the Vojvodina for use in publications and education, and it was another Greek Catholic priest from the region, Havrii'l *Kostel'nik, who codified the language and became the "father" of its literature. Subsequently, Bishop Bukatko translated the Gospels into Vojvodinian Rusyn (1985). The post-1989 Rusyn national revival has also had its supporters among the Greek Catholic clergy, including the Vojvodinian priest loakim *Kholoshniai. The boundaries of the Eparchy of Krizevci have changed several times in the course of the twentieth century, depending on the political fortunes of Yugoslavia. They expanded from Croatia-Slavonia and the Bachka-Srem to include all of Yugoslavia when that state first came into being in late 1918. But when Yugoslavia was dismantled in 1941 the Krizevci Eparchy was limited to the territory of the Croatian state while the Vojvodina west of the Danube River (by then again ruled by Hungary) was detached and formed into a separate *Bachka/Backa Apostolic Administration headed by the Roman Catholic archbishopric of Kalocsa. With the restoration of Yugoslavia in 1945 the unity of the Krizevci Eparchy was restored to cover all the republics of the federal state. After 1978 the areas where Rusyns lived (Vojvodina, Srem, and eastern Slavonia) became part of the eparchy's Vojvodina Vicariate, consisting of 18 parishes with its seat in Ruski Kerestur. When after 1992-1993 Yugoslavia was radically reduced in size, the Eparchy of Krizevci (whose bishop moved his residence to Zagreb since the 1980s) remain a single unit responsible for administering to Greek Catholics in four countries: Yugoslavia (including the Vojvodina), Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Slovenia. At the time the eparchy had 50 parishes with approximately 49,000 faithful (1995), of whom 50 percent were Rusyns. In 2003, the eparchy of Krizevci was reduced in size so that its boundaries now coincide with the state borders of Croatia. As a result, the number of faithful is about 10,000, of whom only a small number are Rusyns who live in the far eastern part of the country—the Srem. Further reading: Havrii'l Kostel'nyk, "Kryzhivs'ka eparkhiia," Nyva,

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture XXVI (Eviv, 1932), pp. 134-139, 168-179, 209-215 and XXVII (1933), pp. 143-147 and 175-181; loakim Segedi, "200-rochni iuvilej Krizhevskei eparkhii'," in Khristiianskii kalendar 1978 (Ruski Kerestur, 1977), pp. 33-85); loakim Segedi, "Parokhi'i Osetskoho vikariiata," in Khristiianskii kalendar 1980, 1981, 1982 (Ruski Kerestur, 1979-81), pp. 109-150, 76-110, and 49-90. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo — the oldest eparchy among Byzantine-rite Christians in the Hungarian Kingdom. Until the early nineteenth century it included over 800 parishes in *Abov, *Bereg, *Borshod, Gemer, Hajdu, *Maramorosh,*Sharysh, Sotmar (Hungarian: Szatmar), Sobolch (Szabolcs), *Spish, Turna,*Ugocha, *Ung, and *Zemplyn counties. The origins of the eparchy are in dispute. Some scholars have argued that the eparchy was created by Sts. *Cyril and Methodius or by their disciples in the second half of the ninth century (863 is given as the symbolic founding date). Others suggest it was created either in 1360 at the time that Fedor *Koriatovych allegedly founded the *Mukachevo Monastery of St. Nicholas, or in the first half of the fifteenth century (between 1439 and 1445), when the archimandrite Luka administered the monastery. The earliest surviving written evidence about the eparchy, however, dates from the year 1491, when there is clear reference to loann as the first bishop (r. 1491-1498). Mukachevo was a monastic eparchy, that is, its seat was the Monastery of St. Nicholas on Chernecha Hora near Mukachevo, whose superiors/archimandrites were simultaneously bishops. The eparchy's archimandrites/bishops were until the end of the seventeenth century elected by a monastic council (sobor), then consecrated by archimandrites/bishops from the surrounding area, all of whom were in communion with the Orthodox ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople. As a result of the movement on behalf of the *Unia, or Church Union, the eparchy became Uniate (only later renamed Greek Catholic) following the signing of the Union of Uzhhorod in April 1646. Nevertheless, its first bishops, Vasylii *Tarasovych (r. 1634-1648) and *Parfenii Petrovych (r. 16491665), who were in office during the crises of the Reformation, Counter-Reformation, and the revolts of Transylvania against *Habsburg rule, remained caught in the middle of conflicting religious and political factions. For instance, following the episcopate of Bishop Parfenii, who was a strong proponent of the Unia/Union, various parts of the Mukachevo eparchy were still being administered by Orthodox bishops—loanykii *Zeikan (r. 1658-1687, intermittently), the wandering losyf Voloshynovs'kyi (r. 1670-1673), Porfirii Kul'chyts'kyi/Ardan (r. 1681-1686)—as well as by Uniate/Greek Catholic bishops—Dymytrii Monastelli (r. 1685-ca. 1688) and Mefodii Rakovets'kyi (r. 1687-1689). In an attempt to bring some order into the Mukachevo Eparchy the Catholic Primate of Hungary, Leopold Kollonich, was able to convince Rome to appoint the Basilian monk

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from Italy of Greek origin, Joseph *De Camelis, as bishop (r. 1690-1706). In keeping with Roman practice (Fourth Lateran Council of 1215) that there cannot be two bishops within one diocese, De Camelis and his immediate successors—loann Hodermars'kyi (r. 1707-1715), Georgii Genadii *Bizantsi (r. 1716-1733), Symeon Ol'shavs'kyi (r. 1734-1738), Havriil *Blazhovs'kyi (r. 1738-1742), Mykhail Manuil *Ol'shavs'kyi (r. 1743-1767), and loann *Bradach (r. 1767-1772)—were only vicars (auxiliary bishops), jurisdictionally subordinate to the Roman Catholic bishop of *Eger. After several efforts made by these bishops, the Austrian Empress Maria Theresa finally issued a decree in 1771, subsequently approved by Rome, that created a jurisdictionally independent Mukachevo Eparchy no longer subordinate to Eger. It was also at this time that the eparchy was formally renamed Greek Catholic. Until 1766, all bishops of the Mukachevo Eparchy had their residence at the Basilian monastery on Chernecha Hora just outside Mukachevo, then from 1766 within the city of Mukachevo itself. During the episcopate of Bishop Andrii *Bachyns'kyi (r. 1772-1809), the eparchy retained its historic name but its seat was moved to Uzhhorod (1780), where it remains to this day. Following the death of Bachyns'kyi the Mukachevo Eparchy experienced its first division: 192 parishes were removed from its western counties (Abov, Borshod, Gemer, Spish, Sharysh, and part of Zemplyn) to create in 1818 the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov. Five years later 72 parishes from Sotmar/Szatmar county in the south were transferred to the Greek Catholic Eparchy of Oradea/Nagyvarad, and in 1853 another 94 parishes were transferred to the Eparchy of Gherla/Szamosujvar. Finally, in 1912, 68 parishes from the southwestern part of the Mukachevo Eparchy were transferred to the newly created *Eparchy of Hajdudorog. Thus by the outbreak of World War I the Eparchy of Mukachevo was basically limited to the territory of *Subcarpathian Rus' and far eastern Slovakia, which after the conflict was to become part of the new state of Czechoslovakia (see Map 6). During the period of Czechoslovak rule the Mukachevo Greek Catholic Eparchy faced a serious challenge, as nearly one-third of its parishioners left to join the Orthodox Church. This movement, called "the return to the old faith," was particularly strong during the 1920s. Relations with the Czechoslovak government were also initially strained. Many of the eparchy's priests were accused of being *magyarones, and Bishop Antonii *Papp left his seat in Uzhhorod and settled permanently in Hungary after refusing to swear the required oath of allegiance to the new Czechoslovak state. Other problems concerned church dues and priests' salaries, which remained unregulated until the passage of special laws in 1926. It was the post-World War II era, however, that brought the greatest challenges. In 1949 the Soviet regime in Subcarpathian Rus'/Transcarpathia declared the 1646 Union

148 null and void and formally abolished the Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo. The reigning bishop, Teodor *Romzha, was murdered (1947) and those priests who refused to renounce Catholicism and join the Orthodox Church were arrested and imprisoned. Greek Catholic churches were turned over to the *Orthodox Eparchy of Mukachevo for its use; other Greek Catholic property (episcopal palace in Uzhhorod, seminary, schools, landed estates) was confiscated by the state. Despite such repression, the Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo continued to survive during the Soviet era as an "underground" church with a secret hierarchy. In the late 1980s, as a result of the political changes that rocked the Soviet Union, the hierarchy came "out from the underground," and in 1989 the Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo was allowed to function as a legal entity with 209 registered parishes (in comparison to 289 at the time of its liquidation in 1949). With the help of the *Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic Church in the United States a new Greek Catholic Seminary was opened in Uzhhorod (1995). In terms of jurisdiction, the eparchy was restored on the basis of historic tradition and canon law, whereby it retains its status as a distinct church community (ecclesia sui juris) directly under the authority of the Holy See in Rome. This status was criticized by Ukrainian nationalists within and beyond the church, and it has resulted in internal division among the hierarchs. A portion of the priests, who are pro-Ukrainian and led by the auxiliary bishop of Khust, Ivan Margitych (r. 1989-2003), demanded that the Eparchy of Mukachevo become part of the jurisdiction of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Metropolitanate of Eviv, based in neighboring historic Galicia. The other and larger portion of priests led by Bishop Ivan Semedi (r.19892003) argued against changing the traditional jurisdictional status of the eparchy. After investigating this problem the Vatican declared (1993) that the jurisdictional status of the Eparchy of Mukachevo shall remain unchanged and that the auxiliary bishops existing at the time be given specific responsibility for the faithful ofRusyn and Hungarian background (Holovach) and of Ukrainian orientation (Margitych). Recognizing the multinational composition of the eparchy, the Holy Liturgy may be conducted in *Church Slavonic, Ukrainian, or Hungarian. Traditionally, the Eparchy of Mukachevo has been associated with the Rusyn people. This became the case especially after the territorial restructuring in the nineteenth century; by 1912 the eparchy had been reduced primarily to Rusyninhabited villages. In terms of its relationship to the Rusyn nationality, however, the eparchy has at different times adopted a positive, a negative, or a contradictory position. By the second half of the nineteenth century several of its bishops (Shtefan *Pankovych, Antonii *Papp) and their close associates in the eparchial administration were Hungarian state patriots and supporters of magyarization. At the same time, virtually all the leading Rusyn national awakeners and the

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture strongest opponents of magyarization were Greek Catholic priests (Aleksander *Dukhnovych, Aleksander *Pavlovych, Ivan *Sil'vai, levhenii *Fentsyk, and Avhustyn *Voloshyn, among others). Until World War I, Rusyn newspapers, organizations, and the widely read annual almanacs/*misiatsoslov were all either operated by or closely linked to the Eparchy of Mukachevo. In the interwar period of Czechoslovak rule, as well as during the World War II period under Hungary, the eparchy's hierarchs (Petro *Gebei, Aleksander *Stoika) and many of its priests (Emilian *Bokshai, Ivan *Muranii) were among the strongest supporters of the view that Rusyns form a distinct nationality. Since the restoration of the Eparchy of Mukachevo in 1989 opinion with respect to the Rusyn national idea among its hierarchs and priests has continued in the tradition of either a positive, negative, or contradictory position regarding the Rusyn national idea. Further reading: Mykhailo Luchkai, Istoriia karpats 'kykh Rusyniv, 6 vols. (1843, Uzhhorod, 1999-2005); Antal Hodinka, A munkacsi gorog-katholikus puspokseg tortenete (Budapest, 1910); Antal Hodinka, ed.,^4 munkacsi gorog-szertatdsupuspokseg okmdnytdra, Vol. I: 1458-1715 (Uzhhorod, 1911); Vasylii Hadzhega, "Dodatky k istorii Rusynov y rus'kykh tserkvei: v Maramoroshi," Naukovyi zbornyk Tovarystva "Prosvita," I (Uzhhorod, 1922), pp. 140-228, "... vUzhanskoizhupi,"II(1923),pp. 1-64 and III (1924), pp. 155239, "... v zhupi Ugocha," IV (1925), pp. 117-176 and V (1927), pp. 1-62, "... v zhupi Zemplynskoi," VII-VIII (1931), pp. 1-167, IX (1932), pp. 1-67, X (1934), pp. 17-120, XI (1935), pp. 17-182, XII (1937), pp. 37-83; Aleksander Baran, "Podil mukachivs'koi eparkhii v XIX storichchi,",4«a/ecta OSBM, IV, 3-4 (Rome, 1963), pp. 534-569; Atanasii Pekar, Narysy istorii tserkvy Zakarpattia, 2 vols. (Rome, 1967-97)—English-language revised ed. of Vol. I: A History of the Church in Carpathian Rus' (New York, 1992); Uzhhords'kii Uni'i—350 rokiv: materialy mizhnarodnykh naukovykh konferetsii (Uzhhorod, 1997); Jozsef Botlik, Hdrmas kereszt alatt: gorog katolikusok Kdrpdtaljdn az ungvdri uniotol napjainkig, 1646-1997 (Budapest, 1997); Ivan M. Hranchak, ed., Vazhlyvi vikhy v istorii Mukachivs 'koi hreko-katolyts 'koi ieparkhii (Uzhhorod, 1998); Paul Robert Magocsi, "Adaptation Without Assimilation: The Genius of the Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo," in idem, Of the Making of Nationalities There is No End, Vol. II (New York, 1999), pp. 194204; Istvan Bendasz, Reszletek a Munkacsi Gorog Katolikus Egyhazmegye tortenetebol (Uzhhorod, 1999); Omelian D. Dovhanych and Oleksii V. Khlanta, Uzhornach stalins 'kykh represii (Uzhhorod, 1999); Volodymyr Fenych, "Tserkovna polityka uhors'koho uriadu ta natsional'no-polirychna zaanhazhovanist' hreko-katolyts'koho i pravoslavnoho dukhovenstva Zakarpattia (berezen' 1939-zhovten' 1944 rr.)," Carpatica-Karpatyka, Vol. XX (Uzhhorod, 2002), pp. 61103; Volodymyr Fenych, "Konfesiino-natsional'nyi portret suchasnoho hreko-katolyts'koho sviashchenyka Mukachivs 'koi' ieparkhii," Carpatica-Karpatyka, Vol. XXI (Uzhhorod, 2003), pp. 238-259. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov — eparchy serving Byzantine-rite Christians in union with Rome (primarily Rusyns and Slovaks) within the current boundaries of Slovakia. The eparchy traces its origins to 1787, when the Vicariate of Kosice was created as an administrative division of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo. The vicariate was headed by canons from the Mukachevo Eparchy: loann *Pastelii (1787-1788), Mykhail Bradach (1790-1812, consecrated bishop), and Hryhorii *Tarkovych (1813-1816). Although the vicariate was initially based in the city of Kosice, in 1790 its headquarters were moved to nearby Presov, where it was given the Minorite Monastery and church on the city's main street. In the wake of discussions and proposals regarding jurisdictional restructuring of the Greek Catholic Church in Austria-Hungary, in early 1816 the Habsburg emperor raised the Kosice Vicariate to the status of an independent eparchy. The vicar Tarkovych was nominated as bishop (1816), approved by Rome (1818), and finally consecrated (1821). The new Eparchy of Presov consisted of 194 parishes with 158,000 faithful detached from the Eparchy of Mukachevo, most of which were in the counties of *Abov, *Spish, *Sharysh, and northern *Zemplyn, with smaller numbers in *Borshod, Turna, and Gemer (see Map 6). According to the eparchy's first official statistics (1821), 65 percent of the parishes were comprised of Rusyns, 14 percent mixed Rusyns and Magyars, 1.7 percent Poles, and 1.2 percent Slovaks. By the end of the century (1891) the figures had changed somewhat: of the 166,000 faithful at that time, 59 percent were Rusyns, 26 percent "Slovjaks" (a transitional identity between Rusyns and Slovaks), 12 percent Magyars, and 3 percent Slovaks. Bishop Tarkovych was best remembered for his scholarly activity, and with the assistance of a Hungarian benefactor, Janos Kovats (1764-1834), he created in Presov an eparchial library that became known as the Bibliotheca Kovacsiana. During the episcopate of his successor, losyf *Gaganets' (r. 1843-1875), the eparchy's cathedral church was restored and its interior redecorated in the Eastern style it more or less retains today, and a residence for needy students, the Alumneum (1864), was established. Subsequent eparchial institutions, all in Presov, included the Greek Catholic Seminary (1880) and the * Presov Greek Catholic Teachers' College/Preparandium (1895). During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule, which lasted until 1918, the bishops heading the Eparchy of Presov responded to the needs of the Hungarian government, which by the second half of the nineteenth century actively supported a policy of denationalization and magyarization of Rusyns. In contrast to Bishop Gaganets', who had supported the first Rusyn cultural and educational institutions, such as the *Presov Literary Society (1850) founded by the eparchial canon, Aleksander *Dukhnovych, and the *St. John the Baptist Society (1862), led by the lay political leader

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Adol'f *Dobrians'kyi, subsequent bishops—Nykolai Tovt (r. 1876-1882), loann Valyi (r. 1883-1911), and Shtefan/Istvan Novak (r. 1913-1918)—assisted the magyarization process. By the 1890s an increasing number of Rusyn-language Greek Catholic elementary schools switched to Hungarian as the language of instruction, and during World War I the last Rusyn-language schools were closed as the Eparchy of Presov banned the use of the *Cyrillic alphabet and adopted the western, Gregorian calendar for liturgical use. At the close of World War I the Eparchy of Presov together with Rusyn-inhabited lands farther east in *Subcarpathian Rus' were incorporated into the new state of Czechoslovakia. In the new political circumstances the pressure to continue magyarization was alleviated, but the eparchy faced new problems. The pro-Hungarian Bishop Novak opposed Czechoslovak rule and left for Hungary; in the subsequent two decades the eparchy did not have its own ordinary (ruling bishop), but rather apostolic administrators: Nykolai Russnak (1918-1922), the Bishop of Krizevci Dionysii *Niaradii (1922-1926), and from September 1926 the soon-to-be Bishop Pavel *Goidych, who was not raised to the status of eparch (ordinary) bishop of Presov until 1940. Aside from administrative problems the eparchy was faced with a growing Orthodox movement: by 1935 an estimated 9,000 faithful left the Greek Catholic Church "to return" to Orthodoxy. Most of the converts were Rusyns, whose departure decreased the percentage of that nationality within the Presov Eparchy. Thanks to the policies of Bishops Niaradii and Goidych, the Greek Catholic elementary school system again offered instruction in Rusyn, and in 1936 the eparchy supported the establishment of the Russian-language gymnasium in Presov. The eparchy also sponsored the publication of an influential Rusyn newspaper, *Russkoe slovo (1924-38), and welcomed *Basilian Sisters from Galicia, who opened a convent and boarding school in Presov (1922) and later schools and/or orphanages in Medzilaborce (1938), Secovce, Stropkov, and Svidnik(1945). The defense of Rusyn national interests, especially by Bishop Goidych, provoked displeasure on the part of Slovak national activists. During the period of the World War II government officials in the Slovak state hoped that Goidych would resign and be replaced by someone of Slovak nationality. This did not happen (Goidych submited his resignation but it was not accepted by the pope), and the eparchy was for a few more years able to continue to fulfill the cultural as well as spiritual needs of its parishioners, maintaining the traditional Church Slavonic language for the liturgy, Rusyn in homilies, and Rusyn or Russian-language instruction in its school system and publications. The new Communist regime that came to power in Czechoslovakia in February 1948 was determined to follow the example of its protector, the Soviet Union. Just as the church union with Rome was abolished in western Ukraine (Eviv,

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1946) and neighboring Subcarpathian Rus'/Transcarpathia (Mukachevo, 1949), the Czechoslovak Communist authorities, in cooperation with the local Orthodox church, organized the so-called Operation "P'VAkcia "P", which at a sobor in Presov (April 1950) outlawed the Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov. Of the 300 priests in the eparchy at the time, about one-third accepted the offer to join the Orthodox Church. On the other hand, Bishop Goidych and the 120 Greek Catholic priests who refused, were arrested. To justify their actions against the Greek Catholic Church the Czechoslovak government arranged a show trial (1951) at which Bishop Goidych was sentenced to life imprisonment on the false accusation that he and his clergy had assisted the Slovak "fascist" government during World War II and the anti-Soviet Ukrainian underground movement at the close of the war. All Greek Catholic Church property was confiscated by the state, while most of the churches were given to the Orthodox for their use. During the period of political liberalization connected with the Prague Spring of 1968, legal status was restored to the Greek Catholic eparchy and many of its churches—including the cathedral in Presov, although not other property—were returned. Goidych's auxiliary bishop and successor, Vasyl' *Hopko (who survived imprisonment by the Communists), was not, however, given episcopal authority. Instead, in December 1968, the Vatican appointed an administrator, Jan Hirka (b. 1923). This was the first time the Eparchy of Presov was to be headed by someone of Slovak nationality, and under Hirka's direction (until his retirement in 2002) the church took on an increasingly Slovak hue. After the fall of Communist rule the Greek Catholic Church was fully restored in Slovakia: Hirka was consecrated bishop (1990), priests unjustly imprisoned after 1950 were legally rehabilitated, and the eparchy's property (other than church buildings) was returned. Not unexpectedly, the property issue led to conflicts with the Orthodox Church. Whereas the Eparchy of Presov continued to grow in the last decades of the twentieth century—208,000 faithful in 259 parishes (1990)—this was also a period of increasing slovakization. Church Slavonic has increasingly been replaced by Slovak, homilies are generally given in Slovak (even in Rusyn villages), and church publications appear almost exclusively in Slovak. In essence, the Greek Catholic Church in the Eparchy of Presov presents itself as a Slovak institution. The eparchy does, however, contain within its ranks a few priests who from the mid-1980s began to restore the Rusyn element in their pastoral work, at first clandestinely and later openly. This has taken the form of translations of catechisms and other religious texts into the Rusyn vernacular (mostly under the direction of Frantishek *Krainiak) and the publication of magazines and scholarly journals in a Rusyn spirit (mostly by the Basilian monks, Gorazd and losafat Tymkovych). The Eparchy of Presov remains under the direct jurisdiction of the Holy See, and as part of the current discussions regard-

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture ing jurisdictional change the idea of creating a new eparchy specifically for Rusyns has been discussed. Further reading: Aleksander V. Dukhnovich, Istoriia Priashevskoi eparkhii (St. Petersburg, 1877)—English trans.: Alexander Duchnovic, The History of the Eparchy of Prjasev (Rome, 1971); Volodymyr Hnatiuk, "Rusyny Priashivs'koi eparkhii i i'kh hovory," Zapysky Naukovoho tovarystva im. Shevchenka, XXXV (Eviv, 1900), pp. 1-70; Athanasius Pekar, Historic Background of the Eparchy of Prjashev (Pittsburgh, 1968); Julius Kubinyi, The History ofPrjasiv Eparchy (Rome, 1970); The Tragedy of the Greek Catholic Church in Czechoslovakia (New York, 1971); Michael Lacko, "The ReEstablishment of the Greek Catholic Church in Czechoslovakia," Slovak Studies, XI (Cleveland and Rome, 1976), pp. 159-189; Andrea Rebichini, " I Greco-Cattolici della Slovachia Orientale: storia e attualita," Slovak Studies, XXIII (Cleveland and Rome, 1983), pp. 75111; Michal Fedor, Z dejin greckokatolickej cirkvi v Ceskoslovensku 1945-mdj 1950 (Kosice, 1993); Marian Gajdos, "Political Aspects of 'Action P' in East Slovakia in the Year 1950," Urbs—Provincia— Orbis: Contributiones ... in honorem O.R. Malaga (Kosice, 1993), pp. 177-186; Paul Robert Magocsi, "Religion and Identity in the Carpathians," in Boris Gasparov and Olga Raevsky-Hughes, eds., Christianity and the Eastern Slavs, Vol. I (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and Oxford, 1993), pp. 118-138; Robert Letz, "Postavenie greckokatolickej cirkvi v Cesko-Slovensku v rokoch 1945-1968," Historicky casopis, XLIV, 2 (Bratislava, 1996), pp. 262-280; Jan Seman, A znovazijeme (Presov, 1997); Jozef Pavlovic, "The Byzantine Catholic Church in Slovakia," Eastern Churches Journal, V, 3 (Fairfax, Virginia, 1998), pp. 61-84; Peter Sturak, Dejiny greckokatolickej cirkvi v Ceskoslovensku v rokoch 1945-1989 (PreSov, 1999); Michal Oleksa, Neklamte protipravde (Presov, 2000). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Greek Catholic Eparchy of Przemysl — Byzantinerite church jurisdiction that before 1945 existed in the historic province of Galicia, on territory that is today in southeastern Poland and western Ukraine. The eparchy was formed as a result of the Union of Brest (1596), at which several Orthodox bishops and their followers accepted the *Unia/ Church Union that brought into being the Uniate (later renamed Greek Catholic) Church. Przemysl's first Uniate bishop, Atanasii Krupets'kyi (r. 1610-1652), claimed jurisdiction over the entire ""Orthodox Eparchy of Przemysl, but his authority was challenged by rival Orthodox bishops and the reluctance of local parishes (some 800 out of 1,200), who refused to recognize the *Unia/Church Union. Even after the formal liquidation of the Orthodox Eparchy of Przemysl in 1691, it took another two decades before all parishes were brought fully under the Uniate jurisdiction. The Uniate Eparchy of Przemysl was part of the Uniate Metropolitanate of Kiev, which existed within the borders of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Its prestige was enhanced when Bishop lurii Vynnyts'kyi (r. 1700-1713),

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture who in 1710 was appointed Uniate Metropolitan of Kiev, was because of political difficulties forced to administer that entire jurisdiction from Przemysl. Serious improvements did not come, however, until 1772, when Galicia was annexed to the Austrian Empire. The *Habsburg Austrian authorities provided full equality between the various rites of the Catholic Church and approved a change in name from Uniate to Greek Catholic for jurisdictions of the Byzantine-Slavonic rite in union with Rome. In 1808, the Greek Catholic Eparchy of Przemysl became one of two and later three divisions of the restored Metropolitanate of Galicia. The Austrians also provided substantial financial support to the Greek Catholic Church which in the Przemysl eparchy allowed for the establishment of a seminary (1780-1783, permanently after 1845), parochial schools (201 by 1818), an institute for "'cantors/parochial teachers (1817), and an eparchial printshop (1840). At the outset of Austrian rule in 1772, the eparchy had 1,254 parishes, but as a result of consolidation that number decreased to 688 on the eve of World War I. During the second half of the nineteenth century, the Greek Catholic Eparchy of Przemysl was headed by several bishops of *Lemko origin: Toma *Polianskii (r. 1860-1869), losyf *Sembratovych (r. 1867-1872), and luliian Pelesh (r. 18911896). This was also a period of growing friction among various factions of the nationalist intelligentsia in Galicia—*Old Ruthenians, *Ukrainophiles, *Russophiles—and of attempts by the Polish-dominated provincial administration to interfere in the internal affairs of the eparchy. Most bishops, whether or not of Lemko origin, tried to remain neutral on the nationality question and they urged the eparchy's priests (with varying success) to adopt the same attitude. Things changed, however, at the outset of the twentieth century, from which time the Greek Catholic Eparchy of Przemysl was headed by bishops Konstantyn Chekhovych (r. 1897-1915) and the Lemko-born losafat *Kotsylovs'kyi (r. 1916-1946), who were openly sympathetic to the Ukrainian orientation. Their policies led to alienation on the part of Old Ruthenian and Russophile priests and parishioners. The adoption of a pro-Ukrainian orientation and the increasing influence of Roman Catholic latinizing practices (celibacy was introduced into the eparchy in 1924) contributed to further internal divisions and to the loss of thousands of faithful, especially in the *Lemko Region, who were attracted to the "return to Orthodoxy movement" heralded by the *Tyliava schism in 1926. In an effort to stem further decline, in 1934 the Vatican detached from the far western part of the Przemysl Eparchy 121 parishes to create the *Lemko Apostolic Administration. As a result, on the eve of World War II the Przemysl Eparchy was reduced to 578 parishes with about 1.1 million members (see Map 6). At the close of World War II in 1945, the new Communist rulers of Poland adopted the Soviet view that the Greek Catholic Church was a tool of foreign powers and, therefore, the Unia/Church Union should be outlawed, following

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its abolition at the L'viv Sobor (Church council) of 1946. Whereas Communist Poland never formally outlawed that part of the Eparchy of Przemysl remaining on its territory (west of the San River), it did nationalize all Greek Catholic church property (1947 and 1949) on the grounds that such property "lost its purpose as a result of the resettlement" of church members. Also, Bishop Kotsylovs'kyi and his auxiliary were deported to the Soviet Union (where they died soon after); the 115 priests left in postwar Poland were dispersed throughout the country; and Greek Catholic churches were either destroyed (267 between 1939 and 1980), turned over to the Orthodox (15 by 1966), or taken over by the Roman Catholic Church (167 by 1985). After the political thaw that began in Communist Poland in 1956, Greek Catholics were allowed to form parishes, but only if they were attached to existing Roman Catholic ones. Eventually, 68 Greek Catholic parishes were formed and after 1964 were headed by a vicar general subordinate to Stefan Cardinal Wyszynski, the primate of Poland's Roman Catholic Church and a special delegate of the Apostolic See for the Eastern rites. On the eve of the collapse of Communist rule in 1989, the Greek Catholic Church in Poland (with 82 parishes and 46 priests) was divided into a northern vicariate (Koszalin and Olsztyn deaneries) and southern vicariate (Przemysl and Wroclaw deaneries). In the 1990s the jurisdictional status of the church was regularized in post-Communist Poland with the creation of the Greek Catholic Metropolia of PrzemyslWarsaw comprised of the Archeparchy of Przemysl-Warsaw (70,000 members) and the Eparchy of Wroclaw-Gdansk. Przemysl once again became the seat of a Greek Catholic jurisdiction, although its first years were clouded by an intense and highly publicized struggle with local Roman Catholic Poles for control of the former cathedral church. The building, which served as the Greek Catholic cathedral from 1784 to 1946, was to remain in Roman Catholic hands. At present, the Greek Catholic Church in Poland takes a clear stand on its national orientation. It is also known as the Byzantine-Ukrainian Catholic Church and participates prominently in Ukrainian community life throughout Poland, including support for the work of Ukrainian-oriented Lemko organizations such as the *Union of Lemkos in Poland and the *World Federation of Ukrainian Lemko Organizations. In those parts of the pre-World War II Eparchy of Przemysl located in Ukraine, two new Greek Catholic eparchies have been created, Sambir-Drohobych and Stryi (headed by Lemko-bom Bishop luliian Gbur); both are jurisdictionally and nationally integrated with the Greek Catholic Archeparchy of L'viv in Ukraine. Further reading: Antonii Dobrianskyi, Ystoriia Epyskopov trekh soedynennykh eparkhii Peremyshl'skoi, Samborskoiy Sanotskoi ot naidavnieishykh vremen do 1794 (L'viv, 1893); Petro Isai'v, Istoriia Peremys 'koho iepyskopstva skh. obriadu (Philadelphia, 1970); Oleh Volodymyr Ivanusiv, Tserkva v mini/ Church in Ruins: the Demise

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of Ukrainian Churches in the Eparchy ofPeremyshl (St. Catharine's, Ont, 1987); Stanistaw Nabywaniec, "Organizacja Greckokatoliciej Diecezji Przemyskiej przy kohcu lat siedemdziesi^tych XIX w.," Nasza Przeszlosc, LXX (Cracow, 1988), pp. 75-127; A.Nalecz, Cerkwie greckokatolickie w Diecezji Przemyskiejpo roku 1945: zarys problematyki (Przemysl, 1988); J.Musial, "Stan prawny i sytuacja faktyczna swiqtyri unickich na terenie diecezji przemyskiej w latach 1945-1985" and Mieczyslaw Jabionski, "Greckokatolicka diecezja przemyska w latach 1918-1939," in Stanisiaw Stej)ieii, ed., PolskaUkraina:1000 lat sqsiedztwa, Vol. I (Przemysl, 1990), pp. 257-262 and 229-250; Zdzislaw Budzynski, "Struktura terytorialna i stan wiernych Kosciola unickiego na Lemkowszczyznie w XVIII wieku," in Jerzy Czajkowski, ed., Lemkowie w historii i kulturze Karpat, Vol. I (Rzeszow, 1992), pp. 267-284; Dmytro Blazejovskyj, Historical Sematism of the Eparchy of Peremysl including the Apostolic Administration ofLemkivscyna (1828-1939) (L'viv, 1995); Stanislaw Stepieri, ed., Polska-Ukraina: 1000 lat sqsiedztwa, Vol. Ill (Przemysl, 1996); Witold Kolbuk, "Kosciol Unicki na Lemkowszczyznie w XVIII wieku: problem odre_bnosci," and Anna Krochmal, "Specyfika stosunkow wyznaniowych na Lemkowszczyznie w XX wieku," in Andrzej Zi^ba, ed., Lemkowie i lemkoznawstwo w Polsce (Cracow, 1997), pp. 115-123 and 135-143; Chris Hann, "Postsocialist Nationalism: Rediscovering the Past in Southeast Poland," Slavic Review, LVII, 4 (Champaign, 111., 1998), pp. 840-863; Bogdan Stepan, ed., Archidiecezja Przemysko- Warszawska obrzqdku greckokatolickiego w roku wielkiego jubileuszu (Przemysl, 2000). BOGDAN HORBAL PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Greek Catholic Lemko Apostolic Administration. See Lemko Apostolic Administration Greek Catholic Pravoslavny Brotherhood. See United Russian Orthodox Brotherhood of America

Greek Catholic Teachers' College. See Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College

Greek Catholic Union Messenger. See Amerikansky russky viestnik Greek Catholic Union of Rusyn Brotherhoods in the USA/Sojedinenije greko-kaftolic'eskich russkich bratstv v S.S.A. — the oldest still functioning Rusyn-American fraternal organization, established in WilkesBarre, Pennsylvania, on February 14, 1892. The basic goals of the Greek Catholic Union were to unite "Greek Catholics who speak Rusyn"; to provide insurance against work-related accidents for its members; to encourage education by supporting the construction of schools and churches; and to protect the widows and children of members. Its founding president (1892-1899) was the businessman John Smith (Ivan Zhinchak,

1864-1942). Among long-term chairmen were John Uhrin (1906-1912), Michael Yuhasz, Sr. (1901-1906, 1920-1936), John P. Sekerak (1936-1944), Stephen M. Tkatch (1944-1968), and George Batyko (1968-1997). The Greek Catholic Union operated an orphanage, which opened in Elmhurst, Pennsylvania (1921-1948); it helped construct many Greek Catholic churches and financed the construction of the Byzantine Catholic Seminary (1951). It had a very active youth branch and an athletic (gymnastic) society called *Sokol. It published Rusyn-language school books and Rusyn- and English-language newspapers for its adult members, the *Amerikansky russky viestnik (1892-1952) and the GCU Messenger (1952-93), and for its youth Sokol Sojedinenija/American Russian Falcon (1914-36) and Svit D'itej/Children's World(1917-38, 1946-75). Despite its support of the *Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic Church, the Greek Catholic Union established the Committee for the Defense of the Eastern Rite/Komitet Oborony Vostocnoho Obrjada—KOVO (1932-1940), which campaigned against Bishop Takach and his decision to enforce Vatican policies pertaining to the Greek Catholic Church in the United States (including enforcement of the rule of celibacy for newlyordained priests). The Greek Catholic Union also took an active role in homeland politics, first supporting the call for unification of Rusyn-inhabited lands with Czechoslovakia (1918-1919), then criticizing that country for its refusal to grant *autonomy to *Subcarpathian Rus' (1920s and 1930s), and finally opposing the Soviet annexation of the province (1945). The Greek Catholic Union has always rejected the idea that Rusyns should be considered Ukrainians; instead, its leaders have argued that Rusyns are either a distinct nationality or (especially during the 1930s) a branch of the Russian nationality. After 1945 and the imposition of Communist rule in central Europe the Greek Catholic Union was unable to maintain further contact with the homeland and eventually lost interest in Rusyns living in Europe. At its height in 1929 the Greek Catholic Union had 133,000 members in 1,328 lodges. When it celebrated its centenary in 2002, it had 40,000 members in 96 lodges with total assets of $530,000,000. By the outset of the twentieth century the Greek Catholic Union had moved its headquarters from eastern to western Pennsylvania and was based in Homestead and Pittsburgh; since 1987 it has been based in a large landed estate near Beaver, Pennsylvania. Further reading: Michael Roman, ed., Zoloto-jubilejnyj kalendar' GrekoKaft. Sojedinenija vS.S.A. (Munhall, Pa., 1942); Opportunity Realized: The Greek Catholic Union s First One Hundred Years, 1892-1992 (Beaver, Pa., 1994). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Greko-kaftolic'eskoje russkoe pravoslavnoje

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture sojedinenije. See United Russsian Orthodox Brotherhood of America Grendzha-Dons'kyi, VasyF (b. Vasyl' Grendzha, April 23, 1897, Mizhhir"ia/Volovoe [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. November 25,1974, Bratislava [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — belletrist, publicist, and cultural and political activist of Ukrainian national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus' and Slovakia. After completing elementary school in his native village, Grendzha-Dons'kyi worked in the postal service until, as a loyal patriot of Hungary, he joined the Hungarian military (Honveds) in 1915. He was wounded on the Eastern front, and while recuperating in Budapest he took classes at the Commercial Academy and the Academy of Art. Grendzha-Dons'kyi returned to the army (1918) and fought on the Romanian and Italian fronts; after demobilization he was arrested in Budapest (early 1919) as a suspected Communist agitator. When a Communist government was established in Hungary (March 1919) he joined the Hungarian Red Army, remaining until the demise of Hungary's Communist regime in the summer of 1919. His earliest poetry from these years was written in Hungarian and his first wife was a staunch Hungarian patriot. In 1921 Grendzha-Dons'kyi returned home to what was by then Czechoslovak-ruled * Subcarpathian Rus', where he found work in Uzhhorod as a bank clerk. By 1923 he had changed his national orientation and had become a populist *Ukrainophile, as evidenced by his active participation in the *Prosvita Society; by the contents of the short-lived daily newspaper, *Rusyn (1923), for which he wrote; and by his collections of poetry, first in Rusyn (Kvityztern 'om, 1923) and then in Ukrainian (Zoloti kliuchi, 1923; Shliakhom ternovym, 1924). His Ukrainian and pro-Communist sympathies were further emphasized in the journal *Nasha zemlia (1927-28), which he founded and edited; because of its radicalism it was eventually closed down by the Czechoslovak authorities. He was, moreover, the first Subcarpathian Ukrainophile to have a collection of poetry published in Soviet Ukraine: Ternovi kvity polonyn (1928). In the early 1930s Grendzha-Dons'kyi did another political about-face, abandoning the Communist movement and allying with anti-Soviet Ukrainian radical nationalists as a frequent contributor to the newspaper *Ukrains 'ke slovo. At this time he turned to writing epic poems, plays, and prose works in a late Romantic style, based on themes from medieval Subcarpathian history (Chervona skala, 1931; Sotnia Mocharenka: piesa, 1932; Petro Petrovych, 1937) or on contemporary developments, such as the adventures of the last Robin Hood-like Carpathian bandit Il'ko Lypei: karpats 'kyi rozbiinyk (1936). Patriotic *nationalism also inspired him to publish a collection ofRusyn folktales: Pidkarpats 'ki kazky (1937). The height of Grendzha-Dons'kyi's nationalist phase came during the period of autonomous Carpatho-Ukraine

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(1938-1939), when he was the editor of the government's official organ, Uriadovyi visnyk, and one of the editors of the pro-government newspaper, *Nova svoboda, as well as a member of the executive of the authoritarian pro-government party, the Ukrainian National Union/Ukrai'ns'ke natsional'ne ob"iednannia (UNO). After the occupation of CarpathoUkraine by Hungary (March 1939) he was arrested and sent to an internment camp, where he was tortured and thought to have been killed. Released in June 1939, he eventually went to the Slovak state and settled in its capital Bratislava, where he was to remain for the rest of his life. During World War II he directed the Ukrainian program on Slovak State Radio. At the close of the war Grendzha-Dons'kyi joined (1945) the Communist party of Czechoslovakia, and when Ukrainianization was implemented among Rusyns in the *Presov Region he assisted several new Ukrainian-language publications, including the children's journal Dzvinochok, the youth newspaper Pioners 'ka hazeta, the monthly magazine Druzhno vpered, and the literary quarterly *Duklia. During the era of political repression that characterized Communist Czechoslovakia in the mid-1950s, the authorities recalled Grendzha-Dons'kyi's "bourgeois nationalist" past and had him cut off from literary life in the Presov Region. By the outset of the 1960s, however, the same government began proclaiming him as the leading Ukrainian-language writer in Communist Czechoslovakia, for which he was given high state awards: Artist of Merit (1970) and For [Communist] Socialist Reconstruction. During the last decades of his life GrendzhaDons'kyi revised many of his earlier publications, in particular replacing Rusyn vernacular vocabulary with literary Ukrainian forms. Collections of his writings were published by Mykhailo *Mol'nar (1964), Oleksa *Myshanych (1991), and Vasyl' Il'nyts'kyi (2003), although the most complete edition was prepared under the auspices of his daughter, Zirka GrendzhaDons'kyi, and published in 12 volumes (1981-92). Further reading: Mykhailo Mol'nar, "Dolia spivtsia polonyn: prychynok do tvorchoi biohrafii V. Hrendzha-Dons'koho," in idem, Zustrichi kul'tur: z chekhoslovats 'ko-ukrains 'kykh vzaiemovidnosyn (Bratislava and Preiov, 1980), pp. 388-447; Oleksa Myshanych, "Vasyl' Hrendzha-Dons'kyi," in Vasyl' Grendzha Dons'kyi, Tvory (Uzhhorod, 1991), pp. 5-21; Vasyl' Khoma, "Vnesok Vasylia Hrendzhi-Dons'koho u literaturnu spadshchynu rusyniv Priashivshchyny," in idem, Rozvytok rusyns 'koipoeziivSlovachchyni vid20-kh do 90-kh rokiv XXstolittia (Bratislava, 2000), pp. 46-62; Mykola M. Vegesh and L. V. Horvat, Hromads'ko-politychna i kul'turno-osvitnia diial'nist' Vasylia Grendzhi-Dons'koho, 18971974 (Uzhhorod, 2000). IVAN POP

Greshlyk, Vladyslav/ Greslik, Vladislav (b. November 11, 1953, Svidnik [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia)—pedagogue and art historian in the Presov Region. After completing

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the gymnasium (middle school) in Svidnik (1973), Greshlyk studied at the historical faculty of Lomonosov State University in Moscow (1973-1978), where he specialized in the theory and history of art. He was subsequently awarded a Ph.D. from the Academy of Art in L'viv, Ukraine (1996). Greshlyk worked as a historian and curator of art at the *Museum of UkrainianRus' Culture in his hometown of Svidnik (1978-1987) and since 1987 has taught art history at the Safarik, now Presov University (associate professor/docent, 2000). Greshlyk is a specialist on the folk icons of the Presov Region. He is always careful to emphasize that they are representative of the Eastern Christian cultural environment of the "Rusyn (Ukrainian) population of eastern Slovakia." Among his publications are Ikony Sariskeho muzea v Bardejove/Icons of the Saris Museum at Bardejov (1994) and Ikony 17. storocia na vychodnom Slovensku (2002). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Gressa, Greg. See Internet

— physician, publicist, and cultural activist of Russian national orientation among the Vojvodinian Rusyns. After completing the gymnasium in Novi Sad Gubash studied medicine in Budapest and Prague. He was among a group of Vojvodinian Rusyns who, dissatisfied with the *Ukrainophile and clerical orientation of the *Rusyn National Enlightenment Society (est. 1919), established in 1933 the *Zaria Cultural and Enlightenment (National) Union of Yugoslav Rusyns/Kulturno-prosvitni (natsionalni) soiuz iugoslavianskikh rusinokh "Zaria." Gubash was elected the first chairman (1933-1936) of the new organization, and during his tenure he became the founding editor (1934-1936) of its newspaper, Zaria (later renamed Russki batoh and *Russka zaria), and first editor (1935-1936) of its annual almanac, Russki narodni kalendar' Zaria. Although Gubash used the Vojvodinian Rusyn vernacular language in these publications, he believed in the unity of all the "Russian" peoples. He was particularly critical of the Ukrainian national movement among Rusyns in the Carpathian homeland. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Grigor'ev, Aleksandr. See Language question Gubyk, Ivan. See Lubov Russian Orthodox Fraternity Groh, Istvan. See Gorog katolikus szemle Gulovich, Stephen. See Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic Church in the USA; Historiography: United States

Gromosiak, T. See Lemko Grybow. See District Gryga, Mykhail. See Anthologies Gubash, Emilian/Gubas, Emiljan (b. February 25, 1875, Kucura [Hungarian Kingdom], Serbia; d. September 3, 1919, Kucura [Yugoslavia], Serbia) — teacher, cantor, and cultural activist among the Vojvodinian Rusyns. Gubash completed his studies at the gymnasium in Novi Sad and at the *Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College. He taught elementary school in his native village of Kucura (1894-1900) and then at the Greek Catholic "Rusyn" elementary school in Novi Sad (1900-1912) before returning to Kucura, where he worked as a teacher and cantor for the rest of his life. Gubash is best known for organizing the first public theatrical performance in Rusyn, with a presentation in 1913 in Kucura of two one-act plays by the Galician Russophile author, leronim la. Lutsyk. He was also among the founding members of the *Rusyn National Enlightenment Society and was elected one of its two vice-chairmen (1919), but died soon thereafter. Further reading: Diura Varga, "Uchitelie—dziiatsi—'narodni predniatsi'," Shvetlosts, XXVI, 1 (Novi Sad, 1988), pp. 39-63. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Gubash/Gubas, Milutin (b. 1893, Djurdjevo [Hungarian Kingdom], Serbia; d. 1974, Novi Sad [Yugoslavia], Serbia)

Gustavsson, Sven (b. June 1, 1938, Mosjo, Sweden) — Swedish linguist, South Slavist, and professor. Gustavsson studied Slavic philology at Stockholm University (Ph. D., 1969) and has taught at Uppsala University (professor, 1977- ). In 1970 he became one of the first scholars in the West to describe the language of the Vojvodinian Rusyns. Since that time he has published essays in several languages on that subject, including an extensive description in Swedish, Rusinerna i Jugoslavien, deras kultur och sprak (1975). Gustavsson considers Vojvodinian Rusyn to be a distinct Slavic language, and he is sympathetic to the group's efforts to maintain its own national identity. Further reading: "Rusnatsi maiu pravo samoopredzelienia: interviu zoz dr Svenom R. Gustavssonom," Shvetlosts, XXVII, 2 (Novi Sad, 1989), pp. 277-282. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Guzley, Peter. See Carpatho-Russian Congress Gymnasium — a middle-level school whose graduates are qualified to enter university. A full gymnasium program is eight years, beginning with the equivalent of grade six and continuing through grade thirteen. The gymnasium has had particular importance among stateless peoples, since it was often the setting where students developed a strong sense of

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture national consciousness, which might be the identity of their family and ancestors, the national identity of a particularly influential teacher, or the state nationality to which they were assimilated. The first gymnasium for Carpatho-Rusyns dates from the early seventeenth century, when in 1615 the lord sheriff (*zhupan) of *Ung and *Zemplyn counties, Gyorgy III *Drugeth, founded a Jesuit college (collegium} at Humenne. Sometime between 1640 and 1646 that institution was transferred to Uzhhorod, where it functioned as a Jesuit-run gymnasium until 1773, when the Jesuit order was abolished in the Austrian Empire. Under the Jesuits the quality of education at the Uzhhorod gymnasium, with its approximately 170 students, was for its time quite high. By the early nineteenth century the gymnasium operated only six classes; students finished their last two years (classes 7 and 8) at the so-called philosophy schools in Kosice or in Oradea/Nagyvarad/Varadyn. Except for a short period when German was the language of instruction (1785-1790), Latin was used in the Uzhhorod gymnasium from its beginnings until the mid-nineteenth century. Thereafter, Hungarian became the language of instruction, although for Greek Catholic students Rusyn was used in some classes and for various subjects during the 1850s. The introduction of Rusyn in the Uzhhorod gymnasium was largely the result of the political activity of Adol'f *Dobrians'kyi and for a short period (1862-1869) the institution had two departments, one for the Rusyn language and one for geography and history. Depending on the orientation of the instructor, either Rusyn vernacular or Russian was used in teaching these subjects. Beginning in the 1870s, Hungary's magyarization policies led to the gradual removal ofRusyn, so that by the end of the nineteenth century Hungarian was the language of instruction in virtually all courses. In 1856 the Uzhhorod gymnasium became a full eightyear institution. Meanwhile, in Mukachevo, which had had a private four-year gymnasium since 1837, a full eight-year state gymnasium was opened in 1868. Some Rusyn students, especially from the eastern regions of *Subcarpathian Rus', attended in Sighet the six-year gymnasium operated by the Reformed Church or the three-year gymnasium operated by the Roman Catholic Piarist Fathers. In 1890 a Hungarianlanguage state gymnasium was opened in Berehovo. There was also a Roman Catholic gymnasium in Presov attended by Rusyns from the *Presov Region and where, in 1849, a course in Rusyn language (first taught by Aleksander *Dukhnovych) was offered. The attempts in the 1860s to create at that institution a department of Rusyn language failed, and in the following decades, as elsewhere in the Hungarian Kingdom, Hungarian became the dominant and eventually the sole language of instruction at the Presov gymnasium. Moreover, the gymnasia in Uzhhorod, Mukachevo, Presov, and Berehovo were all expected to promote a sense of Hungarian state patriotism, and as a result many Rusyn students not only be-

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came loyal Hungarian citizens but also adopted a Hungarian (Magyar) national identity. The situation changed radically after World War I, when Rusyn-inhabited lands south of the Carpathians were annexed to Czechoslovakia (1919). The official language of instruction in the school system took into consideration not only the needs of the indigenous East Slavic (Rusyn) population. For instance, there were Jewish gymnasia with Hebrew as the language of instruction in Mukachevo (1924) and Uzhhorod (1934), and during the 1920s parallel Czech-language classes were established at Uzhhorod, Mukachevo, and the newly established gymnasium in Khust (1921). Rusyn activists in the Presov Region had long wanted their own institution, and finally in 1936 a Russian-language gymnasium was opened in Presov. In Czechoslovakia there developed what came to be known as "Russian" (Mukachevo, Khust, Presov) and "Ukrainian" (Uzhhorod, Berehovo) gymnasia, epithets which reflected the language of instruction and the national orientation of the instructors. Each institution's orientation was largely dependent on the policy of its director and was related to how many Russian or Ukrainian teachers were hired from among recently arrived emigres. While it is true that the quality of education notably improved during the Czechoslovak era, there was also a down-side: students often adopted a Russian or a Ukrainian national identity, with the result that a significant number did not contribute to their own specifically Rusyn cultural evolution. During the short-lived autonomous government (19381939) under Avhustyn *Voloshyn, the gymnasia that remained within, or were transferred to, territory still part of Subcarpathian Rus'/*Carpatho-Ukraine were ukrainianized. After March 1939, when the rest of Subcarpathian Rus' and a small part of the Presov Region were annexed to Hungary, Ukrainian-language teaching was eliminated entirely, Russian was significantly diminished, and education in the Uzhhorod, Mukachevo, and Khust gymnasia was officially of Rusyn (Uhro-Rusyn) orientation. In neighboring Slovakia throughout the World War II years the state gymnasium in Presov continued to teach in Russian and to promote among its students a Russian national identity. After the onset of Soviet rule in Subcarpathian Rus' (1945), the gymnasium was abolished as an institution and replaced by the 10-year middle school (desiatyrichka). Meanwhile, the Russian gymnasium continued to exist in Presov and other Russian gymnasia were established in Medzilaborce in 1945 (that same year transferred to Humenne) and in Svidnik. During the early 1950s, however, Czechoslovakia's Communist authorities replaced Russian with Ukrainian as the language of instruction in those institutions (as part of that country's administrative decision proclaiming that the Presov Region Rusyns were Ukrainians). As a result of the school reform implemented in Czechoslovakia in 1953, the

156 gymnasium was replaced by the eleven-year middle (strednd) school, which combined upper elementary grades, junior high, and high school. That same year the Humenne gymnasium was abolished; the Presov Russian gymnasium was transformed into the Ukrainian middle school which continues to exist to this day. The *Lemko Region has not had any gymnasia, so that Lemko Rusyns have attended secondary schools elsewhere. Initially they favored gymnasia south of the Carpathians, particularly those in Uzhhorod and Presov. Some also attended schools in the *Spish region town of Podolinec, where starting from the seventeenth century numerous Lemkos received their education. In the second half of the nineteenth century Lemkos started enrolling in newly created Polish gymnasia in Nowy Sa^cz, Gorlice, and Sanok located on the northern edge of the Lemko Region. To assist students attending these institutions, boarding schools called *Ruska Bursa were created in each of these cities. A Ruska Bursa was also established in Przemysl, where Lemkos attended the local Polish gymnasia, which for almost two decades during the second half of the nineteenth century was directed by the Lemko Greek Catholic priest, Foma Polianskii. A smaller but steady number of Lemkos began to attend PrzemysTs Ukrainian gym/7u, as in des'at', s'atyj, zub, budut'. Exceptions in some dialects occur in the mutation for e_, for instance, in piet', and mn 'eso in the Hutsul dialects; meso in the Lemko dialects, and certain others. Among the morphological features which link CarpathoRusyn dialects with East Slavic languages are the ending -u in first person singular present tense verbs nesu, stoju, pysu (but citam, spivam, hram—more about this below); the ending -t' in third person plural present tense verbs nesut'/nesut, pysut'/pysut, stojat'/stojat; the ending of present active verbal adjectives in -cyj/-cij, -ca/-coje, as in spivajucij ftach, chraml'ucyj zajac', nechot'aca baba, kypjaca voda, nevyd'ace d'ivca, as well as the ending of present active verbal adverbs in -cy/-ci, as in chodytplacuci, ide spivajuci, bih revucy; and the unification of case endings of nouns of all three genders in the dative, locative, and instrumental plurals, as in vovkam, vovkach, vovkamy; d'ivkam, d'ivkach, d'ivkamy; slovam, slovach, slovamy, and others. Carpatho-Rusyn dialects have preserved a pan-Slavic and East Slavic lexical inheritance, including items characteristic of Ukrainian. But they have also absorbed a number of items from Slovak and Polish, as well as Hungarian, German, and Romanian, as a result of lengthy contact with these non-East Slavic and non-Slavic languages and cultures. Southern Lemko Rusyn dialects in the Presov Region illustrate precisely this situation since they share with eastern Slovak or Slovak dialects in general nomenclature for things and phenomena which are well known or widespread in the Slavic world in historically recent times. The oldest Rusyn vocabulary from a Proto-Slavic base, however, is identical with Ukrainian, that is, with an East Slavic lexicon. One of the most typical syntactical properties of CarpathoRusyn dialects is the absence of the pronoun subject, including those instances when the verbal predicate is in the past tense: Robyljem tarn calyj den' (Ukrainian: Ja tarn pracjuvav cilyj den'). Among other common syntactical features is the expression of possession by means of conjugated forms of the verb maty; Mam korovu; Mam dobru zenu (Ukrainian: Umene ko-

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rova; Umene dobrazinkd), as well as the use of constructions such as Bolyt'n 'a holova; Fkral mu kon 'a (literary Ukrainian: Umene bolyt'holova; Vin u n 'oho vkrav kon 'a). Another group of linguistic phenomena characteristic of all Carpatho-Rusyn dialects consists of certain elements of linguistic structure which within the East Slavic language family occur only in Ukrainian. These elements include: (1) the replacement of the Proto-Slavic o and e in new closed syllables most often with /, as in kin', sil', viz (other mutations, however, are known: u [iu], u, bi, y, as in kun', kiun', kun', spoza hyr, and vezu—viuz, vtiz, viz); (2) the reflex / for the Proto-Slavic e (jaf), as in s 'ino, I'ito; (3) the middle vowel>> for the originally Proto-Slavic /, as in myska, vyty, robyty, prynesty. To these phenomena may also be added a combination of hard (depalatalized) syllables de, te, ne, le, and soft (palatalized) syllables d'i, t'i, n'i, I'i (de, tebe, ned'il'a, let'ity, n'igda, pot'im, I'ito). These features have persisted in the Rusyn language in the Presov Region in spite of centuries of isolation from Ukrainian and in spite of long-term contact with Slovak dialects and the Slovak literary language. This can be regarded as further proof of the well-known linguistic fact that a language's most rigid characteristics are its phonological features, which are immutable and resist the influence of neighboring languages.

WESTERN (LEMKO) RUSYN DIALECTS The most characteristic features of Western or Lemko dialects are listed below: (1) There is a fixed stress on the penultimate syllable of a word. (2) Third person singular and plural present tense verb endings have a hard -/: chodyt, robyt, sydyt/chod'at, robjat, syd'at (in the Eastern group of dialects: chodyt', robyt', syd'at'). (3) The ending -/ is found in the masculine third person singular past tense verb: chodyl, robyl, spal (in the Eastern group the ending -v predominates: chodyv, robyv, spav). (4) Verbs with the suffix -uva in the infinitive (kupuvaty, chosnuvaty) have forms of the suffix -iju- in their conjugation: kupiju, kupijes, kupije, kupijut (in the Eastern group are forms with the suffix -uju-: kupuju, kupujes). (5) The nominative plural adjective has the ending -y, as in stary baby, velyky Inky. (6) The ending -om is found in instrumental singular feminine nouns, adjectives, and pronouns (from the Ondava River westward to the Rusyn ethnographic border just beyond the Poprad River): s torn dobrom susidom (along the Laborec River and further to the east this ending is -ou, as in s tou dobrou susidou). (7) The same forms are used for the locative and instrumen-tal singular masculine and neuter adjectives and pronouns: o tym dobrym chlopovy/d'ivcatu and s tym dobrym chlopom/d 'ivcatom. (8) Dual forms of instrumental plural adjectives and

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture pronouns are used in -yma: s tyma dobryma chlopamy, babamy. (9) The genitive singular feminine adjective has the form -oj: staroj baby, sumnoj d'ivky (the Eastern group has noncontracted forms of the type staroji). (10) The first person singular present tense of the verb uses the endings -u and -m. The ending -u in the first person is used in these instances: a. after a present tense stem ending in a consonant in which there is no contraction: yty—ydu, nesty—nesu, vesty—vedu, vezty—vezu. Here, Rusyn dialects conform to literary Ukrainian: idu, nesu, vedu. This applies also to verbs with an infinitive stem ending in -y, hence without the intervocalic/: nosyty—nos 'u, robyty—robju/robl'u, kosyty—kos 'u\ b. after non-contracted verb stems with the groups -oja, -ija: stojaty—stoju, bojaty s 'a—boju s 'a, smijaty s 'a—smiju s 'a; c. when the infinitive stem has the suffix -uva-/-ova-, which in the conjugation changes to -uj-: kupuvaty/kupovaty—kupuju/kupiju, studuvaty—studuju/stud'iju, holoduvaty—holoduju/holod 'iju. The ending -m, on the other hand, is used in the first person singular in those instances where the verbal stem ends in -a, and in which a contraction occurs in the group -aju-, -aje-: citaty—citam, citas, citat; citame, citate; padaty—padam; sluchaty—slucham. The contraction in this group is typical for West and South Slavic languages. In contrast, literary Ukrainian and the other East Slavic languages have preserved the group -aje-: cytaju, padaju, sluchaju. (11) The use of the ending -u and -m in the first person singular corresponds with the use of two parallel endings in the third person singular; these are -t'/-t and a zero ending: a. the ending -t'/-t is used after contracted verb stems or after non-contracted verb stems if they do not have a group containing the intervocalic j: citaty—citat, padaty—padat, sluchaty—sluchat; syd'ity—sydyt'/sydyt, robyty—robyt'/robyt (Ukrainian: cytaty—cytaju, cytaje; padaty—padaju, padaje; sluchaty—sluchaju, sluchaje, because the contraction of the group -aje- does not occur, but sydity—sydyt', robyty—robyt', because the verb stems do not contain a group with the intervocalic/; the ending -t'/-t is also used after non-contracted verb stems with the groups -oja: stojaty—stojit'/stojit, bojaty s 'a—bojit's 'a/bojit s 'a (cf. Ukrainian: stojit', bojit'sja); b. the zero ending is used when the stem ends in -e: nese, vede, place. Compare the first person plural: nes-e-me, vede-me. The same ending is used in this instance in Ukrainian, as in nese, vede, place. (12) There are two analytic forms of imperfective future verbs: a. a conjugated form of the auxiliary verb byty plus the infinitive of the main verb: budu chodyty, budu robyty, budu spaty (this form is characteristic largely of the dialects in the Laborec region); b. a conjugated form of the auxiliary verb byty plus the

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture 1-participle: budurobyl, buduchodyl, budu spal (mainly west of the Laborec River). (13) The epenthetical / is absent after labials: robju, spju, kupju (but zeml'a). (14) The original / disappears in the imperative form: chad', yd'/id', rob, voz'. (15) There is a second palatalization in nominative plural masculine nouns whose stems end in k, g, h, ch, and also other masculine nouns (proper nouns) from the original ostem: borsug—borsudzy, vovcy, volosy, chrobacy, cerkivnycy, Rusnacy. (16) The short (enclitic) form of the personal pronouns mi, t'i, si, mu,ji (as in daj mi, povidzji, kupju t'i)\ n 'a, t'a, sa/s 'a, ho, ju/jej (as in vydyt n 'a, cuje t'a, sluchat ho, bojit sajej} is used. The enclitic in the dative for the pronoun ja is only in one form, mi (the long form as in the Ukrainian meni does not occur here), as in prysol gu mi. (17) The following pattern is found for numerical morphology: dvomy/dvome, tr 'omy/tr 'ome, stir 'me/stirme, pjat'me, sest'me, devjat'me, des'at'me, used with masculine animate nouns: dvomy chlopy, tr'omy princove, pjat'me sandare. Numbers from five up, however, are also used in their basic form—that is, pjaf, sisf, devjat'—with nouns in the genetive plural: pjaf chlopiv. Some researchers also include among the characteristic features of Western (Lemko) Rusyn dialects contracted forms of neuter adjectives, such as zelene lyst'a, which differs from the Eastern group with its non-contracted groups -oj, -oje, -o/7. Contracted forms, however, are typical not only of Lemko dialects but also appear in the Eastern, Subcarpathian group, especially east of the Rika River and in the majority of Ukrainian dialects on Ukrainian territory, as well as in literary Ukrainian. Likewise, the suffix -me in the first person plural of present tense verbs (chodyme, robyme) appears in Eastern (Subcarpathian and Boiko) Rusyn dialects, as well as in Western (Lemko) dialects. Other features specific to Western (Lemko) Rusyn dialects include, for example, the palatal -f'before / in infinitive endings (chodyfi, robyt'i, spat'i); palatalization of the sibilants s and z before / originating from e or before aK (z), m (5% e.g., aceni (zern), IUCHO (seno); the clusters dl, tl are preserved, e.g., cafljio (sadlo); tort, toll give trat, flat, e.g., Kpaaa (kravd), rnaa (hlad); 6. the clusters kv, gv are preserved except for spirantization in the latter, e.g., KBHUC (kvice), rBH3fla (hvizdd). Morphological features include the following: 1. soft-stem neuter nouns have the ending -o in the nominative singular, e.g., Mopfio (morjo); 2. the genitive and dative plural of nouns ends in -ox (och), e.g., ncox (psoch); 3. the first person singular and plural of the present tense end in -M and -Me, respectively, e.g., 3HaM (znarn), 3HaMe (zname); 4. the reflexive particle me (se) has no fixed position relative to its verb; 5. the past tense has in two forms: a snaji (ja znal) or snaji COM (znal sow). In effect, Vojvodinian-Srem Rusyn has alternating East Slavic (Carpatho-Rusyn) and West Slavic (East Slovak, i.e., Zemplen, Saris') characteristics, although the latter are dominant. This is explained as the result of language change or long-term mutual linguistic interference. Consequently, Vojvodinian-Srem Rusyn can be considered a clear case of a dual reflexive language. Further reading: Franti§ek Pastmek, "Rusini jazyka slovenskeho," in Vladimir I. Lamanskii, ed., Stat'ipo slavianoviedieniiu, Vol. I (St. Petersburg, 1904), pp. 60-78; Charles E. Bidwell, "The Language of the Badka Ruthenians in Yugoslavia," Slavic and East European Journal, X, 1 (Madison, Wise., 1966), pp. 32-45; Oleksa Horbach, "Leksyka hovirky bachvans'ko-srims'kykh ukrai'ntsiv," Naukovyi zbirnyk Muzeiu ukrains 'ko'ikul'tury v Svydnyku, IV, pt. 1 (Bratislava and PreSov, 1969), pp. 309-349; Mikola M. Kochish, Lingvistichni roboti (Novi Sad, 1978); Zuzana Hanudel', Linhvistychnyi atlas ukrains 'kykh hovoriv Skhidnoi Slovachchyny, 3 vols. (Bratislava and Presov, 1981-2001); Henrik Birnbaum, "Language Families, Linguistic Types, and the Position of the Rusin Microlanguage Within Slavic," Die Welt der Slaven, XXVIII [N.F., VII] (Munich, 1983), pp. 1-23; Aleksandr D. Dulicenko, "Das Russinische," in Peter Rehder, ed., Einjuhrung in die slavischen Sprachen, 2nd rev. ed. (Darmstadt, 1991), pp. 126-140; Aleksander D. Dulichenko, Jugoslavo-Ruthenica: roboti z ruskei filologi'i (Novi Sad, 1995); Horace G. Lunt, "Notes on the Rusin Language of Yugoslavia and Its East Slovak Origins," International Journal of Slavic Linguistics and Poetics, XLII (Columbus, Ohio, 1998), pp. 43-84; Aleksandr Dulichenko, "lazyk rusin Serbii i Khorvatii (iugoslavo-rusinskii)," in Osnovy balkanskogo iazykoznaniia, Vol. II: slavianskie iazyki

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(St. Petersburg, 1998), pp. 247-272; luliian Ramach, Primenovnitski konstruktsii u ruskim literaturnim iaziku (Belgrade, 1998).

Ruthenian Publications in America (Pittsburgh, 1971). ALEKSANDR D. DULICHENKO

UNITED STATES AND CANADA

Language question. The language question among Carpatho-Rusyns, together with related ethnolinguistic and cultural matters, has a long history. The question has been dealt with at varying times in different ways; nevertheless, an adequate solution remains to be found. It should be clear from the outset that we are not dealing here with the "natural" spoken language (see Language), but rather with the written language of culture, education, etc. The history of Rusyn literature seems to have begun in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, perhaps even earlier. At this time the first religious texts appeared in *Carpathian Rus', although they were not written in the region itself (see Literature, Early manuscripts). The genre included prayerbooks, minei (monthly readings), prology (miscellanies and interpretive epistles), and gospels, as well as texts from other religious literature (the Mukachevo and Imstychovo fragments, the *Uzhhorod polustav), all written in the Russian variant of *Church Slavonic. In one of the oldest extant documents written in Carpathian Rus' itself, from the Rusyn-Romanian border region at the *Hrushovo Monastery and dating from 1404, vernacular Rusyn linguistic elements (ses', mlyn, ouryk) appear in the text. Such vernacular elements also appear in the sixteenth-century *Tereblia prolog and in a whole range of other religious texts. Beginning in the early seventeenth century, a portion of the population in Carpathian Rus' accepted the *Unia/Church Union with Rome, so that by the eighteenth century the Uniate or Greek Catholic Church had become the dominant religion in the region. Aside from texts in Church Slavonic several in Rusyn vernacular are also found in this period: religiousdidactic tracts, tales, polemics, and collections of verse. An original work in Carpatho-Rusyn literature was the *Niagovo gospel, or postilla (literally: interpretive gospel). Its extant copies date from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, although the paleography seems to be from the sixteenth century. The Niagovo postilla was written "in a language which the people speak so that the faithful poor might understand." The same spirit infuses the Uhlia poucheniia (interpretive gospel) and the Skotars'ke and other gospel books, whose vocabulary is influenced by Polish. On the other hand, the linguistic peculiarities of the Ladomirov levanheliia (Gospel Book) suggest it was written in the *Presov Region (in either Sharysh or Zemplyn county). During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries several sbornyky (didactic miscellanies) containing prose in the vernacular appeared, including the Uhlia miscellany (the so-called Kliuch), the miscellany of S. Teslovych, the historical song "Pisn' ob obrazi klokochevskom," the belletristic work Aleksandriia, the Huklyvyi Chronicle, and others.

ALEKSANDR D. DULICHENKO

The vast majority of Rusyn immigrants who arrived in North America between 1880 and 1914 brought to the New World not only their vernacular speech but also certain preconceptions about their literary language or language of culture. Those preconceptions were preserved and even institutionalized by Rusyn immigrants in the New World. Various factors influenced the choice of language, including geography (place of residence before emigrating); religious orientation (Greek Catholic, Orthodox, Roman Catholic); and historical, cultural, and political orientation (dependant largely on level of education). In any case, the literary language the immigrants favored was more or less dependent on and influenced by their vernacular speech. It is difficult to describe the Carpatho-Rusyn language in the United States and Canada, given its extreme diversity and the wide degree of subjectivity found in use of various linguistic elements. From Carpathian Rus' the immigrants brought with them language variants based on the Church Slavonic, Ukrainian, and Russian literary languages as well as on their own spoken vernaculars of East Slavic (Ukrainian) or West Slavic (East Slovak) origin. To these were added new borrowings from the Anglo-American linguistic sphere, such as lexicon related to domestic life (bojsik, stora, susy) and the public sphere (bos, cerman, stejt, sif) as well as idiomatic expressions (imiti honor, to have the honor; tebe nic ne badrujet: nothing bothers you). At the same time, immigrant Rusyn speakers experienced a gradual loss of the feeling of their language, which was reflected in a simplification of the semantic structure of their vocabulary and its morphology, in confusion over the choice of one or another word, and in the continual movement between speaking Rusyn and English, more often than not with preference for the latter. The written language produced by the immigrants could, in most cases, be read using a Rusyn, Ukrainian, or Russian "pronunciation." Functioning in geographic isolation from the European homeland and surrounded by an English-language environment, Rusyn immigrant speech became steadily americanized or canadianized and in most places in both the United States and Canada it tended to disappear, especially with the death of the early immigrants in the decades after World War II. The only exceptions are found among newer immigrants, in particular Lemkos who arrived from Poland in the 1970s and Vojvodinian Rusyns who have been migrating from Yugoslavia since the 1980s. Both groups continue to preserve their native speech, although they are being subjected to the same assimilatory pressures experienced by earlier waves of immigrants. Further reading: Charles E. Bidwell, The Language ofCarpatho-

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Exceedingly important for the further use of the Rusyn vernacular language was the development of official *curia/ chancery and other documents in which the spoken language was strongly reflected. Among such documents were those connected to the *urbarial reform of Empress Maria Theresa during the second half of the eighteenth century. Other genres included the polemical writings by the Orthodox spokesperson Mykhai'l *Orosvygovs'kyi-Andrella and the correspondence of the first native-born Greek Catholic bishop, Mykhai'l Manui'l *Ol'shavs'kyi, both of whom used Rusyn vernacular strongly influenced by Church Slavonic. Especially popular were verses, including those by students, and practical manuals translated from Hungarian into vernacular Rusyn for use in farming (Pomoshchnyk u domovstvi, compiled by Nykolai Teodorovych) and home medical care (Vrach domashnii). It was also during the eighteenth century that Arsenii *Kotsak completed several versions of his unpublished grammar ("Grammatika russkaia," 1770s). Despite its title this work was in fact a grammar of the Church Slavonic language (as implied by the author's subtitle, slavenskii Hi mssfcz/'/Slavonic or Rusyn) and was closely modelled after the well-known grammar by Meletii Smotryts'kyi. Kotsak did, however, use the Rusyn vernacular language in his grammar, especially in the section on morphology. The Church Slavonic language, with varying degrees of vernacular Rusyn influence, was also used in the first published primers, beginning with the Bukvar iazyka slaven'ska (1699) attributed to Bishop Joseph *De Camelis, followed by Bishop Ivan *Bradach's primer (1770), whose copies were confiscated and destroyed by order of the church, and by the unsigned Bukvar' iazyka ruskaho by loann *Kutka, which appeared in 1797 and was later reprinted (1799, 1815, 1846). The nineteenth century ushered in a new period in the evolution of a literary language for Carpathian Rus'. This period has also been called the era of enlightenment for Rusyns, because it was a time when the region produced its own intelligentsia, some of whom established successful careers in scholarship and civic life in the neighboring Austrian province of Galicia as well as in the Russian Empire. At home the Rusyn intelligentsia continued to use the Church Slavonic language; for Greek Catholic clergy educated in Latin, Church Slavonic became a kind of symbolic mark in defense of the Slavic character of their own people. Andrii *Bachyns'kyi introduced the formal study of Church Slavonic in schools during his reign as bishop (1773-1809) of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo. The Church Slavonic language used at the time and referred to as Slaveno-Rusyn commonly employed an increasing number of vernacular elements. In fact, it is possible to speak of a Carpatho-Rusyn variant of Church Slavonic. This was the language used in the writings of loanykii *Bazylovych and loann Kutka. About the same time, the first bishop (1818-1841) of the newly created *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov, Hryhorii *Tarkovych, intro-

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duced a new style into Carpatho-Rusyn literature. Strongly influenced by the eighteenth-century Russian writers Mikhail Lomonosov and Aleksandr Sumarokov, Tarkovych wrote an ode in Slaveno-Rusyn that included elements from the Rusyn vernacular. It should be noted that the tendency to favor an antiquated book language for literary communication also worked in favor of Latin, which was actively used by the Rusyn intelligentsia during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. For instance, Latin was used in the historical works about Subcarpathian Rus' by loanykii Bazylovych, Mykhai'l *Luchkai, and loann *Pastelii, although Pastelii used vernacular Rusyn in his poems. Luchkai's 1830 Slaveno-Rusyn grammar of Church Slavonic (with Rusyn vernacular elements) was published in Latin, as were some of the philosophical essays by his contemporary, Vasyl' *Dovhovych. A native of *Maramorosh county, Dovhovych wrote verse in Rusyn vernacular as well as in Latin and Hungarian, although none of these works were published until the second half of the twentieth century. The tendency to write in vernacular Rusyn was not continued by subsequent writers. Hence the author ofRus'ko uhorskaia ilimadiarska hrammatika (1833), Ivan *Fogarashii-Berezhanyn, while noting the genetic relationship of Carpatho-Rusyn dialects with the spoken language of neighboring Galicia and other East Slavic dialects in southern Rus' (Ukraine), wrote in Slaveno-Rusyn, i.e., the CarpathoRusyn variant of Church Slavonic. During the era of the national awakening, which began with the Revolution of 1848 and continued during the second half of the nineteenth century, the language question might have been resolved by adopting one of the following options: (1) adaptation toward and eventual acceptance of the Galician variant of what was to become the Ukrainian literary language; or (2) the creation of a distinct literary language based on local Carpatho-Rusyn dialects. Neither of these options was chosen. Instead, the "national awakener of the Carpatho-Rusyns," Aleksander *Dukhnovych (in contrast to his Slovak neighbors, who based their literary language on central Slovak dialects and thereby assured its further development), proposed using the Russian literary language. Dukhnovych published a short grammar of the Russian language (Sokrashchennaia grammatika pis 'mennago russkago iazyka, 1853), most likely written with the assistance of a fellow Rusyn, loann *Rakovs'kyi. The Russophile orientation was also supported by Adol'f *Dobrians'kyi, Kyryl *Sabov (the author of another Russian grammar, 1865, as well as an anthology of Russian literature, 1868), and subsequently by the writers Aleksander *Pavlovych, levhenii *Fentsyk, Aleksander *Mytrak, Anatolii *Kralyts'kyi, Ivan *Sil'vai, and lulii *Stavrovs'kyi-Popradov, among others. The first Rusyn cultural organizations, the *Presov Literary Society (1850) and the *St. Basil the Great Society (1866), also supported the use of Russian in their publications.

278 At the same time, Dukhnovych, Pavlovych, and a few other authors were writing in Rusyn vernacular, thereby setting the foundations for an orientation that could have led to the creation of a separate Carpatho-Rusyn literary language. For instance, the popular play by Dukhnovych, Dobroditel' prevyshaet bohatstvo (Virtue is More Important Than Riches, 1850), was written in a language based on the Rusyn dialects of *Zemplyn county, while Pavlovych wrote a series of works in the Rusyn dialect of *Sharysh (*Makovytsia). Generally, however, these two writers as well as their contemporaries wrote poetry, prose, and essays in a language that was oriented toward literary Russian, albeit with varying degrees of local Rusyn vernacular. The result was an uncodified literary language, which was later referred to as the "traditional Carpatho-Rusyn language" by its supporters and as the *iazychiie (macaronic jargon) by its detractors. This language, in its various forms, was used in the first newspapers and journals intended for Rusyns (* Vistnyk Rusynov, *Svit, *Novyi svit, *Karpat, and the annual almanac *Misiatsoslov) as well as in the historical works of Andrii *Baludians'kyi and Ivan *Dulishkovych. The language question during this time was also reflected in the approach adopted by authors in their codification of lexical and grammatical norms. Hence, Aleksander *Mytrak's large-scale Russian-Hungarian dictionary (1881) was oriented toward the Russian literary language, while Laslov *Chopei's Rusyn-Hungarian dictionary (1883) and the several textbooks he translated from Hungarian were based on local Rusyn vernacular speech. During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries the magyarization of Rusyns increased in intensity, and the Hungarian government attempted to replace the traditional *Cyrillic alphabet with a Latin (Roman) alphabet using Hungarian orthography. A proposal to introduce the Latin (Roman) alphabet was issued in 1894; then, in 1916, the popular Rusyn-language newspaper *Nedilia, published since 1898 in Budapest with support from the Hungarian government, began to appear in the Latin (Roman) alphabet as Negyilya. The Russophile orientation gradually declined, while among younger cultural activists (Avhustyn *Voloshyn, lurii *Zhatkovych, Hiiador *Stryps'kyi) there arose the idea of writing in a vernacular-based language that was more accessible to the Rusyn populace. It was also during this time that on the northern slopes of the Carpathians a newspaper for Lemko Rusyns began to appear, *Lemko (1911-1913), which was written in the local Rusyn vernacular. In 1919, following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, Rusyns living on the southern slopes of the Carpathians (in *Subcarpathian Rus' and the *Presov Region) were united with Czechoslovakia, while those on the northern slopes living in the *Lemko Region were incorporated into Poland without any special administrative or cultural rights. The language situation of this period proved to be most com-

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture plex. The Russophile orientation was once again revived, in large part because of the arrival of emigres from the Russian Empire and *Russophile activists from Galicia and Bukovina. A *Ukrainophile orientation also emerged, aided in large part by emigres from the Dnieper Ukraine (Russian Empire) and especially Galicia. Each orientation had its own newspapers, journals, and cultural organizations, the most important of which were the Russophile *Dukhnovych Society and the Ukrainophile *Prosvita Society. Grammars written in the "traditional Carpatho-Rusyn" iazychiie, literary Russian, and literary Ukrainian (basically using the Galician variant of that language) appeared. Regardless of orientation, all of these grammars used the old orthography, retaining the iat (t) and, in the case of Russophile publications, the final hard sign/iery (?>). Typical of this era was linguistic evolution, as evident in the writings of Avhustyn Voloshyn. In 1901 Voloshyn published what was essentially a Carpatho-Rusyn variant of the Russian literary language (Metodicheskaia grammatika ugro-russkogo literaturnogo iazyka dlia narodnykh shkol). By 1907, however, in a grammar published in Hungarian (Gyakorlati kisorosz/ruten nyelvtari), he was using almost exclusively the vernacular language from the eastern part of Subcarpathian Rus'. Then, in a grammar published in 1926 (Praktychna hramatyka rus 'koho iazyka dlia narodnykh shkol), he employed the Ukrainian literary language, albeit written in the old etymological script. By contrast, Ivan *Pan'kevych, a postwar emigre from Galicia, used from the beginning the Galician variant of Ukrainian, which he codified in three editions of his Hramatyka rus 'koho iazyka (1922, 1927, 1936). In response to the Ukrainophile orientation the Russophiles supported the introduction of the Russian language through use of a grammar for "middle-level educational institutions in Subcarpathian Rus'" (Grammatika russkago iazyka dlia srednikh uchebnykh zavedenii, 1924). This textbook, published over the name of the local Rusyn cultural activist levmenii *Sabov, was in fact authored by the Russian emigre, Aleksandr Grigor'ev (1874-1945). As early as 1919 the provincial administration in Subcarpathian Rus', on the recommendation of Czech scholars, decreed what seemed to be a contradictory position regarding the language question. The local authorities rejected any proposals to create a separate Rusyn literary language and, following the recommendation of the Czech academics, considered the speech of the local inhabitants to be "indisputably Little Russian [ndreci maloruske, i.e., Ukrainian] dialects." But the decree also stated that because Rusyns were allegedly Ukrainians, they were simultaneously "part of the Great Russian people"; hence, the Russian literary language was recommended for use in secondary schools. In practice, however, the local school administration recognized only the Galician variant of Ukrainian (according to the Pan'kevych standard). Not until 1936 was the Russian language (according to the Sabov grammar) recommended for

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture use in schools. The 1936 government decision led to protests on the part of the local Ukrainophile orientation, but it was upheld following the results of a "language plebiscite" held a year later, in which the parents in 75 percent of Subcarpathian schools voted for the Sabov "Russian" grammar (the respondents probably confused mw&n/Russian with rus '£yz'/Rusyn) instead of the Pan'kevych "Ukrainian" grammar. The phenomenon of language dualism in Subcarpathian Rus' was clearly delineated in literary works, which were written either in Ukrainian (Vasyl' *Grendzha-Dons'kyi, lulii *Borshosh-Kum"iats'kyi, among others) or in Russian (Andrii *Karabelesh, Mykhail *Popovych, among others). By contrast, the third, Rusyn orientation remained weak. It had no grammar to compare with those of Pan'kevych and Sabov, and only a few authors wrote poetry, prose, and plays in a variant of Rusyn vernacular that was clearly neither literary Russian nor Ukrainian. Throughout the entire Czechoslovak period (1919-1938) the official languages in Subcarpathian Rus' were Czech and Carpatho-Rusyn (in effect, the iazychiie). The latter was created in the 1920s for use in signs on government buildings, documents, and for other public or official functions. In schools Russian, Ukrainian, and the "traditional CarpathoRusyn" were used as languages of instruction, depending on the national conviction of individual teachers. During the last months of Czechoslovak rule (October 1938-March 1939), when Subcarpathian Rus' finally attained autonomy, the pro-Ukrainian government renamed the province *CarpathoUkraine and declared Ukrainian its official language. In the neighboring Presov Region of Slovakia during the interwar years, the "traditional Carpatho-Rusyn language" was taught in schools using a reader (1920) and primer (1921) by loann *Kyzak and a grammar (1920) by Aleksander Sedlak. A Ukrainian-language orientation for all intents and purposes did not exist among the Rusyns of eastern Slovakia at this time. In the Lemko Region ruled by Poland the government allowed instruction during the 1930s in the local LemkoRusyn vernacular using textbooks compiled by Metodii *Trokhanovskii (1933, 1934). After 1939, in connection with annexation of Subcarpathian Rus' by Hungary, the language situation changed. Aside from Hungarian, the new authorities began to promote the "UhroRusyn language," that is, the local vernacular. At the same time, the position of the Ukrainian and Russian languages was substantially weakened. It is useful to note that as early as 1907 Hiiador *Stryps'kyi had proposed a "third" solution to Subcarpathia's language question: the creation of a Uhro-Rusyn language, in other words, a distinct CarpathoRusyn literary language. Picking up on Stryps'kyi's earlier proposal, a local Rusyn-bora linguist, Ivan *Haraida, was appointed director of a newly created * Subcarpathian Scholarly Society. He proceeded to publish a grammar (Hrammatyka rus'koho iazyka, 1941), whose purpose was "to establish

279 standard grammatical forms used in the vernacular language so that it will be possible to publish books and newspapers for the people in an easily understandable language." The author described the language of his grammar as a kind of "compromise on several issues that divide the opposing factions in our language question." Haraida's language became the standard for a wide variety of scholarly, literary, and children's publications that appeared in Subcarpathian Rus' during World War II. Although discouraged by the Hungarian regime, several authors, including a new generation of gymnasium students, continued to publish their literary works in Russian. Grammars by Georgii *Gerovskii for elementary schools (1939) and by a language commission for gymnasia (1940) favored the Russophile orientation. It was Haraida's version of literary Rusyn, however, that was most widely used in Subcarpathia's school system. After World War II, when Subcarpathian Rus' was annexed to the Soviet Union as the *Transcarpathian oblast of the Soviet Ukraine (1945), the Rusyn population was declared to be Ukrainian and the Ukrainian literary language, according to the Soviet norm, was introduced into schools and public life. In the neighboring Presov Region, which remained within postwar Czechoslovakia, the Russian language according to the Soviet norm was initially used in schools, newspapers, and theatrical performances. In 1952, when the Presov Region's Rusyn population was declared by the Czechoslovak Communist government to be Ukrainian, the Russian language was replaced by Ukrainian as the language of culture and education. Owing to significant differences between local Rusyn dialects of the Presov Region and literary Ukrainian (not to mention the involuntary administrative manner in which the population's national orientation and language were changed), use of the new linguistic medium in the educational system and cultural organizations was fraught with difficulties. Somewhat later (1969), in an attempt to smooth the transition to Ukrainian, Ivan *Matsyns'kyi proposed a series of about 60 Rusyn "dialectal" elements which might be used in Ukrainian publications. The basic problem remained unresolved, however. The resultant language dualism in the Presov Region, in which the Ukrainian literary language was being used alongside local Rusyn dialects, created a situation in which it was not uncommon in the 1950s and 1960s for a significant portion of the Rusyn population to reject Ukrainian and adopt for school instruction and general use literary Slovak (and a Slovak national identity). The late 1980s and early 1990s marked a new phase in the language question in Subcarpathian Rus'/Transcarpathia, the Presov Region, the Lemko Region (where a few thousand Lemko Rusyns returned following their deportation in 19451947), and in the scattered Rusyn communities in northeastern Hungary. This period witnessed a national revival, which included a call for a return to use of the ethnonym *Rusyn and for the creation of a distinct literary language. As a result, the

280 language question once again became a controversial issue. The so-called third way, that is, the creation of a Rusyn literary language on the basis of spoken dialects—an orientation that goes back to the beginning of the twentieth century—has since 1989 been steadily realized in the new political conditions of post-Communist Europe. In Transcarpathia, Rusyn-oriented cultural and civic organizations (*Society of Carpatho-Rusyns, the renewed Dukhnovych Society) have been established and Rusyn-language newspapers (*Podkarpats 'ka Rus') and a few almanacs/*kalendary have appeared. In Slovakia, the *Rusyn Renaissance Society publishes the weekly newspaper *Narodny novynky, the magazine *Rusyn, and a wide variety of literary, historical, and other publications. In Poland, the *Lemko Society produces the magazine *Besida, annual almanacs, and books. In Hungary, the Organization of Rusyns published the magazine *Rusynskyi zhyvot in Rusyn. The ministries of education in Slovakia, Poland, and Hungary have also adopted formal guidelines that allow for the teaching ofRusyn in elementary schools since the late 1990s. This activity has provoked a harsh negative reaction from that part of the intelligentsia (and in the case of Ukraine the government as well), which considers Rusyns to be a branch of Ukrainians. Despite opposition and confrontation, the Rusyn movements in these various countries have achieved the first steps in codifying their literary language. In the Presov Region a rule-book (1994), an orthographic dictionary (1994), a multilanguage dictionary of linguistic terminology (1994)—all prepared by Vasyl' *Iabur, lurii *Pan'ko, or both—and a series of textbooks by Ian *Hryb have appeared. There was a brief discussion in the press about the possibility of using the Latin (Roman) instead of Cyrillic alphabet for Rusyn publications, but this idea was dropped. In 1995 an official ceremony took place in Bratislava announcing the codification of a Rusyn literary language in Slovakia on the basis of Zemplyn Rusyn dialects in both their western and eastern variants. In Ukraine's Transcarpathia/Subcarpathian Rus', the codified form as outlined in the grammar Materyns 'kyi iazyk (1999) is based on the Southern Maramorosh dialects, balanced with elements from the Eastern Zemplyn, Uzh, Bereg, and Northern Maramorosh dialects (according to the classification of Gerovskii). In Poland, a grammar of literary Lemko was published by Henryk *Fontanski and Myroslava *Khomiak, Gramatyka lemkivskoho iazyka (2000). The Rusyns of Hungary do not yet have their own codified literary form, although Rusyn is taught in a few elementary schools. The initiators of these various codifications expressed at the first (1992) and second (1999) "congresses" of the Rusyn language the hope that after the above-mentioned variants are codified, used in practice, and gradually stabilized, steps can then be taken toward the creation of a single CarpathoRusyn literary standard. As for the Rusyns living in Serbia (Vojvodina) and

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Croatia (eastern Slavonia), their literary language, known as Vojvodinian-Srem Rusyn, or South Slav Rusyn, continued to evolve in an independent manner. It had been codified as early as 1923 in the grammar of Havrii'l *Kostel'nik and was subsequently modified in the rule-book (1971) and grammar (1974) of Mikola *Kochish. The norms of the VojvodinianSrem Rusyn language are stable and have been tested through wide-ranging functional use over a long period of time in education, the press, literary and scholarly publications, administration and government, and in radio and television. The Carpatho-Rusyn literary language in the United States and Canada has traditionally appeared in several different variants. These reflect the specific spoken language that immigrants brought with them from the "old country" beginning in the 1880s. Until the 1950s, newspapers (such as the weekly *Amerikansky russky viestnik and daily *Den'), almanacs, and books appeared in a form of language that was understood by Rusyn immigrants. Some authors/editors used their native dialect; thus the newspaper *Karpatska Rus' appeared in Lemko, the writings of Emilij *Kubek in the Sharysh Rusyn dialect. Other author/editors, such as Joseph *Hanulia or Michael *Roman, tried to write in Russian. Influenced by the English-language environment in which they were produced, many Rusyn-American publications gradually adopted the Latin (Roman) alphabet. By the end of the twentieth century the language question in North America had become moot, since virtually all publications intended for Rusyn immigrants and their descendants appeared in English. Further reading: Evmenii Sabov, "Ocherk literaturnoi dieiatel'nosti i obrazovaniia ugro-russkikh," in idem, ed., Khristomatiia tserkovnoslavianskikh i ugro-russkikh literaturnykh pamiatnikov (Uzhhorod, 1893), pp. 183-210; Hiiador Stryps'kyi, "Z starshoi' pys'mennosty Uhors'koii Rusy," Zapysky Naukovoho tovarystva im. Shevchenka, CXVII-CXVIII (Eviv, 1901), pp. 179-195; Avhustyn Voloshyn, O pys'mennom iazytsi podkarpatskykh rusynov (Uzhhorod, 1921); Igor Iv. Gusnai, lazykovyi vopros v Podkarpatskoi Rusi (Presov, 1921); Ivan Pankevic', "Jazykova otazka v Podkarpatske Rusi," in Josef Chme\afeta.\.,PodkarpatskaRus (Prague, 1923), pp. 130-150; Evmenii I. Sabov, Russkii literaturnyi iazyk Podkarpatskoi Rusi i novaia grammatika russkago iazyka dlia srednikh uchebnykh zavedenii (Uzhhorod, 1925); N. Zorskii, Spor o iazykie v Podkarpatskoi Rusi i Cheshskaia akademiia nauk (Uzhhorod, 1926); luliian Revai, "Rus'ki hramatyky i slovari na Podkarpatiu," Uchytel', X (Uzhhorod, 1929), pp. 2-12, 103-113, 151-168, 239-242; Konstantin Stripskii, "Iazyk literaturnoi traditsii Podkarpatskoi Rusi," Karpatskii sviet, III, 9-10 (Uzhhorod, 1930), pp. 1083-1093; Vladimir A. Frantsev, "Iz istorii bor'by za russkii literaturnyi iazyk v Podkarpatskoi Rusi v polovinie XIX St.," in Karpatorusskii sbornik (Uzhhorod, 1930), pp. 1-49 and separately (Prague, 1931); Georgij Gerovskij, "Literarni jazyk Podkarpatske Rusi," in Ceskoslovenska vlastiveda, Vol. Ill: Jazyk (Prague, 1934), pp. 480-517—Russian ed.: Iazyk Podkarpatskoi Rusi (Moscow, 1995); Za ridne slovo: polemika z rusofilamy (Mukachevo,

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture 1937; repr. 1990); Antonin Hartl, "K jazykovym sporum na Podkarpatske Rusi," Slovo a slovesnost, IV (Prague, 1938), pp. 160-173; Frantisek Tichy, Vyvoj soucasneho spisovneho jazyka na Podkarpatske Rusi (Prague, 1938); Aleksander Bonkalo, "Rus'kyi lyteraturnyi iazyk," Zoria/Hajnal, 1,1-2 (Uzhhorod, 1941), pp. 54-71; G.I. Gerovskii and V. Krainianitsa, eds., Razbor grammatiki ugrorusskogo iazyka (Uzhhorod, 1941); Ivan Pan'kevych, "Zakarpats'kyi dialektnyi variant ukrai'ns'koT literaturnoi movy XVII-XVIII vv.," Slavia, XXVII, 2 (Prague, 1958), pp. 171-181; Mykola Shtets', Literaturna mova ukra'intsiv Zakarpattia i Skhidnoi Slovachchyny (Bratislava, 1969); Charles E. Bidwell, The Language of CarpathoRuthenian Publications in America (Pittsburgh, 1971); Aleksandr D. Dulichenko, Slavianskie literaturnye mikroiazyki (Tallin, 1981); Paul R. Magocsi, "The Language Question Among the Subcarpathian Rusyns," in Riccardo Picchio and Harvey Goldblatt, eds., Aspects of the Slavic Language Question, Vol. II: East Slavic (New Haven, 1984), pp. 65-86—Vojvodinian Rusyn ed.: Pavlo Magochi, "Pitanie iazika medzi podkarpatskima Rusinami," Tvorchosts, X (Novi Sad, 1984), pp. 6-22; Mikulas Stec, K otdzke 'rusinskeho' spisovneho jazyka (Presov, 1991); Serhii Pan'ko, "Zhurnal 'Rusyn' i pytannia rusyns'koi' literaturnoi movy," Acta Academiae Paedagogicae Nyiregyhdziensis, XIII/C (Nyiregyhaza, 1992), pp. 257-266; B.K. Halas, ed., Ukrains 'ka mova na Zakarpatti u mynulomu i s 'ohodni (Uzhhorod, 1993); Istvan Udvari, Ruszin (kdrpdtukrdn) hivatalos irdsbeliseg a XVII szdzadi Magyarorszdgon (Budapest, 1995); Mykola Shtets', Ukrains 'ka mova vSlovachchyni: sotsiolinhvistychne ta interlinhvistychne doslidzhennia (Bratislava and Presov, 1996); Aleksandr D. Dulichenko, "Predistoriia literaturnogo iazyka rusin lugoslavii," in Rusnatsi-Rusini, 1745-1995 (Belgrade and Novi Sad, 1996), pp. 21-40; Paul Robert Magocsi, ed., A New Slavic Language is Born: The Rusyn Literary Language ofSlovakia/Zrodil sa novy slovansky jazyk: Rusinsky spisovny jazyk na Slovensku (New York, 1996); Vasil Jabur, "Das Rusinische in der Slowakei: zu Stand und Entwicklungsperspektiwen nach der Kodifikation," in Baldur Panzer, ed., Die sprachliche Situation in der Slavia zehn Jahre nach der Wende (Frankfurt/Main, 2000), pp. 117-132; Maria Brzezina, "Lemkowski w Polsce: aspekcie sociolingwistycznym," Sociolingwistyka, XVI (Cracow, 2000), pp. 51 -83; Alexander Teutsch, Das Rusinische der Ostslowakei im Kontext seiner Nachbarsprachen (Frankfurt am Main, 2001); Aleksandr D. Dulichenko Knl'zhka o ruskim iazyku: uvoddo ruskieifilologiiudokumentokh ikomentarokh (Novi Sad, 2002); Marc Stegherr, Das Russinische: Kulturhistorische und soziolinguistische Aspekte (Munich, 2003).

then worked as a journalist for the Rusyn program at Radio Novi Sad (1951-1954) and for the *Ruske Slovo Publishing House in Ruski Kerestur (1956-1960). Before he could advance further, he attended the Vojvodina Communist party school (1960-1961) and the Advanced School of Social and Political Science in Novi Sad (1961-1962). This provided him with the credentials to play a leading role in Communist Yugoslavia's state-run media and publishing enterprises. For nearly three more decades he was associated with the Ruske Slovo Publishing House as editor-in-chief (1963-1965) and director (1965-1970) of the newspaper * Ruske slovo, and as editor-in-chief of the book division (1970-1989). Aside from his dominant role in the production of Vojvodinian Rusyn print media and books, Latiak was an amateur actor who performed in several productions of the *Diadia Rusyn Amateur/National Theater (1971-1995). He was also largely responsible for establishing contacts with Ukrainian-oriented cultural institutions and scholars in eastern Slovakia, which encouraged his own views that Rusyns are a branch of the Ukrainian nationality. Since the 1960s Latiak has written several cycles of poems, most of which appeared in the journal *Shvetlosts. His short stories from the same period were eventually published in the collection Tal i druhipripovedki (1982). He has also written numerous critical essays on Vojvodinian Rusyn authors, edited a collection of folksongs transcribed by the GalicianUkrainian ethnographer Volodymyr *Hnatiuk (1972), and completed histories of the most important post-World War II cultural institutions: the Ruske Slovo Publishing House (1985), the *Chervena Ruzha Folk Festival (1991), and the Diadia Rusyn Amateur/National Theater (1995). Further reading: luliian Tamash, "Literaturna tvorchosts Diuri Latiaka," Shvetlosts, XVII, 5 (Novi Sad, 1979), pp. 539-551.

ALEKSANDR D. DULICHENKO

Latta, VasyP (b. December 29, 1921, Pcoline [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia; d. June 27, 1965, Bratislava [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — professor and linguist in Slovakia. Latta studied at the gymnasium in Mukachevo (to 1938), the Russian gymnasium in Prague (1939-1942), the Polytechnical Institute in Vienna (1942-1944), and Leningrad State University (1948-1952). He completed his graduate studies at Comenius University in Bratislava (kandidat nauk, 1957), where he taught Russian and Ukrainian (19541965) and was appointed associate professor (decent, 1963).

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Latiak, Diura/Latjak, Dura (pseudonyms: Gel, Diul) (b. October 31, 1933, Ruski Kerestur [Yugoslavia], Serbia) —journalist, publisher, writer, and civic and cultural activist among the Vojvodinian Rusyns of Ukrainian national orientation. Latiak interrupted his gymnasium studies in Ruski Kerestur (1944-1948), spent a year studying journalism,

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Latifundium. See Dominium Latorica Company. See Mukachevo-Chynadiievo estate Latta, Igor. See Dukhnovych Theater

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Latta was a specialist on the phonology of Rusyn dialects in eastern Slovakia and is best known for his large-scale dialectal atlas (392 maps), which attracted much attention among Slovak and Ukrainian linguists until it was finally published long after his death, Atlas ukrains'kykh hovoriv Skhidno'iSlovachchyny (1991). Further reading: Zuzana Hanudel' et al.,"Naukova spadshchyna Vasylia Latty i doslidzhennia hovoriv karpats'koho movnoho arealu: zbirnyk materialiv," in Naukovi zapysky KSUT, No. 18 (Presov, 1993). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Lastochkin, Evgeniia. See Russians Laurus/Lavrii (Shkurla). See Ladomirova Monastery Lavryshyn, Avhustyn. See Rus Sports Club Lazho, lurii/Lazo, Juraj (b. May 3, 1867, Svidnik [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. May 28, 1929, Svidnik [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — political and cultural activist among the Rusyns in the Presov Region. Sometime before World War I, Lazho worked in the United States. He used that experience upon his return home to establish a construction firm in Svidnik. He was an outspoken critic of the magyarization policies of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov and during the 1920s became an active supporter of Orthodoxy. Lazho made his views known as a senator for the *Social-Democratic party (1920-1924) in the Czechoslovak parliament. In 1924 he established a printshop in Svidnik to publish books in support of his Rusyn people and the Orthodox church. He was particularly critical of slovakization among the Rusyns of the *Presov Region during the early post-World War I years, views he expressed in the brochure Russkomu narodu na Slovensku (1925). Two years later he donated the printing press to the nearby *Ladomirova Monastery which became the center of the "return to Orthodoxy" movement among the Rusyns of eastern Czechoslovakia. Further reading: losyf Shelepets', "Do istorii' svydnyts'koi' drukarni," Nove zhyttia (Presov), No. 22, June 2, 1989, p. 5. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Lazor, Theodosius. See Russian Orthodox Church in North America Lazoryk, Fedor/Lazorik, Fedor (b. April 1, 1913, Becherov [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. July 4, 1969, Presov [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — pedagogue, belletrist, editor, and cultural activist in the Presov Region of Ukrainian national orientation. After completing studies at the Teachers' Seminary in Presov (1928-1932) Lazoryk taught in Rusyn

elementary schools both in *Subcarpathian Rus' (Rus'kyi Mochar', 1933-1940) and the *Presov Region (Mlynarovce, 1940-1945). After World War II he began to play an active role in the cultural life of the Presov Region as editor-in-chief of the newspaper *Priashevshchina (1948-1950), the magazine Druzhno vpered(\ 951-1956), and the literary journal *Duklia (1956-1957). He also compiled several anthologies of literature by Presov Region authors as well as Ukrainian-language elementary school textbooks. Lazoryk was the first postwar writer in the Presov Region to publish a collection of poetry in literary Ukrainian, Slovo hnanykh i holodnykh (1949). This collection, in the words of one literary critic from the Communist era, "set the standard for a new socialist Ukrainian literature in Czechoslovakia." Lazoryk's poetry was inspired by nineteenth-century Rusyn national awakeners as well as by classic Russian and Ukrainian writers. His own literary works were compiled in Vybrane (1963), edited by Vasyl' Datsei, and in separate volumes of poetry and prose, Tvory (1985-88), edited by Mykhailo *Roman. Lazoryk's diary covering the years 19361954 was published posthumously by Stepan *Hostyniak (1983). Further reading: Mykhailo Roman, Fedir Lazoryk: zhyttia i tvorchisf (Presov, 1974); Vasyl' Koman, Makovyts'ki mrii: slovo pro Fedora Lazoryka (Bratislava and Presov, 1978); Stepan Hostyniak, "Shchodennyk Fedora Lazoryka," Naukovyi zbirnyk Muzeiu ukrains 'koikul'tury u Svydnyku, XI (Bratislava and Prestov, 1983), pp. 495-580; "Materialy z naukovoi' konferentsii' z nahody 70-richchia z dnia narodzhennia Fedora Lazoryka," in Zapysky Naukovoho tovarystva,No. 12 (Presov, 1985); Vasyl'Khoma, "Fedir Lazoryk—spivets' liuds'koho shchastia i krasy ridnoho kraiu," in idem, Rozvytok rusyns 'koipoeziivSlovachchyni vid20-kh do 90-kh rokiv XX stolittia (Bratislava, 2000), pp. 63-86. ANNA PLISKOVA

League for the Liberation of Carpatho-Russia/ Soiuz osvobozhdeniia Prikarpatskoi Rusi—apolitical organization founded in 1917 by Russophile immigrant leaders in the United States from Galicia and Subcarpathian Rus'. The goal of the organization was to unite ""Carpathian Rus' (understood to be the Austrian provinces of eastern Galicia and Bukovina as well as Rusyn-inhabited lands in Hungary) with Russia, or, failing that, to have Carpathian Rus' become an independent state. The League was a successor to the Russian National Organization/Russko-narodnaia organizatsiia, which was established in the United States in 1914 and which published a bi-monthly newspaper, Novaia Rus '(1915-18). The League's first *Carpatho-Russian Congress took place in New York City (July 13, 1917), at which 130 delegates and 41 guests took part under the leadership of Joseph *Fedoronko. Its second congress was held in Philadelphia (July 4,1918). The League

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture sent a delegation (Victor *Hladick, Dmitrii Markov, Peter *Hatalak, loann Dzvonchik) to the Paris Peace Conference; it also campaigned in London and Geneva for the union of Carpathian Rus' with Russia, but its efforts were unsuccessful. The League continued its work through the publication of Prikarpatskaia Rus '(1917-25), which evolved from a monthly to a weekly and eventually twice-weekly newspaper. The League's largest congress was its third and last, which like the first took place in New York City (December 28, 1919-January 1, 1920); 245 delegates and more than 50 guests took part under the direction of Dmitrii Markov, Joseph Fedoronko, Peter *Kohanik, Dmitrii *Vergun, and Antonii *Beskyd. The congress elected a Carpatho-Russian Council/ Karpatorusskii soviet (25 members, more than half of whom were Lemkos), which was charged with creating a CarpathoRussian Organization in the United States/Karpatorusskaia organizatsiia v SShA. Further reading: Tretii Vseobshchii Karpatorusskii Kongress v Amerikie (New York, 1920); losif P. Fedoronko, "Karpatorusskaia Organizatsiia v Amerikie," in luvileinyi sbornik vpamiat' 150-lietiia Russkoi Pravoslavnoi Tserkvi v Sievernoi Amerikie, Vol. I (New York, 1944), pp. 278-279. BOGDAN HORBAL

Legeza, Irynei (pseudonyms: Ivan Lotsuha, Karpatskii) (b. April 1,1861, Turia Bystra [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. September 8,1929, Turia Pasika [Czechoslovakia], Ukraine) — priest, belletrist, and publicist in Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region. After completing his studies at the gymnasium and Theological Seminary in Uzhhorod Legeza was ordained a Greek Catholic priest (1885). He began as an assistant to the parish of his father in Turia Pasika, then served for nearly three decades (1892-1920) in the *Presov Region Rusyn village of Klenova before returning to Turia Pasika for the last decade of his life. Aside from priestly duties, Legeza helped villagers to establish cooperatives and credit associations and to purchase land from the large landed estates. His social activism and writings, all of which appeared in Rusyn vernacular, raised suspicion in official circles, so that during World War I the Hungarian government considered putting him on trial on charges of being a pan-Slavic agitator and danger to the state. Legeza was among the most prolific Rusyn writers during the first two decades of the twentieth century. His literary works were never published in a separate volume but appeared primarily in the decade before World War I in the Rusyn newspaper *Nauka and the annual almanacs (*misiatsoslov). He was best known for his critical essays on contemporary social and cultural problems, which took the form of letters to the editor ("Dopysy" signed by Ivan Lotsuha), and for articles on agricultural and economic themes of practical help to peasant farmers ("Prosti besidy"). An accomplished

283 short-story writer, Legeza based his tales on Rusyn village life and almost all of them ended with a didactic-moralistic message. Among the themes he treated in his best stories was the prodigal son ("Andrei, bludnyi syn," 1906), the negative impact of alcoholism ("lak prodav Onduliak Tarchunu," 1913), and the psychological transformation of an individual ("Zhebrak," 1913). Even more popular were his several short humorous tales based on characters from village life. Further reading: Nykolai Lelekach, "Podkarpatskoe pys'mensrvo na pochatku XX vika," Zoria-Hajnal, III, 1-4 (Uzhhorod, 1943), esp. pp. 242-246. MARIA PETRUSOVA

Lehoczky, Tivadar (b. October 5, 1830, Fuzine [Hungarian Kingdom], Croatia; d. December 25, 1915, Mukachevo [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine) — Hungarian lawyer, archeologist, ethnographer, and historian in Subcarpathian Rus', After completing his legal studies at the Kosice Academy (1851) Lehoczky worked as a court lawyer, eventually in Mukachevo (1855-1865), and then as chief legal consultant for the *Mukachevo-Chyniadiievo estate of Count *Schonborn. In the early 1860s Lehoczky became interested in *archeology and in 1863 he conducted the first of several archeological digs that were to continue over the subsequent decades. In effect, Lehoczky began the discipline of archeology in * Subcarpathian Rus' and before long he had amassed one of the largest private collections of archeological materials in Austria-Hungary, some of which were exhibited at the Vienna World's Exhibit (1873) and at the VHIth International Archeological Congress held in Budapest (1876). He described many of his archeological findings in 80 articles and a two-volume monograph, Adatok hazdnk drcheologiajdkoz (1892-1912; repr. 2001). Lehoczky also developed an avid interest in Rusyn ethnography and folklore, about which he published over 50 articles as well as collections of Rusyn folksongs (Magyarorosz nepdalak, 1864) and folk proverbs (A magyar-orosz nep kozmondasai es peldabeszedei, 1877). As a result of a careful study of regional archival material, he published over 70 studies on the history of *Bereg county, including a detailed three-volume description (Bereg vdrmegye monogrdfidja, 1881-83, repr. 1994), a study of the Mukachevo castle during the Hungarian Revolution (Beregmegye es a Munkdcsi vdr 1848-1849-ben, 1889; repr. 2000), and historical surveys of the city of Mukachevo (Munkdcs vdros uj monogrdfidja, 1907; repr. 1998) and the Greek Catholic Church (A beregmegyei gorogszertartdsu katholikus lelkeszsegek tortenete a XIX. szdzadvegeig, 1904; repr. 1999). In recognition of his scholarly work, Lehoczky was elected to the Archeological Commission of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, to the Rusyn branch of the Hungarian Ethnographic Society, and full member of the Hungarian Historical Society.

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To preserve his life-long collecting activity, Lehoczky and his supporters formed in 1909 the Lehoczky Museum Society, which eventually formed the basis of the *Lehoczky Provincial Museum, until 1945 the only collection of archeological material in Subcarpathian Rus'. On the eve of his death, he began to compile a diary-chronicle of events in Subcarpathian Rus' during the first months of World War I. Entitled "Our War," it covers the period June 28, 1914, to October 31, 1915, and remains unpublished in four manuscript volumes held in the Transcarpathian State Regional Archive. A collection of Lehoczky's essays on archeology, history, ethnography, and folklore was published under the title Bereg vdrmegye (1995). Further reading: losyf Kobal', Bibliohrafichnyi pokazhchyk prats' Tyvodara Lehots'koho (Uzhhorod, 1990); losyp Kobal', "Pisliamova," in Tivadar Lehoczky, Bereg vdrmegye/Berez'kyi komitat (Uzhhorod, 1995), pp. 291-299; O.V. Tkachuk, "Zakarpattia periodu seredn'ovichchia u vysvitlenni Tyvodara Lehots'koho," in Molod'-Ukrami, Vol. VIII (Uzhhorod, 1995), pp. 19-33; Gyorgy Csatary, A Lehoczky-hagyatek (Uzhhorod, 2001). IVAN POP

Lehoczky Provincial Museum/Zems'kyi Muzei im. Lehots'koho — archeological museum in Subcarpathian Rus'. The museum was based on the collection of the amateur archeologist and historian, Tivadar *Lehoczky. After his death (1915) control over Lehoczky's collection was disrupted between his family and the Lehoczky Museum Society, which in 1922 renewed its activity. Finally, in 1929 the Czechoslovak government purchased the collection, which formed the basis of the Lehoczky Provincial Museum established the same year in Mukachevo. Under its founding director, Josef Jankovich (1978-19??), the museum set up a permanent exhibit and added new holdings to its collection as a result of archeological excavations conducted at 15 sites throughout * Subcarpathian Rus' during the 1930s. After World War II the Soviet authorities closed the Lehoczky Museum and in 1950 transferred its holdings to the Transcarpathian Regional Museum in Uzhhorod. Further reading: Jozsef Jankovich, "Amunkacsi Lehoczky-muzeum regeszeti asatasai a cseh megszallas alatt," Zoria-Hajnal, II, 3-4 (Uzhhorod, 1942), pp. 290-303; Valerii Razgulov, Muzei Legotskoho (Uzhhorod, 1997). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Lehots'kyi, lulius. See Gypsies/Roma Lektsiia. See Shereghy, Basil Lelekach, Mykola (pseudonym: Lemy Myshylko) (b. December 19, 1907, Korytniany [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine;

d. September 6, 1975, Uzhhorod [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — historian, activist, and professor in Subcarpathian Rus' of Ukrainian national orientation. Lelekach completed his studies at the gymnasium in Uzhhorod (1929) and the philosophical faculty of Charles University in Prague (1929-1934). While still a student, he served on the editorial board of the Prague journal of young radical Ukrainian nationalists, Proboiem. He also published at this time his first studies on Rusyn culture and literature, specifically on a collection of religious and secular songs from Korytniany (1929), the autobiography of the eighteenth-century writer Nykolai Teodorovych (1934), and the ideological development of Subcarpathian literature (1934). After graduation from university and military service Lelekach was employed by the provincial archive of Subcarpathian Rus' in Uzhhorod (1936-1939), whose material he used to publish a series of studies, including documents on Adol'f *Dobrians'kyi's political activity (1938) and a study of the Rusyn gentry during the early modern era ("Rus'ka shliakhta na Pidkarpats'kii Rusy: shliakhta Uzhhorods'koi' Krayni"(1936). Because of his *Ukrainophile sympathies, Lelekach was initially unable to find employment after the Hungarian annexation of *Subcarpathian Rus'in 1938-1939. By mid-1941, however, he had been hired as the secretary to assist the director, Ivan *Haraida, in the operations of the * Subcarpathian Scholarly Society/Podkarpatskoe obshchestvo nauk in Uzhhorod, a post he held until the very end of the following year. Lelekach completed qualifying exams at the University of Debrecen and for two school years (1942-1944) taught history and the Russian language at the *Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College. These years marked the apogee of Lelekach's scholarly achievements. Together with Haraida he published wide-ranging bibliographies that retain their research value to this day: "Bybliohrafiia podkarpatskoi ystorii lyteratury" (1942), "Bybliohrafiia podkarpatskoi rus'koi lyteratury" (1943), and Zahal'na bybliohrafiia Podkarpatia (1944; repr. 2000). His own writings dealt with Rusyn literature at the outset of the twentieth century ("Podkarpatskoe pys'menstvo na pochatku XX vika," 1943), the eighteenth-century Zeikan family (1943), and the *Mukachevo Theological School (1943). In late 1944 Lelekach was drafted into the Hungarian Army. Captured on the eastern front, he was impressed into the service of the Soviet Army as a Hungarian and Czech translator (August 1944—September 1945), a post which later spared him from arrest (as happened to his colleague Haraida and other Subcarpathian cultural and political activists under Hungarian rule) by the Soviet security forces SMERSH. After demobilization Lelekach was appointed director (1945) of the archives of *Transcarpathian Ukraine, but by the outset of 1946 he had joined the staff of the recently created Uzhhorod State University (docent/associate professor, 1947), where he taught ancient and medieval history. He was also called

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture upon by the new Soviet Marxist historical establishment "to document" the "age-old" ties between Subcarpathian Rus' and Eastern Slavdom, a task he carried out in two extensive surveys that appeared in the university's journal, Naukovi zapysky: "Pro prynalezhnist' Zakarpattia do Kyivs'koi Rusi v X-XI st." (1949) and "Kul'turni zviazky z Ukrainoiu i Rosiieiu v XVII-XVIII st." (1954). These were the last studies of any substance that Lelekach wrote during the Communist era of his career. Even his kandidat nauk dissertation (1959) was little more than a collection of his scholarly articles from the 1930s and early 1940s, to which he added the required "scientific" vocabulary of Marxism.

lated the grammatical rules of the Lemko dialect in an effort to diminish its status. The section's articles promote the view that *Lemkos are a branch of the Ukrainian nationality, and for the longest time they were particularly critical of the Russophile orientation of the *Lemko Association/Lemko Soiuz in the US A and Canada. Since 1989, the "Lemkivska storinka" has also been critical of the Rusyn national revival, which is accused of being linked to secret Polish plans to undermine and assimilate the Ukrainian minority in Poland.

Further reading: Omelian Dovhanych and L. Antalovtsi, "Mykola Lelekach," in Vasyl' V. Turianytsia, ed., Pedahohy-naukovtsi, Vol. I (Uzhhorod, 1997), pp. 65-70; Hennadii Pavlenko, "M.M. Lelekach iak istorii kul'tury Zakarpattia doby feodalizmu" and Volodymyr Zadorozhnyi, "M.M. Lelekach pro istorychnyi zv"iazky Zakarpattia z inshymy ukrai'ns'kymy zemliamy i Rosiieiu," Naukovyi visnyk Uzhhorods 'koho univerystetu: Seriia istoriia, No. 2 (Uzhhorod, 1998), pp. 9-14.

Lemkivs'ka komisiia. See Nash Lemko; Prosvita Society

MYKHAILO ALMASHII IVAN POP

Lemkivshchyna — quarterly magazine published in Clifton, New Jersey (1979- ) by the *Lemko Research Foundation, and since 1992 by the *Organization for the Defense of Lemko Western Ukraine. Published in Ukrainian (with some articles in English), Lemkivshchyna contains information on current affairs among Lemkos in North America and Poland, literary works, memoirs, documents, as well as articles in praise of the Greek Catholic Church and the post-World War II activity of the "Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) in the *Lemko Region. The editors have consistently argued that *Lemkos are a branch of the Ukrainian nationality and are critical of both Poland's national assimilationist policies and the Rusyn national revival in the United States since the mid-1970s and in the European homeland after 1989.

BOGDAN HORBAL

Lemkivska lastyvochka. See Besida

Lemkivska tvorcha osin'. See Ruska Bursa Lemkivs'ki visti. See Organization for the Defense of Lemko Western Ukraine; Union of Lemkos in Canada; World Lemkos Federation Lemkvs 'kyi dzvin. See Organization for the Defense of Lemko Western Ukraine Lemko — the first newspaper published in Lemko Rusyn. It began to appear in Eviv in 1911 as a bi-monthly supplement to the Galician-Russophile newspaper Prikarpatskaia Rus'. Beginning with the seventh issue Lemko was published separately in Nowy Sajcz and subsequently Gorlice until 1913. Among its editors were Hryhorii *Hanuliak, Aleksander Hassai, Dymytrii *Vyslotskii, Illia Hoiniak, and Ivan Andreiko. It was generally Russophile in orientation, included articles about current affairs among Lemkos, and was strongly critical of the Ukrainian national movement in Galicia and its attempts to infiltrate the *Lemko Region. BOGDAN HORBAL

BOGDAN HORBAL

"Lemkivska storinka" — Lemko section in Poland's Ukrainian-language weekly newspaper, Nashe slovo, the organ of the Ukrainian Civic and Cultural Society (USKT) and, since 1990, of the Union of the Ukrainians in Poland/ Ob"iednannia ukraintsiv Pol'shchi. The section began to appear in 1957 under the title "Lemkivske slovo" (The Lemko Word), but in 1964 its title was changed to "Lemkivska storinka" (The Lemko Page). Its texts have appeared in both Lemko-Rusyn dialect and Ukrainian, and the section contains folkloric material as well as information on current affairs among Lemkos in Poland, Ukraine, and the United States. The editors of "Lemkivska storinka" have consistently manipu-

Lemko — newspaper published in Lemko Rusyn vernacular for immigrants in the United States (1928-39). It initially appeared monthly in a journal format (1928), then as a weekly newspaper (1929), and finally twice a week (1934). At first associated with the *Lemko Committee of the USA, it was a successor to that organization's magazine *Lemkovshchyna, but after 1929 Lemko became the official organ of the *Lemko Association/Lemko-Soiuz of the USA and Canada. Its editors were Dymytrii *Vyslotskii and Simeon *Pysh, who moved the paper's place of publication from Philadelphia to Cleveland, Ohio (1931), and finally to New York City (1936). In 1939 Lemko merged with the newspaper *Karpatska Rus'. BOGDAN HORBAL

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Lemko — weekly newspaper published in Krynica, Poland (1934-39) as the official organ of the *Lemko Association/ Lemko-Soiuz. The first two issues appeared in Nowy Sa^cz, and from late 1936 to 1939 the newspaper was printed in Eviv. It appeared in the Lemko-Rusyn vernacular and was under the editorship of Vasyl' Tylishchak (1934) and T. Gromosiak (1934-1939). The editors also produced an annual almanac, Kalendar "Lemka " (1935-39). Both the newspaper and almanac opposed the Ukrainian national orientation and promoted the view that *Lemkos are a distinct people with close ties to a larger East Slavic Rus' culture. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Lemko: pismo dla naroda — weekly newspaper published by the Polish government in Cracow (1928-30) under the editorship of Stefan Koss. Although published in Lemko Rusyn, it appeared in the Latin alphabet, using Polish orthography. Its basic goal was to encourage pro-Polish attitudes among the *Lemkos which, it was hoped, would eventually lead to their polonization. BOGDAN HORBAL

West in the face of advancing Soviet troops the Lemko Apostolic Administration continued for two more years under the successive leadership of three general vicars: Andrii Zlupko, Ivan Pidharbii, and Shtefan ladlovskii. All three were limited in their effectiveness as a result of the systematic deportation of the Lemkos from their homeland between 1945 and 1947. Further reading: Boguslaw Prach, "Apostolska Administracja Lemkowszczyny," in Jerzy Czajkowski, ed., Lemkowie w historii i kulturze Karpat, Vol. I (Rzeszow, 1992), pp. 299-311; Stanistaw Nabywaniec, "Administratura Apostolska Lemkowszczyzny w swietle schematyzmu na rok 1936: zagadnienia wstejme," Roczniki Teologiczne, No. 4 (Lublin, 1995), pp. 105-128; Krzysztof Z. Nowakowski, "Administracja Apostolska Lemkowszczyzny w latach 1939-1947," in Stanislaw Ste_pien, ed., Polska—Ukraina 1000 lot sqsiedztwa, Vol. Ill (Przemysl, 1996), pp. 131-145; Mariusz Ryrica, Administratura Apostolska Lemkowszczyzny w latach 1945-1947 (Cracow, 2001); Stanislaw Stepien, "The Greek Catholic Church in the Lemko Region in World War II and its Liquidation (1939-1947), and Mariusz Rynca, "The Liquidation of the Structure of the Greek Catholic Church in the Lemko Region," in Paul Best and Jaroslaw Moklak eds., The Lemko Region, 1939-1947: War, Occupation and Deportation (Cracow and New Haven, Conn., 2002), pp. 183-206. BOGDAN HORBAL

Lemko. See Khyliak, Vladymir Lemko Apostolic Administration/Apostol'ska administratsiia Lemkovshchyny/Apostolica Administratio pro Lemkis — a Greek Catholic Church jurisdiction created for the Lemko Region by papal decree on September 17, 1934. It consisted of nine deaneries detached from the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of PrzemysT (see Map 6) and was headed by an apostolic administrator first based in Rymanow (until 1938), then Sanok (1939-1943), and finally Krynica (1943-1945); the administrator was under the direct authority of the pope. The basic task of the Lemko Apostolic Administration was to halt the spread of Orthodoxy in the *Lemko Region. It was supported by the *Lemko Association/Lemko-Soiuz as well as by the Polish government, which saw it as a counterfoil to the influence of Ukrainians (in particular Ukrainian-oriented priests from the Eparchy of Przemysl) upon the *Lemkos. Only the first administrator, Vasyl' *Mastsiukh (1934-1936), together with the head of the administrator's office, loann *Polianskii were able to carry out successfully the *Rusynophile orientation of the Lemko Apostolic Administration. During the tenure of the second administrator, lakiv Medvetskii (1936-1941), who was unfamiliar with the Lemko Region, the Lemko Administration fell under the influence of Polish and later Nazi German government circles. The last administrator, Aleksander Malynovs'kyi (1941-1945), adopted a clear pro-Ukrainian orientation. After Malynovs'kyi fled to the

Lemko Association/Lemko-Soiuz/Zwi^zek lemkowski — civic and cultural organization ofRusyn national orientation among the Lemkos of Poland. The Lemko Association was established in Sanok in December 1933; among its co-founders and leading activists were Metodii *Trokhanovskii, Orest *Hnatyshak, laroslav S'okalo, Ivan Perelom, levhen Shatynskii, Semen Vozniak, Teofil' *Kuryllo, and I. Hukevych. The organization's primary goals were to create a separate Greek Catholic episcopate for the *Lemko Region, to introduce Lemko Rusyn as a language of instruction in schools, to remove Ukrainophile priests and teachers from the region's churches and schools, and in general to support Lemko national development and economic welfare. The first two goals were achieved with the creation of the *Lemko Apostolic Administration (1934) and the introduction of Lemko language into elementary schools (1933). The views of the Lemko Association, which included loyalty to the Polish state, were propagated in its bi-weekly newspaper * Lemko (193439), an annual almanac (1935-39), and other publications. The organization was initially funded by the Polish government which, however, began to change its policy: it gradually removed Lemko teachers from schools (1936-1937), banned the use of Lemko-language textbooks (1938), and finally ended all financial support for the Lemko Association, which ceased its activity with the outbreak of World War II and the fall of Poland in September 1939. BOGDAN HORBAL

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Lemko Association of the USA and Canada/ Lemko-Soiuz v SShA y Kanadi — the largest social and cultural organization among Lemko immigrants and their descendants in North America. The first branch of the Lemko Association was founded in 1929 in Winnipeg, Manitoba (Canada); its first congress was held in 1931 in Cleveland, Ohio. In 1935 the Canadian branches held their own congress and elected a central committee for what became known as the Lemko Association of Canada. At the height of its strength (1945) the association had 5,000 members in 100 branches (88 in the United States and 12 in Canada). Its first president was Theodore Kochan (1929-1931) and among others who have served in that office were Michael Bavoliak (19311933), George Shuflat (1935-1939), John Holowach (19391944), John Adamiak (1944-1948, 1959-1961, 1971-1981, 1983-1989), William Varholiak (1948-1956), and Alexander Herenchak(1989-). From 1939 until 1999 the main headquarters of the Lemko Association were in Yonkers, a suburb of New York City, where it rented space at the *Carpatho-Russian American Center. It also operated a cultural center, the *Lemko Hall/ Narodnyi dom in Cleveland, Ohio, and buildings for clubs in Ansonia and Bridgeport, Connecticut. The official organs of the Lemko Association have been the newspapers published in Lemko Rusyn and, in part, in English: * Lemko (1929-39) and *Karpatska Rus 7Carpatho-Rus (1939- ). The association has also published, mostly in English, several short-lived magazines and newspapers for young people (Lemko-Journal, \913;Lemko-Youth, 1936-39; Lemko Youth Journal, 1960-64; Carpatho-Russian American, 1968-69; Karpaty, 1978-79), as well as annual almanacs (1926-71, 1984, 1987-91), a series of 27 short plays (Dramatychna Biblioteka), and several other publicistic and popular historical works. After 1934, under the influence of Simeon *Pysh and Dymytrii *Vyslotskii, the Lemko Association became proCommunist in orientation. It supported a plan to resettle *Lemkos from their Carpathian homeland (as well as immigrants from North America) to the Soviet Union as a means of resolving the group's national and socioeconomic difficulties; it adopted an anti-fascist platform; and it favored the creation of a Carpatho-Rusyn Section within the International Workers' Order. During World War II the Lemko Association was the most important leftist organization among all Slavic immigrant groups in the United States, and it provided significant material and financial support for the Soviet Union. Much of its fund-raising efforts were the result of a Carpatho-Rusyn Radio Program (1943-1947), hosted by Nicholas *Cislak, that the Lemko Association sponsored in the New York CityNew Jersey area. At the close of World War II the association supported the resettlement of Lemkos to the Soviet Union, and to assist this process it set up in 1946 the *Lemko Relief Committee. In the late 1960s the editors of Karpatska Rus', Stephen

*Kitchura and Teodor *Doklia, began to question the Lemko Association's pro-Communist orientation and to criticize Communist Poland's policy of national assimilation toward the Lemkos, the forced ukrainianization policy against Rusyns in the *Presov Region, and the Soviet-led invasion of Czechoslovakia. By 1970 the "revisionists" had been pushed out of the Lemko Association, which returned to its pro-Soviet orientation, at least until the collapse of Communist rule in central and eastern Europe in 1989. By this time, however, the organization had declined to only about 400 members. In recent years, it has tried with difficulty to survive under the leadership of Alexander Herenchak. With regard to its national orientation, the Lemko Association has never adopted a clear position. Rejecting the Ukrainian orientation, it has at times supported the view that Lemkos are part of a distinct Carpatho-Rusyn people but more often sees them as the "Carpatho-Russian" branch of a single "Rus'/Russian" people that encompasses all the East Slavs. Further reading: Pamiatna knyzhka 10-lityiaLemko-SoiuzavSoied Shtatakhy Kanadi (Yonkers, N.Y., 1939); 50th Anniversary Almanac of Lemko Association of USA and Canada (Yonkers, N.Y, 1979). BOGDAN HORBAL

Lemko Civic Circle. See Hospodar Rusyn Democratic Circle of Lemkos in Poland; Stefanovskii, Pavel Lemko Commission. See Nash Lemko; Prosvita Society

Lemko Committee. See Pysh, Simeon

Lemko Committee/Lemkovskii komitet of the USA — Lemko-American immigrant organization to assist the European homeland. The Lemko Committee was founded in New York City in 1922 by Victor *Hladick. During its short period of existence the committee promoted the Russian national orientation among Lemko immigrants through its magazine, *Lemkovshchyna (1922-26), and it raised some funds to help elementary schools in the *Lemko Region. Further reading: Bohdan Herbal', "Osnovania pershoi lemkivskoi organizatsyyi—Lemkivskoho komitetu," in Lemkivskii richnyk 2002 (Krynica and Legnica, 2002), pp. 56-61. BOGDAN HORBAL

Lemko Creative Autumn. See Ruska Bursa Lemko Cultural Days. See Lemko Society Lemko Festival. See Lemko Park Lemko Hall — social and cultural center for RusynAmerican immigrants in Cleveland, Ohio. The building was

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constructed in 1910 by Andrii Korenyi from the *Presov Region (*Sharysh county) and was known as Koreny's Hall. After his death (1945), the building was bought by the *Lemko Association/Lemko-Soiuz of the USA and Canada, which within two years transformed it into a cultural center (Narodnyi dom). The Lemko Hall became a center for Rusyn theatrical performances (50,000 viewers between 1947 and 1957), musical concerts and competitions, weddings, classes for teaching children the "Carpatho-Russian" language, public lectures, and annual congresses (1947, 1951, 1961) of the Lemko Association. In 1978 its main hall was used to film the wedding scene in the academy-award winning American film about the Vietnam War, The Deer Hunter. By the 1980s the Lemko Hall had fallen into disuse; it was sold by the Lemko Association (1986) and eventually transformed into a modern condominium apartment bloc that still carries the name "Lemko." See also Carpatho-Russian American Center. Further reading: "Nash narodnyi tsentr," Karpatorusskyi kalendar' Lemko-Soiuza na hod 1956 (Yonkers, N.Y., 1956), pp. 55-61. BOGDAN HORBAL

Lemko Journal. See Lemko Association of the USA and Canada Lemko Library. See Ukrainian Lemko Museum Lemko Museum. See Lemko Research Foundation in Lviv; Museum of Lemko Culture in Zyndranowa; Museum of the Lemko Region; Ukrainian Lemko Museum Lemko Park — recreational retreat in Monroe, New York, for Lemko and other Rusyn-American immigrants and their descendants, especially in the New York City-New Jersey metropolitan area. Based on a decision taken by the *Lemko Association/Lemko Soiuz of the USA and Canada at its XHIth National Convention (1947), the Lemko Park was created in 1958 (126 acres at the cost of $175,000); it was not owned by the organization, however, but rather by a group of individual shareholders. The park became the site of largescale gatherings of Lemko immigrants, including an annual Rusalia festival, Youth Days (Dni molodi), and after 1964, in connection with a memorial chapel built to honor *Lemkos who died at the World War I internment camp, a *Talerhof Day. The chapel included a small museum housing documents, books, and photographs connected with the Lemko experience in North America and the homeland. From 1969 the Lemko Park also sponsored an annual Lemko Festival at which folk ensembles from the United States, Czechoslovakia, and Ukraine performed, and which also included ethnographic exhibits, lectures, and sports competitions. By the early 1990s the Lemko Park had declined because of fiscal

mismanagement. It was eventually (1997) confiscated by the United States government for failure to pay back taxes. BOGDAN HORBAL

Lemko population resettlement—the transfer of Lemkos from the Carpathian homeland in the years 1944 to 1946. The resettlement was carried out on the basis of an agreement (September 9,1944) between the governments of Poland and the Soviet Union that provided for a mutual exchange of populations. Poles from the Soviet Ukraine were to be voluntarily resettled in Poland, while Ukrainians, Russians, and Rusyns living within the boundaries of post-World War II Poland were to be resettled to the Soviet Ukraine. Four resettlement (evacuation) commissions operated in the *Lemko Region, based in the towns of Sanok, Jaslo, Gorlice, and Nowy Sa^cz. The resettlement process, which lasted from November 1944 to September 1946, was carried out with the assistance of the Polish military. A certain number of *Russophile-oriented *Lemkos supported the resettlement program, as did those who had lost their property during the war. Resettlement was in particular encouraged by local Communist activists and Soviet emissaries. Most Lemkos, however, left their homes under threat from Polish officials, military personnel, and terrorists. Both Ukrainian activists and the *Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UFA) opposed what they considered forced deportation. Those who were resettled were permitted to take with them up to two tons (2,000 kilograms) of personal property per family, although this proved to be unrealistic given the general lack of transportation facilities. When the transports stopped in 1946 about 100,000 Lemkos (between 60 and 80 percent of the total number at the time) had been resettled, mostly in the Eviv, Ternopil', and Ivano-Frankivs'k oblasts of western Ukraine. The Lemkos who did not go to the Soviet Ukraine were forcibly deported the following year to various parts of Poland in the so-called * Vistula Operation. Further reading: Bohdan Kordan, "Making Borders Stick: Population Transfer and Resettlement in the Trans-Curzon Territories, 1944-1949," International Migration Review, XXXI, 3 (Staten Island, N.Y., 1997), pp. 704-720; Julian Kwiek, "Przesiedlenie ludnosci lemkowskiej z wojewodztwa krakowskiego na Ukraine^ (19451946)," Studio Historyczne, XLI, 2 (Cracow, 1998), pp. 237-258; studies by Eugeniusz Misilo, Roman Drozd, and Yurii Kramar in Paul Best and Jaroslaw Moklak eds., The Lemko Region, 1939-1947: War, Occupation and Deportation (Cracow and New Haven, Conn., 2002), pp. 75-108. BOGDAN HORBAL

Lemko od Pradida. See Cislak, Nicholas Lemko Region — name for Rusyn-inhabited territory in present-day southeastern Poland. It refers to an area en-

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Lemko Region Affairs Committee/Komitet do

spraw Lemkowszczyzny — a division of Poland's

Committee for National Minority Affairs. The Lemko Region Affairs Committee was established in 1934 and included representatives of Poland's ministries of internal affairs and defense, school inspectors, representatives of state administrators in the *Lemko Region, and scholars. The committee's task was to formulate Polish government policy toward its Lemko inhabitants and to encourage those elements among *Lemkos who were willing to support the government. Initially, the committee recommended support for the Rusyn movement as a counterweight to Ukrainian influence, but by the end of the 1930s the Polish government tried to undermine both orientations in favor of a policy of rapid polonization of the Lemkos. Further reading: Jaroslaw Moklak, "Asymilacja pahstwowa czy narodowa: wybrane aspekty polityki narodowosciowej Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej wobec Lemkowszczyzny," Studia Historyczne, XXXIX, 3 (Cracow, 1996), pp. 327-340. BOGDAN HORBAL

Lemko Region Peasant and Workers' Committee. See Donskii, Mykhal

Lemko Region Society in Ukraine/Tovarystvo "Lemkivshchyna" v Ukrai'ni — the name of several organizations established since 1988 to promote the Ukrainian national orientation and preserve and popularize what it describes as Lemko "regional" culture in Ukraine. Three oblasts in western Ukraine—Lviv, Ternopil', and IvanoFrankivs'k—have their own Lemko Region Society, each of which comprises an oblast organization with several district (raion) branches. Most of the members are *Lemkos who were resettled to the Soviet Ukraine from the *Lemko Region after World War II. The organization based in Lviv organized a World Festival of Lemko Song (1991) and the First World Congress of Lemkos (1993). The organization in Ivano-Frankivs'k broadcasts the radio program "Otchyi svityl'nyk." Perhaps the most active oblast organization is based in Ternopil'. It has sponsored the First Congress of Lemkos in Ukraine and the Festival of Lemko Culture (1992) and it also publishes a monthly newspaper in Ukrainian, Dzvony Lemkivshchyny (1994- ). All three regional Lemko Region Societies in western Ukraine as well as a branch in Kiev work closely with Ukrainian-oriented Lemko organizations in other countries. In their programs and publications they frequently speak out against the forced deportation of *Lemkos from their homeland connected with the 1947 *Vistula Operation and they call for the return of property in the Carpathian homeland to Lemkos still living in Poland. The three regional societies are also very critical of the post-1989 Rusyn national revival which they describe as an "artificial movement" created by "enemies of Ukraine" to divide the rest of the Ukrainian people from one of its

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"integral" branches, the Lemkos. Further reading: Anatoli! ladlovs'kyi, "Tovarystvo 'Lemkivshyna' v Ivano-Frankivs'ku 10-t' rokiv," Lemkivshchyna, XXII, 2 (Clifton, N.J., 2001), pp. 23-25. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Lemko Relief Committee. See Pysh, Simeon Lemko Relief Committee/Lemkovskyi relyfovyi komytet — organization among Lemko-American immigrants to provide economic assistance to Lemkos/Rusyns in the European homeland (both in Poland and northeastern Slovakia). The Lemko Relief Committee was established in Yonkers, New York on May 18, 1946, at the initiative of a well-to-do industrialist from Connecticut, Peter S. *Hardy, and in cooperation with other Lemko activists, including Nicholas *Cislak, Simeon *Pysh, Victor *Hladick, Joseph *Fedoronko. Initially, the committee functioned within the framework of the *Lemko Association/Lemko Soiuz of the USA and Canada. It raised $4,000 (US), sought assistance from the United Nations Recovery and Relief Administration (UNRRA), and began to send material assistance to the *Lemko Region. Its activity ended following the final deportation of Lemkos from their homeland during the * Vistula Operation (1947). The Lemko Relief Committee was revived in 1957, this time largely at the initiative of Peter Hardy and the Orthodox priest, Joseph Fedoronko. In March 1957 the committee reached an agreement with the Polish Embassy in the United States and before the end of the year Hardy was able to visit Poland, where he signed an agreement to supply assistance to the Lemko Region. After 1959 the Lemko Relief Committee functioned as an independent organization based in Seymour, Connecticut. It managed to collect $12,000 (US) to buy farm machinery for four Lemko villages, but after that it was only able to supply minor economic assistance. Further reading: Petro S. Hardyi, Korotkaystoryia Lemkovskoho Relyfovoho Komyteta v SShA (Yonkers, N.Y., 1958). BOGDAN HORBAL

Lemko Republic of Florynka/Ruska narodna respublika Lemkiv — self-governing entity formed in the Lemko Region following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. On December 5, 1918, a congress of 500 delegates representing 130 Lemko villages met in Florynka. The congress established an Executive Council of the Lemko Region/ Nachal'nyi soviet Lemkovshchyny under the chairmanship of the Greek Catholic priest Mykhai'l lurchakevych. The Executive Council in turn set up a self-governing administrative structure that included district-level councils, a police force, and courts. The Executive Council's main goal was to unite

Carpatho-Rusyns on both sides of the mountains into a single state, *Carpathian Rus'. Since most of its members were of *Russophile national orientation, initially they hoped to unite Carpathian Rus' with a democratic Russia, but it quickly became clear that this was not possible. The council then adopted a pro-Czechoslovak orientation and before the end of December sent a delegation to Prague to request unification with that new country. Lemko delegates were also dispatched to Presov, where, on December 21, 1918, they joined with local Rusyns to form a Carpatho-Rusyn National Council. For its part, the Polish government sent troops to take control of the *Lemko Region and in February 1919 arrested the "republic's" leaders. Toward the end of that year the Executive Council managed to renew its existence, with the express purpose of blocking the mobilization of *Lemkos into the Polish army. It sent a delegation to Warsaw and received promises from the government that mobilization would cease, although in fact it continued. Disturbed by Poland's intransigence, Lemko leaders responded by convening in Florynka on March 20, 1920, a Supreme Council of the Lemko Rus' Region/ Verkhovnyi soviet Lemkovskoi Rusi (26 members) and an Executive Committee/Isporniternyi komitet (5 members) under the chairmanship of laroslav *Karchmarchyk that took on the characteristics of a Lemko government. That same month the Polish authorities responded by sending an armed force to implement mobilization. By the spring of 1920 all of the Lemko Region was firmly under Polish rule. One year later, in early 1921 the leading members of the "republic" (laroslav Kachmarchyk, Dymytrii *Khyliak, Nikolai *Hromosiak) were arrested and put on trial (June 10, 1921) for anti-Polish agitation. All were acquitted, since the court found they had acted in response to "the will of the people." During its more than two years of existence (December 1918—January 1921), the various organs of what later came to be known as the Lemko Rusyn Republic of Florynka succeeded for the first time in representing Lemko political interests before Poland and the international community. For Lemkos the Florynka republic remains a symbol of their struggle for national recognition and sense of unity with other Carpatho-Rusyns south of the mountains. Further reading: Bogdan Horbal, Dziatalnoscpolityczna Lemkow net Lemkowszczyznie, 1918-1921 (Wroclaw, 1997); Paul Robert Magocsi, "The Lemko Rusyn Republic, 1918-1920 and Political Thought in Western Rus'-Ukraine," in idem, Of the Making of Nationalities There is No £W(New York, 1999), pp. 306-315. BOGDAN HORBAL

Lemko Republic of Komancha/Komanchans'ka respublika — short-lived state formation proclaimed after the collapse of Austria-Hungary in the eastern part of the Lemko Region. Over 70 delegates from 35 Lemko villages met in Wistok Dolny on November 4, 1918. There they es-

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture tablished a Ukrainian National Council of the Sanok district headed by the Greek Catholic priest Panteleimon *Shpyflca. The council was based in Wislok Dolny and the government's executive, which was entrusted to the commissariat of the Sanok district, resided in Wislok Wielki. Nevertheless, in subsequent literature the movement has been named after the nearby village of Komancza (Rusyn: Komancha). The republic had its own Lemko police force comprised of between 800 and 1,000 members under the command of A. Kir. The Lemko Republic of Komancha intended to join the West Ukrainian National Republic founded in Eviv on November 1,1918. By the end of November, however, Polish troops arrived in the eastern part of the Lemko Region and on January 23, 1919, they liquidated the Komancha Republic. During this action several Lemkos were killed and serious damage was done to nearby Lemko villages. Further reading: Tadeusz Andrzej Olszanski, "Republika komariczanska: nieznana karta ukrainskiego zrywu niepodleglosciowego listopad 1918-styczen 1919 r.," in Ukraina i Polska po 1 wojnie swiatowego/Religie II Rzeczypospolitej (Gdansk, 1987), pp. 3446—in Ukrainian: "Komanchans'ka respublika: nevidoma storinka ukrai'ns'koho vyzvol'noho poryvu, listopad 1918—sichen' 1919," in Annaly Lemkivshcyny, Vol. V (New York, 1993), pp. 58-69; Jaroslaw Moklak,"Republikitemkowskie 1918-1919," Wierchy LIX (Cracow, 1994), pp. 63-76; Bogdan Horbal, DziaMnosc polityczna Lemkow na Lemkowszczyznie, 1918-1921 (Wroclaw, 1997), esp. pp. 114-131. BOGDAN HORBAL

Lemko Research Foundation/Fundatsiia doslidzhennia Lemkivshchyny — scholarly organization of Ukrainophile orientation in the United States. Established in 1977 in New York City, the main goals of the Lemko Research Foundation are: (1) to preserve Lemko cultural achievements and traditions; (2) to provide financial and moral support for scholars and students studying Lemko problems; (3) to publish works about *Lemkos; and (4) to secure funding to achieve these goals. The foundation has supported existing *Ukrainophile serial publications, including the popular magazine *Lemkivshchyna (1979-1992) and the journal Annaly Lemkivshchyny, Vols. 3-5 (1982-95), and it has published two books on Lemko architecture. It also sends publications to Ukrainophile Lemko organizations and scholars in Poland and Ukraine, and in the post-Communist era the foundation has provided financial support for the Ukrainian-oriented "homeland"*Vatra folk festival in Poland and for the "*Lemkivska storinka'YLemko section of Poland's Ukrainian-language newspaper, Nashe slovo. The Lemko Research Foundation frequently denounces the post-1989 Rusyn national revival, describing it as a threat to the integrity of the Ukrainian state and people. Among the foundation's long-time chairmen (1977-1994) was Myron Myts'o, BOGDAN HORBAL

291 Lemko Research Foundation in Eviv/Fundatsiia doslidzhennia Lemkivshchyny u Evovi — cultural and popular-educational organization for the study of Lemkos in Ukraine. Established in Lviv in 1991 under the direction of Ivan *Krasovs'kyi, the Lemko Research Foundation is concerned with preserving examples of traditional Lemko culture and ethnography. It has created a Lemko Museum within the framework of the permanent outdoor (skansen) exhibit in Eviv (1992), which includes historical and ethnographic materials and a full-scale replica of the church in Kwiaton, a classic example of Lemko-style wooden church *architecture. The foundation organizes art exhibits and cultural programs honoring Lemko cultural figures, and it publishes a series of books entitled "Biblioteka Lemkivshchyny." Ukrainophile in orientation, its publications and public programs frequently denounce the post-1989 Rusyn national revival. Further reading: Ivan Krasovs'kyi, "Fundatsiia Doslidzhennia Lemkivshchyny u Evovi," in Lemkivs'kyi kalendar 1994 (Eviv, 1994), pp. 53-72. BOGDAN HORBAL

Lemko Section of the Commission for Scholarly Research on the Eastern Lands/Sekcja lemkowska Komisji badan naukowych ziem wschodnich — state-funded scholarly committee to advise the government of Poland on questions related to the Lemko Region. The Lemko Section was established in 1934 under the direction of Jerzy Smolenski, who engaged fellow Polish scholars from Jagiellonian University in Cracow and the Polish Academy of Sciences to carry out research projects on various aspects of the *Lemko Region and its inhabitants. Among the section's participants were Roman *Reinfuss, Zdzislaw *Stieber, Stanislaw Leszczycki, and Krystyna Pieradzka, who published studies on Lemko ethnography, language, and anthropology. It seems that the Polish government's decision in the 1930s to support the idea that *Lemkos are a nationality distinct from Ukrainians was, in part, the result of recommendations from the Lemko Section. Further reading: Stanislaw Leszczycki, "Prace Oddzialu Lemkowskiego Badah Naukowych Ziem Wschodnich," Wierchy, No. 13 (Cracow, 1935), pp. 186-187; Jaroslaw Moklak, "Asymilacja pahstwowa czy narodowe: wybrane aspekty polityki narodowosciowej Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej wobec Lemkowszczyzny," Studio Historyczne, XXXIX, 3 (Cracow, 1996), pp. 327-340. BOGDAN HORBAL

Lemko Section of the Ukrainian Civic and Cultural Society — Lemko organization in Poland. During the period of Communist rule (1945-1989) *Lemkos in Poland were not permitted to have their own organizations, since they were considered a branch of the Ukrainian nationality.

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When, in 1957, a government-sponsored Ukrainian Civic and Cultural Society/Ukrai'ns'ke sotsio-kul'turne tovarystvo (USKT) was established, with a base in Warsaw, Lemko cultural groups participated in the new organization. Their activity was more intensely coordinated following the establishment in December 1959 of the Section for the Development of Lemko Culture/Sektsiia dlia rozvytku regional'noi lemkivs'ko! kul'tury, popularly known as the Lemko Section of the Ukrainian Civic and Cultural Society. Headed by Mykhal *Donskii and Pavel *Stefanovskii, the Lemko Section organized concerts, lectures, and other cultural events. It also encouraged the formation of other Lemko ensembles. Although all were within the framework of the Lemko Section, they often included people who were not members of the Ukrainian Civic and Culture Society. From its very foundation the Lemko Section was suspected of having non-Ukrainian "separatist tendencies." These suspicious seemed to be confirmed when Donskii and Stefanovskii requested that the Lemko Section be transferred from the Ukrainian Civic and Cultural Society to the authority of Poland's Regional Division of Culture. The authorities did not allow this; hence, Donskii and Stefanovskii formulated a statute for a new organization, the Society for Admirers of Lemko Culture/Tovarystvo liubyteliv lemkivskoi kul'tury. Immediately thereafter the two activists together with all the personnel of the Lemko Section were dismissed. In late 1965 the Ukrainian Civic and Cultural Society appointed a new eight-member board, all loyal to the Ukrainian national orientation, to direct the Lemko Section. Among its members were laroslav *Polianskii, Fedor *Goch, and Hryhorii *Petsukh. Since the fall of Communist rule in Poland in 1989 Ukrainian-oriented Lemko activities have been taken up by the newly created *Union of Lemkos in Poland. BOGDAN HORBAL

Lemko Society/Stovaryshynia Lemkiv/Stowarzyszenie Lemkow — Lemko civic and cultural organization of Rusyn national orientation established in Legnica, Poland, in 1989. Its primary goals are to have Lemko Rusyns recognized as a distinct nationality in Poland and to have the Lemko vernacular taught in schools. The society has published several textbooks, mostly written by Myroslava *Khomiak, and literary works by contemporary Lemko authors; its official organ is the bi-monthly magazine *Besida (1989- ). It has established an amateur theatrical group under the direction of Andrii *Kopcha, who is also the founding chairman (1989- ) of the society, and it sponsors several annual festivals: the *Vatra "abroad" at Michalow in Silesia for Lemkos living in southwestern Poland since the 1947 deportations; the Lemko Cultural Days/Dni lemkivskoi kul'tury at Gorzow Wielkopolski in far-western Poland; and the International Celebration of Lemko-Rusyn Culture/Medzhenarodne Biienale lemkivs-

koi/rusyn'skoi kul'tury in Krynica. The Lemko Society is a founding member (1991) of the * World Congress of Rusyns and a permanent member of its Executive Council/Svitova rada. In 1993 the Lemko Society sponsored the Second World Congress of Rusyns in Krynica, Poland, and since its foundation the society has held three organizational congresses. Further reading: Janusz Albin and Jan Chudy, "Z genezy Stowarzyszenia Lemkow," in Czeslaw Lewandowski and Marian S. Wo\anski,eds.,Studianadwsp6iczesnqpolskqmyslqpolitycznq,Acta Universitatis Wratislaviensis: Politologia, XIII (Wroclaw, 1994), pp. 123-144; "Stovaryshynia Lemkiv: X-litia v datakh," Besida, XI, 3 and 4 (Krynica and Legnica, 1999), pp. 1-2, 5-12, and 2, 5-6. BOGDAN HORBAL

Lemko-Semko. See Khyliak, Vladymir Lemko-Soiuz. See Lemko Association of the USA and Canada; Lemko Association/Zwia^zek Lemkowski

Lemkos — the farthest western ethnographic group of Carpatho-Rusyns. The territory they inhabit consists of a triangular wedge jutting into West Slavic settlement, with *Poles to the north and *Slovaks to the south. The base of the triangular wedge is formed by the valleys of the Oslawa and Laborec rivers, while its apex reaches as far as the Poprad river valley. Some authors extend the eastern boundary of Lemkos almost as far as the San River and the upper Uzh River and its Turia tributary in Subcarpathian Rus'/Transcarpathia (see Map 3). The farthest western Lemko-Rusyn village is Osturna, at the foot of the Tatra Mountains on the southern flank of the Carpathian crests. The triangular wedge is about 150 kilometers long on its west-east axis and about 60 kilometers long at its north-south base. In terms of present-day administrative borders, the lands traditionally inhabited by Lemko Rusyns comprise the southern part of the Podkarpackie and the southeastern corner of the Malopolskie palatinates (wojewodztwa) in Poland, and the northern parts of the Stara Eubovna, Bardejov, Svidnik, Stropkov, Medzilaborce, Humenne, and Snina districts (okresy) in Slovakia. Elsewhere in this encyclopedia Rusyn-inhabited lands in present-day Poland are referred to as the *Lemko Region, and in Slovakia as the *Presov Region. The northern flank of the triangle follows a line just below of the towns of Grybow, Gorlice, Zmigrod, Dukla, and Rymanow in Poland. This invisible line has traditionally functioned as a sharply delineated ethnocultural boundary between Lemko Rusyns and Poles. Completely different is the situation along the southern flank of the triangular wedge, where traditionally the boundary has not only been invisible, but also quite uneven and permeable. One reason for this difference has to do with language and religious factors. For instance, on the southern slopes of the Carpathians the "Rus'

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture faith" is common to inhabitants who still speak Rusyn as well as those who adopted Slovak or Hungarian. The ethnonym Lemko is externally ascriptive in character. That is to say, because the population uses the word lem (meaning only) in their speech—a word not used by nearby ethnographic groups—their neighbors ascribed to them the nickname Lemko. This name was first mentioned in the scholarly literature in 1820 and gradually became accepted by many authors. By the early twentieth century the Rusyns living on the northern slopes of the Carpathians had given up their traditional ethnonym, Rusnak, for the name Lemko. South of the Carpathians, however, they retained the ethnonym Rusnak, or its variant, Rusyn. As the Rusnaks north of the mountains adopted the new name Lemko, they also evolved from an ethnographic to an ethnonational group. In this entry, the Rusyn inhabitants north of the Carpathians (in the Lemko Region proper) will be referred to as Lemkos, those on the southern slopes (in the Presov Region) as Rusnaks. As a whole, the population will be referred to as Lemkos/Rusnaks, their territory as the Lemko/Presov Region. During the interwar years of the twentieth century there were in the Lemko Region of Poland about 180 villages inhabited exclusively by Lemkos and a few dozen others of mixed Lemko and Polish habitation, for a total Lemko-Rusyn population of about 130,000 (1931). On the southern slopes of the Carpathians in Slovakia there were at the outset of the period (1919) 269 villages in the mountainous regions and another 149 villages in the immediately adjacent areas to the south and southwest. Of this total of 418 villages, 103 were inhabited primarily by Rusnaks, 54 by Rusnaks with a Slovak minority, and 7 by Slovaks with a Rusnak minority. In absolute numbers, 85,000 persons in eastern Slovakia declared their nationality as Rusyn (1930), although it is likely that several thousand more identified themselves as "Czechoslovak." By the 1930s the majority of the Lemko/Rusnak population was of the Greek Catholic faith, with about 15 percent (20,000) Orthodox in Poland and 9 percent (9,000) in Slovakia. There is still controversy about the ethnogenesis of this farthest western Rusyn ethnographic group. Some authors consider Lemkos/Rusnaks the autochthonous inhabitants in the Carpathians, living in the region (once much larger in extent than it became in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries) since proto-Slavic times. Other authors argue that Lemkos/Rusnaks made their appearance only in the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries, as when Vlach shepherds migrated from the Balkans and settled in the Beskyd ranges of the Carpathians, where for the most part they were rusynized (see Vlach colonization). Traditionally, Lemkos/Rusnaks earned their livelihood primarily through agriculture, but also through raising goats, sheep, and cows. Agricultural productivity always remained underdeveloped, however, owing in large part to the harsh mountain climate, poor soil, and antiquated farming tech-

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niques. Aside from the main crops, oats and barley, potatoes, kohlrabi, cabbage, beans, and flax were also sown. Livestock breeding was not very well developed; most households had only from two to at most a dozen cows that grazed all year long in the common pasture land (tolokd). Other means of livelihood were limited. A few villages specialized in small-scale crafts, while some Lemkos/Rusnaks worked in the forests and may have tried their hand at retail commerce. The products they made were based on accessible materials such as wood and stone. The forest was particularly important. Women picked mushrooms and berries, which they sold in the nearby small towns, while men felled trees, sold as uncut logs or cut into lumber. Some villages were noted for crafts such as wagon-making, metal-repairing, barrel-making, embroidery, stone-cutting, and tar-making. The village of Losie near Gorlice was particularly renowned for the production of grease. Losie's grease merchants were the most mobile element among the Lemkos, in some cases traveling on their wagons as far as Lithuania, Russia, Silesia, Moravia, and Transylvania. Lemkos/Rusnaks also found employment as seasonal workers in the more agriculturally developed lands to the south, especially the Hungarian Plain. Beginning in the 1870s, increasing numbers emigrated abroad, in particular to the United States but also to Canada and Brazil. The phenomenon of emigration resulted in improved economic conditions for Lemko/Rusnak villages; it also had a positive impact on national self-identity and changes in cultural and civic life. Lemko/Rusnak culture has been heavily influenced by Poles and Slovaks, although at the same time it has retained archaic elements that have disappeared among neighboring groups. In comparison to other Rusyn ethnographic groups (*Dolyniane and in part *Boikos/Verkhovyntsi), and in particular to their neighbors to the north and south, a number of cultural characteristics allow Lemkos/Rusnaks to differentiate "their own" from "the others." Among the most important of these differentiating factors is the manner of laying out villages and the spatial plan for domestic dwellings and property. Village houses were arranged in the form of a long chain along a river or brook. Also part of this spatial plan were the so-called arable lands in the forest, located halfway down the valley from the village. The Lemko/Rusnak homestead more often than not consisted of a single dwelling built in wood and divided into two parts. Roofs initially had four slopes, but subsequently only two slopes with eaves covered with straw or shingles. The living quarters had walls of wooden planks. Villages inhabited by Lemkos/Rusnaks were also distinguishable by the presence of Lemko-style wooden churches (see Architecture). Another important element differentiating Lemkos/ Rusnaks from other groups and contributing to their selfidentification as a distinct group was their language (see Language). Clothing too was distinctive. Male dress consisted

294 of a white linen shirt, linen (summer) or woolen (winter) pants, a white or light blue vest, and a short jacket made of homespun wool. Of particular importance was the heavy mantle or cloak (chttha), swung over the shoulders, which was worn by the gazda (peasant landowner) as a distinguishing badge from other people in the village. All men wore a black hat (kalap) with a short brim. Female dress consisted of an undershirt (oplichd), a blouse (koshelid) decorated with beads in an embroidery-like design, over which was worn a black velvet (or more likely linen) corset-like vest decorated with silver-threaded embroidery patterns resembling plants, a pleated skirt with decorated base, and an apron with horizontal decorative strips sewn on. In the winter women wore a coarse woolen vest (serdakllaibyk) or a heavy white sheepskin coat. Married women covered their heads with a small close-fitting cap (chepets) over which was worn a shawl (khustkd) or simply a kerchief (khustkalfatselyk) directly on the head. Unmarried girls wore a necklace with small beads. Male and female footwear consisted of leather moccasins and in the winter high boots. Lemko/Rusnak spiritual culture, with its religious beliefs, customs, and rituals, continues to reflect archaic and pagan elements mixed with later features from both Eastern and Western Christianity. Still evident are traces of primitive cults based on belief in the forces of nature, according to which the world is filled with supernatural beings that take the dreaded form of forest spirits and spirits to punish wrongdoers, as well as the unbaptised, masked demons, devils, and vampires. These beings were thought likely to be encountered at crossroads, in cemeteries, and in old mills. Shepherds usually knew how to neutralize their evil powers. The unity and integrity of Lemko/Rusnak ethnographic territory was destroyed during the twentieth century. After World War I the establishment of an international border between the new states of Poland and Czechoslovakia reduced the ease with which Lemkos and Rusnaks on both sides of the mountain crests had interacted when the entire region lay within one state, the Austro-Hungarian Empire. At the close of World War II the Lemkos on the northern slopes of the Carpathians were, between 1945 and 1947, deported from their homeland. About 70 percent went to the Soviet Ukraine, the remaining 30 percent to those parts of Poland inhabited by Germans (also deported after the war), in particular Silesia in the southwestern part of the country. A smaller number of Rusnaks from south of the Carpathians (about 8,500) opted voluntarily to leave northeastern Slovakia and were also resettled in the Soviet Ukraine. After 1956 an estimated 10 percent of the deportees from "the West" (i.e., western Poland) returned to their native Carpathian region, while nearly all the Rusnaks from the southern slopes who had opted for the Soviet Ukraine returned to Czechoslovakia (see Lemko population resettlement; Optanty). As a result of population resettlement and the nationality

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture policies of the Communist regimes that ruled Poland and Czechoslovakia after World War II, a high percentage of Lemkos/Rusnaks assimilated to Polish or to Slovak culture and identity. By the 1990s there were an estimated 60,000 Lemkos spread throughout Poland and about 130,000 Rusnaks concentrated in northeastern Slovakia. However, according to the most recent census data (2001-2002), in Poland less than 5,900 persons declared themselves of Lemko-Rusyn nationality (1,700 of whom resided in the Lemko Region); in Slovakia, 24,000 persons declared themselves ofRusyn nationality and nearly 55,000 ofRusyn mother tongue. Despite the historical and cultural changes that have occurred over the centuries, most Lemkos in Poland and Rusnaks in Slovakia continue to be aware of the ethnographic and ethno-national unity of their homeland on the northern (Lemko Region) and southern (Presov Region) slopes of the Carpathians. Further reading: Jan Husek, Ndrodopisnd hranice mezi Slovdky a Karpatorusy (Bratislava, 1925); Krystyna Pieradzka, Na szlakach Lemkowszczyzny (Cracow, 1939; repr. 1990, 2003); Ivan Bugera, Zvychai ta viruvannia na Lemkivshchyni (Lviv, 1939); luliian Tarnovych, Lemkivshchyna: material'na kul'tura (Cracow, 1941; repr. under the pseudonym luliian Beskyd: Toronto, 1972); Roman Reinfuss, "Lemkowie jako grupa etnograficzna," Prace i materiafy etnograficzne, VII (Lublin, 1948-49), pp. 77-210—and separately (Sanok, 1998); Roman Reinfuss, "Ze studiow nad kultura. Lemkowszczyzny po obu stronach Karpat," Polska Sztuka Ludowa, XX, 1 (Warsaw, 1966); pp. 3-22; Andrzej Kwilecki, Lemkowie: zagadnienie migracji i asymilacji (Warsaw, 1974); Myroslav Sopolyha, Narodne zhytlo ukraintsiv Skhidnoi Slovachchyny (Bratislava and Presov, 1983); Jan Podolak et al., Horna Cirocha (Kosice and Humenne, 1985); Jerzy W. Gajewski, ed., Lemkowie: kultura — sztuka —jejzyk (Warsaw and Cracow, 1987); Bohdan Strumins'kyi, ed., Lemkivshchyna: zemlia—liudy—istoriia—kul'tura, 2 vols. (New York, Paris, Sydney, and Toronto, 1988); Roman Reinfuss, Sladami Lemkow (Warsaw, 1990); Jerzy Czajkowski, ed., Lemkowie w historii i kulturze Karpat, 2 vols. (Sanok, 1992-94); Ewa Michna, Lemkowie: grupa etniczna czy narod (Cracow, 1995); Jerzy Czajkowski, Studia nad Lemkowszczyznq (Sanok, 1999); lurii Hoshko, ed., Lemkivshchyna: istoryko-etnohrafichnedoslidzhennia, 2 vols. (L'viv, 1999-2002); Jacek Nowak, Zaginiony swiat?: nazywajq ich Lemkami (Cracow, 2000); Helena Duc-Fajfer, "Bye Lemkiem w PRL-u," Zeszyty Naukowe Universytetu Jagellonskiego, MCCXLVII: Prace Etnograficzne, No. 36 (Cracow, 1995), pp. 141-172; Marian Gajdos, Maria Homis'inova, Stanislav Konedny et al., Rusini/Ukrajinci na Slovensku na konci 20. storocia: k vybranym vysledkom historicko-sociologickeho vyskumu v roku 2000 (PreSov, 2001); Stanislav Konecny et al., Sebareflexiapostavenia a vyvoja Rusinov na Slovensku (PreSov, 2002); Ivan Madzik and Vladek Maksymovych, Lemkivske vesilia (Krynica, 2002); Myroslav Sopolyha, Ukrajinci na Slovensku: etnokulturne tradicie z aspektu osidlenia I'udovej architektury a byvania (Komarno-Dunajska Streda, 2002). HELENA DUC-FAJFER

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Lemko Youth Journal. See Lemko Association of the USA and Canada Lemkovshchyna — the first Lemko periodical published in North America. Founded by Victor *Hladick, Lemkovshchyna was published in New York City (1922-1926) in the Lemko variant of the Rusyn language. As the organ of the *Lemko Committee of the USA, it appeared irregularly. Thirty-three issues were published during its first two years; thereafter it appeared less frequently, until it ceased publication sometime in 1926. Two years later it was succeeded by the magazine * Lemko.

Ensemble toured the United States and Canada, where it gave 25 concerts (1987); in Poland it performed a series of concerts of religious music in connection with the millennium celebrations of Christianity in Kievan Rus' (1988). For internal reasons the ensemble ceased activity in 1991, but was revived again two years later. Throughout its history the Lemkovyna Ensemble has given nearly 300 performances, appeared on Polish radio and television, and produced several records and cassettes. Further reading: Petro Trokhanovskii, "25 rokiv ansambliu Lemkovyna," in Lemkivskii kalendar 1994 (Legnica and Krynica, 1994), pp. 110-119. BOGDAN HORBAL

BOGDAN HORBAL

Lemkyn, Ivan F. See Polianskii, loann Lend'el, VasyP. See Renaissance Carpatho-Russian Student Society

Lemkovshchyna. See Lemko Region Lemkovskii komitet. See Pysh, Simeon Lemkovskii spasytel'nyi komitet. See Pysh, Simeon Lemkovyna. See Lemko Region

Lenert, Maria. See Pidhirianka, Mariika Lenin, Vladimir. See Communism Leopold I. See Habsburg family

Lemkovyna. See Doklia, Teodor; Kitchura, Stephen Lemkovyna Association. See Doklia, Teodor; Kitchura, Stephen Lemkovyna Choir — choral ensemble among resettled Lemkos and their descendants in Ukraine. The Lemkovyna Choir was founded in 1969 by Pavlo lurkovskii in the village of Rudne near Eviv in western Ukraine. For over 20 years it has been under the direction of Ivan Kushnir. The ensemble has approximately 65 members, and its repertory includes over 80 Lemko folk songs. It has performed in over 950 concerts in Ukraine, Estonia, Poland, and Germany, as well as on radio and television programs. Further reading: Mariia Baiko, "Evivs'ki narodnii khorovii kapeli 'Lemkovyna' 25 lit," Lemkivshchyna, XVII, 2 (Clifton, N.J., 1995), pp. 14-16. BOGDAN HORBAL

Lemkovyna Song and Dance Ensemble/AnsambF pisni i tantsiu "Lemkovyna" — the longest-lasting ensemble in post-World War II Poland to perform authentic Lemko songs and dances. The Lemkovyna Ensemble was formed in 1969 by Fedor *Goch, Mykhal *Donskii, and Pavel *Stefanovskii, under the artistic direction of laroslav *Trokhanovskii. As a result of restrictions imposed by the Polish government, the ensemble was unable to perform between 1973 and 1980. Revived in the 1980s, the Lemkovyna

Lesko. See District Leszczynski, Stanislaw. See Historiography: Lemko Region; Poles Levchyk, VasyP. See Organization for the Defense of Lemko Western Ukraine Lex Apponyi. See Apponyi School Law Libertash — a coin of small monetary value that was minted at the castle of Mukachevo during the uprising (1703-1711) of Prince Ferenc II *Rakoczy against Habsburg rule over Hungary. Libertini — free peasants who as a result of service to the Hungarian king were exempted from feudal duties and were given land. As the king's power waned, the libertini gradually lost their free status and they were enserfed by the magnates at the end of the fifteenth and in the early sixteenth century. IVAN POP

Liberty Association/Svoboda — fraternal society for Rusyn Americans. At the initiative of the Greek Catholic priest, Peter Kushtan, the Greek Catholic Carpatho-Russian Benevolent Association Liberty/Organizacija greko

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kaftoliceskich karpatorusskich spomahajuscich bratstv Svobody was established in Perth Amboy, New Jersey on July 8, 1918. Its goal was to provide insurance benefits for Rusyn immigrants living primarily in the northeastern part of the United States. It operated a printshop and published in Rusyn (Roman alphabet) a weekly newspaper, *Vostok/The East (1919-50), and an annual almanac, Kalendar' Organizacii "Svobody " (1925-41), which included information about the Carpatho-Rusyn heritage and current developments in the European homeland. In the late 1930s the Liberty Association broke with the *Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic Church and became affiliated with the *American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic Church. Faced with declining membership, in 1992 the Liberty Association merged with the * United Russian Orthodox Brotherhood of America based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, which in turn changed its name (1992) to the Orthodox Society of America. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Liprandi, A. P. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region

Lintur, Petro (b. May 4, 1909, Horonda [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. February 2, 1969, Uzhhorod [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — folklorist, literary scholar, professor, and civic and cultural activist of Russian national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus'. After graduating from the Russian gymnasium in Mukachevo (1930) Lintur completed the historical and philological faculty of Charles University in Prague (1930-1935) and then studied Serbian language and folklore at the University of Belgrade in Yugoslavia (1935-1936). In 1938 he began teaching history and literature at the gymnasium in Khust, where he organized a Russian literary circle and published an anthology of poetry by his students (Budet' den', 1941). For such "Russophile" activity he was fired from teaching (May 1941) by the Hungarian authorities which at the time ruled * Subcarpathian Rus', and he spent the rest of the war years under police surveillance. Lintur continued his scholarly work, however, publishing an analysis and anthology of Christmas carols, Uhro-russkiia koliadky (1942), and three essays (1941) about the positive depiction of Hungarian and Austrian rulers (King Matyas Corvinus, Prince Ferenc II *Rakoczy, Emperor Joseph II) in Rusyn folklore. When the Soviet Army arrived in Subcarpathian Rus' at the end of 1944, Lintur's *Russophile views allowed him to take an active part in civic life. He was a delegate to the First Congress of People's Committees of *Transcarpathian Ukraine (November 26, 1944), where he was elected vicechairman of the National Council of Transcarpathian Ukraine, a post he held until the dissolution of the council in January 1946. He was not, however, enamoured of the new administration's Ukrainian orientation, and whenever he spoke in

public he always emphasized the Rus'/Russian orientation that traditionally characterized Subcarpathian cultural life. Such views were to be criticized by local Soviet functionaries. In December 1944 Lintur participated in the delegation sent by Subcarpathia's Orthodox Church to Moscow, where he tried to convince the Soviet authorities to adopt a lenient attitude toward an institution which he argued "from time immemorial" had been oriented toward Rus'. He also cosigned with Subcarpathian Orthodox Church leaders an earlier letter (November 18) sent to the Soviet leader, losif *Stalin, requesting that Subcarpathian Rus' be included in the Soviet Union as a distinct entity, the Carpatho-Russian Soviet Republic/Karpatorusskaia Sovetskaia Respublika. Lintur did not realize that the Ukrainian orientation adopted by the Soviet military in Subcarpathian Rus' from the fall of 1944 was little more than camouflage for Stalin's intention to annex this strategic region of central Europe. During the early postwar years Lintur played an active role in Subcarpathian civic life as departmental head (1946-1953) responsible for the arts in the regional (oblast) government administration and as deputy (1948-1953) to the Uzhhorod city council. He also wrote a doctoral thesis on the Subcarpathian story-teller, Andrii Kalyn, which was accepted by Moscow University for the degree ofkandidat nauk (1953). From 1953 until his death Lintur taught at Uzhhorod State University (decent/associate professor, 1955), where he researched Subcarpathian literature and journalism in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. His main interest, however, was in Rusyn folklore. He made available for scholarship transcriptions from the rich repertory of several Subcarpathian storytellers (Andrii Kalyn, Mykhailo Halytsia, Vasyl' Korolovych, lurii Revt', and Ivan Il't'o, among others), on the basis of which he published several anthologies of Rusyn ballads and tales: Zakarpats 'ki kazky Andriia Kalyna (1955), Narodni balady Zakarpattia (1959), Kazky zelenykh hir (1965), Narodni balady Zakarpattia (1966), lak cholovik vid 'mupidkuvav a kishku vchyvpratsiuvaty (1967), Try zoloti slova (1968), Dido vsevido (1969), and Zacharovani kazkoiu (1984). Lintur also wrote theoretical studies on Rusyn folklore, including its relationship to that of other Slavic peoples (Narodnye ballady Zakarpat'ia i ikh slavianskie sviazi, 1963), as well as several essays on the impact of Russian classical literature on nineteenth-century Rusyn literary developments, particularly on writers like levhenii *Fentsyk and Aleksander *Mytrak. One of Lintur's first scholarly studies was a biography and analysis of Mytrak's works (A.A. Mitrak: ocherk zhizni i dieiatel'nosti, 1937). Further reading: Ivan Khlanta and Ivan Sen'ko, Petro Lintur: biobibliohrafichnyi pokazhchyk (Uzhhorod, 1999); Ivan Sen'ko, Zapovnena anketa, abo zhyttiepys Petra Lintura (Uzhhorod, 1999). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Lipinsky, Jan. See Society ofRusyn Intelligentsia in Slovakia Listok — religious and literary journal published in Uzhhorod (1885-1903) by levhenii *Fentsyk. Like its publisher, Listok's readers were primarily Greek Catholic priests in *Subcarpathian Rus'; most of the material thus consisted of sermons, religious studies, articles on the history of the church and monasteries, and biographies of religious leaders. Fentsyk did, however, include "secular" material by contemporary authors like Anatolii *Kralyts'kyi, lurii *Zhatkovych, Ivan *Sil'vai, Aleksander *Pavlovych, and Aleksander *Mytrak that dealt with Rusyn history, ethnography, and folklore. The journal also encouraged its readers to collect tales, legends, songs, and descriptions of traditional life among Rusyns, and it published some of the early writings about Subcarpathian Rus' by the Russian scholar Aleksei L.*Petrov. Listok was published in Russian and, therefore, was difficult to understand for Rusyns. In an effort to correct this problem Fentsyk issued after 1891 a supplement, Dodatok, written in the Rusyn vernacular. Nevertheless, Listok never managed to attract more than a few dozen subscribers and consequently it had limited influence on cultural life in Subcarpathian Rus'. Further reading: Petro Lintur, "Znachenie 'Listka' v razvitii zhurnalistiki i literaturnykh stremlenii Zakarpat'ia XIX St.," in Mykhailo Rychalka, ed., Zhovten i ukrains 'ka kul'tura (Presov, 1968), pp. 619621; Pavlo M. Fedaka, "Dvotyzhnevyk 'Listok'," in idem, Narodna kul'tura ukraintsiv Zakarpattia (Uzhhorod, 2002), pp. 10-29. IVAN POP

Literary Society of Subcarpathian Sons of the Eastern Catholic Church. See St. Basil the Great Society Literature. The artistic literature of the Rusyns reflects the diverse historical, political, and linguistic circumstances under which it developed. Sharing its common beginnings in religious texts dating from the sixteenth century, Rusyn literary development gradually assumed distinct patterns along the northern (*Lemko Region) and southern (*Subcarpathian Rus' and the *Presov Region) slopes of the Carpathians. In the *Vojvodina, Rusyn literature followed its own path from the end of the nineteenth century. Despite its many styles and linguistic forms, Rusyn literature embodies a consistent historical tradition that has stressed adaptation and survival. Rusyn writers have fashioned a unique national narrative which, on the one hand, has affirmed and kept faith with native values, while on the other it has accentuated stratagems of survival and compromise with surrounding cultures.

SUBCARPATHIAN Rus' AND THE PRESOV REGION The earliest extant Subcarpathian manuscripts (see also

Literature, Early manuscripts), which date from the fourteenth century, are copies of medieval Kievan texts written in *Church Slavonic. However, in Rusyn versions of religious literature there is evidence of a distinct national character. The oldest popular literary document, the Gerlakhovskii tolkovyi Apostol (The Gerlachov Interpretive Epistle), contains the Church Slavonic texts of epistles, accompanied by didactic interpretations written in the Subcarpathian vernacular. This linguistic compromise reflected the need to preserve the dignity of Church Slavonic at the same time that it recognized the benefits of adapting the texts to the linguistic needs of the local audience. Subcarpathian scribes freely modified the original texts, adding material from various sources, including folklore, and using a language rich in local dialectalisms and popular sayings. In didactic miscellanies (sbornyky), there appeared alongside the words of the Holy Fathers of the Church secular tales and even superstitious materials, which asserted the local tradition within the authoritative religious culture. Such stylistic heterogeneity is also apparent in the sixteenth-century anti-Uniate polemics of Mykhai'l *Orosvygovs'kyi-Andrella of Rosvygovo. In his polemical tracts Andrella blends languages and employs discursive strategies of intertextuality, allusion, and linguistic play that reflect a creative use of language variance. His multiform texts, which straddle the borders of religions and languages, illustrate the realities ofRusyn life of the time. The written poetry (virshi) and spiritual songs of anonymous authors collected in manuscript songbooks from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries provide another indication of the syncretism in Rusyn literature that resulted from intersecting influences. Works such as "The Song of Terrible Years" and "The Icon of Klokochevo" lament the destruction of the land and the suffering of the people during the anti-*Habsburg wars and uprisings of the seventeenth century. These songs preserve indigenous oral forms, such as the kolomyika structure, within the imported tradition of bookish verse. The result is a unique national expression, in which Rusyn authors attempt to find a meaningful identity within an oppressive and unstable world by turning images of powerlessness into endurance and social oppression into moral virtue. The "Song about Rusyns" and the "Song about Evil Landlords," among others, establish a Rusyn self-image that is stoic, rather than passive, in which Rusyn resistance emerges as ironic cynicism. As Rusyns from Subcarpathia began to attend Western institutions of higher education (in Trnava, Vienna, Budapest) during the second half of the eighteenth century, they were inevitably exposed to assimilationist pressures from the dominant Roman Catholic culture of Hungary and Austria. If a cultural representative from Subcarpathian Rus' or the Presov Region wished to articulate his experience in literary form, it usually had to be within the terms established by the dominant discourse. Consequently, Subcarpathian writers

298 adapted their own literary expression to established European literary norms. Rusyn historians and grammarians, for example, produced works in Latin (the recognized language of European scholarship and until 1844 the official language of the Hungarian Kingdom) or in Hungarian. Thus, when he died in 1849, Vasyl' *Dovhovych left an unpublished manuscript of 190 poems, of which 131 were in Latin, 41 were in Hungarian, and 18 were in Rusyn vernacular. Nevertheless, most of the churchmen who founded a written Rusyn literature turned for inspiration not to Latin-Magyar culture, but rather to Russian literature and the Church Slavonic language. At the outset of the nineteenth century, Andrii *Val'kovs'kyi and Aleksander Baizam wrote formal odes in Church Slavonic addressed to the Greek Catholic Rusyn bishop Andrii *Bachyns'kyi. Their praises for the bishop's promotion of the Rus' spirit were filled with overt references to the language and culture of Russia. In 1804 Hryhorii *Tarkovych, later to become the first Greek Catholic bishop of Presov, addressed celebratory verses to Joseph, the Palatine of Hungary. What may appear on the surface to be an obsequious imitation of Hungarian and Russian cultural authority is, by postmodern reading strategies, a subversive discourse that expresses political pragmatism and contains the seeds of cultural resistance. While imitation was a means of gaining a voice for the oppressed Rusyn culture, it did little to promote the development of a local, national culture. The beginning of a truly Rusyn literature came with the national awakening of the mid-nineteenth century. Aleksander *Dukhnovych, "the national awakener of the CarpathoRusyns," put literature firmly in the service of the national cause as it directly addressed the Rusyn people about the realities of their existence. Dukhnovych was the author of the first primer for Rusyns, Knyzhytsia chytal'naia dlia nachynaiushchykh (1847), which contained a long didactic poem in the Rusyn vernacular. Addressed to children, the poem challenges negative stereotypes while advocating educational enlightenment and national regeneration. Also included in the Knyzhytsia is Dukhnovych's lyrical poem "Zhizn' Rusyna" (Life of a Rusyn), which extols earthy reality in the spirit of romanticism and reveals a deep sympathy for the innate nobility of the downtrodden and unappreciated Rusyn peasant. Dukhnovych's primer, his poem "Life of a Rusyn," and his play Virtue is More Important than Riches (1850), with its depiction ofRusyn vices, together constitute his creative formulation of the Rusyn national character. He also celebrated Rusyn national feeling in the poem "Vruchanie" (Dedication), which subsequently became an *anthem, sung by Rusyns wherever they live. Dukhnovych was the motivating force behind the first organized Rusyn literary circle, the *Presov Literary Society. Before it was banned by the government, the society published 12 books and the first Rusyn literary *anthology, Pozdravlenie Rusynov (Greetings to the Rusyns). The anthology, which ap-

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture peared three times (1850, 1851, 1852), presented the work of 20 local authors, whose writings represented the first deliberate artistic efforts of a people in the process of constructing a cultural tradition and a national identity. The contents of the anthologies are diverse in style and language, and include solemn odes in lofty Church Slavonic as well as folk lyrics in the local vernacular. The themes reflect those popular traits of romanticism that dovetail with Dukhnovych's national goals: an interest in history and prehistory; the expression of edifying emotions ranging from patriotism to religious sentiment; the evocation of the native landscape as a living entity; a Romantic idealization of the people; and an overall celebration of freedom. Finally, the anthologies outlined a broad subversive stance that would become the basic stance ofRusyn literature for the remainder of the nineteenth century; that is, a Slavophile identification and affiliation with Russian culture which would serve as antidotes to the cultural denigration Rusyns were to suffer from an increasingly nationalist Magyar center. The basic challenge to the founders of Rusyn literature at this stage in its development was to assert and maintain a unique national identity, while still claiming an affiliation with the greater Slavic cultural world and while attempting to secure a position for Rusyn culture within a Hungarian political context. Rusyn literature from its foundation thus reflected seemingly contradictory aims and a coexistence of diverse styles and languages. The three literary anthologies of the Presov Literary Society demonstrate the existence at mid-century of two parallel streams in Rusyn literature, one striving toward the expression of universal themes on the sophisticated level of established European culture, the other looking to more local sources of inspiration and voicing indigenous concerns in a more popular idiom. One of the authors represented in the anthologies, Aleksander *Pavlovych, was to become second only to Dukhnovych as a poet of his people. His verses included in the anthologies sought to identify the Rusyn spirit in history and folklore at the same time that he hoped to place it in the broader context of *pan-Slavic solidarity. Pavlovych's other poems, written in the Rusyn vernacular, dealt directly with social conditions and articulated the experiences of a people suffering under cultural and political domination. Before the initiatives of Dukhnovych and Pavlovych could flourish a new period of oppression ensued, following the implementation of government-inspired denationalization and magyarization programs after 1867. The Hungarian government's policy provoked among some cultural activists subversive strategies that took the form of affiliation with the fraternal culture of Russia. Hence, Subcarpathian literature of the second half of the nineteenth century was in both theme and language characterized by resistance to magayarization. Most Subcarpathian writers chose to use a literary language based on Russian rather than any of their own Subcarpathian

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture dialects, believing that the use of the language of the powerful empire to the east would help keep alive cultural specificity and serve as a defense against national assimilation. The Russian-based literary language used by Rusyn writers came to be known as the "traditional Carpatho-Rusyn language." It contained a range of transitional forms, with deviations in grammar and spelling as well as admixtures of dialectalisms and neighboring languages. Because of its inconsistencies, it was disparaged by critics as a macaronic jargon (*iazychiie). While the iazychiie did not permit writers to create an authentic Rusyn literature that would satisfy nineteenth-century purist standards, modern linguistic and literary theories suggest reading strategies that recognize and appreciate the creative potential of intersecting languages. Put another way, the very essence of Rusyn literature lies in its ability to straddle discourses. The major writers honored as the second generation of Rusyn "awakeners" included Aleksander *Mytrak, Anatolii *Kralyts'kyi, Ivan *Sil'vai, levhenii *Fentsyk, and lulii *Stavrovs'kyi-Popradov. Like Dukhnovych and Pavlovych, all were Greek Catholic priests who favored an emotional, didactic lyricism, as well as some prose realism. Still struggling to create a national identity and to achieve social development and educational progress, Rusyn literature continued to stress social over aesthetic values. Its major themes—Carpathian nature, Rusyn history, social injustice, love for the Rusyn people, and indignation directed at the denationalized and increasingly magyarized intelligentsia—are expressed in somber tones that reflect the oppressive and pessimistic political atmosphere of the time. By the turn of the twentieth century a group of younger writers, including Avhustyn *Voloshyn, lurii *Zhatkovych, and Ivan Vas'ko, began to treat themes from Subcarpathian village life in their native dialects. After Subcarpathian Rus' became a part of Czechoslovakia in 1919 Rusyn literature enjoyed a renaissance. For the subsequent two decades, the Rusyn intelligentsia was for the first time left to work out its own cultural identity in relative freedom. The effects of centuries of colonial domination, however, quickly became apparent in the internal disputes over the appropriate cultural and national orientation. *Russophiles, *Rusynophiles, and *Ukrainophiles debated issues of national identity and language as they sought to find the best defense against denationalization. While all sides looked to local tradition and expressed a sense of Rusyn patriotism, the body of literature they produced was diverse in language and content. Vasyl' *Grendzha-Dons'kyi was the first Subcarpathian author to use literary Ukrainian. His lyric poetry and novels of social protest celebrated the heroic Rusyn past and lamented the misery of the still downtrodden Rusyn people, lulii *Borshosh-Kum"iats'kyi and Sevastiian *Sabol (pseud. Zoreslav) also believed that Rusyns were part of the Ukrainian nationality and that, therefore, they could best survive by

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adapting to Ukrainian culture. By contrast, Russophile poets such as Andrii *Karabelesh, Mykhai'l *Popovych, Vasyl' *Dobosh, and Andrii *Patrus-Karpats'kyi sought psychological security for the Rusyn people by stressing their cultural connection to Russia. Using literary Russian, these authors expressed similar themes and emotions as the Ukrainophiles but appealed to the concept of a common-Russian (obshcherusskii) culture for identification and support. Russianlanguage authors were most prolific after the Hungarian regime returned to Subcarpathian Rus' during World War II. During those years writers such as Emilian *Balets'kyi, Ivan *Kercha, lurii *Goida, Vasylii *Sochka-Borzhavyn, and Dymytrii *Vakarov invoked the eastward-looking Slavophile sentiments of earlier Rusyn writers and opposed Ukrainophile tendencies with appeals to Slavic brotherhood. After the establishment of the Soviet regime in Subcarpathian Rus' (renamed the Transcarpathian oblast') in 1945, Ukrainian was declared the only acceptable literary language and many Russian-language Rusyn writers adopted the new linguistic medium. During the Stalinist years, and again in the 1970s, Subcarpathian writers who tried to adapt to the obligatory optimism required by Socialist Realism overlaid their traditional themes with Soviet cliches. All national feeling and loyalties were replaced by Communist ideals. In their historic novels and short stories Fedor *Potushniak, Mykhailo *Tomchanii, and Ivan *Chendei rewrote the Rusyn past and created a reality consistent with the imposed political ideology. Ideological injunctions were in the long run more damaging to the integrity ofRusyn literature than any restrictions on language. In the Presov Region, which remained part of Czechoslovakia, Fedor *Lazoryk and Ivan *Matsyns'kyi, who also switched from Russian to Ukrainian, were among the first poets to relate the Rusyn experience of the post-war years. In prose, Vasyl' *Zozuliak, Fedor Ivanchov, Mykhailo *Shmaida, and others described the local problems of the Presov Region Rusyns, who after 1948 were experiencing collectivization and forced change from a Russian to a Ukrainian national orientation. A younger generation of prose writers, such as Vasyl' Datsei, Stepan *Hostyniak, and Mykhailo Drobniak, used Ukrainian consistently to treat subject matter from everyday life with some satire and psychological realism. Only a few authors, mostly amateur writers living in the countryside (Anna *Halchak, Nykolai Hvozda, Ivan Kyndia, lurko Kolynchak, Andrii Tsaptsara, Ivan Zhak) were allowed to publish in their native Rusyn dialect lyrical poetry and stories that dealt with nature, village life, traditions, and national consciousness in the Presov Region. When the Communist regimes fell throughout central Europe and the Soviet Union after 1989, Rusyn writers responded quickly. Many who had previously made a career using Ukrainian now turned to some form of the Rusyn language and applied their talent and expertise to rejuvenating a Rusyn

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national identity. In the Presov Region, where a Rusyn literary language was codified in 1995, sophisticated prose on Rusyn themes is being written by Mania *Mal'tsovs'ka. In addition to short stories, Shtefan *Sukhyi writes poetry with a postmodern flavor, ranging in theme from traditionally poetic subjects to specifically national topics, anecdotes, and comic commentary on modem life. Sukhyi's poetry achieves a balance between the local and the universal, yet it is imbued with a Rusyn spirit. In Subcarpathian Rus' (Transcarpathia), the new Rusyn literature is still characterized by linguistic diversity. Ivan *Petrovtsii writes poetry in a specific dialectical version ofRusyn that deals provocatively with nationality issues and Rusyn relations with Ukraine. Vasylii Sochka-Borzhavyn produces lyrical verse in both Russian and Rusyn, while Volodymyr *Fedynyshynets' writes nationally conscious poetry in literary Ukrainian and more recently in Rusyn. Like their predecessors, contemporary writers continue the Rusyn literary tradition of hybridity as they adapt to current linguistic and political conditions. Further reading: Petr Feerchak, Ocherk literaturnago dvizheniia ugorskikh russkikh (Odessa, 1888); Volodymyr Birchak, Literaturni stremlinnia Pidkarpats'ko'i Rusy, 2nd rev. ed. (Uzhhorod, 1937; repr., 1993); Evmenii Sabov, Ocherk literaturnoi dieiatel'nosti i obrazovaniia karpatorossov (Uzhhorod, 1925); F.F. Aristov, Literaturnoe razvitie Podkarpatskoi (Ugorskoi) Rusi (Moscow 1928/1995); Evgenii Nedziel'skii, Ocherk karpatorusskoi literatury (Uzhhorod, 1932); Antonin Hartl, "Pisemnictvi podkarpatskych Rusinu," in Ceskoslovenska vlastiveda, Vol. VII: Pisemnictvi (Prague, 1933), pp. 273-290; [Stepan Dobosh], Ystoriia podkarpatorus 'koi lyteratury (Uzhhorod, 1942); Oleg Grabar, Poeziia Zakarpat'ia 1939-1944 (Bratislava, 1957); lurii Baleha, Literatura Zakarpattia dvadtsiatykh— trydtsiatykh rokiv XX stolittia (Kiev, 1962); Oleksa V. Myshanych, Literatura Zakarpattia XVIl-XVlll stolit' (Kiev, 1964); VasyF L. Mykytas', Davnia literatura Zakarpattia (Eviv, 1968); Vasyl' Mykytas', Haluzka mohutn'oho dereva (Uzhhorod, 1971); Vasyl' Mykytas', Z nochiprobyvalysia . . . (Uzhhorod, 1977); Josef Sirka, The Development of Ukrainian Literature in Czechoslovakia 1945-1975 (Frankfurt-am-Main, Bern, and Las Vegas, 1978); Liubytsia Babota, Zakarpatoukraim 'ka proza druho'ipolovyny XIX stolittia (Bratislava and PreSov, 1994); Vasyl' Khoma, Rozvytok rusyns 'ko'ipoeziivSlovachchyni vid20-kh do 90-kh rokiv XX stolittia (Bratislava, 2000); Mykhilo Almashii, "Pohliad na rusyns'ku literaturu zachatku XXI stolitia," in Kalendar '-al'manakh na 2003 hod (Budapest, 2003), pp. 43-57; Elaine Rusinko, Straddling Borders: Literature and Identity in Subcarpathian Rus' (Toronto, Buffalo, and London, 2003).

ELAINE RUSINKO

LEMKO REGION Literary developments among Rusyns living in the Lemko Region north of the Carpathian Mountains can be divided into four basic periods. The first consists of so-called old literature and includes, for the most part, original and translated

religious texts, legal and related documents, religious and lyrical poems based on folk tradition, historical epics, and transcriptions of oral folklore. The oldest surviving examples of religious manuscripts date from the beginning of the sixteenth century. At that time there existed in Sanok and Odrzechowa a "circle of scribes," who copied material for use in Lemko parishes. Among the surviving manuscripts, all from the sixteenth century, are: the levanheliia (Gospel, 1542) from Szlachtowa; the Apostol (Epistles) from Wojkowa; the levanheliia (Gospel) from Krynica; the Uchytel'na levanheliia (Interpretive Gospel) from Odrzechowa; the Liturgikon (Liturgy) from Kostarowce; and the Izbornik (Miscellany) from Bonarowka. Particularly interesting are the "interpretive" Slavonic gospel texts (postillas}. Intended for popular education, the postillas were supplemented by didactic explanations in the vernacular language that provided an understanding of Christianity in a simple and often apocryphal, narrative form. They also contain ecclesiastically appropriate tales based on oral folk tradition. Some of these texts date from the sixteenth century, although most survive from the seventeenth century, including the levanheliia of Shtefan of Rychwald (1666) and the levanheliia of Timothy of Wysoczany (1635). The impact of the Protestant Reformation, with its emphasis on translations of religious and other writings into vernacular languages, encouraged Lemko translations not only of interpretive Gospels but also of other genres. Particularly noteworthy was the activity of the eighteenth-century priest loann *Pryslopskii, from Kamianna, who translated into Lemko vernacular (together with his own explanatory notes) the Psalms of David (Psaltyr), a large portion of the Magnum speculum exemplorum (The Great Mirror), excerpts from the life of St. Patrick of Ireland, and—according to some scholars—even the entire Gospel. From his pen came as well several church books—the Bohohlasnyk, Liturgikon, and Irmologion—for use in the Kamianna parish. Aside from Pryslopskii's translations, other examples of religious literature intended for Lemkos from this period are the acrostics of Shtefan Krynytskii (second half of the 17th century) and the Sbornik dukhovnykh stykhov y pisnei (Collection of Religious Verses and Songs, mid-18th century), which also included secular historical and love songs. Old secular literature from the Lemko Region can be said to begin with the Latin-language writings by the renowned humanist Pavel/Pawel from Krosno (ca. 1470-1517). Although composed in an entirely Polish cultural sphere, the origins of the author and his very self-designation, Paulus Ruthenus (Paul the Ruthenian), justify placing him within the context of Lemko creative literature. Other examples of Latin poetry modeled on Roman classical literature are found among Lemko authors even as late as the first half of the nineteenth century (for example, the poetry of Teodor Kuryllo). On the other hand, the local Rusyn vernacular was also

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture being used. One example is a unique document, Akty sela Odrechowy (Records from the Village of Odrzechowa, 1549), which provides a good insight into local life and village selfgovernment. The sixteenth century witnessed as well the first examples of Lemko-Rusyn translations from secular, in particular Polish, literature. The famous Chronicle (1551) of Marcin Bielski appeared in a Lemko-Rusyn translation under the title Kosmohrafiia, opysanie vseho svita (The Cosmos, or a Description of the Entire World, 1584), while during the first half of the eighteenth century there appeared the Ystorie rozmayte z Rymskykhy tezhynshykh avtorov korotko zebrane. The latter was a Lemko-Rusyn translation based, in turn, on a Polish translation of the well-known medieval work, the Gesta Romanorum. Original Rusyn-language verses by anonymous authors are recorded in the margins of seventeenth-century minei (collections of religious texts for feast days). These verses deal with historical and religious themes as well as numerous scenes from everyday life. The second period in the evolution of Lemko literature begins sometime in the mid-nineteenth century and is closely connected to the national awakenings that were taking place at the time among all the peoples of central and eastern Europe. This period also heralded a new stage in the history of the Lemko Region, which began to be considered a distinct dialectological and ethnographic as well as cultural and national entity. One of the chief aspects of Lemko literary life at this time was its close ties with centers in eastern Galicia, both in terms of literary form and access to publishing in *Old Ruthenian and *Russophile-oriented publishing houses. The dominant language used in Lemko literature was the so-called *iazychiie (Russian with Church Slavonic and local vernacular influences) written in the etymological alphabet that included the hard sign t and the letter jat—t. There were also efforts to introduce vernacular Lemko as a literary language, an idea proposed by Matvii * Astriab in his essay, "KolTca slov o lemkovskoi besidi" (1871). Such a view reflected an increasing tendency toward formulating a clearer idea of a distinct Carpathian homeland, although within the context of an East Slavic/common Russian (obshcherusskii) patriotic framework. This understanding was especially noticeable in descriptive prose works that elaborated on the particularities, customs, and mentalite of the local inhabitants, which, in turn, had a decisive impact on the formulation of a Lemko self-image. Memoirs represented yet another example in which the local geographic and cultural situation was emphasized. No less important were belletristic works in which the setting as well as heroic characters and their exploits were situated within a Lemko or Carpathian landscape. The most important genre at the time was, in fact, belletristic prose, including tales, short stories, novellas, and in rare cases, novels. Historical prose was especially popular. In particular, the epic tales of Vladymir * Khyliak were to mark a full flowering of the narrative form, as in his Shybenychnyi

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verkh (1877-78), Russkaia dolia (1880), Pol'skii patriot (1872), and his more than one hundred vignettes from the life of the intelligentsia and the rural folk of the "poverty-stricken Lemko Region." Another talented prose writer was Petro *Polianskii, whose two-volume collection, Karpatskie novelty (1888), was translated into German and Italian. Perhaps the most important practitioner of historical prose was Vasylii *Chernetskii. Poetry, on the other hand, did not achieve any noticeable advances during this second period. Those writers who did compose verses, such as Modest *Humetskii, Amvrosii Polianskii, Henryk Polianskii, and Hryhorii *Hanuliak, seemed to do so only as an afterthought to other literary activity. Drama was generally dominated by didactic plays intended for amateur stages and village audiences. There were, however, a few more ambitious efforts inspired by romantic drama of a historical-philosophical and religious character. In particular, satirical and didactic-educational works occupied a significant place in the Lemko literature of this second period. Many were written in a journalistic style and published in East Galician journals and other serial publications. It was not until 1911, however, that the first specifically Lemko publication appeared. This was the bi-weekly and later weekly newspaper *Lemko, which allowed for the existence of a new creative context and marked the beginning of the use of Lemko Rusyn vernacular as a literary language. This trend was to continue during the following period. The third period in Lemko literary history coincides with the interwar years of the twentieth century. This was a time of emancipatory efforts toward Lemko self-identity, in literature mirrored best in the works of Ivan *Rusenko and Dymytrii *Vyslotskii (pseud. Van'o Hunianka). As the author of deeply patriotic and inspirational verses, Rusenko inherited the mantle of Vladymir Khyliak. Imbued with a fervent love of his native homeland, Rusenko was to become the new national awakener. In contrast to Khyliak, Rusenko's homeland was not the larger Rus' of all the East Slavs, but rather one that coincided only with the Lemko Region, or by extension *Carpathian Rus' "from Uzhhorod [in the east] to Szczawnica [in the west, near Nowy Sa^cz]"—where, as he said, "the people have been re-born." Vyslotskii-Hunianka, a contributor to the pre-World War I newspaper *Lemko and later the spiritual father of the Lemko immigration in North America, is best remembered for his service on behalf of Lemko journalism. He also wrote engaging plays and short stories in a realistic and satirical style about Lemko life. Both Rusenko and Vyslotskii-Hunianka, as well as other activists and writers with whom they cooperated (Metodii *Trokhanovskii, loann *Polianskii, TeonT *Kuryllo), created a distinct Lemko orientation in the region's literary evolution. Moreover, their literary and editorial work provided a solid foundation for the subsequent standardization of a contemporary literary language for Lemkos.

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The interwar period also witnessed the struggle to introduce a Ukrainian national identity among the Lemkos. This led to the development of Ukrainian-language propagandistic literature directed specifically at Lemkos. Some Ukrainophile authors, including the editors of the Eviv-based bi-weekly newspaper *Nash Lemko—established to counteract the official organ of the *Lemko Association/Lemko-Soiuz, Lemko, that appeared in the *Lemko Region—were themselves of Lemko origin, while others were non-Lemkos who wrote propagandistic historical prose works and contemporary short stories specifically for Lemko audiences. It was also during the interwar period that the short-lived poetic talent of the greatest Lemko lyricist, Bohdan Ihor *Antonych, exploded onto the scene: through his unique imagery and pantheistic vision Antonych was able to immortalize his native Lemko Region far beyond its borders. His poetry was far removed from the entire range of Lemko literature, which at the time remained basically didactic and nationally committed in tone. The fourth and most recent period in the development of Lemko literature is represented by works from the post-deportation (1945-1947) era, whether among Lemkos resettled in Ukraine or those scattered throughout Poland. This period is characterized by the predominance of poetry that is marked by a distinct evolution in both form and concept. The first stage in this evolution saw the dominance of epic and lyrical forms that were closely tied to folk poetry and that described the supposedly happy existence in the past in which Lemkos had led in their native mountainous homeland. Since in these early postwar years it was possible only to publish in the Lemko section (*"Lemkivska storinka") of Poland's Ukrainian-language newspaper, Nashe slovo, Lemko literary works were frequently propagandistic in nature. lakov *Dudra, Mykola Buriak, and Ivan Horoshchak typified such literary production. In contrast to this folk literary orientation is the evolution of lyricism which, since the early 1970s, has been based on sophisticated contemporary poetic form. The essence of such verse is found in expressions of longing and sorrow for the lost Carpathian homeland. Among its best practitioners are Ivan *Zhelem, Ivan *Holovchak, and Melanii Sobyn. It was in the early 1980s, however, that Lemko literature experienced a decisive renaissance. At this time the decline of Communist rule and the possibilities for free expression began to unfold in Poland. The result since then has been the growth of Lemko self-expression characterized by a struggle for survival and the preservation of traditional Lemko values. The goal is not simply to preserve Lemko values for their own sake, but to adapt them to contemporary conditions on the basis of equality with the values of other peoples among whom Lemkos live. The present-day poets, like their predecessors, have been very active in the civic and cultural life of the Lemko Region. Not surprisingly, because of their deportation and the extensive destruction and decline of their homeland since World War II, tragedy is the dominant motif in a poetic

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture world filled with strong emotions. Using contemporary freeverse, which at times is also translated into Polish, Lemko poets invite their readers to become engaged in the writer's world of hopes and desires. The leading practitioners of such poetry are Petro *Trokhanovskii-Murianka, Pavel *Stefanovskii, Volodyslav *Hraban, Stefaniia *Trokhanovska, and Olena *Duts'-Faifer. By contrast, contemporary Lemko prose and drama are much less developed, and what does exist is rather traditional in style: either short prose works (usually humorous tales), or plays filled with descriptions of Lemko life. Regardless of period, Lemko literature has from earliest times to the present been characterized by a high degree of civic and patriotic engagement which has varied only slightly in approach from period to period. As a result, writers have not only been creators of literature but at the same time have functioned as spiritual leaders for their people. While in the early periods most writers were priests, since World War I they have come primarily from the secular intelligentsia. Throughout all periods, literature has fulfilled an important integrating patriotic function in Lemko society. Further reading: Ivan Ohiienko, "Psaltyr polovyny XVIII st. v lemkivs'kym perekladi," Zapysky Naukovoho tovarystva im. Shevchenka, XC (Eviv, 1911), pp. 197-240; Teofil Kuryllo, Korotkyi perehliad pysatelei y zhurnalystov na Lemkovshchyni (Eviv, 1937); Mykhailo Dzvinka, "Literatura pivnichnykh zemel," in Bohdan Strumins'kyi, ed., Lemkivshchyna: zemlia—liudy—istoriia—kul'tura, Vol. I (New York, Paris, Sydney, and Toronto, 1988), pp. 379415; Helena Duc-Fajfer, "Glowne nurty wspolczesnej poezji lemkowskiej," Roczniki Humanistyczne KUL,XLll, 1 (Lublin, 1994), pp. 185-200; Helena Duc-Fajfer, "Literatura iemkowska—zagadnienia badawcze," in Andrzej Zi?ba, ed., Lemkowie i lemkoznawstwo wPolsce (Cracow, 1997), pp. 87-98; Petro Trokhanovskii, "Poezyia Lemkiv," in Nataliia Dudash, ed., Rusinki/ruski pisrii (Novi Sad, 1997), pp. 111-116; Helena Duc-Fajfer, "Contemporary Lemko Poetry and the Problem of So-Called 'Lemko Separatism'," in Paul Best and Jaroslaw Moklak, eds., The Lemkos of Poland (Cracow and New Haven, Conn., 2000), pp. 151-176; Helena Duc-Fajfer, Literatura lemkowska w drugiejpoiowie XIX i na poczatku XX wieku (Cracow, 2001); Malgorzata Wosiek, "Motyw smierci w poeziji lemkowskiej," in Magury'02 (Warsaw, 2002), pp. 57-83. HELENA DUC-FAJFER VOJVODINA

When they settled in the Vojvodina (Backa and Srem), the Rusyns/Rusnaks of what later became Yugoslavia brought with them from the Carpathian homeland (Horni'tsa) a rich oral literature, whose first transcriptions date from the eighteenth century. Belletristic literature began to appear at the end of the nineteenth century. Separated as it was from Rusyn literature in the Carpathian homeland and influenced by specific historical and political circumstances as well as a different linguistic situation in a diaspora environment, Vojvodinian Rusyn literature experienced its own internal and continuous

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture dynamic. Among its characteristics have been the importance and even authoritative nature of tradition, a limited conception of the function of literature in society, a reluctance to develop its own potential, and the rapid process of its development from an oral art to a creative literature encompassing multiple genres and trends. These characteristics have also played a significant role in the formation and preservation of a national identity among Yugoslavia's Rusyns. The oldest manuscript collections of Rusyn literature from the Backa and Srem were described about a century ago in two studies by the Galician-Ukrainian scholars Ivan *Franko and Volodymyr *Hnatiuk. Hnatiuk's study (1902) included excerpts from 122 religious songs, while Franko published (1899) for the first time examples of old literature on Christian themes, including apocryphal tales and legends. Although taken from manuscripts compiled in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the works themselves date from before the migration of Rusyns to the Vojvodina, which had begun in the 1740s. The original texts were written in Church Slavonic, to which scribes like Manoilov, Munkachi, Turinski, Timko, and others added the local Rusyn language. The trend toward using vernacular Rusyn steadily increased, so that in the mid-nineteenth century Mikhailo Dzhunia was composing his own sacred poetry in a mixture ofRusyn and Church Slavonic, while by the end of the century Vasil' Korpash was writing exclusively in Rusyn. These developments marked not only a struggle on behalf of a literary language, they also resulted in the creation of an original literature. The scribes often added to the Church Slavonic texts their own tales on themes such as distrust of the beauties of the temporal world or digressions on the pleasures of the flesh. Such efforts at writing in one's "own language," while at the same time recognizing the dignity that the use of Church Slavonic would lend to the written word was part of a linguistic compromise that had characterized earlier Rusyn literary efforts in Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region. Aside from religious texts, oral folk literature represented another rich tradition in Vojvodinian Rusyn literature. Such writings were first published in collections by MykhaTl *Vrabel' (1890) and Volodymyr Hnatiuk (1910). These texts reflected the preferences of a public at large, which was more interested in melancholy love songs than in heroic epic poetry. The songs were composed according to the structural rhythm of the kolomyika. The worldview expressed in this narrative prose reflected the experience and attitudes of the rural village, so that even the royal and aristocratic characters who appeared in the texts would speak in vernacular Rusyn. It also revealed the influence of Serbian literature and Hungarian folklore. The activity of the *Presov Literary Society of Aleksander Dukhnovych in the Carpathian homeland during the second half of the nineteenth century also had an impact on the Vojvodinian Rusyns. School children used Dukhnovych's primer (Knyzhytsia chytal'naia dlia nachynaiushchykh),

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while two natives of the Presov Region, the teacher and poet Petro *Kuzmiak and the folklorist and author of school texts Mykhail Vrabel', settled in the Vojvodina, where they played a significant role in strengthening a sense of national awareness among the local Rusyns. The beginning of conscious literary creativity (belleslettres) among the Vojvodinian Rusyns dates from the nineteenth century and Andrii Horniak can be considered the first poet to write in a pure Vojvodinian Rusyn vernacular. Of the works that survive, his "Bozhe moi, Bozhe moi" (O My God, O My God) is a humorous text modeled on oral folk poetry. By the second half of the nineteenth century, the poetry of Petro Kuzmiak was filled with themes of freedom and the hardships of current socioeconomic conditions. The first separately published volume of Vojvodinian Rusyn literature was by Havriil/Gabor *Kostel'nik. His collection of poetry, Z moioho valala (1904), described in idealized terms the life of a Rusyn who lived in the heart of the Vojvodina (in the village of Ruski Kerestur) and who came from a family with strong *patriarchal and religious values. As an example of the late Romantic style, characterized by a high degree of pathos and an unsophisticated way of looking at the world, Kostel'nik's 1904 collection was to have an enormous impact on the formation of a national identity among the largely rural Rusyn population of the Vojvodina at the outset of the twentieth century. An important step in Vojvodinian Rusyn national life and subsequently in the direction of its literature came in 1919 with the establishment of the *Rusyn National Enlightenment Society/Ruske narodne prosvitne druzhtvo. At its first session, the priest Mikhailo *Mudri proposed that the Rusyn vernacular speech should serve as the basis for the group's literary language which was approved by the 150 delegates present. The first normative grammar for Vojvodinian Rusyn was published in 1923 by Havriil/Gabor KosteFnik; the following year the same author published the first dramatic work in Vojvodinian Rusyn, leftaiova dzivka. The Rusyn National Enlightenment Society had its own publication program, which made possible the appearance of works by, among others, Osif Kostel'nik, Matfei Vinai, lanko *Feisa, Silvester *Salamon, and Mikhal *Kovach. One result of their efforts was the appearance of a Vojvodinian Rusyn literary anthology, Rusko-ukrainski almanakh bachvansko-srimskikh pisatel'okh (1936). Since some members of the local intelligentsia felt at the time that it was necessary to maintain relations with Ukrainians and Ukrainian culture, the contributions to the anthology were in both Rusyn and Ukrainian. The works themselves represented a hybrid form mediated between folkloric and creative literature, filled with themes of praise for the past, national patriotism, fear of God, wholesome love between men and women, didacticism, and at times descriptions of social inequality framed within a spirit of Christian humanism. Exceptional in this context was Silvester Salamon,

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whose innovative works were imbued with a sophisticated worldview that went beyond local literary traditions and was receptive to the current avant-garde. Among the writers who continued these literary traditions were lasha *Bakov, Havrii'l *Nad', Shtefan Chakan, Mikola M. *Kochish, Evgenii M. *Kochish, and Vlado *Kostelnik. After the end of World War II in 1945, Vojvodinian Rusyn literature reflected the general atmosphere of postwar reconstruction and assumed a social and didactic function. This marked the beginning of Socialist Realism in literature, which appeared in a whole host of new organs: the weekly newspaper *Ruske slovo, the annual almanac Narodni kalendar, and the children's magazine Pionerska zahradka. This was also a period of experimentation. lasha Bakov, "a little Rusyn while at the same time a Yugoslav with capital Y," suggested that the orthographic base of the Rusyn alphabet be changed from Ukrainian to Serbian, and that Rusyn surnames of Hungarian origin should be rendered in their older Rusyn forms. Neither of these proposals was ever accepted, nor were any of his other Utopian ideas, which reflected the cosmopolitan attitudes of a world traveler. In the end, Bakov's efforts to change the direction of Vojvodinian Rusyn culture came to nothing. In actual fact, this was a relatively unproductive period for Vojvodinian Rusyn writers whose concerns were largely directed to resolving the problems of the new socialist state and its relationship to the national minorities. Writers' resistance to the imposed literary norm was evident in the fact that the literary journal *Shvetlosts stopped publishing for nearly a decade (1955-1965). During that period only a few minor literary works appeared, and most of these took the form of group anthologies—Odhukz rovn'ini (1961), an anthology of poetry (1963), and an anthology of children's poetry (1964). These anthologies were characterized by an awkward and unsuccessful attempt to integrate chronology and aesthetic values. While they presented a distorted view of the quality of the literature, they nonetheless did help prevent the collapse of Vojvodinian Rusyn literary life. It was during the next period, the so-called golden age that began in the late 1960s, that Vojvodinian Rusyn literature clearly reached a stage whereby it became a serious factor in the general development ofRusyn culture. This was most evident in the writings of luliian *Koliesar, Miron Koloshniai, Shtefan Hudak, Miron Budinski, Mikola *Skuban, Melaniia Pavlovich, Miroslav *Striber, and Diura *Papharhai among others, whose appearance was in large part made possible by the increasing activity of the *Ruske Slovo Press and Publishing House. Various forms of literature made their appearance within a creative framework governed largely by the principle of realism. The first novel in Vojvodinian Rusyn literature, Zhemi moia, by Vlado Kostelnik, was published in 1967. Meanwhile, new Rusyn poetry was largely measured against the quality of Diura Papharhai's verse, which was distinguished by its lyri-

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture cal beauty and its moving subject matter. Children's literature began to appear in 1929, with the publication of lanko Feisa's Pupche and subsequent works by Mikhal Kovach and Mikola Kochish. But now, in the works of Diura Papharhai', children's literature was being read by the public at large. Whereas the struggle to define a national name and language seems to have been definitively decided in favor of the term Rusyn (ruski), the view that Rusyn literature is a branch of Ukrainian literature continues and is likely to survive among a few individuals. With regard to its aesthetic qualities, however, the fate of Vojvodinian Rusyn literature has become increasingly tied to the intellectual direction of the South Slavic world in which it functions. Part of that direction is characterized by a rejection of modern poetics. During the 1980s and 1990s modernism in Vojvodinian Rusyn literature reached its apogee. At this time a new group of writers made their appearance on the literary scene, including luliian *Tamash, Irina Hardi-Kovachevich, Liubomir *Sopka, Agneta Buchko, Nataliia Kaniukh, Miron Kaniukh, Mariia lakim, luliian Nad', Nataliia *Dudash, Vladimir *Garianski, and Zvonomir *Niaradi, among others. These decades witnessed the appearance of numerous individual literary works, anthologies, translations into Vojvodinian Rusyn from other languages, histories of literature, and bilingual works by poets writing in Rusyn and Serbian. The best of these works reflected the complex evolution of Rusyn poetic creativity. Alongside the avant-garde tendencies that had their beginnings in the works of Silvester Salamon, realistic poetic structures were being continued in the writings of traditionalists. Contemporary Vojvodinian Rusyn literature is at its best in the realm of poetry and essays. Contemporary writers have succeeded in undermining many literary conventions through experimentation in both form and content. Their approach has moved somewhat provocatively between a sense of relativism and cosmopolitanism that rejects difference and particularity. Writers have succeeded in opposing tradition with literary complexity and originality with polyfunctionality, but they have declined to destroy tradition by means of a constructed dogma. Rather, they have tried to harness tradition to the service of a new set of cultural values. The result is a body of writings that is intertextually connected to world culture through reminiscences, allusions, and textual quotations from the entire range of the European cultural heritage. The most significant works of this kind are by luliian Tamash, Nataliia Dudash, Vladimir Garianski, and Zvonimir Niaradi, among others. These are authors known for their distinct individuality and for what has been described as their "open concealment." After the Revolutions of 1989 and the opening up of the former Soviet bloc in central Europe, Rusyn writers in Yugoslavia began to interact more systematically with Rusyn literary developments in other countries. One concrete result was the appearance of an anthology of poetry (1997) under the edito-

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture rial direction of Nataliia Dudash, in which the works of writers from countries in Europe and North America where Rusyns live appear in various forms of the Rusyn language. With the appearance of this "pan-Rusyn" anthology of poetry, it could be said that the literary circle has been closed. Vojvodinian Rusyn writing began with a tradition of oral literature brought from the Carpathian homeland. It subsequently developed a distinct form that was influenced by its new surroundings, in particular by Serbian literature. Finally, it has become fully part of the general contemporary Rusyn literary process throughout Europe, where it has come to hold a leading place. Further reading: Mikhail Andreevich Vrabel', Russkii solovei (Uzhhorod, 1890; repr. Novi Sad, 1981); Volodymyr Hnatiuk, Etnografichni materiialy z Uhors'koi Rusy, Vol. Ill: BachBodrogs'kyi komitat, Vol. IV: Baiky, legendy, istorychni perekazy, noveli', anekdoty—z Bachky, Vol. V: Kazky z Bachky, in Etnogrqfichnyi zbirnykNaukovoho tovarystva im. Shevchenka, Vols. IX, XXIX, XXX (Eviv, 1900-11; repr. Novi Sad, 1986); Volodymyr Hnatiuk, Uhrorus 'ki dukhovni virshi, in Zapysky Naukovoho tovarystva im. Shevchenka, XLVI, XLVII, XLIX (Eviv, 1902; repr. Novi Sad, 1985); Diura Papharha'i, "Havryi'l Kostel'nik: zachatni'k umetni'tskei literaturi iuhoslavianskikh rusnatsokh," in Havryi'l Kostel'nik, Poeziia na bachvansko-srimskim ruskim literaturnim laziku (Novi Sad, 1970), pp. 7-87; Julijan Tamas, Rusinska knjizevnost: istoriia i status (Novi Sad, 1984)—revised Rusyn-language ed.: luliian Tamash, Istoriia ruskei literaturi (Belgrade, 1997); luliian Tamash, Havri'ilKostel'nik mezdi doktrinu iprirodu (Novi Sad, 1986); Silvester Salamon, Vibrant tvory, Vol. II (Novi Sad, 1989), esp. pp. 135-184.

NATALIJA DUDAS

HUNGARY A few Rusyn writers, like the mid-nineteenth century poet Nikolai *Nod', were born within the present-day borders of Hungary, but they generally lived in *Carpathian Rus', where they contributed to the general Rusyn literary process. The revival ofRusyn consciousness since the early 1990s made possible the development of a small but distinct body ofRusyn literature in Hungary. The most important figure in this process is Gabriel *Hattinger-Klebashko. He has published three collections of lyric poems that deal with issues of Rusyn national identity as well as with traditional poetic themes in a spare, modernist free-verse style. He has also issued a collection of Rusyn translations of Hungarian poetry. In an aphoristic style similar to Hattinger's, ludita *Kishshova constructs a personal vision in poetic miniatures. Her first collection, Zvuk dushi (1997), presents universal themes and reflections on everyday life that valorize Rusyn tradition from a distinctively female perspective. Further reading: Shtefan Sukhyi, "Rusyn'ska knyha: styshkiv z Madiar'ska/'flwyyw, V, 1 (Presov, 1995), pp. 22-24; Shtefan Sukhyi, "Vitai, ludito, na rusyn'skim Parnasi," Rusyn, DC, 1-2 (Presov, 1999), p. 33. ELAINE RUSINKO

UNITED STATES Rusyn-language literature in the United States is connected with the large-scale immigration to North America that began in the 1880s and continued until the outbreak of World War I. In the 1890s the first of several Rusyn-language newspapers and annual almanacs began to be published, in which literary works, usually poetry and plays, appeared. The most prolific author was the Greek Catholic priest, Emilij *Kubek, best known for his poetry, short stories, and a three-volume novel, Marko Soltys (1922), about life in the European homeland. Kubek's poems, like those of another Greek Catholic priest, Sigmund Brinsky (Stichi, 1922), and the secular cultural activist Peter J. *Maczkov (Vinec naboznych stichov, 1958), were dominated by themes of longing for the physical beauty of the far-away Carpathians and were often filled with didactic moral strictures intended to counteract the effects of harsh working conditions and psychological alienation faced by Rusyn immigrants and their families. The social conditions of Rusyns both in Europe and America were best captured in short stories by the Lemko Rusyn Dymytrii *Vyslotskii, who published under the pseudonym Van'o Hunianka while living in the United States and Canada during the 1920s and 1930s. The most popular genre in Rusyn-American literature was drama. Most plays were short and intended to be performed by the numerous amateur drama societies which, before World War II, existed throughout Rusyn communities in the northeast United States. Authors like Stefan *Varzaly, Valentine *Gorzo, Stefan F. *Telep, and Nicholas *Cislak hoped to provide audiences with light-hearted slapstick comedy or to convey a moral message (usually criticism of drunkenness and violence against women). A few plays were inspired by recent events in the European homeland, such as the suffering endured by Lemko Rusyns during World War I at the *Talerhof internment camp or the "martyrdom" of the Orthodox priest Maksym *Sandovych, whose name provided the title of a Russianlanguage play (Maksim Sandovich, 1931) by Bishop Adam Philippovsky. The plays of Vyslotskii-Hunianka were intended to argue a political message: the shortcomings of capitalism and growing fascism that continued to oppress Rusyns in the Lemko Region and in Subcarpathian Rus'. Rusyn-American literature was published in either the Roman or *Cyrillic alphabets and was generally written in the regional Rusyn dialect of each author. Some immigrant authors tried to write in Russian; none used Ukrainian. In the decades after World War II Rusyn literary works gradually stopped appearing, since English-language assimilation eliminated a Rusyn readership. There are a few American-born writers of immigrant parents who have used themes based on Rusyn-America life in their works. Undoubtedly, the most accomplished of these writers, and the only one who is part of mainstream American literature, is Thomas Bell. His father, Mykhail Beleichak, an

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immigrant from the Presov Region, worked in the steel mills in Pittsbugh before his accidental death on the job. The life ofRusyn immigrants from eastern Slovakia figure in his first novel, The Brood of Vasil (1930), and in Bell's enormously popular Out of This Furnace (1941), a largely autobiographical tale about three generations of a working-class Slavic family trying to survive in the United States from its arrival in the 1880s until the eve of World War II. The hardships of the 1930s Depression era serve as the backdrop for the novel, Icon of Spring (1987), by Sonya Jason. The daughter of immigrants from Subcarpathian Rus', she continues to incorporate Rusyn-American themes in her writings. Since the 1990s, several autobiographical novels have been published in English by immigrants or by descendants of immigrants that describe growing up in Rusyn-American communities during the first half of the twentieth century. Among the most popular is Eternal Memory (1999) by Ann Walko. Further reading: Paul Robert Magocsi, "Rusyn-American Literature," in Wolodymyr Zyla and Wendell M. Aycock, eds., Ethnic Literatures Since 1976: The Many Voices of America, Vol. II (Lubbock, Texas, 1978), pp. 503-520—repr. in Paul Robert Magocsi, Of the Making of Nationalities There is No End, Vol. II (New York, 1999), pp. 430-445; Pavlo Robert Magochi, "Literatura kraianokh z Karpatskei Rusi," in Nataliia Dudash, ed., Rusinski/ruski pisni'(Novi Sad, 1997), pp. 235-260. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Literature, Early manuscripts — written documents, primarily ecclesiastical texts, ranging from the fourteenth to the eighteenth century. Although authentic documents of Carpathian origin go back only as far as the sixteenth century, surviving fragments of texts from earlier times and historical evidence suggest the existence of literary activity in *Carpathian Rus' as early as the tenth or eleventh century. In addition to liturgical books, the principal genres of early writing were sermons, hagiography, polemics, chronicles, and spiritual and secular songs. The typical book in the Carpathian region was a collection of heterogeneous texts. Up to the fifteenth century, Carpatho-Rusyn manuscripts belong to the supranational *Church Slavonic linguistic tradition that had its origins in the Balkan Slavic area and are an expression of the widespread Slavic religious and cultural community. However, as scribes produced new copies of manuscripts, they introduced regional peculiarities into the unified literary language. From the sixteenth century Carpatho-Rusyn texts represent local variants of the Church Slavonic tradition and manifest distinctive linguistic and cultural features. In the early years of Slavic Christianity, most written literature consisted of translations based on ancient liturgical models. It is possible that copies of religious texts from the *Constantine/Cyril and Methodian mission were available in

fortified Subcarpathian towns such as Uzhhorod, Mukachevo, Khust, and Vyshkovo. It has also been suggested that certain *Glagolitic translations and Czech vitae may have been copied in Carpathian Rus'. However, no Carpatho-Rusyn written monuments, translated or original, survive from the ninth, tenth, or eleventh centuries. Decades of wars, catastrophes, and religious struggles in the region resulted in the rampant destruction of ancient monuments. The few surviving texts contain hints that many more once existed. For example, the "Church Slavonic charter" (Tserkovnoslavianskaia hramotd) of 1404 was written on a piece of parchment that was later used as the cover of a Latin manuscript book. This secular document confirms the grant of land by the *Maramorosh voevoda Balitsa to the *Hrushovo monastery. Written in Sighet, the language of the text is a Bulgarian recension of Church Slavonic, with admixtures of linguistic elements from local Subcarpathian dialects. The oldest dated Carpatho-Rusyn documents are the Mukachevo and Imstychovo fragments of the gospel and minei (monthly readings) copied from the twelfth to fourteenth centuries. The origins of the Mukachevo Psalter, a copy of a fifteenth-century South Slavic text, are uncertain. Traces of the Romanian language suggest that the Psalter may have been copied outside of Carpathian Rus', although the language would not be inconsistent with authorship in the Hrushovo monastery. The Uzhhorod polustav, a 209page collection of daily prayers and monastery rules from the second half of the fourteenth century, was intended for use by monks and reveals few traces of the local dialect. The Uzhhorod text is believed to have been copied from a polustav of the Monastery of the Caves in Kiev, which may have been brought to Carpathian Rus' by a monk in the retinue of Fedor *Koriatovych. Marginal notes made at a later time in Romanian and ungrammatical Hungarian lead researchers to believe that the Uzhhorod polustav belonged at one time to the Hrushovo monastery. Another important monument from this period is the Subcarpathian or Korolevo Gospel from 1401, which bears the name of the scribe, the date, and the name of the village where it was copied. Written in a fine, careful hand with colored ornamentation, the manuscript is in Church Slavonic, interspersed with East Slavic dialectalisms and elements of Rusyn vernacular. An appended document, in which the patron, Shtefan Vints', presents the gospel to the local church, is one of the oldest Subcarpathian documents written under the influence of vernacular Rusyn. Other documents of translated literature copied in Carpathian Rus' include the fifteenth-century Uzhhorod minei for feast days, as well as numerous minei, gospels, epistles, prayerbooks, and other service books from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Translated literature from the Lemko Region includes the following manuscripts, all from the sixteenth century: the Szlachtowa levanheliia (1542), the Wojkowa Apostol, the Krynica levanheliia, and the Liturgikon from Kostarowce.

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Particularly noteworthy was the activity of the eighteenth-century priest loann *Pryslopskii, from Kamienna, who translated numerous religious texts into Lemko vernacular. While the official religious culture stressed the exact transcription of the revealed word of God in the sacred Church Slavonic language, from the sixteenth century there is evidence of the development of a distinct national character in the language and style of the so-called prology, miscellanies and interpretive epistles, which became the most popular forms of religious literature. The term prolog, known throughout Kievan Rus' from the twelfth century, refers to a collection of short hagiographic compositions arranged according to the calendar of saints. In time, prology became popular reading outside of church, and the hagiographic material was supplemented by didactic and narrative writings. The sixteenth-century Tereblia prolog was copied in Carpathian Rus' from such a diverse source. It consisted of 12 volumes, one for each month, of which only 416 pages from the September volume have survived. While half of the material in the Tereblia prolog represents traditional saints' lives, there are also numerous episodes from individual vitae written in an entertaining narrative style, as well as short, edifying moral stories. Moreover, much of the material in the Tereblia prolog comes from legends, tales, fables, and apocrypha. The language, which differs according to the individual text, is basically Church Slavonic of the East Slavic recension, with numerous Rusyn dialectalisms. Another popular form of religious literature was the interpretive gospel, orpostilla (from the Latin post ilia verba, "after these words"). In these collections of readings for Sundays and feast days the Church Slavonic gospel texts are supplemented by didactic interpretations intended as sermons and written in the Rusyn vernacular. This linguistic compromise reflects the belief that only Church Slavonic was an appropriate medium for divine revelation and the sacred liturgy, while, to ensure the intelligibility of Christian teaching for the masses, the vernacular was preferable. The Gerlachov interpretive epistle from the end of the sixteenth century is the oldest Subcarpathian Rusyn popular literary document. Numerous interpretive gospels were subsequently copied in Carpathian Rus' during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries for use outside of church, as well as in religious rituals. The local copies of such texts do not reproduce the originals exactly. Rather, the scribes freely adapted from the original, adding material from various sources, including folklore, and using a language rich in Rusyn local dialectalisms and popular sayings. The influence of the Protestant Reformation is felt in the interpretive gospels' emphasis on vernacular speech and in their clearly polemical tone. The Odrzechowa interpretive gospel (Uchytel'na levhanheliia, 1666) from the Lemko Region dates from the beginning of the sixteenth century. The Niagovo postilla, which survives in two manuscript copies

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from the seventeenth century (which, in turn, are based on a sixteenth-century model), is considered the first original monument of Subcarpathian Rusyn literature. The author, an Orthodox priest from Maramorosh county, avoids Church Slavonic and bookish expressions in favor of the local Rusyn vernacular. The content of his text includes references to serfdom and social injustice. Other interpretive gospels from * Subcarpathian Rus', the *Presov Region, and the Lemko Region manifest their Rusyn origins in language and content, including those from Wysoczany (1635), Danylovo (1646), from Presov, Ladomirov, Uhlia, Hrabske—all from the seventeenth century—and from Kolochava and Nizny Mirosov in the eighteenth century. The language of interpretive gospels is based on the local vernacular of the scribe, often with the addition of numerous polonisms and magyarisms. The orthography varies from one text to another; some follow the Bulgarian orthography, others follow Russian. In their deviations from the original and their inclusion of local material, interpretive gospels represent the first example of original Rusyn literary creativity. Didactic miscellanies, or sbornyky/izborniky, were intended for use outside of church rituals. The miscellanies could have the desired instructional effect only if they satisfied the aesthetic requirements of their audience. Therefore, alongside the words of the Holy Fathers of the Church appeared artistically reworked narratives from the Bible and saints' lives, as well as secular tales and even folklore and superstitious materials. For example, the Rakoshyno sbornyk/miscellany and the Uhlia s/?or«y&/miscellany (known as Kliuch, the Key) from the seventeenth century contain interpretations of dreams. The Torun' sbornyk/miscellany, copied in several hands from various old Rus', Polish, Czech, and other sources, contains incantations against the devil, a book of predictions, and "fortune-telling answers" to be used in divination. It includes subjects of translated and original literature from East and South Slavic traditions, as well as western European ecclesiastic literature. These collections, written in a mixed and varied language that includes Church Slavonic, local dialectalisms, polonisms, and magyarisms, are an original encyclopedia of philosophy and life's wisdom as understood by the common people. Among CarpathoRusyn miscellanies are those from Bonarowka (sixteenth century), Sokyrnytsia (seventeenth century), and from Litmanova and Uzhhorod (eighteenth century). There is evidence that a Carpatho-Rusyn historical literature, centered at the *Mukachevo Monastery of St. Nicholas, existed from at least the fifteenth century, but no manuscript copies of early chronicles survive. What chronicle literature does exist consists of occasional notes on blank pages of old manuscripts or printed books, which transmit important historical information on the ownership history of the given book as well as economic and meteorological facts and historical events. The Huklyvyi Chronicle is the name applied to the

308 notes written by local priests in the parish record book occasionally from 1660 to 1760 and regularly from 1780 to 1830. It is an account of current events observed by the compiler, who mentions such historical events as the uprising led by Ferenc II *Rakoczy, the episcopate of Bishop *Bachyns'kyi, the death of Empress Catherine II of Russia, and Russia's defeat of Napoleon. An exceptional secular literary monument from the seventeenth century is the "Letter of the boyar Gorzov to his son," cited in a letter from Ivan *Fogarashii to Ivan *Orlai. Gorzov's letter recalls in content and style the "Instruction" of the medieval Kievan grand prince, Vladimir Monomakh. It combines patriotic exhortations with practical advice in a language that mixes Slavonicisms with Rusyn vernacular vocabulary. In the Lemko Region, original Rusyn-language verses by anonymous authors are recorded in the margins of seventeenth-century minei. Further reading: Ivan Sokolov, "Mukachevskaia Psaltyr' XV vieka," in Sbornik stateipo slavianoviedieniiu sostavlennyi ... uchenikami V.I. Lamanskago (St. Petersburg, 1883), pp. 450-468; Ivan Franko, "Karpatorus'ka li'teratura XVII-XVIII vikiv," Zapysky Naukovoho tovarystva im. Shevchenka, XXXVII and XXXVIII (Eviv, 1900), pp. 1-91 and 92-162; Ivan Franko, "StudyT na poll karpatorus'koho pys'menstva XVII-XVIII vv.," ibid., XLI (1901), pp. 1-50; Hiiador Stryps'kyi, "Z starshoi pys'mennosty Uhors'koi Rusy," ibid., CXVIICXVIII (1901), pp. 181-195; la. Bilen'kyi [Hiiador Stryps'kyi], "Uhrorus'ki litopysni zapysky," ibid., CIV (1911), pp. 73-82; Aleksei L. Petrov, Pamiatniki tserkovno-religioznoi zhizni ugrorussov XVI-XVII vv.: I. Poucheniia na Evangelic po Niagovskomu spisku 1758 g. II. lereia Mikhaila "Obrona viernomu chlvku": teksty (Petrograd, 1914)—also in Sbornik Otdieleniia russkago iazyka i slovesnosti Imperatorskoi akademii nauk, Vol. XCVII, pt. 2 (Petrograd, 1921); O. Rakhivs'kyi [Aleksander Bonkalo], Vyimky yz uhors 'ko-rus 'kohopys 'menstva XVII-XVIII w. (Budapest, 1919); Aleksei L. Petrov, Otzvuk reformatsii v russkom Zakarpat'i XVI v.: Niagovskiia poucheniia na Evangelic, VSstnik Kralovske Ceske spoleCnosti nauk, tfida I (Prague, 1921-22) and separately (Prague, 1923); Ivan Pan'kevych, "Tyshovska 'Aleksandriia'," Naukovyi zbornyk Tovarystva 'Prosvita', I (Uzhhorod, 1922), pp. 6-106; Ivan Pan'kevych, "Ladomyrovske Uchytel'ne Evanheliie,"in ibid., II (1923), pp. 92-107; Oleksander Kolessa, "Uzhhorpds'kyi 'Polustav' u pergaminovii rukopysi XIV v.," Zapysky Naukovoho tovarystva im. Shevchenka, CXLI-CXLIII (Eviv, 1925), pp. 1-59; Aleksei L. Petrov, "Drevnieishaia tserkovnoslavianskaia gramota 1404 g. o karpatorusskoi territorii," Sbornik filologicky Ceske akademie ved a umeni,V\l, 1 (Prague, 1925), pp. 179-184—repr. in Izdanie Obshchestva im. Aleksandra Dukhnovicha, No. 30 (Uzhhorod, 1927); luliian A. lavorskii, "Vetkhozavietnyia bibleiskiia skazaniia v karpatorusskoi tserkovno-uchitel'noi obrabotkie kontsa XVII-go vieka," Naukovyi zbornyk Tovarystva 'Prosvita', V (Uzhhorod, 1927), pp. 125-204; Ivan Pan'kevych, "Pokraini zapysy na pidkarpats'kykh tserkovnykh knyhakh," ibid,Vl and XI (1929-35), pp. 129-196 and 1-36; Aleksei L. Petrov, "Drevnieishaia na Karpatskoi Rusi sholtys-

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture skaia gramota 1329 g." Karpatskii sviet, II, 10 (Uzhhorod, 1929), pp. 728-734; luliian lavorskii, Novyia rukopisnyia nakhodki v oblasti starinnoi karpatorusskoi pis 'mennosti XVI-XVII viekov (Prague, 1931); luliian A. lavorskii, "Istoricheskiia, lichnyia, vkladnyia i drugiia zapisi v karpatorusskikh rukopisnykh i pechatnykh knigakh XVI-XIX viekov," Naukovyi zbornyk Tovarystva 'Prosvita', VII-VIII (Uzhhorod, 1931), pp. 189-216; Vsevolod Sakhanev, "Novyi karpatorusskii epigraficheskii material," ibid., IX (1932), pp. 68-100; Evgenii Nedziel'skii, Ocherk karpatorusskoi literatury (Uzhhorod, 1932), pp. 32-82; Aleksei L. Petrov, ed., Oborona viernomu chlovieku. Logos. Dukhnovo-polemicheskiia sochineniia lereia Mikhaila Orosvigovskago Andrelly protiv katolichestva i unii (Prague, 1932); Georgij Gerovskij, "Jazyk Podkarpatske Rusi," in Ceskoslovenskd vlastiveda, Vol. Ill: Jazyk (Prague, 1934), esp. pp. 480-493—Russian transl.: Georgii Gerovskii, lazyk Podkarpatskoi Rusi (Moscow, 1995); luliian lavorskii, Materialy dlia istorii starinnoipesennoi literatury v Podkarpatskoi Rusi (Prague, 1934); Franti§ek Tichy, Vyvoj soucasneho spisovnehojazyka na Podkarpatske Rusi (Prague, 1938), pp. 1-21; [Stepan Dobosh], Ystoriia podkarpatorus 'koi lyteratury (Uzhhorod, 1942), pp. 2-17; Oleksa V. Myshanych, Literatura ZakarpattiaXVII-VIIIstolit'(Kie\, 1964); Vasyl' L. Mykytas', Davnia literatura Zakarpattia (Eviv, 1968); Ivan Pan'kevych, Materialy do istorii movy pivdennokarpats 'kykh ukraintsiv, in Naukovyi zbirnyk Muzeiu ukra'ins 'koi kul'tury v Svydnyku, IV, pt. 2 (Bratislava and Presov, 1970); L. Dezhe, "O vzgliadakh i stile avtora zakarpatskoi Niagovskoi Postilly serediny XVI-go veka," Slavica, XVI (Debrecen, 1979) pp. 5-18; Istvan Udvari, Ruszin (kdrpdtukrdn) hivatalos irdsbeliseg a XVIII. szdzadi Magyarorszdgon (Budapest, 1995). ELAINE RUSINKO

Liubimov, Aleksandr Andreevich (b. September 12, 1898, Kazanska stanitsa [Don Cossack Lands, Russian Empire], Russia; d. December 8,1976, Presov [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — Russian emigre educator and musical director among the Rusyns in the Presov Region. Liubimov was a Don Cossack soldier in the tsarist Russian army, who during World War I was captured on the eastern front and imprisoned near Warsaw. In 1921 he managed to emigrate to Czechoslovakia, where he completed the School of Higher Economics in Prague (1921-1925) and then settled in the *Presov Region. From 1925 to 1945 he taught in several elementary schools (Olsinkov, OlTca, Kalinov, Certizne); he subsequently taught at the Russian gymnasium in Medzilaborce and Humenne (1945-1950), at the Pedagogical College in Medzilaborce (1950-1953), and at the Department of Russian Language and Literature at Safarik University (1955-1965). He also served as director of the folk orchestra (1953-1955) of the short-lived Ukrainian Song and Dance Ensemble based in Medzilaborce. In his teaching posts at the elementary and gymnasium level Liubimov promoted the Russian literary language and established student folk ensembles, where he taught balalaika playing and helped to propagate the Russian

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture national orientation among Rusyn youth. He is the author of several works on musical pedagogy and of a Russian grammar for upper elementary school classes: Nachal'naia grammatika dlia 6-8 goda obucheniia narodnykh shkol (1944). Further reading: Illia Halaida, ed., Oleksandr Andriiovych Liubymov (Presov, 1980).

Lodiia," Zapysky Naukovoho tovarystva im. Shevchenka, CXIII (Eviv, 1913), pp. 148-155; Tamara Baitsura, Zakarpatoukrainskaia inteligentsiia v Rossii v pervoi polovine XIX veka (Bratislava and Presov, 1971).

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Logoyda, Michael. See Karpats 'ka Rus 7 Carpatho-Rus

IVAN POP

Liubov. See Lubov Russian Orthodox Fraternity

Lokiec. See Lokot

Liubymov, Oleksandr. See Liubimov, Aleksandr Andreevich

Lokot — a unit of measurement equivalent to 0.59 meters. Three lokots (Polish: lokiec) equalled one *sazhen\ Lokota, Ivan. See Communist party

Liubymov, Volodymyr (b. April 26, 1934, Kalinov [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — musical director, composer, professor, and cultural activist in the Presov Region. The son of the emigre cultural activist Aleksandr *Liubimov, Volodymyr completed his gymnasium studies in Medzilaborce (1952) and his training as a musical pedagogue at Charles University in Prague (1953-1957). He taught musical pedagogy in Presov and Medzilaborce (1955-1960) before returning to Presov to teach at Safarik University (1960-1982) and at the Moyzes School of the Arts (1993-). Liubymov's creative work was revealed during his service as choir and artistic director (1982-1993) of the professional Dukla Ukrainian Folk Ensemble—*PULS in Presov. Aside from original arrangements for that ensemble he has written several musical works based on themes from the Rusyn historical past, including symphonic sketches entitled U horakh Karpatakh; a cantata, Pisni pro pisniu; a song cycle for piano, Kvitchasti melodiimoho kraiu; and an opera, Kniaz Laborets' (1996). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Lodii, Petro/Lodii, Petr Dmitrievich (b. May 4,1764, Zboj [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. June 10, 1829, St. Petersburg [Russian Empire], Russia) — professor and philosopher ofRusyn origin in the Habsburg Empire and the Russian Empire. Lodii is among a small group of intellectuals of Rusyn origin who carved out distinguished careers at the end of the eighteenth and in the early nineteenth century in the Russian Empire. Educated at the gymnasium in Oradea/ Nagyvarad and Eviv University, Lodii was professor of metaphysics and moral philosophy at Lviv University (1787-1802) before moving to Russia, where he became professor at the Petersburg Pedagogical Institute (1804-1819) and professor and first dean of the philosophical faculty of St. Petersburg University (1819-1825). He published widely in philosophy. Although he maintained no relations with his Carpathian homeland, Lodii is often remembered by Rusyn writers as an example of a success story abroad. Further reading: Mykhailo Vozniak, "Do kharakterysryky Petra

Lopuch Maksymovych. See Danylovych-

Korytnians'kyi, Ivan

Lotsuha, Ivan. See Legeza, Irynei Lowlanders. See Dolyniane; Ethnography Loya, Stephen. See Prosvita/The Enlightenment Lubov Russian Orthodox Fraternity/Russka pravoslavna Liubov — mutual benefit society founded in 1912 in Mayfield, Pennsylvania, by Lemko immigrants in the United States. Organized by Aleksei Shlianta (1865-1923), the Lubov Fraternity grew to have 73 affiliates, mostly in Pennsylvania, with 1,080 members (1970s). Its primary goal was to pay death insurance benefits to the survivors of its members (by 1937 the fraternity had paid $325,000 to the beneficiaries of 635 deceased members). The organization supported the Orthodox movement among its members and promoted the view that *Lemkos and all Rusyns are a branch of the Russian nationality. These views were argued in the organization's monthly and later bi-monthly magazine, Liubov, edited by Stepan Bendasiuk (1923-1925) and for many years by Stefan *Telep (1925-1957). The magazine was written in the socalled *iazychiie, in this case the Lemko-Rusyn vernacular with a heavy influence of Russian vocabulary. Among the long-time chairmen of the Lubov Fraternity were Mytrofan Gambal' (1912-1925), Ivan Badvak (1925-1934), and Ivan Gubyk(1934-1957). BOGDAN HORBAL

Lucas, Michael. See Dukhnovich Society of CarpathoRussian Canadians Luchkai, Mykhai'l/Lutskay, Michael (b. Mykhail Pop, November 19, 1789, Velyki Luchky [Hungarian Kingdom],

310 Ukraine; d. December 3, 1843, Uzhhorod [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine) — priest, historian, linguist, and national awakener in Subcarpathian Rus'. Luchkai began the gymnasium in Uzhhorod, completed it in Oradea/Nagyvarad (18051812), and then studied at the *Stadtkonvikt Greek Catholic Seminary in Vienna (1813-1816), where he also participated in a study circle at the St. Barbara Church/*Barbareum conducted by the renowned Slavist, Jernej Kopitar. While in Vienna Luchkai learned about other Slavic peoples living in the Austrian Empire and became a believer in pan-Slavic unity. After ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1816) he served briefly in his native village, then in 1818 was brought to the episcopal offices in Uzhhorod, where he served as secretary to the bishop, archivist-librarian, notary, and chairman of the eparchial *consistory. He was later appointed the priest (1827) of the Tsehol'na parish in Uzhhorod. These intense administrative duties were interrupted in 1829, when he began a 14-month stay at the court of Prince Carlo Ludovico Bourbon in Lucca, Italy. A pretender to the throne of Greece, the prince invited Luchkai to his court in order to learn more about the Byzantine rite. While in Lucca, Luchkai had time to work on a grammar for his countrymen. As a proponent of *pan-Slavism, he proposed that *Church Slavonic be used as the common Slavic literary language, much the same way that Latin functioned as a common literary language linking diverse peoples in the West. He did not believe that the vernacular spoken language (lingua communis) was appropriate for literary works, and thus he wrote in Latin a grammar of the Subcarpathian variant/ recension of Church Slavonic (Grammatica Slavo-Ruthena: seu Vetero-Slavicae et actu in montibus Carpathicis Parvo Russicae, seu dialecti vigentis linguae, 1830; repr. 1989). In 1831 Luchkai returned to Uzhhorod, where he was soon removed from his eparchial duties, although he remained the priest in the Tsehol'na parish. Despite his conviction that Church Slavonic should be used for literary purposes, Luchkai urged priests to preach in the Rusyn vernacular. To assist them, he published two volumes of his own sermons in Rusyn (Tserkovnyia besidy na vsi nedily roka na pouchen'ie narodnoe (1831), and in 1840 he began work on a RusynLatin-Hungarian-German dictionary. The work of greatest significance for his people's national self-identity was a sixvolume history of Carpatho-Rusyns from earliest times to the nineteenth century: Historia Carpato-Ruthenorum (History of Carpatho-Rusyns, 1843). Although his history remained in manuscript for over a century, it was known and consulted by all leading nineteenth-century Rusyn national activists. While focusing on the evolution of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo, Luchkai argued that Rusyns were the indigenous population of the Carpathian region and that they had received Christianity in the 860s from the Byzantine missionaries *Constantine/Cyril and Methodius. The work also included the texts of several old documents that later disappeared.

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Luchkai was so well known to the Slavic world that the influential pan-Slavist Jan Kollar, in his epic poem Sldva dcera, included him alongside Dobrovsky, Obradovic, and Karadzic as a member of the ultimate pantheon of Slavic activists. Luchkai's scholarly heritage has been preserved through a reprinting of his Slaveno-Rusyn grammar in Latin, together with a Ukrainian translation and a linguistic analysis by Petro Lyzanets' (1989), and by the publication of the full text of his History of Carpatho-Rusyns in Latin with a Ukrainian translation by lurii *Sak and his colleagues in several issues of the *Naukovyi zbirnyk Muzeiu ukrains 'koi kul'tury u Svydnyku (1983-99). The Ukrainian translation is being republished in a separate six-volume edition (1999- ). Further reading: Vasylii Hadzhega, "Mykhayl Luchkai: zhytiepys y tvory," Naukovyi zbornyk Tovarystva 'Prosvita', VI (Uzhhorod, 1929), pp. 1-128; Georgii I. Gerovskii, "Russkii iazyk v tserkovno-slaviansko-russkoi grammatikie M. Popa-Luchkaia," in Karpatorusskii sbornik (Uzhhorod, 1930), pp. 259-311; Vasyl' Simovych, "Grammatica Slavo-ruthena M. Luchkaia," Naukovyi zbornyk Tovarystva 'Prosvita', VII-VIII (Uzhhorod, 1931), pp. 217-306; Frantisek Tichy, "Lidove pisne v Luckajove gramatice," ibid., pp. 307-314; Valerii Pogorielov, Karpatorusskie etiudy: I. Literaturnaia dieiatel'nost' Mikhaila Luchkaia, karpatorusskago pisatelia nach. XIX vieka (Bratislava, 1939); Oleksander Badan, Homiletychni 'Besidy' Mykhaila Luchkaia z 1830 r. (Winnipeg, 1977); Petro M. Lyzanets', "Mykhailo Luchkai i ioho hramatyka," in Mykhailo Luchkai, Hramatyka slov "iano-rus 'ka (Kiev, 1989), pp. 5-39; Olena Rudlovchak, "Bilia vytokiv bahatovodnoi' riky: do 200littia vid dnia narodzhennia Mykhaila Luchkaia," Naukovyi zbirnyk Muzeiu ukrains 'koi'kul'tury u Svydnyku, XVI (Bratislava and PreSov, 1990), pp. 7-27; Dmytro Danyliuk, Mykhailo Luchkai—patriarkh zakarpats'ko'i istoriohrafi'i (Uzhhorod, 1995); Fedir Rubish, Mii zemliak: Mykhailo Luchkai (Mukachevo, 2003). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Lugosh, Mykhail See Sil'vai, Sion; Subcarpathian Rusyn National Theater

Lukacs, Habina. See Eger Lukovich, Antonii. See Historiography: Subcarpathain Rus' and the Presov Region Lutskay, Michael. See Luchkai, MykhaTl Lykhvarchyk, MykhaiL See Matezonskii, Konstantin; Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College Lypei, Il'ko. See Grendzha-Dons'kyi, Vasyl'; Tomecek, Jaromir

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture

311

Lypyns'kyi, lanko. See Society ofRusyn Intelligentsia in Slovakia

Lyteraturna nedilia — bi-weekly magazine published in Uzhhorod (1941-44) by the *Subcarpathian Scholarly Society/Podkarpatskoe obshchestvo nauk. Lyteraturna nedila came into being at the initiative of Hungary's commissar for the Subcarpathian Territory, Miklos *Kozma, as part of the government's policy to encourage a distinct national identity among what it called Uhro-Rusyns within the framework of the Hungarian state. The magazine was edited by Ivan *Haraida. It published in Rusyn original literary works by Subcarpathian authors of all national orientations, as well as translations into Rusyn of world literature and scholarly articles on the history and culture of *Subcarpathian Rus', including comprehensive regional bibliographies by Ivan Haraida and Mykola *Lelekach. IVAN POP

Lyteraturnoe zavedenie priashevskoe. See Presov Literary Society

Lytynskii, loann (b. 1860 [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. April 15, 1908, Chukiv [Austrian Galicia], Ukraine) — priest, publicist, and ethnographer in the Lemko Region. After ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1883) Lytynskii served in the *Lemko Region parishes of Kamianna (1883-1886) and Hanczowa (1886-1897), where he transcribed texts of Lemko legends and tales and published them in newspapers in Lviv. He also wrote one of the earliest studies of Lemko emigration to the United States ("Pro emigratsiiu lemkiv do Ameryky," 1892). BOGDAN HORBAL

Lyzanets', Petro/Lizanec, Peter (b. July 2, 1930, Rodnykivka/Izvor [Czechoslovakia], Ukraine)—linguist and

professor in Subcarpathian Rus'. At the age of six, Lyzanets' moved with his family from the Rusyn-inhabited mountainous region where he was born to the lowland plain of southwestern * Subcarpathian Rus' inhabited primarily by * Magyars. There he learned Hungarian and developed a deep appreciation for the culture of the local Magyar inhabitants. After junior high school (horozhankd) in Mukachevo (1942-1944) and high school (gymnasium) in Berehovo (1945-1948), Lyzanets' studied at the University of Uzhhorod's Department of Ukrainian Language (1948-1953) and then taught Ukrainian there (1956-1966); since 1966 he heads the Department of Hungarian Philology. His advanced degrees are from the University of L\iv (kandidat nauk, 1966; Ph.D., 1971). At the University of Uzhhorod he was named full professor (1972) and founding director (1988) of the Center for Hungarian Studies /Tsentr hunharolohii. Lyzanets' is a prolific scholar best known for his work on Hungarian influences on the Rusyn dialects of Subcarpathian Rus' published in three volumes under various titles: Magyar-ukrdn nyelvi kapcsalatok (1970), Atlas leksychnykh madiaryzmiv ta i'kh vidpovidnykiv v ukra'ins 'kykh hovorakh Zakarpats 'koi oblasti URSR (1976), and Vengerskie zaimstvovaniia v ukrainskikh govorakh Zakarpat "m (1976). He has also published a monumental three-volume atlas of Hungarian dialects in Subcarpathian Rus', A Kdrpataljai Magyar nyelvjdrdsok atlasza/ Atlas vengerskikh govorov Zakarpat 'ia (1992-2003), an analysis (1982) of the nineteenth-century Carpatho-Rusyn grammar of Mykhail *Luchkai, and he has served as founding editor (1990-) of Acta Hungarica, a scholarly journal published by the Hungarian Center that deals with Subcarpathian Rus' and Hungarian studies in general. Further reading: Kateryna Horvat, comp., Lyzanets' Petro Mykolaiovych: bibliohrafichnyi pokazhchyk/Petro Lizanec professzor: bibliograflai mutatoja (Uzhhorod, 1990); Volodymyr Fedynyshynets', Fenomen profesora Lyzantsia (Uzhhorod, 1996); Kateryna Horvat and Myroslava Fabian, eds., luvileinyi zbirnyk na chest' 70-richchia viddnia narodzhenniaprofesora Petra Lyzantsia (Uzhhorod, 1996), esp. pp. 7-34 and 579-621. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCS1

M Machik, Konstantyn/Macik, Konstantin (b. May 15, 1862, Stara Eubovna [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. August 14, 1938, Kamienka/Kamjonka [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — jurist and civic activist of Russian national orientation in Slovakia. Machik completed his studies at the gymnasium in Presov and the law faculty of Budapest University (Ju.Dr., 1889). While a student in Budapest he befriended the government official of Rusyn background, Anton Rubii, and the Orthodox priest at the Russian Embassy, from whom he developed strong sympathy for Russian culture and the belief that Carpatho-Rusyns were a branch of the Russian nationality. Machik worked briefly at the local court in the Subcarpathian town of Rakhiv (1886) before being transferred to Gyongyos near Budapest and eventually to Subotica, then in southern Hungary, where he served as presiding judge (1918-1919) in the district court. He hoped to return to his Carpathian homeland, by then part of Czechoslovakia, and was appointed vice-president (1922-1932) of the high court in Kosice and a member of Czechoslovakia's constitutional court in Prague, positions he held until retirement. Machik played an active role in Rusyn affairs in the *Presov Region. He was a co-founder (1919) and leading ideologue of the *Russian National party in Slovakia and published frequent policy statements in the party's Russian-language organ, Narodnaia gazeta. He also secured scholarships for Rusyns studying law and was honorary chairman of the Union of Russian Jurists/Soiuz russkikh iuristov based in Uzhhorod. Always interested in promoting the Russian language (which he believed was the appropriate literary language for Rusyns), Machik used it in court proceedings. He also established a commission to translate Czechoslovak laws into Russian and completed a Hungarian-Russian dictionary of legal terms, Mad'iarsko-russkii iuridicheskii terminologicheskii slovar 7 Magyar-oroszjogi muszotdr (1928). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Machoshko, Mariia/Ma£oskova, Marka (b. March 30, 1940, Potocky, Slovakia) — Rusyn singer and cultural activist in Slovakia. After completing junior high school (mestiankd) in Stropkov Machoshko joined the professional Dukla Ukrainian Folk Ensemble—*PULS in Presov, where for over four decades (1956-1998) she performed in the choir and as a lead soloist. Beginning in 1964 she also performed with the Brno State Radio Folk Orchestra and later with the Janosko Cimbalom Orchestra in Prague. Machoshko has more than anyone else been responsible for popularizing Rusyn folk

music, not only in the Presov Region but throughout all of former Czechoslovakia during most of the second half of the twentieth century. Beginning in the 1960s, she toured virtually every year with either the Dukla Ensemble/PULS or the Brno Radio Orchestra to several European countries and to North America. She also completed a solo tour of the United States, performing in 1969 at the first folk festival at *Lemko Park in Monroe, New York. Machoshko's voice is heard in several records and cassettes, and in 1985 she was awarded the title Artist of Merit by the Czechoslovak state. Further reading: Helena Pastorakova, Marka Macoskovd spomina (Presov, 1996). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Macik, Konstantin. See Machik, Konstantin Macinsky, Ivan. See Matsyns'kyi, Ivan Macoskova, Maria. See Machosko, Mariia Macu, Pavel. See Magocsi, Paul Robert Maczkov, Peter J. (b. July 6, 1880, Livov [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. November 22, 1965, Binghamton, N. Y., USA) — writer, editor, and Rusyn-American community activist. Maczkov emigrated to the United States in 1898 and soon became a leading member of the *Greek Catholic Union, in particular within its *Sokol athletic organization and youth branches. He served as assistant editor (1914-1918) of the *Amerikansky russky viestnik, editor-in-chief (1918-1936) of the American Russian Falcon/Sokol Sojedinenija, and founding editor (1917-1932) of Svit d'itej/Children's World. He also published a primer that was widely used to teach Rusyn in Greek Catholic parochial schools, Novyi bukvar' dlia greko-kaftolicheskikh russkikh dietei (1921), and a collection of poetry on religious themes, Vinec naboznych stichov (1958). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Madarasz, Julius. See Maryna, lulii Madzelian, Seman/Madzelan, Szymon (b. February 18, 1922, Binczarowa, Poland) —journalist and belletrist of Ukrainian national orientation among the Lemkos in Poland and the United States. During World War II Madzelian was

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture sent to Nazi Germany as a forced laborer (1940). After nine months he fled and eventually returned to the *Lemko Region. In April 1945 he was impressed into the Soviet Army as it advanced westward across Poland. While his family was resettled in the Soviet Ukraine, Madzelian was deported to western Poland (1947), where he wrote several articles and short stories that appeared in the Lemko section (*"Lemkivska storinka") of Poland's Ukrainian-language newspaper, Nashe slovo. Holding a special place among his writings are memoristic essays about the postwar depopulation of the Lemko Region (Smak doli, 1986; "Spowiedz z nie popemionych grzechow," 1996). In 1984 Madzelian emigrated to the United States, where he continues to write on Lemko themes. Among his publications is a series of cameos about the Lemko past written to accompany a collection of drawings by his brother, Vasyl' *Madzelian (Lemkivshchyna u tvorchosti Vasylia Madzeliana, 1993). Several of Seman Madzelian's belletristic and journalistic works written in Lemko were published in his collection, Smak doli (2000), including the widely discussed essay, "Vatra—to ohen na vitry?" (The Vatra Festival: Is it Just a Fire Blowing in the Wind). The author is critical of what he considers the unwarranted enthusiasm shown by Lemkos for the annual "homeland" *Vatra Festival at a time when the ethnic composition of the Lemko Region where it is held has been destroyed and when Lemkos in Poland continue to give up their identity and assimilate. BOGDAN HORBAL

Madzelian, Vasyl' (b. June 22, 1917, Monessen, Pennsylvania, USA) — Lemko professor, painter, and graphic artist of Ukrainian national orientation in the United States. When he was three years old Madzelian's family returned to the *Lemko Region (1920), which by then was part of Poland. After completing the gymnasium in Teraopil' (1937) Madzelian went back to the United States and served for over two decades in the US Army (1938-1961). He studied at the University of Maryland and at California State University in Sacramento, where he received a Master's degree in applied art (1964) and taught the theory of painting, graphic art, ceramics, and photography. Since 1979 he has been an independent artist, creating in a "simplified realistic style." His work has been widely exhibited in the United States as well as among Lemko communities in Poland and Ukraine. Among his best-known creations is a cycle of 33 drawings called the Lemko iconostasis ("Lemkivs'kyi ikonostas") reproduced in a book written by his brother, Semen *Madzelian (1993). Further reading: Ivan Krasovs'kyi, "Novyi krok u rozvytku mystetstva zakhhidnolemkivs'koho kraiu," in Semen Madzelian, Lemkivshchyna u tvorchosti Vasylia Madzeliana (Eviv, 1993), pp. 3-10. BOGDAN HORBAL

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Magocsi, Paul Robert (pseudonyms: Pavel Macu, Philip Michaels, Julian Galloway) (b. January 26, 1945, Englewood, New Jersey, USA) — professor, historian, and publisher of partial Rusyn descent in the United States. Magocsi completed his studies at Rutgers University (B.A., 1966; M.A., 1967), Princeton University (Ph.D., 1972), and Harvard University (Society of Fellows, 1976). He began publishing and organizing scholarly conferences about Rusyns while working as a senior researcher at Harvard University during the 1970s. Since 1980 he has held the Chair of Ukrainian Studies at the University of Toronto in Canada and in 1996 he was elected to the Academy of Humanities of the Royal Society of Canada. Magocsi is founding president (1978-) of the *Carpatho-Rusyn Research Center; co-editor of its series of scholarly translations, Classics in CarpathoRusyn Studies, 11 vols. (1987- ); a founding member of the * World Congress of Rusyns (1991); and member of the latter's Executive Council/Svitova rada (1991-). He has organized several scholarly conferences about Rusyns both in the United States and Europe, including the first (1992) and second (1999) "congresses" of the Rusyn language. Magocsi has published over 600 studies in various disciplines—history, bibliography, language, cartography, political science—dealing with central Europe and Ukraine. More than half of the works focus specifically on CarpathoRusyns in both Europe and North America. On that subject his most widely consulted studies include: The Shaping of a National Identity: Subcarpathian Rus', 1848-1948 (1978; Ukrainian trans. 1994); Let's Speak Rusyn (three language variants—1976, 1979, 1998); Carpatho-Rusyn Studies: An Annotated Bibliography, 3 vols. (1988, 1998, 2005); Our People: Carpatho-Rusyns and their Descendants in North America (1984; 4th rev. ed. 2005); The Rusyns of Slovakia: An Historical Survey (1993; Rusyn and Slovak ed., 1994); and the first large-scale map showing all villages on both slopes of the Carpathians ever inhabited by Rusyns (1996, 1998). Following the Revolution of 1989 Magocsi's writings became well known in the European homeland, where they helped to provide ideological justification for the most recent Rusyn national revival. Gradually he came to support the idea that Carpatho-Rusyns form a distinct Slavic nationality and, as such, that they have a right to propagate their culture and language in all countries where they live. The impact of Magocsi's writings and his work as a "national awakener" have been discussed by Rusyn activists in the homeland, including Volodymyr Fedynyshynets', Istorychna metafora profesora Mahochiia (1995), and by several Western scholars. Many of his scholarly articles and polemical debates with those who deny that Rusyns are a distinct nationality have been published in Of the Making of Nationalities There Is NoEnd,2vo\s.(\999). Further reading: Gabriele Scardellato and John-Paul Himka, Paul Robert Magocsi: A Bibliography, 1964-2000 (Toronto, 2000);

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Chris Hann, "Intellectuals, Ethnic Groups and Nations: Two LateTwentieth Century Cases," in S. Periwal, ed., Nations of Nationalism (Budapest, London, and New York, 1995), pp. 106-128; Christopher M. Hann, "On Nation(alitie)s in General, and One Potential Nation(ality) in Particular," in Paul Robert Magocsi, ed., Of the Making of Nationalities There Is No End, Vol. I (New York, 1999), pp. xiii-xxxvii; Vasil' Choma, "Renesancia rusinstva a Paul Robert Magocsi," Slovo, I, 1 (Bratislava, 2001), pp. 117-123; Martin Fedor Ziac, "Professors and Politics: The Role of Paul Robert Magocsi in the Modern Carpatho-Rusyn Revival," East European Quarterly, XXXV, 2 (Boulder, Colo., 2001), pp. 213-232. BOGDAN HORBAL

Magocsy family — family of Hungarian gentry with extensive landholdings in Rusyn-inhabited and neighboring territory south of the Carpathians. The Magocsy family traces its origins to the early fourteenth century. Among the first well-known members of gentry status was Martin Magocsy (d.1516), whose descendants were to play an important role during the Hungarian Kingdom's struggle against the Ottoman Turks. Caspar Magocsy (d. ca. 1587) was commander (captain) of the fortresses at Gyula (1554) and Eger (1563), and he subsequently served as lord sheriff (zhupan/foispdri) of Torna county. He was a leading military figure in Hungary's wars with the Ottoman Turks (imprisoned and ransomed in 1562), as a result of which he was awarded extensive landholdings in the northeastern part of the kingdom. His anti-Turkish exploits were later immortalized in the widely read novels of the nineteenth-century Hungarian Romantic writer, Mor Jokai. Caspar's grand-nephew, Ferenc II Magocsy (1580-1611), was lord sheriff (1607-1611) of *Bereg and Torna counties and commander-in-chief of the kingdom's army in Upper Hungary with headquarters in Kosice. After 1608 he also resided in *Bereg county's castle at Mukachevo and took part on the side of the Transylvanian Prince Gabor *Bethlen in his revolt against *Habsburg rule at the outset of the seventeenth century. After Ferenc's death his widow, Ursula Dersffy, married Miklos Eszterhazy, who inherited the Mukachevo castle. Further reading: Andras Szabo, "Magocsy Caspar es Andras Udvara," in Agnes Varkonyi, ed., Magyar reneszansz udvari kultura (Budapest, 1987), pp. 263-278. IVAN POP

Magury. See Student Circle of Beskyd Mountain Tourist Guides Magyar Gorog Katolikus Orszagos Szovetsege. See Gorogkatolikus szemle Magyar Kdrpdt — weekly newspaper published in Uzhhorod (1875-1877) as a Hungarian-language supplement to

Karpat. Under the editorship of Nikolai *Homichkov, Magyar Kdrpdt published articles about *Subcarpathian Rus' as well as discussions regarding the suitability of using Hungarian as a liturgical language in the Greek Catholic Church. IVAN POP Magyarones — persons of Rusyn and other non-Magyar ethnonational backgrounds in the Hungarian Kingdom, who during the process of magyarization in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century not only became Hungarian state patriots but also gave up their ancestral identity, identified as Magyars, and adopted the Hungarian language as their own. Magyarones were often scornful of their origins and were frequently active and aggressive participants in the state-encouraged magyarization process, especially within the schools and the Greek Catholic Church. The term magyarone, somewhat the equivalent of a traitor to one's own people, was used in a derogatory sense by individuals who refused to give up their ancestral identity and language. IVAN POP

Magyarorszagi ruszin tudomanyos intezet. See Organization of Rusyns in Hungary; Popovych, Tibor Miklosh

Magyars/Hungarians — a Finno-Ugric people originally from the Ural Mountains who, at the end of the ninth century, crossed the Carpathian Mountains and settled in the Pannonian Plain along the Tisza and middle Danube rivers. The first Magyar tribes passed through territory inhabited by Rusyns or their Pannonian Slavic ancestors. It was not until much later that Magyars settled permanently alongside Rusyns in the lowlands along the upper Tisza River and near the Carpathian foothills. That settlement took place in two waves: (1) during the second half of the thirteenth century, following the Mongolo-Tatar invasions; and (2) during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, in the wake of the Ottoman conquest of the southern and central portions of the Hungarian Kingdom and the subsequent conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and Habsburg Austria. By the outset of the twentieth century Magyars made up nearly one-third of the inhabitants (1910) in each of the counties of northeastern Hungary traditionally inhabited by Rusyns. Consequently, for over 700 years—beginning in the second half of the thirteenth century—Magyars have been the immediate neighbors of Rusyns. They were also the dominant state nationality in the region until 1918. Until the middle of the nineteenth century there was no antagonism between Rusyns and Magyars. That changed, however, during the period of magyarization (and the accompanying national assimilation of Rusyns), which lasted from the second half of the nineteenth century until the end

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture of Hungarian rule in 1918. Magyarization was imposed from above by the governing authorities in Budapest, but this did not affect relations between Rusyns and their local Magyar neighbors. Those relations remained fairly limited, since as a result of religious differences (the Magyars were typically Calvinist Protestants or Roman Catholics, while the Rusyns were Greek Catholics or Orthodox) there was basically no intermarriage until the second half of the twentieth century. Living alongside each other for over 700 years, a kind of common cultural and economic symbiosis did develop between the two peoples. Beginning with the Ugric-Magyar tribes who arrived in the late ninth century, the newcomers assimilated a portion of the indigenous Slavic population of the Tisza lowlands and Carpathian foothills. The Magyar nomads who settled down also adopted the agricultural mode of life and Christian ideology of the Slavs. The result is that both peoples acquired a central-European mentality. Cognizant of their common fate in the Danubian basin, a few Magyar researchers such as the historian Karoly *Meszaros, the folklorist Mihaly *Finciczky, and the historian-archeologist Tivadar *Lehoczky turned their attention to Rusyns in the second half of the nineteenth century. Interest in the contemporary social and political status of Rusyns attracted the attention of several Hungarian publicists on the eve of World War I (Viktor Aradi, Miklos Bartha, Aladar Romanecz, Gabor Varady) but most especially during the interwar years when Hungary's *irredentist environment welcomed the work of writers (Akos Arky, Istvan Csaky, Gabor Daras, Endre Fall) who were critical of Czechoslovak's "occupation" of *Subcarpathian Rus'. The scholarly tradition on the part of Magyars interested in Rusyn history and culture was to be continued during World War II (Gabor Kemeny) and in the post-World War II era by Joszef *Perenyi, Maria *Mayer, Laszlo *Dezso, Istvan *Udvari, and Jozsef *Botlik. Subcarpathian Rus' and Rusyn culture also became a source of inspiration for Magyar creative artists. Hungary's most famous nineteenth-century painter, Mihaly Munkacsy, was born in Subcarpathian Rus' (in Mukachevo/Munkacs), although he left at a very young age. On the other hand, the painters Simon Hollosy and Imre Revesz lived and worked in the region in the years before World War I, as did the world-renowned composer Bela Bartok, who used Rusyn folk melodies in some of his compositions for violin and piano. The status of the Magyars changed profoundly after 1918, when they suddenly became a national minority within a Rusyn and Slovak environment. Some Magyars refused to accept the new political order and immediately moved to post-1918 Hungary. Most, however, remained in what for centuries had been their homes, assuming perhaps that the change of borders which had just cut them off from Hungary would not last long. As a result of changing demographic patterns and national identities (many *Jews and Rusyns no longer identified as Magyars after 1918), the proportion of

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Magyars within the territory of Subcarpathian Rus' declined from 185,000 (31 percent) in 1910 to 117,000 (16 percent) in 1930. The latter figure was probably closer to the actual number of ethnic Magyars living in the region. As a national minority within Czechoslovakia, the Magyars had the right to education in their native language in those settlements where they formed the majority population; that is, in the southwestern lowland plain of Subcarpathian Rus' adjacent to the border with Hungary. By 1938, there were 117 elementary schools with Hungarian as the language of instruction and parallel Hungarian-language classes in 30 junior high schools (*horozhans'kashkola), 1 *gymnasium (in Berehovo), and 1 commercial academy (in Mukachevo). Magyars also played an active role in the political life of interwar Subcarpathian Rus'. At the outset of the 1920s, some gravitated toward local branches of parties that had existed in the Hungarian Kingdom before 1918 (Christian Socialist/ Keresztenyszocialista and Small Landowner and Artisan/ Magyar Kisgazda, Foldmiives es Kisiparos parties) or that were newly created in Subcarpathian Rus' (Hungarian Law/ Magyar Jog and Autochthonous Autonomous/Ruszinszko Oslakossaganak Autonom parties). Initially, however, most Magyars supported all-Czechoslovak parties, in particular the oppositionist *Communist and * Social-Democratic parties and the pro-government *Agrarian party. Candidates representing Magyar parties in Subcarpathian Rus' were elected as deputies (Endre Korlath—1924, 1925, 1929, 1935) and senators (Ferenc Egry—1924, 1925; Karoly Hokky—1929, 1935) to the Czechoslovak parliament. In an effort to increase their voting strength in both national and provincial elections, some of the Magyar parties in existence since the early 1920s first merged into the Magyar National party/Magyar Nemzeti Part (est. 1926) and then into the United Magyar party/Egyesiilt Magyar Part (est. 1936). These parties, which garnered on average eleven percent of the Subcarpathian vote in parliamentary elections, were influenced by the irredentist movement based in Hungary; they also worked closely with Rusyn political parties, such as the * Autonomous Agricultural Union and the * Russian National Autonomist party. The demand ofRusyn parties for *autonomy was seen by the Magyar National party leaders (Endre Korlath, Jozsef Szentivanyi, Karoly Koszorii, Pal Racz) as the first step toward the eventual return of Subcarpathian Rus' to Hungary. The dream of such Magyar political activists was realized as early as November 2, 1938, when as a result of the first * Vienna Award virtually all Magyar-inhabited territory in Subcarpathian Rus' (including the cities Uzhhorod and Mukachevo) and in southern Slovakia was annexed to Hungary. Whether or not the Magyars of Subcarpathian Rus' favored "the return" (visszateri) to Hungary, when the Soviet Army arrived in the region toward the end of World War II, they (together with the local German population) were considered collectively guilty of pro-fascist sympathies. Beginning in

316 October 1944, all Magyar males between the ages of 18 and 50 were apprehended, first sent to a concentration camp near the town of Svaliava, and then deported to forced labor camps. By July 1945 an estimated 30,000 Magyar males had been sent to work in forced labor brigades in the mines of southeastern Ukraine or to the Soviet Gulag in Siberia where an estimated 5,000 perished. Consequently, the absolute number as well as the percentage of Magyars continued to decline during the period of Soviet rule, from 15.9 percent in 1959 to 12.5 percent in 1989. During the late 1950s some of the restrictions against the Magyars were lifted. Hungarian-language schools were revived, and some amateur cultural organizations were allowed to function. It was during the late 1980s and the Gorbachev era of perestroika, however, that the Magyars experienced a true renaissance in Soviet-ruled Subcarpathian RusV Transcarpathia. There was a marked growth in Hungarianlanguage publications and cultural life (including the creation of an Institute for Hungarian Studies at the University of Uzhhorod), virtually normalized travel and restoration of contacts with relatives in neighboring Hungary, and even the establishment of political movements that called for self-rule for Magyars at the district level. This period also coincided with the exodus of Magyars who settled permanently in Hungary. In present-day Subcarpathian Rus', Magyars number 152,000, or 12.1 percent of the region's population (2002). Nearly three-quarters live in a compact territory within the Berehovo, Vynohradovo, and Uzhhorod districts (raiony), in particular near the border with Hungary. They are well represented in Subcarpathia's largest cities, with 12,700 in Berehovo (48 percent), 8,000 in Uzhhorod (7.9 percent), 7,000 in Mukachevo (8 percent), and 3,200 in Vynohradovo (13 percent). For Magyar youth there are 99 schools, of which 68 provide instruction in Hungarian (63 elementary, 4 high schools, 1 gymnasium), 29 Ukrainian-Hungarian elementary schools, and 2 Russian-Hungarian elementary schools. There are also Hungarian-language sections to train teachers at Uzhhorod State University and at the Mukachevo Pedagogical School, a department (katedrd) of Hungarian Language and Literature and a Center for Hungarian Studies at Uzhhorod State University, and since 1996 a Hungarian Teachers' College in Berehovo. There is also a vibrant Hungarian-language press (4 newspapers, 7 journals); television programs are produced in Hungarian; and in 1997 the Gyula Illyes Hungarian National Theater was established in Berehovo (Hungarian: Beregszasz). The Magyars have a relatively active spectrum of civic and political organizations, although as with other national minorities there are divisions within the group. From the 10 often rival groups or clubs, leaders tried to create a unified Forum of Magyar Organizations (1995), but the largest group, the Hungarian Cultural Association of Subcarpathia/Karpataljai

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Magyar Kulturalis Szovetseg, refused to join. The basic aim of all these groups is to create a Magyar autonomous district within Subcarpathian Rus'/Transcarpathia, with a center in Berehovo. This demand is opposed by supporters of a unitary Ukrainian state and, in particular, it is criticized by Ukrainian nationalists. In response to the post-independence economic crisis throughout Ukraine, on average 600 Magyars each year emigrate permanently to Hungary, thereby weakening the size and intellectual resources of the Magyar minority in Subcarpathian Rus'. Further reading: Vilmos Balas, "Az Erdos Karpatok es a NagyAlfold, ruszinok es magyarok," Zoria/Hajnal, II, 1-2 (Uzhhorod, 1942), pp. 108-129; Havriyl Kemen', "Madiarsko-rus'ki dukhovni vzaemyny," Menshynovyi obizhnyk, VII, 5: Narodnostna pryloha (Pecs, 1943), pp. 1 -16; Paul Robert Magocsi, "Magyars and CarpathoRusyns," Harvard Ukrainian Studies, XIV, 3-4 (Cambridge, Mass., 1990), pp. 427-460; Jozsef Botlik and Gyorgy Dupka, Ez hat a hon ... : tenyek, adatok, dokumentumokakdrpdtaljaimagyarsdgeletebdl, 1918-1991 (Budapest and Szeged, 1991); Paul Robert Magocsi, "The Hungarians in Transcarpathia (Subcarpathian Rus')," Nationalities Papers, XXIV, 3 (Oxfordshire, Eng., 1996), pp. 525-534; Istvan Csernicsko, A magyar nyelv Ukrajndban (Kdrpdtaljdn) (Budapest, 1998); Csilla Fedinec, Fejezetek a kdrpdtaljai magyar kozoktatds tortenetelbol, 1938-1991 (Budapest, 1999); Ildiko Orosz and Istvan Csernicsko, The Hungarians in Transcarpathia (Budapest, 1999); Gyorgy Dupka, Kdrpdtalja magyarsdga: honismereti kezikonyv (Budapest, 2000); Csilla Fedinec, A Kdrpdtaljai magyarsdg torteneti kronologidja 1918-1944 (Galanta and Dunaszerdahely, 2002). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Majority/Fideikomisia — property held by landlords that was not possible to divide and was passed on from the father to the eldest son. MAK. See Internet; Ruske Slovo Publishing House Makai', Silvester (b. March 29, 1941, Kucura [Vajdasag, Hungary], Serbia) — pedagogue, sculptor, and graphic artist among the Vojvodinian Rusyns. Makai completed his studies at the Department of Decorative Art at the Higher Pedagogical School in Pristina, Yugoslavia. He taught at the Rusyn elementary school in Kucura and has written poetry primarily for children, having mastered, as one critic has said, "an understanding and feeling for the particularities of the logic of children." Several of his poems from the collection Pirohi o tri rohi (1984) have been set to music. His most recent collection of poetry, not intended specifically for children, is Odniati odStupi (1977). Makai' is an accomplished sculptor, graphic artist, and icon painter whose works have been displayed in 15 personal and several joint exhibits. His sculptures in bronze grace pub-

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture lie squres in several Vojvodinian towns, including Slunko shliebody/The Sun of Freedom (1976) in Kucura and busts of the national activists Petro*Kuzmiak (1986) and Havri'il *Kostel'nik (1995) in Ruski Kerestur. Further reading: Sava Stepanov, "Hli'boke chuvstvovanie formi," Shvetlosts, XXV, 5 (Novi Sad, 1987), pp. 673-682. ALEKSANDR D. DULICHENKO PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Makara, Mykola (b. December 18, 1934, Dubrynychi [Czechoslovakia], Ukraine) — historian, professor, and civic and cultural activist in Subcarpathian Rus'. After completing the historical faculty (1962) and graduate studies (1965; kandidat nauk, 1969) at Uzhhorod State University Makara taught history at that institution (1965-1997; docent/associate professor, 1970). Although for many years a Marxist and "official" Ukrainian-oriented scholar, in the post-Communist era he gradually became a supporter of the Rusyn movement. He served as director (1994-1999) of the Institute for Carpathian Studies at Uzhhorod State University and is founding chairman (1997-) of the Rusyn Scholarly and Enlightenment Society/Rusyns'ke naukovo-osvitnie tovarystvo. He has published articles in Ukrainian journals on the post-1989 Rusyn national revival throughout Europe; several of these were co-authored with the sociologist Ivan *Myhovych and republished in a volume entitled Slovo za Rusyniv (1999). Makara's own scholarly interests include the problem of Subcarpathia's "reunification" with the Soviet Union (Zakarpats 'ka Ukraina: shliakh do vozz"iednannia, dosvid rozvytku: zhovten 1944— sichen' 1946 rr., 1995); relations with Rusyns in northeastern Slovakia (Karpatamy poridneni, 1997); and various peoples other than Rusyns in * Subcarpathian Rus' (*Germans, *Jews, *Romanians), about whom he has published general surveys. Makara accepts as historically justified Subcarpathia's annexation as part of Ukraine, but he argues that Rusyns are a distinct nationality worthy of recognition as such within all countries where they live. Further reading: Makara Mykola Petrovych: bibliohrafichnyi pokazhchyk, 1959-1999 rr. (Uzhhorod, 1999). MYKHAILO ALMASHII PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Makarski, Wladyslaw. See Historiography: Lemko Region Makovichanin, Alesha/Leshko/Kum Leshko. See Farynych, Aleksei Makovskii, Sergei Konstantinovich (b. June 15,1877, St. Petersburg [Russian Empire], Russia; d. May 13, 1962, Paris, France) — Russian painter, graphic artist, and art historian. Makovskii was a member of the pre-revolutionary group

317 of artists and intellectuals in the Russian Empire known as the Mir iskusstva (World of Art). After the Bolshevik Revolution he emigrated abroad, settling first in Prague (1920) and then in Paris (1925). During his stay in Czechoslovakia he became interested in Rusyn folk art and helped to organize a major exhibit in Prague (1924) entitled the "Art and People of Subcarpathian Rus'." On the basis of this exhibition he published the first large-scale general illustrated book on the topic, which appeared in Russian (Narodnoe iskusstvo Podkarpatskoi Rusi, 1925) as well as in French, Czech, and English translations (Peasant Art of Subcarpathian Russia, 1926;repr. 1957). IVAN POP

Makovytsia — territory in the center of the Rusyn-inhabited Presov Region encompassing the northern portion of historic *Sharysh/Saros county, the present Bardejov and Svidnik districts (okresy) in Slovakia. The region derives its name from a castle (Castrum Makovycha) above the village of Zborov north of Bardejov and its surrounding manorial estate (*dominium). The Makovytsia castle was built in the 1240s as part of Hungary's northern defense system; subsequently, the estate was developed in the 1340s by several brothers of the Cudar/Zudar family, who were favored officials of the king. By the outset of the fifteenth century the estate included 67 villages, the vast majority inhabited by Rusyns. After 1470 Makovytsia was owned by several noble families, including that of the renowned Orthodox cultural leader from Poland-Lithuania, Prince Kostiantyn Ostroz'kyi; his son adopted the Roman Catholic faith and in the late sixteenth century tried to spread latinizing influences among the region's Orthodox Rusyn inhabitants. In 1601, Makovytsia was bought by the Roman Catholic branch of the *Rakoczy family, but in the 1680s they lost the estate and the castle was destroyed during the anti-*Habsburg rebellion of Imre *Thokoly. The castle is remembered in Rusyn folklore by the popular song, "Koly murovaly bilu Makovytsu" (When They Built the White Walls of Makovytsia). During the nineteenth-century Rusyn national awakening, the "nightingale of Makovytsia," Aleksander *Pavlovych, used the region and its inhabitants as the setting for literary images in several of his poems. In the second half of the twentieth century, the Makovytsia Folk Ensemble (est. 1956) was founded in Svidnik and since 1973 a Rusyn folksong revue called Makovyts'ka Struna is held annually in the town of Bardejov. The term Makovytsia is also used by linguists to refer to a sub-group of Rusyn dialects spoken north and east of Bardejov and Svidnik (see Map 12). Finally, Makovytsia is the name given to a volcanic massif just east of Uzhhorod in * Subcarpathian Rus' (see Map 4). Further reading: Pavlo latsko, "Mynuvshyna 'biloho' makovytskoho zamku," Podkarpatska Rus', IV, 9 (Uzhhorod, 1927), pp. 201-205; Peter Ratkos, "Vznik a osidlenie makovickeho panstva do

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture

zaciatku 17. storocia," in Prispevky k dejinam vychodneho Slovenska: materidly zo IV. sjazdu slovenskych historikov v Kosiciach (Bratislava, 1964), pp. 40-55; Omelian Stavrovs'kyi, Slovats 'ko-pol's 'koukrains'ke prykordonnia do 18 stolittia (Bratislava and Presov, 1967), pp. 38-57. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Makovyts'ka Struna Folk Song Revue. See Cultural Union of Ukrainian Workers Maksim Gorky Rusyn Cultural Society. See Koliesar, Dragan Maksimenko, Vitalii. See Ladomirova Monastery; Russians Maksimovich, Walter. See Internet Maksymovych, Roman. See Ruska Bursa Mal'covska, Maria. See Mal'tsovs'ka, Mariia Mal'ovani, lani. See Kovach, Mikhal Mal'tsovs'ka, Mariia/Mal'covska, Maria (b. Mariia Paraska, May 5,1951, Rusky Potok [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — belletrist, editor, and cultural activist among Rusyns in the Presov Region. A graduate of Safarik University in Presov (1975), Mal'tsovs'ka worked as editor for the Ukrainian-language magazine Druzhno vperedand published several short stories in Ukrainian. In the early 1990s she welcomed the revival of the Rusyn orientation. Since its foundation in 1991 she has worked on the editorial staff of the Rusyn-language newspaper Narodny novynky and has published in Rusyn two collections of short stories, Manna i oskomyna(\994) andPid rusyn 'skym nebom (1998). Her writings are characterized by a lyric realism that focuses on village life and in particular on the plight of women in modern society. In 1999 she was awarded the Aleksander Dukhnovych Prize for the best work in Rusyn literature. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Malyniak, Mykolai (pseudonyms: H.D.M. Kamianyn; Rymlianyn) (b. September 1, 1851, Kamianna [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. February 20, 1915, Thalerhof [Austrian Styria], Austria) — priest, seminary professor, and writer of Old Ruthenian national orientation in the Lemko Region. After completing the gymnasuim in Nowy Sa^cz, Malyniak studied at the Pontifical Greek College in Rome (1869-1875); at the end of his studies in 1875 he was awarded doctorates in theology and philosophy from the Vatican's Urbanian Uni-

versity and that same year ordained a Greek Catholic priest. Upon his return home he served (1875-1890) in several Greek Catholic parishes in the *Lemko Region (Wroblik Krolewski, Nowica, Zlockie, Szlachtowa) and from 1890 until the last years of his life in Sliwnica. During these years he also taught theology and was a prefect at the Greek Catholic Theological Seminary in Eviv. Malyniak was a non-conformist whose critical views about religious and national life in late nineteenth century eastern Galicia frequently caused him difficulty. He frequently spoke out against what he considered discrimination against Rusyns in Austria-Hungary, and as a conservative *Old Ruthenian he was particular critical of the Ukrainian national orientation in Galicia. His writings took different forms (autobiographical sketches, polemical essays, reflections, sermons, aphorisms, poems), many of which were published in a series of four volumes under the general title Zerna horushyny (1900-10) and in his Chteniia Parimiinyia (1902). Malyniak wrote in the so-called traditional *iazychiie with influences from his native Lemko vernacular. During the first months of World War I (September 1914) he was arrested by the Austrian authorities on suspicion of "*Russophile" sympathies and sent to the internment camp at *Talerhof, where he died within the year. Further reading: Olena Duts'-Faifer, "Mykolai Malyniak (18511915)," in Lemkivskii richnyk 2001 (Krynica and Legnica, 2001), pp. 99-106. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Malyi, Ivan. See Matsyns'kyi, Ivan Malynovs'kyi, Aleksander. See Lemko Apostolic Administration Malynych, losyf. See Carpathian plainchant Mamalyga, Hryts'ko. See Hanuliak, Hryhorii Manailo, Fedor (b. October 19,1910, Ivanivtsi [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. January 15, 1978, Uzhhorod [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — painter and pedagogue in Subcarpathian Rus'. Manailo completed his studies at the Russian gymnasium in Mukachevo (1928) and the Advanced School of Art and Industry/Urn Prum in Prague (1934), during which time he also visited several artistic centers in France (1930). An artist belonging to the younger generation of the * Subcarpathian School of Painting, Manailo's aesthetic outlook was formed by the cultural atmosphere of Prague in the 1930s. He was basically comfortable painting still-lifes in a style influenced by both expressionism and surrealism, which was enhanced by his familiarity with traditional Subcarpathian (in particular *Hutsul) folk art.

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture After returning home from Prague to *Subcarpathian Rus' Manailo taught briefly at the elementary school in his native village of Ivanivtsi (1936-1937) and then at the Trade School in Uzhhorod (1937-1945). It was during this first period as an independent artist that he created his best work, including large still-lifes on epic-like themes (Veletni/Giants, 1932; Nad se/om/Beyond the Village, 1934; Koshary/The Basket Weavers, 1937; Narodna gotykafFolk Gothic, 1940), expressionist images of Carpathian mountain dwellers (Hutsulkal The Hutsul Women, 1939; Iz tserkvy/Coming from Church, 1940; Maty z dytynoiu/Mother and Child, 1941), and canvases that exuded the coldness of death (Skorbo to/Mourning, 1938; Pokhorony/ThQ Funeral, 1942). From 1941 his paintings were increasingly dominated by themes of foreboding (Tryvohal Anxiety, 1941; Vtecha/Flight, 194 l;Z/zdewo/We're Waiting, 1943), although he tried to compensate for the ever-increasing sense of misfortune by creating as well scenes of joy and celebration (Zustrichaiut'molodykh/Youngsters Get Together, 1941; Hutsul's'ke vesillia/The Hutsul Wedding, 1942) and images of fairy-tale folk heros (Bogatyri/The Bogaryrs, 1941; Ivanko Smilyvyi/lvan the Brave, 1941). With the establishment of Soviet rule in Subcarpathian Rus' after 1945, the new Stalinist regime demanded from Manailo paintings that would clearly illustrate "the joy of liberation," "the act of political ^reunification," "the building of socialism," and "the achievements of a reborn region." The artist's previous work was deliberately forgotten as "difficult to understand and unnecessary for the people," and Manailo himself, who seemed to accept such negative branding, tried to alter both his subject matter and style. As if he were a student, the Soviet regime expected that he study the paintings of nineteenth-century Russian realists and, in turn, to produce himself works in the currently acceptable spirit of Socialist Realism. The result was a series of canvases done on order from the Soviet authorities without any distinctive artistic quality (Zustrich Chervono'i^mm/Meeting the Soviet Army, 1945-46; Naftoprovid v Karpatakh/The Petroleum Pipe-Line in the Carpathians, 1960, among others). During the period of the Khrushchev thaw, which relaxed slightly Soviet totalitarian rule, Manailo tried to return "to the former Manailo." A critical turning point in this process came with a retrospective exhibit of his work held in Kiev (1961-1962), which revealed the enormous contrast between the "old Manailo" and the empty monumentality of his postwar canvases. He now returned to former themes based on traditional Subcarpathian life (Tanets' bilia vohnyshcha/The Dance Near the Fire, 1966; Hutsul's'ka grazhda/ThQ Hutsul Homestead, 1967; Vesillia/The Wedding, 1968) and began to create truly monumental canvases (Vesna v KarpatakhlSpring in the Carpathians, 1961; Hory-doly/Mountains and Valleys, 1968). This was not, however, "the old Manailo," but rather a new third phase of his creative spirit. During this period he became

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the main set-designer for the Transcarpathian State Theater in Uzhhorod and began to experiment with new forms of decorative art, including "graphic" drawing on melons. During the last years of his life Manailo turned to a theme that for him was entirely uncharted territory: urban and industrial life. In pseudo-decorative canvases like Dytiachyi svit (Children's World, 1973) and Muzyka zavodu (The Music of the Factory, 1974), he drew geometrically precise concrete structures and fantasy-like webs of metal that bore witness to his arrival on the threshold of a new creative stage into which, because of his increasing illness, he was never able to cross. Further reading: Vladimir F. Tsel'tner, F. Manailo (Moscow, 1986). IVAN POP

Mandych, Olena (b. Ilona Sinali, September 26, 1902, Giulesti [Hungarian Kingdom], Romania; d. March 12, 1975, Kosice [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — first professional sculptor among the Rusyns of Czechoslovakia. After completing her gymnasium studies in Kosice and Budapest Mandych went to Prague, where she studied briefly at the Advanced School of Art and Industry/Urn Prum (1921-1922) and then under the renowned Czech sculptor Jan Stursa at the Academy of Fine Arts (1922-1925). In 1926 she undertook a study tour of Munich, Paris, and Italy. That same year she married Ivan Mandych and developed a great interest in his homeland of * Subcarpathian Rus'. While still a student, Mandych did portraits and statues ofRusyn cultural awakeners, and in 1926 her bust in white marble of levhenii *Fentsyk was installed in a public square in Uzhhorod. At the same time she completed the statue Vivchar (The Shepherd), which was the first in a series of genre works from traditional Rusyn life that also included Lisorub (The Woodcutter), Alegorychna kompozytsiia (An Allegory), and Karpato-rus 'ka pisnia (A Carpatho-Rusyn Song). She soon received several commissions that resulted in memorial busts of Adol'f *Dobrians'kyi in Uzhhorod (1928) and Michalovce (1928) and of Aleksander *Dukhnovych in Khust (1932) and Kolochava (1930). The most impressive of these memorial works was a life-size statue of the founding president of Czechoslovakia, Tomas G. *Masaryk, completed in 1928. It stood in the main square of the governmental district (Galago) of Uzhhorod until the Hungarian authorities removed it when they occupied the city in the fall of 1938 (it was shipped to Prague and after the war destroyed by Czechoslovakia's Communist regime). In 1930 Mandych received a stipendium from the Czechoslovak Ministry of Education to study in France; upon her return she completed a series of portrait busts of several contemporary figures, including the first two governors of Subcarpathian Rus', Gregory *Zhatkovych (1931) and Antonii *Beskyd (1931). The epitome of her career came

320 with statues of Aleksander *Mytrak in Mukachevo (1931) and of Aleksander Dukhnovych in Presov (1933). For the latter she prepared several variants, eventually settling on one that showed the Rusyn national awakener standing as a teacher alongside a young student. With the fall of Czechoslovakia and the outset of World War II Mandych's creative career came to an end. She spent the war years with her family living in Mukachevo and later Budapest. Struck with spinal cord disease she was unable to do any sculpting; she spent the last 30 years of her life virtually forgotten while working as a cashier in a shop in the eastern Slovak city of Kosice. Further reading: Vladyslav Greshlyk, "Nezakinchene tango: do nedozhytoho 85-richchiaO.S. Mandych," Duklia, XXXV, 5 (Presov, 1987), pp. 59-63; Vladyslav Greshlyk, "Tvorchisf Oleny Mandych mizhvoiennoho periodu," in Mikulas Musinka, ed., Zakarpats'ka Ukral'na u skladi Chekhoslovachchyny, 1919-1939 (Presov, 2000), pp. 207-214. IVAN POP

Mankovych, Georgii. See Blazhovs'kyi, Havriil Manorial estate. See Dominium/Latifundium Maramorosh (Hungarian: Maramaros) — historic county in the northeastern part of the Hungarian Kingdom bordering on the Austrian province of Galicia to the north and east, *Bereg and *Ugocha/Ugocsa counties to the west, and Sotmar/Szatmar and Szolnok-Doboka counties to the south (see Map 9). Maramorosh was formed in 1303 and lasted until 1919, after which its territory was incorporated into Czechoslovakia and Romania. Maramorosh county covered 10,354 sq. kilometers and was subdivided into 9 districts (jdrds) and 159 villages; its administrative center was Sighet (Hungarian: Maramarossziget; Romanian: Sighetu Marmafiei; Rusyn: Maramorosh Siget). According to present-day administrative boundaries, the former Maramorosh county includes the Rakhiv, Tiachovo, Khust, Mizhhir"ia, and part of the Irshava districts (raiony) of the Transcarpathian oblast of Ukraine and the northern part of the Maramures district (judefe) in Romania. The population of Maramorosh in 1910 numbered 357,700, of whom 159,500 were Rusyns; 84,500 Romanians; 60,000 Germans; and 53,000 Magyars. Within the religious category there were 66,000 Jews. Since the Middle Ages Maramorosh county was known for its rich salt mines near Solotvyno and later for its lumber resources, which were floated down the Tisza (Rusyn: Tysa) River to markets in lowland Hungary. As a result of decisions taken at the Paris Peace Conference (treaties of *St. Germain, 1919, and *Trianon, 1920), Maramorosh was divided, with about three-fifths of its territory going to Czechoslovakia and the remainder, south of the Tisza River (its left bank), going

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture to Romania. That portion of the county that went to Romania was inhabited primarily by Romanians, although it included as well about fifteen Rusyn villages mostly east of Sighet along the left bank of the Tisza River and its tributaries the Viseu (Rusyn: Vyshova) and Ruscova (Rusyn: Rus'kova) rivers. In Czechoslovakia Ugocha county was joined with Maramorosh to form a single county (Czech: Marmaros), with its administrative center in Sevliush (present-day Vynohradovo) and later Khust. In 1927 Maramorosh along with other historic counties ceased to exist following the administrative reform in Czechoslovakia. Further reading: Gabriel Varady, "Das Maramaroser Comitat," in Die osterreichisch-ungarische Monarchic in Wort und Bild: Ungarn, Vol. V, pt. 2 (Vienna, 1900), pp. 439-462; Janos Mihalyi, Mdramarosmegye tortenete (Sighet, 1901); Jozsef Pap, Adalekok Maramaros tortenetehez (Sighet, 1909); Vasylii Hadzhega, "Dodatky k ystorii rusynov y rus'kykh tserkvei v Maramoroshi," Naukovyi zbornyk Tovarystva 'Prosvita', I (Uzhhorord, 1922), pp. 140-226; Alexandra Filipascu, Istoria Maramure$ului (Bucharest, 1940)—2nd ed. (Baia Mare, 1997); Vilmos Belay, Maramaros megye tarsadalma es nemzetisegei (Budapest, 1943); Mariana Sustic, Istoria Maramure$ului (Sighet, 1997). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Maramorosh Congress of People's Committees/ Maramoros'kyi z'i'zd narodnykh komitetiv — political act that marked the culmination of the efforts among the Rusyns of the *Maramures Region in northcentral Romania to unite with the neighboring Transcarpathian Ukraine. On January 27, 1945, representatives from 17 Rusyn villages in northcentral Romania met in Sighet, where they formed a National Democratic Front and called for a congress of all Rusyn people's committees to be convened within a week. On February 4, 1945, the Maramorosh Congress of People's Committees brought to Sighet 426 deputies and 133 guests, including the chairman of the National Council of TransCarpathian Ukraine, Ivan I. *Turianytsia. The Maramorosh Congress voted favorably on a petition calling for unification with Transcarpathian Ukraine which, in turn, meant unity with the Soviet Ukraine. The congress also elected a 34-member "executive (narodnyi) committee" and informed the governments of the Soviet Union and the Soviet Ukraine of its intentions. In May 1945 the Soviet head of the Allied Control Commission in Romania (Major Zakharchenko) disbanded, on threat of arrest, the Maramorosh Congress's executive committee and demanded that it surrender all local authority to the government of Romania. *Stalin intervened personally, demanding the recall of Transcarpathian Ukraine's representative Turianytsia from Sighet. Since a Soviet bridgehead beyond the Carpathians had already been politically secured,

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture the idea of reuniting all "Ukrainians" (Rusyns) into a single state was no longer of interest to Stalin. The executive committee of the Maramorosh Congress reconvened in Tiachovo, that is, on the territory of Transcarpathian Ukraine, where they ended their activity. Further reading: Omel'ian Dovhanych, "Maramoros'kyi z"Tzd," Karpats'kyi krai, IV, 1-2 [101-102] (Uzhhorod, 1994), pp. 36-37; Marian Gajdos, "Pokus o pripojenie Marmarossko-sigetskeho okruhu k Zakarpatskej Ukrajine," Stiidie a cldnky (Kosice, 1998), pp. 1-9. IVAN POP

Maramorosh Orthodox Eparchy. See Zeikan, loanykii Maramorosh Sighet trial — political trial orchestrated by the government of the Hungarian Kingdom that took place in Sighet between December 29, 1913, and March 3, 1914. The trial was directed against 94 Rusyn peasants (men and women), ranging in age from 17 to 64, who were accused of treason against the state for having left en masse the Greek Catholic Church and for converting to Orthodoxy. The defendants were also incriminated on political grounds: having placed Orthodox Rusyns under the jurisdiction of the Russian Orthodox Church, they were allegedly working to unite a part of Hungary (*Maramorosh, *Ugocha, *Bereg counties) with the Russian Empire. In conjunction with this goal they maintained contacts with tsarist political circles through the Russian parliamentary (Duma) deputy, Count Vladimir A. Bobrinskii, whether through the *Gerovskii brothers (Aleksei and Georgii) or directly through their own Orthodox leader Aleksei *Kabaliuk. The state's prosecutor was Andor Illes (son of a Rusyn Greek Catholic priest); the defense included sixteen lawyers sent by the Hungarian publicist, Viktor Aradi, among whom were Serbs, Slovaks, Jews, and even two Magyars. The prosecutor's case was built around evidence supplied by the police investigator of Rusyn background Arnold Dulishkovych. The Maramorosh Sighet trial provoked extensive negative reaction in democratic circles throughout Europe. In Austria's parliament, the Czech deputy Vaclav Klofac submitted a formal intervention against the trial, and another Czech deputy, Tomas G. *Masaryk (the future president of Czechoslovakia), wanted to speak out at the trial itself but was forbidden to do so by the Hungarian authorities. The Rusyn deputy Antonii *Beskyd spoke out against the "shameful" trial in the Hungarian parliament. Expressions of solidarity on behalf of the accused also came from intellectual circles throughout Slovakia, and among the observers was the Russian parliamentarian, Count Bobrinskii. The trial ended after two full months with the following verdict: 33 of the accused were given a total of 37 years in prison and fines in the amount of 6,800 crowns. Aleksei Kabaliuk received the harshest

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sentence—four years in prison and a 1,000 crown fine. The Maramorosh trial was the first political trial in the Hungarian Kingdom directed specifically against Rusyns who, through a pacifistic and religious act, were protesting against the government's policy of national assimilation (magyarization) and against the cooperation in those efforts by the hierarchs of their own Greek Catholic Church. Further reading: A. Stefanek, "Marmarossky proces a zahranicna politika nasej monarchic," Priidy, V, 6 (Ruzomberok, 1919), pp. 241-258; Konstantin M. Beskid, Marmarossky proces v Marmarosske Sihoti: obrdzky z byvaleho mad'arskeho rdje (Khust, 1926); Miroslav K. Grabets, K istorii Maramoroshskago protsessa: dielo 94 (Uzhhorod, 1934); Rene Martel, "La politique slave de la Russie d'avant guerre," Affaires etrangeres, VI, 10 (Paris, 1936), pp. 623634 and VII, 1 (1937), pp. 58-64; Roman Holec, "Postoj Cechov a Slovakov k Rusinom v predvefier prvej svetovej vojny," in Ceskoslovenskd historickd rocenka 1997 (Brno, 1997), pp. 29-37. IVAN POP

Maramure§ Region — the Rusyn-inhabited part of northcentral Romania along the present-day border with Ukraine. The Maramures Region consists of about fifteen Rusyn villages along the southern bank of the Tisza (Rusyn: Tysa) River and its tributaries the Viseu (Rusyn: Vyshova) and Ruscova (Rusyn: Rus'kova) rivers. Also included on the southern bank of the Tisza is the town of Sighet/Sigheru Marmatiei, which was the administrative center of the pre-World War I Hungarian county of *Maramorosh (Hungarian: Maramaros) and a cultural center for the local Rusyn community. After World War I Maramorosh county was divided along the Tisza River between Czechoslovakia (*Subcarpathian Rus') on the northern bank and Romania (the Maramures Region) on the southern bank. According to present-day administrative boundaries, the Rusyn-inhabited Maramures Region is part of the larger Romanian district (jude(e) of Maramures.. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Marchia Ruthenorum/Rus' March — territory held in vassalage at the outset of the eleventh century by Emerich, the son of Hungary's first king, Stephen I/Istvan (r. 9971038). Emerich supposedly held the title Dux Ruizorum (the Rus' prince), as first mentioned in a charter (1131) issued by the bishop of Salzburg. During the nineteenth-century national awakening the Rusyn intelligentsia argued that a state called Marchia Ruthenorum had existed on the territory of *Subcarpathian Rus' in the early medieval period. In actual fact, while the name Marchia Ruthenorum refers to a territory on the periphery (hence: march /a/march) of Hungary in the early eleventh century, it was neither in the foothills nor the mountainous part of the Carpathians, because at that time those sparsely settled areas were known from other

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documentary sources as the terra indagines (no-man's land). Rather, Marchia Ruthenorum was probably located in the *Bihar region already conquered by the Magyar tribes and located along the peripheral lowland areas of what is today northeastern Hungary and western Romania (see Map 7). This territory was at the time only sparsely settled by Pannonian and Danubian Slavs, who were related to but not the same as the Slavic tribes living in the Carpathian foothills, that is, the ancestors of the Rusyns. Further reading: Aleksei L. Petrov, Drevnieishiia gramoty po istorii karpatorusskoi tserkvi i ierarkhii 1391-1499 g. (Prague, 1930), pp. 17-47—English ed.: Medieval Carpathian Rus': The Oldest Documentation about the Carpatho-Rusyn Church and Eparchy (New York, 1998), pp. 37-70; Fedir Shandor, "Terytorial'ne rozmezhuvannia 'Marchiae Rutenorum' v XI-XIV st.," in Molod'-Ukrai'ni, No. 5-6 (Uzhhorod, 1995), pp. 31-39; losyp Kobal,' '"Markhiia Rutenorum'—Krai'na rus'kykh?," Ekzyl', No. 1 (Uzhhorod, 1996), pp. 37-40. IVAN POP

Margitych, Ivan. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo; Unia/Church Union

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Rats', the architect of the church and new monastic cells of the *Mukachevo Monastery of St. Nicholas. The Mariapocs Monastery also had a large library that was particularly rich in *Church Slavonic books and manuscripts. During the Communist era in * Subcarpathian Rus' Rusyns from that region were forbidden to take part in the annual pilgrimage to Mariapocs; but in the late 1980s the tradition was revived. In 1991 one of the largest ever pilgrimages to Mariapocs took place; among the pilgrims was Pope John Paul II, who, in the course of his homily, addressed the faithful in Rusyn. Further reading: T.L., "Chomu nam tak doroha Mariiapovch?," Kalendar'Blahovistnyka na rok 1943 (Uzhhorod, 1943), pp. 40-49; Eszter Ojtozi, A mdriapocsi bazilitak cirillbetus konyvei (Debrecen, 1982); Mariapocs 1696—Nyiregyhdza 1996: tortenelmi konferencia a Mdriapocsi Istenszulo-ikon elso konnyezesenek 300. evfordulojdra (Nyiregyhaza, 1996). IVAN POP

Mariia od Siona. See Humetskii, Modest

Marijka-nevernice. See Cinema Marina, Julius. See Maryna, lulii

Maria Theresa. See Habsburg family Marko, Mariian. See Dukhnovych Theater Mariansky, Vladimir. See Tymkovych, losafat Marko, VasyP. See Markus, Vasyl Mariapocs Monastery — a Basilian monastery and major pilgrimage site in northeastern Hungary (historic Sobolch/Szabolcs county) for Greek Catholic believers from Hungary, Subcarpathian Rus', and Romania. The purpose of the pilgrimage, held annually on the Feast of the Dormition (August 15/28), is to kneel before the wonder-working weeping icon of the Virgin Mary. The original icon, housed in a wooden church in the village of Pocs/Mariapocs, was considered miraculous following reports in 1696 that the image of the Virgin was weeping. On orders from Emperor Leopold I, the icon was transported to Vienna at the outset of the eighteenth century and placed in the city's main cathedral church of St. Stephen. Before its transfer, however, three copies of the icon were made, one of which remained in Pocs. The one in Pocs was reported on two occasions (1715 and 1905) to be miraculously weeping and pilgrims who came into the icon's presence attributed their healing to its powers. In 1714 the Greek Catholic bishop of Mukachevo, losyf Hodermars'kyi, requested permission from the Austrian emperor to build a Basilian monastery in Pocs; opposition from the Roman Catholic bishop of *Eger delayed construction until 1749, by which time Manui'l *OFshavs'kyi was bishop of Mukachevo. The monastery Church of St. Michael was constructed (1749-1756) according to plans by Demeter Racz/Dymytrii

Markosh, Georgii. See St. Basil the Great Society Markov, Dmitrii. See League For the Liberation of Carpatho-Russia; Vergun, Dmitrii Nikolaevich Markovych, Pavlo/Markovic', Pavol (b. November 19, 1924, Certizne [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — painter, professor, and ethnographer in the Presov Region. Markovych completed his studies at the Russian gymnasium in Humenne (1945-1949) and the pedagogical faculty of the Slovak University in Bratislava (1949-1953). In his student days he became active in civic life and in 1945 joined the Communist party of Czechoslovakia. Markovych taught painting in Presov at the Advanced School of Education (1953-1960) and at Safarik University (1960-1991), where he held the rank of associate professor (docent, 1974). Most of his own paintings are landscape and village scenes of the Rusyn-inhabited regions of eastern Slovakia. His serious interest in traditional Rusyn material culture resulted in a study of embroidery designs, Ukrains 'ki narodni khrestykovi vyshyvky Skhidno'i Slovachchyny (1964), and a detailed analysis of the meaning of designs on painted Easter eggs, Ukrains 'ki pysanky Skhidno'iSlovachchyni (1972), which appeared in English as Rusyn Easter Eggs from Eastern Slovakia (1987).

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Further reading: Vasyl' Lakata, "Pavlu Markovychu—50 rokiv," Duklia, XXIII, 1 (Presov, 1975), pp. 68-69. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Markus, Vasyl (pseudonyms: Vasyl' Marko; Vasyl' Dobryk) (b. Vasyl' Markush, December 27, 1922, Bedevlia [Czechoslovakia], Ukraine) — political scientist, professor, and Ukrainian-American community activist. While still in *Subcarpathian Rus' Markus studied at the Ukrainian gymnasium in Khust (1934-1942) and at the University of Budapest (1943-1944). Although he took part in the Congress of People's Committees of *Transcarpathian Ukraine that in Mukachevo in November 1944 called for the "*reunification" of Subcarpathian Rus' with the Soviet Ukraine, his Ukrainian nationalist convictions were unacceptable to the new Soviet regime, and he fled to the West in 1945. Markus continued his studies at the Ukrainian Free University in Munich (Ph. D., 1948) and the law faculty of the Sorboune in Paris (LL. D., 1956). He then emigrated to the United States, where he taught political science at Notre Dame University (19591962) and at Loyola University in Chicago (1962-1988). Among his earliest publications was a monograph in French that dealt with the Soviet annexation of Subcarpathian Rus', Lincorporation de {'Ukraine subcarpathique a I'Ukraine sovietique, 1944-1945 (1956; Ukrainian ed. 1992). He was also responsible for ensuring that many entries dealing with "Carpatho-Ukrainians" were included in the Entsyklopediia ukrainoznavstva, 10 vols. (1955-84) and the Encyclopedia of Ukraine, 5 vols. (1984-93). Markus has consistently argued that Rusyns are a branch of Ukrainians and that those who believe otherwise are a danger to the unity of the Ukrainian people and state. Since 1989 he has made his opposition to the recent Rusyn national revival known through media interviews and lectures in Ukraine, and through the Commission for Relations and Information among Transcarpathian Ukrainians in the Diaspora (KOZI), which he established in Chicago, Illinois (1991). Markus edited in Ukrainian the Commission's Informatsiinyi lystok KOZI (1991-2003). His political and historical views about the alleged age-old Ukrainian character of Subcarpathian Rus' are summed up in Politychna i derzhavno-pravna evoliutsiia ukra'ins 'koho Zakarpattia (1993). Memoirs of his early years in the European homeland as well as his poetry and prose appear in Vasyl' Marko, Spomyn (1995). Further reading: Oleksa Myshanych, "VasyF Marko," in idem, Povernennia (Kiev, 1997), pp. 282-287; Vasyl' Khudanych, "Mohikany diaspory: zirka ukrai'ns'koho neba," Karpats'kyi krai, X, 1-4 [120] (Uzhhorod, 2000), pp. 37-40. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Markush, Aleksander (pseudonyms: A. Khustskyi, Did Marko, M. Tovchok) (b. November 2, 1891, Khust [Hungar-

323 ian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. October 27, 1971, Khust [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — pedagogue, educational administrator, belletrist, publicist, and civic activist of Ukrainian national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus'. After graduating from the Teachers' College in Sighet (1910) Markush taught in the elementary and later junior high school/horozhanka in Tiachovo (1910-1939). During the period of Czechoslovak rule he also served as district school inspector (after 1923), and he published as many as 23 elementary school textbooks (several co-authored). The most popular of these were his primers, among them Zornytsia (1925, 1926, 1930), winner of the first prize as the best textbook in 1925, and several on geography and civics (Nova Evropa, 1925; Hrazhdanska nauka, \925;Dalekymsvitom, 1926; Po rodnomukraiu, 1926; Nasha respublyka, 1926; Otchyna, 1931; Kraieznavstvo, 1937). Markush wrote numerous articles on pedagogy, served as vice-chairman (1922-1934) of the Pedagogical Society of Subcarpathian Rus'/Pedagogichne tovarystvo Podkarpatskoi Rusy, and was long-time editor (1922-1939) of the popular journal ofRusyn history and culture, *Nash rodnyi krai. Always interested in Rusyn ethnography, he compiled several collections of folkloric texts (Kazky, \921\Podkarpatskinarodnikazky, 1941-43; Starynni zamky Podkarpatia, 1943). Most of Markush's literary works, the first of which were written during his student days, consist of tales about village life initially written in Rusyn, then later in Ukrainian. When Hungary annexed * Subcarpathian Rus' Markush was arrested (March 16,1939) and held in prison until amnestied with other *Ukrainophiles three months later. From 1941 until the end of World War II he worked with the * Subcarpathian Scholarly Society/Podkarpatskoe obshchestvo nauk, which published several of his tales and short stories (Yrynu zasvatily, 1941; lulyna, 1942; Korovku hnaly, 1943; and under the pseudonym Did Marko, Pryhody Vovchka Tovchka, 2 pts., 1943-44) and translations into Rusyn of works by the Hungarian writers Geza Gardonyi, Ferenc Herczeg, Mor Jokai, and Kalman Mikszath. Following the onset of Soviet rule in Subcarpathian Rus' (1945) Markush returned to teaching; after the death of *Stalin (1953), he was able to publish literary works again, all of which were adapted to the ideological needs of Socialist Realism. Further reading: Ivan P. Vyshnevs'kyi, Zakarpats 'ki novelisty (Eviv, 1960), pp. 10-26; Vasyl' Pop, "Oleksandr Markush," in Ukra'ins'ki radians'ki pys'mennyky: krytychni narysy, No. 6 (Kiev, 1968), pp. 212-234; M.M. Tsyfra et al, "Zhyttia i tvorchist Oleksandra Markusha," in Tezylllnarodoznavchoinaukovo-praktychnoikonferentsi'i, prysviachenoi 100-richchiu viddnia narodzhennia Oleksandra Markusha (Khust, 1991), pp. 1-25; lu. lu. Shimon, "Oleksandr Markush—pedahoh, zhurnalisf, pys'mennyk, hromads'kyi diiach," in Carpatica—Karpatyka, Vol. VIII (Uzhhorod, 2001), pp. 236-240. IVAN POP

Martel, Rene (b. August 23, 1893, Baume-les-Dames,

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Doubs, France; d. January 6, 1976, Paris, France) — French historian of eastern Europe. Martel wrote studies for French scholarly journals about *Subcarpathian Rus', dealing with the medieval period and with Russian imperial interest in the area before World War I ("La politique slave de la Russie d'avant guerre," 1936-37). His most important book on the subject, La Ruthenie subcarpathique (1935), focused on the achievements and problems faced by the Czechoslovak regime in Subcarpathian Rus' during the interwar years of the twentieth century. Martel tried to present all views regarding Rusyn identity and historical development without favoring any one national orientation. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Marton, Istvan/ Stepan (b. November 24, 1923, Sofiia [Czechoslovakia], Ukraine; d. January 14, 1996, Uzhhorod, Ukraine) — composer, pedagogue, organist, and orchestral and choral conductor of Magyar and German (Swabian) background in Subcarpathian Rus'. Marton completed his studies at the Hungarian-language junior high school (horozhanka), Hungarian-language gymnasium, and teacher's college (19441946), all in Mukachevo, then studied with Dezyderii *Zador at the Uzhhorod Music School (1948), where he subsequently taught musical theory. Marten's first compositions date from his student days, among the best of which is his Mass for Choir, Soloists, Organ, and String Orchestra (1946), which was not performed until 1993. He was also deeply interested in the folk music of Rusyns and *Magyars of * Subcarpathian Rus', which he used in several of his choral and orchestral compositions and in scores for movies, incidental music for theatrical performances, and for the professional Transcarpathian Folk Choir, whose orchestra he directed (1962-1963, 1969-1973). Several of Marten's compositions are based on themes and folk music from Subcarpathian Rus', including a suite for string orchestra, Zakarpats 'kyi dyvertysmen (Transcarpathian Divertimento, 1963); an orchestral tone poem, Karpats'ka poema (A Carpathian Poem, 1961); a choral suite, Lito v Uzhans 'kii dolyni (Summer in the Uzh Valley); and a cantata for choir and folk orchestra in honor of the painter Fedor *Manailo, Karpats 'ka rapsodiia (A Carpathian Rhapsody, 1987). Especially popular is his choral suite, Rizdviana siu'ita (1990), based on local Rusyn Christmas carols (*koliadky). In 1965, Marton was named an Artist of Merit of the Soviet Ukraine. Further reading: N. Pitsur, Ishtvan Marton: tvorchyi portret (Uzhhorod, 1998). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Marusyn, H. See Hamuliak, Hryhorii Marusyn, losyf (b. April 13, 1925, Roztoky [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia; d. October 17, 1997, Svidnik, Slovakia)

— lawyer and civic activist among resettled Rusyns in Ukraine and in Slovakia. Marusyn completed the gymnasium in Svidnik (1941) and during World War II participated in the underground movement (1943-1945) against the Slovak state. After the war he was among those Rusyns from the Presov Region who voluntarily opted to be resettled in the Soviet Ukraine (1947). He graduated from the law faculty of Moscow State University (1947-1951), then taught English in a high school in western Ukraine (1953-1966). In the early 1960s he began to study and record the tales of repression experienced by Slovakia's resettled Rusyns in Ukraine and to collect signatures among those who demanded permission to return home, activity for which he was placed under surveillance by the Soviet authorities. In 1966 Marusyn was among the first of the approximately 10,000 Rusyns who were eventually permitted by the Soviet Union to return to Slovakia. He settled in Presov, where he established the Committee of Returnees/Komitet reoptantiv to help his fellow Rusyns to readjust to their life outside the Soviet Union. The committee functioned from 1966 until it was banned in 1970 as part of a new wave of political repression in Czechoslovakia following the 1968 Soviet-led intervention. Marusyn was able to continue work in Svidnik as a judge in the district court (1969-1979) and as a functionary in the district national council (1980-1982). He also wrote several satirical tales in the Rusyn dialect of the *Makovytsia region, which remain unpublished. SHTEFAN KRUSHKO

Marxism. See Communism; Historiography Maryna, lulii/Marina, Gyula (pseudonym: Julius Madarasz) (b. May 26, 1901, Luh [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. July 20, 1983, Perryopolis, Pennsylvania, USA) — priest, pedagogue, and government official in Subcarpathian Rus' of Rusyn national orientation. After completing the Piarist gymnasium in Sighet (1920) Maryna undertook his theological training at the Greek Catholic Seminary in Uzhhorod (1920-1924) and at the Germanicum Theological Seminary in Rome (1927-1929), receiving a doctorate in canon law from the Pontifical Gregorian University (1929). He was ordained a Greek Catholic priest (1926) and began a career teaching canon law and church history at the Uzhhorod Theological Seminary, where he also served as vice-rector (1930-1939). Maryna was active in Subcarpathian political life during the era of Czechoslovak rule as a member of the directorate (19311938) of the government opposition party, the * Autonomous Agricultural Union. He welcomed Hungary's annexation of Subcarpathian Rus' and was immediately appointed an advisor (March 1939) on Subcarpathian matters to the government in Budapest, then head (September 1939) of the Subcarpathian

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture section of the Hungarian Ministry of Education. During the next five years he was responsible for approving textbooks and choosing teachers and other local cultural administrators, always being careful to appoint those who favored Hungarian rule and the official "Uhro-Rusyn" national orientation. Maryna's name is associated with a grammar for gymnasium students (Hrammatyka uhrorusskoho iazyka dlia serednykh uchebnykh zavedenii, 1940) which, its "Uhro-Rusyn" title notwithstanding, used a language heavily influenced by Russian. Despite his official position, "Maryna's language" was neither taught widely nor used in Subcarpathian publications during the era of Hungarian rule. When Soviet troops arrived in the region Maryna fled westward (October 1944) and eventually arrived in the United States, where from 1949 until his retirement in 1971 he served several parishes within the *Byzantine Ruthenian Catholic Church. His memoirs appeared serially in the *Byzantine Catholic World newspaper in English (1975-1977) and as a separate volume in Hungarian Rutensors—Kdrpdtalja vegzete (1977;repr. 1999). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Maryndia, Hryhorii. See Smerekanych, Petro Masaryk, Jan. See American Carpatho-Russian Central Conference Masaryk, Tomas Garrigue (b. March 7,1850, Hodonin [Austrian Moravia], Czech Republic; d. October 14, 1937, Lany [Czechoslovakia], Czech Republic) — Czech philosopher, sociologist, professor, political activist, and head of state. Masaryk began teaching at the University of Vienna (1879) and in 1882 moved to Prague, where he became a professor at Charles University, a publicist, and editor. His political career began in the late 1880s and he was soon known as a critic of the direction that Czech nationalism had taken at that time. By the end of the century he was leader of the small Realist party made up primarily of Czech intellectuals. Masaryk was the party's only deputy (1907-1914) in the Austrian parliament, where he supported transforming Austria-Hungary on a federalist basis. He also spoke out against anti-Semitism and in defense of individuals persecuted for their national convictions, during for example the Zagreb trial against Croatian intellectuals (1909) and the *Maramorosh Sighet trial against Rusyn peasants (1913-1914). At the outset of World War I Masaryk went abroad, where he became leader of the anti-*Habsburg struggle and supporter of creating an independent Czechoslovak state. Together with Edvard *Benes and Milan Stefanik he established in Paris a National Council/Narodna rada (1915) to function as a provisional Czechoslovak government. Masaryk then set out for the Russian Empire, Italy, and France, where he established mili-

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tary units (legions) among Czech and Slovak prisoners of war. Between May and November 1918 he was in the United States trying to raise support for the idea of an independent state from the large Czech and Slovak immigrant communities and from the American government headed by President Woodrow Wilson. There, in the fall of 1918 Masaryk held talks with Rusyn-American immigrant leaders (in particular Gregory *Zhatkovych) regarding the possibility of joining *Uhors'ka Rus' (Rusyn-inhabited lands in Hungary) as an autonomous entity within the proposed Czechoslovak state. Through the efforts of Edvard Benes, Czechoslovakia's representative at the Paris Peace Conference, Rusyn-inhabited lands south of the Carpathians, in the form of an autonomous province called *Subcarpathian Rus', were united with Czechoslovakia (*Treaty of St. Germain, September 10, 1919). In the interim, Masaryk was chosen to be the founding president of Czechoslovakia, a post he held from 1918 to 1935. He considered Subcarpathian Rus' to be of particular strategic importance as a territorial bridge linking Czechoslovakia with its allies, Romania and Yugoslavia. As president, however, he did not fulfill the promises he made to the Rusyns in 1918-1919 regarding *autonomy for Subcarpathian Rus'. Masaryk certainly understood the potential dangers of the multinational composition of Czechoslovakia and he considered Switzerland, with its cantons based on nationalities, as a model for possible application to his own country. In the end, however, he concluded that such a system could not be implemented for at least half a century. Perhaps the greatest criticism to be leveled against Masaryk in Rusyn matters is that he contributed to the division of Subcarpathian society into three rival and enemy national orientations—*Rusynophile, *Russophile, and *Ukrainophile. It was largely at his initiative that Russian and Ukrainian emigres were encouraged to settle in Subcarpathian Rus', where they carried out their own political and national agendas and attracted to their respective causes a significant portion of Rusyn youth. As a result, many Rusyns became nationally disoriented, and this hampered the further evolution of a Rusyn self-identity and Rusyn national and political interests. Nevertheless, Masaryk became a very popular figure in Subcarpathian Rusyn society during his lifetime as evidenced by the appearance of numerous Rusyn publications about him—T. Masaryk (1925); Nashi knyhy v chest Prezydenta T.G. Masaryka (\92&); Mykhailo Brashchaiko, T.G. Masaryk iak uchytel' (1930); Stepan A. Fentsik, ed., T.G. Masaryk: iubileinyi sbornik (1930); T. Masaryk z nahody 80 lit zhytia (1930)—and various other tributes in his honor, including the erection of a large statue of his figure in Uzhhorod (1928). After Hungary annexed Subcarpathian Rus' (1938-1939), the Masaryk legacy was strongly criticized, while during the post-1945 Soviet regime he was transformed into a caricature of a bourgeois-liberal politician and head of a state that socially exploited and nationally oppressed the Rusyn people.

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Despite the shortcomings of his political policies, interwar democratic Czechoslovakia remains "Masaryk's republic," which for many older residents and informed intellectuals in today's Subcarpathian Rus' is still considered the brightest chapter in the history of Rusyns. In 2002, in the wake of some controversy, a bust of Masaryk was erected on a main square in Uzhhorod. Further reading: Evgenii Nedzel'skii, "T.G. Masaryk v karpatorusskoi poezii," Tsentral'naia Evropa, VIII, 2 (Prague, 1935), pp. 90-98—in Czech: Jevgenij Nedzielskij, "T.G. Masaryk v podkarpatoruskem basnictvi," in Jaroslav Zatloukal, ed., Podkarpatskd Rus (Bratislava, 1936), pp. 249-255; Ivan Pop, '"Politychni dity': T.H. Masaryk i problema Pidkarpats'koi Rusy na zavershal'nomu etapi pershoi svitovoi' viiny ta v period Paryz'koi' myrnoi konferentsii," Karpats 'kyi krai, IV, 7-12 [106] (Uzhhorod, 1994), pp. 33-36; Ivan Pop, "Problema Pidkarpats'koi' Rusy v lystuvanni T.H. Masaryka z E. Beneshem pid chas Paryz'koi myrnoi' konferentsii," ibid., pp. 3739; Ivan Pop, "T.G. Masaryk a otazka Podkarpatske Rusi v zaveru prvni svetove valky a v dobe Pafizske mirove konference," in Prvni svetovd vdlka, modernidemokracie a T.G. Masaryk (Prague, 1995), pp. 237-250; studies by Omelian Dovhanych, O. V. Khlanta, and Valerii Padiak in Naukovyi visnyk Uzhhorods 'koho natsionalnoho universytetu: Seriia istoriia, Vol. VII (Uzhhorod, 2002), pp. 15-20 and 26-40; Valerii Padiak, Z istorii vidkryttia v Uzhhorodipam"iatnyka prezydentu T. Masaryku (Uzhhorod, 2003). IVAN POP

Masciuch, Wasyl. See Mastsiukh, Vasylii Mashtaler, Oleksii V. See Historiography: Subcarpathain Rus' and the Presov Region Mastsiukh, Vasylii/Masciuch, Wasyl (b. March 30, 1873, Nowa Wies [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. March 12, 1936, Rymanow, Poland) — priest, professor, theologian, and church administrator ofRusyn national orientation in the Lemko Region. After completing the gymnasium in Nowy Sa^cz Mastsiukh studied at the Greek Catholic seminaries in Eviv and Przemysl and was ordained a Greek Catholic priest (1899). He then did graduate work (1899-1903) at the St. Augustine Institute of the University of Vienna (Th.D., 1903). Upon his return to Galicia Mastsiukh taught at the Theological Seminary in Przemysl (1903-1914) as well as at Eviv University, where he was promoted to the rank of decent/associate professor in canon law (1912). During this period he completed his most important scholarly studies on canon law (Tserkovnepravo supruzhe, 1910; Pravo tserkovne, unpublished). At the outset of World War I Matsiukh was arrested by the Austrian authorities (September 1914) and sent to the internment camp at *Talerhof, where he was held until assignment as chaplain in the Austro-Hungarian Army (1916). Captured in 1918, he was interned as a prisoner of war in Italy. At the

end of the conflict he returned home to what was then the new state of Poland; he resumed his post as associate professor at Eviv University (1918-1920), then served as a parish priest in eastern Galicia (1920-1934). When, in 1934, the Vatican created the jurisdictionally separate Greek Catholic *Lemko Apostolic Administration, Mastsiukh was appointed its first administrator. During his short tenure in that office he created a *curia for the Apostolic Administration, visited over 30 of its parishes, began to publish an official bulletin (Visty Apostol's'koi Administratsii Lemkivshchyny, 1935-41) and founded a Studite monastery in Florynka. His views on Lemko religious and cultural life were best expressed in his first pastoral letter as administrator (Pershe pastyrske poslannia do Lemkiv, 1935) and in the article, "Pro Lemkivshchynu" (On the Lemko Region, 1935), in which he was strongly critical of the negative impact of the *Ukrainophile movement in the *Lemko Region. BOGDAN HORBAL

Materin. See Mytrak, Aleksander Matezonskii, Konstantin (b. 1794, Russian Empire; d. December 28, 1858, Uzhhorod [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine) — Russian musician and choral director in Subcarpathian Rus'. Matezonskii may be the alias of a person who participated in the failed Decembrist Revolt in St. Petersburg (1825), after which he was forced to flee the Russian Empire and seek refuge in the Habsburg Empire. He first settled in the Galician town of Przemysl, where he was known as Konstanty Bialorusin and sang in the local Greek Catholic choir. In 1833 he moved to Uzhhorod and the following year, with permission of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo, established the Harmoniia Chorus. This was the first four-part polyphonic choir not only in * Subcarpathian Rus' but in the entire Austrian Empire. Under Matezonskii's direction, Harmoniia performed liturgical compositions by the renowned Ukrainian and Russian composers Dmytro Bortnians'kyi and Aleksei Verstovskii. Matezonskii befriended the Rusyn national awakener Aleksander *Dukhnovych, who valued his ability as a musician and his work in propagating the best Russian choral works in Subcarpathian Rus'. Among Matezonskii's students were the Rusyn cultural activists Nikolai *Nod', Ivan *Sil'vai, and Mykhai'l Lykhvarchyk. The latter was Matezonskii's immediate successor as the director of Harmoniia, an ensemble that was to exist for over a century. Further reading: Vasylii Hadzhega, "Konstantyn Matezonskyi, pershyi khordyrygent hr.-kat. tserkvy v Uzhhorodi," Podkarpatska Rus', VI, 1 (Uzhhorod, 1929), pp. 1-7; Oleksandr Hrin, "Kostiantyn Matezons'kyi—pershyi profesiinyi muzychnyi diiach Zakarpattia," in Carpatika/Karpatyka, Vol. II (Uzhhorod, 1993), pp. 163-169. MYKHAILO ALMASHII PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Matskov, Petr. See Maczkov, Peter J. Matsyns'kyi, Ivan/Macinsky, Ivan (pseudonyms: Ivan Malyi, Ivan Tsyns'kyi, Ivan Tsarevich, Taras Ostapchuk) (b. April 9, 1922, Medzilaborce [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia; d. March 14, 1987, Presov [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — writer, translator, dramatist, and cultural activist in the Presov Region. Matsyns'kyi was educated at the *Presov Greek Catholic Teachers' Seminary (1934-1941), where he developed a love of the Russian language and literature, and at the Advanced School of Political and Social Science in Prague (1945-1949). In 1945 he joined the *Communist party of Czechoslovakia in order to help play an active role in the social and cultural transformation of Slovakia's Rusyns at the close of World War II. He was the first chairman (1952) of the Group of Ukrainian Writers in the Slovak Writers' Union; the founder and first editor (1953) of the literary and civic affairs journal *Duklia; director (1956-1960) of the *Ukrainian National Theater, where he was instrumental in organizing (1957) the Dukla Ukrainian Folk Ensemble—*PULS; director (1960-1969) of the Ukrainian branch of the Slovak Pedagogical Press; and first secretary (1969-1970) of the *Cultural Union of Ukrainian Workers. Matsyns'kyi's earliest collection of poetry was in Russian, Belye oblaka (1949), but during the 1950s he gradually began to write in Ukrainian: Nasha mova (1956), Karpats 'hi akordy (1962), Prystritnyky (1968), and Merydiany iparaleli (1989) were among his most important works. He also authored plays; prepared several translations, especially of works by Slovak authors; and wrote a short novel, Zymova nich (1961), about the impact of collectivization upon Rusyns in the *Presov Region. Like many of his contemporaries, Matsyns'kyi's national orientation was complex and evolving. He began with a Rusyn orientation, switched to Russian during his student years, and then accepted a Ukrainian identity when it was implemented by the Czechoslovak authorities after 1952. Matsyns'kyi provided a justification for his Ukrainian national convictions in Rozmova storich (1965), a detailed cultural history of Carpatho-Rusyns before the twentieth century. Despite his Ukrainian convictions, Matsyns'kyi was very critical of how the orientation was administratively implemented, and in 1968 he even proposed using the Rusyn "dialect" for publications. He was never reluctant to speak out on existing political and sociocultural problems; in 1970 he was stripped of his Communist party membership and removed from all official posts, in part for his public demand that Soviet troops leave Czechoslovakia. During most of the final years of his life Matsyns'kyi was prohibited from publishing his own writings, although he continued to work as Ukrainian editor (1970-1985) at the Slovak Pedagogical Publishing House. There he was responsible for raising the scholarly standards of the journal, *NaukovyizbirnykMuzeiu ukrains 'ko'ikul'tury

v Svydnyku, of which he was executive editor of Volumes VI to XIII (1972-88). Among his own scholarly writings was a history of Presov's Ukrainian National Theater (1958); literary criticism and portraits of several Rusyn writers, including a major study of Vasyl' *Dovhovych (1982); and the beginnings of an encyclopedia ofRusyn culture, "Slovnyk istorychnoho zhyttia zakarpats'kykh ukramtsiv," which appeared serially in the journal Duklia( 1967-71 and 1984). Further reading: Mykola Musynka, "In Memoriam: Ivan Macyns'kyj" and Paul R. Magocsi, "In Remembrance: Ivan Macyns'kyj," Carpatho-Rusyn American, X, 3 (1987), pp. 8-10; Mykola Mushynka, "Spivets' zelenykh Karpat," Nova dumka, XVI, 3 [60] (Vukovar, 1987), pp. 41-45; Fedir Kovach, "IvanMatsyns'kyi: shtrykhy do portreta," Duklia, XL, 2 (Presov, 1992), pp. 27-34; MykolaNevrlyi, "Pro druhanezabutn'oho," ibid, pp. 35-40; Oleksa Myshanych, "Ivan Matsyns'kyi—doslidnyk istorii" kul'tury ta literatury Zakarpattia," in idem, Karpaty nas ne rozluchat' (Uzhhorod, 1993), pp. 150-168; Vasyl' Khoma, "Formuvannia poetychnoho profiliu Ivana Matsyns'koho," in idem, Rozvytok rusyns'koipoezi'i v Slovachchyni vid 20-kh do 90-kh rokiv XX stolittia (Bratislava, 2000), pp. 104-138; Milan Bobak, ed.,Frahmenty: Ivan Matsyns 'kyi u spohadakh suchasnykiv (Presov, 2000). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Matvey, David. See Internet

Maxwell, Robert. See Jews Mayer, Maria (b. November 16,1929, Budapest, Hungary) — Hungarian historian. Mayer was a researcher (1952-1978) at the Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, where she published several works dealing with Subcarpathian Rusyns in the second half of the nineteenth century. She was particularly interested in those Rusyns who became magyarized during the decades just before World War I, a subject treated in detail in Kdrpdtukrdn (ruszin) politikai es tdrsadalmi torekvesek, 1860-1910 (1979)—English ed., The Rusyns of Hungary: Political and Social Developments, 1860-1910(1991}. Her scholarly essays on Rusyn topics have been published in two volumes: Rainbow on the Morning Sky (1994) and Keresem afenyt/In Search of Light (1995). Further reading: Paul Robert Magocsi, "Biography of Maria Mayer," in Maria Mayer, The Rusyns of Hungary (New York, 1997), pp. ix-xiii. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Mazurok, Oleh. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region Medics hi, Helena/Medesi, Helena (b. February 13, 1948, Ruski Kerestur [Yugoslavia], Serbia) — linguist and

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editor of Rusyn national orientation in the Vojvodina. After graduating from the Teachers' College in Sombor, Yugoslavia (1962-1967) Medieshi studied at the philosophical faculty of the University of Novi Sad (1967-1971) and did postgraduate work in sociolinguistics at the philosophical faculty of the University of Belgrade (1980-1982). She has published several studies on the functional interaction of Vojvodinian Rusyn with Serbian and is a contributor and co-editor of the monumental two-volume Serbian-Rusyn dictionary (Serbskoruski slovnik, 1995-97). Medieshi heads the linguistic section of the *Society for Rusyn Language and Literature/Druzhtvo za ruski iazik i literaturu, is head of the section for scholarship in the *Rusyn Cultural Foundation/Ruska Matka, and has served as editor-in-chief (1998-2000) of the weekly Vojvodinian Rusyn newspaper, *Ruske slovo. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Medieshi, lovgen. See Diadia Rusyn National Theater Medieshi, Liubomir/MedeSi, Ljubomir (b. April 12, 1949, Ruski Kerestur [Yugoslavia], Serbia) — ethnographer, publisher, and civic and cultural activist of Rusyn national orientation among the Vojvodinian Rusyns. After completing the gymnasium in Vrbas (1964-1968) Medieshi studied ethnology at the University of Belgrade (1968-1972). He worked as a curator (1973-1979) of ethnographic exhibits at the Vojvodinian Museum in Novi Sad and as administrator (1979-1986) for scholarship, culture, and national minorities for the autonomous province of the *Vojvodina. He served as director of the *Ruske Slovo Publishing House from 1987 until emigrating permanently to Canada in 1992. Medieshi has published several scholarly studies on the ethnography and folklore of the Vojvodinian Rusyns and problems related to their national identity, as well as general introductory essays on various aspects of their history and culture (Muzeina zbirka: Ruski Kerestur, 1976). After returning from a research fellowship at the University of Toronto (1986-1987) he introduced readers in Yugoslavia to the life of Rusyns in the United States and Canada, a topic which was also dealt with in his "travel chronicle," Listse iavorovo (1993). Medieshi was among the leading figures in the Rusyn revival after 1989. He helped provide the Ruske Slovo Publishing House with a clear Rusyn national orientation, was founding chairman (1990-1992) of the revived *Rusyn Cultural Foundation/Ruska Matka, and was a founding member of the World Council/Svitova rada of the *World Congress of Rusyns. In all this activity, he has supported the view that the Vojvodinian Rusyns are part of a distinct Carpatho-Rusyn nationality. Medieshi continues to write for Rusyn publications in the Vojvodina and Canada and has been active in

helping to establish the * Rusyn Society of North America based in Kitchener, Ontario. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Medvetskii, lakiv. See Lemko Apostolic Administration Medvets'kyi, G. See Russkii zemledielets Megye. See County Meklis, Lev I. See Dukla, Battle of Melika, Georg (b. April 14, 1930, Wittenheim, France) — linguist and professor of German studies in Subcarpathian Rus'. Melika's parents were immigrants from * Subcarpathian Rus', who in 1926 moved to the Alsace region of eastern France, where his father worked in a potassium mine. Melika began his elementary education in French until 1940, when Nazi Germany annexed Alsace and introduced the German language. After the war ended in 1945 Melika studied (again in French) at the School for Design in Mulhouse until 1947, when his father, persuaded by Soviet emissaries in France, returned with his entire family to the Soviet Union. The family was first settled in the Donbas industrial region of eastern Soviet Ukraine, but after a year managed to return to their homeland, by then Soviet Transcarpathia. Melika completed his gymnasium studies in night courses in Mukachevo, worked for six years as an electrician, then taught German in Mukachevo while studying as a correspondent student at the University of Odessa. Since 1963, Melika has taught in the Department of German Philology at Uzhhorod State (now National) University, where he holds the rank of docent/associate professor. He completed a dissertation (kandidat nauk, University of Eviv, 1992) on German dialects spoken in villages near Mukachevo. Since the 1990s, he offers courses on the ethnography and culture of Germans in historic Subcarpathian Rus' and has published several scholarly works on this topic mostly in Germany, including the comprehensive encyclopedic monograph, Die Deutschen der Transkarpatien-Ukraine: Entstehung, Entwicklung ihrer Siedlungen und Lebensweise in multietnischen Raum (2002). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Melles, Emil. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Hajdudorog; Kelet Mel'nikova, Irina N. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region Melnychuk, Macrina. See Mount St. Macrina Mel'nyk, Andrii/ MeFnykites. See Ukrainian

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Insurgent Army Mel'nyk, VasyF. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region Meszaros, Karoly (b. July 29, 1821, Hajdudorog [Hungarian Kingdom], Hungary; d. February 2, 1890, Zavadka [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia) — Hungarian lawyer, historian, journalist, and civic activist in Subcarpathian Rus'. While a student of law at the University of Pest during the 1840s, Meszaros was a participant in pre-revolutionary student groups, where he adopted a moderate position on Hungary's relationship to the Habsburg state. During Hungary's Revolution of 1848-1849 he worked as a journalist in Budapest and as that event's chronicler. With the failure of the revolution and the establishment in the 1850s of the neo-absolutist regime of Austria's Emperor Franz Joseph and his prime minister Alexander Bach, Meszaros feared he might be arrested and so left Budapest for the provinces, settling in 1850 in Uzhhorod, where he worked as a lawyer. In Uzhhorod he became familiar with the Rusyn problem, but soon clashed with the direction of the Rusyn movement led by Adol'f *Dobrians'kyi, opposing in particular the latter's policies in the so-called *Rusyn District/Rus'kyi okruh. As a defender of the Hungarian state idea, Meszaros was against any separatist tendencies within the Hungarian Kingdom. During this period he published a history of Rusyns (A magyarorszdgi oroszok tortenete, 1850) in which he recognized that Rusyns, as the indigenous population of the region, were entitled to certain rights. Such a liberal position provoked heated criticism against him on the part of extreme Hungarian nationalists. Meszaros maintained his liberal standpoint in other publications, including a comparative history of all the nationalities in the Hungarian Kingdom (Magyarorszdg nepei torteneti tekintetben, 1852) and a history of Uzhhorod (Ungvdr tortenete a legregibb idoktol maig, 1861). In 1854 he returned to Hungary's capital, but for the next several decades moved between Budapest, Uzhhorod, and Zavadka, a small Rusyn village in *Spish county (present-day eastern Slovakia). Aside from journalistic work, Meszaros wrote a series of popular brochures on property law in Hungary, and in Uzhhorod he established a printshop (1861) that published several short-lived Hungarian-language regional newspapers: Kdrpdti hirnok (1861), Ungvdri hirlap (1867), and Kozreg lap/a (1875-78). Further reading: Volodymyr Fedynyshynets', Istoryk i zakhysnyk karpato-ruteniv (Uzhhorod, 1996). IVAN POP

Meteor, Urii'l. See Sil'vai, Ivan Methodius, Saint. See Constantine/Cyril

Metropolia. See Russian Orthodox Church in North America Metropolitan Province of Pittsburgh. See Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic Church in the USA Metropolitan See of Munhall. See Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic Church in the USA Michaels, Philip. See Magocsi, Paul Robert Michna, Ewa (b. December 23, 1964, Rabka, Poland) — Polish sociologist associated with the Institute of the Sociology of Peoples and the Ethnic Relations of the Polonia Institute at Jagiellonian University in Cracow. Michna has studied the problems of ethnic and national identity among Carpatho-Rusyns in Europe in the period since the Revolution of 1989. Much of her scholarship, which is noted for its impartiality and balance, focusses on the Lemkos of Poland, including Lemkowie: grupa etniczna czy narod (1995). She is the first scholar to compare the contemporary national revivals among Rusyns in Slovakia, Ukraine, and Poland. What she considers the ongoing evolution ofRusyn nationality-building is analyzed from a sociological perspective in her cpmprehensive book, Kwestie etniczno-narodowosciowe napograniczu Slowiariszczyzny wschodniej i zachodniej: ruch rusinski na Slowacji, Ukrainie i w Polsce (2004). BOGDAN HORBAL

Mid-European Democratic Union — short-lived political lobbying group founded in the United States during the last months of World War I to promote the interests of stateless peoples, especially in the Austro-Hungarian and Russian Empires. The Mid-European Democratic Union was established in New York City in September 1918 at the initiative of an American professor of sociology, Herbert A. Miller, in close cooperation with the Czech political exile Tomas G. *Masaryk, who at the time was in the United States. Eventually, a total of 21 stateless peoples joined the union. Among these Masaryk represented the Czechs, the future prime minister of Poland Jan Paderewski represented the Poles, Myroslav Sichyns'kyi the Ukrainians, and Hinko Hinkovic the Croats. The Uhro-Rusyn delegation was headed by Gregory *Zhatkovych and also included Michael Juhasz Sr., Michael *Hanchin, and George Komlosh. From October 23 to 26, 1918, the Mid-European Union met in historic Independence Hall in Philadelphia, where in 1776 the American Declaration of Independence had been signed. Masaryk hoped to gain support for the idea of a federal union among whatever new states would arise after the war, but dissension over territorial claims made this impossible. A Declaration of Common Aims was signed, which emphasized

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the general principles of self-determination and protection for national minorities. On a large map that showed the proposed new states of central Europe, the name Rusinia appeared. A replica of America's Liberty Bell was created, and at the close of the ceremony in Philadelphia the Uhro-Rusyn representative, Gregory Zhatkovych, managed to acquire and eventually send it to Uzhhorod, after he became the first governor of *Subcarpathian Rus'. The Mid-European Union held its last meeting at the end of November 1918 and was then dissolved. Further reading: Arthur J. May, "The Mid-European Union," in Joseph P. O'Grady, ed., The Immigrants 'Influence on Wilson's Peace Policies (Lexington, Kentucky, 1967), pp. 250-271. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Mid-European Immigrant Home. See Hanchin, Michael J.

Mihalasky, Susyn Yvonne. See Historiography: Lemko Region Mihaly, George H. Jr. See Russian Brotherhood Organization Miiskii, Venedykt. See Ruska Bursa Mikesh. See Stryps'kyi, Hiiador Mikhailov, E. See Kochish, Evgenii M.

to Uzhhorod, where he taught in local schools and directed the Uzhhorod district teachers' choir. He promoted the art of Russian choral singing through the works of Nikolai RimskyKorsakov, Mikhail Ippolitov-Ivanov, Sergei Rachmaninov, and Aleksander Arkhangel'skii, as well as the folk music of various Slavic peoples, including Rusyns. On the eve of World War II he directed a highly successful performance of teachers' choirs from various parts of * Subcarpathian Rus' in conjunction with the twentieth-anniversary celebrations of the Czechoslovak state held in Prague in 1938. During World War II Hungarian rule in Subcarpathian Rus' Miloslavskii worked as a teacher in Seredne. As a former White Russian soldier and emigre he was arrested in 1945 and sent to the Donbas region of eastern Ukraine. Within a year the Soviet authorities allowed him to return to Subcarpathian Rus' and in 1946 he was appointed the artistic director and then general director of the recently established Transcarpathian Song and Dance Ensemble, which under his leadership became the *Transcarpathian Folk Choir/Zakarpats'kyi narodnyi khor. Miloslavskii also published several studies on folk music and musical pedagogy, including collections of Rusyn folksongs (co-compiler, Narodnipisnipodkarpatskykh rusynov, 1944; repr. 1992). He died in 1954 during a rehearsal with the Transcarpathian Ensemble, which was on tour in Siberia and Sakhalin. Further reading: Oleksandr Hrin, "Bozhesrvennyi regent: Petro Myloslavs'kyi — zasnovnyk profesiinoho khorovoho mystetstva na Podkarpats'kii Rusi," Karpats 'kyi krai, IV, 5-6 [105] (Uzhhorod, 1994), pp. 75-76. MYKHAILO ALMASHII

Miklosy, Istvan. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Hajdudorog

Minei. See Literature: Lemko Region; Literature, Early manuscripts

Miklovsh, Slavomir. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Krizevci Miloslavskii, Petr Petrovich (b. June 23, 1896, St. Petersburg [Russian Empire], Russia; d. April 12,1954, Uzhhorod [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — Russian emigre musician, singer, choral director, and pedagogue in Subcarpathian Rus'. Miloslavskii studied in St. Petersburg at the Arkhangel'skii School of Choral Singing and Directing until 1916, when he was drafted into the tsarist Russian Army. After the Russian revolutions of 1917 he worked as a choral director in the Donbas region of Ukraine until being mobilized by the White Russian forces in 1919. A year later he was forced with the Whites into exile, wandering through Turkey and Algeria until finally settling in Czechoslovakia. In 1922 he continued his studies at the Technological Institute in Prague; at the same time he sang in Russian emigre student choirs and the famed Don Cossack Chorus. In 1933 the Boian' Choral Society invited Miloslavskii

Miravchyk, Georgii/ Miravcik, Jifi(b. September 23, 1901, Khudl'ovo [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. December 9, 1973, Uzhhorod [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — printer and publisher in Subcarpathian Rus'. After only a few years of elementary school, Miravchyk began to work in the lulii *Fel'deshii printshop in Uzhhorod (1915-1921). From that time Fel'deshii, who later became a senator in the Czechoslovak parliament and deputy in the Hungarian parliament during World War II, described Miravchyk as his "brother" and helped finance his business ventures, all of which were connected with printing and publishing. After working for a few years in the Czech-owned Viktoria printshop (19211923), Miravchyk became co-owner of the Kfivanek and Miravcik printshop (1924), then two years later bought his own printshop which specialized in the production of publications in Cyrillic, in particular inexpensive booklets for the *Dukhnovych Society. With the return of Hungarian rule in Subcarpathian Rus',

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Encyclopedia of Rusyn History and Culture Miravchyk bought out the Czech-owned Novina printshop (1939) and consolidated it with the *Unio Publishing Company which had gone bankrupt in the 1930s. Wanting to build on the reputation of that firm, he created the Unio-G. Miravchyk printshop, which until 1944 published Rusyn-language school texts and some of the series of books sponsored by the *Subcarpathian Scholarly Society. Following the onset of Soviet rule in Subcarpathian Rus', the Unio-Miravchyk printshop was nationalized (1945). Miravchyk continued to work for the new state-owned firm, but beginning in 1947 he was submitted to several years of political persecution and the confiscation of his property. Finally, in 1953 he was allowed to return to work as a typesetter for the state-owned Regional Book Printshop where he remained until his retirement in 1961. Further reading: Valerii Rusyn, "Drukar Heorhii Miravchyk: shtrykhy do zhyttia i diial'nosti," Naukovyi zbirnyk Zakarpats 'koho kraieznavchoho muzeiu, V (Uzhhorod, 2002), pp. 25-31. VALERII PADIAK

Misiatsoslov. See Kalendar Misilo, Evhenii. See Historiography: Lemko Region Mitrak, Aleksander/Sandor. See Mytrak, Aleksander Miz, Roman (b. August 14, 1932, Drohobych [Poland], Ukraine) — Ukrainian priest, historian, and cultural activist among the Vojvodinian Rusyns. Although born in Galicia (present-day western Ukraine), Miz was brought as an infant by his parents to Yugoslavia (1933), where his father served as a Greek Catholic priest in the Croatian village of Lipovljani. Miz studied at the Catholic Theological Faculty in Zagreb (1951-58), was ordained a Greek Catholic priest (1958), and has served parishes in Lipovljani and since 1968 in Novi Sad, the administrative center of the *Vojvodina. There he has established a publishing house connected with his Greek Catholic parish that produces a series of popular and scholarly books emphasizing the alleged close relations between Vojvodinian Rusyns and Ukrainians as well as the Christian magazine Dzvoni (1994-), which serves both Rusyn and Ukrainian Greek Catholics in Yugoslavia. Although Miz himself writes in Vojvodinian Rusyn, he supports the view that all Rusyns are part of the Ukrainian nationality. He has written widely on the role of the Greek Catholic Church in the history of the Vojvodinian Rusyns. Among his most important works is a multivolume biographical dictionary of Greek Catholic priests (mostly Rusyns) in the Vojvodina, Srem, and Slavonia: Sviashcheniki osietskoho vikariiata, 2 vols. (1993-94). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Mizhnarodna sotsialistychna partiia Podkarpatsko! Rusy. See Communist party

Mlynarych, Havryi'l. See Novoe vremia Mokhnats'kyi, Pavel. See Art Moklak, Jaroslaw/Mokliak, laroslav (b. December 8, 1959, Stary Dzikow, Poland) -— historian and professor of Ukraine and the Lemko Region. Moklak is the son of teachers from the former Ukrainian-inhabited region near Lubaczow and Sanok in southeastern Poland. In 1965 the family moved to the *Lemko Region village of Hanczowa, where Moklak completed his elementary education. He subsequently studied art and sculpture at the Kenar School of Art in Zakopane (1974-1979) and history at Jagiellonian University (1980-1985; Ph.D., 1995) in Cracow, where since 1990 he has worked as a researcher and assistant professor in the university's Historical Institute. Moklak has published several studies dealing with political and religious movements among *Lemkos during the late nineteenth and the first half of the twentieth centuries, including Lemkowszczyzna w Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej: zagadnienia polityczne i wyznaniowe (1997). His publications provide much factual information about all national orientations, although they are generally sympathetic to the Ukrainian viewpoint. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Molchan, Mykhai'l (b. 1832; d. 1879 [Russian Empire]) — priest, publicist, and religious and cultural activist of Russian national orientation in the Presov Region. Molchan was ordained a Greek Catholic priest and was a member of the *Basilian Order of monks. After 1842 he served as notary for the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov, where he became a close associate of Bishop losyf *Gaganets'. At the request of the Moscow Slavic Committee, Molchan collected ethnographic material from Rusyn villages in the *Presov Region. As part of a delegation of Slavs from the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (including the Czechs Frantisek Palacky and Frantisek Rieger and the Slovaks Pavol Mudron and Andrej Radlinsky), he brought the material to be displayed in conjunction with the Slavic Congress held in Moscow in 1867. After returning home Molchan participated in the Catholic congresses in Budapest (1869-1871), where he supported the idea of autonomy for Hungary's Greek Catholic eparchies (Mukachevo and Presov). His activity was not welcomed by the pro-Hungarian bishop of Mukachevo, Shtefan *Pankovych, and after the death of his own supporter, Bishop Gaganets' of Presov, Molchan was forced to emigrate. He settled in the capital of the Russian Empire, St. Petersburg, where during the last years of his life he tried in vain to convince the tsarist government "to liberate" *Carpathian Rus' from Austro-Hungarian rule. IVAN POP

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Mol'nar, Mykhailo (b. November 4, 1930, Borzhavs'ke/ Velyka Chengava [Czechoslovakia], Ukraine) — literary scholar in Slovakia of Ukrainian national orientation. In the late 1920s Mol'nar's parents left *Subcarpathian Rus' in search of work and settled in the western part of Czechoslovakia. There he completed the Czech gymnasium in Bilina (1950) and the philosophical faculty of Charles University in Prague (1950-55). After graduate work at Kiev State University in the Soviet Ukraine (1956-1960; kandidat nauk, 1961) Mol'nar returned to Czechoslovakia. He was employed as a researcher at various institutes of the Slovak Academy of Sciences in Bratislava: the Czechoslovak-Soviet Institute (1960-1963); the Institute for World Literatures and Languages (1964-1972, where he also served as vice-director and director); and the Institute of Literature (1973-199?). Mol'nar published several studies on Slovak-Ukrainian literary relations and within that context on Slovak-Rusyn literary relations in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (Slovaky i ukraintsi: prychynky do slovats 'ko-ukrains 'kykh litera-turnykh vzaiemyn z dodatkom dokumentiv, \ 965). He also edited collections of the Subcarpathian Ukrainophile writer and publicist Vasyl' *Grendzha-Dons'kyi (Shliakhom ternovym, 1964) and the satirist Marko *Barabolia (Tutesh-ni-a-ts'ka guberniia, 1970), and introduced to the Soviet Ukrainian public what he described as Ukrainian folkloric and literary texts from the *Presov Region (Lastivka z Priashivshchyny, 1960). Some of his essays on Rusyn topics were reprinted in a collection of his essays, Zustrichi kul'tur (1980). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Molod'—Ukraini. See Ofitsyns'kyi, Roman Molodaia Rus'. See Renaissance Carpatho-Russian Student Society Monastelli, Dymytrii. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo Monasteries. See Basilian Order; Bukova Horka; Hrushovo; lablochyn; Krasnyi Brid; Ladomirova; Mukachevo; Uhlia

taught elementary school in the village of Ubl'a near Velykyi Bereznyi before being drafted into the Austro-Hungarian Army in 1914; two years later he was captured on the Eastern Front. Released in 1917, he played an active role in the Russian Revolution as a member of the Red Guard, the Red Army, and the Bolshevik party. During this period he met with party members from Hungary, led by Bela Kun. Mondok was sent to Moscow for training as a Communist propagandist (1918) and then to Budapest to assist in the establishment of Kun's Soviet Hungarian Republic, for whom he established and edited the short-lived Rusyn-language newspaper, Rus 'ka pravda (April-May 1919). After the collapse of the Communist regime in Hungary Mondok went to Uzhhorod, where in March 1920 he became secretary of the newly formed International Socialist party of Subcarpathian Rus' and executive editor (1920-1924) of its official organ, Pravda/*Karpatskaia pravda. When, in the following year, the International Socialist party was merged with the Czechoslovak *Communist party, Mondok became a leading activist in its Subcarpathian branch. He was elected to the Central Committee of the Communist party of Czechoslovakia (1923-1929) and twice elected as the party's deputy from * Subcarpathian Rus' to the Czechoslovak parliament (1924-1929). During these years he travelled on several occasions to the Soviet Union to participate in congresses of the Communist party (Bolshevik) of Ukraine (1925) and of the Comintern in Moscow (1928). Suspected of foreign political agitation on the part of the Soviet Union, Mondok was arrested more than once by the Czechoslovak authorities. In 1930 he was ordered by the party to emigrate to the Soviet Union, where he did graduate studies in Kharkiv. In 1933, during one of the periodic Stalinist purges directed against the alleged dangers of Ukrainian nationalism, Mondok was arrested, accused of cooperation with the Ukrainian Military Organization (UVO) and of espionage in the service of Czechoslovakia, and sentenced to five years in forced labor camps. On Novemeber 25, 1937 he was re-sentenced by a Leningrad oblast NKVD court to death and executed soon after. Further reading: Omel'ian D. Dovhanych, "Zhertva Stalins'koho teroru: politychnyi portret Ivana Mondoka," in his Roky lykholittia: nevidomi storinky i trahichni doli (Uzhhorod, 1995), pp. 197-215. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Mondic/Mondych, Olena. See Mandych, Olena Mondych, Olena. See Mandych, Olena Mondok, Ivan (b. May 21, 1893, Rusky Hrabovec [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. 1937, Leningrad region NKVD prison [Soviet Union], Russia) — teacher, journalist, and political activist in Subcarpathian Rus'. The son of a village teacher, Mondok trained in the same profession at the *Uzhhorod Teachers' College (1910-1912), where he also became interested in the Social-Democratic movement. He

Moravian Empire. See Greater Moravian Empire Moscow Patriarchal Exachate. See Russian Orthodox Church in North America Moscow Patriarchate. See Orthodox Eparchy of Mukachevo-Uzhhorod

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Mount St. Macrina — site of the largest religious pilgrimage among Byzantine/Greek Ruthenian Catholics in North America. It is located on the grounds of the Basilian monastery, established in 1933 under Mother Macrina Melnychuk (1879-1948) in Uniontown, Pennsylvania. The pilgrimage to the Shrine of Our Lady of Perpetual Help has taken place each year since 1934 on the first weekend in September, drawing in most years between 30,000 and 40,000 participants. Aside from its role as a source of spiritual renewal, the pilgrimage has also fostered exposure to the religious aspect of Rusyn culture in the United States. Further reading: Basil Shereghy, Fifty Years of Piety: A History of the Uniontown Pilgrimages (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1985). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Mrs. Warhola. See Cinema

Mudri, Mikhailo (b. December 30,1874, Ruski Kerestur [Hungarian Kingdom], Serbia; d. October 13, 1936, Ruski Kerestur [Yugoslavia], Serbia) — priest, editor, writer, and cultural and civic activist among the Vojvodinian Rusyns. Mudri completed his studies in Croatia, which at the time was part of the Hungarian Kingdom: at the gymnasia in Vinkovci (1887-1888) and Zagreb (1888-1895) and at the Roman Catholic Theological Seminary in Zagreb (1895-1900). He was ordained a Greek Catholic priest (1901) and first served a parish in Prgomel, Croatia (1901 -1910). In 1912 he returned to his native town of Ruski Kerestur as assistant priest; in 1918 he became the town's parish priest, a post he retained until his death in 1936. Mudri was held in high regard in Vatican circles and was appointed papal chaplain (1917) and advisor (1925) to the pope. After the collapse of Austria-Hungary in late 1918 and the unification of the *Vojvodina with the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia) Mudri was to play a leading role in Vojvodinian Rusyn cultural life. He was the first chairman (1919-1936) of the *Rusyn National Enlightenment Society/Ruske Narodne Prosvitne Druzhtvo, one of the publishers (1924-1930) of its newspaper *Ruski novni, and the largest contributor to the fund for the purchase of the Rusyn Cultural Center/Prosvitni Dom in Ruski Kerestur. Mudri's views on language were to have a profound impact on the future direction of Vojvodinian Rusyn cultural and national life. He referred to his people as South-Slavic Rusyns (iuzhno-slavianski rusini) or as Rusnaks (rusnatsi), who because of their geopolitical location developed into a "separate branch of the Rus' people." While he argued that they were related to both *Russians and *Ukrainians, he also claimed that the languages of those peoples were foreign to

Vojvodinian Rusyns, who should have "their own literary language." Mudri applied his views in practice by preparing with Mikhailo *Polivka a primer for schools (Bukvar za iuzhno-ruski osnovnoi shkoli, 1921) and by encouraging Havrii'l/Gabor *Kostel'nik to write a grammar (1923) that was to become the literary standard Vojvodinian Rusyn. Mudri also published several travel accounts and, for the annual Rusyn almanac, a series of articles on world geography ("Zhem i iei zhiteli," 1925-35) and a popular world history ("Istoriia shveta u malikh obrazokh," 1924-43). Further reading: Diura Varga, "Pochatki natsionalno-kulturnoho rukhu pri Rusnatsokh u luhoslavii," Shvetlosts, XXVII, 4 (Novi Sad, 1989), pp. 509-540; Diura Papharhai, "Mikhailo Mudri—zhivot i di'lo," in Ruski kalendar 1995 (Novi Sad, 1994), pp. 96-112. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Mukachevo Eparchy. See Greek Catholic of Mukachevo Mukachevo Estate. See Mukachevo-Chynadiievo Estate Mukachevo gymnasium. See Gymnasium Mukachevo Monastery of St. Nicholas — one of the oldest monasteries and certainly the most important religious and cultural center in Subcarpathian Rus' located on a small hill (Chernecha hora/Monk's Hill) along the Latorytsia River just outside the village of Rosvygovo, today a suburb of Mukachevo. The monastery's founding date is unknown, although local legend speaks of its beginnings in the early eleventh century. The oldest surviving documentary evidence about its existence dates from the fourteenth century. During the late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries the monastery was supported by Prince Fedor *Koriatovych and his wife Domenika/Walha. However, an official document by which Koriatovych ostensibly granted landed properties to the monastery was subsequently proven by the Russian scholar Aleksei L. *Petrov to be a later forgery. From earliest times until 1766, the monastery was the episcopal seat of the *Eparchy of Mukachevo, since its archimandrites (superiors) were simultaneously bishops. The monks copied books, built a significant library, and maintained contacts with Orthodox centers in the Balkans and eastern Europe. The monastery also had its own chronicle and was the site of a school. Like the rest of Subcarpathian Rus', the Mukachevo Monastery faced difficult times after the fall of the Hungarian Kingdom in the mid-sixteenth century and the subsequent struggle for control of the country among the Austrian *Habsburgs, princes of Transylvania, and the Ottoman Empire. In the course of the protracted Habsburg-Transylvanian wars the monastery's wooden buildings were burned (1537) and then

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rebuilt (1538-1550) with the help of the Habsburg Emperor Ferdinand I (r. 1526-1564). It was not until the following centuries that the wooden structures were gradually replaced by stone structures, beginning with a rotunda church (1661) by the architect Stefan Piamens, and followed by the Baroque-style complex (1766-1772) by Demeter Racz/Dymytrii Rats', whose design was used for the construction of a new church (17981804). The monastery was largely destroyed by a fire in 1862, but rebuilt within three years. In the mid-seventeenth century the monastery accepted the *Unia/Church Union, after which it became a leading Uniate/Greek Catholic *Basilian cultural center in the service ofRusyn religious and secular life. The Mukachevo Monastery survived the reign of Emperor Joseph II (r. 1780-1790), a time when numerous monasteries were closed throughout the Austrian Empire. The Basilian monks were able to convince the authorities that they performed cultural and enlightenment work for the region as a whole; for instance, the *Mukachevo Theological School functioned on its premises (1757-1776), and several of the monastery's *hegumens/superiors were among the leading Subcarpathian cultural activists of the nineteenth century (loanykii *Bazylovych, Anatolii *Kralyts'kyi). In the twentieth century the Mukachevo Monastery was restructured after reforms introduced by Basilian (mostly *Ukrainophile) monks from Galicia. When, after World War II, the new Soviet regime set out to abolish the Greek Catholic Church, the monastery became Orthodox (1946) and was transformed into a convent for Orthodox nuns from monasteries in other parts of Subcarpathian Rus' and the Soviet Union that were closed by the Communist government. At present there are about seventy Orthodox nuns at the Mukachevo Monastery. Further reading: Arkhimandrit Vasilii (Pronin), "K istorii Mukachevskogo monastyria," Pravoslavnaia mysl', Nos. 2, 3, 4 (Prague, 1958)—in Ukrainian translation: Chernecha hora (Uzhhorod, 1991); Mukachevskii Sviato-Nikolaevskii pravoslavnyi monastyr': kratkii istoricheskii ocherk (Uzhhorod, 1998); Dmitrii Pop, Istoriia Mukachevskogo monastyria (Uzhhorod, 2002). IVAN POP

Mukachevo Pedagogical School. See Mukachevo State Teachers' College Mukachevo-PreSov Eparchy. See Orthodox Eparchy of Mukachevo-Uzhhorod

the direction of Janos Szondy, and was expected to prepare future teachers who would promote in their students the idea of Hungarian state patriotism. The college included a student residence, dining hall, and health clinic. Those students who maintained a high grade average received scholarships. The language of instruction was Hungarian, although a course was offered in the Rusyn language. Taking into consideration the complex religious situation in the region, students had a choice of religious instruction in one of five Christian traditions: Roman Catholic, Greek Catholic, Orthodox, Lutheran, or Calvinist. Third-level students did practice-teaching in one of Mukachevo's local schools. On December 31, 1918, during the short-lived period of autonomous *Rus'ka Krai'na within a democratic Hungarian Republic, the Mukachevo Teachers' College adopted Rusyn as its language of instruction. However, the Hungarian Communist putsch of March 1919 and the subsequent turbulent political changes did not permit the school's normal functioning until the fall of 1920. By then, Mukachevo was part of the new state of Czechoslovakia, and in the wake of a work stoppage by the school's Hungarian staff the Czechoslovak government brought in Russian and Ukrainian emigre teachers and appointed as principal loann Khomiak from Presov, under whose direction (1920-1936) class instruction was conducted primarily in Russian. After the signing of the Vienna Award (November 2, 1938) brought Mukachevo back to Hungary some of the students and teachers, together with their colleagues from the *Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College, moved to Vynohradovo/Sevliush, where they established a new Teachers' Seminary that taught in Ukrainian. With the return of * Subcarpathian Rus'/*Carpatho-Ukraine to Hungary in March 1939 the Mukachevo Teachers' College was reopened, although it was reorganized as a combined teachers' college and gymnasium with instruction in Rusyn and Hungarian. It functioned until the onset of Soviet rule in 1945; since then it has been the Mukachevo Pedagogical School/Mukachivs'ke pedahohichne uchylyshche. Further reading: "Kratkii ocherk istorii Derhavnoi uchitel'skoi seminarii v Mukachevie v 1919-20 g.," in Pervyi iubileinyi, godichnyi otchet Derzhavnoi ... seminarii v Mukachevie za god 192728 (Mukachevo, 1927), pp. 11-15; VasyP Harahonych, "Litopys uchytel's'koi seminarii," Karpats 'kyi krai, VI, 5-7 [114] (Uzhhorod, 1996), pp. 34-35. IVAN POP

Mukachevo Psalter. See Literature, Early manuscripts Mukachevo State Teachers' College/Derzhavna koedukatsiina uchytel'ska semynariia v Mukachevi — educational institution for the training of men and women elementary school teachers. The college was established in 1914 by the Hungarian government under

Mukachevo Theological School/Mukachivs'ka bohoslovs'ka shkola — educational institution in Mukachevo for the training of future priests and cantors in the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo. The school was established in 1744 by Bishop Manui'l *Ol'shavs'kyi as an alternative to the Theological School operated by the Roman

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Catholic diocese in *Eger. It began with a two-year program, which in 1757 was increased by Bishop Ol'shavs'kyi to three years. Preference was given to sons of Greek Catholic priests, although children of peasants also studied at the school. The Mukachevo Theological School was organized on the model of Jesuit schools, whereby a student, if capable, could complete one class (level) in half a year, while others might take several years to do so. The first-year program consisted of the so-called trivium (reading, writing, arithmetic). In the second year the program included courses in Christian morals, the Gospels and Epistles, the Latin language, and writing of essays. The school was under the direction of Bishop Ol'shavs'kyi; classes were taught in Rusyn using textbooks prepared by bishops *De Camillis and *Bizantsii and eventually by Ol'shavs'kyi himself. Other teachers, who were parish priests from Mukachevo and nearby Rosvygovo, were not paid for their services. The Theological School functioned in Mukachevo until 1776, when it was transferred to Uzhhorod by Bishop Andrii *Bachyns'kyi and reorganized into a full four-year theological seminary. Further reading: Mykola Lelekach, "Mukachevska bohoslovska shkola, 1744-1776," Lyteraturna nedilia, III, 20 and 21 (Uzhhorod, 1943), pp. 237-240 and 246-248. MYKHAILO ALMASHII IVAN POP

Mukachevo-Chynadiievo estate — one of the largest landed estates (dominid) in central Europe. Located in the central part of *Subcarpathian Rus', the Mukachevo-Chynadiievo estate was first mentioned at the beginning of the thirteenth century. Its eastern half, centered in Chynadiievo (the St. Nicholas/Szent-Miklos estate), included 15 settlements stretching from Pidhorod' near Mukachevo northward to the crest of the Carpathians near the Volovets' pass. Its western half comprised the Mukachevo estate, which in 1243 the Hungarian king, Bela IV (r. 1235-1270), presented as a gift first to his son-in-law, the Rus' prince of Galicia, Rostyslav, and then to another of his son-in-laws, the late thirteenth-century Galician-Rus' prince Lev. In 1392 the Hungarian king Zsigmond/Sigismund (r. 1387-1437) gave the Mukachevo estate to the Lithuanian-Rus' prince Fedor *Koriatovych, who was forced to flee from Podolia and seek refuge in Hungary. After the death of Koriatovych (1414) and his widow, Walha, the estate was given to Matyas Palocsy, then in 1427 to the king's Serbian allies, Juraj Brankovic and Stepan Lazarevic, who had been forced to flee their homeland because of the advancing Ottoman Turks. The regularity of such "gifts" illustrates that the Mukachevo estate had at this time remained royal property, lent only in vassalage to individuals in recognition for their service to the Hungarian king. In 1585 the Mukachevo and St. Nicholas (Chynadiievo) estates were united into a single entity known as the Mukachevo-

St. Nicholas, or the Mukachevo-Chynadiievo manorial estate. Throughout the seventeenth century, as a manorial estate, it was in the hands of the *Rakoczy family and princes of Transylvania. Following the defeat of Ferenc II *Rakoczy in his wars against the Austrian *Habsburgs (1703-1711) the Mukachevo-Chynadiievo estate was confiscated by the Austrian state and, in 1728, given by Emperor Charles VI to the archbishop of Mainz, Lothar Franz von Schonborn. After the latter's death in 1729 the property reverted to his nephew, the archbishop of Wtirzburg, Friedrich Karl von Schonborn. Thus began the era of the *Schonborn family dynasty in Subcarpathian Rus'. According to the charter of the imperial gift, dated 1731, the Mukachevo-Chynadiievo manorial estate consisted of 200 villages (together with their enserfed peasantry) and 4 towns—a territory measuring nearly 2,400 square kilometers with about 14,000 inhabitants, of whom 93 percent were peasant serfs. The manorial estate was run by an administrator who resided in Chynadiievo and who oversaw sheriffs (zhupany); the sheriffs, in turn, were responsible for the economy of individual parts (districts) of the estate. The vast property the Schonborns received had been devastated by decades of war. Since towns and villages were largely bereft of their inhabitants, colonists were invited from Germany and later Austria (see Germans). These settlers brought with them to Subcarpathian Rus' new forms of economic management and agricultural techniques. The estate's administrators required Rusyn peasants to adopt the innovative three-crop rotational system and introduced crops which were new to the region: corn, tobacco, and most significantly, potatoes, which before long were to become the basic foodstuff in Rusyn villages. With the help of Germanic peasant settlers the Schonborns were able to raise the quality of orchards and vineyards, so that the estate was soon supplying on an annual basis to Austrian markets 200 barrels of wine and thousands of kilograms of dried fruits. They also created entirely new branches for the local agricultural economy: horse breeding, beer-brewing, and potash production. In the spirit of mercantilism, which at the time dominated Austrian economic theory and practice, the Mukachevo-Chynadiievo manorial estate renewed old and created new manufactures, such as iron works in Shelestovo; glass works in Velykyi Luh; a brewery and linen works in Pidhoriany; a paper mill in Nyzhnia Hrabivnytsia; and several woodworking, tile, and brick plants. By the 1780s the estate was divided into three sectors: Mukachevo, Berehovo, and Nyzhni Verets'ki. Each sector included specific economic activities to which the villages within a given sector were expected to concentrate their energies. The Mukachevo and Berehovo sectors specialized in raising grain, potatoes, and fruits; in producing wine; operating small manufacturing plants; and breeding livestock for meat and transport (oxen, horses). The Nizhni Verets'ki sector, located as it was in mountainous areas, raised thou-

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sands of heads of sheep that produced cheese, wool, and meat. The administrators of the estate also carried out reclamation projects in the so-called Black Wetland (Chornyi Mochar) on the lowlands near Berehovo, and they oversaw the clean-up of previously unproductive forests and brush lands. By the middle of the nineteenth century they had managed to increase the estate's arable land by threefold, resulting in a 100-fold increase in the estate's productive capacity. As well, the estate adapted to the development of industry that reached Hungary during the second half of the nineteenth century. Such was the importance of the Schonborn's MukachevoChynadiievo manorial estate that at the Economic Exhibition held in Budapest in 1885 it had its own pavilion. By that time the estate covered 134,000 hectares of land, including 107,600 hectares of forest; 10,900 hectares of arable land; 9,100 hectares of grazelands; 5,600 hectares of meadows; 221 hectares of orchards; and 65 hectares of vineyards. After World War I and the establishment of Czechoslovak rule in Subcarpathian Rus' the Mukachevo-Chynadiievo estate survived the land reforms carried out by the new regime (1919-1929): a mere 0.25 percent of its property was confiscated by the state, while one-fifth was parcelled and sold to peasant farmers. In 1928 Count Schonborn "sold" for the symbolic price of 35 million Czechoslovak crowns three-quarters of the estate's landed property to the so-called Ben'on Company, which immediately turned the properties over to the Latorica Company, whose major shareholder was Count Schonborn himself. The Latorica Company continued to run the estate properties until, in 1944, they were confiscated and nationalized by the National Council of Transcarpathian Ukraine. Further reading: Julius Blumenwitz, Die Herrschaft Munkacs im Beregher Comitate Ungarns (Vienna, 1867); Andrii Shash, "Narys sotsiial'noi i hospodars'koi istorii' Shenborns'koT latyfundiT Mukachevo-Chynadiievs'koivpershiipolovyniXVIIst.,"Afo«&ovy/ zbornykTovarystva "Prosvita ", IX (Uzhhorod, 1932), pp. 101-134; Andor Sas, Egy kdrpdti latifundium a huberi vildg alkonydn: a munkdcsi Schonborn-uradalom tdrsadalmi es gazdasdgi viszonyai a XIX. szdzad elso feleben (Bratislava, 1955).

Carpathian Rus' ofRusyn national orientation. Muranii came from a distinguished Rusyn family: his mother was the sister of Aleksander *Dukhnovych and his wife the daughter of Ivan *SiFvai, while his father was a military officer of Magyar background. Muranii completed the gymnasium in Miskolc, then studied for a brief period at the Budapest Polytechnical Institute before graduating from the Uzhhorod Theological Seminary (1905). After ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1905) he served in Rusyn parishes at Neresnytsia (19071910) and Berezovo (1910-1919). In 1920 Muranii went to Uzhhorod, where he began a long pedagogical career teaching Rusyn, Latin, geography, and mathematics, first at the gymnasium (1920-1933) and then at the *Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College (1933-1943). He also undertook mathematical research, was elected a corresponding member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, and worked with mathematicians at the Sorbonne in Paris. He published a textbook on astronomy (Astronomiia, 1933) and completed a Rusyn grammar that remained in manuscript and was eventually lost. Like all his works, these were written in the Rusyn vernacular using the traditional etymological alphabet. While Muranii pointed out the relationship of Rusyn to Ukrainian within the framework of East Slavic languages, he at the same time emphasized the need to codify a Rusyn literary language as the best means of preserving the national identity of this small, stateless people. These views were published in a collection of talks given by the faculty of the Uzhhorod Teachers' College under the title "K voprosu lyteraturnoho iazyka podkarpatskykh rusynov" (1939). Muranii was the first author to translate classic English literary works (Shakespeare, Dickens) into Rusyn. He wrote an historic play about the introduction of the church union among Rusyns (Tarasovych, 1936), a three-act comedy (Testament, 1936), and two collections of short stories: Opovidaniay baiky (1941) and Davm diaky ta ynshi opovidania (1943).

IVAN POP

IVAN POP

Mukachevo-Uzhhorod Eparchy. See Orthodox Eparchy of Mukachevo-Uzhhorod Munhall, Metropolitan See of. See Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic Church in the USA Munkacsy, Mihaly. See Magyars Muranii, Ivan (pseudonym: Ivan Brostianyk) (b. March 9, 1881, Turi Remety [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. October 28, 1945, Uzhhorod [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — priest, pedagogue, mathematician, publicist, and belletrist in Sub-

Further reading: Ivan Feketa, "UchyteP u spohadakh uchniv," Karpats'kyikrai, VI, 5-7 [114] (Uzhhorod, 1996), pp. 60-61.

Murianka, Petro. See Trokhanovskii, Petro

Museum of Folk Architecture. See Czajkowski, Jerzy Museum of Lemko Culture in Zyndranowa/Muzei lemkivskoi kul'tury v Zyndranovii — ethnographic and historical museum of Lemko-Rusyn culture. It was established in 1967 by Fedor *Goch on his property in the Lemko village of Zyndranowa, Poland near the Dukla Pass and border with Slovakia. On the occasion of the 25th anniversary of the major World War II Battle of *Dukla, Goch established a small

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture military section with remnants from the nearby battlefield. The exhibits are housed in traditional Lemko-Rusyn dwellings and farm houses that had belonged to Goch's parents. Aside from Lemko ethnographic exhibits and military artifacts from both world wars, a Gypsy's blacksmith forge was added and a house once owned by Zalman Polster was made into the Zalman Jewish Museum (1994). The Zyndranowa museum is the site of an annual Lemko folk festival, Od Rusal' do lana (1992-), and it publishes irregularly a Lemko-language cultural and literary magazine, *Zahoroda (1994- ). It was only in the early 1990s that the privately owned museum, governed by its Museum Council/Rada, started receiving modest funding from the Polish government. Despite the fact that the council was transformed into a corporate body, the Society for the Development of the Museum of Lemko Culture (1995), subsequent plans to make it a branch of a nearby state-owned regional museum fell through, so that the Zydranowa Lemko Museum remains in permanent financial crisis. Further reading: Antoni Kroh, "Problemy wspotczesnej kultury Lemkowskiej na przykladzie muzeum w Zyndranowej," Polska Sztuka Ludowa, XXXIX, 3-4 (Wroclaw, Warsaw, Cracow, Gdansk, and Lodz, 1985), pp. 131-136—English trans.: "A Village Museum and the Problems of Lemko Culture in Contemporary Poland," Carpatho-Rusyn American, X, 2 (Cambridge, Minn., 1987), pp. 4-8; Elzbieta Stys-Janusz, Nad rzekq Pannq: z dzialalnosci lemkowskiej w Zyndranowej (Krosno and Zydranowa, 1998); Artyr Bata, Wojna o pomnik (Krosno, 2002). BOGDAN HORBAL

Museum of the Lemko Region/Muzei Lemkivshchyna — museum devoted to the ethnographic, historical, and book culture of the Lemko Region. The museum was established in Sanok, Poland in 1930 at the initiative of Ukrainophile Lemko cultural and civic activists Lev *Gets, Iryna *Dobrians'ka, Frants *Kokovs'kyi, Emilian *Konstantynovych, and Stepan *Venhrynovych. Its holdings and exhibits were housed in the Greek Catholic parish house in Sanok. During its less than a decade of existence the museum managed to acquire over 8,000 items, including old manuscript books (68), old printed books (ca. 600), historical documents (ca. 2,000), coins (300), numerous examples of traditional Lemko clothing, priestly garments dating from the seventeenth century, wooden church sculpture, furniture, rural farm implements, and archeological finds. In the 1930s staff affiliated with the museum carried out field exhibitions to describe the traditional life-style and customs in over 100 Lemko villages. During World War II the Museum of the Lemko Region was merged with the Museum of the Society of Friends of the Sanok Region/Muzeum Towarzystwa Przyjacol Ziemi Sanockiej. Its collections were transferred to the Sanok castle where, since 1945, they have formed part of the Sanok

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Historical Museum/Muzeum Historyczne w Sanoku. Added to the latter's collection are some 200 icons from Lemko villages whose inhabitants were deported between 1945 and 1947. Further reading: Iryna O. Dobrians'ka, "lak orhanizovano Muzei Lemkivshchyna v Sianotsi," Lemkivshchyna, IX, 2 (Clifton, N.J., 1987), pp. 15-16;PavloLopata, "Muzei 'Lemkivshchyna'uSanotsi," Lemkivshchyna, XII, 2 (Clifton, N.J., 2001), pp.14-16. BOGDAN HORBAL

Museum of the Society of Friends of the Sanok Region. See Museum of the Lemko Region Museum of Ukrainian-Rus' Culture in Svidnik/ Muzei ukrams'ko-rus'ko'i kul'tury u Svydnyku — state-funded museum specializing in the history and material culture of the Rusyn population in northeastern Slovakia. The museum, originally established in Medzilaborce (1956), was relocated several times, first to Presov (1957) and then to Krasny Brod (1960). It finally found a permanent home in Svidnik (1964- ). The museum has been instrumental in collecting ethnographic artifacts, archival materials, and publications (books, newspapers, and journals) focusing primarily on Carpatho-Rusyns in the *Presov Region of northeastern Slovakia but also dealing with Rusyns in neighboring *Subcarpathian Rus'. It has a specialized library of mostly Rusyn-related materials (over 25,000 volumes) and a manuscript collection as well as recorded tapes, photographs, and films. For nearly two decades the museum has had a permanent exhibit tracing the historical evolution and material culture of Rusyns living south of the Carpathians. In the 1980s the museum was expanded to include an outdoor exhibition (skanseri) of traditional dwellings and the Dezyderii Myllyi Art Gallery; both are located in Svidnik. Aside from catalogs of its permanent and temporary exhibits, the museum publishes a scholarly journal with material on Rusyn history, language, ethnography, and literature, *Naukovyi zbirnyk Muzeiu ukrains'koi kul'tury, 22 vols. (1965-2001). Among the institution's longest lasting directors have been Ivan Chabyniak (1960-1974), Ivan Rusynko (1974-1986), and Myroslav *Sopolyha (1986-). After 1989 the museum became a source of controversy, when leaders in the pro-Rusyn movement in Slovakia demanded that the institution alter its Ukrainian orientation. One result of the controversy was a frequent change in names; originally called the Museum of Ukrainian Culture, it is now known as the State Museum of Ukrainian-Rus' Culture. In its exhibitions and publications the museum continues to promote the view that Rusyns are a branch of the Ukrainian nationality. Further reading: Myroslav Sopolyha, 35 rokiv Muzeiu ukrains 'koi kul'tury u Svydnyku (Bratislava and PreSov, 1990); Myroslav

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Sopolyha, "Muzei ukra'ins'ko-rus'koT kul'tury v period 1994-1999 n."NaukovyizbirnykMuzeiu ukrains 'ko-rus 'ko'i kul'tury u Svydnyku, XXII (Presov, 2001), pp. 435-471. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Mushy nka, Mykola/Musinka, Mikulas (pseudonyms: Fedir Holovachenko, Mykola Viruk/Hnatiukivs'kyi/Kovaliv/ Pastushenko) (b. February 20,1936, Kurov [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — ethnographer, journalist, and cultural activist of Ukrainian national orientation in the Presov Region. After completing his secondary education in Bardejov and Presov (1947-1954) Mushynka studied at the Advanced School of Russian Language and Literature in Prague (1954-1959). He did graduate work at Kiev State University in Ukraine (1964) and was awarded the degree of kandidat nauk from Charles University in Prague (1967). He then worked at the research section (kabinef] of the Department of Ukrainian Studies at Safarik University in Presov from 1960 until 1970, when he was released for political reasons. Suspected of opposition to Communist Czechoslovakia and of maintaining close ties with Ukrainians in the "imperialist West," Mushynka was denied academic posts and forbidden to publish in Czechoslovakia for nearly 15 years, although he continued to publish abroad. Mushynka has compiled several collections of folkloric texts among Rusyns in the *Presov Region, Z hlybyny vikiv (1967) and Sribna rosa (1970), and in the Vojvodina, Folklor rusnatsokh Voivodini (1988); he has also written about Ukrainian scholars who turned their attention to CarpathoRusyns, such as Ivan *Pan'kevych, Volodymyr *Sichyns'kyi, Orest *Zilyns'kyi, and in particular Volodymyr *Hnatiuk: Volodymyr Hnatiuk: doslidnyk folkl'oru Zakarpattia (1975). Myshynka was the founding editor and prepared the first four volumes (1965-70) of the scholarly journal *Naukovyizbirnyk Muzeiu ukrains 'ko'i kul'tury v Svydnyku, two volumes of which were dedicated to Hnatiuk and Pan'kevych. The basic thrust of Mushynka's writings is to show that Rusyns are a branch of the Ukrainian nationality. After the fall of the Communist regime in Czechoslovakia in 1989 he was able to return to academic life as a senior researcher (1990- ) in the Department of Ukrainian Studies at Safarik, later Presov University, and as a professor (1993- ) at the Ukrainian Free University in Munich, Germany. He also began to play an active role in Presov Region cultural life as a political commentator and journalist. Mushynka favors closer ties for Slovakia's Rusyns with independent Ukraine and has promoted the view that the people should be called "*RusynUkrainians" until such time as they adopt fully a Ukrainian national identity. He is a fierce critic of the post-1989 Rusyn national revival and has attacked the efforts to codify a Rusyn literary language in several polemical articles and brochures, including Politychnyi rusynizm napraktytsi (1991), Seminar dlia 'izbrannykh' (1992); Rusynizm na antyukra'ins 'kii osnovi

(1992), Rusini-Ukrajinci—jedna ndrodnost' (1997). For his Ukrainian scholarship and services on behalf of promoting Ukrainianism among Rusyns Mushynka was awarded the degree of doctor of sciences from Kiev State University (1992) and elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (1997). Further reading: Mykola Mushynka, Kolesa krutiat'sia, Vol. I: spohady; Vol. II: bibliohrafiia (Presov, 1998); Oleksa Myshanych, "Nova zustrich z Mykoloiu Mushynkoiu," in idem, Povernennia (Kiev, 1997), pp. 251-261; Mykola Zymomria, "Slovo pro Mykolu Mushynku" and Vsevolod Naulko, "Vnesok Mykoly Mushynky u doslidzhennia problem etnichno'i istorii' ukrai'ntsiv," in Blahozvest prace: vedecky zbornik na pocest akad. Mikulasa Musinku (Uzhhorod and Presov, 1998), pp. 10-23. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Music. See Anthems, Rusyn National; Carpathian plainchant; Koliadky Musson, Teodor. See Art Muszyna estate/Panstwo muszynskie — landed estate/*dominium formed during the late thirteenth century in the far western part of the *Lemko Region. Also known as the Episcopal Estate/Panstwo Biskupie, the Muszyna Key/Klucz muszyriski, and Muszyna Borderland/Kres muszynski, it was first formed in 1288, when the Roman Catholic bishop of Cracow took control of the city of Muszyna. The Muszyna estate was temporarily placed within the royal domain (1335-1391), after which the king of Poland reinstated it as a manorial estate, again owned by Cracow's Roman Catholic bishop. It comprised two cities (Muszyna and Miastko/Tylicz) and eleven villages, mostly in the southeastern corner of the Nowy Sa^cz district. Half of the villages were Lemko settlements. Beginning in the sixteenth century the Muszyna estate gradually expanded until it contained 28 (1629) and eventually 35 (1668) mostly Lemko villages. The estate was confiscated by the state in 1770, when the Austrian Empire created a cordon sanitaire by annexing certain Polish territories in the Carpathian borderland on the eve of its annexation of all of Galicia. The estate's administrator, who resided in Muszyna, was responsible for overseeing the local economy, and the Lemko population was originally engaged mostly in livestock and later also in agriculture. The owners of the estate were obligated to keep troops in Muszyna's castle under the command of Poland's local *starosta/lord sheriff. The estate was subjected to frequent attacks on the part of Hungary, including an invasion in 1474, during which many Lemko villages were burnt and the castle taken. The troops stationed in Muszyna also fought against Carpathian brigands, among whom there were numerous Rusyns, who, if captured, were prosecuted

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture in the city's court. Ownership by a Roman Catholic bishop of Lemko villages whose inhabitants were Orthodox and later Greek Catholic sometimes had negative consequences. For example, the Greek Catholic church in Tylicz was demolished in 1686, ostensibly due to construction flaws, a decision that was considered part of an orchestrated effort to rid the city of its Rusyn inhabitants (construction of a new church was not allowed until 1743). On the other hand, the Roman Catholic bishop of Cracow and Muszyna landlord established at Powroznik as early as 1638 possibly the first parish school in the entire Lemko Region. Further reading: Stanislaw B^benek, Starostwo muszynskie, wlasnosc biskupa krakowskiego (Eviv, 1914); Feliks Kiryk, "Miasta kresu muszyhskiego w okresie przedrozbiorowym," Przemyskie Zapiski Historyczne, No. 4-5 (Przemysl, 1986/87), pp. 7-34; Stanislaw Plaza, "Dorazny sa^d kryminalny klucza muszynskiego (XVII-XVIII w.)," Czasopismo Prawno-historyczne XL, 2 (Poznan, 1988), pp. 199-212; Roman Reinfuss, "Zarys kultury materialnej ludnosci lemkowskiej z dawnego kresu muszyhskiego," Materialy Muzeum Budownictwa Ludowego w Sanoku, No. 34 (Sanok, 1998), pp. 7-52. BOGDAN HORBAL

1996) of the center for the Study of Social Problems in the Carpathian Region, a division in Uzhhorod of the Institute of Sociology of the National Academy of Ukraine. During this period Myhovych conducted sociological research on the role of religion in contemporary Subcarpathian Rus'. Among his several works on the subject is the monograph Relihiia i tserkvy v nashomu &raz'(1993). Myhovych was one of the first scholars in the postCommunist era to describe objectively the recent Rusyn national revival in scholarly organs published in Ukraine's capital, Kiev ("Karpats'ki rusyny v konteksti suchasnoho etnopolitychnoho zhyttia," co-author Mykola *Makara, 1994). Many of his essays on this subject appeared in the collection Slovo za Rusyniv (1999). Myhovych is also head of the Communist party regional branch in Transcarpathia, and since the mid-1990s he has served as a deputy to Ukraine's national parliament (Verkhovna rada) in Kiev, where he frequently promotes recognition of Rusyns as a distinct nationality. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Mykolaienko, Sydor. See Stryps'kyi, Hiiador Mykyta, Aleksander. See Rus' Sports Club

Muzei Lemkivshchyna. See Museum of the Lemko Region

Mykyta, Olena. See Rudlovchak, Olena

Muzei lemkivs'koho remesla im. Shtefana Cherhoniaka. See Stefanovskii, Pavel

Mykyta, Volodymyr (b. February 1, 1931, Rakoshyno [Czechoslovakia], Ukraine) — painter and cultural activist in Subcarpathian Rus' ofRusyn national orientation. After completing the Russian gymnasium in Mukachevo (19411945) Mykyta studied under losyf *Bokshai and Adal'bert *Erdeli at the School of Applied Art in Uzhhorod (19471950). During his student years Mykyta exhibited along with his teachers and, in effect, became a true inheritor of the pre-World War II * Subcarpathian School of Painting. Not only did he learn technical skills from his mentors, he was imbued as well with their philosophy of life, in which art was dedicated to the service of one's people and homeland. Mykyta is equally proficient in creating portraits, genre scenes, landscapes, and still-lifes filled with philosophical reflections on human existence and the basic problems faced by modern society during the last third of the twentieth century. He reached full creative maturity in the late 1960s, after which his work was characterized by four basic conceptual directions: the psychological portrait; the nobility of working the land; the philosophically-inspired landscape; and art as ecological protest. A creative landmark was the appearance oflahniatko (The Little Lamb, 1969). From then on Mykyta's canvases were filled with images of stalwart and serious village people, all of whom were driven by a sense of internal dynamism as they planted orchards, grazed sheep, cut wood

Muzei lemkivs'koi kul'tury v Zyndranovi. See Museum of Lemko Culture in Zyndranowa

Muzei ukra'ins'ko-rus'ko'i kul'tury u Svydnyku. See Museum of Ukrainian-Rus' Culture in Svidnik

Muzeum Budownictwa Ludowego. See Czajkowski, Jerzy Muzykal'nyi krug im. Chaikovskago. See Presov Greek Catholic Teachers' College Myhovych, Ivan (b. September 17,1942, Mala Martynka [Karpataljai, Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine) — sociologist, professor, and political activist in Subcarpathian Rus'. Myhovych completed his studies at the Institute for Publishing and Printing in Eviv (1969) and was later awarded the degree ofkandidat nauk (1973) and a Ph.D. (1986). He worked for the central organs of the Soviet *Communist party in Moscow until the late 1980s, when he returned to Transcarpathia/*Subcarpathian Rus' to teach at Uzhhorod State University. He was also the founding director (1992-

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and vines, or brought in the hay (Zbyrannia kartopli/Picking Potatoes, 1970; Obid u po/j'/Luncheon on the Field, 1971; Zvoziat' smo/Gathering the Hay, 1971; Vesniani turbotyl Springtime Anxieties, 1973; Zbir iabluk/Gathering Apples, 1985). With these canvases Mykyta introduced into Soviet Ukrainian artistic circles a new understanding of how to treat themes based on traditional life. Mykyta's portraiture begins with the lyrical Moia mamka (My Mother, 1967) followed by portraits of several of his contemporaries: Likar Snihurs 'kyi (The Doctor Snihurs'kyi, 1968), KhirurgFedynets' (The Surgeon Fedynets', 1969), and Khudozhnyk Kontratovych (The Artist Kontratovych, 1970). It was his rendition of the painter Fedor *Manailo (Khudozhnyk Manailo, 1976), however, which raised Mykyta to the rank of a leading contemporary master of philosophical portraiture. Mykyta's landscapes have also been quite extraordinary; they include depictions of the Carpathian Mountains (Zverkhu na verkh/From Hilltop to Hilltop, 1973; Pislia doshchiv/After the Rain, 1979; Osinnii motyvlAutumn Motif, 1982) and protests against the rape of the land (Rany KarpatfWounds of the Carpathians, 1983; Nezhyve/Lifcless, 1989; Zcwa/The Forbidden Zone, 1990) as well as expressions of disgust at contemporary society's lack of spirituality (Gotyka/ThQ Gothic Scene, 1989; Kolochava/The Village of Kolochava, 1989; Dzvinytsia/The Bell Tower, 1990). Mykyta has played an important role in the cultural life of Subcarpathian Rus' in the last years of Soviet rule and in post-Communist Ukraine. He served as head (1966-1999) of the Transcarpathian regional branch of Ukraine's Union of Artists, and for his achievements he was awarded the title of National Artist of Ukraine (1991), corresponding (1997) and full member (2004) of the National Academy of Arts in Ukraine, and the Steven *Chepa Award for Outstanding Service to Rusyn Culture (2001). He has spoken out against the crass commercialization of artistic creativity during the economic and spiritual crisis of independent Ukraine in the 1990s, all the while playing an active role in the recent Rusyn national revival. A firm believer in the idea that Rusyns constitute a distinct nationality, Mykyta organized a major retrospective exhibit ofRusyn painting and sculpture in conjunction with the Fifth *World Congress of Rusyns held in Uzhhorod (1999). Further reading: Hryhorii S. Ostrovs'kyi, Volodymyr Mykyta: zhyvopys (Kiev, 1983); Ivan Pop, "Volodymyr Mykyta," Obrazotvorche mystetstvo, XXVIII, 2 (Kiev, 1997) pp. 52-54. IVAN POP

Mykytas', VasyP Lazarovych (b. October 23, 1924, Zhovte [Soviet Union], Ukraine; d. March 20, 1999, Kiev, Ukraine) — Ukrainian professor and literary historian. After completing his doctoral studies at the Institute of Literature of the Soviet Ukrainian Academy of Sciences in Kiev (1954),

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Mykytas' taught (1955-1970) at Uzhhorod State University (professor, 1967). During this period he researched the history ofRusyn literature and published a series of biographical monographs on the writers Mykha'il *Orosvygovs'kyi-Andrella (1960), Aleksander *Dukhnovych (1959), and Fedor *Potushniak (1961); a survey of literature from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Davnia literatura Zakarpattia (1968); and catalogs of old manuscripts and incunabula held in the Uzhhorod State University Library (2 vols., 1961-64) and in the Transcarpathian Regional Museum (1964). He was the first scholar in Soviet times able to discuss the career of the Rusyn national awakener, Aleksander Dukhnovych, although in all his works he argued that Subcarpathian literature was only a part of the general Ukrainian literary process. The very titles of his monographs—Haluzka mohut'noho dereva (A Branch of a Great Tree, 1971) on the nineteenth century and Z nochiprobyvalysia (Awakened from the Long Night, 1977) on the early twentieth century—reflect the fact that Marxist scholars of the Soviet era considered Rusyn literature as little more than an appendage to the "more significant" Ukrainian literature. In 1970 Mykytas' left Uzhhorod for Kiev, where he worked at the Institute of History and after 1974 at the Institute of Literature of the Soviet Ukrainian Academy of Sciences/Ukrainian National Academy of Sciences. Further reading: Ivan Khlanta, Vasyl' Mykytas': biobibliohrafichnyi pokazhchyk (Uzhhorod, 1998); Olena Rudlovchak, "Zhyttia okrylene poshukamy: do 60-richcha V. L. Mykytsia, Duklia, XXXII, 5 (Presov, 1984), pp. 45-48; lurii Balega, "Vasyl' Mykytas'," in VasyF V. Turianytsia, ed., Pedahohy-naukovtsi, Vol. II (Uzhhorod, 2000), pp. 76-80. IVAN POP

Myllyi, Dezyderii/Milly, Dezider (b. August 7,1906, Kijov [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. September 3,1971, Bratislava [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — artist, professor, and civic and cultural activist among Rusyns in Slovakia. After completing the gymnasium in Levoca (1917-1922) Myllyi studied at the Teachers' College in Presov (19221926) and with Josef Schusser and Arnost Hofbauer at the Advanced School of Art and Industry/Urn Prum in Prague (1926-1933). He taught in a Rusyn elementary school at Orlov in eastern Slovakia (1934-1943), and also in Presov at the *Rusyn State Teachers'Academy (1943-1945) and the Russian gymnasium (1944-1945). At the close of World War II he was for a short time a member of the *Ukrainian National Council of the Presov Region and head of the Department for Ukrainian Schools in Kosice. In 1946 he moved to Bratislava, where he taught at the Advanced School of Fine Arts/VSVU (docent/associate professor, 1949; rector, 1953-1957; full professor, 1958). As a painter, Myllyi developed a unique style that combined the tragic expressionism of the Norwegian Edvard

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Munch and the Dutchman Vincent van Gogh, the romanticism of the Frenchman Paul Gauguin, and the philosophical rationalism of the Czech Jan Zrzavy. As early as 1933 Myllyi's student works, shown at his graduation exhibit, elicited widespread critical praise; they were subsequently exhibited in Stockholm, Sweden. His graphic works were no less original. They included a series of lithographs from 1933-1934 using the technique of pencil on stone. Among them was a rendition of the nineteenth-century Rusyn national awakener (Dukhnovych-poet/Aleksander Dukhnovych the Poet), although most were inspired by the unhappy status of Rusyn women (Neshchaslyva/The Unfortunate Woman; Akt/A Nude; F?dc/za//Despair; Nizhnis//Tenderness). The most often reproduced of these lithographs was Nas osud: vyhnanizpody (Our Fate: Driven from the Land, 1934). While teaching in the Presov Region village of Orlov, Myllyi was inspired by the mountains of his homeland to create a series of paintings that showed a fairy-like Carpathian landscape; in this series he finally freed himself from the mannerisms of the post-Impressionists and was able to create his own style. In the foreground of a generalized Carpathian landscape Myllyi always included his muse, the figure of a sad sorceress. His next series presented an abstract generalized depiction of what he called the Kryvyi iarok (The Crooked Brook, 1944) dominated by mountains in the center of the composition from which flowed snake-like parallel paths and streams. Myllyi's active participation in the political and cultural life of post-World War II Communist Czechoslovakia had a negative impact on his artistic creativity. His paintings became little more than highly politicized figurative illustrations. This applied as well to his series entitled Tokaik (1959), based on the tragic wartime shootings of the village of Tokajik's Rusyn inhabitants, an event which had deeply moved the artist. In the 1960s Myllyi moved away from his narrow politicized vision and began to create large-scale decorative panoramic landscapes. As if making up for the creative time lost during the post-1948 Communist era, Myllyi began in the last years of his life to paint a series of landscapes in his unique prewar style. While he was influenced by the various new artistic currents of the twentieth century, Myllyi's true artistic roots were embedded in the realities of his native Carpathian region. Since his death, a permanent exhibit of his work is on display at the Dezyderii Myllyi Art Gallery (est. 1983), which is part of the *Museum of Ukrainian-Rus' Culture in Svidnik, Slovakia. Further reading: J. Repcak, Dezider Milly: persondlna bibliogrqfia (Kosice and PreSov, 1966); Mykhailo Dubai, "Dezyderii Myllyi," Naukovyi zbirnyk Muzeiu ukrains 'koi' kul'twy u Svydnyku, VIII (Bratislava and Presov, 1976), pp. 381-393; Vladyslav Greshlyk, Dezyderii Myllyi (Svidnik, 1986); Silvia Iledkova, Dezider Milly (Bratislava, 1987). IVAN POP

Myloslavs'kyi, Petro. See Miloslavskii, Petr Petrovich Myshanych, Oleksa (b. April 1, 1933, Liskovets' [Czechoslovakia], Ukraine; d. January 1,2004, Kiev, Ukraine) — Ukrainian literary scholar and publicist from Subcarpathian Rus' of Ukrainian national orientation. After graduating from the philological faculty of Uzhhorod State University (1956) Myshanych did graduate work at the Institute of Literature of the Soviet Ukrainian Academy of Sciences in Kiev (kandidat nauk, 1961), where he remained to work as a researcher specializing in Old Ukrainian literature. He published a number of studies on Ukrainian literature and prepared scholarly editions of the works of several Ukrainian writers. Among his more important works is a study of Subcarpathian Rusyn literature in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries (Literatura Zakarpattia XVII-XVIH stolit': istoryko-literaturnyi narys, 1964). He also edited a series of volumes for *Karpaty Publishers in Uzhhorod that includes his anthology of pre-Soviet Rusyn literature (Na Verkhovyni, 1984), and he was the first scholar to introduce to the Ukrainian public the literature and cultural achievements of the Rusyn inhabitants in the *Vojvodina. With the appearance of the Rusyn national revival in the early 1990s, Myshanych became its most outspoken critic in Ukraine. Although ofRusyn background, Myshanych was living in Ukraine's capital city of Kiev, where he held influential posts in the Academy of Sciences and in international scholarly circles, including scholarly secretary (1990-1999) of the International Association of Ukrainianists. Since the country's drive toward independence achieved in 1991 he emphasized his Ukrainian identity and political sympathies. His first antiRusyn tract ("To kto zh vony?: do ideinykh vytokiv novitn'oho 'karpatorusynstva'," 1991) appeared in the widely read Kiev newspaper, Literaturna Ukraina. This was followed by a series of highly polemical articles and pamphlets published in Ukraine as well as in Ukrainian publications abroad that criticize all aspects of what he calls anti-Ukrainian "*political Rusynism": Vidpidkarpats'kykh rusyniv do zakarpats'kykh ukraintsiv (1991); "Karpatorusynstvo," ioho dzherela i evoliutsiia u XX st. (1992); Politychne rusynstvo i shcho za nym (1993). Myshanych's intent is to prove that from time immemorial the East Slavic inhabitants of the Carpathian region have been Ukrainians. He viewed any suggestions to the contrary as unscholarly and as political acts directed against the welfare of Ukrainian statehood. Further reading: Mykola Mushynka, levhen Pshenychnyi, and Vasyl' Markus' in Verkhovyna: zbirnyk naukovykhprats 'naposhanu Oleksy Myshanycha z nahody ioho 70-richchia (Drohobych, 2003), pp. 6-46 and 163-176; Mikola Mushinka, "Ukrainist-karpatoznavets Oleksa Mishanich (1933-2004)," Shvetlosts, XLII, 2 (Novi Sad, 2004), pp. 165-182; Diura Latiak, "Oleksa Mishanich i bachvanskosrimski rusnatsi," ibid., pp. 183-193. IVAN POP

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Myshkovskii, Tyt/Myszkowski, Tytus (b. October 4, 1861, Pielgrzymka [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. February 4, 1939, Eviv [Poland], Ukraine)—priest, professor, theologian, liturgist, and cultural activist of Russian national orientation in Galicia. Myshkovskii, who was of Lemko origin, completed the gymnasium in Przemysl (1880) and then studied theology at the *Greek Catholic Central Seminary (1881-1884) and the St. Augustine Institute of the University of Vienna (Th. D., 1889). He was ordained a Greek Catholic priest (1885) and served as prefect (1889-1894) at the Greek Catholic Theological Seminary in Eviv. In 1889 he began a career at the theological faculty of Eviv University (docentl'associate professor, 1892; adjunct professor, 1903; full professor, 1908). Myshkovskii's *Russophile views at times alienated the Greek Catholic hierarchy in Galicia, so that his request to be appointed canon of the Przemysl cathedral (1897) was turned down. Myshkovskii's reputation as a knowledgeable theologian and scholar garnered him great respect and popularity among Greek Catholic priests in his native *Lemko Region. In Eviv he administered from 1878 to the outbreak of World War I a school for girls from the Lemko Region (Pansion russkykh dam), founded the St. John Chrysostom Society of Galician-Russian Priests, and was an active member of the *Kachkovs'kyi Society. When, in the spring of 1915, tsarist Russian troops retreated from Eviv and from most of Galicia, the returning Austrian authorities arrested Myshkovskii on suspicion of collaboration with the Russian Empire and interned him until 1916. He returned to his teaching post at Eviv University, but when the new state of Poland was created after the war and it took over Galicia, he refused to swear the required oath of allegiance to the state and was forced to leave his professorship (1919). The Polish authorities placed him under surveillance, while local Ukrainians criticized him for his Russophile sympathies. Nevertheless, the Ukrainian Metropolitan of Galicia, Andrei Sheptyts'kyi, supported Myshkovskii and called on him to help organize the university-level Greek Catholic Theological Academy in Eviv (1928), where he served as dean of theology (1930-1935) and vice-rector (1936-1937). He also headed the Russophileoriented Galician Rus' Cultural Foundation/Matitsia (19231939) and the Russian Peasant Organization/Russkaia selianskaia organizatsiia, whose branches were exceptionally popular in the Lemko Region. Aside from theological works, Myshkovskii wrote a wide range of historical and ethnographic studies, including one that focussed on the Lemko Region ("lugozapadnaia etnograficheskaia granitsa Galitskoi Rusi," 1934). Considering his origins and sympathies, Myshkovskii was popularly known as the Lemko Region's "ambassador" in Eviv.

Encyclopedia of Rusyn History and Culture Esteemed Russophile of the Lviv Greco-Catholic Theological Academy," Journal of Ukrainian Studies, XVIII, 1-2 (Edmonton, 1993), pp. 93-122; Bohdan Horbal, "Tyt Myshkovskii," mLemkivskii richnyk 2001 (Krynica and Legnica, 2001), pp. 120-127. BOGDAN HORBAL

Myshuha, Luka. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region Myshylko, Lemy. See Lelekach, Mykola Mysanyc, Oleksa. See Myshanych, Oleksa Myszkowski, Tytus. See Myshkovskii, Tyt Mytrak, Aleksander/Mitrak, Sandor (pseudonym: Materin) (b. October 16,1837, Ploske [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. March 17, 1913, Rosvygovo [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine) — priest, poet, publicist, ethnographer, and linguist of Russian national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus'. After completing the gymnasium in Uzhhorod (1847-1853) and Satu Mare (1853-1855) Mytrak studied at the Uzhhorod Theological Seminary (1856-1862). He was consecrated a Greek Catholic priest (1862) and served in several Rusyn parishes: until 1869 in * Subcarpathian Rus' (Il'nytsia, Velyki Luchky, Mukachevo), then in the *Presov Region (Jasenov and Klenova), and finally, in 1892, in Subcarpathian Rus' again, at Vorochevo. In 1900 he retired from the priesthood, settling first in Uzhhorod and later in Rosvygovo (1905), where he devoted himself to literary and scholarly activity. Mytrak left several dozen poems, publicistic essays, and ethnographic studies, including "Putevye vpechatlieniia na Verkhovinie" (1867). Some of his folkloric transcriptions were included in lakiv *Holovats'kyi's four-volume Narodnye piesni Galitskoi i Ugorskoi Rusi (1878); other writings were republished in Izbrannyia sochineniia (1942). Mytrak also compiled and published at his own expense the monumental Russko-mad 'iarskii slovar' (18 81), a dictionary of the Russian literary language (with equivalents in Hungarian) to which was added an appendix with Rusyn dialectal words. His Hungarian-Russian dictionary, Mad'iarsko-russkii slovar' (1922), appeared posthumously. These dictionaries marked in a sense the highest scholarly achievement of the *Russophileoriented Rusyn intelligentsia. In recognition of his achievements, a bronze bust of Mytrak was erected in Mukachevo (1931), and in the same city a society for regional history was named after him.

Further reading: Vasylii Vavryk, "Prof. Tyt Yvanovych Myshkovskyi," in Karpatorusskyi kalendar' Lemko-Soiuza 1962 (Yonkers,

Further reading: Evmenii Sabov, "Riech pri otkrytii pamiatnika o. Aleksandru Andreevichu Mitraku-Materinu v Mukachevie 7. VI. 1931," Karpatskii sviet, IV, 5-6-7 (Uzhhorod, 1931), pp. 1195-1206; Petr Lintur, A.A. Mitrak: ocherk zhizni i dieiatel'nosti (Uzhhorod, 1937).

N.Y., 1962), pp. 131-140; Peter Galadza, "Tyt Myshkovsky: The

IVAN POP

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Mytsiuk, Oleksander (b. June 21, 1883, Novooleksandrivka [Ekaterinoslav province, Russian Empire], Ukraine; d. December 30, 1943, Prague [Protectorate of BohemiaMoravia, Germany], Czech Republic) — Ukrainian emigre economist, professor, and political activist in Czechoslovakia. After playing an active role in the struggle for Ukrainian independence (1917-1920), including service as minister of internal affairs for the Ukrainian National Republic (1918), Mytsiuk was forced to emigrate. He settled in Czechoslovakia and from 1922 taught at the Ukrainian Academy of Economics in Podebrady and at the Ukrainian Free University/Ukrai'nsk'kyi vil'nyi universytet in Prague, where he conducted a seminar (1932) and a year-long course (19351936) on the socioeconomic history of *Subcarpathian Rus'. Aside from numerous general studies in political economy,

Mytsiuk published a detailed account of socioeconomic life in two Subcarpathian villages, Turi' Remety and Turia Poliana (1932), and a monumental two-volume socioeconomic history of the province from the Middle Ages to 1848, Narysy z sotsial'no-hospodars 'ko'i istori'i buvshoi Uhors 'koi nyni Pidkarpats'koi Rusy (1936-38; repr. 2003). The proposed third and fourth volumes of this work were completed, but their manuscripts have disappeared. Further reading: Dmytro D. Danyliuk, "Vidomyi i nevidomyi O. Mytsiuk," in Naukovyi visnyk Uzhhorods 'koho national'noho universytetu: Seriia istoriia, No. 7 (Uzhhorod, 2002), pp. 86-90. IVAN POP

Myts'o, Myron. See Lemko Research Foundation

N Nabywaniec, Stanislaw. See Historiography: Lemko Region Nad', Havrii'l (b. April 17, 1913, Stari Vrbas [Hungarian Kingdom], Serbia; d. October 15,1983, Kucura [Yugoslavia], Serbia) — pedagogue, linguist, poet, and translator among the Vojvodinian Rusyns. After completing the gymnasium at Vrbas (1932) Nad' studied at the philosophical faculty of the University of Belgrade (1932-1936). He was the first director (1945-1948) of the Rusyn gymnasium in Ruski Kerestur and later taught at the Rusyn elementary school in Kucura (1954-1979). Beginning in 1938, Nad' published a series of studies on the Vojvodinian Rusyn language in various periodicals; these were later reissued in the collection Lingvistichni stat'i i rozpravi (1983). Linguistic studies that he had left in manuscript were published posthumously in Prilohi do istorii ruskoho iazika (1988). Nad's poetry is distinguished by the purity of his language; however, in terms of content it is dominated by a moralizing, even pathetic tone. His best-known work in this genre is a cycle of poems, Sonetni veniets (1951). In the year of his death, a short autobiography appeared in the journal * Shvetlosts (\9%1}. Further reading: Diura Papharhai', "Nievicherpna liubov gu matserinskomu slovu," Shvetlosts, XI, 3 (Novi Sad, 1973), pp. 328-333; lanko Rats, "Od prosvititelia po viznachnoho naukovtsa," Shvetlosts, XXI, 5 (Novi Sad, 1983), pp. 533-538; Aleksander D. Dulichenko, "Havrii'l Nad' i ioho doprinoshenie rozvoiu ruskoho iazika," Tvorchosts, XI (Novi Sad, 1985), pp. 18-27. ALEKSANDR D. DULICHENKO

Nad', luliian. See Literature: Vojvodina Nadezhdin, Nikolai. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region Nagy, Nikolaj. See Nod', Nikolai Nalysnyk, luliian (b. July 1,1890, Krasna [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. April 22, 1960, New York, New York, USA) — civic and political activist of Ukrainian national orientation in the Lemko Region and the United States. Nalysnyk studied law in Eviv and Cracow, then during World War I served in the Ukrainian Sich Riflemen unit of the Austro-Hungarian Army. Captured on the eastern front and imprisoned in Russia early in the war, he eventually escaped (1917) and joined the

movement for Ukrainian statehood, serving in the Ukrainian National Republic's Ministry of Foreign Affairs (1918) and later as part of its diplomatic mission to Bulgaria. He returned to his *Lemko Region homeland in what, after World War I, was independent Poland. There he opened a law practice in Krosno and Dukla (1931-1943) and was active in promoting the Ukrainian national orientation among *Lemkos. In his native village of Krasna he founded a cooperative, Sil's'kyi hospodar, and a cultural society, Ukrams'kyi narodnyi dim. With the arrival of the Soviet Army at the close of World War II, Nalysnyk fled to Austria and later to the United States (1949). He immediately joined the Organization for the Defense of Lemkivshchyna, of which he eventually became chairman (1958-1960), and promoted the Ukrainian national orientation, primarily among fellow Lemko displaced persons who arrived in the United States just after World War II. BOGDAN HORBAL

Narod. See Vpered

Narodna rada Zakarpats'ko'i Ukrainy. See Transcarpathian Ukraine Narodna shkola — monthly journal published in Uzhhorod (1921-1944) and concerned with pedagogical and educational matters in Subcarpathian Rus'. During its first two decades of existence in Czechoslovakia the journal was published in Russian as the organ of the Teachers' Society of Subcarpathian Rus'/Uchitel'skoe tovarishchestvo Podkarpatskoi Rusi; in 1935 it changed from a newspaper to journal format and altered its name to Narodnaia shkola. Among its editors were Vasylii Antalovs'kyi, Mykha'il Vasylenko, Pavel S. *Fedor, and Vasylii Shpenyk. With the return of Hungarian rule in * Subcarpathian Rus' (1939-1944), the journal gradually changed its format. It reverted to its original name, Narodna shkola, but was still published in Russian. In the 1941/1942 school year it began to appear in Hungarian and Russian and was published by the School Commission of the Hungarian Commissar in Subcarpathia under the editorship of Andrii Kutlan. Further reading: Vasyl' Habor, Ukrains 'ki chasopysy Uzhhoroda, 1867-1944 (Eviv, 2003), pp. 234-240. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Narodnaia gazeta — bi-monthly newspaper published in Presov (1924-35) for the Rusyn population of eastern

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Slovakia. From the outset Narodnaia gazeta served as the mouthpiece of the *Russian National party in Slovakia although it did not become the official party organ until 1931. It was owned and published by the well-to-do farmers Andrii Tarabchak, Ivan Krutsyk, and Ivan *Zhydovs'kyi. Narodnaia gazeta was written in Russian, supported the Orthodox movement, and promoted the view that Rusyns are a branch of the Russian nationality. The newspaper continued to be published in Presov under the revised name, Russkaia narodnaia gazeta (1935-36). Another newspaper, not allied to any political party but also called Russkaia narodnaia gazeta, was published and edited by Zhydovs'kyi and appeared weekly in Uzhhorod (1937-38). Further reading: M. M. Romaniuk, ed., Periodyka Zakhidnoi Ukrainy 20-30-kh rr. XXSt., Vol. IV (Eviv, 2001), pp. 215-219.

its articles about history and ethnography argued that the *Lemkos were a branch of the Ukrainian nationality—large sections and in some cases entire issues of Nash Lemko were confiscated by the Polish authorities. It was also banned by the *Lemko Apostolic Administration from distribution among Greek Catholic parishes in the *Lemko Region. From 1932 Nash Lemko was financed by the Lemko Commission of the Ukrainophile *Prosvita Society in Eviv, by private sponsors, and through subscriptions (2,262 in 1939). It published material from several correspondents in the Lemko Region, and to a degree it was successful in promoting the Ukrainian national orientation among *Lemkos. With the outbreak of World War II and the collapse of Poland (September 1939), the newspaper ceased to exist after appearing in 137 issues. BOGDAN HORBAL

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Narodnaia shkola. See Narodna shkola Narodny novynky — weekly newspaper published in Presov (1991-) as the official organ of the *Rusyn Renaissance Society/Rusyn'ska obroda in Slovakia. Since its inception under founding editor Aleksander *Zozuliak, Narodny novynky has been published entirely in Rusyn. It promotes the view that Rusyns form a distinct nationality which should have its own codified literary language. The newspaper contains information on Rusyn cultural activity in Slovakia as well as among Rusyns in other countries, historical studies, and it includes polemics directed against those in Slovakia and elsewhere who believe Rusyns are a branch of Ukrainians. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Narodnyi dim. See Prosvita Society Narodnyi dom. See Lemko Hall; St. Basil the Great Society Narodovets'ke uchytel'ske tovarystvo. See Uchytel's 'kyi holos

Nash holos. See Dukhnovich Society of CarpathoRussian Canadians Nash karpatorusskii golos. See Karpatorusskii golos Nash Lemko — bi-weekly newspaper published in Eviv (1934-39) by the Ukrainian-oriented Lemko Commission/Lemkivs'ka komisiia. Its editors, Petro *Smerekanych (1934-1936) and luliian *Tarnovych (1936-1939), had originally wanted to call the paper Ukrains 'kyi Lemko, but the term "Ukrainian" was not allowed by the Polish government. Because of its strong pro-Ukrainian orientation—all

Nash put'. See Karpatorusskii golos; Russian National Autonomist party Nash rodnyi krai—monthly illustrated journal published in Tiachovo (1922-39) for young people in Subcarpathian Rus'. Edited throughout its existence by Aleksander *Markush, Nash rodnyi krai contained primarily popular articles intended to inform its readers about the geography, history, and culture of *Subcarpathian Rus'. It also published Rusyn folkloric texts and ethnographic descriptions of traditional village life that were for the most part collected and transcribed by upper-level school children. The articles, which appeared in an easy-to-read Rusyn vernacular language, were especially popular among teachers and students at the elementary and junior high school level. Recently, there has been an attempt to revive the journal in the Ukrainian language and orientation, Nash ridnyi krai (1998- ), but only a few issues have appeared. A selection of articles from the original journal, focusing on ethnography and written mostly by its editor Markush, were reprinted in a volume compiled by Ivan Sen'ko (2002). Further reading: Ivan Dobosh, Istoriia ukrains 'koi zhurnalistyky Zakarpattia20—30-khrokivXXst. (Ivano-Frankivs'k, 1995), pp. 6783; M.M. Romaniuk, ed., Periodyka Zakhidnoi Ukrainy 20—30-kh rr. XXSt., Vol. I (Eviv, 1998), pp. 171-173. IVAN POP

Nasha zahradka. See Rusyn National Enlightenment Society Nasha zemlia — monthly Ukrainian-language journal of literature and political affairs published in Uzhhorod (192729). Founded and edited by the Subcarpathian poet of Ukrainian orientation, Vasyl' *Grendzha-Dons'kyi, Nasha zemlia was pro-Communist in orientation and financed by the Soviet

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Union. It was oriented primarily toward young readers, and with political finesse was able to praise the "success of our Ukrainian brethren in creating a Ukrainian socialist culture in the Soviet Union." Aside from the editor's own poetry and prose, the journal introduced Subcarpathian readers to the works of Ukrainian writers from the nineteenth century (Vasyl' Stefanyk, Ol'ha Kobylians'ka, Marko Cheremshyna) as well as from the new socialist era (Pavlo Tychyna, Valeriian Polishchuk, Oleksa Slisarenko, Pylyp Fylypovych, etc.). Because of its often harsh criticism of Czechoslovak rule in * Subcarpathian Rus', Nasha zemlia was closed down by the government authorities and eventually replaced by the newspaper *Holos zhyttia. Further reading: Pavlo M. Lisovyi, Komunistychna presa Zakarpattia 20—30-kh rokiv (Eviv, 1982), pp. 61-71; Vasyl' Habor, Ukrains'ki chasopysy Uzhhoroda, 1867-1944 (Eviv, 2003), pp. 328-331. IVAN POP

Nashe slovo. See "Lemkivska storinka" Nase vojsko V SSSR. See Czechoslovak Army Corps Nashi stremleniia — cultural affairs and literary almanac of Russophile orientation published irregularly by students at the Russian gymnasium in Mukachevo. A few issues began to appear in 1932; the publication was renewed in 1935 in a journal format under the editorial direction of gymnasium professor Ivan Gotval'd. Nashi stremleniia contained articles on current cultural issues in Subcarpathian Rus' as well as Russian-language poetry by the Subcarpathian authors Vasyl' Dobosh, Emilian *Balets'kyi, Andrii *Patrus-Karpats'kyi, and Fedor Ivanchov, among others. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Nastup. See Carpathian Sich; Rosokha, Stepan Nasze szlaki. See Student Circle of Beskyd Mountain Tourist Guides National anthem. See Anthems, Rusyn National National Committee of Magyars of the Greek Catholic Faith. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Hajdudorog

National Congress of American Rusyns. See Carpatho-Russian Congress National Council of Rusyns. See Ramach, luliian. National Council of Transcarpathian Ukraine.

See Transcarpathian Ukraine; Turianytsia, Ivan I. National Union of Magyar Greek Catholics. See Gorog katolikus szemle

Nationalism. An ideology which divides humanity into nationalities and which argues that the optimal social system is one in which nationalities enjoy cultural and political autonomy or, preferably, independent statehood. Nationalities are groups of people who have one or more of the following common characteristics: a distinct territory, language, historical tradition, ethnographic features, and cultural values or mentalite. Nationalism is not only an ideology, but also an historical process in which nationalities are established as distinct sociocultural units. This process is usually referred to as a national movement. Nationalism might represent the policy of an already-existing state, which is anxious to convince its citizens (usually of varying cultural and linguistic backgrounds) that they belong to a common state nationality. This was the challenge, for instance, faced by the new state of Italy after 1859 and summed up in the words of one authoritarian politician: "We have made Italy, now we must make Italians." Nationalism can also be a program for a people who do not have their own state but who wish to be recognized as a distinct nationality. Nationalist movements among stateless peoples may strive for independent statehood, or they may be satisfied with political and/or cultural *autonomy within an existing state. It is not uncommon for the goals of state or civic nationalism to be in conflict with the nationalism of stateless peoples, or ethnic nationalism. Nationalism has been present in some form throughout history, although as an ideology and movement it is associated mostly with the era following the French Revolution. The French experience set a pattern whereby political legitimacy no longer rested in a monarchy or oligarchy, but rather in the people or nationality as a whole. The success of nationalism as a movement was also dependent on the degree of industrialization, levels of education, and ease of communication within a given society. Not all societies, therefore, experienced a national movement at the same time. Nationalism reached Carpatho-Rusyns, as it did other parts of central Europe, in the nineteenth century. Since Rusyns were a stateless people, their nationalism was dependent on the results of the activity of often self-appointed leaders, the nationalist intelligentsia, who tried "to awaken" among the people an awareness of a common "national" identity. Three Rusyn national awakenings or revivals have occurred since the nineteenth century. The first began in conjunction with the Revolution of 1848 in the Habsburg Empire and lasted just over two decades until, in the early 1870s, it was gradually suppressed by the Hungarian Kingdom's policy

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture of state nationalism and magyarization. The second Rusyn national revival occurred during the interwar years of the twentieth century. It was based primarily in the democratic state of Czechoslovakia, where Rusyns enjoyed full cultural autonomy and the beginnings of political autonomy in the form of the separate province of *Subcarpathian Rus'. This movement came to an end as a result of the events connected with World War II and the establishment of postwar Sovietdominated Communist regimes, which repressed the idea of a distinct Rusyn culture and identity. The third Rusyn national revival began in connection with the Revolution of 1989 and the political and social changes taking place throughout post-Communist central and eastern Europe. These changes, characterized by the acceptance and encouragement of liberal democratic principles, have prompted many states where Rusyns live to promote equality among the various peoples and to tolerate national groups that had been restricted or even repressed by the previous Communist regimes. The third revival is still in progress and is distinguished from previous ones in that for the first time it encompasses and is coordinated by Rusyns in all countries where they live (Ukraine, Slovakia, Poland, Hungary, Yugoslavia, and the United States). Whereas the proponents of Rusyn nationalism have consistently felt that they were working on behalf of the cultural and psychological welfare of "the people" (narod), the Rusyn masses themselves have traditionally been reluctant to embrace the nationalist cause. In the popular Rusyn mind, nationalism is associated with politics, and more often than not with policies of the states which have ruled the area. Those states, however, seemed never to have worked to the political, economic, or cultural benefit of Rusyns. In the Rusyn mind the state and politics (including nationalism) should be dealt with minimally, as a necessary evil, and not be actively embraced or refashioned to serve citizen interests. The traditionally multicultural nature of Rusyn society, in which daily interaction with peoples of other cultures and religions has been the norm rather than the exception, has also mitigated against nationalism. Imbued with the multicultural experience and a significant degree of tolerance for others, Rusyns are more likely to stress accommodation and cultural similarities with their neighbors than the kind of distinctiveness and often exclusivity that the ideology of nationalism often demands. Consequently, for Rusyns nationalism has a negative connotation and is often associated with state peoples who have ruled them in the past or present, whether *Magyars, *Poles, * Slovaks, or *Ukrainians. Finally, Rusyn culture has been strongly influenced by the principles of Christian universalism. Why stress national distinctions when Christians are expected to follow the precept of all in one? Despite the skepticism of the Rusyn populace at large, some of their leaders continue to press the cause of nationalism. The basic argument of the intellectual leadership is that Rusyn culture and language are worthy phenomena, and that

their existence in the future as well as the very survival of Rusyns as a people depends on a willingness to embrace the basic goals of nationalism; namely, recognition of distinctions between peoples and pride in one's own language, culture, and identity. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Natsionalni sovit Rusnatsokh. See Ramach, luliian

Nauka — weekly newspaper published in Uzhhorod (18971914,1918-22) as the official organ of the *St. Basil the Great Society and its successor (after 1902), the *Unio Publishing Company. Nauka, together with its short-lived supplement Selo (1911-12), appeared in the Rusyn vernacular; the paper's chief editors included lulii Chuchka, Vasylii *Hadzhega, and Avhustyn *Voloshyn (after 1903), whose basic policy was to support the idea of Hungarian state patriotism. Aside from contemporary news items on local developments, Nauka also included articles about Rusyn history and culture by local scholars (Hiiador *Stryps'kyi, Antal *Hodynka, lurii *Zhatkovych). Its editors participated in a campaign to establish a historical or regional cultural museum for Subcarpathian Rus' and frequently promoted publications by foreign authors, mostly from the Russian Empire (L. lavdyk, A. Vasil'iev, Aleksei L. *Petrov), about the region. Nauka ceased publication at the outset of World War I. The paper was revived in June 1918; it changed its name to Rus 'ka Krayna (January-September 1919) but later reverted to Nauka. In the immediate postwar era it covered the various political trends in the region, but eventually supported the view that * Subcarpathian Rus' should become part of Czechoslovakia. In 1922 Nauka again ceased publication and was replaced by the clearly pro-Ukrainian-oriented newspaper, *Svoboda. Further reading: Vasyl' Habor, Ukrains 'ki chasopysy Uzhhoroda, 1867-1944 (Eviv, 2003), pp. 144-163. IVAN POP

Naukovi zapysky KSUT. See Cultural Union of Ukrainian Workers Naukovi zapysky Uzhhorods'koho derzhavnoho universytetu — scholarly journal published irregularly in Ukrainian by Uzhhorod State University in the Transcarpathian oblast of Soviet Ukraine. A total of 50 volumes appeared between 1947 and 1963 in several sub-series in the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences. Nearly half the volumes dealt with history, language, and literature, and a high percentage of the articles focused specifically on * Subcarpathian Rus'/Transcarpathia. Most of the Naukovi zapysky's authors were professors at Uzhhorod State University, such as losyp *Dzendzelivs'kyi, Ivan *Hranchak, Mykola *Lelekach, Vasyl'

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Netochaiev, Fedor *Potushniak, Illia *Shul'ha, and Mykhailo *Troian, who were expected to produce studies that elaborated the Soviet Marxist understanding ofRusyn history and culture. Among the basic tenets of Soviet Marxist Historiography were that: (1) Rusyns are a branch of the Ukrainian nationality; (2) the Rusyn spoken language is comprised of several dialects of Ukrainian; (3) the Rusyn homeland, called "*Transcarpathian Ukraine," was part of medieval Kievan Rus' until "occupied" by foreign exploiters in the form of the Hungarian Kingdom and later the Czechoslovak "bourgeois" state; and (4) the Rusyn working classes were always striving and hoping to be united with their Ukrainian brethren in the east. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Naukovo-doslidnyi instytut karpatoznavstva. See University departments Naukovyi zbirnyk Muzeiu ukrains 'ko'i kul'tury u Svydnyku — a series of scholarly volumes published by the Museum of Ukrainian-Rus' Culture in Svidnik, Slovakia. The Naukovyi zbirnyk was originally scheduled to be published once each year; 22 volumes appeared between 1965 and 2001, ranging in size from 400 to 1300 pages each. Most of the studies deal with Carpatho-Rusyns in the *Presov Region and in *Subcarpathian Rus'. The texts are primarily in Ukrainian, although occasionally studies appear in Russian, Czech, and Slovak. Among the editors of the series have been Mykola *Mushynka, Ivan *Matsyns'kyi, Ivan Rusynko, and Myroslav *Sopolyga. There are three kinds of volumes in the Naukovyi zbirnyk series. Some are collections of scholarly studies by various authors in the fields of history, language, literature, ethnography, and folklore. Some of these collections also include reviews of recent scholarly publications and reports of the activity of the Svidnik's *Museum of Ukrainian-Rus' Culture and other cultural institutions concerned with Rusyns in eastern Slovakia. Other volumes include studies devoted to a specific person, such as the ethnographer Volodymyr *Hnatiuk (Volume I) and the linguist Ivan *Pan'kevych (Volume IV), or to a single theme, such as Rusyns in World War II (Volume II) or the material culture of the dismantled Rusyn villages in the Cirocha valley (Volume IX). Finally, some volumes are comprised of the text of a single monograph, such as the work by Blanka Kovachovychova-Pushkar and Imrikh Pushkar on wooden churches (Volume V) and by Pavlo *Markovych on painted Easter eggs in eastern Slovakia (Volume VI, pt. 2). The basic ideological goal of the Naukovyi zbirnyk is to emphasize that Carpatho-Rusyns are a branch of the Ukrainian nationality and that their cultural and historical evolution should be viewed within the context of larger Ukrainian developments. Another goal of the series has been to publish manuscripts of significance for Rusyn culture and history. This has been the Naukovyi zbirnyk's greatest

achievement. Among works it has published for the first time are: Ivan A. Stavrovs'kyi's 1846 Pedagogia (Volume VII); lakiv *Holovats'kyi's "Little Russian" dictionary (Volume X); Vasyl'*Dovhovych's 1832 Poemata (Volume X); two eighteenth-century grammars by Arsenii *Kotsak (Volume XV, pt. 2); Vasyl' *Grendzha-Dons'kyi's 1938-1939 diary (Volume XIX); Mykola Duichak's dictionary ofRusyn toponyms in eastern Slovakia (Volumes XIX-XX); Aleksander *Dukhnovych's diary and notes (Volumes XX-XXI); and the entire six-volume History of Carpatho-Rusyns completed in 1843 by Mykhai'l *Luchkai in the Latin original and in Ukrainian translation (Volumes XI-XXI). Further reading: Anna Lakata, "Naukovyi zbirnyk Svydnyts'koho muzeiu ukrai'ns'koi kul'tury, t. 1-15: bibliohrafichnyi pokazhchyk (1965-1989)," Naukovyi zbirnyk Muzeiu ukrains'ko'i kul'tury u Svydnyku, XVI (Bratislava and Presov, 1990), pp. 353-378; Mykola Mushynka, "Nad dvadtsiatym tomom 'Naukovoho zbirnyka Derzhavnoho muzeiu ukrains'ko-rus'ko'i kul'tury'," ibid., XX (1995), pp. 17-30. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Naukovyizbornyk Tovarystva "Prosvita"—scholarly journal published in Uzhhorod (1922-38) by the *Prosvita Society of Subcarpathian Rus'. Originally planned as an annual yearbook, 14 issues of relatively substantial size (200-300 pages) eventually appeared under the direction of an editorial board that included the Subcarpathians Avhustyn * Voloshyn and Vasylii *Hadzhega and the Galician-Ukrainian emigres Ivan *Pan'kevych and Volodymyr *Birchak. The Naukovyi zbornyk contained high-quality scholarly studies focusing on the history, literature, language, ethnography, archeology, and physical geography of * Subcarpathian Rus' and its Rusyn inhabitants. Particularly valuable was the appearance of previously unpublished historical documents, early literary texts, and transcriptions of folk music and songs. Although generally of Ukrainian orientation (its last two issues, 19371938, appeared under the title Naukovyi zbirnyk), the journal published studies by authors of various national persuasions, including, aside from members of the editorial board, Frantisek *Gabriel, lulian *Iavorskii, Hlib *Kinakh, Filaret *Kolessa, Mykola *Lelekach, levhenii *Perfets'kyi, Stepan Rudnyts'kyi, Vsevolod *Sakhanev, Hiiador *Stryps'kyi, Frantisek *Tichy, and Volodymyr Zalozets'kyi. In 1996 the journal was revived under the editorship of Pavlo *Fedaka. Further reading: V.V. Pal'ok, "Naukova i vydavnycha diial'nist' Tovarystva 'Prosvita' na Zakarpatti v 20—30-kh rokokh XX. St.," Karpatyka, I (Uzhhorod, 1992), pp. 155-161; Vasyl' Habor, Ukrains'ki chasopysy Uzhhoroda, 1867-1944 (Eviv, 2003), pp. 250-257. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Naumovych, Ivan. See Kachkovs'kyi Society

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Necas, Jaromir. See Czechs; Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region; SocialDemocratic party Nedilia — weekly newspaper published in Budapest (18981919) for the Rusyn population by Hungary's Ministry of Agriculture. Its founding editor was Kalman/Koloman Demko, but after the first 18 issues Nedila was for the rest of its existence under the editorship of Mykhai'l *Vrabel'. Nedilia eventually appeared in the Rusyn vernacular language and included news translated from the Hungarian press as well as literary works by Rusyn authors. In 1916 the Hungarian government banned the use of the *Cyrillic alphabet in most of the remaining Rusyn publications and the newspaper appeared thereafter in the Roman alphabet (Hungarian transcription) as Negyelya. Nevertheless, Nedilia did promote a sense of Rusyn national identity, which it helped to preserve during the last two decades of Hungarian rule over * Subcarpathian Rus', the *Presov Region, and the *Vojvodina. Among its most frequent Rusyn contributors were Hryhorii *Hanuliak, Irynei *Legeza, lulii *Brashchaiko, Mykhailo *Brashchaiko, Emilij *Kubek, and Ivan *Polivka.

of southern Subcarpathian Rus' to Hungary in November 1938, Nedilia ceased publication. It was renewed, however, in January 1939 under the title Nova nedilia as a "weekly political, literary, and non-party affiliated newspaper for Subcarpathian Rusyns." Its editor-in-chief was Aleksander *Il'nyts'kyi, although the paper was actually prepared by Teodor Ortutai and Aleksander Nemet. In contrast to its predecessor, Nova nedilia supported the idea ofRusyn unity with the Hungarian state, although on the basis of *autonomy for the region. It supported the view that Rusyns formed a distinct nationality with their own language and it was highly critical of the Carpatho-Ukrainian autonomous government until its demise (March 15,1939). Nova nedilia appeared in a total of 32 issues until October 22,1939. Thereafter, it appeared under the title Karpatska nedilia—the "organ of Hungarian-Rusyn brotherhood"-—until it ceased publication in 1941. Further reading: M.I. Kapral', "Nova Nedilia," in Kateryna I. Horvat and Myroslav P. Fabian, eds., lubileinyi zbirnyk na chest' 70 richchia vid dnia narodzhennia prof. Petra Lyzantsia (Uzhhorod, 2000), pp. 234-240; Vasyl' Habor, Ukrains 'ki chasopysy Uzhhoroda, 1867-1944 (Eviv, 2003), pp. 418-422. MYKHAILO KAPRAL IVAN POP

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Nedilia — weekly newspaper ofRusyn national orientation published in Uzhhorod under various names (1935-41) and financed by the Greek Catholic bishop of Mukachevo, Aleksander *Stoika. Initially under the editorship of Emilian *Bokshai (1935-1938), Nedilia spoke out against both Ukrainian *irredentism and Russian *pan-Slavism. The newspaper's credo was: "we do not need any kind of Ukrainian political ideology, since we would rather be a small drop in a non-Rus' state than a nothing in your Ukrainian one! ... We also do not need to wish for anything from Slavism or from Russia, which never intervened to save us when it had the chance." The editors of Nedilia set out to convince the inhabitants of * Subcarpathian Rus' that they should be proud of the fact that they were Rusyns, and that given their "historical, legal, and cultural situation" they should form a distinct national entity. Only by orienting themselves toward Czechoslovakia would Rusyns be able to guarantee the development of their national existence. Those who came to support these views were labeled by their rivals (especially the *Ukrainophiles) as nediliashnyky. The appearance of Nedilia and its orientation coincided with the change in the Czechoslovak government's policy toward Subcarpathian Rus' as proclaimed by Minister of Foreign Affairs Edvard *Benes during a visit to Uzhhorod in May 1934; namely, an end to support for Russian and Ukrainian emigres in the province in favor of support for the Rusyn orientation as the only reliable pro-Czechoslovak element. Following Czechoslovakia's loss of Uzhhorod and the rest

Nedilia — a weekly "newspaper of civic affairs" published in Uzhhorod (1941-44) as the organ of Hungary's Catholic Organization of Rural Youth (KALOT) and its Subcarpathian branch, the Organization of Greek Catholic Youth. Under the editorship of Aleksander *H'nyts'kyi (1941-1943) and Basil *Shereghy (1943-1944), Nedilia was the most influential newspaper in * Subcarpathian Rus' during World War II, appearing in 10,000 copies per issue under the overall authority of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo. Published in the Rusyn language (according to the grammar of Ivan *Haraida), the newspaper included general items of local and international news, agricultural information, war reports from the front, and activity reports on national Catholic and Subcarpathian Greek Catholic youth organizations. It also contained Rusyn literary works and ethnographic and folkloric materials, often published anonymously or signed with cryptonyms. After Hungary annexed the *Vojvodina from Yugoslavia (1941) Nedilia included special news and sports rubrics for Rusyns from that region, written in the Vojvodinian/Backa Rusyn language. With the arrival of Soviet troops, Nedilia s last issue appeared on October 15, 1944. MYKHAILO KAPRAL

Nedilia Rusyna — illustrated magazine published weekly in Uzhhorod (1923) as a Sunday supplement for the daily newspaper *Rusyn. A total of 43 issues of Nedilia Rusyna appeared on high-quality glossy paper; its goal was to raise the aesthetic expectations of readers. Most of the material consisted of popular articles on the history of *Subcarpath-

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ian Rus' and its leading historic figures. The magazine was profusely illustrated with line drawings by the painter losyf *Bokshai. Further reading: Vasyl' Habor, Ukrains 'ki chasopysy Uzhhoroda, 1867-1944 (Eviv, 2003), pp. 267-268. IVAN POP

Nedzel'skii, Evgenii LeopoI'dovich (pseudonyms: I. Goverla, Aleksei Izvorin, N. Sredin, V. Turii, lurii Vir) (b. November 16,1894, Sumy [Kharkiv province, Russian Empire], Ukraine; d. 1961, Prague [Czechoslovakia], Czech Republic) — Russian emigre literary scholar, folklorist, church historian, translator, journalist, and poet in Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region. Nedzel'skii's studies at the historical and philosophical faculty of Moscow University (1914-1917) were interrupted by the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia. He joined the anti-Bolshevik White forces, but soon became disillusioned with their cause and fled his homeland in late 1919. The following year he arrived in Prague and studied Slavic folklore and Czech literature and history at Charles University (Ph.D., 1926). In 1927, he accepted an invitation from the *Dukhnovych Society to come to Uzhhorod, where he initially worked for them as a librarian. He subsequently was a staff writer for Russophile-oriented journals and newspapers (*Karpatskii sviet, *Karpatorusskii golos) and editor (1935-1938) of*Russkii narodnyigolos. He remained in * Subcarpathian Rus' after the province was annexed to Hungary (1939) and continued to write for the Rusyn press. As World War II drew to a close and the Soviet Army approached the region, Nedzel'skii, as a former anti-Bolshevik White soldier, feared arrest by the Soviet secret police. He fled to Prague, taught at a gymnasium there (1945-1947), then went to Presov, where he worked as an editor (1947-1958) for the Orthodox Exarchate of the Moscow Patriarchate. Nedzel'skii is best known for his synthetic works on aspects ofRusyn culture. He published a major historical survey of Rusyn literature from earliest times to the present (Ocherk karpatorusskoi literatury, 1932) and wrote the first substantive histories of theatrical life in Subcarpathian Rus' (Ugrorusskii teatr, 1941) and of modern Rusyn art ("Suchasnyi rus'ki khudozhnyky," 1942-43). He also edited two volumes of poetry by young Russophile-oriented Rusyns living under Hungarian rule (Nakanunie, 1941; Literaturnyi al'manakh, 1943) and an extensive biography of the nineteenth-century writer Ivan *Sil'vai (1957). His interests in Rusyn folklore resulted in a description of funeral rites and customs (1942) and a collection with extensive analysis of proverbs, sayings, and aphorisms (Z ust narodu, 1955). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Nehrebeczky, Sandor. See St. Basil the Great Society

Neliakh, V. See Khyliak, Vladymir Nemcova, Melania. See PULS Nemec, Frantisek (b. May 20, 1898, Libisany [Austrian Bohemia], Czech Republic; d. March 19, 1963, Montreal, Quebec, Canada) — Czech journalist and political activist. Nemec was a deputy (1933-1939) in the Czechoslovak parliament for the Social Democratic party, and after the dissolution of the country (March 1939) he joined the antiNazi underground movement. In 1940 Nemec emigrated to France and soon after to Great Britain, where he served as minister of social welfare (1940-1942) and minister of economic reconstruction (1942-1944) in the Czechoslovak government-in-exile based in London. In late 1944 he was appointed minster for his country's liberated territory and from October to December of that year he headed Czechoslovakia's administration in * Subcarpathian Rus'. Since Subcarpathian Rus' was de jure part of Czechoslovakia, Nemec tried to set up an administration, revive economic life, and mobilize young men into the Czechoslovak Army. He met strong resistance, however, from the Soviet military, which was engaged in preparing the ground for the annexation of Subcarpathian Rus', as a strategic bridgehead in central Europe, to the Soviet Union. Nemec and his administration were continually harassed, and at times threatened with force, by the Soviet military authorities and their local allies, both Subcarpathian *Communist party members and the National Council of *Transcarpathian Ukraine. Unable to withstand such pressure, Nemec together with part of his administration left Subcarpathian Rus' on December 8, 1944. His own assessment of conditions in Subcarpathian Rus' was such that on his departure Nemec recommended to Czechoslovakia's President Edvard *Benes that the province be ceded immediately to the Soviet Union. After the war Nemec worked in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and in 1947 he was appointed Czechoslovakia's ambassador to Canada. When his country was taken over by a Communist regime (February 1948), he remained in exile in Canada, where he subsequently co-authored with Vladimir Moudry a detailed account (with numerous documents) of his mission to Subcarpathian Rus' in 1944 and how the region was annexed the following year to the Soviet Union (The Soviet Seizure of Subcarpathian Ruthenia, 1955). IVAN POP Nemeshi/Niameshi — members of the aristocratic petty gentry in the Hungarian Kingdom. This stratum of the gentry, quite typical for Rusyn-inhabited *Maramorosh county, was connected with *Vlach colonization and the so-called Vlach Law, or right of free settlement. In return for service to the

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political scene. Further reading: Vladimir A. Bobrinskii, Prazhskiis"iezd: Chekhiia i Prikarpatskaia Rus' (St. Petersburg, 1909); Paul Vysny, NeoSlavism and the Czechs, 1898-1914 (Cambridge, 1977). IVAN POP

Netochaiev, VasyF I. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region

IVAN POP

Nemet, Aleksander. See Nedilia (1935-41) Neo-Slavism — a political movement at the outset of the twentieth century that replaced the failed policy of Russian national *pan-Slavism and served as a barrier against the growing impact of pan-Germanism. Neo-Slavism's ideologists argued for a wide range of cooperation in the cultural and economic spheres among the Slavic peoples of central, eastern, and southern Europe, whose hopes for political unity could not be achieved if there were a catastrophic military conflict between Austria-Hungary and Russia. Consequently, the leaders among the main Slavic peoples in Austria-Hungary set out to break the *Habsburg alliance with Germany and to push the government in Vienna closer to the Russian Empire. Following the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary (1908) neo-Slavism was transformed into "neo-*Austroslavism" in the hope that the Habsburg state would evolve from a dual into a triune monarchy, one in which a third element, the Slavic peoples, would be politically and economically equal to the other two elements, the Hungarians and Austro-Germans. At Slavic Congresses, which took place in Prague (1908), St.Petersburg/Petrograd (1909), and Sofia (1910), the expected calls for Slavic unity were marred by a conflict of basic principles between Poles and Russians and between Serbs and Bulgarians. Attempts at reaching a compromise, made by Czech neo-Slavists led by Karel Kramaf, met with failure. During its brief period of existence the neo-Slavism movement promoted the creation of a bloc of Slavic deputies in the Austrian parliament, the so-called Slavonic Unity (1909), although it did not include the Polish and *Ukrainophile deputies from Galicia. Neo-Slavists also encouraged cooperation between the deputy to the Russian parliament (Duma) Vladimir Bobrinskii, the *Russophile newspaper editor in Bukovina Aleksei *Gerovskii, and the Subcarpathian Orthodox archimandrite Aleksei *Kabaliuk in their efforts at the outset of the twentieth century to return Greek Catholic Rusyns to the Orthodox or the "true Rus'" faith. Considering the already well-developed military alliances that had come into being in Europe in the decades before World War I, neo-Slavism played only a marginal role on the international

Neumann, Stanislav Kostka (b. June 5, 1875, Prague [Austrian Bohemia], Czech Republic; d. June 28,1947, Prague [Czechoslovakia], Czech Republic) — Czech belletrist, editor, publicist, translator, and literary critic. The son of a lawyer and deputy in Habsburg Austria's parliament, Neumann was ideologically inclined toward anarchism and later the Communist movement in Czechoslovakia during the interwar years. Like other Czech intellectuals sympathetic to *Communism, Neumann visited * Subcarpathian Rus' during the 1930s, in part to become further convinced of the inability of "bourgeois" Czechoslovakia to resolve the serious social problems of its far eastern province. His experiences there were described in a two-volume travelogue, Ceskoslovenska cesta (1934-35), and in a series of essays, Encidny z Popa Ivana (1933), and collection of poetry, Bezedny rok (1945), inspired by Subcarpathia's natural beauty. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Nevyts'ka, Iryna (pseudonyms: Anna Novak, Anna Horniak) (b. Iryna Buryk, December 10, 1886, Zbudska Bela [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. November 21, 1965, Presov [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — belletrist and cultural and political activist of Ukrainian national orientation in the Presov Region and in Subcarpathian Rus'. Upon completion of the lower-level Hungarian gymnasium in Sabinov Nevyts'ka began to study at the *Presov Greek Catholic Teachers' College. Before completing her studies she married (1903) one of her instructors, the future Greek Catholic priest, Emilian *Nevyts'kyi, whom she joined as he served parishes in Cicava (1903-1909) and the *Spish county Rusyn village of Udol/Ujak (1909-1922). While in Udol she helped her husband organize in nearby Stara Eubovna (November 1918) the first Rusyn National Council to be established during the post-World War I era. After her husband left permanently for the United States (1922) Nevyts'ka moved to Presov. There she established the first Rusyn women's organization, the Union ofRusyn Women in the Presov Region/Soiuz russkykh zhen u Priashevi (1922), compiled for it an almanac, and organized for the first time in Presov an exhibition ofRusyn art (1927). She also helped to organize the Ukrainian-oriented *Prosvita Society in Presov (1930) and published the first Ukrainian-language newspaper to appear in the *Presov Region, *Slovo naroda (1931-32).

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In 1932 Nevyts'ka moved to Subcarpathia's administrative center of Uzhhorod, where she set up a women's branch of the regional Prosvita Society and convened the first congress of Ukrainophile-oriented women (1934). She also established and served as chairperson (1936-1938) of the Ukrainian Agriculturist-Workers' party, and during Czechoslovakia's political crisis in 1938 she was a member of the executive committee of the joint Russophile-Ukrainophile *Central Rusyn National Council. After Hungary was awarded Uzhhorod (November 1938) Nevyts'ka returned to Presov, where she remained for the rest of her life, although without playing any role in cultural or political affairs of the Presov Region. Nevyts'ka's literary career began as early as 1905, after which she wrote numerous works, the best known of which were poems, fairy tales, and short stories for children that appeared in several interwar Subcarpathian textbooks. She also set up some of the first amateur theatrical circles in the Presov Region, for which she wrote plays. Nevyts'ka is the author of the first novel by a Subcarpathian author. Entitled Pravda pobidyla (1924), it is in effect a Rusyn version of the well-known novel Quo vadis, by the Polish writer and nobel-prize laureate, Henryk Sienkiewicz. Several of her tales written in the 1920s appeared posthumously in two volumes (Matii Kukolka, 1968; Pryhody Matiia Kukolky, 1994) as did a short autobiography (1991). Further reading: Olena Rudlovchak,, "Pisliamova," in Iryna Nevyts'ka, Matii Kukolka (Bratislava and Presov, 1968), pp. 141153; Mykhailo Mol'nar, "Zhadka pro zabutu pys'mennytsiu Irynu Nevyts'ku," in idem, Zustrichi kul'tur (Bratislava and Presov, 1980), pp. 448-454. IVAN POP

Nevyts'kyi, Emilian (b. June 20, 1878, Semetkovce [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. December 30,1939, Minersville, Pennsylvania, USA) — priest, pedagogue, and political activist of Ukrainian national orientation in the Presov Region and the United States. Nevyts'kyi completed his theological formation at the Presov and Budapest Theological Seminaries and became qualified to teach after studying at the University of Budapest. He taught at the *Presov Greek Catholic Teachers' College and after ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1903) served in Cicava (1903-1909) and at the *Spish county Rusyn parish of Udol/Ujak (1909-1922), where, with the assistance of his wife, Iryna *Nevyts'ka, he organized in nearby Stara Lubovna (November 8, 1918) the first national council to be founded among Rusyns after World War I. At the urging of the Nevyts'kyis, it called for union with the West Ukrainian National Republic in Eviv. During the subsequent weeks Nevyts'kyi spoke out against attempts to reach any compromise with Hungary (at the time under a government headed by Mihaly Karoly) and conducted a plebiscite in the *Presov Region, the results of

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture which indicated public disfavor with the idea remaining with Hungary. With the arrival of Czechoslovak troops in Presov in December 1918 Nevyts'kyi lost his influence among the local Rusyn population, which began to lean toward the more realistic pro-Czechoslovak political orientation proposed by Antonii *Beskyd. By 1919 Nevyts'kyi had become a close associate of the Rusyn-American leader and first governor of Subcarpathian Rus', Gregory *Zhatkovych. Nevyts'kyi was sent to the United States to raise financial support for the homeland among Rusyn immigrants. Toward the end of 1920, he had returned home but was suspected by the authorities of antiCzechoslovak activity and placed under observation. Fearing arrest, Nevyts'kyi decided to emigrate permanently to the United States (1922), where he served as a priest in the Rusyn Greek Catholic Exarchate of Pittsburgh. His last effort at political activity was made in 1938, when he organized the Committee for the Defense of Carpatho-Ukraine/Komitet oborony Karpats'ko'i Ukrai'ny. This proved unsuccessful, since Rusyn-American immigrants were not sympathetic to the Ukrainian national orientation. IVAN POP

New Rusyn Times — bi-monthly illustrated magazine published in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (1994- ), as the official organ of the *Carpatho-Rusyn Society/Karpato-rusyns'ke obshchestvo. Since its inception the New Rusyn Times has been edited by Richard D. Custer. Aside from publishing news about the Carpatho-Rusyn Society and other cultural and community activity among Rusyns in the United States, the magazine includes reports on current developments and articles on the historical past and language of Rusyns throughout the European homeland. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Niagovo postilla. See Language question; Literature, Early manuscripts Niameshi. See Nemeshi

Niaradi, Zvonimir (b. February 14, 1966, Ruski Kerestur [Yugoslavia], Serbia; d. April 15, 1993, Ruski Kerestur [Yugoslavia], Serbia) — belletrist and literary critic among the Vojvodinian Rusyns. After completing the Rusyn gymnasium in Ruski Kerestur Niaradi studied Rusyn language and literature at the University of Novi Sad. He published two collections of poetry, Obshednuti zoz tsiniami (1987) and Osobne niebo (1990), on the basis of which critics considered him among the most talented Vojvodinian Rusyn poets of the younger generation. His lyric poetry is imbued with intellectual qualities and profound reflections about the

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture world and the self. Niaradi's works have been translated into Serbo-Croatian, Ukrainian, and Hungarian, and he has been a repeated winner of the annual poetry festival, "Struni shertsa," in Ruski Kerestur.

Ruski kalendar 1991 (Novi Sad, 1990), pp. 202-207; Mykhailo Malatsko, "Preosviashchennyi vladyka dr Dionizii Niaradi—apostol i misioner," Glas/Holos rusyniv i ukrai'ntsiv luhoslavii, No. 4 (Novi Sad, 2001), pp. 37-51 and No. 5, pp. 50-58.

ALEKSANDR D. DULICHENKO

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Niaradii, Dionisii (b. October 10, 1874, Ruski Kerestur [Hungarian Kingdom],Serbia; d. April 14,1940, Mrzlo Polje [Yugoslavia], Croatia) — priest and church hierarch of Ukrainian national orientation in Croatia, the Presov Region, and Subcarpathian Rus'. A Rusyn from the Vojvodina, Niaradii did his gymnasium studies in Zagreb, Croatia (1896), during which time he also read about the Ukrainian movement in Galicia. He studied at the state university in Zagreb, earning a doctorate in theology. After ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1899) he soon became prefect, then rector (1902) of the theological seminary in Zagreb and parish priest for the Croatian Greek Catholic community in that city. In January 1915 he was consecrated a bishop and for a quarter of a century Niaradii headed as administrator (1914-1920) and bishop (1920-1940) the *Greek Catholic Eparchy in Krizevci, which was based in Croatia but also included within its jurisdiction his native *Vojvodina/Backa region. While still bishop of Krizevci, the Vatican assigned Niaradii as temporary apostolic administrator of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov (1922-1927), during which time he helped to contain the rapid spread of Orthodoxy among Rusyns in eastern Slovakia. Following the Vienna Award of November 1938, the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo in neighboring * Subcarpathian Rus' was divided into two parts. The smaller part, including the episcopal residence in Uzhhorod, remained under Bishop Aleksander *Stoika. The Vatican appointed Niaradii as apostolic administrator (November 15) of the larger part of the eparchy with its 280 parishes that remained within the borders of autonomous Subcarpathian Rus'/*Carpatho-Ukraine. During his administration, which was based in Khust and lasted exactly four months until March 1939, Bishop Niaradii supported the Ukrainian national orientation promoted by the *Basilian Order, appointing from the order Stepan Reshetylo as his secretary and Sevastiian *Sabol as editor of the popular journal *Blahovistnyk. Other pro-Ukrainian monks and nuns displaced by the Hungarian annexation of the Subcarpathian lowlands were assigned to the educational administration of Carpatho-Ukraine. After the rest of Subcarpathian Rus' was annexed by Hungary (March 15, 1939) Niaradii left Khust to resume his duties as bishop of Krizevci in Yugoslavia. Further reading: Mikhailo Firak, "Vladika dr. Dionizii Niaradi," in Ruski kalendarza Rusinokh u luhoslavii na prosti rok 1941 (Ruski Kerestur, 1940), pp. 1-16; Mikhail Maka'i, "100-rochnitsa rodzenia Vladiki Dioniziia," in Khristiianskii kalendar 1976 (Ruski Kerestur, 1975), pp. 41-53; Liubomir Medieshi, "Viari nie chas umerania,"

Niederle, Lubor (b. September 20, 1865, Klatovy [Austrian Bohemia] Czech Republic; d. June 14, 1944, Prague [Czechoslovakia], Czech Republic) — renowned Czech archeologist and ethnographer best known for his classic study of the archeology and early history of the Slavic peoples, Slovanske starozitnosti, 4 vols. (1902-24). In this work and in studies devoted specifically to the Carpathian region ("Pocatky Karpatske Rusi," 1922; "Pocatky slovanskeho osidleni na Podkarpatske Rusi," 1931), Niederle argued that the ancestors of the present-day Rusyns first began to settle the region in the fifth century as part of the Hunnic incursion into the Danubian Basin. He also wrote a detailed study and mapped the ethnographic boundary between Rusyns and Slovaks in the *Presov Region at the outset of the twentieth century ("K sporu o ruskoslovenske rozhrani v Uhrach," 1903). IVAN POP Nieznany. See Humetskii, Modest Nikifor Krynicki. See Nykyfor Krynytskii Nikii. See Khyliak, Vladimir Nikola Suhaj loupeznik. See Cinema; Olbracht, Ivan; Shuhai, Nikolai Nimchuk, Dmytro. See Vpered Nod', Ivan. See Kralyts'kyi, Anatolii Nod', Nykolai/Nagy, Nikolaj (b. 1819, Nyirvasvari [Hungarian Kingdom], Hungary; d. June 11, 1862, Vienna [Habsburg Empire], Austria) — priest, pedagogue, choral director, and poet among Rusyns in the Habsburg Empire. Nod' graduated from the Uzhhorod Theological Seminary, where he studied music and choral directing with Konstantin *Matezonskii. After ordination as a Greek Catholic priest in 1843 he served briefly in the parish at Sighet, where he set up a church choir and Rusyn school, and then in a small Rusyn village in *Maramarosh county before being transferred to Uzhhorod, where he taught at the Theological Seminary. In 1849 Nod' was assigned to Vienna and until his death served as the parish priest at the Greek Catholic Church of St. Barbara. He published a collection of his own poetry and Rusyn

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folk songs (Russkii soloviy, 1851; repr. 1989) as well as a collection of religious songs for children (Pamiat'yz otpusta dobrym ditiem, 1851). During his tenure at the church in Vienna, a time when the *Habsburg authorities were becoming increasingly suspicious of the Russian Empire, Nod' was suspected of harboring *Russophile sympathies, an accusation that had a negative impact on his health and contributed to his untimely death. Further reading: Giinther Wytrzens, "Der Wiener ruthenische Schriftsteller Nikolaj Nagy und seine Dichtungen," Wiener slawistisches Jahrbuch, XXXIV (Vienna, 1988), pp. 151-157; Olena Rudlovchak, "Mykola Nod' i ioho spadshchyna," Duklia, XL, 6 (Presov, 1992), pp. 48-53. MYKHAILO ALMASHII

Oleksa *Myshanych, the dissident Ukrainian nationalist from Czechoslovakia Mykola *Mushynka, the Soviet specialist on Vojvodinian Rusyn language Aleksandr *Dulichenko, and the pro-Rusyn American historian Paul Robert *Magocsi. By the outset of the twenty-first century Nova dumka published over 120 issues, usually four to six times a year. Further reading: Vasil Mudri, "Z nahodi iuvileinei dvatsets-rochni'tsi 'Novei dumki', 1971-1991," in Ruski kalendar 1991 (Novi Sad, 1990), pp. 59-65; Vlado Kostelnik, Havriil Takach, and Oksana Timko, Ujestve svojoho narodu: 30 roki "Novej dumki" (Vukovar, 2002). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Nova nedilia. See Nedilia

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Nova stsena theater. See Sheregii, lurii-Avhustyn Notary public/Notar — minor official who represented the state throughout Carpathian Rus' during the period 18671944. Large villages had their own notary public; smaller ones were grouped into a unit served by one notary. The notary public was responsible for issuing government seals on documents (notarization) and other bureaucratic functions, including the preparation of wills and papers for property transfer. As one of the few persons in a village who could write, notaries were often asked to read and write letters for individuals. The office of notary public was established in 1867 by the *Habsburg government and continued by the Czechoslovak and Polish governments after 1919. The position was abolished in 1944 by the Soviet regime in *Subcarpathian Rus' and eventually by the Communist regimes in Poland and Czechoslovakia. Further reading: lu. M. Bysaha, "Notarial'na sprava v Chekhoslovats'kyi respublytsi 1918-1938 IT.," in Naukovyi visnyk Uzhhorods'koho universytetu: Seriia istoriia, No. 3 (Uzhhorod, 1999), pp. 23-26.

Nova svoboda — daily newspaper published in Uzhhorod and Khust (1938-39) as the mouthpiece for the Ukrainophile orientation in Subcarpathian Rus' and subsequently of the autonomous government of *Carpatho-Ukraine headed by Avhustyn *Voloshyn. From the beginning of 1939 Nova svoboda was the official organ of the province's only legal political party, the Ukrainian National Union/Ukrai'ns'ke natsional'ne ob"iednannia. During its short existence, the newspaper was published in Ukrainian under various editors: Vasyl' Firtsak, Viktor Zheltvai, Fedir Revai, and Vasyl' *Grendzha-Dons'kyi. Nova svoboda consistently defended Ukrainian nationalist views and the policies of the Voloshyn government. It began to appear June 1938 as successor to the newspaper *Svoboda and ceased publication when CarpathoUkraine fell to the Hungarians on March 15, 1939. Further reading: M.M. Romaniuk, ed., Periodyka Zakhidnoi Ukrainy 20—30-kh rr. XXSt., Vol. I (Lviv, 1998), pp. 190-195.

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Novak, Andor. See Art

Nova dumka — popular educational and public affairs magazine published in Vukovar, later Zagreb, Croatia (1971- ), by the *Union of Rusyns and Ukrainians in Croatia. The founding and long-time editor (1971-1991) was Vlado *Kostelnik. Kostelnik's own historical articles set the general orientation of the publication, which was rooted in the belief that while the Vojvodinian Rusyns should maintain their own literary language, in terms of their nationality they should be considered Ukrainian and that their ancestral motherland (Maticha zem) was Ukraine. Most of the articles have appeared in Vojvodinian Rusyn, although some are in Ukrainian and Croatian. Nova dumka is unique in that it was the only publication before the fall of Communist rule in 1989 to include writings by authors of various political and scholarly persuasions, including the Soviet-Ukrainian Marxist

Novak, Anna. See Nevyts'ka, Iryna Novak, Shtefan. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov; St. John the Baptist Society Nove zhyttia — newspaper published in Presov (1951 -) in Ukrainian for the Rusyn population of eastern Slovakia. Nove zhyttia was initially published weekly by the Presov Regional Committee of the *Communist party of Czechoslovakia, during which time it was basically a translation into Ukrainian of the Slovak-language Communist party organ, Novy zivot. It subsequently became the official organ of the Central Committee of the *Cultural Union of Ukrainian Workers in

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Czechoslovakia (1959-1989) and of the *Union of RusynUkrainians of Slovakia (1990- ). Among its editors have been Viktor Kopchak (1959-1964), lurii Datsko (1965-1971, 1984-1989), and Myroslav Iliuk (1991- ). For nearly four decades, the pages ofNove zhyttia reflected the official policies of Czechoslovakia's Communist party, which included support for the collectivization of agricultural lands, praise for the country's close ties with the Soviet Union, and the adoption of the Ukrainian literary language and Ukrainian national identity by the local Rusyn population. The newspaper's views on the nationality question only began to vary when Communist rule was threatened. During the Prague Spring and its immediate aftermath (1968-1969) Nove zhyttia printed opinions that called for reviving the concept of a Rusyn nationality and began to publish some articles in Rusyn "dialect." Two decades later, following the collapse of the Communist regime in late 1989, a new section of the paper, Holos Rusyniv, written entirely in Rusyn, was introduced (in early 1990) during the brief tenure of Aleksander *Zozuliak as editor-in-chief. As official organ of the Union of Rusyn-Ukrainians of Slovakia, Nove zhyttia has since the 1990s been published bi-weekly; it supports the Ukrainian orientation, favors close ties with independent Ukraine, and criticizes all attempts to revive a distinct Rusyn nationality and literary language. Further reading: Olena Rudlovchak, Bilia dzerel suchasnosti (Bratislava and Presov, 1981), esp. pp. 298-303; Mariia Follrikh, "Fakty z istorii ukrai'ns'koi zhurnalistyky v Chekhoslovachchyni," in Naukovi zapysky KSUT, No. 11 (Presov, 1985), esp. pp. 119-123.

publisher and editor of what he described as a "non-political newspaper for Subcarpathian Rus'," but which in practice was an unofficial organ of the pro-government *Agrarian/ Republican Party. As such, Novoje vremja was positively oriented toward the Czechoslovak state. It appeared in Rusyn vernacular, with most of its articles using the Roman (Latin) alphabet. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Novosil'skii, lurii. See Nowosielski, Jerzy Novyi svit — weekly newspaper published in Uzhhorod (1871-72) as the official organ of the *St. Basil the Great Society/Obshchestvo sv. Vasiliia Velikago in Subcarpathian Rus'. Under the editorship of Viktor Gebei (1838-1896) Novyi svit replaced the newspaper Svit as part of the bishop of Mukachevo Shtefan *Pankovych's policy of trying to influence the St. Basil Society to adopt a more pro-Hungarian orientation. In the fall of 1871 Novyi svit and its editor Gebei played an active role in removing the *Russophiles Adol'f *Dobrians'kyi and loann *Rakovs'kyi from leadership in the society but even this was not enough for the bishop, who closed the newspaper in 1872 and replaced it with Karpat. Further reading: Vasyl' Habor, Ukrains 'ki chasopysy Uzhhoroda, 1867-1944 (Eviv, 2003), pp. 267-268. IVAN POP

Novyk, S. See Stryps'kyi, Hiiador

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Novinsko-vidavatel'na robotna organizatsiia

"Ruske slovo." See Ruske Slovo Publishing House Novoe vremia — weekly newspaper published in Medzilaborce (1940-44) for the Rusyn population in the Presov Region. Novoe vremia was permitted by the government of the Slovak state as long as it was printed in the *Cyrillic alphabet; in that way, the authorities believed, it would be inaccessible and therefore unlikely to "rusynize" Greek Catholic Slovaks. The newspaper was expected to promote the Russian national orientation while maintaining a position of loyalty toward the wartime Slovak state, which was allied to Nazi Ger-many. Edited by Havrii'l Mlynarych, Novoe vremia included a supplement for young people, lunoshestvo. It also published three issues of an annual almanac, Kalendar Novago vremeni( 1942-1944). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Novoje vremja — newspaper published in Uzhhorod (192533) by Viktor Geza Barany (1902-1943). Barany was both

Nowakowski, Krzysztof Z. See Historiography: Lemko Region Nowosielski, Jerzy/Novosil'skii, lurii (b. January 1, 1923, Cracow, Poland) — world-renowned painter, pedagogue, and art historian in Poland of Lemko ancestry. Nowosielski was trained in Cracow, first, during the Nazi German occupation, at the Kunstgewerbeschule (1940-1942) and later at the Academy of Fine Arts (1945-1947). He has taught at the Advanced School of Applied Art in Cracow (1947-1949) and in Lodz (1957-1962), and at the Academy of Fine Art in Cracow (1962-1993). Nowosielski argues that the major inspiration for his creativity—considered by critics to constitute an original school of artistic creation—comes from his contacts with the *Lemko Region, where Eastern (Byzantine Greek) and Western (Latin) Christianity meet. As a devout Orthodox believer and accomplished author on Eastern Christianity (Innosc Prawoslawia, 1985) and its art (Wokol ikony, 1990), Nowosielski considers painting to be a sacred act. His works have been exhibited worldwide, and he is also known for numerous iconostases and religious paintings done for both Byzantine- and Roman-rite churches in

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Poland and western Europe. Further reading: Olena Duts'-Faifer, "O. luriiu Novosil'skym—v 70-tu richnytsiu narodyn," in Lemkivskii kalendar 1993 (Legnica and Krynica, 1993), pp. 77-84. BOGDAN HORBAL

Nowy S^CZ. See District Nowy Targ. See District Nykyfor Krynytskii/Nikifor Krynicki (b. Epifanii Drovniak, May 21,1895, Krynica [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. October 10, 1968, Folusz, Poland) — world-renowned Lemko naive painter in Poland. Nykyfor, who never attended school and never learned to read or write, started painting at an early age, but was not "discovered" until the 1930s. His first exhibition was organized in Paris (1932) at the initiative of the Galician-Ukrainian painter, Roman Turyn. By World War II Nykyfor was largely forgotten, and after the conflict ended he was three times deported from the *Lemko Region to Szczecin in northern Poland. Undaunted, he returned three times on foot to his hometown of Krynica. In 1949 Nykyfor the artist was "rediscovered" with an exhibition in Warsaw. His works were subsequently shown in several cities in Poland (Sopot and Cracow) and abroad (London and Rome). Thanks to the Polish art experts, Andrzej and Ewa Banach, Nykyfor's works were even more widely exhibited: in 1959 (Amsterdam, Brussels, Liege, Jerusalem, and Haifa); in 1960 (Frankfurt, Hannover, Baden-Baden, and Basel); and subsequently in Vienna, London, Kiev, Zagreb, Munich, and the United States. All the while Nykyfor continued to live a life of wandering throughout the Lemko Region and along the streets of Krynica, but most of all he spent hours upon hours painting in a favorite spot in his hometown. He tried without much success to sell or simply give away his

works, which some experts have estimated to number 30,000. As late as 1966 Nykyfor was seen begging for money and he died two years later in poverty. In 1995 a permanent museum including 215 of his paintings as well as personal effects was established in Krynica. Many of Nykyfor's paintings capture his unique vision of the Lemko environment in which he spent almost all his life. Of particular importance was the Byzantine-rite church, which for him served as a place of reflection as well as shelter and whose icons provided artistic inspiration. Nevertheless, the artist, whose name has always been a source of pride for *Lemkos and who himself never learned Polish well, was transformed by Poland's Communist authorities (and in many works by the art historian Andrzej Banach) into a "Polish primitivist" named Jan Nikifor, and later Nikifor Krynicki. Such discriminatory practices were for a long time criticized publicly by Lemkos in Poland and abroad. It was only in the late 1990s, when the Nikifor Museum in Krynica refused to acknowledge his real name and when the local authorities refused to have that name added to his gravestone, that the *Union of Lemkos in Poland turned to the courts and eventually (2003) succeeded in having the artist's falsified birth certificate (issued as late as 1962) annulled. However, by the time of the court decision (2003), the artist's name became so well known in Poland and abroad as Nikifor Krynicki that it is likely he will remain familiar to the world in that form. Further reading: Tadeusz Zagorzanski, Nikifor: bibliografia w 100-lecie urodzin Nikifora (Warsaw, 1995); Andrzej Banach, Nikifor (Cracow, 1957); Andrzej Banach, Pamiqtka z Krynicy (Cracow, 1959); Ewa Banach, Historia o Nikiforze (Cracow, 1966); Andrzej Banach, Nikifor (Warsaw, 1983); Aleksander Jackowski, "'Nikifor' Andrzeja Banacha," Polska Sztuka Ludowa, XXXIX, 3-4 (Warsaw, 1985), pp. 239-244; Severyn A. Wislocki, "Epifan Drowniak czy Nikifor Krynicki?," Opcje, No. 4 (Katowice, 1995), pp. 111-115; Zbigniew Wolanin, Nikifor (Olszanica, 2000). BOGDAN HORBAL

o Obidnyi, Mykhailo. See Ethnographic Society of Subcarpathian Rus' Ob"iednannia Lemkiv Kanady. See Union of Lemkos in Canada

of Carpatho-Rusyns Obshchestvo russkikh bratstv. See Russian Brotherhood Organization

Ob"iednannia Lemkiv v Pol'shchi. See Union of Lemkos in Poland

Obshchestvo russkikh i ukrainskikh studentov "Dobrianskii." See Dobrians'kyi Carpatho-Russian Student Society; Stavrovs'kyi, Emilian

Ob"iednannia trudiashchoho selianstvo. See Holos zhyttia

Obshchestvo sv. loanna Krestitelia. See St. John the Baptist Society

Obsharov, I.S. See Shlepets'kyi, Ivan

Obshchestvo sv. Vasiliia Velikago. See St. Basil the Great Society

Obshcherusskii narod. See Russophiles Obshchestvo dieiatelei izobrazitel'nykh iskusstv na Podkarpatskii Rusi. See Art; Bokshai, losyf; Erdeli, Adalbert Obshchestvo druzei Karpatskoi Rusi im. F.F. Aristova. See Aristov Society of Friends of Carpathian Rus' Obshchestvo druzei Podkarpatskoi Rusi. See Tsibere, Pavel Obshchestvo im. Aleksandra Dukhnovicha. See Dukhnovich Society Obshchestvo im. Mikhaila Kachkovskago. See Kachkovs'kyi Society Obshchestvo "Karpatorusskii orel." See Sokols Obshchestvo karpatorusskikh Kanadtsev im. Aleksandra Dukhnovicha. See Dukhnovych Society of Carpatho-Russian Canadians Obshchestvo karpatorusskikh studentov "Dobrianskii." See Dobrians'kyi Carpatho-Russian Student Society Obshchestvo karpatorusskikh studentov "Vozrozhdenie." See Renaissance Carpatho-Russian Student Society Obshchestvo Karpats'kykh Rusynov. See Society

Obushkevych, Teofan (b. September 16, 1841, Zdynia [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. March 16, 1924, Frackville, Pennsylvania, USA) — priest and cultural and civic activist of Russian national orientation in the Lemko Region and the United States. Obushkevych studied at the gymnasia in Nowy Sa^cz and Presov, then received his theological formation at Greek Catholic seminaries in Eviv, Cracow, and Przemysl. After ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1867) he served in several Lemko parishes, beginning with Maciejowa, Roztoka Wielka, Radocyna, and Hanczowa (1876-1886), where, aside from priestly duties, he helped his parishioners purchase forests from landlords. Subsequently, in the parish of Uscie Ruskie/Gorlickie (1886-1890), he established the first choir and orchestra in the *Lemko Region. He continued to combine civic and spiritual work after being invited by Lemko immigrants to come to the United States (1890); between 1892 and 1924 he established or helped to strengthen over ten Greek Catholic parishes, including those in the eastern Pennsylvania towns of Olyphant, Mayfield, Carnegie, Simpson, McAdoo, Minersville, and Bethlehem. Obushkevych worked hard to enhance the jurisdictional status of Greek Catholics in the United States. He was among the main organizers of the first formal meeting of Greek Catholic priests (1890), who called for their own bishop, and he published a pamphlet "for priests from Galicia who intend to emigrate to America" (Ustroistvo russkykh hrekokaftolycheskykh hromad tserkovnykh, 1906). Obushkevych was also a co-founder of the *Greek Catholic Union of Rusyn Brotherhoods in the USA (1892), although as a *Russophile he opposed what he alleged was that organization's proHungarian orientation. As a result, with other, like-minded Rusyns, he left to establish the *Rusyn National Union (1894).

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When that organization became increasingly Ukrainian in orientation he left it as well to help establish what for him was the nationally more acceptable *Russian Brotherhood Organization/Obshchestvo russkikh bratstv (1900). He served as editor (1905-1909) of the brotherhood's official organ, *Pravda/The Truth. As a staunch Russophile Obushkevych converted to Orthodoxy in 1916, but he soon returned to the Greek Catholic Church. Although he remained in America, he sent funds to assist Lemko students at Eviv University, individual families in the Lemko Region, and survivors from the *Talerhof internment camp during World War I. BOGDAN HORBAL

Odrekhivs'kyi, VasyF(b. February 18,1921, Wolka, Poland; d. December 17,1996, Eviv, Ukraine) — Lemko sculptor in Poland and Ukraine. Odrekhivs'kyi was a self-taught artist whose native village was known for its numerous gifted wood sculptors. It was only after being resettled to the Soviet Ukraine (1945) that he received formal training at the Institute of Applied and Decorative Arts in Eviv (1957). During his early years Odrekhivs'kyi created sculptures of animals and produced everyday objects like plates and boxes, onto which he applied Lemko decorative and ornamental carving. These were sold at the nearby Carpathian spa of Iwonicz-Zdrqj. In the Soviet Ukraine, where he was awarded the status of Distinguished Artist (1964), Odrekhivs'kyi was known for applying the Lemko folk style to his professional works, most of which were done in wood. He created figural sculptures and busts of well-known personalities, including those of Lemko background—Anatolii Hnatyshak (1960), Bohdan Ihor *Antonych (1965), and Ivan Kushnir (1980s)—and he often used Lemko themes in other works (Lemko Carrying Wood, 1947; The Highlander Lemko, 1992). The Lemko sculptural heritage embodied in the work of Odrekhivs'kyi is continued by his sons Volodymyr (b. 1955), also named a Distinguished Artist of Ukraine, and Roman (b. 1959), who published a monograph on stone and wood carving in the Lemko Region, Rizbiarstvo Lemkivshchyny (1998). Further reading: Pavlo Lopata, "Vasylevi Odrekhivs'kom—70," Lemkivshchyna, XII, 2 (Clifton, N.J., 1991), pp. 17-18; Lesia Bonkovs'ka, "Slavnyi syn lemkivs'koi'zemli," Lemkivshchyna, XVI, 4 (Clifton, N.J., 1995), pp. 10-11. BOGDAN HORBAL

Okr^g Podkarpacki. See Rusyn Sector Odrzechowa Gospel. See Literature, Early manuscripts Ofitsyns'kyi, Roman Andriiovych (b. March 6,1969, Ohliadiv [Soviet Ukraine], Ukraine) — Ukrainian historian, pedagogue, poet, and political activist in Subcarpathian

Rus'. A native of Ukraine's Eviv oblast in historic Galicia, Ofitsyns'kyi came to * Subcarpathian Rus' as a student at Uzhhorod State University (1986-1993). He subsequently worked in the Transcarpathian Center for Youth Social Services/Tsentr sotsiial'nykh sluzhb dlia molodi (1994-1996) and then returned to Uzhhorod University, where he completed graduate studies (kandidat nauk, 1996) and now teaches history (associate profQssor/docent, 1998- ). Ofitsyns'kyi has published several studies focusing primarily on the history of Subcarpathian Rus' during World War II, including a detailed description of Rusyn political, cultural, and religious life in the period of Hungarian rule: Politychnyi rozvytok Zakarpattia u skladi Uhorshchyny, 1939-1944 (1997). He was also the founding editor of the graduate student scholarly journal of history, Molod'—Ukrai'ni, whose ten issues (1994-1996) included numerous articles on Subcarpathian history and culture. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Okres. See County Olbracht, Ivan (b. Kamill Zeman, January 6,1882, Semily [Austrian Bohemia], Czech Republic; d. December 30,1952, Prague [Czechoslovakia], Czech Republic) — Czech writer and journalist of Communist political orientation. Long-time editor (1920-1929) of the Czechoslovak *Communist party organ, Rudeprdvo, Olbracht broke with the party after it fell under Stalinist influence (1929), but returned to its ranks at the close of World War II. During the 1930s he visited *Subcarpathian Rus' frequently and became enamoured with the traditional *patriarchal life-style and culture of Rusyns and other inhabitants in the Carpathian highlands (*Verkhovyna). This experience inspired him to write what became a classic of Czech literature, the novel Nikola Suhaj loupeznik (The Bandit Nikolai *Shuhai, 1933), based on the real-life story of a Rusyn Robin Hood-like brigand who operated in Subcarpathian Rus'just after World War I until his capture and death in 1921. Also influential in Czech literature was his series of reportages on contemporary life in Subcarpathian Rus' (Boj o kulturunaPodkarpatskeRusi, \93\;Zemebezejmena, 1932; Hory a staleti, 1935) and a collection of three short stories about Orthodox *Hasidic Jewish life in the region (Golet v udoli, 1937), the longest of which appeared in English as The Sorrowful Eyes of Hannah Karajich (1967, 1999) and in a Rusyn translation by Igor *Kercha as Smutni ochi Ants'i Karadzhichovo'i (2001). Olbracht co-authored as well the scenario and oversaw the production in a Subcarpathian village (Kolochava) of the first feature-length sound film about the region, Marijka-nevernice (1934; English version: The Forgotten Land}. In all his works Olbracht was able to capture the very essence of life among the highlanders in Subcarpathian Rus'. A small museum named after Olbracht was opened

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture in Kolochava in 1982, and in the wake of an increase in the number of Czech tourists after 1989, Czech Radio in Prague has organized each summer since 1997 a festival called A Rendez-Vous of Romantic Spirits in Kolochava. Further reading: N.Kh. Kopystians'ka, "Tvory Ivana OFbrakhta pro Zakarpats'ku Ukrai'nu," Duklia, VI, 1 (Presov, 1958), pp. 51-60; Oleksa Myshanych, "Ivan Ol'bracht i ioho tvory pro Zakarpattia," in idem, Karpaty nas ne rozluchat (Uzhhorod, 1993), pp. 92-118; Roman Ofitsyns'kyi, "Vidobrazhennia zhyttia i pobutu zakarpats'kykh ievrei'v u tvorchosti Ivan Orbrakhta," in Molod'—UkraM, Vol. II (Uzhhorod, 1994), pp. 71-77; Peter Kasa, "Podkarpatske etnika v prozach a reportazach Ivana Olbrachta," in Jan Dorul'a, ed., Slovensko-rusinsko-ukrajinske vzt'ahy odobrodenia po sucasnost'(Bratislava, 2000), pp. 379-390. IVAN POP

Old Church Slavonic. See Church Slavonic

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There was never an Old Ruthenian orientation among the Rusyns of *Subcarpathian Rus' and the *Presov Region. It was, however, with the Old Ruthenians of Galicia (not the "Ukrainians" as is often incorrectly alleged) that the leading nineteenth-century national awakeners (Aleksander *Dukhnovych, Adol'f Dobrians'kyi, among others) maintained close contacts. By the end of the nineteenth century Old Ruthenianism had been eclipsed by the Ukrainian movement throughout most of Galicia. It survived, however, among Rusyns in the *Lemko Region, where it was represented largely through the work of the *Kachkovs'kyi Society in the interwar years of the twentieth century. Further reading: Paul Robert Magocsi, "Old Ruthenianism and Russophilism: ANew Conceptual Framework for Analyzing National Ideologies in Late 19th Century Eastern Galicia," in Paul Debreczyn, ed., American Contributions to the Ninth International Congress of Slavists, Vol. II: Literature, Poetics, History (Columbus, Ohio, 1983), pp. 305-324. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Old Ruthenianism — a cultural orientation among East Slavs living in the former Austrian province of Galicia. The supporters of this orientation, known as Old Ruthenians/ Starorusyny, believed in the cultural unity of all the East Slavs (present-day Russians, Belarusans, Ukrainians, and Carpatho-Rusyns), who, they argued, should use a single literary language. Although this language was called "Russian"/ntsskii, its literary form was believed to have been created as a result of an amalgam of Little Russian (Ukrainian), Belorussian (Belarusan), and Great Russian (Russian) dialects. Old Ruthenian political views were more vague. Despite an affinity with the East, that is, with Holy Rus'/Sviataia Rus', most Old Ruthenians remained loyal *Habsburg subjects and limited their political horizons to the borders of Austrian Galicia and Bukovina. Old Ruthenianism was the dominant view of most of the Galician Rus' intelligentsia during the national awakening connected with the Revolution of 1848. Its leading spokespersons were the hierarchy, priests, and lay supporters of the Greek Catholic Metropolitanate of Eviv, centered on the cathedral church of St. George. Their primary organ was the newspaper Slovo (1861-1887). In the course of the second half of the nineteenth century the Old Ruthenians gradually lost influence in Galician society. In the 1880s they were accused by the Habsburg authorities of harboring pro-tsarist and imperial Russian sympathies, and some of their leading intellectuals (together with Adol'f *Dobrians'kyi and his daughter Ol'ga *Hrabar) were put on trial. Although acquitted most emigrated permanently to tsarist Russia. Meanwhile, at home the Old Ruthenians were increasingly challenged by the more dynamic populist *Ukrainophiles and later *Russophiles. Supporters of both those orientations rejected what they considered the antiquated cultural views and pro-Habsburg sentiments of the Old Ruthenians.

Oleiar, Nikola D./Oleiarov, Nikolai D. (b. February 21, 1910, Kucura [Hungarian Kingdom], Serbia; d. January 1942, Zabalj [Vajdasag, Hungary], Serbia) — lawyer, publicist, and cultural activist of Russian national orientation among the Vojvodinian Rusyns. He completed his studies at the gymnasium in Vrbas (1923-1931) and at the University of Belgrade's Faculty of Law (1931-1935). While still a student Oleiar became interested in the socialist movement in Russia and was critical of the role played by Greek Catholic priests, especially those of Ukrainian orientation, in Vojvodinian Rusyn cultural life. Such views led him to join the movement that established in 1933 the *Russophile and secular-oriented *Zaria Cultural and Enlightenment (National) Union of Yugoslav Rusyns. In 1935, he began working as a lawyer in Novi Sad and remained active in the Zaria Union as editor (1936-1937) of its newspaper, which he renamed *Russka zaria. Oleiar was convinced that the Vojvodinian Rusyns, as well as the Rusyns in the ancestral Carpathian homeland, were too small to develop into a viable nationality. Efforts to do so would in any case be superfluous, since he was convinced that Rusyns, wherever they lived, were a branch of the Russian nationality. These views were outlined in several articles he published in the Rusyn press, as well as in his general history of the Russian people (Istoriia russkoho naroda, 1934), to which he appended an account of Carpathian and Vojvodinian Rusyn history. Although sympathetic to socialism and critical of capitalism and the growth of fascist regimes in Europe, Oleiar disagreed with the policies of the Yugoslav *Communist party. After Hungary annexed the *Vojvodina (Hungarian: Vajdasag), he was threatened with arrest on the eve of his death. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

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Olieiar, lanko. See Historiography: Vojvodina Ol'shavs'kyi, Mykhai'l EmmaniTil/Olsavszky, Manuel (b. 1700, Ol'savica [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. 1767, Mukachevo [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine) — priest and church hierarch in the Hungarian Kingdom. The younger brother of the Greek Catholic bishop of Mukachevo, Symeon Ol'shavs'kyi (ca. 1695-1738, consecrated 1734), Mykhai'l began his studies at the gymnasium in Levoca, continued at the philosophy school in Kosice, then received his theological formation at the Jesuit *Adalbertine College in Trnava (1722-1727; Ph.D., 1725). After ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1725) he was assigned to the parish in Mukachevo, where he also served on two occasions as vicar-general of the eparchy (1733-1738, 1743). In early 1743 the eparchial clergy elected him bishop of the *Eparchy of Mukachevo, a post to which he was confirmed within the next few months by the Austrian Empress Maria Theresa and the pope. As bishop, Ol'shavs'kyi exhibited wide-ranging organizational talent. It was during his episcopal tenure that the *Mukachevo Theological School was established (1744), as well as a preparatory school for cantors and teachers. He also provided scholarships for six Rusyn seminarians to study in *Eger; when candidates were lacking (due to the generally negative and dismissive treatment accorded Greek Catholic students in Roman Catholic Eger), Ol'shavs'kyi requested that the scholarship fund be redirected to create a full seminary and a *Cyrillic printshop in Mukachevo. The opposition of the bishop of Eger undermined this project, but Ol'shavs'kyi nevertheless established Greek Catholic theological schools in Mariapocs, Baia Mare, and Sighet and an elementary school for Romanian-speaking children in Turt (southern Ugocha county). For students at the Mukachevo Theological School he prepared a Latin textbook (Elementa puerilis institutionis in lingua latina/Nachalo pismen ditem k nastavleriiiu na latynskom iazyki, 1746; repr. 1999). In recognition of his services in securing the *Unia/Church Union in northern Transylvania and Sotmar/Szatmar county after peasant protests in that region (1761) Ol'shavs'kyi was named a royal advisor. As bishop he was particularly successful in garnering the assistance of the imperial court in Vienna in his own struggle against the pretentions of the Roman Catholic bishops of Eger for jurisdictional independence of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo. One result of Ol'shavs'kyi's debates with Eger over jurisdictional authority was further research into archival materials about the history of *Subcarpathian Rus'. This in turn led to the formulation of a Rusyn historical conceptualization and the appearance of the first histories of the region by Adam F. *Kollar and later loanykii *Bazylovych. The conflict with Eger culminated in the convocation by Ol'shavs'kyi of an eparchial council in

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture 1764 and the publication that same year in Latin (and subsequently in German and Russian) of an extensive sermon arguing the positive aspects of the Unia as epitomized by the Eparchy of Mukachevo. The council decided to ask Empress Maria Theresa for help in its struggle against Eger bishop. She decided in favor of the Eparchy of Mukachevo (February 15, 1766), although Ol'shavs'kyi himself did not live long enough to witness the complete jurisdictional separation from the authority of the bishop of Eger, which occurred in 1771. Further reading: Aleksei L. Petrov, "Kanonicheskiia vizitatsiia 1750-1767 gg. v varmediakh Zemplinskoi, Sharishskoi i Abauiskoi," Naukovyi zbornyk tovarystva 'Prosvita', III (Uzhhorod, 1924), pp. 104-135; Irinei M. Kondratovich, "Ocherki iz istorii Mukachevskoi eparkhii: episkopy Ol'shavskie i ikh dieiatel'nost' v bor'bie za tserkovnuiu uniiu i za kanonizatsiiu Mukachevskoi eparkhii," in Karpatorusskii sbornik (Uzhhorod, 1930), pp. 91-111—English trans.: "The Olsavsky Bishops and Their Activity," Slovak Studies, III (Rome, 1963), pp. 179-198; Michael Lacko, "The Pastoral Activity of Manuel Michael Olsavsky, Bishop of Mukacevo," Orientalia Christiana Periodica, XXVII (Rome, 1961), pp. 150-161; Basil Boysak, Ecumenism and Manuel Michael Olshavsky, Bishop of Mukachevo, 1743-1767 (Montreal, 1967). IVAN POP

Ol'shavs'kyi, Symeon. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo; Trnava Adalbertine College Olszanski, Tadeusz (b. June 24, 1950, Otwock, Warsaw district, Poland) — Polish poet and historian of Ukraine and the Lemko Region. Since completing his studies in law at Warsaw University (1973) Olszanski has written several works dealing with controversial issues from the Lemko-Rusyn past, such as their origin and church history, the 1918 pro-Ukrainian *Lemko Republic of Komancha and the deportations during the 1947 * Vistula Operation. Olszanski was one of the first Polish authors to popularize in a favorable manner the *Lemko Region through his historical essays, poetry (Notatnik Bieszczadzki, 1985), and work as co-editor (since 1992) of Ptaj, an annual journal devoted to the entire Carpathian region. He is basically sympathetic to the Ukrainian viewpoint on Lemko history. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Operation "B". See Ukrainian Insurgent Army Operation "P". See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov

Optanty — former citizens of Czechoslovakia who resettled in the Soviet Ukraine in 1947. They were allowed to do so on the basis of an "Agreement between the governments of Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union regarding the right of

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture repatriation (optatsiid) and mutual population exchange between citizens of Czech and Slovak nationality living in the Soviet Union in the former Volhynia province and citizens of Ukrainian, Russian, and Belorusan nationality living in Czechoslovakia." This agreement, which set into motion what came to be known as the Volhynian Operation/Volynska akce, was signed in Moscow on July 10,1946. Approximately 40,000 Czechs living in Volhynia (northwestern Ukraine) since the mid-nineteenth century were to be resettled from the Soviet Union, while an equivalent number of Ukrainians, Russians, and Belarusans from Czechoslovakia were to replace them. Such a large number of people of the latter three nationalities did not live in Czechoslovakia, however, and neither the post-World War I emigres nor their descendants (the so-called White Russians and Ukrainian nationalists), had any desire to go to the Soviet Union. Consequently, the negotiators secretly decided to fulfill the provisions of the agreement at the expense of Czechoslovak citizens ofRusyn nationality. Experienced promoters and government representatives from the Soviet Union, with the help of local Slovak officials, began an extensive propaganda campaign among the population of eastern Slovakia, where they were able to collect 10,146 requests by Czechoslovak citizens ofRusyn, Slovak, Magyar, and Roma/Gypsy nationality to be resettled in Volhynia. Before long, however, a certain number realized what they were doing, and they took back their requests. In the end, 8,556 Czechoslovak citizens, the vast majority of whom comprised poor Rusyn families, were resettled to the Soviet Ukraine. Based on what they had been promised, they expected to receive their own houses, land, good farming tools, and free education for their children. The more wellto-do-peasants were told they could bring with them from Slovakia their moveable property and livestock. Upon their arrival in Volhynia, however, the resettlers found something entirely different from what they had expected. The region had been largely devastated during World War II; the homes promised were already taken by Ukrainian resettlers from the Chehn/Kholm region that remained part of Poland; famine was raging as a result of drought and crop failure throughout Ukraine in 1946-1947; treatment by Soviet officials was often crude; nightly raids by Banderite forces of the ""Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UFA) were met with a terrorist response from troops of the Soviet secret police (NKVD); religious services and any attempts to set up civic organizations were banned, and the settlers were greeted with open hatred on the part of the local population in Volhynia, who considered them modern-day migrant invaders from Slovakia and derogatorily dubbed them "Hutsuls." Within two years (1949) the forced collectivization of all agricultural lands began. Any persons who refused to join the collective farms were sent to prison camps in the Siberian Gulag. Those who did join the collectives exposed themselves to the threat of

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nightly raids by the anti-Soviet UFA, who "punished" their victims by cutting off the hand that signed the collectivization papers. As for the larger items of personal property brought from Slovakia by the resettlers, it was sent by separate transport and frequently stolen. Faced with such realities, within a few weeks and in some cases even days of their arrival the Rusyn resettlers sent petitions to Kiev, Moscow, Prague, and Bratislava demanding that they be allowed to return home to eastern Slovakia. Delegations representing the petitioners approached Soviet officials in Kiev and Moscow, and in some instances the population of an entire village traveled from Volhynia to the Soviet-Czechoslovak border, only to be turned back. All of these efforts were in vain. Persons who organized the attempts to return home were branded by the Soviet authorities as "instigators," "bourgeois nationalists," "turncoats," and "traitors," immediately picked up by the NKVD, and sent to the Gulag. In effect, the resettlers were already being treated as Soviet citizens, although they did not formally receive Soviet citizenship until as late as 1957-1958. Moreover, none of them knew that the "Convention for Regulating the Question of Citizenship between Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union," signed on October 5,1957, provided resettlers with the legal right until as late as July 21, 1959, to opt for either Czechoslovak or Soviet citizenship. The process whereby the deceived Rusyns in Ukraine were finally able to return to their ancestral home dragged on for nearly half a century. In the 1960s, during the political thaw of the Khrushchev era, a portion of the resettlers moved closer to the Czechoslovak border, settling in *Subcarpathian RusV Soviet Transcarpathia. By then they described themselves only as "Slovaks" and adamantly rejected the label "Ukrainian" they had imprudently adopted in 1946-1947. Living closer to the border in Subcarpathian Rus', they began to seek out relatives in neighboring Slovakia, and on the basis of invitations eventually managed to return. But even this process took years to complete, since in the interim the Soviets raised by tenfold the cost of a petition for emigration. Many of the resettlers never made it back, having died in Ukraine or in some cases in Russia before permission to leave was granted. As late as 1990 there were still 7,943 resettlers, together with their children and grandchildren, living in the Rivne and Volhynia oblasts of northwestern Ukraine. Finally, in 1991, the government of independent Slovakia passed a law (No. 664) allowing for the return of its former citizens from what was described as "the zone affected by the Chernobyl nuclear disaster." Even then the process of return was to take many years and was not completed until the end of 1999. After making it back to Slovakia, the fate of the returnees was not always easy. Initially, many were forced to live in makeshift housing in cities and towns, and those who were able to return to their native villages were often not welcomed by the local Rusyns, who described the "newcomers" in

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their midst as "immigrants from Russia." In an attempt to overcome these problems, losyf *Marusyn (one of the first to return) established in 1966 a Committee of Returnees/ Komitet reoptantiv, which functioned until the post-1968 pro-Soviet Czechoslovak Communist government forced it to cease operations (1971). In 1992 another returnee, Shtefan *Krushko, resumed the work of the earlier organization by helping to establish in Presov the Coordinating Committee of Returnees/Koordynatsiinyi komitet reoptantiv. With representatives in all parts of Slovakia where returnees live, the Coordinating Committee helps with juridical, administrative, and bureaucratic problems faced by new returnees. The committee maintains close contacts with descendants of the original resettlers who have remained in Ukraine, and it collects historic documents, memoirs, and photographs about the resettlement process, some of which it has published in the volume Optanty (1999). Further reading: Ivan Vanat, "Volyns'ka aktsiia: zadum, realizatsiia i naslidky,"Duklia, XLIII, 2 (Presov, 1995), pp. 55-73; Marian GajdoS, "Poznamky k procesu optacie," Slezsky sbornik, XCIV, 3 (Opava, 1996), pp. 209-214; I. Vovkanych and Mariian Gaidosh, "Optatsiini protsesy mizh Chekhoslovachchynoiu i SRSR u pershi povoienni roky," Naukovyi visnyk Uzhhorods 'koho universytetu: Seriia istoriia, No. 2 (Uzhhorod, 1998), pp. 97-103; Stepan Krushko, Optanty (Presov, 1999); Ivan Vanat, Volyns'ka aktsiia: obmin naselenniam mizh Chekhoslovachchynoiu i Radians 'kym Soiuzom navesni 1947 (Presov, 2001); Marian Gajdos, ed., Co dala—vzala nasim roddkom Optdcia (Kosice and Presov, 2002). STEFAN KRUSKO IVAN POP

Optatsiia — the rejection of one citizenship and adoption of another in those cases when a choice between one or the other is provided to an individual by mutual agreement between two states. As part of the treaty between Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union (June 29, 1945), which recognized the secession of *Transcarpathian Ukraine to the Soviet Ukraine, a separate protocol was attached. Residents in the Soviet Union—including as well *Subcarpathian Rus' (Transcarpathian Ukraine)—of Czech or Slovak nationality were given the option to choose Czechoslovak citizenship; residents in Czechoslovakia of Ukrainian (including Rusyns) or Russian nationality could choose Soviet citizenship. The protocol provoked great displeasure among soldiers in the *Czechoslovak Army Corps (formed in the Soviet Union in 1943 and made up primarily of Rusyns), who considered it a terrible mark of ingratitude on the part of the Czechoslovak Republic, for whose liberation they had just fought for nearly three years. Consequently, an additional right of option for Czechoslovak citizenship was given to "military personnel of Rusyn and Ukrainian nationality" as well as their families. The protocol also called for the creation of a Joint

Czechoslovak-Soviet Liquidation Committee for Transcarpathian Ukraine, which began to operate following the ratification of the *Czechoslovak-Soviet treaty in November 1945. Two problems immediately arose: (1) the question of citizenship for Subcarpathian * Jews who survived the concentration camps or who served in the military; and (2) the very concept of "citizenship." The Jews were not even mentioned in the treaty's additional protocols. Nevertheless, the vast majority considered themselves Czechoslovak citizens, and not waiting for the decision of the Joint Commission they simply moved into the borderland regions of western Czechoslovakia (the Sudetenland formerly inhabited by Germans). Between 15,000 and 20,000 Jews left Subcarpathian Rus', mostly between July and September 1945. This development angered the postwar Czechoslovak administration as well as Czechs who themselves had just settled in the borderland regions. For its part, the Soviet government declared that all persons born (regardless when) in territories annexed by the Soviet Union in 1939-1940 were Soviet citizens, based on the fact that these territories (Karelia, the Baltic states, western Belarus, Bessarabia, or eastern Moldavia) were once part of the Russian Empire. Since Subcarpathian Rus' had never been part of the Russian Empire, nor had it been annexed by the Soviet Union in 1939-1940, its inhabitants were declared Soviet citizens not on the basis that their territory was ceded to the Soviet Union (as Czechoslovakia viewed the matter), but rather that it was "reunited as an age-old Ukrainian land." Hence, the Soviet government demanded the immediate repatriation of all Rusyns, Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Latvians, and Estonians, wherever they might be in Europe (often as a result of being deported as forced laborers during World War II). The Czechoslovak government attempted to observe the declarations issued by the newly established United Nations and the principle that an individual had a free choice to decide where he or she wished to live; consequently, it refused to abide by the Soviet policy. Soviet officials, who were carrying out their own investigations in Czechoslovakia, then turned directly to the local security and police forces (by this time already in the hands of Czechoslovakia's Communists) and demanded that they turn over persons they considered Soviet citizens for repatriation to the Soviet Union, with or without the approval of the Czechoslovak central government. A widespread "hunt" thus took place in postwar Czechoslovakia. The result was the repatriation of a whole host of persons, including those who for decades had not lived in territories subsequently annexed to the Soviet Union as well as those who were never Soviet citizens. The Joint Liquidation Commission in fact found only Jews who had been rescued by Czechoslovakia's Council of Jewish Religious Communities. But the Soviets did not want them and sent them back to Czechoslovakia. As of April 1, 1946, Prague had received 25,000 requests for Czechoslovak citizenship from persons with origins in

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Subcarpathian Rus'. At the same time, the Joint Liquidation Commission in Uzhhorod was functioning with great difficulty, largely because of the obstructionist tactics by the chairman of the *National Council of Transcarpathian Ukraine, Ivan I. *Turianytsia. Nevertheless, by March 1, 1946, the commission had received 23,168 requests for repatriation to Czechoslovakia. In the words of one member of the Joint Liquidation Commission: "The idea of repatriation (optatsiia) had taken a hold over virtually the entire population of Subcarpathian Rus'. With the exception of the 'new people' (Soviet bureaucrats) and a small number of locals, everyone wanted to resettle in [postwar] Czechoslovakia." Such demands reflected the fact that any positive illusions regarding the Soviet Union quickly dissipated. Even some local *Russophiles, who had managed to obtain high positions in "Soviet" Transcarpathia (among others the first rector of Uzhhorod State University, Shtefan *Dobosh), opted for Czechoslovakia. This, of course, was an intolerable situation for the Soviet authorities, who proceeded to close the border with Slovakia as early as November 1945. Those persons who ignored the border closing and who in panic tried to cross over (with or without the appropriate repatriation documents) were arrested and sent to concentration camps in the Siberian Gulag. Others were simply not granted "release" from their recently imposed Soviet citizenship, regardless of the fact that according to international agreements they did not require such release. For instance, in the case of Slovak peasants living as the indigenous population in the village of Onokivtsi near Uzhhorod, the authorities simply refused to recognize their Slovak nationality. They argued that, as Greek Catholics, these Slovaks should be classified as Ukrainians—and therefore lose the option of repatriation to Czechoslovakia. Those who had already submitted requests for repatriation were harassed in various ways. The National Council's Chairman Turianytsia even wanted to restrict those persons who had already received new Czechoslovak passports by delaying the transports scheduled to bring them across the border. Some had to wait for up to a year, during which time they, no longer "Soviet citizens," had no way to support themselves through legal employment. Finally, at the outset of August 1947, Turianytsia delivered an ultimatum to the Czechoslovak Commission for Repatriation requiring that it cease operations in Subcarpathian Rus' as of August 10. Aside from individual repatriations, a total of 3,693 persons were part of the organized transports from Subcarpathian Rus' to postwar Czechoslovakia. On the other side of the border, Soviet officials succeeded in forcibly deporting many more persons to the Soviet Union as well as in convincing thousands ofRusyn peasants from eastern Slovakia to resettle in what traditionally was believed to be the "breadbasket of Europe"—Ukraine (see Optanty). Further reading: Jaroslav Vaculik, Hledali svou vlast (Prague, 1995); Jaroslav Vaculik, "2ide Podkarpatske Rusi jako optanti pro

ceskoslovenske statni obcanstvi v letech 1945-1947," in Medzinarodni vedecka konference: Akce Nisko v historii 'konecneho feseni zidovske otazky' (Ostrava, 1995), pp. 292-300; Yeshayahu A. Jelinek, "Carpatho-Rus' Jewry: The Last Czechoslovakian Chapter, 19441949, Shvut, N.S., Vol. I-II [XVII-XVIII] (Tel Aviv and Beer-Sheva, 1995), pp. 265-295; Marian Gajdos, "Poznamky k procesu optacie," Slezsky sbornik, XCIV, 3 (Opava, 1996), pp. 209-214; Jaroslav Vaculik, "Optanti z Podkarpatske Rusi v letech 1945-1948," Slezsky sbornik, XCV, 1-2 (Opava, 1997), pp. 140-146; I. Vovkanych and Mariian Gaidosh, "Optatsiini protsesy mizh Chekhoslovachchynoiu i SRSR u pershi povoienni roky," Naukovyi visnyk Uzhhorods 'koho universytetu: Seriia istoriia, No. 2 (Uzhhorod, 1998), pp. 97-103. IVAN POP

Order of St. Basil the Great. See Basilian Order Organizacija greko kaftoliceskich karpato-russkich spomahajuscich bratstv Svobody. See Liberty Association/Svoboda Organization for the Defense of Lemko Western Ukraine/Orhanizatsiia oborony Lemkivshchyny — civic and cultural organization among Lemko immigrants of Ukrainian national orientation in the United States. The organization began in New York City as the Committee for Assistance to the Lemko Region/Komitet Dopomohy Lemkivshchyny, established in 1934 at the initiative of Mykhailo Dudra and Vasyl' Levchyk. A year later it was renamed the Organization for the Defense of Lemkivshchyna, eventually reformulated in English as Lemko Western Ukraine. Its main goal was to assist economically and culturally Lemkos in the homeland against the threat of polonization and national assimilation. The organization's first published organ was the monthly Lemkivs'kyi dzvin (1936-40). By the outbreak of World War II it had 26 branches throughout the United States, but because of the suspected collaboration of some Ukrainians with the Nazis in the homeland, the Ukrainian-oriented organization was harassed by the American authorities during the war and effectively ceased functioning. The Organization for the Defense of Lemko Western Ukraine was revived in 1958 at the initiative of luliian *Na-lys-nyk and soon had 16 branches across the United States and Canada. It began to publish in Ukrainian the newspaper Lemkivs'ki visti (1958-79) and an annual almanac, Lemkivs'kyi kalendar (1967-1973), and to sponsor the publication of books, including the two-volume encyclopedic work, Lemkivshchyna (1988). Under the chairmanship of Ivan Hvozda the organization issued several memoranda during the 1970s to the Polish and American governments as well as international organizations protesting what it considered the difficult situation of Ukrainians (including Lemkos) in Poland, and in 1981 it opened the *Ukrainian Lemko Museum

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at the headquarters of the Ukrainian Catholic Eparchy in Stamford, Connecticut. Since 1993, under the chairmanship of Maria Duplak, the Organization for the Defense of Lemko Western Ukraine has collected over $55,000 (1993-1995) to assist Lemkos in Poland and Ukraine. It also sponsors (since 1992) the publication of the Ukrainian-language quarterly magazine, *Lemkivshchyna. At present, the organization has eight branches. It supports the view that Lemkos are a branch of Ukrainians and frequently criticizes and issues "protests" to the governments of Ukraine, Poland, and Slovakia against what it considers the artificial and politically inspired idea of a distinct Rusyn nationality. Further reading: Teodor Vyslots'kyi, "Na porozi novoho etapu pratsi," in Lemkivs'kyi kalendar 1967 (Toronto and Passaic, N.J., 1967), pp. 60-66; Mariia Dupliak, "Orhanizatsiia Oborony Lemkivshchyny v Amerytsi," Lemkivshchyna, XVI, 1 (Clifton, N.J., 1994), pp. 21-23. BOGDAN HORBAL

Organization of Greek Catholic Youth. See Nedilia; Rusyn National Enlightenment Society

Organization of Rusyns in Hungary/Organizatsiia Rusynov u Madiarsku — civic and cultural organization established in 1991 to promote awareness of the existence of Rusyns within the present-day borders of Hungary. The organization was originally established in the Rusyn village of Komloska, but soon transferred its headquarters to the country's capital, Budapest. Its activity is funded by the Hungarian government; its founding chairman (1991-1999) was Gabriel *Hattinger-Klebashko. The Organization of Rusyns in Hungary has sponsored several Rusyn cultural events in Hungary; it has established a Rusyn Scholarly Institute/Magyarorszagi ruszin tudomanyos intezet and an Andy Warhol Society/Tarsasag (both based in Budapest); it has promoted Rusyn-language instruction in villages like Mucsony near the city of Miskolc; and it has helped to establish a Rusyn program on Hungarian State Television. The organization's official organ is the Hungarian and Rusynlanguage monthly newspaper/magazine, *Rusynskyi zhyvot. In 1994 the Organization of Rusyns was designated to represent Hungary on the World Council/Svitova Rada of the * World Congress of Rusyns, and in 1997 it hosted the Fourth World Congress in Budapest. The organization under Hattinger was also instrumental in obtaining representation (1994) in Hungary's program for *Rusyn Minority SelfGoverament. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN). See Carpatho-Ukraine; Ukrainian Insurgent Army;

Ukrainians; Voloshyn, Avhustyn Organizatsiia Rusynov u Madiarsku. See Organization of Rusyns in Hungary Orhanizatsiia oborony Lemkivshchyny. See Organization for the Defense of Lemko Western Ukraine

Orient Publishing Company. See Hanchyn, Michael; Publishing and Printing: United States Orlai, Ivan/Orlai, Ivan Semenovich (b. 1770, Khust [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. February 17,1829, Odessa [Russian Empire], Ukraine) — scholar, physician, pedagogue, and educational administrator in the Russian Empire of Carpatho-Rusyn origin. There is uncertainty about the year and place of Orlai's birth; some scholars say Khust in 1770; others that he was born in 1771 and in a village called Palagy, which could be either Velyka Palad' or Palad'-Komarivtsi, which are in different parts of *Subcarpathian Rus'. He studied at the gymnasium in Uzhhorod and Carei/Nagykaroly, the academy in Oradea/Nagyvarad, Eviv University, and the theological faculty of Pest University. In 1789 he became a member of the Order of Piarist monks and during the next year taught at the Piarist gymnasium in Carei in the eastern part of the Hungarian Kingdom (present-day Romania). Unable to secure a position in physics and mathematics at the University of Pest, he emigrated to the Russian Empire (1791). There Orlai changed careers, studied at St. Petersburg's Institute of Medicine and Surgery (M.D., 1793), and rose rapidly in the medical profession, becoming the chief surgeon and chief physician to the tsarist court. When, at the outset of the nineteenth century, the Russian Empire embarked on a policy of reform in higher education and opened several new universities, Orlai submitted a proposal to the tsarist government suggesting it invite "Carpatho-Rusyn professors" from the Habsburg Empire (Zapiska gof-khiruga Orlaia o nekotorykh karpato-russkikhprofessorakh, 1803). As a result, scholars of Carpatho-Rusyn origin such as Petro *Lodii, Vasyl' Kukol'nyk, and Mykhail *Baludians'kyi were invited to take up leading posts in the new educational system in tsarist Russia. In subsequent years Orlai's own career continued to flourish, and after leaving his position as scholarly administrator of the Medical-Surgical Academy in St. Petersburg (1808-1817), he served as director for the Bezborod'ko gymnasium of advanced learning in Nizhyn (1821 -1825) and for the Richelieu Lycee in Odessa (1826-1829). He helped to "slavicize" the latter institution by staffing it with professors from various Slavic lands, including Carpatho-Rusyns. Orlai was a broadly educated individual who lived during the Romantic era, which was characterized by an interest in the historical past. He, too, turned his attention to historical

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture problems related to "southwestern Rus'," which for Orlai comprised a vast territory stretching from the Vistula River and the western Carpathians to the Black Sea; in other words, both Rus' (Volhynia, Galicia, Subcarpathian Rus') and nonRus' (Transylvania, Moldavia, and Walachia) lands. He always considered himself a "loyal Rusyn and true son of his homeland," although he used the term Rusyn to indicate a close relationship to the Russian people. He considered it his duty to inform scholars in Russia about the history of *Carpathian Rus'. As a member of the Society for Russian History and Antiquities, he lectured and delivered written reports on the history of his native land ("Istoriia o Karpato-Rossakh," 1804; "O lugo-Zapadnoi Rusii," 1824), and he submitted a proposal for the creation of a special historical society for "southern Russia," which would include as well Carpathian Rus'. Aside from maintaining contacts with leading scholars in the Russian Empire (Nikolai M. Karamzin, Petr I. Keppen, Zorian Chodakowski Dol?ga), Orlai was also interested in Slavic-Magyar interrelations, and he supported the view that Rusyns first came to the Carpathians with the Uhro-Magyar tribes at the end of the ninth century. He considered all the East Slavs (including Rusyns) to be part of a single Russian people. Further reading: Tamara Baitsura, Ivan Semenovich Orlai: zhizn'i deiatel'nost' (Bratislava and Presov, 1977).

lished with commentary his Oborona viernomu chelovieku (1914, 1921) and other writings, Dukhovno-polemicheskie sochineniia iereia Mikhaila Orosvigovskogo-Andrelly protiv katolichestva i unii (1932). The Hungarian Slavist Laszlo *Deszo has in several studies analyzed the linguistic aspects of Orosvygovs'kyi-Andrella's language. Further reading: Yvan Pan'kevych, "Mykhayl Orosveguvskii chy Mykhayl Feodul," Naukovyi zbornyk Tovarystva 'Prosvita', IV (Uzhhorod, 1925), pp. 5-16; Vasyl' Mel'nyk, "Vydatnyi zakarpats'kyi polemist XVII st," Zhovten', No. 5 (L'viv, 1957), pp. 129-135; Vasyl'Mykytas', Ukra'ins 'kyi pys 'mennyk-polemist Mykhailo Orosvyhovs 'kyi-Andrella (Uzhhorod, 1960); Laszlo Dezso, "Oroszvegesi Mihaly muveinek nyelverol," Filologiai kozlony, IV (Budapest, 1958), pp. 336-346; Laslo Dezhe, "O iazyke ukrainskogo polemista M. Andrelly i zakarpatskoi 'narodnoi literatury' XVII v.," Studia Slavica, XXIII (Budapest, 1981), pp. 19-52; Luca Calvi, "Lingue e culture di confine nell'opera di Mychajlo Orosvy hovs'kyjAndrella," in Marina Ciccarini and Krzysztof Zaboklicki, eds., Plurilinguismo letterario in Ucraina, Polonia e Russia tra XVI e XVIII secolo (Warsaw and Rome, 1999), pp. 44-63; Luca Calvi, "Jerusalem versus Rome in the Works of Mykhajlo Rosvyhuvs'kyiAndrella," in Wolf Moskovich et al., Jerusalem in Slavic Culture/Jews and Slavs, Vol. VI (Jerusalem and Ljubljana, 1999), pp. 251-262; Luca Calvi, "Some Remarks on Mychajlo Rosvyhuvs'kyi and His Works," Slavica, XXX (Debrecen, 2000), pp. 223-236.

IVAN POP

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Orosvy go vs'kyi-Andrella, Mykhail (pseudonym: Mykhail Feodul) (b. 1640, Mukachevo-Rosvygovo [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. 1710, Mukachevo [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine) — priest and anti-Catholic polemicist in * Subcarpathian Rus'. Orosvy go vs'kyi (also Orosveguvskii) studied at theological schools in Trnava, Bratislava, and Vienna and became a Uniate/Greek Catholic priest. Continuing his studies of Eastern Christian theology, by 1669 he had become alienated from Catholicism and a staunch opponent of the *Unia/Church Union. For this opposition and "betrayal," as he alleges in his writings, Orosvygovs'kyi-Andrella was forced to seek refuge by wandering for many years throughout the eastern part of Subcarpathian Rus' (*Maramarosh county), which at the time was ruled by Protestant Transylvania and, therefore, beyond the reach of Roman Catholic Habsburg rule. In works such as Logos (1691-92) and Oborona viernomu chelovieku (1699-1701), among others, Orosvygovs'kyiAndrella spoke out against the Unia and the Vatican, against social oppression, and propagated the idea of church union of Carpatho-Rusyns with other Orthodox peoples. He was particularly critical of the pope in Rome and those "lordly lovers of gold" who surrounded the Holy See. It was the Russian scholar, Aleksei *Petrov, who seemed to have given Mykhail Orosvygovs'kyi the epithet Andrella and who pub-

Orszdgos ruszin hirlap. See Rusyn Minority SelfGovernment Orthodox Church of America. See Russian Orthodox Church in North America

Orthodox Eparchy of Mukachevo-Uzhhorod — eparchy created for the eastern regions of Czechoslovakia during the revival of Orthodoxy among Carpatho-Rusyns after World War I. The first attempt at an organizational structure came in 1921 with the establishment of the Carpatho-Russian Eastern Orthodox Church/Karpato-russkaia vostochnaia pravoslavnaia tserkov under the jurisdiction 6f the Serbian Orthodox Patriarchate of Belgrade in Yugoslavia. The Serbian church sent bishops (Dositei Vasic in 1921 and Irenei Ciric in 1926) to * Subcarpathian Rus', but neither was allowed to remain long. This was because the Orthodox communities of Czechoslovakia were divided between supporters of the Serbian jurisdiction and supporters of Bishop Savatii (Antonii Vrabets, 1880-) consecrated in 1923 by the ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople. As a result, the government was reluctant to recognize either orientation and for most of the 1920s the Orthodox in Subcarpathian Rus' were administered by a Temporary Spiritual Consistory headed by Archimandrite

366 Aleksei *Kabaliuk. Finally, in June 1929, the Czechoslovak government recognized the Serbian jurisdiction within which was included the Orthodox Eparchy of Mukachevo-Presov headed by Bishop Serafim (Ivanovic, r. 1927-1930) with its seat in Mukachevo. The eparchy flourished under the leadership of a new bishop from Serbia, Damaskin (Grdanicki, r. 19311938). By the mid-193Os there were an estimated 180,000 Orthodox faithful in Subcarpathian Rus' (115 parishes) and 9,000 in the *Presov Region (18 parishes). The eparchy had as well ten male monasteries and two female convents (the one at Lipcha with nearly 100 nuns). After the political crisis in Czechoslovakia in 1938-1939 and throughout World War II, the eparchy was headed by another Serb, Bishop Vladimir (Rajic, r. 1938-1945), but was divided between Subcarpathian Rus', which was annexed to Hungary, and the Presov Region within the Slovak state. Following the arrival of Soviet troops in Subcarpathia (December 1944) a delegation headed by the eparchial administrator, hegumen Feofan Sabov, and archimandrite Aleksei Kabaliuk went to Moscow to request that the Eparchy of Mukachevo-Presov be placed under the jurisdiction of the Russian Orthodox Church—Moscow Patriarchate. The request was accepted. The renamed Orthodox Eparchy of Mukachevo-Uzhhorod had jurisdiction only over Subcarpathian Rus'/Soviet Transcarpathia. By the early 1990s the eparchy administered 178 parishes from its seat in Mukachevo. In 1994 a separate Eparchy of KhustVynohradovo was established for parishes in the eastern part of Subcarpathian Rus'. The Mukachevo-Uzhhorod Orthodox Eparchy has traditionally been a stronghold of the *Russophile national orientation among Rusyns, although in the postCommunist era of the 1990s several of its priests (in particular Dymytrii * Sydor) are among the leading activists supporting the view that Rusyns form a distinct nationality. Those Orthodox parishes from the Eparchy of MukachevoPresov that remained within the boundaries of post-1945 Czechoslovakia were constituted into the Orthodox Eparchy of Presov. Initially that eparchy was also under the jurisdiction of the Russian Orthodox Moscow Patriarchate but in 1951 it became part of the Czechoslovak Autocephalous Orthodox Church. The previous year a new eparchy was created with its seat in Michalovce. Although most of their parishes are in Rusyn villages in the Presov Region, the Orthodox eparchies of Presov and Michalovce—other than maintaining the *Church Slavonic liturgy—remain distanced from the recent Rusyn national revival in post-Communist Slovakia and issue most of their church publications in the Slovak language. Further reading: Osyp Danko, "Uhors'ka polityka vidnosno Pravoslavnoi' tserkvy na Zakarpatti v 1939-1944 rr," in Kul'tura ukrains'kykh Karpat: tradytsii i suchasnist' (Uzhhorod, 1994), pp. 349-364; Stefan Horkaj and Stefan Pruzinsky, Pravoslavna cirkev na Slovensku v 19. a 20. storoci (PreSov, 1998); Igumen Gavriil

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Krizina, Pravoslavnaia tserkov v Zakarpat'e—vek XX (Kiev, 1999); losyp Danko, "Polityka ChSR suproty pravoslavnykh na Zakarpatti v 1919-1939 rokakh," in Mikulas Musinka, ed., Zakarpatskd Ukrajina v ramci Ceskoslovenska, 1919-1939 (Presov, 2000), pp. 133-144; O. Khlanta and Roman Ofitsyns'kyi, "Pro odyn iz zakarpatoukrains'kykh epizodiv mizhnarodno-relihiinoho kontekstu: diial'nist' Mykhaila Popova, administratoraMukachivs'koi'pravoslavnoTieparkhiiu 19381944 rr.," in Vasyl' Mel'nyk and Roman Ofitsyns'kyi, eds., Ukraina na mizhnarodnii areni XXstolittia (Uzhhorod, 2000), pp. 61-84. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Orthodox Eparchy of Przemysl —Byzantine-rite church jurisdiction covering territory in the historic province of Galicia (including the *Lemko Region) in what is today southeastern Poland and western Ukraine. The traditional seat of the eparchy was the city of Przemysl (Rusyn: Peremyshl') along the San River, but because occasionally the bishops resided in Sambir (from 1422) and Sanok (from 1666), the jurisdiction has also been known as the "unified eparchies of Przemysl, Sambir, and Sanok." The origins of the eparchy are unclear. The earliest documented bishop of Przemysl began his reign in 1218, although historians date the eparchy's establishment to the eleventh century; some even speculate it was founded in 906 by the disciples of *Constantine/ Cyril and Methodius as part of the sphere of *Greater Moravia in the late ninth or early tenth century. During this early period the Eparchy of Przemysl covered the entire Kievan Rus' principality of Galicia (until the mid-twelfth century) and perhaps * Subcarpathian Rus' and the *Presov Region (until the creation of the Eparchy of Mukachevo). By the last decade of the seventeenth century, the Przemysl Eparchy had 1,120 parishes, of which about 10-15 percent were located in the *Lemko Region. The Eparchy of Przemysl-Sanok was part of the Orthodox Metropolitanate of Kiev under the jurisdiction of the ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople. The eparchy's status became increasingly difficult, however, following the annexation of the principality/kingdom of Galicia (Rus') by Poland in the fourteenth century. In these new political circumstances a Roman Catholic diocesan see was set up in Przemysl (1375), whose bishops clashed with Orthodox hierarchs for control of the cathedral church throughout the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. An even greater threat to the Orthodox eparchy came with the *Unia/Church Union concluded at Brest in 1596. PrzemysTs Orthodox bishop Mykhailo Kopystyns'kyi (r. 1591-1610) refused to acknowledge the Union of Brest, with the result that his eparchy entered a long period of turmoil that culminated with its formal abolition as an Orthodox jurisdiction and acceptance of the Unia/Church Union in 1691. And still it took another two decades before all of the eparchy's parishes became Uniate. Despite such long-term discrimination supported by

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture the Polish authorities, parishioners in general continued to believe that they were Orthodox (pravoslavny). Added to this were subsequent developments, such as an increase in latinization practices within the Greek Catholic Church, the growth of *Russophile sympathies, and the return home of *Lemko immigrants from the United States where they had converted to Orthodoxy. All these factors provided fertile ground for a revival of Orthodoxy, which began on the eve of World War I (Maksym *Sandovych) and continued during the tsarist Russian occupation of 1914-1915 and just after the war with the establishment of an Orthodox parish in Przemysl (1923) led by Lemko-born priest Szymon Fedorenko. A more massive conversion to Orthodoxy began in 1926 (Tylawa schism), but it was limited to the Lemko Region; therefore, the Orthodox Eparchy of Przemysl was not restored. During World War II new Orthodox eparchies were created, but after 1945 the Orthodox faithful of southeastern Poland were dispersed, some going to Ukraine as part of the *Lemko population resettlement, others forcibly deported as a result of the * Vistula Operation (1947) to the western and northern regions of Poland. The latter group, mostly Ukrainians and Lemkos, are at present within the Orthodox Eparchy of Wroclaw and Szczecin created in 1951 within the framework of the Polish Autocephalous Orthodox Church. After the political thaw of 1956, some resettled individuals managed to return to their villages in southeastern Poland where new and revived Orthodox parishes came to existence. Finally, in 1983 an Orthodox jurisdiction was revived as the Eparchy of Przemysl-Nowy Sa^cz with its bishop's residence in Sanok. Because of the radically changed demographic situation since World War II, the eparchy includes only 33 parishes. Headed from the beginning by the Lemko-born archbishop Adam *Dubets, the eparchy publishes a bimonthly magazine Antyfon (1997- ) and an annual almanac; it also operates a monastery in Ujkowice and the Center of Orthodox Culture in Gorlice, which includes a museum and engages in cultural preservation and publishing. The eparchy is not associated with any particular national orientation and leaves sufficient room for its parishioners (half of which are Lemkos) to develop either the Rusyn or Ukrainian national orientation. Further reading: Antonii Dobrianskyi, Ystoriia Epyskopov trekh soedynennykh eparkhii Peremyshl'skoi, Samborskoiy Sanotskoi ot naidavnieishykh vremen do 1794 (L'viv, 1893); Petro Isai'v, Istoriia Peremys 'koho iepyskopstva skhidnoho obriadu (Philadelphia, 1970); Borys I. Balyk, "Do pytannia pro pochatky khrystyianstva ta iepyskopstva v Peremyshli v IX-X St.," Zapysky ChSVV, no. 10 (16) (Rome, 1979), pp. 50-97; Anna Krochmal, "Stosunki mi?dzy grekokatolikami a prawoslawnymi na Lemkowszczyznie w latach 1918-1939," in Jerzy Czajkowski, ed., Lemkowie w historii i kulturze Karpat, Vol.1 (Rzeszow, 1992), pp. 285-298; Jarostaw Moklak, "Ksztaltowanie si? struktury kosciola prawoslawnego na Lemkowszczyznie w Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej," in Przezdwastuleci XlXiXXwiek: studio historyczne ofiarowaneprofesorowi Wadawowi

Felczakowi (Cracow, 1993), pp. 51-77—reprinted in Magury '97 (Warsaw, 1997), pp. 12-36; Kazimierz Urban, "Z dziejow kosciola prawoslawnego na Lemkowszczyznie w latach 1945-1947," Zeszyty Naukowe Akademii Ekonomicznej w Krakowie, No. 460 (Cracow, 1995), pp. 95-112; Stanislaw Stejneri, "Eparchii przemyskiej droga do unii ze Stolic^Apostolska^," Warszawskie Zeszyty Ukrainoznawcze No. 4-5 (Warsaw, 1997), pp. 139-151; Jan Jacek Bruski, "Zakarpacia a Lemkowszczyzna: podloze i rozwoj ruchu prawoslawnego w okresie mi^dzywojennym," in Andrzej Zi^ba, ed., Lemkowie i lemkoznawstwo w Polsce (Cracow, 1997), pp. 145-159; Piotr Cerent, "Zarys dziejow Prawoslawnej Diecezji Przemyskiej," in Roman Dubec and Julian Felenczak, eds., Szematyzm: katalog swiqtyn i duchowienstwa prawoslawnej diecezji przemysko-nowosqdeckiej (Gorlice, 1999), pp. 6-27; Jaroslaw Moklak, "The Phenomenon of the Expansion of Orthodoxy in the Greek Catholic Diocese of Przemysl: Missionary Activity of the Orthodox Church, 1918-1939," in Paul Best and Jaroslaw Moklak, eds., The Lemkos of Poland (Cracow and New Haven, Conn., 2000), pp. 107-118. BOGDAN HORBAL

Orthodox Herald. See Russian Orthodox Church in North America

Orthodox Jewish party. See Jews Orthodox Society of America. See Russian Orthodox Brotherhood of America Ortoskop. See Tvorydlo, Mykola Ortutai, Teodor. See Nedilia

Ortynsky, Soter (b. Stepan Ortyns'kyi, January 26, 1866, Ortynychi [Austrian Galicia], Ukraine; d. March 24, 1916, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA) — priest and church hierarch among Rusyns in the United States. Ortynsky was ordained a Greek Catholic priest (1891) in his native Archeparchy of Eviv located in the Ukrainian-inhabited eastern half of the historic Austrian province of Galicia. In 1907 he was consecrated the first bishop for Greek Catholic immigrants in the United States, who were mostly ofRusyn and Ukrainian origin. From the very beginning of his episcopacy Ortynsky was opposed by many Rusyn priests from Subcarpathia and by the *Greek Catholic Union ofRusyn Brotherhoods. They accused him of trying to enforce a Vatican decree (*Ea Semper, 1907) that subordinated Greek Catholics to local American Roman Catholic bishops and of favoring a Ukrainian national orientation in church affairs. Relations among Greek Catholics in the United States worsened to such a degree that after Ortynsky's death in 1916 the Vatican established separate jurisdictions, and eventually eparchies, for Rusyns and for Ukrainians.

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Further reading: Bohdan P. Procko, "Soter Ortynsky: The First Ruthenian Bishop in the United States, 1907-1916," Catholic Historical Review, LVIII, 4 (1973), pp. 513-533. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Orysyk, Mikhailo (b. April 23, 1885, Wolkowyja [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. March 17, 1946, Hutys'ko [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — sculptor in the Lemko Region. Orysyk never received any formal education; his artistic training consisted of observing his father and other Lemko folk sculptors. At the outset of World War I Orysyk was drafted into the Austro-Hungarian Army; captured on the eastern front (1915), he was interned as a prisoner of war in Russia and did not manage to return to his native *Lemko Region until 1921. There he began to work full-time as a sculptor, primarily in wood. Aside from small-scale souvenir sculptures, he created a series of free-standing works on Lemko themes—Lemko Musicians, A Lemko Woman with Basket (1936), The Lemko (1936), and The Lemko Woodcutter (1936). He also carved for numerous Lemko Region churches icon screens (iconostases), including Royal Doors (tsars 'ki dveri/vrata), icon frames, and candleholders, as well as everyday objects such as carved walking sticks and pipes onto which he has embedded various zoomorphological images. At the close of World War II Orysyk and his family were among those Lemko Rusyns resettled (1945) to the Soviet Ukraine. Although he died within a few months of his arrival, his artistic heritage has since been carried on in Ukraine by his sons Andrii and Stepan Orysyk.

the Social-Democratic party, which he represented as deputy (1907-1911) in the Austrian parliament. In 1912 he left Galicia and settled with his family in the Rusyn village of Radvan nad Laborcom in the *Presov Region. During World War I he traveled to Freistadt in Austria to work with the Union for the Liberation of Ukraine in its propaganda activity among Ukrainian soldiers from the Russian Empire being held in Austria as prisoners of war. In 1920 Ostapchuk returned to the Presov Region, and taking advantage of Czechoslovakia's land reform he managed to obtain property in * Subcarpathian Rus' (the village of Strabychovo in Bereg county). There he helped establish the * Social-Democratic party of Subcarpathian Rus', which he headed for several years. He was also among the organizers of the Ukrainophile *Prosvita Society (1920), for which he served for a while as vice-chairman. Throughout the interwar years of Czechoslovak rule Ostapchuk was an active promoter of the Ukrainian national idea among Rusyns; he did not, however, play any role during the period of CarpathoUkrainian autonomy (1938-1939). After Hungary annexed the rest of Subcarpathian Rus' (March 1939), Ostapchuk fled to Slovakia, then settled near Prague in what was then Nazi Germany's Protectorate of Bohemia-Moravia. He remained in Czechoslovakia (Bohemia) after World War II, until in 1957 he returned to Subcarpathian Rus'/ Soviet Transcarpathia, living in Uzhhorod until his death. Further reading: Oleksandr Malets', "Rodyna Ostapchukiv na Zakarpatti,"NaukovyizbirnykTovarystva 'Prosvita', IV(Uzhhorod, 2000), pp. 276-279. IVAN POP

Further reading: Ivan Krasovs'kyi, Mykhailo Orysyk—vyznachnyi lemkivs'kyi rizbiar pershoipolovyny XXst. (LViv, 1995). BOGDAN HORBAL

OSA Messenger. See United Russian Orthodox Brotherhood of America Osijek Vicariate. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Krizevci Ostapchuk, lats'ko Dmytrovych (b. January 4,1873, Lubianky Nyzhchi [Austrian Galicia], Ukraine; d. January 30, 1959, Uzhhorod [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — political activist and publicist of Ukrainian national orientation in Galicia and Subcarpathian Rus'. Ostapchuk was a leftist-oriented political activist who, after completing his gymnasium studies, joined the Ukrainian Radical party in Galicia. In 1897 he switched to

Ouchytel' — the first pedagogical journal for Rusyns in the Hungarian Kingdom, published weekly, then three times a month, in Uzhhorod (1867). Its founding editor was a teacher at the *Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College, Andrii *Ripai. A total of 32 issues appeared; they included articles on pedagogical methods, textbooks, and problems related to the social status and national consciousness of teachers. Ouchytel' served teachers in the *Mukachevo, *Presov, and * Krizevci Greek Catholic eparchies. Further reading: P.M. Lisovyi, Zhurnalistyka Zakarpattia 50—70kh rokiv XIXst. i ii'zv"iazky z inshymy ukrains 'kymy zemliamy ta Rosiieiu (Uzhhorod, 1969), pp. 17-24. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Ostapchuk, Taras. See Matsyns'kyi, Ivan OUN. See Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists

p Pachovs'kyi, VasyF Mykolaiovych (b. January 12, 1878, Zhulych [Austrian Galicia], Ukraine; d. May 5, 1942, Eviv [Generalgouvernement, Germany], Ukraine) — Galician-Ukrainian emigre belletrist, publicist, pedagogue, and cultural activist in Subcarpathian Rus'. While a university student in Eviv and Vienna (1898-1909) Pachovs'kyi was a prominent member of the modernist group of Ukrainian writers, Moloda muza (1906). He subsequently taught in various Galician-Ukrainian gymnasia and published several volumes of poetry and plays. With the arrival of tsarist Russian troops in Galicia during the first months of World War I, Pachovs'kyi fled to Vienna. For the rest of the war he worked as a propagandist promoting the Ukrainian national orientation among Ukrainian prisoners of war from the Russian Empire being held in Austria. Pachovs'kyi then served in the Ukrainian Galician Army (1918-1919) during its struggle on behalf of Ukrainian independence. After its failure he emigrated to Czechoslovakia and in 1920 settled in *Subcarpathian Rus'. Together with other Ukrainian emigres from Galicia and the Russian Empire, Pachovs'kyi participated in a concerted effort to promote the Ukrainian orientation among the Rusyn population, in particular young people. He worked for the local school administration and taught at the Uzhhorod and Berehovo *gymnasia, at the Commercial Academy in Mukachevo, and, responding to an invitation from the *Basilian Order, at the *Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College and Theological Seminary. He was also among the organizers of the *Prosvita Society, and with Volodymyr *Birchak was a main contributor to the newspaper Narod (1920-1921). Although Pachovs'kyi had never seriously studied history, he now turned to that subject and published the popular Ystoriia Podkarpatskoi Rusy (1921). With this work he set the tone for the Ukrainian nationalist mythology about Subcarpathian Rus', which was continued in subsequent editions of his history, including Istoriia Zakarpattia (1946). Instead of using the region's historic name, he rechristened the territory the "Silver Land" (Sribna Zemlia). His belletristic versions of the Subcarpathian past were continued in the epic poem "Kniaz' Laborets'" (1923); in the scenario for a silent film, *Koriatovych (1921); and in another popular historical survey, Sribna Zemlia: tysiacholittia Karpats'koi Ukrainy (1938; repr. 1959, 1993). By the early 1930s Pachovs'kyi considered his ukrainianizing mission to Subcarpathian Rus' to be successfully completed. When he failed to obtain Czechoslovak citizenship, he was forced to leave the country. He returned to his native Galicia (then under Poland) and settled

in Przemysl and later in Eviv, where from 1939 until his death he lectured at Eviv University. Further reading: Ostap Tarnavs'kyi, "Poet Vasyl' Pachovs'kyi," in Vasyl' Pachovs'kyi, Zibrani tvory, Vol. I (Philadelphia, New York, and Toronto, 1984), pp. 11-26; Mariia lu. Kozak, "Hromads'ko-kul'turna pratsia V. Pachovs'koho na Zakarpatti," in Molod'-Ukrai'ni, Vol. Ill (Uzhhorod, 1994), pp. 144-148; LidiiaHolomb, Vasyl'Pachovs'kyi: zakarpats'ki storlnky zhyttia i tvorchosti poeta (Uzhhorod, 1999); Borys Halas, ed., Vasyl' Pachovs'kyi u konteksti istorii' ta kul'tury Ukrainy (Uzhhorod, 2001). IVAN POP

Pachuta, Nicholas. See Carpatho-Russian Congress; United Russian Orthodox Brotherhood of America

Padiak Valerii (pseudonym: Valerii Rusyn) (b. June 13, 1959, Uzhhorod [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — literary scholar, bibliographer, and publisher in Subcarpathian Rus' of Rusyn national orientation. After completing high (serednid) school in Uzhhorod (1966-1976) and graduating with a specialization in the Russian language from Uzhhorod State University (1977-1982), Padiak worked for several years in his native city as a high school teacher of Russian (1982-1986) and as an editor for school textbooks at the Transcarpathian branch of the Kiev-based Radians'ka shkola publishing house (1986-1992). He also did graduate work in literature and was awarded the degree oikandidat nauk (1990) from the Institute of Literature of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences in Kiev. Padiak is a specialist in the history of Rusyn literature during the second half of the nineteenth century. He has published archival materials from that period, in particular on Anatolii *Kralyts'kyi (Komu mila test' otchyna, 1988), bibliographical studies, and biographic studies of the twentieth-century scholars Ivan *Haraida, Mykola *Lelekach, and Olena *Rudlovchak. In 2000 he founded Valerii Padiak Publishers/Vydavnytstvo Valeriia Padiaka, which since its establishment has become the largest publisher in Ukraine and elsewhere of books in the Rusyn language and about Rusyns. Attached to Padiak's publishing house is the Research Center in Carpathian Studies/Doslidnyts'kyi tsentr karpatoznavstva which supports research projects in ethnomusicology, literary studies, language, and history. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Pahyria, VasyF (b. January 1, 1923, Shcherbovets' [Czechoslovakia], Ukraine) — belletrist, journalist, and pub-

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Heist of Ukrainian national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus'. Pahyria performed as an actor in the Uhro-Rusyn National Theater in Uzhhorod (1943-1944) until he was arrested as politically unreliable and deported to Denmark, where he spent the rest of World War II in various internment camps. At the close of the war he returned to Soviet-ruled * Subcarpathian Rus', studied in technical schools in Khust and Mukachevo, and, while working in the state lumber industry, completed the philological faculty of Uzhhorod State University (1958). Since the early 1940s he has written poetry and short stories in Ukrainian. In the post-Communist era Pahyria has published several collections of brief popular biographies and other historical sketches, for the most part about individuals, institutions, and events that had been ignored for over four decades in Marxist publications and by the Soviet educational system. He adopts basically a Ukrainian interpretation regarding the Rusyn past. Biographical collections include: lasvit uzrivpid Beskydom (1993) and Vidlunnia Karpat (1994), as well as sketches about Greek Catholic priests (Svitochi karpats 'koho kraiu, 1996) and Subcarpathian *Ukrainophiles living "abroad," whether in Kiev (Vid Karpat—do Dnipra, 1997) or North America (Zakarpattsi u diaspori, 1997). He has also published sketches about the city of Mukachevo and its famous sons (Mukachevo i mukachivtsi, 1994) and about various monasteries in Subcarpathian Rus' (Monastyri Zakarpattia, 1360-1939,1994). Aprolific writer, Pahyria's historical works are characterized by an uncritical publicistic style. Further reading: Ivan V. Khlanta, Vasyl'Pahyria: biobibliohrafichnyipokazhchyk (Uzhhorord, 1995).

headed by a palatinate/wq/ewWa appointed by the king. The lands were headed by a lord sheriff/*starosta (later starosta generalny), who was also appointed by the king. The lord sheriff/s tarns ta remained the king's representative even after the lands were administered by a government official/urzgdnik ziemski. The palatinate-land administrative structure came to an end with the partitions and eventual disappearance of Poland-Lithuania between 1772 and 1795. When Poland was restored as a republic in 1918, the state was also divided into palatinates. The two palatintes that covered the Lemko Region retained the *districts formed during Austrian *Habsburg rule. Post-1918 Poland's Cracow palatinateAVojewodztwo krakowskie included the Nowy Targ, Nowy Sa^cz, Grybow (until ca. 1930), Gorlice, Jaslo, and Krosno districts; the Lviv palatinateAVojewodztwo Iwowskie included the Sanok and Lesko districts. In no district did Lemko Rusyns form a majority of the inhabitants; according to the 1931 census, the districts with the largest percentage of Lemko Rusyns were Sanok (ca. 35 percent) and Gorlice (24 percent), to which Grybow was subsumed. Since World War II, Poland's palatinate structure has been altered three times. The Lemko Region was initially divided between the Cracow and Rzeszow palatinates; from 1976 to 1999 it was divided between the Nowy Sa^cz and Krosno palatinates; and since 1999 it is divided between the Malopolskie/Little Poland and Podkarpacie/Subcarpathia palatinates.

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Pan'kevych, Ivan Artemovych (b. October 6,1887, Tseperiv [Austrian Galicia], Ukraine; d. February 25,1958, Prague [Czechoslovakia], Czech Republic) — Galician-Ukrainian emigre linguist, folklorist, literary scholar, educational administrator, professor, and civic activist in Subcarpathian Rus'. Pan'kevych studied at Lviv University and the University of Vienna (Ph.D., 1912), then taught at the St. Theresa Academy in Vienna (1915-1918) and the gymnasium in Stanyslaviv (1918-1919) before leaving Galicia permanently. He emigrated to Czechoslovakia in 1919, enrolling at Charles University in Prague, but within a year the Czechoslovak government sent him to Uzhhorod as a department head (referent, 19201924) in the new educational administration in Subcarpathian Rus'. His main task was to prepare textbooks "in the Rusyn vernacular language." Since his student days in Galicia Pan'kevych had been an activist in the Ukrainian national movement (secretary of the Prosvita Society in Lviv), and he used that experience to introduce the Ukrainian language in Subcarpathian Rus' as the basis for educating Rusyn youth in a Ukrainian national spirit. In contrast to other, more radical nationalists, he undertook such ideological work with great caution and concern for local sensibilities. For instance, the first two editions of his

IVAN POP

Painting. See Art Palanok Society. See Germans

Palatinate (Polish: wojewodztwo') — territorial and administrative unit of the former Polish Kingdom and the twentieth-century republic of Poland. The palatinate system was introduced at the turn of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. At that time the *Lemko Region was divided administratively along a north-south line that ended at the Dukla/Dukl'a pass, with the Cracow palatinateAVojewodztwo krakowskie to the west and the Rus' palatinateAVojewodztwo ruskie to the east. Each palatinate in turn was subdivided into lands (ziemia), with the Lemko Region divided from west to east into the Sa^cz Land/Ziemia sa^decka, the Biecz Land/Ziemia biecka, and the Sanok Land/Ziemia sanocka. In the seventeenth century territory from the Biecz and Sanok lands was detached to form a new Krosno Land/Ziemia krosnienska, which was eventually renamed the Jaslo Land/Ziemia jasielska. The palatinates were

BOGDAN HORBAL

Encyclopedia ofRmyn History and Culture Hramatyka rus 'koho iazyka (1922,1927) were not grammars of literary Ukrainian but rather of a language based closely on the local Rusyn vernacular speech. This language came to be known popularly as "the Pan'kevychivka." Despite criticism from Ukrainian radical nationalists his approach was successful, so that by the 1930s texts using Pan'kevych's language were "cleaned up," the "local dialectisms" were removed, and the transition to a Ukrainian literary language was completed (compare the third edition of his grammar, 1936). Throughout this period Pan'kevych taught at the Uzhhorod gymnasium (1920-1938). A talented organizer, he was one of the founders of the Ukrainophile *Prosvita Society (1920) and the Pedagogical Society of Subcarpathian Rus' (1920); for the latter, he frequently convened teachers' conferences at which the Ukrainian national idea was promoted. He served as editor (1920-1923) of the children's journal *Vinochok, first editor (1920-1923) of the teachers' journal *Uchytel\ and founding editor (1923-1924) of the popular magazine *Podkarpatska Rus'. He was also the most influential figure on the editorial board of the 14-volume scholarly *Naukovyi zbornyk tovarystva 'Prosvita'. Pan'kevych became the leading specialist on the Rusyn dialects of * Subcarpathian Rus' and the *Presov Region, about which he published a seminal monograph, Ukrains 'koihovory Pidkarpats 'koi'Rusy i sumezhnykh oblastei (1938), and a detailed analysis of Rusyn phonetics, Narys istorii ukrains 'kykh zakarpats'kykh hovoriv: fonetika (1958). Beginning in 1921 and for almost four decades he worked on a dictionary of Rusyn dialects, for which he had organized numerous research expeditions during the interwar years and collected over 100,000 lexical cards. From these he prepared more than 10,000 entries covering the first three letters of the *Cyrillic alphabet (A, B, B). After Pan'kevych's death the materials for his dictionary were given to the Czechoslovak-Soviet Institute of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences in Prague, where entries for several more letters of the Cyrillic alphabet were completed by Orest *Zilyns'kyi (F, E-H, \). Popov also wrote stories describing his wartime experiences (Uzhas i drugi razskazy, 1922) and life in postwar Subcarpathian Rus' (V Karpatakh, 1923), as well as a novel about Czechs living in the far eastern province (Sila liubvi, 1930). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Popov, Nil. See Historiography: Lemko Region Popovic", Michal (b. September 25, 1923, Brutovce [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — Slovak historian and pedagogue. Popovic was trained in classical languages, medieval history, Slavistics, and Byzantine and Balkan studies at the Slovak University in Bratislava (1943-1947) and as a postgraduate student in Belgrade. He then worked as a researcher at the Historical Institute of the Slovak Academy of Sciences in Bratislava (kandidat nauk, 1954) and taught history at Safarik University in Pre§ov (1962-1973). His monograph comparing revolutionary and national movements among Slavs in the nineteenth century, Revoliutsiino-demokratychne iednannia slov "ian u XIXst. (1973), included material on the Rusyn national awakening. Popovic subsequently became increasingly interested in medieval Rusyn history. He has produced a study of the early development of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo (1994) and a detailed monograph that challenged traditional interpretations of the fourteenth-century Prince Fedor *Koriatovych: Fedor Koriatovych—rusyns 'kyi voivoda (1993). Popovic supports the view that CarpathoRusyns form a distinct nationality, and since the early 1990s he has published numerous articles in the *Presov Region Rusyn-language newspaper, *Narodny novynky, on various aspects ofRusyn history in eastern Slovakia. Further reading: Shtefan Sukhyi, "Na pochatku byv narod,"

Narodny novynky, July 21, 1999, p. 4. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Popovich, Bazil. See Popovych, Vasylii Popovich, Mikhail. See Popovych, Mykhai'l Popovics, Tibor Miklos. See Popovych Tibor Miklosh Popovych, Andrii. See Carpathian plainchant; Presov Literary Society Popovych, Dymytrii. See Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College Popovych, Mykhai'l/Popovich, Mikhail (b. February 11, 1908, Velyki Kom"iaty [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. May 18,1956, Uzhhorod [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — belletrist, lawyer, government functionary, and publisher of Russian national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus'. After completing the Russian gymnasium in Mukachevo (1927) and the law faculty of Charles University in Prague (1931) Popovych worked during the Czechoslovak regime in several Subcarpathian courts (Berehovo, Vynohradovo/Sevliush, Khust). As a student he began writing poetry in Russian, which appeared in two collections (Pervye stikhi, 1928; Khata, 1937) and in a ballad entitled Dobrianskii( 193 8). In all these works he expressed the view that Rusyns are a branch of the Russian people. During World War II, when * Subcarpathian Rus' was annexed by Hungary, Popovych was drafted into the Hungarian Army (1942). While serving in Khust as part of a unit dispatching troops to the eastern front, he became an informant for an underground unit sent from Moscow. After the unit was captured he was arrested (March 1944) and sentenced to death by a Hungarian military court. At the intervention of the Rusyn parliamentary deputy, Andrii *Brodii, Popovych's sentence was commuted to life imprisonment. He was transferred to the German concentration camp at Dachau and later Natzweiler, where he witnessed the death of his fellow poet, Dymytrii *Vakarov, and other Rusyn anti-fascist activists. Released at the end of the war, he returned home in 1945. After working briefly in the offices of the National Council of *Transcarpathian Ukraine he was appointed a section head (1946-1953) in the Transcarpathian oblast administration and director (1953-1956) of the local branch of the Kiev pedagogical publishing house, Radians'ka shkola. During this period he organized the publication of poetry by Vakarov, wrote a novel, and translated into Russian works by Hungarian writers. Popovych tried to adapt to the Soviet regime, and during the height of the Cold War he completed in 1951 an ideologically motivated "historical" tract about Gregory *Zhatkovych

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and "the intrigues of the agents of American imperialism in Transcarpathia" just after World War I ("Proiski i beschinstva agentov amerikanskogo imperializma na Zakarpat'e v 19171921 gg.," 1959). Such services and his earlier entry into the Communist party of Ukraine (1946) did not, however, spare Popovych from the regime's "examination" of his past. While the Soviet system may have readily praised anti-fascist heroes who were killed "in action" they were suspicious of those who survived, assuming that such persons were more likely to have been traitors than heroes. For nearly six years, until Moscow itself intervened in 1954, Popovych was subjected to an on-going inquisitory investigation that would contribute to his early death. Further reading: Vasil Pop, "Mikhail Popovich," in Mikhail Popovich, Dumy o Verkhovine (Uzhhorod, 1959), pp. 3-15; Omel'ian Dovhanych, "Podviina plata," Karpats'kyi krai, IV, 3-4 [104] (Uzhhorod, 1994), pp. 15-17. IVAN POP

Popovych, Tibor Miklosh/Popovics, Tibor Miklos (b. May 5, 1938, Horinchovo [Czechoslovakia], Ukraine) — geographer, professor, and civic and cultural activist ofRusyn national orientation among the Rusyns of Hungary. A native of *Subcarpathian Rus', Popovych graduated from the Russian gymnasium in Berehovo (1949-1955) and Lomonosov State University in Moscow (1956-1961), where he specialized in economic geography and economics. He worked for a while at a tourist agency in Soviet Transcarpathia (1961-1965), then returned to Lomonosov University as a graduate student (1965-1968) in economic geography (kandidat nauk, 1969). He emigrated to Hungary in 1969 and settled in Budapest, where he has been a research fellow (1969-1974) at the Institute of Economics for the Food Industry, adjunct professor (1974-1991) of economic geography at Eotvos University, and research fellow and instructor (1991-1996) at the Center for East European Studies at the Economics University. Since the early 1990s Popovych has played an active role in the Rusyn revival in Hungary. He is the founding director (1996- ) of the Rusyn Scholarly Institute in Hungary/Magyarorszagi ruszin tudomanyos intezet, vicechairman (1998-2000) of Hungary's State Administration for *Rusyn Minority Self-Government, and chairman of the Rusyn Minority Self-Government in the XII (1998-2002) and XI (2002-) districts of Budapest. He is also the author of several articles on Rusyn history, geography, and culture, and editor-in-chief (2000- ) of the monthly Vsederzhavnyi rusynskyi visnyk. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

1796, Velyki Kom"iaty [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. October 9, 1864, Uzhhorod [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine) — priest and church hierarch in Subcarpathian Rus'. Popovych completed his studies at the gymnasium in Uzhhorod and the Theological Seminary in Pest (1814-1818) from which he earned a Ph.D. degree. After ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1820) he served in parishes in Svaliava and Sighet before being transferred (1822) to the recently established *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov. There he served as secretary to the bishop, as canon of the *cathedral chapter (1835), and as priest at the Presov cathedral church. In 1837 Popovych was nominated and the following year consecrated bishop of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo. While still a seminarian and young priest Popovych was inspired by Jan Kollar's views on *pan-Slavism and the need for mutual relations and cultural cooperation among the Slavic peoples. He also believed in the importance of education, and as bishop he hoped to establish an elementary school in each of the eparchy's parishes. Popovych required full literacy from all his priests and cantors, and he called for the publication of Rusyn-language textbooks. Most of his plans, including an educational fund to provide financing, were not realized due to a lack of state support and even opposition following the revolutionary upheavals of 1848-1849. Popovych was able, however, to act as a benefactor and to provide employment to the priest and future national awakener, Aleksander *Dukhnovych, who was allowed to work at the Eparchy of Mukachevo (1838-1843) after falling out of favor with his own bishop in Presov. Further reading: A. Pekar, "Mukachivs'kyi iepyskop Vasyl' Popovych," Analecta Ordinis S. Basilii Magni, Sectio II, Vol. XV, 1-4 (Rome, 1996), pp. 375-395. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Popovych, Dymytrii. See Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College Popradov, lulii. See Stavrovs'kyi-Popradov, lulii Population resettlement. See Lemko Population Resettlement; Optatsiia; Slavs, Early settlement patterns; Vistula Operation; Vlach colonization

Populist Teachers Society. See Uchytel's 'kyi holos Postilla. See Literature: Lemko Region; Literature, Early manuscripts

Popovych, Vasyl'. See Communist party

Potash, Mariian. See Basilian Order; Blahovisnyk

Popovych, Vasylii/Popovics, Bazil (b. September 12,

Potichnyj, Peter J. See Historiography: Lemko Region

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Potsi, Alexii. See Povchii, Aleksii Potushniak, Fedor (pseudonyms: Theodorus Bercolensis, F. Pasichnyk, P. Selianynovych, F. Vil'shyts'kyi, Vox clamantis) (b. February 27, 1910, Osii [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. February 11, 1960, Uzhhorod [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — professor, ethnographer, philosopher, archeologist, belletrist, and translator in Subcarpathian Rus'. Potushniak studied at the Ukrainian gymnasium in Berehovo (19221930) and at the philosophical faculty of Charles University in Prague (1930-1937). He taught briefly in elementary schools (Bilky, Velykyi Bychkiv) until mobilization into the Czechoslovak Army (1937-1938), during which time he published in Ukrainian a short story (Zemlia, 1938) and three collections of poetry (Daleki vohny, 1934; Taiemnychi vechory, 1938; Mozhlyvosti, 1939). Potushniak's poetry was influenced by French literature, and some scholars (Elaine Rusinko) consider him a representative of Surrealism in Carpatho-Rusyn literature. After * Subcarpathian Rus' was annexed to Hungary he worked as a librarian (1939-1940) in Brno (by that time in the Nazi German Protectorate of Bohemia-Moravia). Taking advantage of an amnesty issued by the Hungarian government for Subcarpathian *Ukrainophiles, Potushniak returned home, although he remained under suspicion for disloyalty to the regime and thus could not find employment. He did, however, contribute to the * Subcarpathian Scholarly Society, through which he published, under the pseudonym Pasichnyk, his own poetry (Na bilykh skalakh, 1941; Khatka ta mlynok, 1944), short stories (Opovidania, 1942; Hrikh ta ynshi opovidania, 1944), translations, and scholarly essays. Drafted into the Hungarian Army (1944), he was sent to the eastern front, where he surrendered within a few months and was made a prisoner of war in the Soviet Union. Potushniak returned to Subcarpathian Rus' in March 1945, worked for a short time at the Communist party organ Zakarpats 'ka pravda, then joined the staff of the newly established Uzhhorod State University (instructor, 1946; docent/associate professor 1948), where he taught archeology, ethnography, and several Slavic languages. He adopted a passive attitude and basically ignored the Communist system, since his training as an idealist philosopher forced him to conclude that Marxism, with its emphasis on socioeconomic determinism, was a primitive ideology. Instead, he directed his attention toward archeological research in Subcarpathian Rus' (Arkheolohichni znakhidky bronzovoho ta zaliznoho viku na Zakarpatti, 1958); and wrote epic novels about Rusyn life (Povin', 1959; Maty-zemlia, 1962) as well as short stories and tales. Potushniak's literary career dates back to his student years, when he became well-versed in contemporary literary currents throughout Europe. His poetry was in particular influenced by the French symbolists. In this regard, Potushniak stood out

in stark contrast to the generally amateurish literary culture of interwar Subcarpathian Rus'. As an ethnographer he was particularly interested in Rusyn traditional beliefs, demonology, tragic elements in folk music, historical ballads, and the etymology of Subcarpathian ethnonyms and toponyms, all topics on which he published scholarly articles. Potushniak was the first scholar to analyze the evolution of philosophic thought among Rusyn thinkers from the late eighteenth to the early twentieth century ("Korotkyi narys fylosofii Podkarpatia," 1943). His other writings, which included a unique approach to existentialist philosophy, were published in Subcarpathian newspapers and journals during World War II Hungarian rule. Under the postwar Soviet regime such philosophical studies could no longer be published, although Potushniak did prepare a collection of essays that together with previously published essays are available in a volume entitled la i bezkonechnist'(2QQ3). Potushniak was an intellectual of wide breadth who could easily have made a career beyond his homeland. As a believer in patriotic self-sacrifice, however, he consciously remained in a provincial environment, armed with the hope that he might be able to raise the educational and intellectual standards of his countrymen. But postwar Soviet-ruled Transcarpathia had no need for a European-oriented intellectual; on the contrary, his very presence provoked distaste among the new Communist lumpenproletariat "intelligentsia." The herd mentality brought to Subcarpathian Rus' from the East methodically debased the conditions surrounding Potushniak and contributed to his premature death. Further reading: Ivan P. Vyshnevs'kyi, Zakarpats 'ki novelisty (Eviv, 1960), pp. 27-48; Vasyl L. Mykytas', P.M. Potushniak (Uzhhorod, 1961); Roman Ofitsyns'kyi, "Filofs'ki pohliady Fedora Potushniaka (1910-1960)," in Molod-Ukraini, No. 1 (Uzhhorod, 1994), pp. 50-67; Lidiia Holomb, Poetychna tvorchist'Fedora Potushniaka (Uzhhorod, 2001); Mykhailo Tyvodar, ed., Naukovo-pedahohichna diial'nist' ta literaturna tvorchist'Fedora Potushniaka/Carpatica-Karpatyka, Vol. IX (Uzhhorod, 2001), pp. 9-70 and 179-219. IVAN POP

Potushniak, Myhkailo F. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region Povchii, Aleksii/Potsi, Alexii (b. February 17, 1750, Kokad [Hungarian Kingdom], Hungary; d. July 11, 1831, Uzhhorod [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine) — priest and church hierarch in the Presov Region and Subcarpathian Rus'. Povchii completed his education and theological formation in Oradea/Nagyvarad and at the *Barbareum in Vienna (17751778). After ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1779) he served first as a chaplain in the Austrian imperial army, then from 1794 in several villages in the *Presov Region. In 1800 he was appointed to the *cathedral chapter (kapitula)

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of the largely Romanian Greek Catholic Eparchy of Oradea/ Nagyvarad, where he also served as the "Rus' priest" in the city's Greek Catholic parish. In 1816 Povchii was consecrated bishop of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo. Within two years he helped to oversee the detachment of the western part of his jurisdiction to form the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov under Bishop Hryhorii *Tarkovych. Povchii is best known for having promoted education among Rusyns, establishing church-run elementary schools, and publishing church books. He also encouraged the intellectual and scholarly work of Vasyl' *Dovhovych and Mykhai'l *Luchkai, and in 1830, when the future Rusyn national awakener Aleksander *Dukhnovych was forced by Tarkovych to leave Presov, Povchii found him a position in Uzhhorod. As bishop of Mukachevo, he established a special fund to pay the salaries of those teachers in the eparchy who agreed to teach Rusyn literature.

1923 to Philadelphia, where it continues to appear under the English title, The Truth. It began as a weekly (1902-1914), then appeared twice weekly (1914-1944), again weekly (1944-1965), bi-weekly (1965-1967), and finally, monthly (1967-). From its earliest years the newspaper promoted the Orthodox movement among Rusyn-American immigrants as well as the Russian national orientation. Apart from Hladick and Obushkevych, most of its editors were Rusyns: Vasyl' Fekula (1909-1912), Illia Hoiniak (1912-1920), Simeon *Pysh (1922-1932), Stephen Kopestonsky (1967-1991), and John Uram (1992-). Initially, Pravda appeared in a mixture of Russian and Rusyn vernacular; after World War II the number of articles in English gradually increased and since 1971 it has appeared solely in English.

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Pravoslavnaia Karpatskaia Rus'/Pravoslavnaia Rus' — Russian-language newspaper published twice monthly in Ladomirova (1928-44), eastern Slovakia, and selfdescribed as "a church and national organ of the Orthodox movement in Rus'Abroad." The newspaper, which shortened its name in 1935 to Pravoslavnaia Rus', was produced at the *Ladomirova Monastery by monks within the jurisdiction of the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad. Its primary goal was to promote "the growth of Orthodoxy among the Russian [Rusyn] people of * Subcarpathian Rus' and the * Presov Region." The paper included news of the local Orthodox churches and legal decrees on church matters issued by the Czechoslovak government, and it promoted the work of the St. Vladimir Brotherhood in its defense of Orthodoxy and Russian culture. Together with the youth journal supplement, *Dietstvo i iunost'vo Khristie (1935-41), Pravoslavnaia Rus' helped to promote the Russian national orientation among a certain segment of the Rusyn population in Czechoslovakia. At the height of its influence during the 1930s, Pravoslavnaia Rus' had a printing of 3,000 copies and was distributed within Czechoslovakia and among Russian emigre communities worldwide; the paper's long-term editors-in-chief included the Archimandrite Andrii/Vsevolod Kolomatskii (1928-1932) and the local layperson Nikolai Boiko (1934-1944). The newspaper ceased publication when in late 1944 the monks abandoned the Ladomirova monastery as they fled before the advancing Soviet Army. They eventually settled at the Holy Trinity Monastery in Jordanville, New York, where in 1947 Pravoslavnaia Rus' renewed publication and continues to appear to this day.

Powiat. See District Pozdravlenie Rusynov. See Anthologies; Literature: Subcarpathian Rus' and Presov Region Prach, Boguslaw. See Historiography: Lemko Region Pratsiuiucha molod' — monthly and later bi-monthly newspaper for "young workers and peasants" in Subcarpathian Rus' published first in Prague and later Uzhhorod and Mukachevo (1926-34) by the *Communist party of Czechoslovakia. Published in Ukrainian, its original editors were the Czech Communists Antonin Zapotocky and Emanuel Klima; from 1929 its editor-in-chief was the Subcarpathian Communist Oleksa *Borkaniuk. Pratsiuiucha molod' was highly critical of Czechoslovak rule and the poor socioeconomic conditions in * Subcarpathian Rus'. Because of its on-going criticism against the government the newspaper was frequently censored after 1932, banned for a while in 1933, and banned permanently by the authorities in the following year. Further reading: Petro M. Lisovyi, Komunistychna presa Zakarpattia 20—30-kh rokiv (Eviv, 1982), pp. 46-61. IVAN POP

Pravda. See Karpatskaia/Karpats 'ka pravda Pravda/The Truth — newspaper published for RusynAmerican immigrants as the official organ of the *Russian Brotherhood Organization/Obshchestvo russkikh bratstv. Pravda was founded in 1902 in New York City by Victor *Hladick, transferred in 1905 to Olyphant, Pennsylvania under the editorship of Teofan *Obushkevych, and finally moved in

BOGDAN HORBAL

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Pravoslavnyi amerikanskii viestnik. See Russian Orthodox Church in North America Pravoslavnyi put'. See Ladomirova Monastery

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Prchala, Lev. See Carpathian Sich; Carpatho-Ukraine Preparandia/Preparandium. See Presov Greek Catholic Teachers' College; Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College Presidium of the Civil Administration in Subcarpathian Rus' — the executive branch of Czechoslovakia's civil administration in Subcarpathian Rus'. Created in October 1919, the Presidium was under the Czechoslovak Ministry of Internal Affairs and represented in * Subcarpathian Rus' by the province's governor. It was headed by the vice-governor of the province and consisted of all department heads (referenty) of the *civil administration, who met together to decide the most important problems faced by the region. In November 1922 the Presidium was abolished and replaced by the Office of the Vice-Governor and the Presidium for Political Administration. The new Presidium was responsible for all economic matters, appointments, and oversight of administrative bodies while the Office of the Vice-Governor was responsible for political matters and the administration's section heads. In 1926 the single Presidium of the Civil Administration was restored; it continued to function until 1928 when, in connection with the general administrative reform throughout Czechoslovakia, it was abolished permanently and replaced by the Presidium of the Land Administration.

Rusyn two hours a week as an extracurricula subject. The college initially provided a three-year program which was later increased to four years. Under Czechoslovak rule after World War I the language of instruction in the Presov Teachers' College was changed to Russian and the college took on a Russophile orientation (adding the word Russian to its name). Within the college were found a Dukhovych Literary Circle/ Samoobrazovatel'nyi literaturnyi kruzhok im. A. Dukhnovicha (1921 -1940) and the Tchaikovsky Musical Circle/Muzykal'nyi krug im. Chaikovskago (1921-1933). Until 1946 all the directors were appointed by the Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov. The first was the Greek Catholic canon, Koraelii Kovalyts'kyi (1895-1902); other long-term directors were Sandor Gerbery (1902-1919), Aleksander Dziiak( 1920-1929), and Shtefan *Goidych (1931-1939,19451949). Most of the college's 3,000 graduates were Rusyns who later went on to teach in the Presov Region. The Presov Greek Catholic Teachers' College was closed in 1950 by the new Communist government of Czechoslovakia. Further reading: Olena Rudlovchak, "Svitla i tini istorii' Priashivs'koT hreko-katolyts'koT preparandri," Duklia, XLVI, 3 and 4 (Presov, 1998), pp. 55-65 and 46-56; losyf Bacha, "Rus'ka uchytel's'ka akademiia v Priashevi i rosiis'ka mova," Naukovyi zbirnyk Muzeiu ukra'ins 'ko-rus 'koi kul'tury v Svydnyku (Presov, 2001), pp. 189-198. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Presov gymnasium. See Gymnasium

IVAN POP

Presov, Eparchy of. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov Presov Greek Catholic Teachers' College/Priashevskaia hreko-katolytskaia pivtso-uchy-tel'skaia russkaia semynariia — institution established in Presov in 1895 to train elementary school teachers for the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov. When, by the mid-nineteenth century, it had become clear that the *Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College was unable to provide a sufficient number of places for students from the *Presov Region, the Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov decided to create its own college. This did not occur, however, until the episcopate of loann Valyi (r. 1882-1911). The Presov Greek Catholic Teachers' College was opened in 1895; it was known as the Preparandium after 1920 and from 1940 as the Rus-yn State Teachers'Academy/Rus'ka derzhavna uchytel'ska aka-demiia. At the time of the college's establishment the Hungarian government was concerned with promoting magyarization and national assimilation among the non-Magyars peoples of the kingdom. Consequently, all subjects except religion were taught in Hungarian; students were allowed to study

Presov Literary Society/Lyteraturnoe zavedenie priashevskoe — the first literary and cultural society among the Carpatho-Rusyns. It was established in Presov by the Rusyn national awakener Aleksander *Dukhnovych and functioned for three years (1850-1853). Dukhnovych's goal was to create a permanent publishing house with its own *Cyrillic printshop and literary journal. Although the Presov Literary Society was never officially registered by the *Habsburg authorities, it did manage to attain wide influence not only among Rusyn but also among Slovak and Czech writers. Its members included the Rusyn civic and cultural activists Adol'f *Dobrians'kyi, Viktor Dobrians'kyi, Antonii Rubii, Aleksander *Pavlovych, Andrii Popovych, Andrii *Baludians'kyi, Nikolai *Nod', and the renowned Slovak national activists Bonus Nosak, Peter Kellner-Hostinsky, and Jan Andrascik. Czech members included government functionaries of literary bent sent by the Habsburg imperial authorities to administer Hungary, which was at the time under marshal law. The Pre§ov Literary Society did not succeed in attaining its own printshop and literary journal, but it did publish 12 works, including the first literary *anthology (Pozdravlenie rusynov, 1851 and 1852), the first annual almanac (Misiatsoslov dlia uhorskykh rusynov na hod 1854}, Dukhnovych's geography

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text for Rusyn students (Kratkii zemlepys dlia molodykh rusynov, 1851), and the first edition of what became his enormously popular prayerbook (Khlib dushy, 1851). Although banned by imperial decree in 1853, given its achievements, contemporary observers placed the Presov Literary Society among the ranks of other leading Slavic organizations such as the Czech (Matica ceska) and Serb (Matica srbska) Cultural Foundations and the Polish Ossineleum in Eviv. Further reading: Frantisek Tichy, "Dejiny podkarpatsko-ruskeho literarneho spolku presovskeho," Slovanske pohl'ady, XL, 6-8 (Bratislava, 1924), pp. 468-471; Olena Rudlovchak, '"Priashivs'ka literaturna spilka' Dukhnovycha i literaturne zhyttia tohochassia," in idem, Bilia dzherel suchasnosti (Bratislava and Presov, 1981), pp. 51-106. IVAN POP

Communist political and cultural activists were opposed to the term Presov Region (there is no equivalent in the Slovak language), since it implies that there is a solidly inhabited region within "Slovak" territory within which Rusyns are a clear majority rather than a national minority. Rusyn-oriented publications, including this encyclopedia, use the term Presov Region to refer to all villages within the present-day boundaries of Slovakia that at one time had a population of 50 percent or more Rusyns (see Maps 3 and 6). Further reading: Ivan Vanat, "Do pytannia vzhyvannia terminiv 'Zakarpattia' ta 'Priashivshchyna'," in Mykhailo Rychalka, ed., Zhovten' i ukrains'ka kul'tura (Presov, 1968), pp. 602-603; Paul Robert Magocsi, "Mapping Stateless Peoples: The East Slavs of the Carpathians," Canadian Slavonic Papers, XXXIX, 3-4 (Edmonton, 1997), pp. 301-331. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Presov Region — name for Rusyn-inhabited territory in present-day eastern Slovakia. It refers to approximately 300 villages, at least 50 percent of whose inhabitants were Rusyns at the outset of the twentieth century (ca. 1910). The Presov Region is bordered on the east by *Subcarpathian Rus' (present-day Ukraine's Transcarpathia) and stretches westward to the village of Osturna at the foot of the Tatra Mountains in north-central Slovakia. This territory basically falls within the jurisdiction of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov (est. 1816), which in terms of historic Hungarian counties included the northern portions of *Spish (Hungarian: Szepes), *Sharysh (Saros), and *Zemplyn (Zemplen), as well as western *Ung. The region's name is derived from the city of Presov, which since the early nineteenth century has been the seat of the Greek Catholic eparchy and the cultural center of Rusyns living in this part of *Carpathian Rus'. Presov itself, however, is not within Rusyn ethnolinguistic territory. The concept of a "Presov Region" is of recent origin and the term began to be used only after World War I, when Rusyns living south of the Carpathians were divided by an administrative boundary, first that of *Rus'ka Krai'na under the short-lived Hungarian Republic (1918-1919), then that between the Czechoslovak provinces of Subcarpathian Rus' and Slovakia (1919-1938). To distinguish the Rusyns under a Slovak administration from those in the theoretically self-governing Subcarpathian Rus', the term Presov Region (Rusyn: PreshovskaRus'/PriashivskaRus'; Russian: Priashevshchina/ Priashevskaia Rus'; Ukrainian: Priashivshchyna) began to be used in the early 1920s by Rusyn civic and cultural activists. Although it was never an official term designating a specific territorial entity, after World War II Presov Region (in the forms Priashevshchina and Priashivshchyna) was used as the name both of the newly established *Ukrainian National Council (1945-1949) and its newspaper, * Priashevshchina, some of whose supporters called for Rusyn territorial autonomy within Slovakia. Both Slovak Communist and non-

Preshovs'ka Rus'. See Presov Region Priashevshchina — weekly newspaper published in Presov (1945-51) as the official organ of the *Ukrainian National Council of the Presov Region. It appeared in the Russian language and was initially open to contributors from all political, national, and religious viewpoints, but eventually promoted the transformation of Czechoslovakia into a socialist and Communist society. Priashevshchina welcomed the "Soviet liberation" and Czechoslovakia's growing economic and political dependence on the Soviet Union. Its founding editor, Ivan *Pieshchak (1945), was followed by Fedor *Lazoryk (1946-51). Aside from providing official news about the Ukrainian National Council and Rusyn life in eastern Slovakia, Priashevshchina served as a forum in which Rusyn authors could publish their poetry and prose. Further reading: Mykhailo Roman, "RoP 'Priashevshchyny' u rozvytku ukrams'koi literatury," Duklia, XXXIII, 3 (Presov, 1985), pp. 47-51. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Priashevskaia Rus' — short-lived weekly newspaper of "free Russian social thought" published in Presov (193839). Edited by Fedor Roikovych, the newspaper supported the efforts of Rusyns in Slovakia to unite with their brethren in autonomous * Subcarpathian Rus', although it changed its view when the pro-Ukrainian government of Avhustyn *Voloshyn came to power. After the demise of post-Munich federal Czecho-Slovakia, the new Slovak state banned further publication of the newspaper (May 1939). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Priashivs'ka Rus'. See Presov Region Prikarpatskaia Rus'. See Carpatho-Russian Congress;

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to Joseph Kurzbeck (1736-1792), the owner of the Illyrian Printshop in Vienna, the right to print books in the Slavonic (kyryllytsid) alphabet for the empire's inhabitants. Before the end of the eighteenth century, he printed fifty titles (mostly for Serbs), of which three were intended specifically for the Carpatho-Rusyns of Hungary. The Kurzbeck printshop functioned for only two decades, after which its Slavonic/ Cyrillic typefonts were transferred to the Royal Hungarian University printshop (based in the Buda part of present-day Budapest). Between 1777 and 1885 the Royal University printshop published several books for Carpatho-Rusyns in the Hungarian Kingdom, including the popular primer (1797) and catechism (1801) of loann *Kutka, the Carpatho-Rusyn grammar (1830) and sermons (1831) of Mykhail *Luchkai, and the Rusyn-Hungarian dictionary (1883) and several Rusyn textbooks by Laslo *Chopei. Other books intended for Carpatho-Rusyns during this period were printed by the Armenian-rite Catholic Mechitarist monastic order in Vienna and in Galicia by the Greek Catholic cathedral chapter in Przemysl and the Stauropegial Institute in Eviv. The latter two shops printed many works for the "national awakener," Aleksander *Dukhnovych, including the first Carpatho-Rusyn literary *anthology (Pozdravlenie Rusynov, 1850) and first Carpatho-Rusyn almanacs/*kalendary (Misiatsoslov, 1854, 1857).

Printing and Publishing. The printing of books intended for Carpatho-Rusyns may date from the seventeenth century at the earliest and is connected with the Orthodox monastery at *Hrushovo in *Maramorosh county. Although there are no surviving imprints, secondary sources suggest that three or four church books were printed in Hrushovo. The Hrushovo printing press together with the monastery were destroyed sometime in the 1670s during the anti-*Habsburg uprising of Imre Thokoly. It was not until the late nineteenth century that a printshop with *Cyrillic typefonts was established in *Carpathian Rus'. Until that time the need for books, especially on the part of clergy serving Carpatho-Rusyns, was fulfilled by imports from printshops located in what is today Ukraine (L'viv, Kiev, Ostrih), Poland (Cracow), the Czech Republic (Prague), Russia (Moscow), and Italy (Venice, which generally produced books for the South Slavs). Virtually all books imported into Carpathian Rus' in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were religious in nature and, in particular, sanctioned by the Orthodox Church. This was also a time when the Uniate Church, which since 1646 was trying to become established, was in need of church books whose content would be in accord with Catholic doctrine. To fulfill that goal, Leopold Cardinal Kollonich, the Roman Catholic primate of Hungary and Habsburg statesman, provided (ca. 1680) Cyrillic typefonts for the printshop at the Jesuit-administered University of Trnava in northern Hungary (present-day Slovakia). It was at Trnava, therefore, that the first books were printed for Uniate Catholics, including Carpatho-Rusyns, living in the Hungarian Kingdom. Of the twelve books attributed to the Trnava printshop, five were intended for Carpatho-Rusyns, including what are considered their first printed books: the Katekhisis (Catechism, 1698) of Bishop Joseph *De Camellis; a Boukvar' (Primer, 1699); and Kratkoe pripadkov moralnikh (Short Moral Precepts, 1727), attributed to Bishop Georgii Gennadii *Bizantsii. Soon thereafter, the Cyrillic typefonts from Trnava were transferred to the printshop of the Jesuit Order in Cluj/Kolozsvar in Transylvania, where Bishop Mykhai'l Manui'l *Olshavs'kyi's Latin primer for CarpathoRusyns was produced (Elementa puerilis instititutionis in lingua Latina, 1746). The Habsburg rulers of Austria and Hungary remained concerned that publications from the Russian Empire intended for Byzantine-rite Christians living within its borders were "schismatic" (i.e., Orthodox) in nature. That concern only increased when, during the 1770s, the Austrian Empire annexed both Galicia and Bukovina, lands with a large number of Byzantine-rite East Slavs and Romanians in need of church books and school texts. The Austrian government banned the importation of Cyrillic books and in 1770 granted

SUBCARPATHIAN RUS'

In 1845 a printshop was established at Uzhhorod, but it was not until 1863 that Cyrillic typefonts (using the civic script — grazhdankd) came into use for the first time on the territory of Carpathian Rus' at the Karoly (Bartolemy) Jager printshop/ Typohrafiia Karla (Varfalomeia) legera. The following year Jager renewed the annual "almanac for Hungary's Rusyns" (Misiatsoslov). In 1866 the *St. Basil the Great Society became the first publishing house in Subcarpathian Rus' devoted specifically to Carpatho-Rusyns. Beginning in 1867 the society took over as publisher of the annual Rusyn almanacs (although they were still printed by Jager) and also published the first Rusyn newspapers (*Svit, *Novyi svit, *Karpat) and several schoolbooks, among them the first editions of Avhustyn *Voloshyn's grammar of the "Uhro-Rusyn language" (1899). Another publisher, Kelet, existed in Uzhhorod during the last decade of the nineteenth century. It produced the popular collection of folk poetry compiled by Mykhai'l *Vrabel' (Russkii solovei, 1890) and the first anthology of Carpatho-Rusyn literature by levmenii *Sabov (Khristomatiia, 1890). In 1902, the St. Basil Society was succeeded by the *Unio Publishing Company, which operated its own printshop. For the next three decades, Unio was the leading publishing house producing a wide variety of Rusyn-language publications, including annual almanacs, church books, newspapers, and school texts. Closely connected to the *Greek Catholic

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Eparchy of Mukachevo, Unio published texts not only in Rusyn but also in Hungarian. This was in response to the increase in magyarization that characterized the decades before World War I. In 1907, the manager of Unio's printshop, lulii *Fel'deshii, bought the Jager printshop. Renamed the Fel'deshii Printshop/Knyhopechatnia luliia Feldeshiia, it operated as both a printshop and publishing company until 1945. During those years, Fel'deshii issued a wide variety of newspapers, almanacs, and literary works which generally favored the *Rusynophile and *Russophile national orientations and which after World War I supported demands for *autonomy for *Subcarpathian Rus'. When, in 1919, Subcarpathian Rus' became part of the new state of Czechoslovakia, publishing on behalf of Carpatho-Rusyns experienced enormous growth and diversity. Alongside the Unio and Fel'deshii publishing houses, several new ones came into being that were associated with cultural organizations, newspapers, and political parties of various national orientations. Those which supported the populist (later Ukrainian) national orientation, included *Prosvita Society Publishers /Vydavnytstvo Tovarystva 'Prosvita' (est. 1920) and Pedagogical Society Publishers / Vydavnytstvo Pedahohychnoho tovarystva (est. 1925), both based in Uzhhorod. Together with three other publishers of similar national convictions (Robotnycha Akademiia,*Nash rodnyi krai, and Plast), they together formed in 1926 the Union of Rusyn Publishers in Subcarpathian Rus'/ Soiuz rus'kykh vydavnytstv PodkarpatskoT Rusy to promote their common interests. Of particular importance for religious publications was the Basilian Monastery Publishers established in Uzhhorod in 1925. In part as a challenge to the populist-Ukrainophile orientation, the *Dukhnovych Society (est. 1923) created a publication program to produce journals, almanacs, books, and brochures that espoused the *Russophile orientation and promoted the Russian language. Among its best known publications was a Russian grammar (1924) associated with the local cultural activist, levmenii Sabov. The Russophile orientation was also promoted by the publication program of the Subcarpathian Rusyn Popular Enlightenment Union /Podkarpatorusskii narodnoprosvietitel'nyi soiuz, which was supported by Czechoslovak government funds throughout the interwar years. Most of the publishing houses that came into being under the Czechoslovak regime had their materials produced by the Unio, Fel'deshii, or *Shkol'naia pomoshch' printshops, as well as by various shops owned partially or solely after 1924 by Georgii *Miravchyk. There were also new printshops and book dealers established by Czechs who set up businesses especially in Uzhhorod (Zdimal and Vetesnik, Krivanek), or by publishers from the Czech lands and Slovakia (Svoboda, Viktoria, Novina) who set up branches in Subcarpathian Rus' to produce books in Czech and the various languages used

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture by Carpatho-Rusyns. The Czechoslovak government itself, through the Prague-based State Publishing House/ Derzhavne Vydavnytstvo, also produced books in Rusyn, in particular school textbooks, among which were three editions of the widely-used Rusyn grammar by Ivan *Pan'kevych. With the return of Hungarian rule to Subcarpathian Rus' in early 1939, the publishing scene changed significantly. Unio Publishers, which went bankrupt in the 1930s, was continued in name as the Unio-G. Miravchyk Publishers, while the Hungarian authorities immediately closed most Ukrainian-oriented organizations and their publishing houses. Two years later the Russophile Shkol'naia pomoshch' society's printshop was confiscated by the Hungarian authorities and given to the newly established * Subcarpathian Scholarly Society /Podkarpatskoe obshchestvo nauk, which, alongside the Fel'deshii and Unio-Miravchyk concerns, became the most important Rusyn-language publisher during World War II, producing a wide variety of scholarly, literary, and children's books as well as journals and magazines in each of those categories. An even more radical change in publishing and printing came with the establishment in late 1944 of the pro-Soviet administration of *Transcarpathian Ukraine, which in June 1945 welcomed the incorporation of the province into the Soviet Ukraine. In keeping with the Soviet policy of nationalization of private industries and businesses, all existing publishing and printing houses were abolished. In order to fulfill the region's publishing needs while abiding by the Soviet guidelines of a command economy, in 1945 a single state-owned concern, the Transcarpathian Region Publishing House/ Zakarpats'ke oblasne Vydavnytstvo, was established in Uzhhorod; in 1964 it was renamed Karpaty Publishers/ Vydavnytstvo 'Karpaty'. School textbooks were produced by the Uzhhorod branch of the Kiev-based state publishing house, Radians'ka shkola. In keeping with Soviet guidelines regarding the nationality question, throughout the entire Soviet period the Transcarpathian/Karpaty and Radians'ka shkola publishing houses did not produce any books in Rusyn. Moreover, their monographs, collected works, and school textbooks were required to discuss Carpatho-Rusyns and their culture only as a regional variant within general Ukrainian developments. These guidelines also applied—and in large part were formulated—by Uzhhorod State University, which since 1947 has acted as the publisher of scholarly journals and monographs. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and its replacement by an independent Ukraine brought a return to diversification in the publishing and printing industry in Subcarpathian Rus'. In the absence of the old Soviet command economy, several new publishing houses came into being in the 1990s and contributed to a burgeoning of works about all aspects of Subcarpathian Rus' /Transcarpathia. Karpaty Publishers still exists and, together with Uzhhorod State (now National)

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture University, the Informational Office of the Transcarpathian Regional (oblast) Administration/ Hosprozrakhunkovyi redaktsiino-vydavnychyi viddil komiteru informatsii, and most private publishers, they all continue to deal with CarpathoRusyn issues from a Ukrainian perspective. A few publishers are sympathetic to the *Rusynophile orientation (PoliPrint, Elara, Karpats'ka vezha), the most important of these being Valerii *Padiak Publishers /Vydavnytstvo V. Padiaka (est. 2000), which publishes in Rusyn and in Ukrainian original literary works, scholarly monographs, almanacs, and popular books about Carpatho-Rusyns for the public at large.

PRE§OV REGION Publishing and printing for Carpatho-Rusyns in the Presov Region was based almost exclusively in the city of Presov. It was there that Aleksander Dukhnovych created in 1850 the first publishing house anywhere devoted exclusively to Carpatho-Rusyns, the *Presov Literary Society/Lyteraturnoe zavedenie priashevskoe. During the course of three years it managed to publish twelve books, although in the absence of a local Cyrillic printshop the books were produced in Przemysl, Eviv, Buda, and Vienna. From the 1860s until the eve of World War I, most Cyrillic publications for Rusyns in the * Presov Region were produced by either the Unio or Fel'deshii printshops in Uzhhorod. In 1911, at the initiative of the Greek Catholic Eparchy, the St. Nicholas Printshop/Knyhopechatnia Sv. Nykolaia was opened in Presov to provide religious publications for Rusyns and the faithful of other national backgrounds. Although the printshop had Cyrillic (Slavonic and grazhdankd) typefonts, materials intended for Rusyns were in general printed in the Roman alphabet (according to Hungarian transcription), including the Presov Region's first newspaper intended for Carpatho-Rusyns, Nase otecsesztvo (1916-19). After World War I, when the Presov Region became part of Czechoslovakia, the number of publications for Rusyns increased and included school texts, newspapers, and almanacs printed by the St. Nicholas Printshop. Also widespread were publications from Uzhhorod distributed through the Presov branch of the Dukhnovych Society. A new center for publications in the Cyrillic alphabet was the Orthodox Monastery connected with the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad (the Synod). In 1924, the monastery cooperated with Senator lurii *Lazho to open a printshop in Svidnik, which two years later moved to the monastery located in the village of Ladomirova. Until 1932, it was known as the Senator Lazho Printshop/ Tipografiiia Senatora lu. P. Lazho and thereafter as the Russian Church Historical St. Job of Pochai'v Religious Printshop in Ladomirova in the Carpathians/Istoricheskaia Pochaevskaia tserkovnaia tipografiia pr. lova vo Vladimirovoi na Karpatakh. The monastery's production was exclusively in Russian and *Church Slavonic and was intended to serve the worldwide needs of churches and parishioners of the Synod Abroad. The

* Ladomirova Monastery printshop was destroyed in the last year of World War II, but it was renewed a few years later and still functions at Holy Trinity Monastery in Jordanville, New York. After World War II, the Slavonic Book Publishing House/Slavknyha was established in Presov, and from 1947 it published newspapers and other materials in Russian and Ukrainian for the ""Ukrainian National Council of the Presov Region. After the *Communist party came to power in Czechoslovakia (1948), businesses were gradually nationalized. By 1950, the St. Nicholas Printshop and Slavknyha ceased to exist and Cyrillic book production was taken over by state concerns, the most important of which was the Dukla Printshop/ Dukel'ska tlaciaren (est. 1953) in Presov. In the new political conditions, only state-owned or statesponsored publishing houses were allowed. Consequently, newspapers, magazines, almanacs, and books written by or about Carpatho-Rusyns were published by the *Cultural Union of Ukrainian Workers/Kul'turnyi soiuz ukrai'ns'kykh trudiashchykh—KSUT from its establishment in 1951 until its demise in 1990 following the collapse of Communist rule. During the Communist era, most books intended for the Rusyns in Czechoslovakia were produced by the Presov-based Ukrainian Editorial Office/Ukrai'ns'ka redaktsiia (1956-1960) of the state-run Slovak Publishing House for Bellettres /Slovenske vydavatel'stvo krasnej literatury in Bratislava and then by the Section for Ukrainian Literature/Viddil ukrai'ns'koi literatury (1960-1994) of the Slovak Pedagogical Publishing House/ Slovenske pedagogicke nakladatel'stvo, also based in Bratislava. As in neighboring Soviet Transcarpathia, these concerns had a monopoly in publishing and were expected to promote only the Ukrainian understanding of Carpatho-Rusyn history and culture. No publications in Rusyn were allowed and even local dialectal folk texts were ukrainianized. Since the end of Communist rule in Czechoslovakia (1989) and the establishment of an independent Slovakia (1993), the Ukrainian orientation in the Presov Region publishing world is continued by KSUT's successor, the *Union of RusynUkrainians of Slovakia, and a few new publishing houses, such as the Carpathian Foundation/ Fundatsiia 'Karpaty' and Tsuper Publishers /Vydavnytstvo Cuper. The post-Communist era has also allowed for the revival of book production in the Rusyn language together with support for the Rusyn national orientation. The leading publisher in this regard is the *Rusyn Renaissance Society /Rusyn'ska obroda, which since its establishment in 1990 has played a significant role in the codification of a Rusyn literary standard through publication of a newspaper (*Narodny novynky), magazine (*Rusyn\ original literary works, scholarly and popular books, an annual almanac, and school textbooks.

LEMKO REGION In contrast to Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region, the

402 Lemko Region has not had a printshop with Slavonic/Cyrillic typefonts either within the region itself or in nearby towns. When the first publications by Lemko-Rusyn authors began to appear in the late nineteenth century they were usually printed in Eviv, at the Stauropegial Institute, and on the eve of World War I by Hryhorii *Hanuliak Publishers/Izdanie Hr. Hanuliaka, which also produced the first issues of the newspaper * Lemko (1911). During the interwar period of the twentieth century, Eviv basically remained the center for Lemko publishing in Europe, whether for the Rusynophile *Lemko Association/Lemko-Soiuz newspaper (*Lemko), or the Ukrainophile newspaper (*Nash Lemko) published by the Lemko Commission of the Prosvita Society together with its series of books, Lemkivs'ka Biblioteka. The few textbooks produced for Lemko Rusyns in the 1930s were published by Poland's State Publishing House for Schoolbooks, also in Eviv. At the time, the largest number of publications in Lemko Rusyn did not appear in Europe, however, but in the United States. In the course of World War II, the Nazi German regime which ruled the Lemko Region allowed the existence of the Ukrainian Central Committee in Cracow, whose Ukrainian Publishing House /Ukrai'ns'ke vydavnytstvo issued some materials about Lemkos, including luliian *Tarnovych's popular study (1941) of Lemko ethnography. Publishing for Lemkos was basically non-existent for most of the post-World War II period in Communist-ruled Poland. Only in the late 1980s did a few Lemko-language literary works appear, released by whichever Polish publisher an individual author was able to find (and often subsidize). Since the end of Communist rule, a few publishers in Poland specialize in materials written in the Lemko-Rusyn language. The most important of these is the *Lemko Society/Stovaryshynia Lemkiv based in Legnica (Silesia), which since 1989 publishes in Lemko Rusyn books, a bi-monthly magazine (*Besidd), an annual almanac, and school textbooks. Other Lemko-language publishers in Poland include Nasha Zahoroda operated by the writer Volodyslav *Hraban and the Rutenika Foundation based in Warsaw. In Ukraine, the *Lemko Research Foundation in Eviv /Fundatsiiia doslidzhennia Lemkivshchyny u Evovi (est. 1991) publishes books and annual almanacs in a series called Biblioteka Lemkivshchyny. These are all in the Ukrainian language and promote the Ukrainian understanding of Lemko culture and history. VOJVODINA

The beginning of book publishing among the Vojvodinian Rusyns living in the Bachka and Srem counties of the southern Hungarian Kingdom is connected with the "father" of their language and literature, Havrii'l *Kostel'nik. From 1904, when the first literary work in Vojvodinian Rusyn appeared, until the eve of World War II, the publications by Kostel'nik and other authors were printed at the Basilian Monastery in Zhovkva, Galicia; at the Royal Printshop in Zagreb, Croatia, and at vari-

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture ous printshops in Serbia. Of particular importance among the latter was the Serbian Orthodox Monastery Printshop/ Srpska monastirska stamparija in Sremski Karlovci, which among other books published the first grammar of the Vojvodinian (Bachka) Rusyn language by Kostel'nik (1923). With the annexation of the Vojvodina to the new state of Yugoslavia in 1919, that same year the *Rusyn National Enlightenment Society/Ruske narodne prosvitne druzhtvo was established. Based in Novi Sad, the National Enlightenment Society became the first Vojvodinian Rusyn publishing house, issuing annual almanacs, a weekly newspaper (* Ruski novini), and books. Beginning in 1937, it operated its own printshop at the National Center/Narodni dom in Ruski Kerestur, the main center of Rusyn settlement in the Vojvodina. Those Vojvodinian Rusyns who were Orthodox and of Russophile orientation established in 1933 their own publishing house connected with the *Zaria Cultural and Enlightenment Union/Kulturno-prosvitni (natsionalni) soiuz. They published a newspaper, an annual almanac, and some books, using various Serbian printshops in Novi Sad. At the close of World War II and the restoration of Yugoslavia as a Communist-ruled state, the Rusyn National Enlightenment and Zaria organizations ceased to exist. Vojvodinian Rusyn publishing activity initially was concentrated in Ruski Kerestur. There the publisher and printshop carried different names (National Front, Ruska Matka, Brotherhood-Unity, Ruski Publishers), until in 1960 they became the *Ruske Slovo Publishing House/Novinarskovidavatel'na robotna organizatsiiia 'Ruske slovo'. With its editorial offices in Novi Sad, Ruske Slovo continues to be the main publisher of Vojvodinian Rusyn books, newspapers, almanacs, and other publications. Beginning in 1968, Rusyns living in the Srem and other parts of the former Yugoslav republic of Croatia have had their own publishing house connected with the *Union of Rusyns and Ukrainians in Croatia/Soiuz Rusinokh i Ukrai'ntsokh Horvatskei based in Vukovar.

UNITED STATES Rusyn immigrants in the United States created some of the oldest and longest-lasting publishing houses. Almost all have been associated with fraternal or cultural organizations. The first of these was the * Greek Catholic Union ofRusyn Brotherhoods, which from its establishment in 1892 had his own printshop (Typografija Sojedinenija Greko Kaft. Russkich Bratstv) based initially in Mahanoy City and from 1906 in Homestead (Munhall) Pennsylvania. For nearly a century, the GCU printed its fraternal newspaper (*Amerikansky russky viestnik), annual almanacs, original literary works, historical studies (including those by authors in the European homeland like Nykolai A. *Beskyd), and memoranda and other political declarations connected with developments in Subcarpathian Rus'. These materials were printed in both the Cyrillic and

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Roman alphabets and issued under the imprint Amerikansky Russky Viestnik Publishers/ Izdanije red. 'Amerikanskoho russkoho viestnika'. Other Rusyn-American fraternals with their own printshops and publishing programs (usually named after the fraternal newspaper) included: the Russian Orthodox Catholic Mutual Aid Society (Typografiia 'Svit') in New York City and later Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania; the *Russian Brotherhood Organization (Tipografiia 'Pravdy') in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; the *United Societies (Knihopecatna Prosvita-Enlightenment) in McKeesport, Pennsylvania; and the * Liberty Association/Svoboda (Vostok Printing Company/ Tipografija Vostoka) in Perth Amboy, New Jersey. These and other smaller Rusyn-American publishers/printers connected with fraternal societies were at their height between the 1920s and 1950s and thereafter gradually declined so that by the end of the twentieth century none existed. Among Rusyn-American publishers not associated with fraternal societies, the oldest was the Orient Publishing Company, established in New York City in 1921 by Michael *Hanchin. During Orient's existence until the mid-1920, its main function was to publish the Rusyn-language daily newspaper *Den'. Longer lasting has been the publishing house of the *Lemko Association/Lemko Soiuz. Since 1929, it has issued publicistic, historical, and literary works, a series of plays, youth magazines, annual almanacs, and two newspapers (*Lemko and *Karpatska Rus'). Most of these materials appeared in the Lemko-Rusyn vernacular (Cyrillic alphabet) and until the 1970s were produced at the Lemko Association's own printshops (Typohrafyia Lemko Soiuza), first in Cleveland, Ohio and then Yonkers, New York. Scholarly literature about Carpatho-Rusyns has since the last quarter of the twentieth century been published (mostly in English) and/or distributed by the *Carpatho-Rusyn Research Center (est. 1978) and by mainline North American university publishers (Columbia, Harvard, Toronto).

Keresture," Visnikkulturi, 1,1 (Ruski Kerestur, 1976), pp. 39-43; lurii Kundrat, "Vydavnycha diial'nist' Kul'turnoho soiuzu ukrai'ns'kykh trudiashchykh u Chekhoslovachchyni, " Naukovi zapysky, No. 6 (Uzhhorod, 1978), pp. 71-80; DiuraLatiak, "Vidavatel'nadlialnosts na iaziku voivodianskikh Rusnatsokh," Tvorchosts, VIII (Novi Sad, 1982), pp. 32-54; Peter Kirai, "Rusinskie izdaniia trnavskoi universitetskoi tipografii," in M. Peter, ed., Russika: sbornik statei posv. pamiati Emilia Baletskogo (Budapest, 1983), pp. 41-48; DiuraLatiak, 'Ruske slovo' 1945-1985 (Novi Sad, 1985); Petro Beheni, "Liutyi i vydavnycha sprava ukrai'ntsiv Chekhoslovachchyny," Naukovyi zbirnykMuzeiu ukrains 'ko'ikul'tury u Svydnyku, XV, pt. 1 (Bratislava and Presov, 1988), pp. 263-270; lurii Kundrat, "Knyhodrukuvannia v ukrai'ntsiv Priashivshchyny pislia 1945 roku," Naukovyi zbirnyk Muzeiu ukrdins'koi kul'tury u Svydnyku, XIX (Presov, 1998), pp. 29-38; Jozef Sulacek, "Prispevok k dejinam tlacenia ukrajinskych knih na vychodnom Slovensku," in Historicke kniznicne fondy: zbornik prispevkov (Kosice, 1988), pp. 71-120; Antal Hodinka, "The History of Liturgical Books Used in the Diocese of Munkacs," Diakonia, XXII, 1 (Scranton, Pa., 1988-89), pp. 43-64; Diura Latiak, "Vydavatel'na dlialnosts Ruskoho narodnoho prosvitnoho druzhtva, 1919-1941," Studio Ruthenica, II (Novi Sad, 1990-91), pp. 126-133; Ralph Cleminson, "Cyrillic Printing in Trnava, c. 1680-1727," Oxford Slavonic Papers, XXVI (Oxford, 1993), pp. 40-54; Eubica Harbul'ova, Ladomirovske reminiscencie: z dejin ruskej pravosldvnej misie v Ladomirovej, 1923-1944 (Presov, 2000), esp. pp. 26-41; Oleksandr Oros, Hrushivs'kyi monastyr ipochatky kyrylychnoho slovians'koho knyhodrukuvannia (Uzhhorod, 2001); Mykhayl Kapral', Podkarpatskoe obshchestvo nauk: publikatsiy, 1941-1944 (Uzhhorod, 2002); Valerii I. Padiak, "Problemy, zdobutky ta perspektyvy vydavnychoi spravy na Zakarpatti v konteksti suchasnoho rusyns'koho natsionarno-kul'turnoho vidrodzhennia," in Naukovyi visnyk Uzhhorods 'koho universytetu: Seriia istoriia, Vol. VIII (Uzhhorod, 2003), pp. 165-171.

Further reading: Hiador Sztripszky, "A hazai rutenek legregibb nyomtatvanyai," Magyar konyvszemle, XIX (Budapest, 1911), pp. 117-131 and 243-262; Hiiador Stryps'kyi, "Z starshoi pys'mennosty Uhors'ko'i Rusy," Zapysky Naukovoho tovarystva imeny Shevchenka, CXVII-CXVIII (Eviv, 1914), pp. 179-195; Evgenii Perfetskii, "Pechatnia tserkovno-slavianskaia kniga Ugorskoi Rusi v XVII-m i XVIII-m viekakh," Izviestiia otdieleniia russkago iazyka i slovesnosti Imperatorskoi akademii nauk, XXI, 2 (Petrograd, 1916), pp. 177294; levhenii Perfets'kyi, "Drukarni ta starodruky Pidkarpats'koT Rusy-Ukrai'ny," Bibliolohichni visty, No. 4 [13] (Kiev, 1926), pp. 26-34; Belon Rusinsky [Hiiador Stryps'kyi], "Trnavska univerzita v sluzbe unionistickej idey," in Pamiatka Trnavskej univerzity, 16351777 (Trnava, 1935), pp. 243-257; lador Stryps'kyi, "Pochatky drukarstva na Podkarpatiu," Zoria-Hajnal, II, 3-4 (Uzhhorod, 1942), pp. 261-289; Oleksa V. Myshanych, Literatura Zakarpattia XVIIXVIII stolit' (Kiev, 1964), esp. pp. 20-40; Ivan Matsyns'kyi, "20 lit ukra'ins'ko'i vydavnychoi spravy na skhodi respublyky," Duklia, XVII, 3 (Presov, 1969),pp.l-ll;DiuraBindas,"DrukarniauRuskim

Proboiem. See Roshko, Ivan; Rosokha, Stepan

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Procko, Bohdan P. See Historiography: United States Prodan, Janos/Ioann. See Uhro-Rusyn party Prolog. See Literature, Early manuscripts Prostopiniie. See Carpathian plainchant Prosvita. See Prosvita Society; Rusyn National Enlightenment Society Prosvita/The Enlightenment — official organ of the *United Societies fraternal organization in the United States published in McKeesport, Pennsylvania (1917-2000). Prosvita began as a weekly newspaper; after 1947 it appeared

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bi-weekly or monthly. The paper was originally published in Rusyn (Roman alphabet), but from the 1950s appeared increasingly and then exclusively in English. Among its longtime editors were the Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic priests Valentine *Gorzo (1917-1931), Alexander Papp (1935-1938, 1943-1950), and Stephen Loya (1956-1970). Throughout its history Prosvita defended the policies of the Byzantine Ruthenian bishops, especially during the 1930s, when Rusyn Greek Catholics were divided over the celibacy issue. The editors also produced an annual almanac, Kalendar'Prosvity/Kalendar' "Sobranija "(1918-38), published in Rusyn and containing material on the secular and religious history of Rusyns in Europe. Prosvita/The Enlightenment ceased publication in 2000 when the United Societies merged with the *Greek Catholic Union. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Prosvita Society / Tovarystvo "Prosvita" — cultural and popular educational organization of Ukrainophile orientation established in Eviv (1868) for the Rusyn inhabitants of Galicia and later with branches or separate organizations among the Carpatho-Rusyns. The Prosvita Society of Subcarpathian Rus'/Tovarystvo "Prosvita" Podkarpatskoi Rusy was established on May 9, 1920 in Uzhhorod under the direction of lulii *Brashchaiko and an executive board that included Avhustyn *Voloshyn, Mykola *Dolynai, Ivan *Pan'kevych, Avhustyn *Shtefan, Vasylii *Hadzhega, Hiiador *Stryps'kyi, and Stepan *Klochurak. Initially, the Prosvita Society did not advertise its *Ukrainophile orientation and did not even use the term "Ukrainian"; for that reason its executive board included *Rusynophiles like Hadzhega and Stryps'kyi. Its stated goals were "to raise the cultural and economic status of the Subcarpathian Rusyn people." The Prosvita Society was divided into sections responsible for publications, literature and scholarship, organizational matters, library, theater, museum, and economic development. Aside from reading rooms and libraries, the society also hoped to establish village cooperatives and to assist farmers to mechanize their operations. There were also plans to create a national museum for the province. The older Prosvita Society in Galicia served as the model for * Subcarpathian Rus', and among the latter's most influential leaders were the Galician-Ukrainian emigres Vasyl' *Pachovs'kyi, Volodymyr *Birchak, and Ivan Pan'kevych. Of particular importance was the Prosvita Society's publication program, which included the youth magazine Pcholka; the literary anthology Trembita; a journal for practical economic advice Svitlo; annual almanacs (kalendary); a series of nearly 60 brochures on agricultural and historic topics; and 14 volumes of a scholarly journal, *Naukovyi zbornyk. In the early 1920s most of these publications appeared in a language that was close to local Rusyn dialects and printed in the traditional etymological alphabet,

but by the 1930s literary Ukrainian was used. The Prosvita Society reached the local Rusyn population through the establishment of village reading rooms, whose small libraries contained the society's publications and at times sponsored local cultural events. By 1937 it claimed to have 253 reading rooms with about 15,000 members. During the 1920s the society sponsored the popular Rusyn Theater/ Rus'kyi teatr, and in 1928, with the help of the Czechoslovak government, in particular President Tomas G. *Masaryk, it opened a National Center (Dom "Prosvita") in Uzhhorod, with its own museum, library, reading room, and cinema. Despite the all-inclusive epithet "national," the Prosvita's new center in fact responded primarily to the interests and needs of Ukrainophiles. In the second half of the 1930s the Prosvita Society organized large-scale meetings, demonstrations, and congresses in Uzhhorod, Svaliava, Perechyn, and Rakhiv, at which its more radical members dispensed with cultural and popular educational activity and openly expressed their political goal of creating a Ukrainian state. In effect, the society became an anti-state institution and, as the Czechoslovak police reported, a center of radical Ukrainian nationalism. Following the * Vienna Award of November 2, 1938, and the acquisition by Hungary of southern Subcarpathian Rus', the Prosvita Society's property in Uzhhorod, Mukachevo, and Berehovo was confiscated by the Hungarian authorities; the rest of its organizational structure was dismantled following the Hungarian occupation of *Carpatho-Ukraine in March 1939. In the *Lemko Region, the Prosvita Society from its base in Eviv established its first reading room in the village of Odrzechowa as early as 1892, followed by branches in Nowy Sa.cz (1902), Sanok (1903), and Jaslo (1903). The branches were set up primarily by Ukrainophiles from eastern Galicia who moved to these towns near the Lemko Region. In 1911 the Eviv Prosvita Society established a Lemko Commission, whose goal was to increase the number of reading rooms. Their number indeed rose from 22 on the eve of World War I to 47 by 1936. The Lemko Comission also sponsored four conferences about Lemkos and from 1936 financed publication of the Ukrainian-language newspaper, *Nash Lemko. In Czechoslovakia's *Presov Region a branch of the Uzhhorod Prosvita Society was established in Presov in 1930 at the initiative of Emanui'l Biharii (1854-1934) and Iryna *Nevyts'ka. It claimed to have eight reading rooms throughout eastern Slovakia, although its influence over the local Rusyn population was quite limited. During the last months of the Soviet Union, the Prosvita Society in Uzhhorod was renewed in 1990 at the initiative of the ethnographer Pavlo *Fedaka. Before long another Prosvita Society, headed by Pavlo *Chuchka, appeared, but it was soon transformed into the Shevchenko Society for the Ukrainian Language. The first "historic" society headed by Fedaka has

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Prosvitni dom. See Mudri, Mykhailo; Rusyn National Enlightenment Society

of the Ukrainian National Republic's Ministry of Culture, and sang with the Ukrainian Republic Capella. Soon after the capella's establishment at the outset of 1919 it left for a tour of western Europe. With the onset of Soviet rule in Ukraine the capella could not return home; after it disbanded, Prykhod'ko settled in Uzhhorod (1920) and requested political asylum in Czechoslovakia. Remaining in * Subcarpathian Rus', Prykhod'ko for nearly two decades taught Ukrainian language and literature at the *Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College (1922-1923, 1925-1938) and at the commercial academies in Uzhhorod (1923-1925) and Mukachevo (1930-1938). It was through music that he especially hoped to promote the Ukrainian national idea in Subcarpathian Rus'. In 1921 he established Kobzar, a music and dramatic ensemble which was followed by a whole host of other ensembles founded and/or directed by him: the Rusyn National Choir/Russkii natsional'nyi khor (1921-1928), the choir of the *Prosvita Society Rusyn Theater (1921 -1929), and the Regional Choir of Subcarpathian Rusyn Teachers/Kraevoi khor podkarpatorusskykh uchytelei (19281938). He also directed the choir and orchestra of the shortlived Sadovs'kyi Ukrainian Theater in Uzhhorod (1921 -1923), the Koriatovych Dramatic Circle in Mukachevo, and the Ridna nyva dramatic circle. When Hungary annexed Uzhhorod (November 1938) Prykhod'ko emigrated to Prague, where he spent the rest of his life active in Ukrainian emigre theatrical and musical life. He also published abroad memoirs about his experience in Subcarpathian Rus' under the title Probudylas' Rus': Zakarpattia 50 lit nazad(\91T).

Protohegumen. See Hegumen

Further reading: Olena Rudlovchak, "Do iuvileiu Oleksy Prykhod'ka," Duklia, XLV, 6 (Presov, 1997), pp. 50-58.

regained the National Center, or Dom "Prosvita," where it holds cultural events and publishes again the annual almanac, Kalendar "Prosvita" (1993-). In contrast to the 1920s and 1930s, the present-day Prosvita Society is not a large membership-based organization; most of its financial support comes from older Ukrainophile immigrants in North America. Further reading: Pavlo Fedaka, Narys istorii tovarystva "Prosvita" Karpats'koi Rusi-Ukrai'ny, 1920-1939 (Uzhhorod, 1991); P.M. Fedaka et al., eds., Materialy ustanovchoikonferentsii po vidrodzhenniu na Zakarpatti kraiovoho tovarystva "Prosvita " (Uzhhorod, 1991); V.V. Pal'ok, "Naukova i vydavnycha diial'nisf tovarystva 'Prosvita' na Zakarpatti v 20-30-kh rokakh XX St.," in Karpatica-Karpatyka, I (Uzhhorod, 1992), pp. 155-161; Pavlo Fedaka et al., "Prosvita Zakarpattia: tradytsii' i suchasnist'," Naukovyizbirnyk Tovarystva 'Prosvita', I [XV] (Uzhhorod, 1996), pp. 12-103; Mariia Luzniak, "Poshyrennia ukra'ms'koi knyhy Tovarystvom 'Prosvita' na Lemkivshchyni u 30-tykh rokakh XX St.," Visnyk Lvivs 'koho universytetu: Seria istorychna, No. 34 (Eviv, 1999), pp. 487-493; Pavlo Fedaka, Desiat'rokiv vidrodzheno'i 'Prosvity', 1990-2000 (Uzhhorod, 2000); Mariia StarchakVavrychyn, "Arkhiv Lemkoivs'koi'komisii Tovarystva 'Prosvita'," Lemkivshchyna, XXII, 1 (Clifton, N. J., 2001), pp. 6-9. BOGDAN HORBAL PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Provisional Civic and Educational Committee of Lemko Rusyns. See Stefanovskii, Pavel

IVAN POP

Provisional Government of Subcarpathian Rus'.

Pryslopskii, loann (b. and d. Kamianna, Poland)—priest, liturgist, and translator in the Lemko Region. Pryslopskii was a Greek Catholic priest who, influenced by Protestantism and the Enlightenment, set out to translate religious and liturgical texts into the Lemko-Rusyn vernacular. These included Velyke dzerkalo (1732), containing 273 didactic tales from the well-known Polish compilation based in turn on the western European Magnum speculum exemplorum and books for use in his parish at Kamianna, including a collection of church music in a Lemko variant of *Church Slavonic, Pisni tserkovnyia na vsiprazniki (1734); the Liturgikon sv. loanna Zlatousta (1736); and anlrmohgion (1736). Pryslopskii also translated into Lemko vernacular the Psalms of David (Psaltyr Davyda} and, according to some scholars, the entire Gospel (Evangeliie), both of which included his own commentary and explanatory notes (1760).

See Society of Carpatho-Rusyns; History Prut/Pruh — unit of measurement whose length is approximately 2 to 2.25 *sazhen'. PryiateV selian. See Vrabel', Mykhai'l Prykhod'ko, Oleksa Kindratovych (b. October 18, 1887, Kniazhpil' [Podolia province, Russian Empire], Ukraine; d. February 8, 1979, Prague [Czechoslovakia], Czech Republic) — Ukrainian emigre choral director and pedagogue in Subcarpathian Rus'. A graduate of the Musical Institute and University of Warsaw, Prykhod'ko directed Ukrainian choirs in Warsaw, Chernihiv, and Kiev (19091917). He welcomed the efforts to create an independent, non-Soviet Ukrainian state, served in the music section

Further reading: Ivan Ohiienko, "Psaltyr polovyny XVII st. v lemkivs'kym perekladi," Zapysky Naukovoho tovarystva im.

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Shevchenka, XCIX (Eviv, 1930), pp. 197-240. BOGDAN HORBAL

Pryslopskii, Roman (b. 1866, Binczarowa [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. 194?) — priest, journalist, and cultural activist of Russian national orientation in the Lemko Region. After ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1891) Pryslopskii served in the small town of Dubecko north of Sanok (18971910) where, in defense of his Greek Catholic parishioners, he published a polemical tract, Primir latinizatorskoi gakaty na rubezhakh Galitskoi Rusi (1902; repr. 1941). He served over three decades as priest in the Lemko village of Zegiestow (1910-1914,1917-194?), where he organized a church brotherhood and oversaw the building of a cultural center (Russkii dom). Pryslopskii was also active in Galicia's *Kachkovs'kyi Society and was editor (1909-1914) of its bi-monthly newspaper, Ekonomichnii listok. He edited as well a short-lived Lemko newspaper in Nowy Sa^cz called Svit, of which two issues appeared in 1914. At the outset of World War I Pryslopskii was arrested by the Austrian *Habsburg authorities on suspicion of sympathy for Russia. Interned at *Talerhof, he was among those sentenced to death at the Second * Vienna Trial (February 17). Amnestied a few weeks later by the new Habsburg emperor, Karl I, Pryslopskii eventually returned to the * Lemko Region after the war, where he helped organize the *Lemko Republic of Florynka. Persecuted for his activity by local Polish gendarmes, he left for Slovakia, where in Presov, with a fellow Lemko, Dymytrii *Vyslotskii, he edited the newspaper Golos russkago naroda (1919). Pryslopskii returned home in the early 1920s and during the interwar years remained active in Lemko affairs. He conducted a one-man campaign to regain for Lemkos the Rusyn boarding school (*Ruska Bursa) in Nowy Sa^cz, which was confiscated during the war and later sold. He argued the case in a pamphlet (List otwarty do Panow Radnych Gminy Miasta Nowego Sqcza w sprawie realnosci t-wa "Ruska Bursa w Nowym Sqczu, " 1922) and took the city government to court. After two court cases the property was not returned. Interested in scholarship since his early years, he amassed an impressive library, especially valuable for the study of Lemkos, but as a result of events during World War II neither the fate of the library nor of Pryslopskii himself is known. BOGDAN HORBAL

Public School of Painting. See Art; Bokshai, losyf; Erdeli, Adalbert Pudlo, Kazimierz. See Historiography: Lemko Region PULS — professional folk ensemble within the *Dukhnovych Theater in Presov, Slovakia. The song-and-dance

ensemble was created in 1956 as the Dukla Ukrainian Folk Ensemble/Pidduklians'kyi ukrai'ns'kyi narodnyi ansembl'. Its goal was to help preserve and propagate the musical and dance culture of the Rusyns of eastern Slovakia, who at the time were officially designated as Ukrainians. In the 1960s and 1970s PULS toured numerous times to various countries in both eastern and western Europe (in particular France and Germany), and eventually North America. While PULS popularized Rusyn folk music and dance at home and abroad, it did so under the rubric "Ukrainian." In the post-Communist era the ensemble has ceased to identify itself as Ukrainian and has reduced its name to PULS, derived from the Slovak-language acronym (PULS) of its original Ukrainian name. Among the company's artistic directors and choreographers have been lurii *Kostiuk, Shtefan *Ladizhin'skyi, lurii *Tsymbora, and Melania Nemcova. Two of its singers—Mariia *Machoshko and Rudolf Smoter—have through performances and recordings successfully popularized Rusyn songs throughout the former Czechoslovakia. Further reading: Mykhailo Drobniak, ed., PUNA/PULS(Bratislava and Presov, 1980). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Pushkar, Blanka and Imrikh. See Naukovyi zbirnyk Muzeiu ukra'ins 'ko'i kul'tury v Svydnyku Pushkash, Andrii. See Communism Putnik. See Frantsev, Vladimir Andreevich Puza, levhen. See Directorate/Directorium; SocialDemocratic party; Vpered Pynzenyk, Viktor. See Communism Pysh, Simeon/Pyzh, Symeon (b. February 14, 1894, Wapienne [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. June 10, 1957, Yonkers, New York, USA) —journalist, publicist, and civic and cultural activist among Lemko Rusyns in the United States. While still a gymnasium student residing at the *Ruska Bursa in Gorlice Pysh was arrested by the Austrian authorities on suspicion of being a *Russophile (September 3, 1914). He was sent to the internment camp in *Talerhof, from whence he was drafted into the Austro-Hungarian Army and sent to the Italian front. He defected to the Italian side (March 16, 1916) and made his way to Rome, where he helped to set up a Carpatho-Russian Battalion and Carpatho-Russian Committee. At the war's end Pysh settled in Prague (1919) and studied law at Charles University (Ph.D., 1921). While still a university student he participated in the creation of the Lemko Relief Committee/Lemkovskii spasytel'nyi komitet (September 1920) to assist Lemko refugees in the *Presov Region who fled to avoid being drafted into the Polish army.

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture He was also a member of the Lemko Committee/Lemkovskii komitet in Prague, which in 1922 sent him to the United States to establish contacts with Lemko immigrant organizations. Pysh never returned to Europe. He worked initially as editor (1922-1932) of the organ of the *Russian Brotherhood Organization, *Pravda, and from the late 1920s began to cooperate closely with a fellow Lemko immigrant, *Dymytrii Vyslotskii. Together they expanded the activity of the *Lemko Association/Lemko-Soiuz and established in Yonkers, New York, the *Carpatho-Russian American Center (1939). At the end of World War II Pysh helped to establish the *Lemko Relief Committee/Lemkovskyi relyfovyi komytet (1946) to assist Lemkos in the homeland. When the Polish government forcibly deported the remaining Lemkos during the *Vistula Operation (1947), he raised this issue at the Slavic Congress held the same year in New York City and was able to speak

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with officials at the Polish Embassy in the United States. His efforts to bring financial aid directly to Lemkos were turned down, however, by the Polish government (1948). Throughout his lifetime Pysh wrote numerous articles on various aspects of Lemko life in Europe and America. Most appeared in the newspapers *Lemko and *Karpatska Rus' and were exceedingly popular and well received among readers. He also compiled several issues of the Lemko Association's annual almanac (Karpatorusskyi kalendar Lemko-Soiuza, 1947-1957). His Short History of Carpatho-Russia (1973) appeared posthumously. Further reading: "D-r Symeon S. Pyzh," in Karpatorusskyi kalendar'Lemko-Soiuza na hod 1958 (Yonkers, N.Y., 1958), pp. 21-30; Bohdan Herbal', "Symeon Pyzh," in Lemkivskii kalendar 1994 (Legnica and Krynica, 1994), pp. 66-75. BOGDAN HORBAL

Q Quidam. See Khyliak, Vladymir

R Rabar, Endre. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Hajdudorog Racz, Demeter. See Mariapocs Monastery; Mukachevo Monastery Racz, Pal. See Magyars

Rada Svobodnoj Podkarpatskoj Rusi v Exile. See Council of Free Subcarpathian Rus' in Exile Radians'ka shkola. See Publishing and Printing: Subcarpathian Rus' Radians 'ke Zakarpattia/Karpaty — literary journal published twice and later four times a year in Uzhhorod (1947-59). The main purpose of the journal was to make available the new prose and poetry by authors in Soviet-ruled Transcarpathia, who wrote in Ukrainian and according to the officially approved guidelines of Socialist Realism. Some issues also carried literary criticism and articles on historical events in * Subcarpathian Rus'. In 1958 Radians 'ke Zakarpattia changed its title to Karpaty and began to appear quarterly; a few issues were also published in Hungarian under the title Kdrpdtok. The journal's main editors included lurii *Goida, Volodymyr Ladyzhets', and Vasyl' Pop. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Radio and Television. The first regular radio programming for Rusyns began in December 1934 with the establishment of the Radio Service for Subcarpathian Rus' as part of the Kosice studio of the Czechoslovak State Radio. Under the editorial direction of Andrii Rudlovchak (1905-1977), who despite changes of venue was to retain his position from 1934 to 1960, the radio service was initially directed at Rusyns in both *Subcarpathian Rus' and the *Presov Region in eastern Slovakia. Broadcasting from Kosice four hours weekly continued until October 1938. Because of events connected with the fall of Czechoslovakia and World War II, the Rusyn Radio Service was to be interrupted and restored several times. The

studio moved briefly to Presov (January-March 1939), then in early 1941 to Bratislava, where it was to remain throughout most of World War II. In 1948 it returned to Presov as the Ukrainian Studio of Czechoslovak State Radio, although by then it was directed primarily at the Rusyn population in eastern Slovakia's Presov Region. Radio broadcasting for the Rusyn population of former Czechoslovakia and later Slovakia was basically designed to promote the cultural achievements of Rusyns and to provide entertainment, in particular music. Initially, the programs did not adopt a clearly defined position on the nationality and language questions, so that broadcasting was in Russian and Ukrainian. Under the Czechoslovak Communist regime, however, the Presov Studio after 1948 functioned as a Ukrainian radio program for the "Ukrainians" or "Rusyn-Ukrainians" of eastern Slovakia. This policy has been challenged since the Revolution of 1989 by local Rusyn organizations who want the Presov station to broadcast in Rusyn, or who wish to have their own Rusyn-language program. In 1993 the Presov Studio was reorganized into a program for National and Ethnic Minorities of Slovak State Radio, and since then 12 hours of broadcasting weekly have been designated for the Rusyn Program. Radio broadcasting for the Rusyns of former Yugoslavia began in November 1949 at the Novi Sad station of Serbian State Radio under the editorial direction of lakim Ragai'. The Rusyn program was stopped in 1955, but restored in October 1966. From their beginning the programs from Radio Novi Sad have consistently been broadcast in the local Vojvodinian Rusyn language. Since the 1990s, broadcasts occur four hours daily and include general and local news as well as programs promoting Vojvodinian Rusyn culture and music. Daily Rusyn-language programs broadcast from two other stations in the *Vojvodina region (Radio Kula and Radio Titov-Vrbas) began in the 1970s; less frequent programs are available for Rusyns in Croatia (Radio Sid and Radio Vukovar). There are also Rusyn radio programs in Hungary and the United States. In January 1998 a Rusyn program under the editorial direction of Gabriel *Hattinger was established within Hungarian State Radio in Budapest. Broadcasts occur 30 min-

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture utes weekly in both Rusyn and Hungarian and focus largely on informing the Hungarian public about Rusyn history and culture. Among the earliest radio programs for Rusyns in the United States was a weekly Lemko Carpatho-Rusyn music program broadcast in 1930 and again in 1934 on various stations in New York City and Long Island by Stephen *Skimba. Also in the mid-1930s, the Dukhnovych Radio Club sponsored a Carpatho-Rusyn Radio Program on a station in Hammond, Indiana. During World War II a radio program called "Voice of the Carpatho-Rusyn People/Holos karpatorusskoho naroda" (1943-1947), for the New York City-New Jersey metropolitan area, was hosted by Nicholas *Cislak. Sponsored by the *Lemko Association/Lemko-Soiuz, it helped to raise funds to assist the war effort in the Soviet Union and later to assist Lemkos in their resettlement after the war. In the Greater Pittsburgh area and western Pennsylvania Bishop John M. Bilock (1916-1994) directed a Radio Apostolate, which from 1963 until the late 1990s broadcast weekly By/antine/ Greek Catholic liturgical services in *Church Slavonic (with homilies in Rusyn). A weekly half-hour Carpatho-Rus' Radio Program of Rusyn music and news items has been broadcast from Pittsburgh by Jerry *Jumba since 1997. Rusyn television programming is less frequent. The oldest and most consistent program is on Novi Sad Television in Yugoslavia. Since 1975, it has broadcast a daily 10-minute and a weekly 60-minute program in Vojvodinian Rusyn. Sporadic television programs about Rusyns have appeared in Budapest since 1999, on Hungarian State Television's Rondo program for national minorities (10 minutes each month as well as two half-hour programs each year). Also since 1999, Slovak State Television's Cultural Spectrum for Minorities Program in Kosice has broadcast in Rusyn four half-hour programs annually. Further reading: Viktor P. Hladyk, "Persha karpatorusska hodyna po radio," in Jubilee Almanac of the Russian Brotherhood Organization of U.S.A., 1900-1940 (Philadelphia, 1939), pp. 148-152; Nykolai A. Tsysliak, "Holos karpatorusskoho naroda," in Karpatorusskyi kalendar Lemko-Soiuza na 1947 (Yonkers, N.Y., 1947), pp. 117121; Andrii Rudlovchak, "Try desiatyrichchia v pokhodi," in Fedir Ivanchov, ed., Hovoryt'Priashiv ... 30 rokiv ukra'ins 'koko radiomovlennia v Chekhoslovachchyni (PreSov, 1968), pp. 13-53; Mykhailo Kantuliak, "Do trytsiatyrichchia priashivs'koi diial'nosti ukrai'ns'koho radiomovlennia Chekhoslovats'koho radio," Naukovyi zbirnyk Muzeiu ukra'ins 'ko'ikul'tury u Svydnyku, X, pt. 1 (Bratislava, PreSov, and Svidnik, 1980), pp. 571-600; Olena Rudlovchak, ed., 50 rokiv ukra'ins 'koho radiomovlennia v Chekhoslovachchyni (Bratislava and Presov, 1984); Olena Rudlovchak et al., "50 richchia ukrai'ns'koho radiomovlennia v Chekhoslovachchyni," Naukovi zapysky KSUT, No. 14 (Pregov, 1988), pp. 3-62; Miron Zhirosh, "Radio i nasho radio novinarstvo," in Narodni kalendar 1990 (Novi Sad, 1989), pp. 88-100; Mikhailo Bindas, "Rusnatsi luhoslavi'i i radio," in Ruski kalendar 2002 (Novi Sad, 2001), pp. 70-81. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

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Raevskii, Mikhail Fedorovich (b. July 18, 1811, Arzamas [Nizhegorodskaia province, Russian Empire], Russia; d. May 2,1884, Vienna [Habsburg Empire], Austria) — priest, diplomat, and cultural and political activist in the service of the Russian Empire abroad. After completing studies at the Theological Academy in St. Petersburg (1833) Raevskii was ordained an Orthodox priest and assigned to the church of the Russian Embassy in Stockholm, Sweden. There he revealed his talent as multilingual diplomat, which led him to a lifelong career in the service of Russia's Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church. In 1843 he was transferred to the Russian imperial embassy in the Habsburg Empire (Vienna), where he was to work for the next four decades until his death. In essence, Raevskii became the primary intermediary between the Slavic committees (Slavophiles) in Russia and the civic and cultural organizations of the various Slavic peoples in the Habsburg Empire. At his apartment in Vienna Slavophile scholars and civic activists visiting from Russia met with a whole host of Czech, Slovak, and South Slavic national leaders, as well as with Vienna's prominent Slavists. Among the Rusyns and *Russophiles from Galicia whom the Russian visitors met were Adol'f *Dobrians'kyi, Viktor *Kymak, Vasyl' Prodan, losyf Rubii, lakiv *Holovats'kyi, and Bohdan Didyts'kyi. The high point of Raevskii's work in Vienna coincided with the intensive stage of the Slavic national movements in the Habsburg Empire, that is, during the 1848-1849 revolutionary era and the subsequent period culminating in 1867, when the Slavic majority was ignored and the state was transformed into the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy. After 1860 Raevskii became a member of Moscow's Slavic Committee and served as its representative in Vienna. Through him the financial subsidies made available by Slavic committees in the Russian Empire were transferred to the various Slavic cultural foundations (Maticas), the Czech National Museum, and the Yugoslav Academy, as well as to several Rusyn organizations (*St. John the Baptist Society, *St. Basil the Great Society, St. Andrew the First-Named Society), to Rusyn students, and to the editor of the satirical newspaper *Sova. Raevskii arranged for a steady supply of Russian books and newspapers to be sent to these Rusyn organizations and he maintained an extensive correspondence with the leading Rusyn national awakener, Aleksander *Dukhnovych. In turn, Raevskii supplied Russian publications with information about the life of the Habsburg Empire's Slavic peoples. At the request of the organizers of the All-Russian Ethnographic Exhibit (1866-1867), Raevskii arranged for materials to be sent from the Habsburg Empire (the Rusyn collection was brought to Moscow by Mykhail *Molchan). He also played an active role in organizing the Slavic Congress in Moscow (1867), and in conjunction with his country's school reform he arranged for visits of teachers from the Habsburg

410 Empire, including the Rusyns Viktor *Kymak, lurii Hodobai, and Mykhail Molchan, to visit the Russian Empire at the invitation of the tsarist Ministry of Education. In recognition for his services in promoting international contacts Raevskii was elected to membership in several scholarly societies in the Russian Empire and abroad, including the Rusyn St. John the Baptist Society in Presov, of which he was a founding member. Further reading: S.A. Nikitin, ed., Zarubezhnye slaviane i Rossiia 40-80 gody XIX veka: dokumenty iz arkhiva M.F. Raevskogo (Moscow, 1975). IVAN POP

Raga'i, lakim. See Radio and Television Rajic, Vladimir. See Orthodox Eparchy of MukachevoUzhhorod Rakhivskii, O. See Bonkalo, Aleksander

Rakoczy, Ferenc II (b. March 27, 1676, Borsa [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. April 8, 1735, Tekirdag [Ottoman Empire], Turkey) — Hungarian magnate, lord of the Mukachevo landed estate (*dominium), and prince of Transylvania (r. 1704-1711). Ferenc II Rakoczy came from a long line of princes who were anti-*Habsburg in orientation: his father was the Transylvanian prince Ferenc I Rakoczy (r. 1652-1660), who participated in the anti-Habsburg conspiracy (1670-1691); his mother, Ilona *Zrinyi, joined the anti-Habsburg revolt (1677-1688) led by her second husband Imre Thokoly. Ferenc II initially remained aloof from the anti-Habsburg movement. In 1694 he went to Presov, where he served as lord sheriff (*zhupan) of *Sharysh county and was able to administer the extensive family estates (at the time covering an estimated 1.1 million hectares) that included numerous Rusyn-inhabited villages in the *Pre§ov Region and *Subcarpathian Rus'. In 1700, however, he did join the next anti-Habsburg conspiracy led by Miklos Bercsenyi (1665-1725). When the conspiracy was discovered Rakoczy was arrested (1701) and Bercsenyi fled to Poland. Within a year Rakoczy escaped from prison and fled as well to Poland, where together with Bercsenyi he planned an anti-Habsburg revolt, which began in 1703 in the northeastern counties of Hungary (*Bereg, *Ung, *Zemplyn) but was soon transformed into a full-scale war against the Habsburgs that was to last until 1711. During the first stages of the war Rakoczy and Bercsenyi's forces were successful in driving out the Habsburg armies from northeastern Hungary. Rakoczy's residence at the Mukachevo castle became the center of military operations. Among the troops, known as the *kurucz, were large numbers of Rusyn peasants, whom Rakoczy later referred to in his memoirs as

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture the gens fidelissima (the most loyal people). At a diet held in Szecseny (1705) the Hungarian magnates and gentry proclaimed Ferenc II Rakoczy governing prince (Vezerlo Fejedelem) of Hungary. He subsequently agreed to the dethronement of the Habsburgs as kings of Hngary which was proclaimed by a diet held in Onod (1707). Rakoczy then tried to get Europe's leading powers involved in his antiHabsburg war, but was unsuccessful. France was at the time involved in the War of the Spanish Succession, Muscovy was fighting a major conflict with Sweden, and the Ottomans had still not recovered from recent defeats at the hands of Habsburg Austria. Rakoczy himself was exhausted from years of military campaigning, his troops had inadequate supplies, and the peasant rebels (*kurucz) who joined his campaign were angered by unfulfilled promises regarding liberation from serfdom. When a portion of the Hungarian gentry crossed over to the Habsburg side and signed the Peace of Szatmar (1711), this marked the final defeat of Ferenc II Rakoczy. Forced into exile, he went first to Poland, then France, and finally the Ottoman Empire, where he spent the last decades of his life. Despite his defeat, Ferenc II Rakoczy became the symbol of Hungary's struggle against Habsburg rule. It was not until 1906, however, that, with great patriotic fanfare, the Hungarian government succeeded in returning his ashes, together with those of his mother Ilona Zrinyi, to their homeland for final burial in the cathedral of Kosice. Further reading: P.L. [Petro Lintur], "Frants Rakotsy II v uhrorusskoi ustnoi tradytsiy," Narodna shkola, II, 9 (Uzhhorod, 194041), pp. 180-190; Gyb'rgy Csatary, Rdkoczi emlekek es-emlekhelyek Kdrpdtaljdn (Uzhhorod, 2002); Petro Trokhanovskii, '"Za viru i narodny prava': do 300-litia povstania kurutsov," in Lemkivskii richnyk 2003 (Krynica and Legnica), pp. 154-168. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Rakoczy, Gyorgy I (b. August 6, 1593, Szerencs [Hungarian Kingdom], Hungary; d. October 11, 1648, Alba-Iulia [Transylvania], Romania) — Hungarian magnate and prince of Transylvania (r. 1630-1648). Gyorgy I Rakoczy was one of the largest landowners in the Hungarian Kingdom. He expanded the original Rakoczy property holdings based in *Zemplyn, *Sharysh, and *Abov counties, so that by the time of his death in 1648 the family owned 32 estates on which over 27,000 serf families labored, representing about 100,000 persons living in 56 towns and numerous villages, many of which were inhabited by Rusyns. Among Rakoczy's landholdings was the *Mukachevo manorial estate (dominium) and castle, which, from 1635 to 1648, Gyorgy I made his residence as the prince of Transylvania. Because Transylvania was a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire, he joined the anti*Habsburg coalition on the side of Sweden and France during the last phase (1644-1648) of the Thirty Years' War, and he

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture succeeded in driving out the Austrian Habsburg forces from the northeastern counties of Hungary. As a Protestant (Calvinist), he opposed the Catholic Counter-Reformation led in the region by the Habsburgs. It was thus in his interest to support the Orthodox Church against the movement for church union (*Unia), and for that reason he had the pro-Uniate bishop of Mukachevo, Vasylii *Tarasovych, imprisoned. IVAN POP

Rakoczy, Gyorgy II (b. January 30, 1621, Sarospatak [Hungarian Kingdom], Hungary; d. June 7, 1660, Oradea/ Nagyvarad [Transylvania], Romania) — prince of Transylvania (r. 1648-1660) and vassal of the Ottoman Empire, who incorporated Walachia and Moldavia into his realm. The son of Gyorgy I Rakoczy, Gyorgy II together with his mother Zsuzsanna Lorantffy was a strong supporter of Protestantism (Calvinism). Recognizing Protestantism's need for well-educated preachers, he set up several colleges, and to the one in Sarospatak he invited the famous Czech educator and last bishop of the Church of the Moravian Brethren, Jan Amos Komensky/Comenius. Gyorgy II continued for several years (1648-1656) the negotiations begun by his father with the Cossack hetman of Ukraine, Bohdan Khmel'nyts'kyi, who for his own reasons wanted to create a military alliance against Catholic Poland. The ultimate suzerain of Transylvania, the Ottoman sultan, opposed the Transylvanian-Cossack alliance, however, fearing it would greatly weaken Poland and allow for Moscow's expansion westward and southward. Gyorgy II Rakoczy defied the sultan, signed an alliance with Khmel'nyts'kyi (1656), and from *Subcarpathian Rus' launched a military campaign against Poland (1657) in an effort to become king of that country. He was defeated, however, and in return Polish troops under Prince Lubomirski crossed the Carpathians and ravaged numerous towns and villages on the Rakoczy estates in *Zemplyn, *Ung, *Bereg, and *Maramorosh counties. Gyorgy II was also attacked by the Ottoman sultan, who wished to subdue his unruly vassal. In the course of a battle against Ottoman troops Rakoczy was wounded near Cluj/ Koloszvar (1660) and died soon after. IVAN POP

Rakoshyno sbornyk. See Literature, Early manuscripts Rakovets'kyi, Mefodii. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo Rakovs'kyi, loann/Ivan (pseudonym: Panonianin) (b. March 5, 1815, Stavne [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. December 3, 1885, Iza [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine) — priest, pedagogue, publicist, and cultural activist of Rus-

sian national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus'. Rakovs'kyi studied at the Uzhhorod gymnasium (1824-1830), the philosophy school in Kosice (1830-1832), and the Uzhhorod Theological Seminary (1835-1836). He then worked for two years in the chancery office of the * Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo. After ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1839), he first served at the Presov Region parish in Vysna Rybnica (1839-1844). During the second half of the 1840s he was transferred to Uzhhorod, where he taught and became vice-rector of the *Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College. There he also prepared for students several textbooks, including an elementary arithmetic book (Arifmetika, 1869) and a grammar of the Russian language (Orosz nyelvtan/Russkaia grammatika, 1867). In 1850 Rakovs'kyi moved to Budapest, where he served as editor (1850-1859) of the Hungarian-government supported newspaper for Rusyns, Zemskiipravitel'stvennyi viestnik dlia korolevstva Ougorshchiny. At this time he participated in discussions about the appropriate literary language for the Rusyns of Hungary and Galicia. Rakovs'kyi adamantly opposed the Rusyn vernacular ("dialectal") language and the uncodified *iazychiie (the Church Slavonic, Russian, and Rusyn amalgam), and instead wrote exclusively in literary Russian. This was the language he employed in two other newspapers which he published for the Greek Catholics of the Hungarian Kingdom and Galicia: Tserkovnaia gazeta (1856-1858) and Tserkovnyi viestnik dlia Rusinov Avstriiskoi derzhavy (1858). In 1859 Rakovs'kyi returned to * Subcarpathian Rus' and for the rest of his life served the parish in Iza near Khust. Initially, he also played an active role in Rusyn cultural life as a founding member (1866) of the *St. Basil the Great Society. Together with Adol'f *Dobrians'kyi, Viktor *Kymak, lurii *Ihnatkov, and others he tried to counteract the pro-Hungarian policies of the bishop of Mukachevo, Shtefan *Pankovych. The bishop succeeded, however, in removing Rakovs'kyi and his colleagues from the society in 1871. He then supported the short-lived satirical newspaper *Sova (1871), but following the victory of the bishop over the *Russophile "dissidents," Rakovs'kyi retreated from public life and concentrated on his priestly duties. Further reading: "loann Rakovskii: narodnyi dieiatel' v Ugorskoi Rusi," Drevniaia i novaia Rosiia, XVIII, 10 (St. Petersburg, 1880), pp. 238-244; Fedor Aristov, Karpato-russkie pisateli, Vol. I (Moscow, 1916), pp. 129-144; Aleksander V. Popov, Karpatorusskie pisateli: ocherki zhizni i tvorchestva (Mukachevo, 1931), pp. 76-88; Vladimir A. Frantsev, "Iz istorii bor'by za russkii literaturnyi iazyk v Podkarpatakskoi Rusi v polovinie XIX St.," in Karpatorusskii sbornik (Uzhhorod, 1931), pp. 1-49; Kalman Kiss, "Egy mult szazadi orosz nyelvtan: Rakovszky Janos, Orosz nyelvtan," Acta Academiae Paedagogicae Nyiregyhdziensis, XII/C (Nyiregyhaza, 1990), pp. 197-203. IVAN POP

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Ramach, lanko/Ramac, Janko (b. March 22, 1956, Ruski Kerestur [Yugoslavia], Serbia) — historian and professor of Ukrainian national orientation among the Voj vodinian Rusyns. After completing the gymnasium in Ruski Kerestur Ramach studied history at the University of Novi Sad (1975-1980) and was awarded a Ph.D. from Uzhhorod State University in Ukraine (1995). He teaches at the University of Novi Sad's Department ofRusyn Language and Literature (docent/associate professor, 1996). Ramach has published widely on the socioeconomic history of the Vojvodinian Rusyns in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries (Privredni i druzhtveni zhivot Rusnatsokh u luzhnei Uhorskei, 1745-1848, 1990) and on various aspects of their cultural development, in particular education (Shkola u Ruskim Kerestitre, 1995). In an effort to prove that the Vojvodinian Rusyns are a branch of Ukrainians, he has published a popular history about them, prefaced with chapters on Kievan Rus' and "Rusyns" (i.e., Ukrainians) in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Kratka istoriia Rusnatsokh, 1993). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

In recent years Ramach has become a community activist and outspoken defender of the Rusyn national orientation. Since 2002, he serves as chairman of the *Rusyn Cultural Foundation/Ruska matka, as member of the Executive Council of the *World Congress of Rusyns, and was elected co-chairman of the Vojvodina's newly created National Council of Rusyns/Natsionalni sovit Rusnatsokh. Further reading: luliian Nad', "Nasho nashli'dniki budu viuchovats ruski iazik," Shvetlosts, XXVI, 1 (Novi Sad, 1988), pp. 105-111; V. Feisa, "Nahrada 'Iskri kulturi' za Slovni'k: interviu zoz profesorom dr luliianom Ramachom," Shvetlosts, XXXVI, 1-2 (Novi Sad, 1998), pp.55-62. ALEKSANDR D. DULICHENKO

Ramach, Liubomir. See Ruske Slovo Publishing House Ratica, Peter and Paul P. See United Russian Orthodox Brotherhood of America Rats, Ana. See Diadia Rusyn National Theater Rats', Dymytrii. See Racz, Demeter

Ramach, luliian/Ramac', Julijan (b. December 12, 1940, Ruski Kerestur [Yugoslavia], Serbia) — linguist and professor and community activist ofRusyn national orientation among the Vojvodinian Rusyns. After completing the gymnasium in Novi Sad (1959) Ramach studied East and West Slavic languages at the University of Belgrade (19591963). His master's thesis (1981) at that university became the basis for a textbook, Ruska leksika (1983). He was the first research assistant (1972) at the program for Rusyn language at the University of Novi Sad and since then has continued to teach at what subsequently became the Department (Katedra) ofRusyn Language and Literature (Ph.D., 1988; professor, 1999). Ramach is a specialist in the lexicology, lexicography, syntax, textual stylistics, and the history of the Vojvodinian Rusyn language. Among his works on some of these themes is Primenovriitski konstruktsii u ruskim literaturnim iaziku (1998). A pioneer in lexicography, he has co-authored a phraseological dictionary of Serbo-Croatian and Rusyn (1987); compiled a dictionary of the specific lexicon in the works of Havriil *Kostel'nik (1991); and is editor-in-chief of the fundamental two-volume, 80,000-word Serbian-Rusyn dictionary (1995-97). He has prepared a series ofRusyn textbooks, including a reader for the first, second, and third years of gymnasium (co-authored; 1971 -1973); a textbook of language and linguistic culture (co-authored; 1987); and a practical guide to textual stylistics (1996); and a comprehensive grammar for four years of gymnasium studies, Gramatika ruskoho iazika (2002). Ramach is also an accomplished translator, in particular of works from Russian literature (Pushkin and Ershov) into Vojvodinian Rusyn.

Rats, lanko. See Diadia Rusyn National Theater Razgulov, Valerii. See Karpatorusskii viestnik

Regional Choir of Subcarpathian Rusyn Teachers. See Prykhod'ko, Oleksa Reinfuss, Roman (b. May 27,1910, Przeworsk [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. September 26, 1998, Cracow, Poland) — Polish ethnographer and professor. Reinfuss worked for several years as a curator at the Ethnographic Museum in Cracow (1936-1951) and taught at the University of Wroclaw (1945-1949) and the Marie Curie University in Lublin (19541963). He also organized and was the long-time director (1946-1980) of the Documentation Section for Polish Folk Art in Cracow (1946-1980). Reinfuss became Poland's leading specialist on Lemko ethnography and folklore. He began his first research expeditions to the *Lemko Region in the 1930s as a member of Poland's government funded *Lemko Section of the Commission for Scholarly Research on the Eastern Lands. He eventually published over 50 detailed studies of Lemko customs, beliefs, art, architecture, traditional dress, and crafts. Among his more general works are Lemkowie: opis etnograficzny (1934), Lemkowie jako grupa etnograficzna (1948, repr. 1998), "Proba charakterystyki etnograficznej Rusi Szlachtowskiej na podstawie niektorych elementow kultury materialnej" (1947), and "Sztuka ludowa Lemkowszczyzny" (1962). He also contributed several studies on *Lemkos to a

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture comprehensive ethnographic description of Gorlice county (Nad rzekq Ropq, Vol. II, 1965). His knowledge of Lemkos was summarized in Sladami Lemkow (1990) and "Zarys kultury materialnej ludnosci lemkowskiej z dawnego 'kresu muszynskiego'" (1998). Throughout his writings, Reinfuss was always careful to underline the distinctiveness of Lemko culture without adopting either a pro-Rusyn or pro-Ukrainian orientation regarding their national identity. Further reading: Tyrs Venhrynovych, "Zasluzhennyi doslidnyk Lemkivshchyny," in Ukrai'ns 'kyi kalendar 1969 (Warsaw, 1969), pp. 58-61— repr. mAnnaly Lemkivshchyny, Vol. V (New York, 1993), pp. 11-18; Tadeusz Kielbasinski, "Lemkowszczyzna w pracach profesora Romana Reinfussa," Plaj, No. 17 (Warsaw, 1998), pp. 13-17. BOGDAN HORBAL

Remanentsii — remaining parcels of land formed during the introduction of the *komasatsiia in the Hungarian Kingdom. These often small chunks, which may have included arable land, meadows for hay, pastures, or forests, were transferred to the landlords or sold as supplementary portions to the peasants.

to the Soviet Union) and the desire of the new Czechoslovak Communist authorities to control a single, nationwide youth organization resulted in the merger of the Renaissance Society with the Union of Czechoslovak Youth in 1949. Further reading: L.K. Gumetskii, "Kratkaia istoriia O-va karpato-russkikh studentov 'Vozrozhdenie' i ego dieiatel'nost' v nastoiashchee vremia," in A.V. Popov, ed., Karpatorusskiia dostizheniia (Mukachevo, 1930), pp. 145-158; P.P. Komanitskii, "OKS 'Vozrozhdenie' i studencheskie organizatsii," in Ivan S. Shlepetskii, ed., Priashevshchina: istoriko-literaturnyi sbornik (Prague, 1948), pp. 301-307. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Repatriation. See Optatsiia Repay. See Ripai, Andrii Reperatuarnyi zbirnyk. See Cultural Union of Ukrainian Workers Republican party. See Agrarian/Republican party Reshchuk, Kyrylo. See Communist party

Renaissance Carpatho-Russian Student Society/ Obshchestvo karpatorusskikh studentov "Vozrozhdenie" — organization for Rusyn university students of Russian national orientation in Prague. The Renaissance Student Society was established in 1920 by Rusyn students, mostly from *Subcarpathian Rus', studying at Charles University in Czechoslovakia's capital city. Its goals were to provide a meeting place for Rusyn students away from home (with its own Carpatho-Rusyn Student Dormitory/Karpatorusskoe studencheskoe obshchezhitie—Kolej in Prague); to promote close relations between Czechs, Slovaks, and Rusyns; and to reinforce in Rusyns a sense of belonging to the Russian nationality. Toward this end, the society promoted a series of lectures in Carpathian studies at Charles University in the early 1920s by the Russophile literary scholar Dmitrii * Vergun; it established a balalaika orchestra and choral society for several years under the direction of Nykolai Kozhyn; and it published a Russian-language journal, Molodaia Rus' (1930-31), as well as two literary anthologies entitled A I'manakh Vozrozhdentsev (1933, 1936). Over the years, the society attracted about 700 members (roughly 200 of whom lived at various times in its dormitory). Among its most active members were Stepan V. Antalovs'kyi, Aleksei *Farynych, Vasyl' Lend'el, Ivan S. *Shlepets'kyi, and Ivan *Matsyns'kyi. During the Nazi German occupation of Prague, which began in March 1939, the Renaissance Society was banned and its dormitory was confiscated. Although the society renewed its activity after World War II, even publishing a new Russian-language magazine, Koster (1946-47), the lack of students from Subcarpathian Rus' (annexed in 1945

Reshetylo, Stepan. See Basilian Order; Niaradii Dionisii; Ukrainians

Reunification— a political ideology used to justify the annexation by one state of a territory belonging to another (usually neighboring) state. The ideology is based on historic principles; namely, that the territory about to be annexed had at one time actually or allegedly belonged to the annexing state, which is simply reclaiming what it once held. Hence, the semantic emphasis is on reunification, instead of simply unification. The reunification argument has been used by several existing and former European states, such as the Russian Empire, which "reunited" Ukraine in 1654 (part of Kievan Rus' until the thirteenth century); the Austrian Empire, which "reunified" Galicia in 1772 (allegedly part of Hungary in the twelfth century); and France, which "reunited" the Duchy of Nice in 1860 (part of the French Kingdom before 1789). The Soviet Union also used the reunification argument as part of its justification to annex * Subcarpathian Rus' in 1945. Allegedly the territory had belonged to Kievan Rus', a medieval state whose self-proclaimed successor states were the Tsardom of Muscovy, the Russian Empire, and finally the Soviet Union. Present-day independent Ukraine also accepts the Soviet view; namely, in 1945 Subcarpathian Rus'/Transcarpathian Ukraine was, on historic grounds, justifiably reunited with its "Soviet Ukrainian fatherland." The Soviet and non-Soviet Ukrainian position was spelled

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out in the Manifesto of Reunification prepared for signing in the fall of 1944 by the First Congress of People's Committees of Transcarpathian Ukraine. The Manifesto which proclaimed "the reunification of Transcarpathian Ukraine with the Soviet Ukraine," was approved at a meeting in Mukachevo on November 26, 1944, by 663 delegates from 12 districts that represented 80 percent of the urban and rural population of *Subcarpathian Rus'. The document had no legal validity because it was issued within the framework of a military regime and the occupation of the region by a foreign army, that of the Soviet Union. The military authorities took a direct part in the "election" of the delegates, and the work of the congress was carried out under the close supervision of agents of the Soviet secret police (NKVD); its military counter-intelligence service (SMERSH); and political commissars attached to the IVth Ukrainian Front and 18th Army, including Lev Z. Mekhlis, S.I. Tiul'panov, Leonid I. Brezhnev, I.P. Kravchuk, Andrii Chekaniukh (Andrienko), and Davidovich (Davidenko). The Manifesto for Reunification was written in Moscow, and the process whereby it was "approved" at the congress in Mukachevo was in violation of all international agreements previously signed by the Soviet Union with its ally Czechoslovakia: the agreement of July 18, 1941; the treaty of alliance of December 12, 1943, whereby the Soviet Union recognized Czechoslovakia's boundaries of 1937; and the treaty of May 8, 1944, whereby the Soviet military was to turn over full governing authority to a Czechoslovak administration dispatched to liberated territory, including Subcarpathian Rus'. The events leading up to the proclamation of the Manifesto for Reunification did not happen spontaneously, but were part of a Soviet strategic plan to acquire a bridge-head beyond (south) of the*Carpathian Mountains that would allow Moscow direct access to central Europe. The actual decision to annex Subcarpathian Rus' was taken in Moscow as early as March 9, 1944, by a special Soviet Commission on Peace Negotiations and the Postwar Order. The commission recommended that, as compensation for its loss in the east, Czechoslovakia be given German-ruled Upper Silesia. Stalin, however, considered that compensation to Czechoslovakia of any kind was unnecessary. To camouflage their real territorial aims, the Soviet secret services were called on to formulate plans and carry out the "reunification" (vozz "iednannia} of what was to be called "*Transcarpathian Ukraine" with the Soviet Ukraine. The very term "reunification" was itself invalid, since Subcarpathian Rus' had never been a part of either Ukraine, or Russia, or the predecessors of those states. The Manifesto for Reunification was viewed in very positive terms by both Soviet Marxist historiography (Mykhailo V. *Troian) and Ukrainian emigres in the West (Vasyl' *Markus, Vincent *Shandor), who considered the document a confirmation of "the final unification of all Ukrainian lands in a single Ukrainian state." In post-Communist independent Ukraine,

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture the Manifesto is still depicted in most historical accounts in a positive manner (Mykola *Makara), although it has been criticized as a violation of international law by a few historians (Mykhailo *Boldyzhar, Ivan *Pop) and by supporters of the recent Rusyn national movement in Subcarpathian Rus VTranscarpathia. Further reading: Vasyl Markus, L 'incorporation de I 'Ukraine subcarpathique a I 'Ukraine sovietique, 1944-1945 (Louvain, 1956) — Ukrainian ed.: Pryiednannia Zakarpats 'ko'i Ukrainy do Radians 'koi Ukrainy, 1944-1945 (Kiev, 1992); Mykhailo V Troian, Toho dnia ziishlo sontse vozz "iednannia: pershyi z"'izd Narodnykh komitetiv Zakarpats 'ko'i Ukrainy (Uzhhorod, 1979; 2nd rev. ed. 1997); Mykola P. Makara, Zakarpats 'ka Ukra'ina : shliakh do vozz "iednannia, dosvid rozvytku, zhovten' 1944-sichen' 1946 rr. (Uzhhorod, 1995); Ivan Pop, "Rezhysery i statysty: 'Vozz"iednannia' Zakarpattia z Radians'koiu Ukrai'noiu v dzerkali moskovs'kykh dokumentiv, 1944-1945 rr.," Karpats'kyi krai, V, 1-4 [110] (Uzhhorod, 1995), pp. 68-72; Mykhailo M. Boldyzhar, Kraiu mil ridnyi (Uzhhorord, 1998), esp. pp. 124-141; Mykhailo Boldyzhar and Oleksandr Hrin, Zakarpats 'ka Ukra'ina: derzhavno-pravovyi status i diial 'nist', kinets' 1944 r.-pochatok 1946 r. (Uzhhorod, 1999); Mykhailo Boldyzhar, Bud'mo pravdyvymy do mynuloho: do 55-richchia vozz"iednannia Zakarpattia z Ukrai'noiu (Uzhhorod, 2000); Omelian D. Dovhanych, Andrii M. Sheketa, and Mykhailo V Delehan., eds., Vozz "iednannia: zbirnyk arkhivnykh dokumentiv i material'iv (traven' 1944-sichen' 1946 rr.) pro vozz "iednannia Zakarpats 'ko'i Ukrainy z Radians 'koiu Ukrai'noiu, 2nd rev. ed. (Uzhhorod, 2000); Vasyl' I. Khudanych ed., Vozz "iednannia: materialy Mizhnarodno'i naukovo'i konferentsi'i prysviacheno'i 55-richchiu vozz "iednannia Zakarpats 'ko'i Ukrainy z Ukrai'noiu (Uzhhorod, 2001). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Revai, Fedir. See Nova sboboda Revai, luliian/Revay, Julian (b. July 26,1899, Myrcha [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. April 30,1979, New York, New York, USA) — teacher, school administrator, editor, publicist, and cultural and political activist of Ukrainian national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus' and the United States. Revai completed his studies at the *Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College (1913-1917) and taught briefly after World War I in elementary schools in the eastern part of * Subcarpathian Rus' until he was named department head/referent (1923-1935) of the economic and administrative section in the Czechoslovak Ministry of Education in Uzhhorod. He also served as a school inspector; the secretary (1924-1935) of the Ukrainian-oriented Pedagogical Society and co-editor (1924-1935) of its journal, *Uchytel'\ and an executive member of the Ukrainophile *Prosvita Society, the Teachers' Society/Uchytel's'ka hromada, and the Plast Scouts. As part of his pedagogical work he co-authored several

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture textbooks and a Rusyn-Hungarian dictionary (Magyar-ruszin szotdr/Madiars'ko-rus'kyi slovar', 1928). Revai's views on language—he favored a gradual introduction of literary Ukrainian using at first local Rusyn vernacular—were outlined in an extensive historical study ofRusyn grammars and dictionaries ("Rus'ki hramatyky i slovari na Podkarpatiu," 1929-30). While still a student, Revai was politically active as a member of the *Social-Democratic party in Subcarpathian Rus'. It was not until the 1930s, however, that he became fully engaged in local political life. He served the Social-Democratic party as its deputy (1935-1938) to the Czechoslovak parliament and as was the publisher and founding executive editor (1935-1936) of Do peremohy, a monthly journal that promoted a non-Marxist variety of socialism and called for the implementation of * autonomy in Subcarpathian Rus'. During the country's political crisis in 1938, he was vice-chairman of the Ukrainian faction of the *Central Rusyn National Council and among the group of parliamentary deputies who negotiated with the central government on behalf of autonomy for Subcarpathian Rus'. When Subcarpathian autonomy was implemented (October 11, 1938), Revai was named minister of transportation and labor in the cabinet headed by Andrii *Brodii. He retained that post under the second government (November 22) headed by Avhustyn *Voloshyn, taking on the portfolios for health and social services as well. Revai was author of the law on autonomy for Subcarpathian Rus' ratified by the Czechoslovak parliament (November 22, 1938), and he represented the region in negotiations (December 1938) for economic cooperation with Germany. He was also an active participant in the creation of a single pro-government party for *Carpatho-Ukraine/Subcarpathian Rus' (January 1939), the Ukrainian National Union/Ukrai'ns'ke natsional'ne ob"iednannia (UNO), which in many ways modeled itself on the methods employed by Germany's Nazi party. In the first elections to the Subcarpathian diet (February 1939), Revai was chosen one of the party's deputies. By the outset of 1939 Revai had become a strong supporter of closer ties between Carpatho-Ukraine and Nazi Germany, which he believed was the only guarantee for help against the aggressive territorial pretentions of neighboring Hungary and Poland. His adamant pro-German stance provoked federal Czechoslovakia's President Hacha to remove him as minister from the Subcarpathian government (March 6,1939). During the last few days of Czechoslovakia's existence Revai was in Berlin, vainly attempting to convince Hitler's government to make Carpatho-Ukraine into a German protectorate. At the same time the first and last session of the diet of CarpathoUkraine meeting in Khust (March 15, 1939) elected Revai in absentia as its prime minister and minister for foreign affairs. Revai never returned home. During World War II he lived in Bratislava, then Prague. Arrested in 1945 by the advancing Soviet Army, he managed to escape to the American zone of

Germany and then emigrated to the United States (1948). There he played an active role in the Ukrainian-American immigrant community and was for many years executive director (1949-1957) of the Ukrainian Congress Committee of America and director (1958-1979) of the Ukrainian Institute in the heart of New York City. After an unsuccessful attempt to work with the older Rusyn-American immigrant community he founded in New York City the Carpathian Research Center/Karpats'kyi doslidnyi tsentr (1964), whose goal was to promote a Ukrainian understanding of Rusyn history and culture through the publication of books and sponsorship of public lectures primarily for Ukrainian Americans. Further reading: Pavlo Fedaka, "Vyznachnyi hromads'ko-politychnyi i derzhavnyi diiach," in Kalendar "Prosvity" na 1999 hk (Uzhhorod, 1999), pp. 168-171. IVAN POP

Revesz, Imre. See Art; Magyars Revisor. See Kontratovych, Irynei Rieger, Janusz (b. September 20, 1934, Cracow, Poland) — Polish linguist, Slavist, and professor. Rieger has worked for many years at the Center for Studies on the Classical Tradition at the University of Warsaw, devoting much of his research to dialectology, onomastics, and language contacts, including the East Slavic dialects in the Carpathian region. He completed for publication atlases of the *Boiko dialects (7 vols., 1980-81) and Hutsul dialects (1996) originally begun by other researchers before World War II. Rieger has also published widely on *Lemko dialects ("Lemkowie i ich j^zyk," 1983), with particular attention to lexicography, and toponyms, and personal names used in the *Lemko Region (Gewassernamen im Flussgebiet des Wislok, 1988; Siownictwo i nazewnictwo lemkowskie, 1995). Rieger considers Lemko and other Carpatho-Rusyn dialects to be part of the Ukrainian language group, although he does not oppose the recent efforts to create a distinct Lemko literary language. Further reading: "Wst?p" and "Bibliografia prac naukowych Janusza Riegera," in Ewa Wolnicz-Pawlowska and Wanda Szulowska, eds., Kontakty j^zykowe polszczyzny na pograniczu wschodnim (Warsaw, 2000), pp. 7-10 and 299-312. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Righetti, John Senich (b. November 26, 1957, North Charleroi, Pennsylvania, USA) — cultural activist among Rusyns in the United States. A descendant of Rusyn immigrants on the maternal side of his family, Righetti graduated from the University of Pittsburgh (1975-1979) and since that time works in public relations. He was an activist in the mid-1970s Rusyn-American cultural revival at which time he

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founded and directed the Carpathian Youth Choir and Dancers of Monessen, Pennsylvania (1975-1983) and served as public relations officer for the *Carpatho-Rusyn Research Center. Righetti is founding president (1994- ) of the *CarpathoRusyn Society, a cultural organization serving Americans of Rusyn background. He lectures frequently on CarpathoRusyn culture and since 1996 has led annual heritage tours for Americans to *Carpathian Rus'. It is largely as a result of Righetti's initiative that the Carpatho-Rusyn Society was transformed into a national organization and that on its tenth anniversary (2004) it was able to acquire a monumental former cathedral church to serve as a future National Carpatho-Rusyn Cultural Center. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Ripa, Ivan (b. 1764 [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. 1851, Ulicske Krive [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia) — teacher, cantor, poet, and folklorist in the Presov Region. Ripa taught and cantored in several Rusyn villages (*Zemplyn county), where he collected numerous secular and religious songs. He prepared two collections, both entitled "Pisennyk" (1821 and 1841), that contained respectively 119 and 142 songs, with texts and music. The collections remain in manuscript and are held in the archive of the National Academy of Ukraine in Kiev. Further reading: Olena Rudlovchak, "Pro Ivana Ripu ta ioho nashchadkiv," Shkola i zhyttia, XVIII, 11 (Presov, 1981), pp. 4-5. IVAN POP

Ripai, Andrii/Ripaev, Andrei (pseudonym: Repay) (b. 1829, Ulicske Krive [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. May 1, 1914, Vnitky [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia) — pedagogue, journalist, publicist, and cultural activist in Subcarpathian Rus'. The son of the poet and folklorist Ivan *Ripa, Andrii Ripai studied at the Kosice Teachers' College and the Peda-gogical School for Elementary Teachers in Vienna (1859). His career began at a time when the failure of neo-absolutism in the Austrian Empire led to the beginning of the era of constitutional monarchy. Ripai taught in Rusyn elementary schools in Kholmets' near Uzhhorod and in Boroniava in *Maramorosh county (1859-1862), then for over three decades at the *Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College (1862-1894). During this period he published in Rusyn several textbooks, and in his teaching he continually placed great emphasis on providing young people with aesthetic and patriotic values. He also began the first secular, although short-lived, Rusyn pedagogical journals, *Uchytel'(\ 868) and Hazeta dlia narodnykh uchytelei (1868), and served for many years as head of the Union of Teachers in Uzhhorod. Ripai is particularly well known as author of the first instructional guide describing more effective farming techniques for Rusyn

peasants, Narodnoe hospodarstvo v pol'zu y upotreblenie zemledil'tsev russkykh (1865). IVAN POP Risko, Bela. See Autonomous Agricultural Union Riznich-Diadia, Petro (b. April 28, 1890, Bratslav [Podolia, Russian Empire], Ukraine; d. February 12, 1966, Vrbas [Yugoslavia], Serbia) — emigre actor, theatrical director, pedagogue, and cultural activist among the Vojvodinian Rusyns. Riznich's interest in theater began while he was a gymnasium student in Bratslav in southcentral Ukraine, at the time within the Russian Empire. He began acting in 1907 and during the following decade helped to organize hundreds of amateur theatrical performances within the framework of the pro-Ukrainian Prosvita Society, which was allowed to function in the Russian Empire after the Revolution of 1905. Riznich did not welcome the Bolshevik revolution of 1917 and during the Civil War in Russia and Ukraine he was forced to go abroad; he arrived in 1919 along with other White Russian emigres in Dubrovnik, which was part of the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (Yugoslavia). Within a year Riznich settled in the Vojvodinian town of Stari Vrbas, where he headed the dramatical section of the Serbian Choral Society. He also organized Rusyn amateur theatrical circles and directed performances in Ruski Kerestur, Kucura, and other Rusyn-inhabited centers in the *Vojvodina. In 1933 he set up in Vrbas the Ruska Drama Theater. After World War II Riznich moved to Ruski Kerestur, where he taught the Russian language and painting at the newly established Rusyn gymnasium and organized among students a dramatic and folklore ensemble. In 1948 he established the first Rusyn Amateur Theater, and two years later a Puppet Theater. Riznich also wrote theatrical criticism for the Rusyn and Serbian press. In recognition of his work on behalf of the theater he was awarded a Gold Medal from the government of Serbia (1957). Two Rusyn institutions have been named for Riznich, affectionately known as "Diadia" by his students and among actors: the Diadia annual theater festival (Dramski Memoriial Petra Riznicha DiadT) and the professional *Diadia Rusyn National Theater (Ruski narodni teater "Petro Riznich Diadia"). Further reading: Diura Papharhai, "Zhil za teater: 20-rochni'tsa shmertsi Petra Riznicha Diati" Shvetlosts, XXIV, 1 (NoviSad, 1986), pp. 52-70—repr. in Tritsets Dramski Memoriiali Petra Riznicha Diadi (1969-1998)—khronologiia (Ruski Kerestur, 1998). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Roberts, Catherine. See Weller, Catherine Roberts

Roccasalvo, Joan (b. October 21, 1935, Brooklyn, New York, USA) — musicologist and liturgical theologian in the

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture United States. Roccasalvo completed her studies in musicology at Catholic University in Washington, D.C. (Ph.D., 1985) and is associated with the University of Scranton's journal Diakonia, a publication devoted to Eastern Christianity which frequently publishes materials related to the religious life of Carpatho-Rusyns. Roccasalvo herself has published widely on the church music of Carpatho-Rusyns. She is particularly interested in the origins and evolution of the *Carpathian plainchant tradition (prostopiniie) preserved in both Europe and the United States. Her most extensive study on the subject is The Plainchant Tradition of Southwestern Rus' (1986).

Gestapo arrested Rohach (by then editor in Kiev of the shortlived newspaper, Ukrains 'ke slovo) along with other OUN activists. A few months later he was executed in the infamous valley of Babi Yar/Babyn lar just outside Kiev. IVAN POP

Rohal'-Il'kiv, Ivan. See Communism; Communist party; Ukrainian National Council of the Presov Region Roikovych, Dionisii. See Carpatho-Russian Autonomous Council for National Liberation

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Rodina. See Ladizinsky, Ivan A.

Roikovych, Fedor. See Priashevskaia Rus'; Russkoe slovo

Rodnyi Lemko. See Cislak, Nicholas

Rokeah, Issachar Dov. See Jews

Roglev, Khristo. See Bulgarians

Rokovyna — duties in the form of labor and transport owed by peasants to the Greek Catholic Church. The rokovyna was in force on Rusyn lands within the Hungarian Kingdom (*Subcarpathian Rus' and the *Presov Region) from the eighteenth century until 1920, when it was abolished by the new Czechoslovak regime.

Rohach, Ivan (b. May 29, 1913, Velykyi Bereznyi [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. February 9, 1942, Kiev [Germany's Reichskommissariat Ukraine], Ukraine) — editor and political activist in Subcarpathian Rus' of Ukrainian national orientation. Rohach completed his studies at the Commercial Academy in Mukachevo and the theological faculty of the University of Olomouc. He played a leading role in *Ukrainophile student circles and was associated with the nationalist journal published in Prague, Proboiem (1934-44), and with the Plast scouting movement; he was also a member of the underground Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN). After returning to * Subcarpathian Rus' in 1938 Rohach worked on the editorial staff of *Nova svoboda, the unofficial Ukrainian-language organ of the autonomous *Carpatho-Ukraine; he helped organize the paramilitary Ukrainian National Defense/Ukrams'ka natsional'na oborona and the *Carpathian Sich; and he served as secretary (October 26,1938-March 15,1939)toAvhustyn*Voloshyn,theprime minister of Carpatho-Ukraine. During the last days of Carpatho-Ukraine's existence Rohach joined with other radical nationalists in an attempt to overthrow Voloshyn, whom they considered a weak political moderate. Before these plans were carried out, however, the Hungarian Army occupied the rest of Subcarpathian Rus'/Carpatho-Ukraine (March 15, 1939) and Rohach fled to Nazi Germany, living successively in Vienna, Berlin, and Prague. When Germany invaded the Soviet Union (June 1941) he joined the expeditionary groups (pokhidni hrupy) of the Melnykite branch of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, which followed the German forces into Ukraine. Their goal was to create a Ukrainian state under the protection of Germany. The Nazis had no intention of allowing Ukrainians to rule themselves, however, and in late 1941 the

Roma. See Gypsies/Roma Roman, Jaroslav. See Historiography: United States Roman, Michael (b. October 17, 1912, Conemaugh, Pennsylvania, USA; d. September 27,1995, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA) — editor and Rusyn-American community activist. Immediately after graduating from the University of Pittsburgh (1936) Roman began to work for the *Amerikansky russky viestnik, the official newspaper of the *Greek Catholic Union of Rusyn Brotherhoods. For over four decades he served as editor-in-chief (1937-1952) of that paper and its successor, the Greek Catholic Union Messenger (1953-80). Under his direction, the newspaper helped to restore relations between the Greek Catholic Union and the *Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic Church, which had become strained during the celibacy controversy of the 1930s. Roman published numerous articles on Rusyn folk and religious customs, the popular Short Biographies of Famous Carpatho-Russians (1962), and two histories (1942,1967) of the Greek Catholic Union. Each year from 1937 to 1980 he compiled an annual almanac, Kalendar' Sojedinenija/Greek Catholic Union Yearbook, filled with information on Rusyns in the United States and Europe. For much of his career Roman expressed the view that Rusyns were a branch of a single Russian nationality, although later in life he emphasized their uniqueness as a distinct Slavic nationality. Further reading: Adalbert M. Smor, "Biografija h-na Michaila

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Romana," in Zoloto-jubilejnyj kalendar' Greko Kaft. 1942 (Munhall, Pa., 1942), pp. 321-325.

Sojedinenija

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Roman, Mykhailo (b. November 1, 1930, Kobylnice [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — professor and literary historian of Ukrainian national orientation in the Presov Region. Roman completed his education at the Presov *Greek Catholic Teachers' Seminary (1950) and Kiev State University (19531958; kandidat nauk, 1964). He has taught Ukrainian literature at Safarik University in Presov (1958-1990) and at Matej Bel University in Banska Bystrica (1998-). Roman has published several works on Ukrainian-language literature in Slovakia's Presov Region in the period after World War II, including a general survey, Shliakhy literatury ukraintsiv Chekhoslovachchynypislia 1945 roku (1979), and monographs on individual writers, Fedor *Lazoryk (1974) and Fedor Ivanchov (1976). Some of these materials appeared in his collection of essays, Literatura i chas (1986). Roman has been a firm believer in Soviet-style Socialist Realism, and his judgments of literary works are thus largely dependent on the degree to which a given writer is loyal to those principles. In the post-Communist era Roman admitted in an interview in the journal *Duklia (1990) that some of his previous views were incorrect and ideologically motivated, but he still believes that the Rusyns of eastern Slovakia and their literature are part of the Ukrainian cultural sphere. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Romanecz, Aladar. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Hajdudorog; Magyars/Hungarians

Roman! lag Gypsy Cultural and Enlightenment Society. See Gypsies/Roma Romanians — Romance-speaking people living to the south of Subcarpathian Rus' and sharing an ethnolinguistic boundary with Rusyns, especially in the historic county of *Maramorosh (Romanian: Maramures). With the creation of * Subcarpathian Rus' as part of Czechoslovakia at the close of World War I, Romanians living on the northern (right) bank of the Tisza/Tysa River came to form a national minority. They were and still are concentrated in the town of Solotvyno (Romanian: Slatina) and the nearby villages of Bila Tserkva (Biserica Alba), Serednie Vodiane (Apsa de Mijloc), Plaiuts' (Plaiut), Vodytsia, Dibrova (Apsa de Jos), Hlybokyi Potik (Valea Bocicoiului), and Topchyno (Topcino). In 1921, there were 13,000 Romanians in Subcarpathian Rus'; since that time their numbers have risen from 18,300 (1959) to 32,100 (2002). At present they comprise 2.6 percent of the population of Subcarpathian Rus'/*Transcarpathia; over 80 percent still

live in rural villages. The Romanians in Subcarpathian Rus' are descendants of the *Vlach shepherds who came to the region from the Balkans in the fourteenth century. The majority of those who continued to work as shepherds eventually assimilated with the Rusyn population and farther west with the *Slovaks. A smaller number settled in the upper Tisza/Tysa river valley on the basis of the so-called Vlach Law, that is as freepersons who followed the example of the local Rusyns and became peasant farmers and seasonal livestock herders. During the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries the Romanians on both banks of the upper Tisza/Tysa, who were of the Orthodox faith, functioned as a kind of intermediary for Rusyns in their contacts with the world of Balkan Orthodoxy. This is evident from the Romanian linguistic influences in early monuments of Rusyn literature as well as in the wallpaintings in wooden churches in the Maramorosh region. Despite the impact of the church union in Subcarpathian Rus' during the first half of the seventeenth century, the Romanians remained Orthodox until the 1720s, when they too became Uniate/Greek Catholic. With regard to their social status, the Romanians in the upper Tisza/Tysa valley were worse off than even the neighboring Rusyn lowlanders (*Dolyniane). The shortcomings connected with the *patriarchal agricultural life style in Romanian villages were exacerbated by rural overpopulation. To this day the Romanians occupy the last or next-to-last place among the peoples of present-day Ukraine's Transcarpathia with regard to all levels of education. The patriarchal character of Romanian villages came to an end only with the outset of Soviet rule in Subcarpathian Rus'/Transcarpathia and the introduction of collectivization in the late 1940s. At the same time, the number of jobs connected with traditional agricultural practices was reduced; consequently, a large number of workers, especially among the younger and middle generations, were put out of work and forced to migrate in search of employment to other parts of the Soviet Union. The Romanians initiated Transcarpathia's pattern of outmigration in search of work. Their skills at transporting lumber by means of river floats, combined with their disciplined work ethic, earned Transcarpathia's Romanians a high reputation among the Soviet authorities and relatively well-paying jobs "building Communism" by working the rivers of northern Russia and Siberia. Because there was no market economy in the former Soviet Union the Romanians invested their income by constructing palatial homes in their native Subcarpathian villages, even if they could seldom make full use of them—living and working as they usually did far from home. Since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 the socioeconomic status of Romanians has appreciably worsened. Cut off from their former labor market in the Soviet state, they are forced to remain at home, and in the present-day economic conditions of independent Ukraine the majority of the inhabitants

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture of Transcarpathia's Romanian villages are unemployed. Despite the creation of the Czechoslovak-Romanian border in the early 1920s, the Romanians in Subcarpathian Rus' were during the interwar years still able to maintain normal cultural and economic contacts with their brethren on the southern (Romanian) bank of the Tisza/Tysa River. These relations came to an abrupt end with the onset of Soviet rule in 1945. Not only were individual and family contacts severely limited across the Soviet-Romanian border, the natural cultural and linguistic contacts with the mass of the Romanian population to the south were interrupted as well. Moreover, the Soviet regime in Transcarpathia implemented the Moldavian orientation, i.e., the Latin-based Romanian alphabet was replaced by *Cyrillic Moldavian as the language of instruction in the village schools. Transcarpathia's Romanians did not have their own newspapers or journals, and without direct geographic contact with Soviet Moldavia they effectively functioned in complete isolation from large Romanian or Moldavian cultural centers. During the final years of Soviet rule the Romanians of Transcarpathia established their first organization, the Koshbuk/Cosbuc Civic and Cultural Society (1989), whose goal is to defend the group's social and cultural interests. In schools and cultural life the Moldavian orientation was replaced by a return to Romanian and the use of the Latin instead of the Cyrillic alphabet. Close contacts with neighboring postCommunist Romania soon followed. The Koshbuk Society has been particularly helpful in arranging for teachers from Transcarpathia to receive training at universities (Bucharest and Cluj) as well as at nearby pedagogical schools (Baia Mare and Satu Mare) in Romania. In turn, a Romanian section was created in 1990 at the University of Uzhhorod's Department of French Language and Literature. The Koshbuk Society has also made political demands, asking for the creation of an autonomous Romanian territorialadministrative entity, headed by a Romanian national council, within the *Transcarpathian oblast. At the very least the society would hope to see guarantees for Romanian national and cultural autonomy and the inclusion of all Romanian-inhabited villages into one district (raion). Neither of these demands has been met by the Ukrainian government. In more recent years new organizations have been established by Romanians to promote their cultural life. The loan Mihalyi de Apsa Civic and Cultural Society (est. 1999) focusses on promoting Romanian cultural events, some of which are in cooperation with groups on the southern bank of the Tysa River in Romania. The Dacia Society of Transcarpathia (est. 2000) is the first of the group's intellectually-oriented organizations; it sponsors seminars and scholarly conferences on the history and culture of Subcarpathia's Romanians and publishes the region's first Romanian-language newspaper, the monthly Ap$a (2001-). The post-Communist era has also witnessed a rise in religious activity. Aside from traditional

Orthodox and Greek Catholic churches, the Romanians have been especially attracted to Protestant and neo-Protestant sects, most particularly Jehovah Witnesses, who account for nearly half (12,000-15,000) of the entire Romanian population in present-day Subcarpathian Rus'/Transcarpathia. Further reading: Vasilii Marina, "Problemy etnopoliticheskogo razvitiia Rumun Zakarpat'ia, 1945-1995," in Volodymyr Zadorozhnyi and Roman Ofitsyns'kyi, eds., 7945 rik: Zakarpats'ka Ukraina (Uzhhorod, 1995), pp. 111 -126; Ivan Myhovych and Mykola Makara, "lak zhvet'sia vam, Rumuny," Viche, VI, 3 (Kiev, 1997), pp. 103114; V. Marina, "Rumuny Podkarpatskoi Rusi-Zakarpat'ia i ikh vzaimootnosheniia s iazykovoi rodinoi, 1919-1991 gg.," in Viorel Ciubota and Vasile Marina, eds., Relafii romdno-ucrainene: istorie $i contemporaneitate (Satu Mare, 1999), pp. 437-444; Mykhailo Zan, "Etnokul'turnyi rozvytok rumun Zakarpattia (1989-2001)," Carpatica-Karpatyka, Vol. XXI (Uzhhorod, 2003), pp. 352-362; O. Malets, "Etnichna konsolidatsiia i samoidentyfikatsiia Rumun Zakarpatttia, 1944-1991 rr.," Carpatica-Karpatyka, Vol. XXII (Uzhhorod, 2003), pp. 247-260. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Romanuv, Tonii. See Hodinka, Antal Romathan Theater. See Gypsies/Roma Romzha, Feodor/Teodor (b. Georgii-Iurii Romzha, April 11, 1911, Velykyi Bychkiv [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. November 1, 1947, Mukachevo [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — priest, pedagogue, and church hierarch in Subcarpathian Rus'. After completing the gymnasium in Khust (1930) Romzha studied philosophy and theology in Rome at the German-Hungarian and the Russicum Pontifical Colleges and at Gregorian University (1930-1937). Toward the end of his stay in Rome he was ordained a Greek Catholic priest (1936). Returning to * Subcarpathian Rus', he served one year as a parish priest in Berezovo, then in 1939 began to teach at the Uzhhorod Theological Seminary. On the eve of the arrival of Soviet troops in Subcarpathian Rus' Romzha was consecrated bishop (September 24,1944) of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo. Romzha became bishop at a tragic time in the history of the Greek Catholic Church, following the annexation of Subcarpathian Rus' to the Soviet Union. Despite expressions of loyalty to the new regime by the bishop and his eparchy, the Communist regime was intent on liquidating the Greek Catholic Church, which it considered, as in neighboring Galicia, the main source of Ukrainian nationalist opposition to the new regime. That this was not the case in Subcarpathian Rus' mattered little. At first, the Soviet secret services (NKVD) suggested to Romzha that he become Orthodox and place his eparchy under the jurisdiction of the Moscow Patriarchate.

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When the bishop categorically refused the offer the NKVD implemented its well-tried techniques. On October 27, 1947, a group of its agents orchestrated a road accident whereby a truck struck the bishop's horse-drawn carriage on a road between the villages of Ivanivtsi and Lokhovo. When he was not killed in the "accident," the agents beat the bishop, who still survived and was operated on at a hospital in Mukachevo. While in the recovery room, he died from poison administered by an NKVD agent on November 1, 1947. After Romzha's death the entire Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo was dismantled: 130 priests were sent to forced labor camps in the Soviet Gulag and the remaining parishes were placed under the jurisdiction of the *Orthodox Eparchy of Mukachevo-Uzhhorod. In 1986 American Byzantine Ruthenian Catholic hierarchs initiated the cause for Romzha's canonization and in 2001 Pope John Paul II beatified the Rusyn bishop (the first step toward canonization) approving his veneration as a martyr of the Catholic Church. That same year in Hungary a bust of Bishop Romzha was erected in a park dedicated to religious martyrs in the small town of Lakitelek near Szolnok. Further reading: Athanasius Pekar, Our Martyred Bishop Romzha, 1911-1947 (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1977); Laslo Pushkash, Ispovidnytstvo i muchenycha smert' iepyskopa Teodora Romzhi (Uzhhorod, 1999)—in Hungarian: Laszlo Puskas, Romzsa Todor Ptispok: elete es haldla (Nyiregyhaza, 1999); Constantin Simon, "The Life of Feodor (George Theodore) Romzha, 1911-1947," Diakonia, XXXIII, 2 and 3 (Scranton, 2000), pp. 123-152 and 215-250; Laslo Pushkas, Kyr Teodor Romzha: zhyttia i smert' iepyskopa (L'viv, 2001). IVAN POP

Roshko, Ivan (pseudonym: Ivan Irliavs'kyi) (b. January 17, 1919, Irliava [Rus'ka Krai'na, Hungary], Ukraine; d. February 20, 1942, Kiev [Germany's Reichskommissariat Ukraine], Ukraine) — poet and political and cultural activist of Ukrainian national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus' and abroad. After graduating from the Commercial Academy in Mukachevo (1937) Roshko worked for a short while in the Subcarpathian Bank in Uzhhorod. He welcomed the Ukrainophile government of Avhustyn * Voloshyn during the period of autonomous * Subcarpathian Rus' (1938-1939), but after the arrival of the Hungarian Army (March 1939) he was forced to emigrate. Roshko went first to Yugoslavia, where he worked for a few months among the Vojvodinian Rusyns in Ruski Kerestur; at the end of the year he moved to Prague (by then part of Nazi Germany's Third Reich), where he worked as a typesetter in the Ukrainian Publishing House and editor of the radical nationalist newspaper Proboiem. During this period he published under the literary pseudonym Ivan Irliavs'kyi four small collections of poetry filled with national fervor for his native "Carpatho-Ukraine" (Holossribnoizemli, 1938; Moia vesna, 1940; Veresen', 1941; Brosti, 1942). After Nazi Ger-

many invaded the Soviet Union (June 1941) Roshko joined a group of Ukrainian writers and members of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists who went to Kiev in the hope of reviving a non-Soviet cultural life that would reflect the ideals of Ukrainian nationalism. He was particularly active in the semi-legal Union of Writers and worked for the short-lived Ukrainian nationalist newspaper in Kiev, Ukrains 'ke slovo (1941). The Nazis were not sympathetic to Ukrainian national aspirations, however, and together with several other writers Roshko was arrested by the Gestapo (February 9,1942). Less than two weeks later, he was shot in the infamous execution site in the ravine of Babi Yar/Babyn lar just outside Kiev. A collection of his writings were published by Dmytro Fedaka (Brosti, 2002). Further reading: Nataliia Rebryk, Ivan Roshko (Irliavs 'kyi): zhyttievyi i tvorchyi shliakh poeta (Uzhhorod, 2000). IVAN POP

Roshkovych, Ignatii/Roskovics, Ignacz (b. September 28,1854, Slavkovce [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. November 29,1915, Budapest [Hungarian Kingdom], Hungary) — Hungarian painter ofRusyn origin. Roshkovych completed the gymnasium in Uzhhorod, where he studied drawing with the distinguished artists Ferenc Heverdle and Ferdinand Vidra. He continued his training at the Academy of Art in Budapest (1875-1879), in Paris (1879), and at the Academy of Art in Munich (1880-1882), then traveled for study in Italy and Jerusalem (1882-1883). He taught for two years at the gymnasium in Uzhhorod but in 1885 moved to Budapest, where he was to remain for the rest of his life. Roshkovych worked in all genres. He created monumental frescoes for churches (Presov, Snina, Levoca, Kecskemet, St. Stephen's in Budapest) and for the St. Stephen's Hall in the Royal Palace in Budapest; altar paintings and iconostases for Greek Catholic churches in Mukachevo, Uzhhorod (the Tsehol'na church), and Velyka Kopania; self-portraits, portraits of contemporary figures, genre scenes, and still-lifes; and book illustrations (among which were drawings to accompany the chapters on the Rusyn-inhabited counties in the multivolume encyclopedia, Austria-Hungary in Words and Pictures). His frescoes and altar paintings were done in the late Baroque style; his portraits reflected his formal academic training; his genre scenes were sentimental and idyllic in inspiration, typical of late academism. Roshkovych received several state awards for his contributions to Hungarian art. IVAN POP

Roskin, Mikhail. See Jews Rosokha/Rosocha, Stepan (b. May 27,1908, Drahovo [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. April 20, 1986, Toronto, Ontario, Canada) —journalist and political activist of Ukrai-

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture nian national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus' and Canada. Rosokha completed his studies at the Ukrainian-oriented gymnasium in Berehovo (1922-1930), the philosophical faculty of Charles University in Prague (1930-1934), and the law faculty of the Ukrainian Free University in Prague (1932-1936, LL.D., 1936). He was active in the Ukrainian student movement as editor of the student journal Vidrodzhennia (1926-1930); as chairman of the Ukrainophile *Union of Subcarpathian Rusyn Students (1933-1937) and of the Union of Greek Catholic Youth (1931-1934); and as an organizer of the Ukrainian Youth Congress in Mukachevo and Uzhhorod (1937). He was also an activist in the *Prosvita Society, member of the underground Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN), and editor of the radical Ukrainian nationalist publications in Prague, Proboiem (1934-1944) andNastup (1938-1944). During the period of autonomy in * Subcarpathian Rus'/ *Carpatho-Ukraine (1938-1939), Rosokha served as chief-ofstaff of the paramilitary *Carpathian Sich/Karpats'ka Sich and on the executive of the pro-government party, the Ukrainian National Union/Ukrains'ke natsional'ne ob"iednannia. He was elected a deputy to the diet (February 1939), and at that body's first and only session (March 15,1939) he was chosen vice-chairman of its presidium. After Carpatho-Ukraine was occupied by Hungary Rosokha fled to Prague (by then part of Nazi Germany's Third Reich), where throughout most of World War II he continued to edit his Ukrainian nationalist newspapers (Proboiem and Nastup). During the last months of the war he was arrested by the Gestapo (January 1945) and imprisoned in the concentration camp at Terezin. At the end of the war he was released (May 1945) and immediately fled to Regensburg in the American zone of Germany. From there he emigrated to Canada in 1949. During the last decades of his life Rosokha was active in Ukrainian-Canadian immigrant circles. Until his death, he edited the Ukrainian newspaper Vil'ne slovo (1960-1986), which frequently published articles on the achievements of CarpathoUkraine, as well as books stressing the historic "Ukrainian" characteristics of Rusyn society. He also published a history of Carpatho-Ukraine's diet (Soim Karpats 'koi' Ukrainy, 1949; repr. 1991) and served as chairman of the Brotherhood of Carpathian Sich Veterans/Bratstvo karpats'kykh sichovykiv, which included a few members of the original unit (mostly Galician Ukrainians) as well as other Ukrainian Canadians. A volume of his memoirs was published posthumously (2001). Further reading: Petro Stercho, "Stepan Rosokha: u 75-littia narodnoho trybuna Karpats'koi Ukrai'ny," in Kalendar'-al'manakh "Novoho shliaku " za 1983 rik (Toronto, 1983), pp. 94-107; V. Habor, "Rosokha, Stepan," in M.M. Romaniuk, ed., Ukrains'ka zhurnalistyka v imenakh, Vol. IV (Eviv, 1997), pp. 299-303.

Rovt, Alex. See Jews: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region Royal estate. See Dominium/Latifundium

Royal Hungarian University Printshop. See Printing and Publishing; Tarnovych, Hryhorii Rozniichuk, Ivan. See Barabolia, Marko

Rozsypal, Antonin (b. September 7, 1866, Domazlice [Austrian Bohemia], Czech Republic; d. April 30, 1937, Prague [Czechoslovakia], Czech Republic) — Czech government official in the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Czechoslovakia, including Subcarpathian Rus'. In 1890 Rozsypal began his career as a state functionary in various posts of the Austrian imperial government in Bohemia. After the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the creation of independent Czechoslovakia in late 1918 he was named administrator (hejtmari) of the Kladno district in Bohemia, where he revealed both firmness and tact in handling a difficult situation marked by social conflict. Based on his experience, Rozsypal was appointed vice-governor (1923) of * Subcarpathian Rus'. When, in 1928, Czechoslovakia's administrative structure was reformed, he became land president, that is, responsible for the administration of the Subcarpathian Rusyn Land/Region. Rozsypal was a centrist, who, in his various posts, did everything possible to block the implementation of the promised *autonomy for Subcarpathian Rus'. But he achieved much in consolidating and building an infrastructure for the region, including a modern healthcare system, improvements in the quality of education, and the effective functioning of the state administration. Under pressure from local Subcarpathian autonomists Rozsypal retired from his post on January 1, 1937, and returned to Bohemia, where he died a few months later. Further reading: L. Balkanyi, Deset let v Podkarpatske Rusi/Tiz ev Podkarp. Ruszban (Uzhhorod, 1933). IVAN POP

Rozvoda, laroslav. See Vmochok dlia podkarpatskych ditochok Rubii, Antonii. See Presov Literary Society; St. John the Baptist Society Rubii, losyf. See Raevskii, Mikhail Fedorovich Rudlovchak, Andrii. See Radio and Television

IVAN POP

Rotyshyns'kyi, Petro. See Parfenii Petrovych

Rudlovchak, Olena/Rudlovc'akova, Helena (b. Olena Mykyta, February 1, 1919, Mukachevo [Rus'ka Krai'na,

422 Hungary], Ukraine) — cultural historian, educator, and civic activist of Ukrainian national orientation among the Rusyns of eastern Slovakia. After completing the Russian gymnasium in Mukachevo (1929-1937), Rudlovchak studied at the Law Faculty of Charles University in Prague (1937-1939) and history and the Russian language at the Slovak University in Bratislava (1940-1943), where she subsequently taught Russian (1945-1948). She then began to play an active role in the cultural life of the * Presov Region, as author of a Russianlanguage grammar used in schools (Grammatika russkogo iazyka, 1948, 1953); as proof-reader (1949-1950) of the Russian-language newspaper *Priashevshchina\ and as dramatist and editorial director (1950-1954) of the Ukrainian-language *radio program based in Presov. She was also a member (1952) of the *Communist party of Czechoslovakia, where she actively propogated closer ties with the Soviet Union, and was a researcher (1954-1960) at the Czechoslovak-Soviet Institute of the Slovak Academy of Sciences in Bratislava. From 1960 to 1985 she worked within the Department of Ukrainian Studies at Safarik University in Presov, as head (1966) of its research section (kabinef) with the rank of associate professor (docent, Charles University, Prague, 1969). Most of Rudlovchak's scholarship centers on cultural and literary developments among Rusyns during the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. She has prepared several anthologies ofRusyn literature, including the comprehensive Poety Zakarpattia (co-compiler Vasyl' *Mykytas, 1965) and two volumes for university students, Khrestomatiia zakarpats'koi ukrains'koi literatury XIX stolittia (197685). She has also written extensive scholarly biographies of Aleksander *Dukhnovych (1968), Aleksander *Pavlovych (1982), lulii *Stavrovs'kyi-Popradov (1984), Mykhai'l *Luchkai (1990), and losyf *Gaganets' (1996); historical surveys of several Presov-based cultural organizations—the *Presov Literary Society (1965), *St. John the Baptist Society (1993), the *Presov Greek Catholic Teachers' Seminary (1998), the Rusyn/Ukrainian Radio Studio (1984, 1988, 1999), the *Ukrainian National Theater (1971); and studies on Rusyn literature in eastern Slovakia during the interwar years (1968,1981). She has published as well on the history of Rusyn newspapers and journals, the evolution of ethnographic research among Rusyns (1976, 1986), and on Rusyn cultural relations with Russia, Hungary, and Slovakia before World War I. Some of these studies were published in a volume of her collected works, Bilia dzherel suchasnosti (1981). Rudlovchak's scholarship is characterized by a firm grounding in archival sources and broad factual knowledge. Her approach, however, has followed the Marxist guidelines that characterized *historiography in former Communist Czechoslovakia. As a result, the impact of religion and the Greek Catholic Church in Rusyn culture is downplayed and individuals and institutions are characterized according to whether or not they were socially and politically "progressive." She

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture considers Rusyns to be Ukrainians and their literature part of Ukrainian culture. Further reading: Olena Zakryvydoroha, Larysa Il'chenko, and Valerii Padiak, comps., Olena Rudlovchak: bibliohrafiia prats'ta litopys zhyttia (Uzhhorod, 2001); "Z dzherel narodnykh—u den' hriadushchyi: interv'iu z Olenoiu Rudlovchak," Duklia, XXXVII, 1 (Presov, 1989), pp. 60-64; Liubytsia Babota, "luvilei nevtomnoi doslidnytsi," Repertuarnyi zbirnyk, No. 2 (Presov, 1989), pp. 56-64; Valerii Padiak, "Lysty Oleny Rudlovchak na bat'kivshchynu," in Naukovyi visnyk Uzhhorods 'koho derzhavnoho universytetu: Seriia istoriia, No. 5 (Uzhhorod, 2000), pp. 42-55. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Rus'. See Rusyn Rus'. See Vyslotskii, Dymytrii Rus' faith. See Stara vira Rus' Gate. See Verets'kyi pass Rus' March. See Marchia Ruthenorum

Rus' Sports Club/S.K. (Sportyvnyi klub) Rus' — renowned soccer (European football) team made up of teachers from Subcarpathian Rus'. The Rus' Sports Club was formed in 1925 at the initiative of some of the region's leading civic activists (Edmund *Bachyns'kyi, Illia Hadzhega, Avhustyn Lavryshyn, and Aleksander Mykyta, among others). As its emblem, the club used the crest/*symbol of * Subcarpathian Rus', above which were the words SK Rus'; its colors were red and green. The Rus' Sports Club built its own stadium just outside Uzhhorod, and by 1929 it had become the champion team in Subcarpathian Rus' and then in Slovakia (1933, 1936). In 1934 the team became the first in Czechoslovakia to travel to matches in various parts of the country by airplane, for which its members became popularly known as the "flying teachers." After 1935 the Rus' Club competed in Czechoslovakia's higher-level national league, where it was remembered for its frequently dramatic victories over tough Czech teams from Prague, Zlin, and Hradec Kralove. From 1927 to 1937 the seemingly invincible Oleksa Bokshai (b. 1911) was the team's goalie, and among its leading scorers was Vasyl' Fedak (19111991). When Hungary annexed Subcarpathian Rus' (1939) the Rus' Sports Club continued to compete in that country's second league, but after the Soviet Army arrived in the region in late 1944 it was dismantled. Wherever it played throughout Czechoslovakia and later Hungary between 1925 and 1944, the Rus' Sports Club reminded hundreds of thousands of soccer fans that somewhere in their country lived people of Rusyn nationality.

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Further reading: S.K. Rus', 1941-1942 (Uzhhorod, 1942); Vasyl' V. Fedak, Zakarpattia u sportyvnomu vymiri (Uzhhorod, 1994), pp. 28-52. MYKHAILO ALMASHII

Rusak, lulii. See Hadzhega, lulii Rusenko, Ivan (b. January 19, 1890, Krasna [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. January 10, 1960, Korolivka [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — teacher, belletrist, caricaturist, and cultural activist in the Lemko Region and Ukraine of Rusyn national orientation. After completing his gymnasium studies in Nowy Sa^cz Rusenko became a contributor to the first Lemko-Rusyn newspaper, * Lemko (1911-1913). He served in the Austro-Hungarian Army throughout most of World War I, then returned home and taught in elementary schools in the Polish village of Lutcza for over two decades (19241945). During this period he traveled on foot throughout the *Lemko Region, organized theatrical performances for which he wrote short plays (Vertep v Karpatakh, 1935), transcribed folksongs, and wrote his own poetry. For such activity he became popularly known among Lemkos as "The Teacher." Rusenko was also an active member of the *Lemko Association/Lemko-Soiuz during the interwar years and a contributor after World War II to the Lemko section ("*Lemkivska storinka") of Poland's Ukrainian-language newspaper, Nashe slovo. He opposed the postwar *Lemko population resettlement to the Soviet Ukraine, but after being pursued by Polish terrorist groups he, too, emigrated eastward, settling in the Ternopil' region (1945). Rusenko's works are all in Lemko Rusyn, and his poetry in particular captures the spirit of Lemko suffering in the face of outside forces over which they had no control. The fate of * Lemkos resettled in Ukraine is best summed up in his verse: "My homeland, Lemkovyna/Now beyond the San River, which is not much more than a fence/The only thing is that you cannot get across it without a passport/And it is lined all along with barbed wire." Further reading: M.V. Dzindz'o "Vspomyny o Y. lu. Rusenku," in Karpatorusskyi kalendar' Lemko-Souiza na hod 1965 (Yonkers, N.Y., 1965), pp. 99-107; Olena Duts'-Faifer, "Ivan Rusenko, 18901960," in Lemkivskii kalendar 2000 (Krynica and Legnica, 2000), pp. 94-100. BOGDAN HORBAL

Rusin. See Rusyn/Rusin/Ruthenian

Rusin/The Ruthenian — newspaper for Greek Catholics in the United States. Rusin appeared weekly in Philadelphia and later Pittsburgh (1910-17); in 1911 it became the official organ of the *United Societies fraternal organization. Edited throughout its history by the priest Joseph *Hanulya, the news-

paper remained loyal to the first bishop for Greek Catholics in the United States, Soter *Ortynsky, and it defended the policies of the Vatican toward Byzantine-rite Eastern Catholics in America. Although it was intended to serve all Greek Catholics (Rusyns, * Slovaks, ""Ukrainians), its editorial staff were all immigrants from *Carpathian Rus', it was published in the Rusyn vernacular (*Cyrillic and Roman alphabets), and its articles dealt mainly with church life among CarpathoRusyns in the United States and Europe. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Rusin Association of Minnesota — community organization to promote Carapatho-Rusyn culture and identity among residents of Minnesota and nearby states. The Rusin Association of Minnesota was established in 1983 by Lawrence *Goga and John Haluska. The association organizes lectures on Rusyn history and culture, sponsors displays at local folk festivals, and issues publications about Rusyns in Minnesota. It also holds an annual Dukhnovych commemorative evening and publishes the quarterly magazine Trembita (1983- ), which reports on the Rusyn cultural heritage and on current events among Carpatho-Rusyns in both Europe and North America. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Rusin Cultural Garden. See Hanulya, Joseph Rusin Elite Society. See Hanulya, Joseph Rusinia. See Subcarpathian Rus' Rusinko, Elaine (b. August 7, 1949, Coaldale, Pennsylvania, USA) — professor and Russian literary specialist of Rusyn descent in the United States. Rusinko completed her studies at Brown University (Ph.D., 1976), and is one of the few scholars to apply modern literary theory (in particular post-colonialism) to the history of Rusyn literature. She has analyzed the writings of Hryhorii *Tarkovych (1996) and of Aleksander *Duknovych, including a translation into English of his play, Virtue is More Important than Riches (1994). All the major Rusyn writers and literary trends from the eighteenth through the mid twentieth century are treated in her monograph, Straddling Borders: Literature and Identity in Subcarpathian Rus' (2003). Since 1997 she has chaired the committee which awards the annual Steven *Chepa Dukhnovych Prize for Rusyn Literature. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Rusinsko. See Subcarpathian Rus' Rusinsky, Belon. See Stryps'kyi, Hiiador

424 Ruska Bursa — a self-governing educational and cultural organization established by patriotic activists in the Lemko Region. The goal was to establish dormitories (bursy) for impoverished Lemko students attending Polish schools in towns close to their native villages. Aside from providing residence and board, the various Ruska Bursas also sponsored a wide range of cultural programs that contributed to the formation of Lemko cultural leaders of *Rusynophile and *Russophile national orientation. The first Ruska Bursa was established in 1898 in Nowy Sa^cz at the farthest edge of the western Lemko Region by a group of clerical and secular activists, including Vasyl' *Iavorskii, TeofiT *Kachmarchyk, Havryil *Hnatyshak, and Petro Linynskii. It began with 20 students and, despite an ideological falling out and breakup of the original members, it was able to expand. Venedykt Miiskii (1830-1921) purchased two more buildings (1900) and then built a third one (1903). With the outbreak of World War I the Nowy Sa^cz bursa was closed by the Austrian authorities (August 4,1914). Suspected as a center of pro-Russian sympathizers, its staff and student residents were arrested and the property confiscated. After the war the Polish courts appointed a non-Lemko administrator for the bursa, who ignored the wishes of the original governing body and two years later (1921) sold the property to the city of Nowy Sa^cz at a price well below its value. Despite efforts undertaken after the war by Roman *Pryslopskii, the new Polish government refused to return the buildings to the Lemko community. Three other bursas were established before World War I. Two were in Sanok. One for girls, the Pansion dlia ruskykh uchenyts (1908), had 30 places mostly for daughters of Lemko priests and was managed by a lawyer, Aleksander Saviuk. The other consisted of 15 places for Lemko boys and was managed by the local Greek Catholic priest losyf Moskalyk and gymnasium professor Mykhal Ladyzhynskii. Both of these institutions ceased to exist with the outbreak of the war in 1914 and were never revived. The fourth bursa was in Gorlice, founded in 1908, thanks in large measure to the efforts of the Greek Catholic priest Vasylii *Kuryllo. It had room for 40 students, but like other bursas it, too, was closed by the Austrian authorities just after the outbreak of World War I and its staff and students arrested. After a long legal struggle in the Polish courts the Gorlice bursa was reopened in 1930 and allowed to function under the management of Volodymyr Kordasevych, and later Roman Maksymovych, until the fall of Poland in 1939. In the 1930s Metodii *Trokhanovskii pushed for the creation of a Ruska Bursa in Krynica, but this idea was never realized. No Ruska Bursa was allowed to function during World War II under Nazi German or after the war under Communist Polish rule. But in 1991 the Ruska Bursa Society was established in Gorlice and was eventually able to regain from the post-Communist Polish government the building it had used before the war. The present Gorlice bursa does not house

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture students, but it sponsors lectures stressing the Rusyn national orientation and holds classes in the Lemko language. It is also the site of a permanent exhibit of Lemko ethnography (organized by Pavel *Stefanovskii) and since 1993 the annual Rusyn literary festival, Lemko Creative Autumn/Lemkivska tvorchaosin'. Further reading: Petro Trokhanovskii, "Kura, shto znosyla zlary iaitsia: do sotnoi richnytsia osnovania Novosandetskoi Ruskoi Bursy," in Lemkivskii kalendar 1998 (Legnica and Krynica, 1998), pp. 106111; Olena Duts'-Faifer, "Z istoryi Ruskoi Bursy v Gorlytsiakh," in Gorlytskii bursak, pp. 2-5, 8-9, supplement to Besida, XIII, 5 (Krynica and Legnica, 2001). BOGDAN HORBAL

Rus'ka derzhavna uchytel's'ka akademiia. See Presov Greek Catholic Teachers' College Ruska drama. See Riznich-Diadia, Petro

Rus'ka khliborobska (zemledtl'ska) partiia. See Rusyn Small Farmers' (Agricultural) party

Rus'ka Kraina — autonomous province within the postWorld War I Hungarian People's Republic. Rus'ka Krai'na (in Hungarian: Ruszka Krajna) came into being with the issuance of Law No. 10 (December 21,1918), whereby Hungary's new democratic government under the leadership of Mihaly Karoly planned to create an autonomous Rusyn province to include the Rusyn-inhabited parts of *Maramorosh, *Ugocha, *Bereg, and *Ung counties. The status of the Rusyn-inhabited parts of counties farther west—*Zemplyn, *Sharysh, *Abov-Turna, *Spish—would be decided following the "conclusion of a general [post-war] peace treaty." Plans were made to convene a Rusyn National Council (Sobor) as the autonomous region's representative body. Rus'ka Kraina's executive branch and highest governing organ was the Rusyn Ministry (Ruszka Krajnai miniszterium) in Budapest, which was represented in the region itself by the office of the Governor (Ruszka krajnai kormanyzosag) with its seat in Mukachevo. On February 5,1919, a provisional government in the form of a Rusyn Council/Rus'ka rada was approved; it consisted of 42 representatives from the four counties and was headed by Orest *Sabov as chairman and Avhustyn/Agoston *Shtefan as vice-chairman. One month later (March 4), elections to a diet (soim) were held. Its 36 deputies immediately demanded that Karoly's Hungarian government define the borders of Rus'ka Kraina; otherwise, it was argued, the mandates of the deputies and the very diet itself had no purpose. The government did not respond. On March 21,1919, Karoly's government was replaced by a Hungarian Soviet Republic, which announced the existence of a Soviet Rus'ka Kraina. The Rusyn Ministry in Budapest

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture was renamed the *Rusyn People's Commissariat, to be headed by "commissar" Avhustyn/Agoston Shtefan. The Hungarian Soviet Republic led by Bela Kun announced new elections (April 6-7,1919) to a people's soviet (council), with the result that Soviet Rus'ka Kraina now had both a diet and a people's soviet. Representatives from both the people's soviet and diet formed the so-called Governing Council/Uriadova rada of Rus'ka Kraina. It met in Mukachevo on April 17, 1919, and succeeded in adopting a constitution that "recognized the existence of a distinct Rusyn people" within the framework of Soviet Hungary. It also removed from influence local radical revolutionaries who supported the idea of a unitary Hungarian state. The question of Rus'ka Kraina's borders remained unresolved while the Communist regime of Bela Kun was in power. Rus'ka Kraina did enjoy cultural autonomy. Rusyn was made the official language; a few textbooks were hastily issued in that language; a *Department (katedrd) ofRusyn Studies was created at the University of Budapest; and a few issues of a Rusyn newspaper, *Rus 'ka pravda, later Rus 'ko-Krainska pravda, appeared. On-going military conflicts between Soviet Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Romania, and the anarchy that accompanied Soviet rule throughout Hungary meant that these publications rarely reached Rus'ka Kraina. During its brief period of existence (40 days) Soviet Rus'ka Kraina issued a wide range of decrees concerning the nationalization of industry and agricultural land; for defense it created a Rusyn Red Guard. The government's various decrees were in fact applicable to only a small part of *Subcarpathian Rus', in particular to the areas around the towns of Mukachevo and Berehovo. By mid-April the troops of Czechoslovakia (from the west) and Romania (from the southeast) had driven the Hungarian Red Army out of the region and liquidated Rus'ka Krai'na's remaining administrative structures. Despite its relatively short existence, Rus'ka Kraina marked an important phase in state-building among the Rusyns of Subcarpathian Rus'. From the standpoint of the authorities in Budapest Rus'ka Kraina was little more than a political maneuver to try to maintain the territorial integrity of Greater Hungary. In the history of Rusyns, however, Rus'ka Kraina represented the juridical fact of their recognition as a distinct people, as well as their right to constitutional guarantees for *autonomy and an elected representative body (diet/so/w); it also had, for however short a time, its own government organs. These facts were to become part of the basic argument made subsequently by Rusyn activists seeking national and political recognition.

Rus 'ka Krayna. See Nauka

Further reading: Pid praporom Velykoho Zhovtnia: zbirnyk dokumentiv (Uzhhorod, 1959); Borys Spivak and Mykhailo Troian, 40 nezabutnikh dniv (Uzhhorod, 1967); Ivan M. Hranchak, ed., Vstanovlennia Radians 'koi vlady v Uhorshchyni ta na Zakarpatti v 1919 rotsi (Uzhhorod, 1989).

Rus 'ka pravda — short-lived weekly newspaper (9 issues) published in Mukachevo and Budapest (1919) as the official organ of the Rusyn People's Commissariat of Rus'ka Kraina, the theoretically autonomous Rusyn province within Soviet Hungary. Edited by Hiiador *Stryps'kyi, Rus 'ka pravda began to appear on April 12, 1919; its last three numbers (6-9)

IVAN POP

Ruska matka. See Rusyn Cultural Foundation Rus'ka molodezh' — youth journal published monthly throughout the school year in Uzhhorod (1941 -44) for students in Hungarian-ruled Subcarpathian Rus'. Rus'ka molodezh' was published by the * Subcarpathian Scholarly Society/Podkarpatskoe obshchestvo nauk under the editorship of Ivan *Haraida, and it appeared in the standard literary Rusyn language used under the Hungarian regime. The journal's basic goal was to inform students about Rusyn literature, ethnography, and the historical past, as well as to acquaint them with famous figures and events in Hungary's history. Further reading: Roman Ofitsyns'kyi, "Rus'ka molodezh' (19411944) v pivstorichnoi' viddali," in R.A. Ofitsyns'kyi and O.D. Dovhanyvh, Zakarpats'ka molod' u roky druhoi svitovoi viiny (Uzhhorod, 1995), pp. 31-38; V. Didyk, "Mynule Zakarpattia na storinkakh zhurnaliv 'Narodna shkola' (1939-1944) i 'Rus'ka molodezh' (1941-1944)," in Roman Ofitsyns'kyi, ed., Istorychna shkolaprofesora Volodymyra Zadorozhnoho: Naukovyi zbirnyk, No. 1 (Uzhhorod, 1999), pp. 183-190. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Ruska narodna respublika Lemkiv. See Lemko Republic of Florynka

Rus 'ka nyva — weekly newspaper published in Uzhhorod (1920-24) as the official organ of the *Rusyn Small Farmers' (Agricultural) party/Rus'ka khliborobska (zemledils'ka) partiia. Rus 'ka nyva was under the editorship of Mykhailo *Brashchaiko and published in Rusyn vernacular. It was sympathetic to the *Ukrainophile orientation and frequently engaged in polemics aimed at the *Russophile newspaper, *Russkaia zemlia. Although primarily concerned with the Village Farmers' party, the paper also called for the implementation of *autonomy in * Subcarpathian Rus'. When the party was reorganized in 1924, Rus 'ka nyva ceased to exist. Further reading: Ivan Dobosh, Istoriia ukrains 'koi zhurnalistyky Zakarpattia 20~30-kh rokiv XX st. (Ivano-Frankivs'k, 1995), pp. 20-26; Vasyl' Habor, Ukrains 'ki chasopysy Uzhhoroda, 1867-1944 (L'viv, 2003), pp. 199-202. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

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were published under the title Rus 'ko-Krainska pravda. The paper published the texts of official government documents, explained the "revolutionary decrees" of Hungary's Soviet government, and promoted the idea of "world proletarian revolution." Some of its material was directed against Subcarpathian *Ukrainophiles (the *Brashchaiko brothers and others), who at the time were calling for the region's unification with Ukraine. Further reading: Olena Rudlovchak, "Velyka Zhovtneva sotsialistychna revoliutsiia i rozvytok zhurnalistyky ukraintsiv Chekhoslovachchyny," Naukovi zapysky, No. 7 (Presov, 1979), esp. pp.129-135. IVAN POP

Rus'ka vira. See Cultural Society of Rusyns in Romania

Ruske druzhtvo Sivernei Ameriki. See Sabados, Julian Ruske narodne prosvitne druzhtvo. See Rusyn National Enlightenment Society

Ruske slovo — weekly newspaper published in Ruski Kerestur (1945-67) and Novi Sad (1968-) for the Rusyn inhabitants of the Vojvodina in Serbia. Since its inception it has been published entirely in the Vojvodinian Rusyn language with a print run of between 1,000 and 1,400 copies. It began as the "organ of the unified National Front" (1945-1951), then was published by the Ruski Kerestur/Ruske Slovo Publishing and Printing House (1951-1967) and the *Ruske Slovo Publishing House in Novi Sad (1968-). Ruske slovo reports on general world and Serbian national news as well as events in the local Vojvodinian Rusyn community and, during the 1990s, on the Rusyn movement in other countries. The newspaper has consistently reported favorably on the policies of the ruling government in former Yugoslavia, now Serbia, and from 1990 it has been formally the organ of the parliament of the autonomous region of the * Vojvodina. Among its editors have been Shtefan Chakan, Diura Varga, Diura *Latiak, Liubomir Ramach, and Helena *Medieshi. Ruske slovo has also included several supplements over the years, including Literaturne slovo, Dikitsa, and Kult—kultura, umetnosts, literatura, tvorchosts. Further reading: Diura Latiak, "Ruske slovo, " 1945-1985 (Novi Sad, 1985); luliian Kameni'tski, "Ruske slovo" 50 roki (Novi Sad, 1995). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture in the Vojvodinian Rusyn language. The firm started in 1945 as a printshop in the village of Ruski Kerestur. It operated under various names: National Front and Ruska Matka Printshop, Brotherhood-Unity Publishers and Printers, Ruski Kerestur Publishers and Printers, and after 1960 the Ruske Slovo Press Company/Novinske podpriiemstvo "Ruske slovo." In 1968 the publishing part of the operation separated from the printshop and moved to Novi Sad, where it remains to the present day. Throughout its history Ruske Slovo has published over 250 books, including individual works of poetry and prose by Vojvodinian Rusyn authors, anthologies of literature, ethnographic and linguistic studies, Rusyn dictionaries, and translations by foreign authors. It also publishes several periodicals, the weekly newspaper *Ruske slovo (1951 -), the literary and cultural journal *Shvetlosts (1952-), the children's magazine Zahradka (1947-), the youth magazine MAK (1972-), and the annual almanac Narodni kalendar, later Ruski kalendar (1957-). Among the firm's directors have been Diura Varga, Diura *Latiak, Liubomir Ramach, Liubomir *Medieshi, and Nataliia *Dudash. Further reading: Diura Latiak, "Ruske slovo, " 1945-1985 (Novi Sad, 1985). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Ruski Kerestur gymnasium. See Gymnasium

Ruski narodni teatr "Diadia." See Diadia Rusyn National Theater

Ruski novini—the first newspaper for Vojvodinian Rusyns, published weekly between 1924 and 1941 in Yugoslavia by the *Rusyn National Enlightenment Society/Ruske narodne prosvitne druzhtvo. Ruski novini was originally published in Novi Sad, then from 1931 in Dakovo and Piskorevci, and from 1937 in Ruski Kerestur. The newspaper reported general news; ran a column for children, "Za nasho dzetsi"; and provided information on the activity of its sponsor, the Rusyn National Enlightenment Society. Its founding editor was the Greek Catholic priest of the Novi Sad parish, who was of Croatian background, Dura Pavic. Its other long-time editor was another Greek Catholic priest, Mikhailo Firak. Further reading: "Pred 50 rokami pochali vikhodzits pershi novini za iuhoslavianskikh Rusinokh," Nova dumka, IV [9] (Vukovar, 1975), pp. 75-82. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Ruskii narodnyi soiuz. See Rusyn National Union Ruske Slovo Publishing House/Novinsko-vidavatel'na robotna organizatsiia "Ruske Slovo" — the oldest existing and largest publisher of books and periodicals

Ruskii putnik. See Homichkov, Aleksander Rus 'ko-Krainska pravda. See Rus 'ka pravda

427

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Ruskotsi. See Stryps'kyi, Hiiador

Russian Casino. See Beskyd, Antonii

Rus'kyi klub. See Hadzhega, Vasylii; Voloshyn, Avhustyn

Russian Day Festival. See Dukhnovych Society; Ladomirova Monastery

Rus'kyi okruh. See Rusyn District

Russian Messenger. See United Russian Orthodox Brotherhood of America

Rus'kyi teatr. See Prosvita Society Rusnaci (Ruthenen) Deutsche-ruthenische-

Freudschaft. See German-Rusyn Friendship Society Rusnak Institute of America. See Koliesar, luliian

Rusnaks. See Lemkos; Rusyn Russian Aid Program. See Russians

Russian Brotherhood Organization/Obshchestvo russkikh bratstv — fraternal benefit society established in 1900 for Rusyn immigrants in the United States. It was founded by immigrants (John Zhinchak-Smith, loann Shmaida, Victor *Hladick, Aleksii Shlianta, Aleksander Koval'chyk, Teofan *Obushkevych) displeased with the national orientations of the *Greek Catholic Union of Rusyn Brotherhoods (considered to be pro-Hungarian and Rusyn "separatist") and the Ukrainian-oriented *Rusyn National Union. The primary goal of the new Russian Brotherhood Organization was to provide material and moral support for its members. It issued life-insurance policies with one-time payments to the deceased's family or beneficiaries and published beginning in 1902 the weekly newspaper *Pravda/The Truth. In general, the organization supported the *Russophile view that Rusyns ("Carpatho-Russians") were a branch of the Russian nationality. Whereas the majority of members were Orthodox many of the earliest lodges were based at Greek Catholic parishes. By 1912 the Russian Brotherhood Organization had 8,000 members ($32,000 in assets) and in 1932, at its height, 13,500 members ($1,300,000 in assets). The Brotherhood has declined rapidly since the 1960s, however, so that by 1992 i had only 2,000 members, although $6,000,000 in assets. The society has been based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where it has its own building. Aside from insurance payments it also offers to young members student scholarships. Since its establishment the organization has been headed by Americans of Rusyn background; among its presidents with the longest tenure have been: John Smith/Ivan Zhinchak (1901-1914), Mykhal Holod (1926-1954), Alexis W. Russin (1955-1990), and George H. Mihaly, Jr. (1995-). Further reading: J.H. Dzwonczyk, ed., Jubilee Almanac of the Russian Brotherhood Organization of the U.S.A., 1900-1940 (Philadelphia, 1939). BOGDAN HORBAL

Russian National Autonomist party/Russkaia natsional'no-avtonomnaia partiia — political party among Rusyns in Subcarpathian Rus' during the period of Czechoslovak rule. The Russian National Autonomist party was established in Khust in March 1935 on the eve of general elections held throughout Czechoslovakia in that year. Its chairman was the well-to-do farmer Vasyl' Hadzha, although the party was, in fact, created to serve the political ambitions of the chairman of its executive board, Shtefan *Fentsyk. Through F9989entsyk the party received financial support Rusyn-American immigrants and from revisionist political circles in Hungary and Poland. From the outset, the Russian National Autonomist party was opposed to the Czechoslovak government's policies in * Subcarpathian Rus'. The party's goals included the implementation of *autonomy for the province and demands for a change in its boundary with Slovakia so that Rusyns in the *Presov Region could become part of Subcarpathian Rus'. It also called for official use of the Russian literary language in the province's administration and school system. The party's official organ was Nash put' (1935-38), edited by Vasyl' Labanych; it published as well two issues of an annual almanac (Kalendar' RNAP, 1937-38). In the 1935 elections the Russian National Autonomous party, as part of a national coalition with two national Czechoslovak parties, managed to gain enough votes to guarantee Fentsyk a seat as deputy in the Czechoslovak parliament. During the political crisis of 1938 the party supported Hungary's revisionist efforts to regain Subcarpathian Rus'. After Hungary annexed the province in March 1939 Fentsyk was appointed to the Hungarian parliament. In the following year the Russian National Autonomist party formally ceased to exist; it was replaced by the Uhro-Rusyn National party/ Ugrorusskaia natsional'naia partiia, also headed by Hadzha and Fentsyk. Further reading: "Vozniknovenie, dieiatel'nost' i organizatsiia Russkoi natsional'no-avtonomnoi partii," in Kalendar na 1937 god Russkoi natsional'no-avtonomnoi partii (Uzhhorod, 1936), pp. 41-56; Marian Tokar, Rus 'ka natsional'na-avtonomna partiia: orhanizatsiia ta diial'nist' (Uzhhorod, 2000). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Russian National Bank. See Beskyd, Antonii Russian National Organization. See League for the

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Liberation of Carpatho-Russia Russian National party/Russkaia narodnaia partiia — political party representing the Rusyns of Slovakia during the interwar years of the twentieth century. The Russian National party was founded in May 1919 in Presov at the initiative of Antonii *Beskyd and his supporters, including Konstantyn *Machik and Ivan *Zhydovs'kyi. From the outset it was closely linked to the Czechoslovak National Democratic party of Karel Kramaf. The main goal of the Russian National party was to see the *Presov Region united with autonomous *Subcarpathian Rus' and in the interim to halt what it considered the increasing slovakization of the Rusyn population. The party was *Russophile in orientation, believing that the local Rusyn inhabitants were Russians and that the Russian literary language should be used in Rusyn schools. In an effort to achieve its goals the party organized in 1922 an All-National Congress in Presov and submitted a memorandum to the League of Nations protesting ongoing slovakization in the Presov Region and its separation from Subcarpathian Rus'. In 1923 Beskyd agreed to cease his criticism of the Czechoslovak regime and left for Uzhhorod to become governor of Subcarpathian Rus'. The Russian National party continued to exist as an affiliate of the National Democrats but did not give up its demand for unity of the Presov Region with Subcarpathian Rus'. After 1924 the party was headed by Andrii Tarabchak and later Ivan Zhydovs'kyi; its views were publicized in the newspaper *Narodnaia gazeta, which in 1931 became the official party organ. Despite its continued affiliation with the National Democrats and later coalition partnership with the *Carpatho-Russian Workers' party, the Russian National party of Slovakia never gained a sufficient number of votes to acquire a seat in the Czechoslovak parliament. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Russian National University. See Tsibere, Pavel

Russian Orthodox American Messenger. See Russian Orthodox Church in North America Russian Orthodox Catholic Mutual Aid Society. See Kohanik, Peter; Printing and Publishing; Russian Orthodox Church in North America; Toth, Alexis Russian Orthodox Church Abroad—the Synod. See Ladomirova Monastery Russian Orthodox Church—Moscow Patriarchate. See Orthodox Eparchy of MukachevoUzhhorod; Russian Orthodox Church in North America

Russian Orthodox Church in North America/Russkaia pravoslavnaia tserkov' v Sievernoi Amerikie — American church of Russian origin with a large number of members of Carpatho-Rusyn background. The Russian Orthodox Church in North America was originally established in 1794 in Russia's colony of Alaska. After Alaska was purchased by the United States (1867), the church was based in San Francisco, California. In 1891 the Rusyn Greek Catholic parish of Minneapolis, Minnesota, led by Father Alexis *Toth, "returned to Orthodoxy" and placed itself under the Russian Orthodox bishop of San Francisco. By 1909 Toth had convinced about 25,000 Greek Catholics (mostly Lemko immigrants from Galicia) to join the Orthodox Church. The number of new Orthodox parishes among Carpatho-Rusyns in the northeastern United States increased to such an extent that it was renamed (1900) the Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic Church in North America and its episcopal seat was transferred to New York City. To accommodate the new membership, the Russian Orthodox Church created in 1916 the Carpatho-Russian subdiocese of Pittsburgh, headed by a recent Greek Catholic convert, Bishop Stephen/Alexander *Dzubay (reigned 19161924). He was succeeded by Bishop Adam Philipovsky (1881-1956). Philipovsky was consecrated in 1922 and later appointed archbishop of Philadelphia and the CarpathoRussians, responsible for 30 to 40 parishes under the jurisdiction first of the Metropolia (1936) and later of the Moscow Patriarchal Exarchate (1944). The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia (1917) cut off America's Orthodox from the mother church in Moscow. In the absence of ecclesiastical authority, the church in the United States divided into several jurisdictions. The largest of these was the "temporary" self-governing Russian Orthodox Church, known popularly as the Metropolia. Because of its "Great Russian" orientation, the Metropolia did not attract the new wave of post-1929 Rusyn converts from Greek Catholicism, who instead formed their own *American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic Diocese (the "Johnstown Diocese") under the jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople. In 1949, however, about 14 parishes broke with Johnstown and formed their own diocese, the so-called Carpatho-Russian People's Church, administered by Father Andrew Slepecky/Shlepets'kyi (18941976). Within two years (1951) this break-away diocese had placed itself under the Russian Orthodox Metropolia, where it continued to function as a distinct jurisdiction until the 1960s. The relationship of the Metropolia itself with the mother church was finally regulated in 1970, when Moscow recognized the self-governing status (autocephaly) of a new body called the Orthodox Church of America. The Russian Orthodox Church was traditionally viewed by many Rusyn-American immigrants as a place where their Eastern traditions could be preserved, although, as it turned

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture out, often at the expense of their own local traditions. Rusyns who joined the Russian Orthodox Church were encouraged to learn the Russian language (through church-run schools for children) and to adopt a Russian national identity. Even the traditional *Carpathian plainchant (prostopiniie) was eventually replaced with Russian choral chant in many churches. Particularly important in propagating a Russian identity were the bi-monthly newspaper published in Russian and English, Pravoslavnyi amerikanskii viestnik/Russian Orthodox American Messenger (1896-1973); church-related fraternal societies, such as the Russian Orthodox Catholic Mutual Aid Society/Russkoe pravoslavnoe kaftolicheskoe obshchestvo vzaimopomoshchi (1895) and the * United Russian Orthodox Brotherhood/Sojedinenije russkich pravoslavnych bratstv (1915); Orthodox missionary schools and seminaries in Minneapolis, Minnesota (1897-1912), Tenafly, New Jersey (1912-1922), New York City and later Crestwood, New York (1938-), and at St. Tikhon's Orthodox Monastery (1905) in South Canaan, Pennsylvania (1938-); and the popular education organization, the Federated Russian Orthodox Clubs (1927). Some Rusyn priests, like Bishop Dzubay, tried, although ultimately without success, to create a distinct Rusyn (CarpathoRussian) diocese; others, like Alexis Toth, Stefen *Varzaly, and Peter *Kohanik, argued through sermons and publications that Rusyns were a branch of the Russian nationality whose only acceptable religious tradition was Russian Orthodoxy. Since the creation in 1970 of the Orthodox Church of America, first headed by the American-bora metropolitan bishop of Lemko background, Theodosius Lazor (r. 1970-2002), there has been a concerted effort to disassociate the church from any ethnic group. Most Orthodox descendants of the early Rusyn immigrants have no awareness of their original ethnic heritage, although one newspaper, the Orthodox Herald (1952-), edited by Father Basil Stroyen, promoted knowledge of the Rusyn heritage, a subject that was also highlighted when the "father of American Rus' Orthodoxy," Alexis Toth, was canonized in 1994. Further reading: lubileinyi sbornik v pamiat 150-lietiia Russkoi Pravoslavnoi Tserkvi v Sievernoi Amerikie, 2 vols. (New York, 1944-45); Constance J. Tarasar and John H. Erikson, eds., Orthodox America, 1794-1976 (New York, 1975). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Russians — the numerically largest Slavic people. They reside within the present-day borders of Russia and as a minority in neighboring countries of the former Soviet Union, including the Baltic states, Belarus', and Ukraine. In the nineteenth century Russians began to take an interest in *Carpathian Rus'. As part of the *pan-Slavic movement in the Russian Empire, Russian scholars and publicists like Nikolai I. Nadezhdin, Izmail I. *Sreznevskii, and especially

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Mikhail M. Pogodin urged the tsarist government to show interest in the plight of "Russians beyond our borders," including the "Rusyns of Galicia and northeastern Hungary." Tsar Aleksander I himself visited Bardejovske Kupele, the spa near Bardejov in the heart of the * Presov Region (1821), and donated money for the construction of a Rusyn church, while a political refugee fleeing from tsarist rule, Konstantin *Matezonskii, settled in Uzhhorod (1833) and established the first choir in *Subcarpathian Rus'. During the Revolution of 1848 in the Austrian Empire, the tsar of Russia was asked to assist the *Habsburgs in their struggle against the Hungarian revolutionaries. The Russian Army passed through the Presov Region and made a very positive impression on the local Rusyn intelligentsia, in particular the national awakener Aleksander *Dukhnovych and the political activist Adol'f *Dobrians'kyi. The second half of the nineteenth century was marked by further interest in Carpathian Rus' on the part of Russian publicists and scholars. Several, like the influential pan-Slavic historian Vladimir I. Lamanskii (a founding member of the *St. John the Baptist Society in Pre§ov), traveled to Austro-Hungary to meet with Rusyn students and cultural activists; others (Anton Budilovich, Grigorii A. *De Vollan, Ivan P. *Filevich) informed the Russian public about Carpatho-Rusyns via essays and scholarly monographs. The most productive in this regard were Aleksei L. *Petrov, who devoted virtually all his scholarship to Rusyn subjects, and the cultural historian Fedor F. *Aristov, who also founded a Carpatho-Russian Museum in Moscow on the eve of World War I. The half century before the outbreak of World War I witnessed increasing interest in Carpathian Rus' on the part of tsarist government circles. This took the form of contacts with Rusyn national awakeners on the part of Russian Orthodox priests based in Vienna (Mikhail F. *Raevskii) and Budapest (Konstantin L. *Kustodiev, Vasilii M. *Voitkovskii) as well as the procurator of the Russian Orthodox Holy Synod, Konstantin P. Pobedonostsev. The tsarist Russian government, again through the church, sent priests and financial subsidies to the United States in an attempt to promote the "return to Orthodoxy" movement among Greek Catholic Rusyn immigrants. Rusyn relations with Russians took another form after World War I, when anti-Bolshevik "White" emigres fled in large numbers from the Civil War that raged throughout the Russian Empire. During the early 1920s they began to arrive in Subcarpathian Rus' (and to a lesser degree the Presov Region), where they formed a minority among Rusyns. The Russian emigres came under the auspices of the Russian Aid Program/Ruska pomocna akce, which was set up by the Czechoslovak government in 1921 to provide material and legal assistance to the new arrivals. The Czechoslovak authorities encouraged the often highly educated Russian emigres to play a role in the educational and cultural life of Rusyns

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in the eastern part of the republic, where they promoted the Russian language and culture through publications or work as government administrators and, in particular, as teachers at the elementary and gymnasium level (Kirill V. *KokhannyiGoral'chuk, Aleksandr A. *Liubimov, Petr P. *Miloslavskii, Evgenii L.*Nedziel'skii, Aleksandr V. *Popov). Others, who had been instructors at some of the Russian Empire's leading universities, remained in Prague or Bratislava, where they taught at Russian emigre and/or Czech and Slovak universities and undertook research on Rusyn ethnography and folklore (Petr G. *Bogatyrev), art (Sergei K. *Makovskii, Vsevolod V. *Sakhanev), and language (Valerii A. *Pogorelov). At the same time, Russian agronomists (Evgenii V. Lugovoi, Vadim Vladykov) who settled in Subcarpathian Rus' contributed to improving agricultural practices, while several technical specialists and engineers helped build a transportation and hydroelectric infrastructure for the region. Emigre priests and monks (Vitalii/Vasilii Maksimenko, Sava/ Konstantin P. Struve, Aleksei P. Dekhterev) were active in promoting Orthodoxy. One of their main centers was the Rusyn village of Ladomirova (near Svidnik) in the Presov Region, where the *Ladomirova Monastery and Orthodox mission of the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad (the Synod) functioned for over two decades (1923-1944) and was best known for its publishing activity. Other Russian emigres became involved in Rusyn civic and political life; Ekaterina *BreshkoBreshkovskaia, for example, supported local organizations and *Russophile activists among the Rusyn intelligentsia. The first Czech vice-governor of Subcarpathian Rus', Petr *Ehrenfeld (1921 -1923), protested against Russian emigre (as well as Ukrainian emigre) political activity, which he believed to be against the interests of the Czechoslovak state. Moreover, he argued, such activity would lead to a split within the still ethnically and politically immature Rusyn society. During the interwar years the number of Russians in Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region continually changed; many of the emigres felt they were living among Rusyns for only a short time and would one day return to a democratic Russia. This eventuality never took place. On the eve of World War II and the break-up of Czechoslovakia, most Russian emigres settled in the Czech part of the former republic (Bohemia) or went further on to France or Yugoslavia. An entirely new wave of Russians arrived in Subcarpathian Rus' as part of a migration that began in late 1944 and continued after the region's annexation to the Soviet Union (June 1945). A few were to play an active role in the region's cultural and university life, including the Marxist historian Ivan G. *Kolomiets, the literary scholar Petr P. Ponomarev (1906-1984), and the belletrists of Jewish heritage Matvei G. Tevelov (1908-1962) and Feliks Krivin (b. 1928). Most, however, were state and Communist party bureaucrats or military personnel, who began to innundate what for them was a Soviet border territory. It was, in fact, the Russian-

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture dominated Communist bureaucracy that began to carry out systematically and firmly the ukrainianization of the local Rusyn population. In stark contrast to the interwar "White" Russian emigres, the new Soviet Russians had no interest in Rusyn culture, let alone any desire to help preserve it. The vast majority treated Rusyns with the disdain typical of the ruling elite in many colonized societies. The result was from the very beginning mutual alienation between the local Rusyns and Russian newcomers and the virtual elimination of the *Russophile orientation within Rusyn society, a part of which had previously been sympathetic to Russians and to Russian culture. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union (1991) several thousand Russians left Subcarpathian Rus', while some others who had identified as Russian declared themselves of Ukrainian nationality. As a result, the number of Russians in the region declined from 49,500 in 1989 to 31,000 in 2001. Those who remain have accepted the loss of their once dominant position (Russian was, after all, the most prestigious language in the former multinational Soviet Union) and have adapted to the new political situation of an independent Ukraine. In 1993 the Russian intelligentsia in Subcarpathian Rus' formed their own organization, Russkii dom, which cooperates with other minority cultural organizations in the region. In contrast to Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region virtually no Russians settled in the *Lemko Region. One exception was Evgeniia Lastochkin, who before World War I operated in Sanok the Pansion dlia ruskykh uchennyts, which was a residence for Rusyn students similar to the *Ruska Bursa. It was, however, the occasional presence of Russian military troops in the region that played a pivotal role in the development of the so-called folk *Russophilism, that is, sympathy towards Russians among Lemko villagers that was later fully developed by the intelligentsia into a belief that Lemkos and all Rusyns were part of the Russian nationality. Tsarist Russian troops crossed through the Lemko Region during Napoleonic wars (1799, 1806) and again in 1849, but it was during the early stages of World War I that their presence was really felt. During the fall and winter of 1914-1915 Russia's new governor-general for Galicia, Count Vladimir Bobrinskii argued that eastern Galicia together with the Lemko Region was a part of Russian ethnographic territory and would be treated as such. Tsarist policy could not be fully implemented, however, because of the on-going military conflict and the Russian withdrawal from most of Galicia following the Battle of *Gorlice. Russians, this time within the ranks of the Soviet Army, reached the Lemko Region once more in the fall of 1944 during the late stages of World War II. Russian and Russian-speaking Soviet officials engaged in propaganda work were instrumental in encouraging Lemkos to move to the Soviet Ukraine (see Lemko population resettlement), a movement that they described as the final unification with

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture "Mother Russia." The historic interest among Russians in the fate of Rusyns living in the Carpathians has recently been revived by enthusiasts in Moscow. Since the late 1980s a few Russians have tried to renew the work of the pre-World War I scholar Fedor F. Aristov by publishing essays and brochures that reflect the traditional Russophile understanding of Carpathian Rus' as encompassing historic eastern Galicia and northern Bukovina as well as Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region. In 1999 they established in Moscow the * Aristov Society of Friends of Carpathian Rus' (Obshchestvo druzi Karpatskoi Rusi imeni F.F. Aristova), which expresses sympathy for those people in the homeland who believe that Carpatho-Rusyns form a distinct Slavic nationality. Further reading: Ivan Filevich, "Ugorskaia Rus' i sviazannye s neiu voprosy i zadachi russkoi istoricheskoi nauki," Varshavskiia universitetskiia izvestiia, V, 3 (Warsaw, 1894), pp. 1-32; I.O. Panas, "Karpatorusskie otzvuki russkago pokhoda v Vengriiu 1849 goda," in Karpatorusskii sbornik (Uzhhorod, 1931), pp. 209-229; Tivadar Bacsinszky, Orosz-ruszin kapcsolatok a XIX. szdzad kozepen (Uzhhorod, 1942); Olena Rudlovchak, "Za zavisoiu mynuloho: materialy do vzaiemyn Zakarpattia z Rosiieiu," Duklia, XVIII, 3 and 4 (PreSov, 1970), pp. 60-67 and 59-68; Olena Rudlovchak, "Shliakhy rosiis'koho drukovanoho slova do zakarpats'kykh ukrai'ntsiv," Naukovyi zbirnyk Muzeiu ukrains 'koi kuftury u Svydnyku, XIII (PreSov and Bratislava, 1988), pp. 7-94; Eubica Harbul'ova, "Ladomirova—konfesionalne stredisko ruskej emigracie na Slovensku," in Vaclav Veber et al., Ruskd a ukrajinskd emigrace v CSR v letech 1918-1945 (Prague, 1995), pp. 53-60; Jozef Plechta, "Przemarsz wojsk rosyjskich przez Sajdecczyzn^ w 1849 roku do walki z rewolucja^ w^gierska," Rocznik Sadecki, Vol. XXVI (Nowy Sa^cz, 1998), pp. 1-13; Eubica Harbul'ova, "Ruska porevolucna emigracia a Zakarpatska Ukrajina," in MikulaS Musinka, ed., Zakarpatskd Ukrajina v ramci Ceskoslovenska, 1919-1939 (PreSov, 2000), pp. 159-166; A. lu. Bakhturina, Politika Rossiiskoi imperil v Vostochnoi Galitsii v gody Pervoi mirovoi voiny (Moscow, 2000); A. E. Lugovoi, Rossiane v zhizni Zakarpat 'ia: istoriia i sovremennost' (Uzhhorod, 2003).

Enlightenment (National) Union of Yugoslav Rusyns/Kulturno-prosvitni (natsionalni) soiuz iugoslavianskikh rusinokh. The newspaper changed its title several times, beginning as Zaria, then appearing for two issues as Russka pravda before changing to Russki batoh (1934-1936), and finally to Russka zaria. The newspaper was consistently *Russophile in orientation, arguing that the Vojvodinian Rusyns, like all Rusyns, were a branch of the Russian nationality. Although it was published in Vojvodinian Rusyn, the vocabulary used was heavily influenced by Russian, a policy adopted by its long-time editor-in-chief (1937-1941), Evgenii *Kochish. The editors also published an annual almanac, Russki narodni kalendar "Zaria" (1935-1941). Further reading: Diura Latiak, "Ruske slovo, " 1945-1985 (Novi Sad, 1985), pp. 19-23. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Russkaia narodnaia gazeta. See Narodnaia gazeta Russkaia pravda. See Russkii vistnyk Russkaia pravoslavnaia tserkov' v Severnoi Amierikie. See Russian Orthodox Church in North America Russkaia shkola. See P"ieshchak, Ivan Russkaia zemlia — weekly newspaper published in Uzhhorod (1919-38) as the official organ of the *Carpatho-Russian Workers' party/Karpatorusskaia trudovaia partiia. Under the editorship of Andrei *Gagatko and later Ilarion *Tsurkanovich, Russkaia zemlia was published in Russian and promoted the Russian national orientation among the Rusyn population. The newspaper was particularly critical of the Czechoslovak government for not granting *autonomy to * Subcarpathian Rus' and for its support of the Ukrainian orientation, especially in the school system.

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Further reading: Vasyl' Habor, Ukrains 'ki chasopysy Uzhhoroda, 1867-1944 (L'viv, 2003), pp. 175-182.

IVAN POP

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

BOGDAN HORBAL

Russin, Alexis W. See Russian Brotherhood Organization Russka pravda. See Russka zaria

Russka pravoslavna Liubov. See Lubov Russian Orthodox Fraternity Russka zaria — weekly newspaper published in Stari Vrbas, Yugoslavia (1934-41) by the *Zaria Cultural and

Russki batoh. See Russka zaria Russkii dom. See Krushko, Shtefan; Kyzak, loann; Russians Russkii klub. See Kyzak, loann Russkii narodnyi golos — newspaper published in Uzhhorod (1934-38) first as a daily (to July 1935), then twice weekly (for the rest of 1935), and finally three times weekly

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(1936-38). The newspaper began when losyf *Kamins'kyi, no longer wishing to support the political career of Shtefan *Fentsyk, stepped down as editor of *Karpatorusskii golos in October 1934 and the following month became editor of the "non-party affiliated newspaper," Russkii narodnyi golos. The new organ was published with the assistance of a committee that included the Subcarpathian *Russophiles Edmund *Bachyns'kyi, Konstantyn *Machik, Ilarion *Tsurkanovych, Ernest Dudash, Mykhai'l Vasylenko, Vasylii Shpenyk, and the literary scholar Evgenii *Nedziel'skii, who served as editor after 1935. The newspaper appeared in Russian and promoted a Russian national identity among its readers. It ceased publication in the fall of 1938 during the period of Subcarpathian *autonomy. Further reading: Vasyl' Habor, Ukra'ins 'ki chasopysy Uzhhoroda, 1867-1944 (L'viv, 2003), pp. 393-405.

Russian Orthodox Brotherhood of America Russkii zemledielets — weekly newspaper published in Kosice (1928-38) as the official organ of the *Agrarian/Republican party for Rusyns in the Presov Region. Originally a supplement to the Slovak newspaper, Gazdovske noviny, in 1935 Russkii zemliedelets began to appear separately. It was published in Russian and in Rusyn vernacular mixed with Slovak and Russian. As the organ of the most influential progovernment Agrarian/Republican party, Russkii zemliedelets avoided criticism of Czechoslovak rule, but it did call for the teaching ofRusyn in church-run schools in eastern Slovakia. The newspaper was edited by Petro *Zhydovs'kyi and by Gr. Medvets'kyi, who frequently wrote on contemporary Rusyn literature. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Russkij den'. See Zeedick, Peter I.

Russkii natsional'nyi khor. See Prykhod'ko, Oleksa

Russkoe kasino See Beskyd, Antonii

Russkii pravoslavnyi viestnik. See Vavrik, Vasilii

Russkoe kul'turno-prosvietitel'noe obshchestvo imeni Aleksandra Dukhnovicha. See Dukhnovych Society

Russkii vistnyk — weekly newspaper published in Uzhhorod (1924-38) as the official organ of the political party, the * Autonomous Agricultural Union/Avtonomnyi zemledil'skii soiuz. Russkii vistnyk was published in Rusyn vernacular and carried on the tradition of the *Karpatorusskii viestnik, which from 1921 had been the organ of the Subcarpathian Autonomous Union until that party's membership split in 1923 and its pro-autonomy faction, led by Ivan *Kurtiak, formed the Autonomous Agricultural Union. Russkii vistnyk was critical of the Czechoslovak regime for not granting *autonomy to * Subcarpathian Rus'. The paper hoped to function as the tribune of the middle and well-to-do peasantry. Its editors included Andrii *Brodii, Mykhai'l *Demko, and Ivan Shpak; they promoted the *Russophile orientation and became increasingly sympathetic to Hungary and its territorial pretensions vis-a-vis Czechoslovakia. The editors were also responsible for publishing the annual almanac Podkarpatskii zemledil'skii kalendar'. For a few years a two-page insert was included for Rusyns living in the Presov Region, Sotatskii russkii vistnyk (1935-37); it appeared in Rusyn dialect using the Roman alphabet. After Hungary annexed Uzhhorod in late 1938, Russkii vistnyk was replaced by Russkaia pravda (1938-40) published under the direction of Andrii Brodii with Ivan Shpak as editor-in-chief. Russkaia pravda was in turn replaced by *Russkoe slovo. Further reading: Vasyl' Habor, Ukra'ins 'ki chasopysy Uzhhoroda, 1867-1944 (L'viv, 2003), pp. 299-309. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Russkii vistnik/Russian Messenger. See United

Russkoe pravoslavnoe kaftolicheskoe obshchestvo vzaimopomoshchi. See Kohanik, Peter; Russian Orthodox Church in North America; Toth, Alexis Russkoe slovo — weekly newspaper published in Presov (1924-38) closely connected with the Greek Catholic Eparchy of PreSov. Among its long-time editors were Shtefan *Goidych (1924-1928) and Fedor Roikovych (1930-1933). Aside from reporting on church-related issues the newspaper defended Rusyn national interests in Slovakia, including elementary schooling in Rusyn, and it provided a forum in which local writers could publish literary works and social commentary. The newspaper defended the view that Rusyns form a distinct nationality; its language was basically Rusyn with strong influences from Russian and *Church Slavonic. Further reading: HavryTl Beskyd, "Novynky 'Russkoe slovo'," in Rusyn 'skyi narodnyi kalendar' na 2004 rik (PreSov, 2003), pp. 69-71. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Russkoe slovo — newspaper that appeared twice weekly in Uzhhorod (1940-44) during the period of Hungarian rule in Subcarpathian Rus'. Russkoe slovo was published by the Rusyn deputy to the Hungarian parliament, Andrii *Brodii, on the basis of a government subsidy. It replaced Russkaia pravda (1938-40) and was edited by Ivan Shpak and written

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture in Rusyn vernacular with a certain number of Russian borrowings in its vocabulary. The paper described itself as "an independent political organ," although it supported Brodii's view that *Subcarpathian Rus' should be given *autonomy within Hungary. The newspaper also published a series of books under the editorial direction of Ivan *Kercha, which included anthologies of literature and works by individual Rusyn authors mostly written in Russian (Biblioteka sovremmennykh ugro-russkikh pisatelei, 20 vols.) PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Russko-narodnaia organizatsiia. See League for the Liberation of Carpatho-Russia

Russky Potok: A Lesson in Democracy. See Cinema Russnak, Nykolai. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov RllSSOphiles — persons of Rusyn ethnolinguistic background who believe that their people are a branch of the Russian nationality. Russophile theorists—those ofRusyn origin as well as writers from the former Russian Empire—often refer to the existence of a common Russian (obshcherusskii) people divided into three main ethnolinguistic groups: Great Russians/ Velikorossy, Belorussians/Belorossy, and Little Russians/Malorossy, who all use a common Russian literary language (obshcherusskii iazyk). One sub-group or branch of the Little Russians are the Carpatho-Russians/Karpatorossy, which for some writers comprise all East Slavs living in the former Habsburg Monarchy (eastern Galicia, northern Bukovina, *Subcarpathian Rus', and the * Presov Region) and for others only the East Slavs in *Carpathian Rus' (Subcarpathian Rus', the Presov Region, and the Lemko Region). Not only do Russophile ideologists believe that Rusyns fall within the Little Russian branch of the common Russian people, they also reject the notion that Little Russians should be designated by the contemporary term Ukrainian. Russophile writers, in fact, deny the existence of a distinct Ukrainian nationality just as they do that of a distinct Rusyn nationality. Consequently, they reject attempts to create a literary language based on Rusyn dialects, believing that Rusyns should use literary Russian as "their" language of culture and "higher" communication. Russophiles also argue that the ethnonyms *Rusyn and Rusnak are simply regional variants of the "national" name, Russian (russkii). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Rusyn — ethnonym used to describe the East Slavic population of Carpathian Rus'. In most parts of *Carpathian Rus', the variant term Rusnak was traditionally used by

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the population to describe itself. This was particularly the case in the *Lemko Region, the *Presov Region, western * Subcarpathian Rus', and in the *Vojvodina. Until the end of World War I the term Uhro-Rusyn (Hungarian Rusyn) was also used to designate those Rusyns living in the Hungarian Kingdom (i.e., the Presov Region and Subcarpathian Rus'); the term was again used as the official name for the group living in Subcarpathian Rus' when the province was reannexed to Hungary between 1939 and 1944. In the Lemko Region, the ethnonym Rusnak/Rusyn was gradually replaced during the first decades of the twentieth century by the term Lemko, although since the 1990s the term Lemko-Rusyn is also used. In the Vojvodina and adjacent Srem region, aside from Rusnak (plural: Rusnatsi), the group has been referred to in publications as South Slavic Rusyns (iuzhnoslavian ski Rusini/Rusnatsf), Bachka-Srem Rusyns (bachvan 'sko-srimski Rusnatsi), and Vojvodinian Rusyns (voivodianski Rusnatsi), the latter being the term used throughout this encyclopedia. The ethnonym Carpatho-Rusyn is used to designate Rusyns in all parts (Subcarpathian Rus', Presov Region, Lemko Region, *Maramures) of *Carpathian Rus'. The term Rusyn was in common usage among the East Slavic inhabitants of central and eastern Subcarpathian Rus'. It was also adopted as an ethnonym during the nineteenthcentury national awakening by the nationalist intelligentsia which claimed to speak on behalf of East Slavs throughout all of Carpathian Rus'. The national credo written by *Aleksander Dukhnovych reads: "I was, am, and will remain a Rusyn" (la rusyn byl, iesm'y budu); and the national *anthem begins with the line: "Subcarpathian Rusyns, Arise from Your Deep Slumber" (Podkarpatski rusyny, ostavte hlubokyi son). The term Rusyn was subsequently accepted as the official designation for the group living within Czechoslovakia during the interwar years of the twentieth century and it is the ethno-national self-descriptor used by organizations and publications in all countries where Rusyns live since the Revolution of 1989. The term has official status in present-day Slovakia, Poland (often as Lemko-Rusyn), Hungary, the Czech Republic, Yugoslavia, and the United States (as Carpatho-Rusyn in census reports). In the spoken Rusyn vernacular the adjectival form for the noun Rusyn is traditionally rus 'ka/rus 'ke(oe)/ rus 'kyi. In Rusyn publications appearing since 1989, however, the adjectival form rusyn 'skyi/rusyns 'kyi/rusynskii/rusinski has gradually become the new norm. The term Rusyn derives from the noun Rus', which can mean the land of Rus', or an inhabitant of the land of Rus'. The origin of that term is one of the great unresolved controversies of eastern European historiography. This issue relates to the beginnings of a medieval state called Kievan Rus', which at its height in the eleventh century extended its sphere of influence over what are today the states of Russia (west of the Urals), Belarus, and Ukraine (north of the open steppe zone). Some scholars (supporters of the so-called Normanist theory)

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believe that Rus' derives from either a Finnish (ruotsi) or an Old Nordic (ropsmenn, ropskarlar) term, which the Finnic tribes living in what is today northern Russia used to describe adventurers who came from Sweden and created the state that subsequently was called Kievan Rus'. Other scholars (supporters of the anti-Normanist theory) believe that Rus' derives from the name of a Slavic tribe that lived along the valley of the Ros' River just south of the city of Kiev, and that this Ros tribe merged with another Slavic tribe (Polianians) and bequeathed their name to the entire region surrounding the town of Kiev which came to be known as Rus'. Still other scholars argue that Rus' is originally not associated with any particular ethnic group or tribe, but derives from the name of an international trading company Rus, which plied the North Sea from the sixth century and that supplied the individuals who helped form Kievan Rus' in the ninth century. According to this view the name of this international trading company (and therefore the origin of Rus') is derived from Ruzzi, the Middle German equivalent of Middle French Rusi, which in turn refers to Rutenicis, the region in south-central France near the town of Rodez where the Rus trading company had its origins. Regardless of its disputed origins, the name Rusyn (usually in the Latin forms Rusinus/Rusenus and Rutenus/Ruthenus) was applied from the late eleventh to the inhabitants of Carpathian Rus'. Nor was the term Rusyn limited to the Carpathian region. It initially was the ethnonym used by all East Slavs (primarily Belarusans and Ukrainians) living in the eastern regions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Until at least the outbreak of World War I the term remained widespread as a designation for Austria-Hungary's East Slavs living in eastern Galicia and northern Bukovina as well as in northeastern Hungary. Since that time, the term Rusyn was gradually replaced by Belarusan and Ukrainian as ethnonyms among most East Slavs in the former lands of the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth and Austria-Hungary. Only the East Slavs living in Carpathian Rus' and emigrants from that region who settled elsewhere (the Vojvodina, United States, Canada) continue to use the ethnonyms Rusnak and Rusyn. In various modern European languages the term is rendered as Rusin (Czech and Slovak), ruszin/ruten (Hungarian), Rusin (Polish and Serbian), Ruthene (German), ruthene (French), ruten (Italian) and *Ruthenian (English). More problematic is the manner in which some of these languages render the territorial concept Rus'. It was and in some cases still is "translated" as Russia, with the result that Carpathian Rus' and its Rusyn inhabitants are incorrectly described as Carpatho-Russia and Carpatho-Russians. By contrast, Rusyn sources have almost always used the noun Rus' to describe all or part of the Carpathian homeland: Karpats 'ka Rus', Podkarpats 'ka Rus', Priashivs 'ka Rus', or *Uhors 'ka Rus'. For a brief period after World War I the Czech term Rusinsko was applied in some documents to Rusyn-inhabited territory south of the Carpathians in the new state of Czechoslovakia.

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture American-Rusyn publications at the time rendered this term in English as Rusinia, or as Ruthenia. Further reading: Henryk Paszkiewicz, The Origin of Russia (London, 1954), esp. pp. 1-25 and 331-335; Georgii I. Gerovskii, "K voprosu o znachenii nazvaniia Rusnak," Duklia, VI, 3 (Presov, 1958), pp. 47-52; Paul Robert Magocsi, The Shaping of a National Identity-Subcarpathian Rus', 1848-1948 (Cambridge, Mass., 1978), esp. pp. 277-281; Pavlo Chuchka, "Etnomimy rusyn ta rusnak i ikh deryvaty v pivdennokarpats'kykh hovorakh," Naukovi zapysky Soiuzu rusyniv-ukra'intsiv Slovats 'koi respubliky, No. 18 (Presov, 1993), pp. 121-128; luliian Koliesar, Istoriia ruskoho narodnoho mena (Novi Sad, 1996). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Rusyn — bi-weekly and later weekly newspaper published in Uzhhorod (1920-21) as the semi-official organ of the first governor of Subcarpathian Rus', Gregory *Zhatkovych. Its editor-in-chief was the Rusyn-American priest Teofil Zhatkovych (the brother of the governor); its executive editor the Subcarpathian *Ukrainophile Avhustyn *Shtefan. The newspaper appeared in the Rusyn vernacular, it included a wide variety of local and international news, and it called for full * autonomy for Subcarpathian Rus'. Further reading: Ivan Dobosh, Istoriia ukrains 'koi' zhurnalistyky Zakarpattia20—30-khrokivXXst. (Ivano-Frankivs'k, 1995), pp. 1520; MM. Romaniuk, ed., Periodyka Zakhidnoi Ukrainy 20—30-kh rr. XXst. (Eviv, 1998), pp. 227-229. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Rusyn—daily newspaper published in Uzhhorod throughout most of 1923 (248 issues from February through December) at the initiative of the vice-governor of Subcarpathian Rus', Petr *Ehrenfeld. Rusyn was edited by the Czech literary scholar Frantisek *Tichy; included on its staff were local Rusyns, mostly of Ukrainian national orientation (Andrii *Voron, Vasyl' *Grendzha-Dons'kyi, Avhustyn *Shtefan) as well as Galician-Ukrainian emigres (Oleksandr *Badan, Mykhailo Kachaliuk) and Czechs interested in Rusyn culture (Antonin *Hartl, M. Halip). Published in Rusyn vernacular, the newspaper included current affairs information as well as articles on Subcarpathian regional history, ethnography, art, and literature and original Rusyn poetry and prose. The editors also produced a weekly illustrated magazine supplement, *Nedilia Rusyna, and a series of brochures on various aspects of contemporary Subcarpathian society, "Knyzhky Rusyna." Further reading: Frantishek Tikhyi, Uzhhorod 1923: spohady (Perechyn, 1992); Ivan Dobosh, Istoriia ukrains'ko'i zhurnalistyky Zakarpattia20—30-khrokivXXst. (Ivano-Frankivs'k, 1995), pp. 1520; M.M. Romaniuk, ed., Periodyka Zakhidnoi Ukrainy 20—30-kh rr. XXst. (Eviv, 1998), pp. 229-232. IVAN POP

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Rusyn — bi-monthly "cultural and Christian" illustrated magazine published in Presov (1990-). The first two issues were sponsored by the Andy Warhol Society based in Medzilaborce; the magazine has subsequently been published by the *Rusyn Renaissance Society/Rusyn'ska obroda. Since its inception the magazine appears in Rusyn and is edited by Aleksander *Zozuliak. It functions as the unofficial organ of the *World Congress of Rusyns, and each issue is divided into sections that focus on the life of the various countries in which Rusyns live: Slovakia, Ukraine (Subcarpathia), Poland, Yugoslavia, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Canada, and the United States. Aside from articles on Rusyn history, ethnography, religion, and contemporary political life, the magazine features new works by Rusyn writers from the various countries they inhabit.

provinces—Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Alberta. The Rusyn Association of North America organizes annual picnics each summer and fall and an annual winter ball in Kitchener, Hamilton, Woodstock, or other towns in southern Ontario as well as an annual picnic in Edmonton, Alberta. It also helps to arrange for Greek Catholic church services, partly in Vojvodinian Rusyn, that are held periodically in various communities. In an effort to maintain communication among a small membership living throughout the vast expanse of Canadian territory, the association publishes in Vojvodinian Rusyn the magazine Hlasnik/Messenger (1996- ) two or three times a year and since late 2000 it has helped sponsor an *Internet radio program.

Further reading: Serhii Pan'ko, "Zhurnal 'Rusyn' i pytannia rusyns'ko! literaturnoT movy," Acta Academiae Paedagogicae Nyiregyhaziensis, XIII/C (Nyiregyhaza, 1992), pp. 257-266.

Rusyn Club. See Krushko, Shtefan; Kyzak, loann

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Rusyn Cultural Center. See Mudri, Mikhailo

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Rusyn/Rusin/Ruthenian — magazine published irregularly by the *Council of Free Sub-Carpathian Ruthenia in Exile. Rusyn appeared from 1952 to 1960 from offices in Hamilton, Ontario, and New York City. It represented the interests of a small group of post-World War II emigres from *Subcarpathian Rus' who were opposed to the Soviet annexation of their homeland, the destruction of the Greek Catholic Church, and the Ukrainian national orientation. The magazine called for the return of Subcarpathian Rus' to a non-Communist Czechoslovakia and argued that Rusyns are a distinct nationality. Most of the articles were written in Rusyn (Roman alphabet); others appeared in Russian and English. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Rusyn, Valerii See Padiak, Valerii Rusyn, VasyF. See Communism Rusyn Amateur Theater. See Riznich-Diadia, Petro Rusyn Association of North America/Ruske druzhtvo Sivernei Ameriki — community organization to promote a sense of cohesion among Rusnaks/Rusyns living in North America. The Rusyn Association was established in 1995 in Kitchener, Ontario, at the initiative of its founding chairman, Julian*Sabados. Despite its broader geographical name, the membership comprises primarily Rusyns from the *Vojvodina in former Yugoslavia, who during the past two decades have settled in Canada. The association has about 400 members and its activity is based for the most part in southern Ontario, with smaller branches in each of Canada's "prairie"

Rusyn Cultural Foundation/Ruska matka — voluntary organization to promote the cultural distinctiveness of the Rusyns of Yugoslavia. The Rusyn Cultural Foundation has existed in two phases. When first established in 1945, its goal was to provide financial assistance to poor students, to publish popular-educational books in Rusyn, and to promote in general Rusyn culture and education. Based in Ruski Kerestur, where it operated a printshop, the organization also had 12 branches in small towns and cities throughout the *Vojvodina and Srem regions in which Rusyns lived. Among its concrete achievements was the publication of two issues of an annual almanac (Ruski narodni kalendar, 1946-47). Plans to publish a journal, Matka, were never realized, as in 1948 the Rusyn Cultural Foundation ceased to exist. Its demise was the result of the policy of the Communist regime in Yugoslavia, which wanted all organizations representing national minorities to be funded and controlled by the state, and owed as well to opposition from some of the local intelligentsia, who were displeased that the foundation did not adopt a Ukrainian national orientation. In 1990 the Rusyn Cultural Foundation was revived in Ruski Kerestur. Influenced by the national revival among Rusyns throughout Europe following the revolutions of 1989, the foundation was re-established to assert the view that Rusyns form a nationality distinct from Ukrainians. It was the primary organizer of the 250th anniversary celebration of Rusyn settlement in the Vojvodina/Ba6ka, at which time (1993) it sponsored an international scholarly conference and hosted the Third *World Congress of Rusyns. The foundation has branches in several towns throughout the Vojvodina (the largest and most active are in Ruski Kerestur and Kucura). It is a founding member of the World Congress of Rusyns and associate member of the Maison des Pays organization for Europe's stateless peoples, based in France. Among its chair-

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men since 1990 have been Liubomir *Medieshi, Mikhailo *Varga, and Nataliia *Dudash. Further reading: luliian D.M. Kol'esarov, Ruska matka (Montreal, 1981); Mikhailo Varga, ed., Ruska matka Iuhoslavii'(Ruski Kerestur, 1998). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

experiment was not to last long, and on March 28, 1850, the Uzhhorod ("Rusyn") civil district was abolished. The district did, however, promote for the first time the view that Rusyns be officially designated as a distinct people. Hence, the Rusyn District became a unique example and precedent for future Rusyn political and administrative demands. IVAN POP

Rusyn Day Festival. See Zeedick, Peter I.

Rusyn Democratic Circle of Lemkos in Poland. See Hospodar Civic Circle of Lemkos Rusyn District/Rus'kyi okruh — unofficial name for a provisional administrative-territorial entity created on Rusyninhabited lands in the Hungarian Kingdom (1849-1850). In October 1849, following the Habsburg victory over Hungary's revolutionaries, the Austrian imperial government reorganized the administrative structure of the Hungarian Kingdom. Croatia, Slavonia, and Transylvania were detached from the kingdom and its remaining territory was divided into five military districts, each of which was in turn subdivided into civil districts. The northeastern part of Hungary was made part of the Kosice military district, which was subdivided into three civil districts. One of these, the Uzhhorod civil district, encompassed *Ung, *Bereg, *Ugocha/Ugocsa, and *Maramorosh counties. The Uzhhorod district was nominally headed by Ignac von Willetz, although in practice it was administered by his advisor and deputy, the Rusyn political leader Adol'f *Dobrians'kyi. Dobrians'kyi viewed the Uzhhorod civil district as the first step toward the creation of a Rusyn District, in which he could carry out his program for Rusyn national *autonomy. The first official announcements and decrees published in Uzhhorod by Dobrians'kyi (November 1849) appeared in both the Rusyn and Hungarian languages. Rusyn was introduced into schools, and official names and signs were written in Rusyn, German, and Hungarian. Dobrians'kyi also appointed Rusyns to lower-level administrative and civil service posts. Rusyns living in *Zemplyn/Zemplen, *Sharysh/Saros, and *Spish/Szepes counties also called for unification with the Rusyn District. For its part, the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo adopted a rather paradoxical view of these Rusyn national demands. Whereas some priests in the circle of Aleksander *Dukhnovych were in the forefront of the national movement, the church hierarchy remained pro-Hungarian in orientation and opposed Dobrians'kyi's initiatives. Consequently, the eparchial chancery in Uzhhorod opposed the appointment of Rusyns to local administrative offices, arguing that such appointments would alienate *Slovaks and *Magyars from the Greek Catholic Church. Despite such opposition, Dobrians'kyi managed to achieve a degree of success in the local political sphere. But this administrative

Rusyn Minority Self-Government/Rusynske men'shynove samoupravlenie — self-governing communities for Rusyns living in Hungary. In 1993 the government of post-Communist Hungary passed a law to allow a system of self-government for communities comprised of national minorities, among whom Rusyns were officially recognized. The law provides for the possibility of acquiring minority self-government if a certain percentage (usually 20-25 percent) of a minority in a given community files a request. The criteria for identification as a Rusyn (or other national minority) are quite liberal. Some Rusyn self-governing communities exist where very few Rusyns live, or they are comprised of Hungarians who claim some Rusyn heritage or who are simply interested in Rusyn culture. In 1994 the first local Rusyn minority self-government was established in the village of Mucsony in the northeastern part of the country. Subsequently, and largely at the initiative of Gabriel *Hattinger-Klebashko, who at the time was chairman of the *Organization of Rusyns in Hungary, eight other self-governing Rusyn communities were organized. Only in three of those communities, which are located in northeastern Hungary, have Rusyns lived for centuries as the "indigenous" population: Mucsony, Komloska, and Sarospatak (in particular its suburb of Vegardo, see Map 11). Other communities included Biatorbagy near Budapest, and five districts of Budapest itself (V. Belvaros-Lipotvaros, VIII. Joszefvaros, XII. Hegyvidek, XIV. Zuglo, and XVIII. Pestlorinc). These communities are comprised of Rusyns from northeastern Hungary living in or near the capital, of Hungarians who claim they are ofRusyn heritage, or of recently arrived immigrants from Subcarpathian Rus' who live permanently in Hungary. Each minority community receives an annual budget from the Hungarian government to support Rusyn cultural and educational activity. The five communities in Budapest form a consortium that publishes the illustrated, bilingual RusynHungarian monthly magazine, Vsederzhavnyi rusynskyi visnyk/Orszagos ruszin hirlap (1999- ). In 1998 all nine communities formed a State Administration for Rusyn SelfGovernment/Derzhavnoe samouriadovania menshyny rusynuv, which is elected by local communities and is expected to represent the Rusyn minority as a whole in its negotiations with the Hungarian government. As a result of state-wide elections held in 2003, the number of communities with a Ruysn minority self-government has increased from 9 to 32. Among the 22 new communities,

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture more than half are in Budapest itself and a few surrounding suburbs; the new ones in or near traditionally Rusyn-inhabited areas of northeastern Hungary include the villages of Basko, Erdohorvati, Irota, Hejokeresztur, Rakamaz and the cities of Miskolc and Sataljaujhely (see Map 11). The Stat Administration, which has its own building in Budapest and publishes a Rusyn-Hungarian monthly magazine, Rusyns 'kyi svit/Ruszin vildg (2003- ), has been headed by Gabriel Hattinger (1998-2002) and Vira Girits (2002-). Further reading: Judit Bola Palok, "The Protection of National and Ethnic Minorities' Rights in Hungary (1989-1997)," in Ignacs Romsics and Bela K. Kiraly, eds., Geopolitics in the Danube Region (Budapest, 1999), pp. 317-345. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Rusyn National Choir. See Prykhod'ko, Oleksa Rusyn National Council/Sobor. See Rus'ka Krama Rusyn National Enlightenment Society/Ruske narodne prosvitne druzhtvo — first organization to promote the cultural and educational interests of the Vojvodinian Rusyns. Also known simply as Prosvita, the Rusyn National Enlightenment Society was founded in July 1919 at a meeting of 150 Rusyns from the *Vojvodina and Srem held in Novi Sad. Its main goal was "to publish and distribute religious, instructional, and entertaining books and brochures as well as Rusyn newspapers written in the vernacular Rusyn language." Although some of its leading supporters considered the Vojvodinian Rusyns to be a branch of the Ukrainian nationality, the Rusyn National Enlightenment Society adopted the proposal of its first chairman (1919-1936), Mikhailo *Mudri, who called for the "creation of a literature in the language that the people speak." Therefore, the society's publications did not use Ukrainian but Vojvodinian Rusyn, for which it requested Havriil/Gabor *Kostel'nik to prepare a grammatical standard (Hramatika bachvan'sko-ruskei beshedi, 1923). Earlier the society had published for Rusyn schools a reader (1920) by Mikhailo *Polivka and a primer (1921) by Mikhailo Mudri and Mikhailo Polivka. Other publications included literary works by Havriil/Gabor *Kostelnik and lanko *Feisa; a collection of folksongs (1927); the first Vojvodinian Rusyn literary anthology (1936); several Greek Catholic Church books; and the first Vojvodinian Rusyn annual almanac (Ruski kalendarza iuzhnoslavianskikh Rusinokh, 1921-41), weekly newspaper (*Ruski novini, 1924-41), and youth magazine (Nasha zahradka, 193 7-1941). The Rusyn National Enlightenment Society was supported by donations from the local Vojvodinian Rusyn intelligentsia, well-to-do peasants, and especially from the Greek Catholic Church. Like its first chairman, its second during the years 1936-1941, Diura *Bindas, was also a Greek Catholic priest.

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The society's headquarters were in Ruski Kerestur, where in 1932 it purchased a building for a cultural center (Prosvitni dom) and in 1936 opened a printshop. The work of the National Enlightenment Society effectively ended with the destruction of Yugoslavia in the spring of 1941 and the annexation of most of the Vojvodina by Hungary. Before the end of 1941 Bindas turned to fellow Rusyns in *Subcarpathian Rus' (annexed to Hungary in early 1939). The society's supporters became members of the Organization of Greek Catholic Youth based in Uzhhorod, and the *Subcarpathian Scholarly Society published a supplement for Vojvodinian Rusyns (Vel'ki selskogazdovski kalendar za bachvanskikh Rusinokh, 1942-1944) as part of its own annual almanac. Further reading: Roman Miz, "Konstitutivna i hlavni rochni skhadzki 'Prosviti'," in Dumki z Dunaiu, Vol. I (Vukovar, 1989), pp. 91-113; Diura Varga, "Pochatki natsionalno-kulturnoho rukhu pri Rusnatsokh u luhoslavii'—70-rochni'tsa Ruskoho narodnoho prosvitnoho druzhtva," Shvetlosts, XXVII, 4 (Novi Sad, 1989), pp. 509-540; Diura Latiak, "Vidavatel'na di'ialnosts Ruskoho narodnoho prosvitnoho druzhtva, 1919-1941," Studia Ruthenica, Vol. II (Novi Sad, 1990-91), pp. 126-133; Diura Hardi, "Stanoviska i politichni oriientatsiT RNPD spram Kral'ovini SHS (luhoslavii) i iei politichnoho zhivota," in Rusnatsi/Rusini, 1945-1995 (Novi Sad, 1996), pp. 215-231. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Rusyn National Union/Ruskii narodnyi soiuz v Amerytsi — fraternal insurance organization among Carpatho-Rusyn and Ukrainian working-class immigrants in the United States. The Rusyn National Union was established in Shamokin, Pennsylvania, in 1894 by clergy and lay members from the *Greek Catholic Union ofRusyn Brotherhoods who were critical of that organization's fiscal policies and alleged pro-Hungarian orientation. Most of the members in the new Rusyn National Union were Greek Catholic immigrants from Galicia, including Lemko Rusyns, who were to play an important role in the organization's early history. For instance, Ivan *Konstankevych, the Greek Catholic priest of Shamokin, was instrumental in organizing the first convention (1894), and during the Rusyn National Union's first three decades several of its officers and five of its first seven presidents were Lemko Rusyns: Teodosii Talpash (1894-1895), Ivan Glova (18951898), lurii Khyliak/Chylak (1898-1900), Dymytrii Kapitula (1908-1917), and Semen Yadlovsky (1920-1925). Aside from providing insurance benefits for work-related accidents and strike activity, the Rusyn National Union was also active in promoting schools for young people and adults as well as in publishing books and newspapers to promote a sense of national identity among its members. The identity it promoted was initially uncertain, however. This was evident in the manner it translated into English the term ruskii in its official name, Ruskii narodnyi soiuz. It began as the Russian National

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Union (1894), changed to the Little Russian National Union (1900), then the Ruthenian National Union (1911), and finally became the Ukrainian National Association (1914). Along with the name changes came the conviction that Ukrainians formed a distinct nationality and that the term Rusyn was just an older name for a people that should henceforth be designated as Ukrainian. These views have been promoted to the present-day by the Ukrainian National Association's numerous publications and newspapers, including the Ukrainian-language Svoboda (1893-) and The Ukrainian Weekly (1933-). The Rusyn National Union's adoption of the Ukrainian national orientation in the first decade of the twentieth century alienated some of its early Lemko founders and discouraged other Lemko immigrants, who as a result joined "Russian" and Orthodox-oriented fraternals. While some Ukrainianoriented Lemkos from the post-World War II era have joined the Ukrainian National Association, the Lemko presence is quite limited. Further reading: Luka Myshuha, ed., Propamiatna knyha vydana z nahody soroklitn 'oho iuvyleiu Ukrains 'koho Narodnoho Soiuzu (Jersey City, N.J., 1936); Myron Kuropas, Ukrainian-American Citadel: The First One Hundred Years of the Ukrainian National Association (Boulder, Colo., 1996). BOGDAN HORBAL PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Rusyn Outpost: North America. See Internet Rusyn People's Commissariat — formal governing structure in Rus'ka Krai'na after Hungary came under Soviet rule, led by Bela Kun (March 21, 1919). The Rusyn People's Commissariat evolved from the Rusyn Ministry that functioned since late December 1918 under Hungary's previous government of Mihaly Karoly. The vice-chairman, or governor of *Rus'ka Krai'na's Governing Council, Avhustyn/Agoston *Shtefan, was renamed "national commissar." His authority was limited, however, to *Bereg, *Ugocha/Ugocsa, and part of *Ung counties, since the rest of Rusyn territory was at the time under the control of either the Czechoslovak (in the west) or the Romanian (in the east) military. The work of the Rusyn People's Commissariat was even further limited by the fact that Soviet Hungary's radical government, the Directory in Budapest together with its representatives in Mukachevo and Berehovo, did not recognize the autonomous status of Rus'ka Krai'na nor the authority of its People's Commissariat. All complaints lodged by the national commissar Shtefan to the Soviet government in Budapest were ignored. Finally, on May 17,1919, the recently-formed representative body for "Soviet" Rus'ka Krai'na, the so-called Governing Council/Uriadova rada Rus'koi Krai'ny, abolished the Rusyn People's Commissariat. IVAN POP

Rusyn Radio Service. See Radio and Television Rusyn Red Guard. See Rus'ka Kraina

Rusyn Renaissance Society/Rusyn'ska obroda — civic and cultural organization representing the Rusyns of Slovakia. The Rusyn Renaissance Society was founded in Medzilaborce in early 1990, but before the end of the year moved its headquarters to Presov. It attracted members of the *Cultural Union of Ukrainian Workers (KSUT) and others opposed to what they considered the forced imposition of a Ukrainian identity upon the Rusyn population by Czechoslovakia's pre-1989 Communist regime. Although based in Presov, the organization has branches in several towns in northeastern Slovakia and in the country's capital, Bratislava. Its founding chairman (1990-1994, 1996-1999) was Vasyl' *Turok-Hetes. The organization set as its goals the recognition of Rusyns as a distinct nationality; the codification of the Rusyn language; and the use of that language in schools, the press, theater, radio, and television. It publishes in Rusyn a weekly newspaper, *Narodny novynky; a bi-monthly magazine, *Rusyn; and a series of books, including original literary works and textbooks. The organization has sponsored international scholarly conferences on Rusyn culture and two congresses of the Rusyn language (1992, 1999) and it was instrumental in creating an Institute ofRusyn Language and Culture (1992-1995), which eventually evolved into a division (1999) at Presov University. The Rusyn Renaissance Society organized the first (1991) and seventh (2003) *World Congress of Rusyns and it continues to promote ties among Rusyns in all countries where they live; it is also an executive member of the Maison de Pays, an organization of stateless peoples based in France. Since 1999, the Slovak government has recognized the Rusyn Renaissance Society as the representative organization for Rusyns in Slovakia. Further reading: Paul Robert Magocsi, "Rusyn Renaissance Society (Rusyn'ska Obroda)," Carpatho-Rusyn American, XVII, 4 (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1994), pp. 4-7; Slavka HaduSovska, "Rusinska a ukrajinska menSina v procesoch spolocenskej transformacie," in Alena Zel'ova, ed., Minoritne etnicke spolocenstva na Slovensku v procesoch spolocenskych premien (Bratislava, 1994), pp. 108-123; Aleksander Zozuliak, "Snazhinia Rusyn'skoi obrody i ikh redaksii o rusyn'skoho iazyka, e'ho vyuzhytia i dal'shyi rozvytok," in Rusyn skyi literaturnyi almanakh: iubileinyi rikAleksandra Dukhnovicha 2003 (Presov, 2003), pp. 122-126. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Rusyn Scholarly and Enlightenment Society. See Makara, Mykola

Rusyn Scholarly Institute in Hungary. See

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Organization of Rusyns in Hungary; Popovych, Tibor Miklosh Rusyn Sector — territorial division of the Polish Workers' (Communist) party covering part of the Lemko Region during World War II. The Rusyn Sector (Polish: Dzielnica Ruska) was structurally part of the Subcarpathian Circle (Polish: Okr^g Podkarpacki) of the Polish Workers' (""Communist) party, which from February 1942 was responsible for political and military activity in what is the southeastern corner of present-day Poland. The Subcarpathian Circle itself was initially headed by a Lemko, Stefan Pejko; its military structure, which was part of the People's Guard/Gwardia Ludowa was also led by *Lemkos: Hryhorii *Vodzik, Ivan Donskii, and Mykhal *Donskii. The Rusyn Sector consisted of party committees set up in at least fourteen villages in the central *Lemko Region (Gorlice and Jaslo districts). By the end of 1942 the sector's military unit, Freedom Fighters/Bortsy za svobodu, numbered more than a hundred partisans. A year later it was three times larger, mostly made up of Lemkos from Poland and other Rusyns (from the *Presov Region). The Lemko Communist partisans, who cooperated with Polish, Soviet, and Slovak partisan units, maintained radio contact with the Soviet underground central command, attacked German convoys and military objects, sabotaged industrial enterprises, and eliminated Nazi administrators and collaborating Ukrainians. The Lemko partisans lost about one-third of their forces in military clashes and another third when, in the summer of 1943, a hundred people were arrested by Nazi authorities. After the arrival of the Soviet Army in mid-1944, the Rusyn Sector together with the Lemko Communist military underground was disbanded. Further reading: Mykhayl S. Donskyi, "Bor'ba s okupantom na Lemkovshchyni," in Nykolai Tsysliak, ed., Karpatorusskyi kalendar Lemko-Soiuza 1960 (Yonkers, N. Y., 1960), pp. 67-86; Andrzej Daszkiewicz, Ruch oporu w regionie Eeskidu Niskiego: 1939-1944 (Warsaw, 1975); Jaroslaw Zwolihski, Lemkowie w obronie wlasnej: zdarzenia, fakty, tragedie— wspomnienia z Podkarpacia (Koszalin, 1996). BOGDAN HORBAL

Rusyn Small Farmers' (Agricultural) party/ Rus'ka khliborobska (zemlediFska) partiia — po litical party during the period of Czechoslovak rule. Founded in 1920, the party was based on democratic principles an called for the implementation of *autonomy; "the unification into a single province of all Rusyns living south of the Carpathians between the Poprad River [in eastern Slovakia] and the Tisza/Tysa River [in far eastern Subcarpathian Rus']; and the development of our native Rusyn [rus 'kyi] language, which should be the language of schools and governmental administration." *Ukrainophile in orientation, the party was

headed by Andrii Tovt (1920-1923) and Mykhailo *Brashchaiko (1923-1925); among its leading activists were Avhustyn *Voloshyn, lulii *Brashchaiko, and Pavlo latsko. Its official organ was the newspaper *Rus 'ka nyva (1920-1924). The Rusyn Small Farmers' (Agricultural) party entered candidates in local elections (1923) and in the 1924 election to the Czechoslovak parliament. It did not gain a sufficient number of votes, however, to gain a parliamentary seat. In 1925 the party was reorganized and renamed the *Christian People's party/Khrystyians'ko-narodna partiia. Further reading: Mykhailo Delehan, "Nashi Rusyny maizhe vsi kolo zemli: Rus'ka khliborobs'ka (zemlerobs'ka) partiia na Zakarpatti," Karpats'kyi krai, V, 9-12 [112] (Uzhhorod, 1995), pp. 68-71. IVAN POP

Rusyn Society. See Hadzhega, Vasylii; Voloshyn, Avhustyn Rusyn Sports Association/Sportske druzhtvo "Rusin" — one of the oldest sports associations in Yugoslavia, founded in 1923. Based in Ruski Kerestur, virtually all the players are Rusyns. By its very name, the association's teams have come to represent the Rusyn nationality in competition throughout Yugoslavia. Of particular importance has been its soccer team, which since 1934 has been a leading contender for championships. The Rusyn Sports Association also has men's teams in handball, waterpolo, gymnastics, hockey, basketball, riflery, horse-riding, karate, and chess; and women's teams in track and field, handball, and gymnastics. Rusyn-Ukrainian — term used by Ukrainophile and some Ukrainian writers and state officials to describe the East Slavic (Rusyn) inhabitants of ""Carpathian Rus'. This hybrid term was never used by the people whom it is intended to describe. It seems that Rusyn-Ukrainian was first used in the *Presov Region in the wake of Czechoslovakia's Prague Spring of 1968. During those few months of attempts to liberalize Communist rule in Czechoslovakia, there were widespread calls to allow official use of the traditional ethnonym Rusyn, which since 1950 was banned by the authorities in favor o the ethnonym Ukrainian, the only term allowed to designate the nationality and language of East Slavs in the Presov Region. In response to the "democratic will of the people," in 1968 local *Ukrainophile ideologists began to use the term, Rusyn-Ukrainian, arguing all the while that the name Rusyn does not designate a distinct people/nationality, but is simply an older form of the modern ethnonym Ukrainian. In the wake of the Rusyn national revival that began in earnest after 1989, Ukrainophile spokespersons in all area of "Carpathian Rus' adopted the term Rusyn-Ukrainian which appears in the names of several Ukrainian-oriented

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cultural and civic organizations. The post-1991 government of independent Ukraine has also adopted Rusyn-Ukrainian (in some cases Ukrainian-Rusyn) to describe Carpatho-Rusyns within its own borders (Transcarpathia/ *Subcarpathian Rus'), in neighboring countries, and in the emigration (Vojvodina, North America). In the recent censuses (2001-2002) conducted in each country where Rusyns live, including Ukraine, the term Rusyn-Ukrainian was not recognized (to the chagrin of local Ukrainophiles) as a distinct nationality category, with the result that there are separate figures for persons who identified as Rusyn and those who identified as Ukrainian. Further reading: Mikulas §tec, Rusini ci ukrajinci? (Presov, 1997); Mikulag Musinka, Rusini-Ukrajinci—jedna ndrodnost' (PreSov, 1992). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Rusynskyi svit/Ruszin vildg. See Rusyn Minority SelfGovernment Rusynskyi zhyvot/Ruszin elet — bi-monthly newspaper/magazine published in Budapest (1994-99) as the official organ of the * Organization of Rusyns in Hungary. Rusynskyi zhyvot was the first Rusyn periodical to appear in Hungary since World War I. Its executive editor was Gabriel *Hattinger. Most of its articles were in Hungarian, although a few in each issue appear in Rusyn. The main goal of Rusynskyi zhyvot was to inform Hungarian-reading Rusyns and the Hungarian public at large about Rusyn history, culture, and current Rusyn-related events in Hungary, as well as about Rusyns in other countries, particularly in Ukraine's Transcarpathian region (*Subcarpathian Rus'). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Rusyniak, VasyP. See Dukhnovych Theater Rusyn State Teachers'Academy. See Presov Greek Catholic Teachers' College

Ruszin elet. See Rusynskyi zhyvot Ruszin vildg. See Rusyn Minority Self-Government

Rusyn Theater. See Prosvita Society

Ruszka Krajna. See Rus'ka Krai'na

Rusynko, Ivan. See Museum of Ukrainian-Rus' Culture in Svidnik; Naukovyi zbirnyk Muzeiu ukra'ins 'koi kul'tury u Svidnyku

Ruthenia. See Rusyn

Rusynophiles — persons of Rusyn, or Carpatho-Rusyn, ethnolinguistic background who believe that their people comprise a distinct nationality. Rusynophiles are usually described as representing the "third" orientation, in juxtaposition to *Russophiles and *Ukrainophiles, who argue that Rusyns are only a branch of either the Russian or Ukrainian nationality. As part of the conviction that Rusyns form a distinct people, many (but not all) Rusynophiles believe they should have their own literary language. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Rusyns 'ka bysida. See Petrovtsii, Ivan Rusyn'ska obroda. See Rusyn Renaissance Society

Rusynske men'shynove samoupravlenie. See Rusyn Minority Self-Government

Rusyns'ke naukovo-osvitn'oho tovarystva. See Makara, Mykola Rusynskii demokratychnyi kruh Lemkiv v Pol'shchy "Hospodar." See Hospodar Civic Circle of Lemkos in Poland

Ruthenian. See Rusin/The Ruthenian; Rusyn/Rusin/ Ruthenian Ruthenian — name often used as an equivalent in English for the ethnonym Rusyn. Among its analogues in other nonSlavic European languages are Ruthener in German, ruthene in French, ruten in Italian, and ruten in Hungarian. The English form, Ruthenian, is derived from the Latin Ruthenus (plural: Rutheni) used since the early medieval period to describe the Eastern Christian population living in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (present-day Belarus and Ukraine) and the Hungarian Kingdom (present-day eastern Slovakia and the Transcarpathian oblast of Ukraine). Because of its Latin origin and ties to the Roman Catholic world, Orthodox Rusyns have generally rejected the term Ruthenian and prefer to use the term Carpatho-Russian, or simply Russian as an Englishlanguage equivalent of Rusyn. The lands inhabited by Rusyns have at times been designated Ruthenia in English-language and or western European sources; hence the province of *Subcarpathian Rus' may be designated as Subcarpathian Ruthenia, or simply Ruthenia. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Ruthenian Catholic Exarchate. See Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic Church in the USA Rychalka, Mykhailo/Ric'alka, Michal (b. July 18, 1928, Nizna Jablonka [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — pro-

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture fessor, historian, and cultural activist of Ukrainian national orientation among the Rusyns of northeastern Slovakia. Rychalka completed his education at the *Presov Greek Catholic Teachers' Seminary (1947), the Pedagogical Faculty of the Slovak University in Presov (1954), and the Advanced School of Education in Bratislava (1958). He taught in elementary schools in several Rusyn villages (1948-1950) and at the Russian gymnasium in Humenne (1951-1953). From 1954 to 1990 he taught at the Department of Pedagogy of Safarik University in Presov, where he held the rank of associate professor (docent, 1962), kandidat nauk (1972), and professor (1990). He was also a long-time activist in the *Cultural Union of Ukrainian Workers (KSUT), for which he was chosen chairman (1962-1964) and founding editor (1972-1989) of its scholarly journal, Zapysky/Naukovi zapysky. In the post-Communist era Rychalka helped to restore the interwar Aleksander *Dukhnovych Society in Presov, for which he became chairman (1990-) and editor of its Ukrainian-language newspaper, Holos Karpat (1992- ). He has tried to unite in this organization both *Ukrainophile- and *Russophile-oriented Rusyns.

Rychalka has published widely on the nineteenth-century national awakener, Aleksander *Dukhnovych, with particular emphasis on his pedagogical activity: O. V. Dukhnovych: pedahoh i osvitnii diiach (1959). He was also editor-in-chief of a scholarly edition of the first two volumes of Dukhnovych's works, Tvory (1967-68). Rychalka's other studies focus on the history of schools, the student movement, and student publications among the Rusyns of Slovakia in the twentieth century. All of his writings treat the Rusyns as a branch of the Ukrainian nationality. Further reading: Ernest Sykora, "luvilei pedahoha i vchenoho: z pryvodu 60-richchia profesora Mykhaila Rychalky," Duklia, XXXVI, 5(PreSov, 1988), pp. 71-73. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Rychwald Gospel. See Literature, Early manuscripts Rymlianyn. See Malyniak, Mykolai Rymut, Kazimierz. See Historiography: Lemko Region

S

Sabados, Julian/Sabadosh, luliian (b. February 5, 1941, Ruski Kerestur [Vajdasag, Hungary], Serbia) — businessman and civic activist among the Vojvodinian Rusyns in Canada. Sabados studied at the School of Technology in Novi Sad (1955-1959), and after working for a few years in Yugoslavia he emigrated to Germany (1964) and then to Canada (1967). He settled in Kitchener, Ontario, where he established a machinery company, Rapid Gear (1976), which allowed him to assist with jobs Rusyn newcomers to Canada from the *Vojvodina. To help maintain cohesion among Canada's Vojvodinian Rusyns Sabados established the * Rusyn Association of North America/Ruske druzhtvo Siveraei Ameriki, of which he is founding president (1996- ).

After the fall of *Carpatho-Ukraine, Sabol was arrested by the Hungarians and expelled to Slovakia (1939), where he headed the Basilian Order based in Medzilaborce. With the onset of Communist rule in 1948 he fled to the West, studied in Rome (Th.D., Pontifical Gregorian University, 1950), then in 1951 emigrated to the United States. Among his publications are an historical survey of Subcarpathian Rus' from a Ukrainian perspective written under the pseudonym lurii Borzhava, Vid Uhors 'hoi Rusy do Karpats 'ko'i Ukrai'ny (1956), and an autobiographical account of the Greek Catholic Church in Subcarpathian Rus' and the * Presov Region until its elimination in 1949-1950, Holhota hreko-katolyts 'koitserkvy v Chekhoslovachchyni (1978).

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Further reading: Nadiia Ferents, "Stepan Sabol iak sviashchenyk i poet," in Ivan Hranchak, ed., Uzhhorods'kii Unii—350 rokiv (Uzhhorod, 1997), pp. 156-167; Vasyl' Khoma, "Taiemnytsi poetychnoT tvorchosti Zoreslava," in idem, Rozvytok rusyns 'koipoeziiv Slovachchyni vid 20-kh do 90-kh rokiv XXstolittia (Presov, 2000), pp. 21 -45; Nadiia Ferents, "Poetychnyi khram Zoreslava," Carpatica/ Karpatyka, VII (Uzhhorod, 2000), pp. 187-208.

Sabadosok. See Slobodnyky Sabol, Sevastiian (pseudonyms: Zoreslav, lurii Borzhava) (b. Shtefan Sabol, December 7, 1909, Presov [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. February 19,2003, Detroit, Michigan, USA) — priest, poet, and seminary professor of Ukrainian national orientation in the Presov Region and Subcarpathian Rus'. Sabol entered the *Basilian Order under the name Sevastiian at the *Mukachevo Monastery of St. Nicholas (1924). From there he was sent to Galicia to complete his religious formation at several Basilian monastic schools, then to the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome. After ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1931) he settled in *Subcarpathian Rus'. Sabol published his first verses in 1922-1923 in the children's journal, Svitd'itej, issued by the *Greek Catholic Union of Rusyn Brotherhoods in the USA. At that time he was of *Russophile national orientation. It was only under the influence of Basilian Ukrainian emigre monks at the Mukachevo St. Nicholas Monastery that he gradually adopted a Ukrainian national identity and in 1928 began to write in Ukrainian. His first collections of poetry, published under the pseudonym Zoreslav—Zi sertsem n rukakh (1933) and Sontse i blakyt' (1936)—were filled with love of his native Carpathians and fervent Ukrainian nationalist feeling. He continued to promote a Ukrainian understanding of Rusyn religious history and culture while professor (1936-1938) at the Greek Catholic Theological Seminary in Uzhhorod, editor (1936-1939) of Mukachevo's eparchial magazine *Blahovistnyk, and during the period of Carpatho-Ukrainian autonomy (1938-1939) as secretary to the eparchy's apostolic administrator and chaplain to the *Carpathian Sich military force.

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Sabov, Feofan. See Orthodox Eparchy of MukachevoUzhhorod Sabov, levmenii, Evmenii/Szabo, Eumen (pseudonym: E. Ivanov) (b. October 1, 1859, Verbiazh [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. November 3, 1934, Vynohradovo/ Sevliush [Czechoslovakia], Ukraine) — priest, teacher, and cultural activist of Rusyn orientation. Sabov is a descendent of Rusyn patriots: his uncle was the well-known pedagogue Kyryl *Sabov, his godfather the historian Ivan *Dulishkovych. Sabov attended gymnasia in Uzhhorod, Presov, and Levoca (1870-1877) before completing the Uzhhorod Theological Seminary (1877-1881). After ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1885) he served for a short while the parish of Ardanovo before being appointed an instructor (1887-1898) of Rusyn language at the Uzhhorod gymnasium. Sabov was active in Rusyn national affairs as a leading member of the *St. Basil the Great Society and an organizer of the *Unio Publishing Company. He wrote several widely used textbooks, including a grammar, Russkaia grammatika i chitanka k izucheniiu literaturnago iazyka ugro-russkikh (1890), and the literary anthology, Khristomatiia tserkovnoslavianskikh i ugro-russkikh literaturnykh pamiatnikov: s pribavleniem ugro-russkikh narodnykh skazok napodlinnykh nariechiiakh (1893). The latter work remained for many years the only source for the study of Carpatho-Rusyn literature.

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture For magyarized Greek Catholic priests Sabov published in Hungarian a textbook of *Church Slavonic, Egyhdzi-szldv nyelvtan (1894). From 1898 until his death he served as the Greek Catholic parish priest in Sevliush (today Vynohradovo), and from 1917 he was archdeacon for *Ugocha/Ugocsa county. Sabov was one of the first activists to call for a distinct cultural development for Rusyns that would not be dependent on either Russian or Ukrainian culture, a thesis he spelled out in Ocherk literaturnoi dieiatel'nosti i obrazovaniia ugrorusskikh (1893). During the period of Czechoslovak rule after World War I he opposed the use of both the Russian and Ukrainian languages for Rusyn cultural life. Sabov preferred a not yet fully formed literary language which, as he said, Rusyn writers "from *Dukhnovych to Popradov" had used. This was the "traditional Carpatho-Rusyn language" which in fact was a Subcarpathian variant of the Russian language. In the course of the sharp conflicts between local *Russophiles and *Ukrainophiles, the Grammatika russkago iazyka dlia srednikh uchebnykh zavedenii Podkarpatskoi Rusi (1924) was published under his name, although it was in fact a grammar of the Russian literary language authored by the Russian emigre teacher in Mukachevo, Aleksandr Grigor'ev. Sabov himself published numerous articles on Rusyn themes in local newspapers (1922-27) under the pseudonym E. Ivanov. He also wrote memoirs covering the earlier decades of his life ("Vospominaniia," 1922-26), as well as a general history of Rusyn literature (Ocherk literaturnoi dieiatel'nosti i obrazovaniia karpatorossov, 1925). Sabov played an active role in the *Dukhnovych Society, of which he was honorary chairman (1923-1934). He argued that there "is no place for Muscophilism, and even less so for Ukrainianism" in the Dukhnovych Society, whose very name symbolized its Rusynness. Sabov's neutral stance enraged extremists, among whom was a *Ukrainophile who made an attempt on his life in June 1930. Further reading: Aleksandr V. Popov, Evmenii Ivanovich Sabov: kritiko-biograficheskii ocherkzhizni i dieiatel'nosti (Uzhhorod, 1929); Georgii Gerovskii, "Evmenii Sabov i ego dieiatel'nost' v oblasti prepodavaniia russkago iazyka na Karpatskoi Rusi," Russkaia shkola, II, 2-3 (Prague, 1935), pp. 83-85; Stepan Popovych, Do 60-li'tiia od dnia smerty Evmeniia Sabova—yzvistnoho obshchestvenoho diiatylia nashoho kraia ta 100-litiia eho Khrestomatii (Mukachevo, 1994). IVAN POP

Sabov, Kyryl/Szabo, Cyrill (b. August 28,1838, Stavne [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. February 10,1914, Kosice [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia) — teacher, publicist, and editor. Sabov completed his studies at the Uzhhorod gymnasium, the academy in Satu Mare, and the Central Theological Seminary in Vienna (1857-1860), where he also attended lectures about Slavic languages at the university. He served

as instructor (1862-1872) of Russian language, history, and geography at the Uzhhorod gymnasium, and he prepared several Russian-language textbooks, including the Grammatika pis 'mennago russkago iazyka (1865) and an anthology of literature, Kratkii sbornik izbrannykh sochinenii v prozie i stikhakh dlia uprazhnenii v russkom iazykie (1868). The anthology was exclusively composed of works by classic Russian authors from Zhukovskii to Turgenev. At the Uzhhorod gymnasium Sabov organized a drama club, for which he translated plays by German authors. For fellow teachers he published a series of readers, narodnoe chtenie, in which two titles by Anatolii *Kralyts'kyi appeared (Piavitsa and Ivan, 1869). He also played an active role in the *St. Basil the Great Society and served for a short time as its director (1870-1871). Sabov was editor (1867-1869) of *Svit, the first newspaper for Rusyns published in * Subcarpathian Rus'. The paper was critical of local *magyarones, in particular the Greek Catholic bishop of Mukachevo, Shtefan *Pankovych, who succeeded in having Sabov removed as editor. Sabov then contributed to the satirical newspaper, *Sova (1871), which for a brief period continued the struggle against magyarone national assimilators. The bishop responded by having Sabov removed from Uzhhorod altogether. In the 1870s he taught at the state gymnasium at Szeged in southern Hungary, where he also began to study the South Slavic languages. In 1879 he returned for health reasons to Mukachevo and eventually to Kosice. During the last decades of his life Sabov followed closely cultural developments in Subcarpathian Rus', expressing praise for the Russian-language journals *Listok and Dodatok do Listka, but scorn for the Rusyn-language newspaper, *Nauka. Further reading: Kalman Kiss, "Adalekok a XIX szazadi Karpataljai russzofilizmus tortenetehez: Szabo Cyrill es tevekenysege," Studia Slavica Savariensis, I, 2 (Szombathely, 1992), pp. 79-86. IVAN POP

Sabov, Orest/Szabo, Oreszt (b. 1867, Drahovo [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. 194?) — lawyer and government official ofRusyn origin in Hunagary. After graduating from the law faculty of Budapest University Sabov served as a judge in Besztercze-Naszod county. In 1902 he became chairman of the Union of Hungarian Greek Catholics, which promoted Hungarian state patriotism and the national assimilation of the kingdom's non-Magyar peoples. In 1913 he was appointed state secretary in Hungary's Ministry of the Interior, for which he wrote an informative volume about his people, A magyar oroszokrol (ruthenek) (1913), based primarily on the writings of lurii *Zhatkovych, Tivadar *Lehoczky, and Istvan *Szeman. During World War I, Sabov served as the government's representative to the General Staff of the Austro-Hungarian imperial army. After the disintegration of Austria-Hungary and the creation

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of an independent Hungarian state Sabov made every effort to keep Rusyn-inhabited lands south of the Carpathians within Hungary. In early December 1918 he was named minister for the newly created *Rus'ka Krai'na, and on December 10 he convened a Rusyn National Congress in Budapest. Lacking any concrete or realistic program, the congress proved a failure. With the coming to power of the Communist regime in Hungary in March 1919, Sabov declined an offer to remain the minister of Rus'ka Krai'na. Thereafter, he played no role in Rusyn affairs until publishing a short essay about the *autonomy question, "ARuszinfold autonomiajarol" (1939), just after Hungary reannexed Subcarpathian Rus'. IVAN POP

Sabov/Szabo, Simeon (b. October 18,1863, Velykyi Rakovets' [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. March 1,1929, Uzhhorod [Czechoslovakia], Ukraine)—priest, seminary professor, and civic activist of Russophile orientation. Sabov completed his studies at the gymnasia in Mukachevo and Uzhhorod and at the Uzhhorod Theological Seminary (1885), after which he was ordained a Greek Catholic priest (1887). He served a few years as a parish priest in Horinchovo (*Maramorosh county), then after the death of his wife continued his theological studies at the Augustine Seminary in Vienna (1890-1894, 1894). He taught the fundamentals of Christian faith at the gymnasium in Sighet (1894-1896) before being sent to the United States as a missionary priest among Rusyn immigrants, serving for three years (1896-1899) in one of the Greek Catholic parishes in Cleveland, Ohio. During that time he prepared a petition to the pope calling for the appointment of a Greek Catholic bishop for Rusyn Americans. After returning to Europe in 1907 he was appointed professor of dogmatics and philosophy and pro-rector of the Uzhhorod Theological Seminary. He was raised to the post of canon (1914) of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo and was a member (1915) of the abortive Greek Catholic Parish Committee entrusted with completing the magyarization ofRusyns. After the disintegration of Austria-Hungary Sabov worked on behalf of maintaining the territorial integrity of Hungary, and to that end he founded and became chairman of the Rusyn National Council in Uzhhorod (November 1918). After the Communists came to power in Hungary (March 1919) Sabov favored the idea ofRusyn unity with Czechoslovakia. In 1923 he was elected an honorary member of the *Dukhnovych Society, to which he donated 40,000 crowns (1926) in order to create a Rusyn literary fund and two student scholarships. Sabov also published several works, mostly on theological subjects. MYKHAILO ALMASHII IVAN POP

Sadovs'kyi, Mykola. See Ukrainians

Safranko, Ivan Nestor. See Shafranko, Ihor Nestor St. Alexis. See Toth, Alexis St. Barbara Church. See Barbareum St. Basil the Great. See Basilian Order St. Basil the Great Society/Obshchestvo sv. Vasiliia Velikago — educational and enlightenment society of Russophile orientation in Subcarpathian Rus'. The organization traces its origins to the Theological Society (Hittani Tarsulat) at the Uzhhorod Theological Seminary, which in 1864 submitted a request to the *Habsburg government to confirm the statute for a new organization to be known as the Literary Society of Subcarpathian Sons of the Eastern Catholic Church. The request was confirmed, but by the time the organization began to function in 1866, the political leader Adol'f *Dobrians'kyi had become co-chairman and renamed it the Society of St. Basil the Great. Dobrians'kyi took as his model the Slovak Cultural Foundation/Matica slovenska, and he attracted to the new society 350 numbers. By 1870 membership had grown to 700. Based in Uzhhorod, the main task of the St. Basil Society was to provide Rusyn- and Hungarian-language textbooks for schools in the Greek Catholic eparchies of Mukachevo and Presov, to publish books of a religious nature, and to issue a newspaper. In 1867 the society sponsored the first newspaper for Rusyns to be printed in *Carpathian Rus', *Svit, and in the same year it took over publication of the annual Rusyn almanac, *Misiatsoslov (1867-1889). In 1870 the pro-Hungarian bishop of Mukachevo, Shtefan *Pankovych, accused the society's newspaper of "dangerous tendencies." In the following year the bishop had Svit closed down and replaced by *Novyi svit. That newspaper also seemed too *Russophile in orientation; it was terminated in 1872 and replaced by *Karpat (1873-86). The attacks on the society's newspapers were part of Bishop Pankovych's campaign, launched in earnest in 1871, to re move Dobrians'kyi and his co-chairman loann *Rakovs'kyi and replace them with priests loyal to the Hungarian state idea. Pankovych was successful in these efforts, so that in 1872 the society "elected" as its chairman the landlord Sandor Nehrebeczky and a minor local activist, Georgii Markosh, who could not even speak Rusyn. The bishop also liquidated the society's fund intended to build a Rus' National Center/ Narodnyi dom (by 1871 it had collected 5,500 guldens), sold the temporary building it had purchased, and returned the monies to the society's budget. At its eighth congress, held in 1873, the participants discussed proposals to change the St. Basil Society's name and to have it publish more books in Hungarian. Neither change occurred; nevertheless, the

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St. Cyril. See Constantine/Cyril the Philosopher St. Germain. See Treaty of St. Germain St. John the Baptist Society/Obshchestvo sv. loanna Krestitelia — educational and civic society for Rusyns in the Presov Region established in 1862. The St. John the Baptist Society came into being as a result of political changes in the Austrian Empire, including the failure of neoabsolutist policies implemented following the defeat of the *Habsburgs in Italy (1859). In the new political atmosphere the Rusyn patriotic intelligentsia anticipated and hoped for freer possibilities for their cultural and national development. The idea to create a Rusyn organization originally came from Aleksander *Pavlovych; it was then picked up by Aleksander *Dukhnovych, who was able to attract the support of the Greek Catholic bishop of Presov, losyf *Gaganets'. The society's charter was drawn up in Budapest by the Rusyn activists Adol'f *Dobrians'kyi and Antonii Rubii; Rubii was at the time secretary to the representative of the king in Hungary.

Dobrians'kyi and Rubii were elected respectively chairman and vice-chairman of the new organization. Based in Presov, the goal of the St. John the Baptist Society was to "educate Rusyn youth for the future welfare of the national movement and revival." The society had about 400 members. These included the leading national activists and patriotic teachers and priests in the *Presov Region as well as several Rusyn villages, which joined as collective members. Also among the members were a number of local Slovak national activists and well-known civic and intellectual leaders in the Russian Empire (Mikhail F. *Raevskii, Vladimir Lamanskii, G.V. Slavianskii), who provided financial aid and who systematically sent Russian books and journals to the library set up in Presov by Aleksander Dukhnovych. In 1864, the society established a student dormitory (the Alumneum) in Presov and organized several student societies, and in 1867 it decided to create the Aleksander Dukhnovych Fund to assist talented but poor Rusyn students. The society also provided loans (at first interest free and later at a 7-8 percent interest rate) to impoverished Rusyn villages. For a while it even provided an organizational basis for Adol'f Dobrians'kyi's political work and his candidacy for deputy to the Hungarian parliament. The popularity of the St. John the Baptist Society encouraged Rusyn leaders in Uzhhorod to establish the *St. Basil the Great Society (1866). After the deaths of Aleksander Dukhnovych (1865) and, in particular, of its chief benefactor Bishop Gaganets' (1875), the activity of the St. John the Baptist Society was restricted during the episcopates (1876-1918) of bishops Nykolai Tovt, loann Valyi, and Shtefan Novak, all of whom supported Budapest's policy of magyarization and national assimilation of Rusyns. During this period the society lost its juridical independence, and in 1911 the eparchial chancery in Presov even tried to abolish the organization. This proposal was rejected, however. The St. John the Baptist Society survived the collapse of Austria-Hungary and even experienced a revival of its activity as a result of support provided after 1927 by the new bishop of Presov, Pavel *Goidych. But the Communist regime, which came to power in Czechoslovakia in 1948, soon after abolished the St. John the Baptist Society. In 2004, at the initiative of Rusyn-oriented Greek Catholic priests in the Presov Region, the society was reestablished in Medzilaborce as an organization serving the cultural and religious needs of Greek Catholics, but legally independent of the Eparchy of Presov. Further reading: Olena Rudlovchak et al., "Obshchestvo 'Sv. loanna Krestitelia i Predtechi' v Priashevi," Karpats 'kyi svit, I (Presov, 1993), pp. 4-62. IVAN POP

St. Maksym. See Sandovych, Maksym

St. Nicholas dominium/estate. See Mukachevo-

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Chynadiievo estate St. Nicholas Monastery. See Mukachevo Monastery of St. Nicholas St. Nicholas Printshop. See Printing and Publishing St. Onufrius Monastery. See lablochyn Monastery of St. Onufrius St. Tikhon's Orthodox Monastery. See Russian Orthodox Church in North America Sts. Cyril and Methodius Byzantine Catholic Seminary. See Greek Catholic Union; Pekar, Athanasius B.

Sak, lurii (b. May 7, 1917, Brid [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. August 4, 1998, Uzhhorod, Ukraine) — pedagogue, Latinist, translator, and bibliophile in Subcarpathian Rus'. After completing the gymnasium in Uzhhorod (19281936) Sak studied Latin at Charles University in Prague (1936-1939) and at the University of Debrecen (1939-1940) in Hungary. He taught Latin during the war years at the Uzhhorod gymnasium and from 1946 at Uzhhorod State University. He was subsequently awarded the degree ofkandidat nauk from Kiev State University (1956). Sak continued to teach Latin and to publish studies in classical philology although these subjects were not popular in the postwar Soviet Union. He also compiled a catalog of pre-1500 printed books held in the Uzhhorod University Library, Inkunabuly biblioteky Uzhhorods 'koho derzhavnoho universytetu (1974). Sak's most important contribution to Carpatho-Rusyn studies was his discovery of the "lost" six volume manuscript history of Rusyns by Mykhai'l *Luchkai, written in the 1840s, and his decision to decipher the entire text and publish it with a parallel Ukrainian translation. His translation of Luchkai's first volume appeared in 1983 in th *Naukovyizbirnykofthe *Museum of Ukrainian-Rus' Culture in Svidnik, Slovakia; the next five volumes were translated by a group of Latinists under Sak's direction. Further reading: I. Bahlai and M. Oros, "lurii Sak," in Vasyl' V. Turianytsia, ed., Pedahohy-naukovtsi, Vol. II (Uzhhorod, 2000) pp 97-102. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Sakach, Simeon. See Ukrainians

Sakhanev, Vsevolod Vasilevich (b. April 20, 1885, levpatoriia [Crimea, Russian Empire], Ukraine; d. December 1, 1940, Prague [Czechoslovakia], Czech Republic) — Rus-

sian emigre professor and art historian in Czechoslovakia. Sakhanev studied archeology and Russian history at St. Petersburg University. At the end of the civil war in Russia he emigrated abroad, eventually settling in Prague (1924), where he became an associate professor (docent, 1925) at the emigre Russian National University. He played an active role in Russian emigre life in Czechoslovakia, where he was a member of the Russian Historical Society and Russian Historical Archive Abroad. While in Czechoslovakia Sakhanev directed most of his scholarly work toward the study of church architecture and Rusyn folk art in * Subcarpathian Rus'. His publications took the form of several relatively short articles that appeared in Prague in the Russian-language journal, Tsentral'naia Evropa, on topics such as Rusyn traditional dress (1932), stone church architecture (1932), sculptural elements in wooden church architecture (1932), the decorative arts (1934), folkloric elements in icon painting (1934), folksongs (1936), and remnants of pagan folk beliefs (1937) in Subcarpathian Rus'. Among his more substantive studies is an analysis of marginal notes in church books found in Rusyn villages ("Novyi karpatorusskii epigraficheskii material," 1932) and a discussion o eastern and western cultural influences in Carpatho-Rusyn iconography ("Ostliche und westliche Einfliisse in der karpatorussischen Ikonen-malerei," 1933). IVAN POP

Salamon, Silvester (b. August 5,1912, Berkasovo [Hungarian Kingdom], Serbia; d. January 21, 1988, Burbank California, USA) — priest and belletrist among the Vojvodinian Rusyns. A native of the Srem region just south of the Vojvodina, Salamon studied in Croatia, where he completed the classical gymnasium in Zagreb (1925-1933), and then in what was at the time Poland at the Greek Catholic Theological Academy in Lviv (1933-1936). He was ordained a Greek Catholic priest (1937) and returned to Yugoslavia, where he served in several Greek Catholic parishes, including his native village of Berkasovo (1943-1953). In 1953 he emigrated to the United States, first to Ohio, then to California, where he served in the Ukrainian Catholic Church until retiring. Salamon began writing while still a gymnasium student and published a collection of poetry for children (Nashim dzetsom, 1936). While studying in Eviv he was influenced by the "father" of Vojvodinian Rusyn literature, Havrii'l/Gabor *Kostel'nik, who urged him to publish both poetry and prose. Various works appeared in Vojvodinian Rusyn newspapers and almanacs. Salamon's writings were noted for their sophisticated world-view and receptiveness to influences from the current avant-garde. A selection of his poetry, short stories, essays, travelogues, and literary criticism appeared posthumously in two volumes, Vibrani tvory (1988-89). Further reading: luliian Tamash, "Literatura tvorchosts Silvestra

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Salt Chamber/Soliana komora — a government institution which administered the Hungarian king's monopoly on the extraction and sale of salt from mines in *Maramorosh county, in particular at Solotvyno. IVAN POP

Salt Route/Solianyi shliakh — the route whereby salt was transported from mines at Solotvyno in *Maramorosh county along the Tisza/Tysa River and across the Danubian plain to markets in central and southern Europe. IVAN POP

SamodiiaFnyi khudozhnyi ansambP sela Zyndranova. See Zyndranova Amateur Artistic Ensemble Samoobrazovatel'nyi literaturnyi kruzhok im. A. Dukhnovicha. See Presov Greek Catholic Teachers' College

Samovol's'kyi, Edmund. See Art Sandovych, Maksym (b. January 31,1886, Zdynia [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. September 6,1914, Gorlice [Austrian Galicia], Poland) — priest and religious activist of Russian national orientation in the Lemko Region. After completing his gymnasium studies in Jaslo and Nowy Sa^cz (where he lived in the *Ruska Bursa student residence) Sandovych entered the Greek Catholic Basilian Monastery at Krekhiv in eastern Galicia. Not long after, however, he became estranged from the monastery and from Greek Catholicism in general, resulting in his transfer in 1904 to the Orthodox monastery at Pochai'v in western Volhynia, which at the time was in the Russian Empire. He completed his formal education at the Russian Orthodox Theological Seminary in Zhytomyr (19041910) and was ordained an Orthodox priest (1911). That same year Sandovych returned to the *Lemko Region as the first Orthodox priest to serve in the area since it became Greek Catholic at the outset of the eighteenth century. He served parishes in the Lemko villages of Grab, Wyszowadka, and Dhigie, all the while under the watchful eye of the Austrian authorities, who were fearful of the spread of Russian influence in the area through the Orthodox movement. In March 1912 Sandovych was arrested and put on trial two years later in Eviv (March 9-June 6, 1914), where together with an Orthodox priest (Ihnatii Hudyma), a student (Vasyl'

Koldra), and a prominent Galician *Russophile journalist (Semen Bendasiuk) he was accused of being a spy for tsarist Russia. The four were acquitted and Sandovych returned to his native village of Zdynia. Within a few months, however, he was again arrested (August 28,1914), this time with his entire family, and imprisoned in Gorlice. World War I had already begun, and as Russian troops invaded Habsburg Galicia in early September 1914, Sandovych was taken from his prison cell by the Austrians and summarily shot. In death, Sandovych was transformed into a symbol of Lemko suffering and of their orientation toward Orthodoxy. In the interwar years a cult of martyrdom grew up around his persona; his remains were solemnly returned to Zdynia in 1922 and on the twentieth anniversary of his death (1934) the residents of the Lemko-Rusyn village of Czarne erected a memorial cross in his honor. In 1994 Sandovych was proclaimed St. Maksym by the Polish Autocephalous Orthodox Church, at which time his remains were transferred to the new Orthodox Church in Gorlice, the town in which he met his death. Sandovych's son, a priest also named Maksym (1915-1991), carried on the Orthodox mission in the Lemko Region, while his grandson Mykhal Sandovych (1939-2003) propagated the memory of both his father and sainted grandfather. Further reading: "Maksym Sandovych," Karpatorusskyi kalendar' Lemko-Soiuza na hod 1964 (Yonkers, N. Y., 1964), pp. 61 -75; Marian Bendza, "Ks. Maksym Sandowicz—zycie i dzialalnosc," Wiadomosci Autokefalicznego Kosciola Prawoslawnego w Polsce, No. 3-4 (Warsaw, 1978), pp. 106-118; Mykhal Sandovych, "Muchenyk za viru vittsiv," Zahoroda, I, 2-3 (Zyndranowa, 1994), pp. 10-15; Isaac Lambertsen, Holy New Hieromartyr Maximus Sandovich: Protomartyr of the Lemko People (Liberty, Tenn., 1999). BOGDAN HORBAL

Sanok. See District

Sanok Historical Museum. See Museum of the Lemko Region Sapatiukh, Mykhailo. See Art Saros. See Sharysh Sas, Andor/Sa§, Ondrej (b. A. Singer, January 22,1887, Budapest [Hungarian Kingdom], Hungary; d. August 23, 1962, Bratislava [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — historian, professor, and translator in Subcarpathian Rus' and Slovakia. Sas graduated from the University of Budapest (1910) and studied at the University of Berlin (Ju.Dr., Ph.D.). As a leftist sympathizer, he supported the Hungarian Soviet Republic and taught briefly at the University of Budapest (1919-1920) before being forced into exile by the counter-revolutionary regime of Admiral Miklos Horthy. Sas never returned to

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Hungary; after a few years in Vienna (1920-1924) he settled in *Subcarpathian Rus', where he taught at the Commercial Academy in Mukachevo (1924-1932). During his years in Mukachevo Sas conducted extensive archival research and published several works devoted to the city, including an extensive guide to its archives (Archivprivilegovaneho mesta Mukaceva, 1376-1850,1933), a collection of documents (Szabadalmas Munkdcs vdros leveltdra, 1927), a short history (Izproshlago goroda Mukachevo, 1928), and a survey of its Baroque architecture (1933). The materials he collected about the *Schonborn-Buchheim manorial estate in *Bereg county formed the basis of historical studies that appeared in Subcarpathian scholarly journals (1932-1933) and later in a Hungarian-language monograph: Egy kdrpdti latifundium a huberi vildg alkonydn (1955). After leaving Subcarpathian Rus' Sas spent the rest of his life in Bratislava, where he taught at the Hungarian-language gymnasium (1932-1951), the School of Advanced Pedagogy (1951-1959; docent/associate professor, 1953), and Comenius University (1960-1962).

to continue his raids against landlords in his native *Presov Region. In 1657 his band was surrounded by troops from Spis castle, although Savka himself seems to have escaped. Some sources indicate that he was later captured and hanged at Muszyna in 1661. Savka has been immortalized in Lemko folklore as a fighter for justice on behalf of Rusyn peasants against their oppressive Polish and Hungarian landlords. Further reading: Ivan Krasovs'kyi, "Zbiinyts'kyi vatazhok—Andrii Savka," Ukrains'kyi kalendar 1969 (Warsaw, 1969), pp. 155-157; Petro Trokhanovskii, "Andrii Savka v panteoni lemkivskykh zbiinykiv," Lemkivskii kalendar 1999 (Legnica and Krynica, 1999), pp. 50-60. BOGDAN HORBAL

Sazhen' — unit of linear measurement equivalent to 1.78 meters. The sazhen' (Polish: sqzeri) was divided into 3 lokots.

Sbor pro vyzkum Slovenska a Podkarpatske Rusi. See Carpatica

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Sbornyk. See Literature, Early manuscripts Sava (Struve). See Ladomirova Monastery Savatii (Vrabets). See Orthodox Eparchy of Mukachevo-Uzhhorod Savchenko, V. N. See Aristov Society of Friends of Carpathian Rus' Saviuk, Aleksander. See Ruska Bursa Savka, Andrii (b. December 13,1619, Stebnik [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. 1661 [Polish-Lithuanian Commo wealth], Poland) — robber-bandit (zboinyk) in the Lemko Region and the Presov Region. The son of a church cantor, Savka had a modicum of education. In 1638 he became a gered at the local landlord, burned his manorial estate, then fled to the mountains, where he joined for a while a band of robber-bandits led by Vasyl' *Baius. Together with Baius, Savka participated in attacks against the *Muszyna estate that encompassed the *Lemko Region villages of Wapienne and Blechnarka north of the Carpathians in Polish-ruled Galicia. He then headed his own band, which in 1649 joined with Vasyl' Chepets's band in a series of successful attacks against several manorial estates in southern Galicia. The objects that they looted were distributed, in Robin Hood-like fashion, among the poor Lemko peasants. In 1651 Savka led a detachment of 500 men in the massive peasant revolt orchestrated by the Polish army officer Aleksander Kostka Napierski and centered in the Podhale region near the Tatra Mountains. Following the defeat of the revolt by forces led by the Polish nobility, Savka crossed into Hungary

Schonborn family — a Hungarian magnate family of German origin and landlords of the *Mukachevo-Chynadiievo manorial estate (*dominium) in Subcarpathian Rus'. The Schonborn family's relationship to * Subcarpathian Rus' began with the Roman Catholic bishop of Bamberg and archbishop of Mainz, Lothar Franz von Schonborn (1655-1729, consecrated 1693), to whom the Austrian Emperor Karl VI donated in 1728 a part of the property (Chynadiievo estate confiscated from Ferenc II *Rakoczy following the defeat of the latter's anti-*Habsburg revolt. The archbishop had little to do with his new property, however, since he died within a few months of the grant. It was Archbishop Lothar Franz's nephew, Friedrich Karl von Schonborn (1674-1746), the Roman Catholic bishop of Wiirzburg (consecrated 1729), who must be credited with reviving the manorial estate in Subcarpathian Rus'. The emperor awarded Friedrich Karl the Mukachevo part of the estate (1731) as well, and into this expanded property he brought *German colonists from the Schonborn family estates in Franconia to settle lands in Subcarpathian Rus' that were abandoned during the seventeenth century wars and later the Rakoczy revolt. At the time of bishop Friedrich Karl's death in 1746, the Mukachevo-Chynadiievo estate was a successfully functioning entity. He was succeeded by a nephew, Eugen Franz Erwin von Schonborn (1727-1801). In contrast to his predecessors, who administered the estate from their archepiscopal residences in Bavaria, Eugen Franz Erwin resided in Subcarpathian Rus' and was appointed lord sheriff (*zhupari) of *Bereg county. Eugen Franz Ervin had no children, so that after his death the property passed to the Schonborn-Buchheim

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Croatia) — priest, church hierarch, and historian among the Vojvodinian Rusyns. Segedi completed his theological formation in Innsbruck (1924-1927) and at the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome (1927-1930, Th.D.). He was ordained a Greek Catholic priest in 1927 and after completing his doc toral studies served as spiritual advisor (1930-1936) at the Greek Catholic Seminary in Zagreb, secretary to the bishop of Krizevci (1936-1940), and vicar general (1941-1966) of the *Bachka Apostolic Administration, which became the Bachka Vicariate and finally the Vojvodina Vicariate. Since the administration and vicariate was based in his native town of Ruski Kerestur, Segedi remained close to Vojvodina's Rusyn community. In 1963 he was named auxiliary bishop of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Krizevci, where he also served as vicar general (1966) and bishop (1981-1983). Aside from administrative duties Segedi published extensively, including a popular guide to the Byzantine-rite liturgy ("Bozhestvena liturgiia," 1979); general historical surveys of the Eparchy of Krizevci (1978) and of each parish in the Osijek Vicariate (1980-82); an introductory description of Rusyn life in Ruski Kerestur ("Bulo to kedishik u Kerestur," 1973); and an extensive account of the ancestral Rusyn homeland in northern Hungary and eastern Slovakia ("U kraiu svoikh predkokh," 1977). All of these works were published in the annual church almanac, Khristiianskii kalendar. Written in Vojvodinian Rusyn, they presented a Christian (Greek Catholic) perspective at a time when the church had limited access to the public media in former Communist-ruled Yugoslavia. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

School Aid Society. See Shkol'naia pomoshch' Schultheiss. See Soltys Scott, Lizabeth. See Cinema Scouting movement. See Fentsyk, Shtefan; Voron, Andrii

Section for the Development of Lemko Culture. See Lemko Section of the Ukrainian Civic and Cultural Society Section for Ukrainian Literature. See Printing and

Publishing Sedlak, Aleksander. See Language question

Segregacia — the separation of *urbarial property (government-regulated forests and pastures) from those held by landlords. Like the *komasatsiia/comasacia regulations introduced from the 1850s to the 1870s, the segregacia worked in favor of the large landholders. This means that in practice peasant farmers were denied the right to use pastures, forests, and water resources. IVAN POP Seidler, Erno. See Communist party; Jews

Sekcja lemkowska Komisji badan naukowych ziem wschodnich. See Lemko Section of the Commission for Scholarly Research on the Eastern Lands

Sedmychnyky. See Cathedral chapter

Sektsiia dlia rozvytku regional'noi lemkivs'koi kul'tury. See Lemko Section of the Ukrainian Civic and Cultural Society

Segedi, loakim (b. October 27, 1904, Ruski Kerestur [Hungarian Kingdom], Serbia; d. March 20, 2004, Zagreb,

See Agrarian/Republican party

Selians'ko-respublikans'ka zemledilYka partiia.

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Selians'ko-robitnychyi komitet Lemkovyny. See Donskii, Mykhal; Peasants' and Workers' Committee of the Lemko Region Selianynovych, P. See Potushniak, Fedor Selo. See Nauka

SiPski komiteti, upravi, uriadi. See Village Committee Sekerak, John P. See Greek Catholic Union Sembratovych, losyf (b. September 8, 1821, Krynica [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. October 23,1900, Rome, Italy) — priest, professor, and church hierarch of Lemko origin and of Old Ruthenian national orientation. Sembratovych com pleted his studies at the gymnasia in Nowy Sa^cz and Przemysl and at the *Stadtkonvikt Seminary in Vienna (1842-1845). After ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1845) he returned to Vienna in 1846 to study at St. Augustine's Seminary (Ph. D., 1850). He began teaching theology at the Theological Seminary and University of Eviv (1850-1852), then served as vice-rector (1852-1860) of the *Greek Catholic Central Seminary in Vienna and professor (1860-1867) of biblical studies and ancient Greek at the University of Eviv. In 1865 he was consecrated bishop and from 1867 to 1872 he administered the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Przemysl. In 1870 Sembra tovych was raised to the post of Greek Catholic Metropolitan of Galicia resident in Eviv. During the trial of Ol'ga *Hrabar and Adol'f *Dobrians'kyi, however, he was criticized for not resisting firmly enough the Orthodox movement in Galicia. Consequently, Sembratovych was removed from the post of metropolitan in 1882 and sent to Rome, where he spent the rest of his life. Despite his high ecclesiastical positions, Sembratovych did not forget his homeland and provided assistance to local schools and Lemko youth as well as financial support for the *Rus'ka Bursa (Rusyn student residence) in Nowy Sq.cz, for which he was widely remembered among the Lemkos. Further reading: Irynei I. Nazarko, Kylvs 'ki i halyts 'ki metropolyty: biohrafichni narysy, Analecta OSBM, Series II, Sectio I: Opera, Vol. XIII (Rome, 1962), pp. 195-203; Halyts'ki mytropolyty (Eviv, 1992), pp. 57-67.

1861). He served for a short time as a parish priest (18611863) in the Lemko village of Tylicz, then was appointed professor of dogmatics and theology at the Greek Catholic Seminary in Eviv (1863-1869) and at the University of Eviv (1868-1879). In 1878 he was appointed auxiliary bishop in the Greek Catholic metropolia of Galicia in Eviv; following the removal of his uncle, losyf *Sembratovych, he became metropolitan of Galicia (1885-1898). In 1895 he was raised to the rank of cardinal of the Catholic Church. Syl'vester Cardinal Sembratovych helped to consolidate the Greek Catholic Church in Galicia by introducing a new organizational and liturgical system characterized by Roman-rite influences (latinization), which was confirmed at the Greek Catholic Synod of Eviv (1888). He also adopted a Ukrainian orientation for Galicia's Greek Catholic Church and opposed both the *Russophile and *Old Ruthenian national orientations. These policies alienated many *Lemkos, and priests who opposed him were placed in secondary positions. To promote his policies Sembratovych established (1870) the religious journal Ruskii Sion and the Rus' Women's Institute in Eviv. He was also instrumental in the creation of St. Josaphat's Ruthenian College in Rome (1897) and responsible for sending in 1884 the first Greek Catholic missionary priest, Ivan Volians'kyi, to serve Rusyns in the United States. Further reading: Irynei I. Nazarko, Kyi'vs 'ki i halyts 'ki metropolyty: biohrafichni narysy, Analecta OSBM, Series II, Sectio I, Opera, Vol. XIII (Rome, 1962), pp. 205-212; Halyts'ki mytropolyty (Eviv, 1992), pp. 68-83. BOGDAN HORBAL

Semedi, Ivan. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo Serafim (Ivanov). See Ladomirova Monastery

Serbian Monastery Printshop. See Printing and Publishing Serafim (Ivanovic). See Orthodox Eparchy of Mukachevo-Uzhhorod v

Seregij, Juraj. See Shereghii, lurii-Avhustyn Servicka, Hanka. See Servyts'ka, Anna

BOGDAN HORBAL

Sembratovych, Syl'vester (b. September 3, 1836, Desznica [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. August 4,1898, Eviv [Austrian Galicia], Ukraine) — Lemko-born priest, professor, and church hierarch of Lemko origin and of Ukrainian national orientation. Sembratovych completed his studies at theological seminaries in Przemysl, Vienna, and Rome (D.D.,

Servitudes — forests, pastures, wells, pathways, and other lands forcibly taken from peasant farmers and transferred to control of landlords. A Hungarian law of 1853 allowed peasants to buy back the servitudes. Servyts'ka, Anna/Servicka, Hanka (b. Anna Shvedova, October 9,1962, Bardejov [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — teacher, singer, and cultural activist in the Presov Region.

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Servyts'ka studied at the Pedagogical College/Stredna pedagogicka skola in Presov (1971-1981) and has taught preschool and elementary school children (1981-1985, 1995-). She was a lead singer with the professional *PULS/Dukla Ukrainian Folk Ensemble (1985-1989) and has subsequently performed with Presov's Sarisan Ensemble. She has also had a successful career in solo concert performances throughout Slovakia and abroad, including a tour to the United States and Canada (1999). Much of her repertory includes her native Rusyn folksongs and Marian hymns, some of which she has composed. In the post-Communist era Servyts'ka has become the most successful proponent of Rusyn folksongs in Slovakia. Her first cassette album, Kriachok lialiovyi, won in 1992 a golden award (over 100,000 sold); her second, A od Presova, won in 1997 the golden and in 1999 the platinum (more than 200,000 sold) award. For her efforts in promoting traditional Rusyn and East Slovak culture Servyts'ka was given the Distinguished Citizen's Award from the city of Presov (1995). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors. See Cinema Shafranko, Emanuel. See Communist party Shafranko/Safranko, Ivan Nestor (b. May 26,1931, Turia Pasika [Czechoslovakia], Ukraine) — painter, sculptor, and professor in the Presov Region ofRusyn origin. Shafranko completed the Russian gymnasium in Humenne (1951) and the Academy of Fine Arts in Prague (1957). He then returned to eastern Slovakia, where since 1960 he has taught fine art at Safarik University in Presov (decent/associate professor, 1976; professor 1997). Shafranko's art is dominated by figurative motifs rendered in oil, which he often combines with other techniques. He has also employed ceramic mosaics, enamels, and plastics in more abstract works. Known for his creative experimentation, Shafranko continually combines various artistic mediums, including photography and text-like materials. His works are displayed in museums and galleries throughout Slovakia and in neighboring Poland and Germany. As a sympathizer of the post-1989 Rusyn national revival, Shafranko has participated in all joint exhibits ofRusyn creative artists organized by the *Rusyn Renaissance Society in Slovakia. ALEXANDER ZOZUL'AK

Shakh, Stepan. See Gymnasium; Historiography: Lemko Region Shandor, Vikentii/Vincent (b. October 12, 1907, Baranyntsi [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. August 11,2003,

Somerville, New Jersey, USA) — historian and community and political activist of Ukrainian national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus' and the United States. Shandor studied law at Charles University in Prague (Ju.Dr., 1939). During the period of Subcarpathian autonomy (1938-1939) he served as *Carpatho-Ukraine's representative to the federal government of Czechoslovakia. In 1947 Shandor emigrated to the United States and in the following year he helped to found the Carpathian Alliance/Karpats'kyi soiuz, a civic and political organization set up by recent Ukrainian-oriented emigres from *Subcarpathian Rus' who tried—unsuccessfully—to convince the older Rusyn immigrants to identify as Ukrainians. Shandor has argued that Subcarpathian Rus' is a Ukrainian land which, for centuries, had been forcibly and unnaturally separated from the rest of the Ukrainian people by foreign states: first Hungary and then, after World War I, Czechoslovakia. Although opposed to Communism, he considered Subcarpathia's annexation to the Soviet Ukraine in 1945 to be an historically justified act. His views are bes expressed in two volumes that provide a historical survey of the legal status of Subcarpathian Rus' from the ninth to the mid-twentieth centuries: Zakarpattia: istorychno pravnyi narys vidlXst. do 1920 (1992) and Carpatho-Ukraine in the Twentieth Century: A Political and Legal History (1998). Further reading: Pavlo Fedaka, Dmytro Danyliuk, Oleksii Khlanta et al., in Naukovyi zbirnyk Tovarystva 'Prosvita'v Uzhhorodi, IIIII [XVI-XVII]: na poshanu d-ra Vikentiia Shandor a (Uzhhorod, 1999). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Shapira, Hayyim Eleazar. See Jews Sharapov, Sergei V. See Aristov Society of Friends of Carpathian Rus' Sharysh (Hungarian: Saros; Slovak: Saris) — historic county in the north-central part of the Hungarian Kingdom bordering on the Austrian province of Galicia to the north, *Spish/Szepes county to the west, *Abov-Torna/Abauj-Torna to the south, and *Zemplyn/Zemplen to the east (see Map 9). Sharysh county is roughly divided into a mountainous area in the north, inhabited largely by Rusyns, and lower foothills and plains in the south inhabited by Slovaks; it is drained by the Poprad, Torysa, Topl'a, and Ondava rivers. Sharysh county was formed in the fourteenth century with an administrative center first at the Sharysh castle/Sarissky hrad and from the eighteenth century in the city of Presov (Hungarian: Eperjes). Also of importance as a trading center was the town of Bardejov (Hungarian: Bartfa; German: Bartfeld). In 1910 the county covered 3,821 square kilometers and had 174,600 inhabitants, of whom 101,900 were Slovaks; 38,500 Rusyns; 18,100 Magyars; 9,500 Germans; and 6,700

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others. Over 12,000 were of Jewish religion. After the collapse of Austria-Hungary in late 1918 Sharysh was incorporated into Czechoslovakia; it continued to exist as an administrative entity until 1927, when the *county (zupd) system was abolished. Its former territory includes the districts (okresy) of Bardejov, Svidnik, Sabinov, Presov, and part of Stara Eubovna in present-day Slovakia. Further reading: Albert Berzeviczy, "Das Saroser Comitat," in Die osterreichisch-ungarische Monarchic in Wort undBild: Ungarn, Vol. V, pt. 2 (Vienna, 1900), pp. 325-362; Sandor Toth, Sdros vdrmegye monographidja, 3 vols. (Budapest, 1909-12); Jan Mihal' and Martin Mihaly, Horny Saris: historicky, ekonomicky a geologicky ndcrt (Bardejov, 1969). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Shatynskii, levhen. See Lemko Association/LemkoSoiuz

gary], Austria) —journalist and writer of Lemko origin and Russian national orientation. The son of a Greek Catholic priest, Shchavynskii studied medicine in Vienna but never took up that profession. Instead, he remained in the capital of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, where he worked as a correspondent for newspapers in the Russian Empire and eastern Galicia. He was an active member of the *Russophile community in Vienna, traveled widely, and published a large number of essays, feuilletons, and reportages, mostly under the cryptonym V.O. Shch. Despite his travels and permanent residence far from the *Carpathians, Shchavynskii maintained ongoing contact with the *Lemko Region, where he spent his annual vacations and was known among the local populace. His ties to his Lemko homeland are described in the essay "Tuha za rodynnym selom"(1889). BOGDAN HORBAL

Shcherets'kyi, Vasyl'. See Agrarian/Republican party Shchavnyts'kyi, Mykhai'l (b. November 1, 1754, Hazin [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. 1819, Uzhhorod [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine) — priest, pedagogue, and educational administrator in Galicia and Subcarpathian Rus'. Shchavnyts'kyi studied at the *Barbareum in Vienna (17751779), where he earned a doctorate in theology. On the eve of his ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1780) he was appointed vice-prefect of the Barbareum. When that institution was closed he was transferred to Eviv as the first rector (1784-1787) of the General Greek Catholic Seminary. During his tenure Shchavnyts'kyi was instrumental in establishing in association with the University of Eviv the Studium Ruthenum (1787), the first secular institution of higher learning for Rusyns throughout the Austrian Empire. Despite or perhaps because of his organizational abilities, he had difficulties in Eviv, and his fate there proved to be an early example of what was to happen in future instances when Rusyns from Subcarpathian Rus' began to work with Rusyns (later Ukrainians) from neighboring eastern Galicia. In 1787 Shchavnyts'kyi was removed as rector, allegedly because he "did not know fluently Polish and the [Galician] Rusyn language," and because he was a "foreigner" unaware of the customs of the local people. He subsequently returned to Uzhhorod, where he was appointed canon to the *cathedral chapter of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo and vice-rector (1792-1818) of the Theological Lycee. Further reading: P. [Ivan Pan'kevych], "Podk. Rusyny na kul'turnoi mysii u Rusynov halytskykh pry kontsy XVIII. y pochatkom XIX. St.," Podkarpatska Rus', IV, 9 (Uzhhorod, 1927), pp. 209-211. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Shchavynskii, Vladymir (b. 1853, Klimkowka [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. February 2, 1913, Vienna [Austria-Hun-

Shchyrets'kyi, Ivan — seventeenth-century icon painter from Galicia who studied and worked in Przemysl. He belonged to a circle of painters who created icons in a folk-like decorative style. His best-known work in the Subcarpathian region consists of four images for the iconostasis in the church at Sukhyi completed in 1679. IVAN POP Shelepets', losyf/Selepec, Jozef (b. July 23, 1938, Ladomirova [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — literary scholar, university lecturer, and Ukrainian-language belletrist in the Presov Region. After completing the gymnasium in Svidnik (1955) and graduating from the Philosophical Faculty of Safarik University in Presov (1955-1959), Shelepets' taught in that university's Department of Ukrainian Language and Literature (1961-1970). It was also during the 1960s that he published in Ukrainian his first collections of poetry and short stories. Shelepets' was among those "Ukrainianists" in Presov considered by the Communist authorities to be politically unreliable, and following the failure of the Prague Spring he was released from his university post (1970) and forbidden to publish. During the next two decades he worked in Presov for the state-owned book dealership (1970-1985) and the State Scholarly Library (1985-1991). Following the collapse of Communist rule in 1989, Shelepets' was reinstated at what is now Presov University, first in the Ukrainian Department and then in the Department of Slavic Philology. Shelepets' has written several essays on the literary works of Aleksander *Dukhnovych and Aleksander *Pavlovych, but among his most important contributions to Carpatho-Rusyn studies are bibliographies focusing on the *Presov Region:

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Sheregii, Heorhii. See Sheregii, lurii-Avhustyn

Further reading: Jerry J. Jumba, "Monsignor Basil Shereghy, S.T.D.," Carpatho-Rusyn American, XI, 4 (1988), pp. 5-6.

Sheregii, lurii-Avhustyn/Seregij, Juraj (pseudonyms: Heorhii Sheregii, lurii Hrim/Hrom) (b. January 16, 1907, Dusyno [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. May 25, 1990, Bratislava [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — actor, theater director, and historian of Ukrainian national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus' and Slovakia. After completing the gymnasium in Uzhhorod (1926) Sheregii studied at the philosophical faculty of Charles University in Prague (1926-1930). While still a student, he began performing in amateur productions in Uzhhorod, then organized the Verkhovyna theatrical circle among Subcarpathian university students in Prague, which during its existence (1927-1930) performed on several occasions in * Subcarpathian Rus'. Returning to Uzhhorod, he founded the Veselka musical and theatrical troupe (1931) and taught at the Khust gymnasium (1931 -1933), where with his brother levhen Sheregii he established among the local scouting movement (Plast) a theatrical circle. That circle evolved into the Nova stsena (1934), a Ukrainian theater which reached its apogee during the last months of *autonomy in Subcarpathian Rus'/*Carpatho-Ukraine (1938-1939). When Hungary annexed the region Sheregii fled to Yugoslavia, where he performed and directed in amateur ensembles among the Vojvodinian Rusyns (1939-1940). He then spent the rest of World War II in Prague and in Galicia (Eviv, Drohobych), where he directed Ukrainian theater ensembles. He also worked on a major history of the theater in Subcarpathian Rus', which was not to be published until after his death (Narys istorii ukrains 'kykh teatriv Zakarpats 'koi' Ukra'iny do 1945 roku, 1993). After World War II Sheregii played an active role in Slovak theatrical life, working as artistic director (1945-1947) at the Slovak Theater in Presov, opera director in Kosice, and from 1956 with various theaters in Bratislava and elsewhere in Slovakia. During these years he also cooperated with theaters serving the Rusyn community, directing plays (1946-1948) and establishing the short-lived operetta ensemble (1954-1956) for the *Ukrainian National Theater in Presov, and staging plays and teaching folk dancing among the Ukrainians and Rusyns of *Ukrainophile orientation in Yugoslavia (1967-1983). Sheregii is the author of more than 30 plays, including several based on themes from Rusyn history (Zolotyi mech, 1977; Potys 'ka Rus', 1986-87). Further reading: lurii Hryvnak and Roman Myz', "lurii A. Sherehii," Nova dumka, XVI [58] (Vukovar, 1987), pp. 24-25; Valeriian Revuts'kyi, "lurii Sheregii ta ioho 'Narys'," in lurii Sheregii, Narys istorii ukrains 'kykh teatriv Zakarpats 'koi Ukra'iny do 1945 roku (New York, Paris, Sydney, Toronto, PreSov, and Eviv, 1993), pp. 11-15; L. Dovhovych, "lurii Avhustyn Sherehii—do nedozhytoho zhyttievoho iuvileiu," Zerna, No. 4-5 (Zwickau, 1998), pp. 301-306.

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Further reading: Mykola Mushynka, "Robotiaha na nyvi nauky: do 60-littia losyfa Sheleptsia," Nove zhyttia, No. 29-30 (Presov, 1988), p. 4; Vasyl' Khoma, "Vnutrishnii svit liudyny, tradytsi'i i umovy liuds'koho buttia v poezi'i I. Sheleptsia," Duklia, XLVI, 5 (Presov, 1988), p. 36-41—reprinted in his Rozvytok rusyns 'koi poezi'i v Slovachchyni vid 20-kh do 90-kh rokiv XX stolittia (Bratislava, 2000), pp. 258-265. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Shepa, Andrii. See Communism Shereghy, Basil/Sheregii, Vasylii (b. March 5, 191 Dorobratovo [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. June 16, 1988, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA)—priest, seminary professor, editor, and cultural activist in Subcarpathian Rus' an the United States. Shereghy was ordained a Greek Catholic priest (1942) in the *Eparchy of Mukachevo, where he sub sequently served as professor/spiritual director (1943-1944) at the Greek Catholic Theological Seminary in Uzhhorod and editor of three Rusyn-language publications for Greek Catholic youth: the newspaper *Nedilia (1943-44) and the magazines Lektsii (1943-44) and Front molodezhy (1944). He emigrated to the United States in 1946 and served for the rest of his life in the *Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic Eparchy of Pittsburgh. Shereghy taught the Rusyn language and Byzantine-rite liturgy to Greek Catholic seminarians at St. Procopius Seminary in Lisle, Illinois (1948-1950) and at the SS. Cyril and Methodius Seminary in Pittsburgh (19501973). He was also founding director (1971-1988) of the Archdiocesan Museum of Pittsburgh. Shereghy's goal to promote among Rusyn Americans a sense of their distinct religious and national identity was achieved through articles written during his tenure as founding associate editor (1956) of the *Byzantine Catholic World and editor (1970-1986) of*Prosvito/The Enlightenment, as well as through a popular Greek Catholic Dictionary (1951) and other publications about the church. He also co-authored a history of Rusyn theological seminaries, Vospitanije podkarpatoruskoho svjascenstva/The Training of Carpatho-Ruthenian Clergy (1951) and a history of the fraternal society with which he was closely associated, The United Societies of the U.S.A.: A Historical Album (1978). Shereghy was known for his extensive library on Carpatho-Rusyns and his collection of paintings by Subcarpathian artists.

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Sheregii, Vasylii. See Shereghy, Basil Shkol'naia pomoshch'/School Aid Society — philanthropic organization of Russophile orientation established to assist students in Subcarpathian Rus'. The Shkol'naia pomoshch' Society traces its roots to late 1919, when a committee (Komitet Shkol'noi pomoshchi) was established to raise funds. Chosen as honorary member of the committee was the Russian emigre and "grandmother of the Russian Revolution," Ekaterina *Breshko-Breshkovskaia, who had just moved to * Subcarpathian Rus'. Through contacts in the United States, she managed to raise over 200,000 Czechoslovak crowns from American donors. Shkol'naia pomoshch' was formally constituted as an organization in 1920 under the direction of Antonii *Beskyd. Its main goals were to assist in the education of "CarpamoRussian youth" through support for elementary and secondary schools as well as to provide humanitarian aid to the population of * Subcarpathian Rus' at large. By 1920 the society was operating four school dormitories—in Uzhhorod (2), Mukachevo, and Rosvygovo—and for a while it operated a workshop to manufacture socks in the village of Sil'tse and a technical school in Neresnytsia. The society also established a Russian public library in Uzhhorod and, in 1924, with the help of the Czechoslovak government, it sent over 100 students for technical training in Bohemia and Moravia. When philanthropic donations declined, the work of the Shkol'naia pomoshch' society was able to continue through income derived from a printshop established in 1921, which continued to operate until World War II. In 1941, the Hungarian authorities which were ruling again in Subcarpathian Rus' confiscated the library and printshop of the Shkol'naia pomoshch' and gave both to the newly-established * Subcarpathian Scholarly Society. Further reading: Obshchestvo 'Shkol'naia Pomoshch 'v Uzhgorodie (Uzhhorod, 1923). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Shkurla, Vasyl'. See Ladomirova Monastery Shkymba, Shtefan. See Skimba, Stephen Shlepets'kyi, Andrii/Slepecky, Andrej (b. January 29, 1930, Vel'ke Bukovce [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia; d. January 28, 1993, Presov, Slovakia) — literary historian and professor in the Presov Region. Shlepets'kyi studied at Russian gymnasia in Prague and Humenne (1951) and at Charles University in Prague (1951 -1956). He taught Russian literature at Safarik University (1958-1992), where he held the rank of associate professor (docent, 1964) and kandidat nauk (1968). He published several works on the national revival

among Carpatho-Rusyns during the nineteenth century, including a series of biographies about the national awakeners, Zakarpats'ki budyteli ta nasha suchasnist' (1957). He gave special attention to Aleksander *Pavlovych, including an extensive biography (1982) and an anthology of that author's writings, Izbrannyeproizvedeniia (1955), which he compiled with his uncle, Ivan S. * Shlepets'kyi. Andrii Shlepets'kyi's concern with identifying Carpatho-Rusyn-related materials in various archives throughout Czechoslovakia resulted in a description of the holdings of the former Greek Catholic Eparchial Archive in Presov (1984) and the publication of archival materials by Ivan Kapishovs'kyi, Bishop Andrii *Bachyns'kyi, Aleksander Pavlovych, and levhenii *Fentsyk, among others. Shlepets'kyi never adopted a clear position on the nationality question; he described the Rusyn national revival sometimes within the context of Russian culture and at other times within that of Ukrainian culture. He was one of the few scholars from Czechoslovakia who, during the Communist era, published in the West, mostly in newspapers and almanacs of the *Lemko Association of the USA and Canada. Further reading: lurii Bacha, "Za Andriiem Shlepets'kym," Druzhno vpered, XLII, 3 (Presov, 1993), p. 9; Tamara Baitsura, "ParrTiati kolehy," Duklia, XLII, 4 (Presov, 1994), pp. 72-74. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Shlepets'kyi, Andrii/Slepetsky, Andrew. See

Russian Orthodox Church in North America

Shlepets'kyi, Ivan/Slepecky, Ivan (pseudonyms: I.S. Bukovskii, I.S. Obsharov) (b. April 9, 1907, Vel'ke Bukovce [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. October 9, 1976, Prague [Czechoslovakia], Czech Republic) — civic and cultural activist of Russian national orientation among Carpatho-Rusyns in Prague. After completing his gymnasium studies in Uzhhorod (1929) Shlepets'kyi went on to study medicine in Prague (1930-1935, 1945-1948, M.D., Charles University), where he was to remain for the rest of his life. A student activist, he was the founding chairman of the Carpatho-Rusyn Student Dormitory/Kolej and of the *Renaissance Carpatho-Russian Student Society/Obshchestvo karpatorusskikh studentov "Vozrozhdenie," an organization that promoted cultural and literary activity among Rusyn students in Prague. During the World War II years Shlepets'kyi helped numerous Rusyn young people who fled their Hungarian-ruled homeland to find refuge in the former Czechoslovak capital. After the war he re-established the Renaissance Society and became editor of its bi-monthly journal, Koster (1947-48). Shlepets'kyi compiled many studies about his native *Presov Region, including a collection of folksongs and a history of the World War II partisan movement, both of which remained unpublished. He edited an encyclopedic handbook,

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Priashevshchina: istoriko-literaturnyi sbornik (1948), and an anthology of works by Aleksander *Pavlovych, Izbrannye proizvedeniia (1955). Shlepets'kyi was a *Russophile who believed that Rusyns are a branch of the Russian nationality and that their language of education and literary communication should be Russian. He was opposed to the pro-Communist and Ukrainian national orientation which, by the 1950s, had come to dominate life in the Presov Region. Unable to publish there, many of his essays appeared in the newspapers and annual almanacs of the *Lemko Association of the USA and Canada. Further reading: V.R. Vavrik, "Ivan Stepanovich Shlepetskii," Karpatomsskyi kalendar' Lemko-Soiuza na hod 1964 (Yonkers, N.Y., 1964), pp. 115-121. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Shlianta, Aleksei. See Lubov Russian Orthodox Fraternity; Russian Brotherhood Organization Shmaida, loann. See Russian Brotherhood Organization

Shmaida, Mykhailo/Smajda, Michal (b. November 2, 1920, Krasny Brod [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — belletrist, folklorist, and cultural activist of Ukrainian national orientation in the Presov Region. Although Shmaida only completed elementary and junior high school (mestianka in Medzilaborce), he developed into an accomplished writer. He first began to publish poetry and short stories, but then made his mark as a novelist. He is the author of the first Ukrainianlanguage novel published in Czechoslovakia after World War II, Trishchat'kryhy (1957). In this work as well as in the first volume of a planned trilogy, Lemky: Korchmars 'kyi sluha (1965), Shmaida describes the problems of collectivation and the change of nationality and religion faced by Rusyn villagers. Another novel, Roz"izdy (1970), deals with the fate of Rusyn workers in the large East Slovak metallurgical complex. Shmaida's knowledge of Rusyn folklore was enhanced while working at the *Museum of Ukrainian Culture in Krasny Brod and Svidnik (1960-1971). He was released from his job for political reasons following the post-1968 period of repression in Communist Czechoslovakia. While employed as a manual laborer he continued to rework much of the Rusyn folkloric texts he had collected; they first appeared as journal articles and were eventually published separately in two volumes, A shchi vam vinchuiu (1992) and Kolyskovi pisni (1993). Shmaida welcomed the political and cultural changes after the Revolution of 1989, supported the appearance of Rusyn dialect texts in the local Ukrainian press, and was among the initiators of the *Rusyn Renaissance Society/ Rusyn'ska obroda founded in Medzilaborce (1990). Although he did not support that organization's further development and

has remained Ukrainian in national orientation, he has not publicly opposed the Rusyn cultural revival in Slovakia. Further reading: Myroslava Poida, Z narodnoho korenia: literaturnyi portret Mykhaila Shmaidy (Uzhhorod, 1995). ANNA PLISKOVA

Shnur — a unit of measurement equaling 23 meters in length. Sholteis. See Soltys Sholtes, losyf. See Dobrians'kyi, Adol'f

Sholtes, Zoltan (b. July 21, 1909, Priekopa [Hungaria Kingdom], Slovakia; d. December 16,1990, Uzhhorod [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — priest and painter in Subcarpathian Rus'. Sholtes completed the gymnasium (1929) and Theological Seminary (1933) in Uzhhorod, and at the same time attended studio classes at losyf *Bokshai and Adalbert *Erdeli's Public School of Painting. Ordained a Greek Catholic priest (1933), Sholtes was assigned to serve the parish in the mountain village of Uzhok (1933-1939) near the Carpathian pass of the same name. Thanks to him, Uzhok became the "Barbizon often used as an epithet to describe the * Subcarpathian School of Painting. There he was joined by students and colleagues, who painted their landscape and genre scenes. Depiction of the wooden church of Uzhok became a kind of yardstick used to judge the ability of the Subcarpathian School's older (especially losyf Bokshai) and middle generation of painters. Sholtes himself was one of the leading representatives of the second generation of the Subcarpathian School. He was, in particular, a master impressionist of the Carpathian landscape (Beskidy/The Beskyd Mountains, 1952; Zhovtnevyi den '/An October Day, 1954). If his teacher, Bokshai, was best known for depicting autumn scenes, Sholtes became the poetic painter of winter (Zymovyi vec/n'r/Winter Evening, 1931; Zyma v seli/Winter in the Village; Khyzhi zymo/w/Village Houses in Winter, 1952, among others). The priest-painter was faced with a major crisis forced upon all Greek Catholic clergy by the Soviet regime in 1947: join the Orthodox Church or renounce the priesthood. Sholtes chose the latter course and as a result was effectively left without any means of supporting himself. Eventually he found employment working the night shift as an assembler in an Uzhhorod furniture factory (1947-1952). It was only during the period of the Khrushchev thaw in the late 1950s that Sholtes was finally recognized by the authorities as an artist. In return, he was expected to—and did produce—several works in the Socialist-Realist mode (Kolhospna /erma/The Cooperative Farmer; Novobudovy ZakarpattiafNew Buildings in Transcarpathia; Elektrostantsiia v horakh, among others). Such works allowed him to

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be named an Artist of Merit/Zasluzhenyi khudozhnyk of the Soviet Ukraine (1975). IVAN POP

Shpytko,Osyp. See Pidhirs 'kyi dzvin Shrapnel, Davyd. See Bobul's'kyi, Antonii

Shostak, Mykhal. See Skimba, Stephen Shpak, Ivan. See Russkiii vistnyk Shpenyk, Otto. See Communism Shpenyk,Vasylii. See Narodna shkola; Russkii narodnyi golos Shpira, Hayyim Eleazar. See Jews Shpitser, Leonid. See Jews Shpyl'ka, lurii. See Union of Subcarpathian Rusyn Students Shpyl'ka, Panteleimon (b. October 20, 1883, Dmytrovychi [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. March 5, 1950, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada) — Galician-Ukrainian priest and political activist in the Lemko Region and Presov Region. After completing his theological studies in Eviv (1904-1907) and Przemysl (1907-1908) Shpyl'ka was ordained a Greek Catholic priest (1910) and began serving in eastern Galicia. Following the outbreak of World War I and the arrest by the Austrian authorities of several *Russophile priests from the *Lemko Region Shpyl'ka helped to fill the resulting void by serving simultaneously parishes in as many as 12 Lemko villages. In all of them he also promoted the Ukrainian national identity through a variety of cultural and popular-enlightenment activities. With the fall of Austria-Hungary in late 1918 Shpyl'ka organized a meeting of representatives from 35 Lemko villages to form the Ukrainian National Council of the Sanok District/Povitova ukrai'ns'ka natsional'na rada (November 4, 1918). He himself became head of what was popularly known as the *Lemko Republic of Komancha, for which he tried in vain to obtain military assistance from the West Ukrainian National Republic based in eastern Galicia. By the outset of 1919 the Polish Army had dispersed the Komancha republic and Shpyl'ka fled. He went to Czechoslovakia and settled in the *PreSov Region, serving the Greek Catholic parish in the Rusyn village of Pichne (1923-1944). As the Soviet Army approached this region at the end of World War II Shpyl'ka fled again, this time to the western zones in Germany (1944), and then emigrated to Canada (1948), where he died soon after. Further reading: Panteleimon Shpyl'ka, "Vyzvol'ni zmahannia skhidnoi' Lemkivshchyny v 1918 r." and "Avtobiohrafiia," in Lemkivs 'kyi kalendar na rik 1967 (Toronto and Clifton, N.J., 1967), pp. 19-45. BOGDAN HORBAL

Shtefan, Avhustyn/Stefan, Agoston (b. May 25,1877, Bratovo/Batar [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. 1944, Rakhiv [Karpatalja, Hungary], Ukraine) — lawyer, government official, and political activist ofRusyn national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus'. Shtefan studied at the gymnasia in Sighet and Satu Mare and at the law faculties of the universities of Budapest and Cluj/Kolozsvar, where he became an ardent *magyarone and supporter of Hungarian state patriotism. He opened a law practice in Rakhiv (1905), where he had previously published a Hungarian-language newspaper, Tiszavolgy (1903), that supported the oppositionist Independent party. Following the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the formation (November 1918) of a Hungarian republic under Mihaly Karoly, Shtefan began to work for the new government. With the creation of autonomous *Rus'ka Kraina, he was appointed its governor (December 1918) and vice-chairman (February 1919) of its provisional governing council (Rus'ka rada). When Karoly's government was replaced by a Soviet Hungarian republic headed by Bela Kun (March 1919) Shtefan remained in Soviet Rus'ka Kraina as its commissar. Opposed to the Communists, he tried unsuccessfully to overthrow their rule in Rus'ka Kraina, then fled to Poland, where for the next five years (1919-1924) he campaigned for the return of * Subcarpathian Rus' to postwar Hungary. Finding no serious support for his pro-Hungarian political efforts in Poland, Shtefan returned home (1924), executed a political about-face, and proclaimed his loyalty to the new state of Czechoslovakia. He joined the pro-government * Agrarian/Republican party and was elected its deputy (19251929) to the Czechoslovak parliament. In 1929 he returned to his law practice in Rakhiv and basically dropped out of political life except for a brief appearance as member of the short-lived *Central Russian National Council (November 1938), which opposed the pro-Ukrainian autonomous government of Avhustyn *Voloshyn. IVAN POP

Shtefan, Avhustyn/Stefan, Augustin (b. January 1, 1893, Poroshkovo [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. September 4, 1986, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA) — pedagogue, educational administrator, publicist, editor, and cultural and political activist of Ukrainian national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus'. After completing the gymnasium in Berehovo (1902-1910) and the Theological Seminary in Uzhhorod (1911-1914), Shtefan attended the philosophical faculty of the University of Budapest (1914-1917). He began teaching at the *Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College and the classical gymnasium in Uzhhorod (1917-1921). During this

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture time Shtefan was thrust into local political life. In the last few weeks of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (October 1918) he negotiated with Ukrainian deputies in the Austrian parliament regarding the possible union of *Subcarpathian Rus' with Galicia. He continued to support the idea of unity with Ukrainians in Galicia at the Khust National Council (January 21,1919), but a few months later, as a delegate to the *Central Rusyn National Council in Uzhhorod (May 8,1919), he supported the idea of union with Czechoslovakia. Throughout most of the Czechoslovak era Shtefan served as the founding director (1922-1938) of the Commercial Academy/Torhovel'na shkola in Mukachevo, which under his leadership became an important center for propagating a Ukrainian national spirit among Subcarpathian youth. As part of his pedagogical work, he published a textbook on mathematics (1923) and was co-author with Ivan Vas'ko of the first grammar of the Ukrainian literary language produced in Subcarpathian Rus' (Hramatyka ukrains 'koimovy, 1931). He was also among the founders of the *Prosvita Society (1920), the founding head (1929) of the *Ukrainophile Teachers' Society/Uchytel's'ka Hromada, managing editor (1920-1921) of the newspaper *Rusyn, and co-editor (1925-36) of the journal *Podkarpatska Rus'. Shtefan welcomed the pro-Ukrainian autonomous government of * Subcarpathian Rus' under the leadership of Avhustyn *Voloshyn. From November 1938 to March 1939 he administered the government's ministry of education and was an executive board member of the pro-government political party, the Ukrainian National Union, from which he was elected deputy to the diet (February 1939). At its first—and last—session (March 15,1939), Shtefan was chosen chairman of the diet of *Carpatho-Ukraine and appointed minister of education and religion. After Hungary annexed the province he fled via Yugoslavia to Slovakia, where he served briefly as director (1939-1940) of the Ukrainian Commercial Academy in Bratislava. From there he went to the German-ruled Protectorate of Bohemia-Moravia, where he became director (1940-1945) of the Ukrainian gymnasium at Modrzany outside Prague. As Soviet troops approached Prague Shtefan fled once again, this time to the American zone of occupied Germany, where he remained director (1945-1949) of the Modrzany gymnasium following its transfer to Augsburg. In 1949 Shtefan emigrated to the United States, where he taught Ukrainian at the Ukrainian Catholic Institute for Girls in Stamford, Connecticut (1949-1969), and was active in Ukrainian emigre political life as vice-chairman (1978-1985) of the Ukrainian National Republic in exile. He also tried to influence the older Rusyn-American immigration through the publication of brochures (From Carpatho-Ruthenia to Carpatho-Ukraine, 1954) and a series of articles for the shortlived monthly magazine published in Rusyn (Latin alphabet) and English, Karpats'ka zorja/Carpathian Star (1951-52). These efforts were unsuccessful, however, as Shtefan's pro-

Ukrainian orientation was unacceptable to the majority of Rusyn Americans. After retirement from teaching (1969) Shtefan settled in Philadelphia. There he wrote a popular biography of Avhustyn Voloshyn (1977) and compiled his own memoirs, which provide a good insight into how some Rusyns became Ukrainian national activists in the first part of the twentieth century: Zapravdu i voliu: spomyny i deshcho z istorii Karpats'koi Ukrainy, 2 vols. (1973-81). IVAN POP

Shten'o, Mykhal. See Society ofRusyn Intelligentsia in Slovakia

Shternberg, Iakiv/Varadi-St6rnberg, Janos (b. January 10, 1924, Oradea, Romania; d. February 12, 1993, Uzhhorod, Ukraine) — professor, historian, and literary scholar in Subcarpathian Rus'. A native of Romania, Shternberg with his Jewish family feared persecution and fled eastward to Bessarabia when that Romanian territory was annexed to the Soviet Union as the Moldavian SSR (1940). After World War II he studied at the Pedagogical Institute in Bohuslav, Ukraine, and at the historical faculty of Leningrad University (1949). In 1949 he began a teaching career that was to last over four decades at Uzhhorod State University (kandidat nauk, 1955; professor, 1970). His final post was senior researcher (1989-1990) at Uzhhorod University's Center for Hungarian Studies. A specialist on Russian-Hungarian relations in the eighteenth century. Shternberg also published several articles on Rusyns from Hungary who made successful scholarly careers in the Russian Empire during the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries: "Zakarpatets Ivan Zeikan v okrunzhenii Petra I" (1986) and "Vengerskaia Veneliana" (1989). In the context of his studies on Hungarian culture in the nineteenth century Shternberg wrote several short studies on Rusyn national awakeners, in particular Aleksander *Dukhnovych, focussing on Hungarian translations of his writings (1965) and Dukhnovych's compilation of the first Rusyn literary almanac (1976). Further reading: Kalman Soos/Kalman Shovsh, "Dr. VaradiSternberg Janos, 1924-1992/Ianosh Varodi-Shternberg (lakiv Isakovych Shternberg, 1924-1992," in O.D. Zakryvydoroha et al., Professor Shternberg lakiv Isaakovych: bibliohrafichnyi pokazhchyk (Uzhhorod, 1994), pp. 7-17; I.O. Mandryk, M.V. Olashyn, H.V. Pavlenko, O.D. Dovhanych, and V.I. Padiak, "Dopovidi ... prysviachenoi' 75-ii richnytsi z dnia narodzhennia ... lakova Isakovycha Shternberha," in Naukovyi visnyk Uzhhorods 'koho derzhavnoho universytetu: Seriia istoriia, No. 4 (Uzhhorod, 1999), pp. 20-34. IVAN POP

Shtets', Mykola/Stec, MikulaS (b. March 16, 1932, Habura [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — linguist and profes-

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sor of Ukrainian national orientation in the Presov Region of Slovakia. During his student years at the Russian gymnasium in Humenne Shtets' became a member (1947) of the *Communist party of Czechoslovakia and a party activist in several villages of the *Presov Region, where he also worked as an elementary school teacher (1951-1952). He studied at Kiev State University (1953-1958), and from 1959 has taught the Ukrainian language at Safarik University, where he has held the rank ofkandidat nauk(\964), associate professor (docent, 1970), professor (1979), and doctor of science (1996). Shtets' has published extensively on the language question in *Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region, Literaturn mova ukraintsiv Zakarpattia i Skhidnoi Slovachchyny pislia 1918 r. (1969) and Ukrains 'ka mova v Slovachchyni (1996), and on problems related to Slovak-Rusyn language dualism in eastern Slovakia. All his works have consistently argued that Rusyns speak dialects of Ukrainian and that, therefore, their literary language should be Ukrainian. In the post-Communist era Shtets' has spoken out against efforts to codify a Rusyn literary language in several polemical essays, including K otdzke 'rusinskeho 'spisovnehojazyka (1991) and Dopytannia 'rusyns 'koi'literaturnoi movy (1992). Further reading: Zuzana Hanudel', "Vik profesiinoi' zrilosty: do iuvileiu profesora Mykoly Shtetsia," Druzhno vpered, XXXII, 3 (Presov, 1982), pp. 6-7. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Shtolovi dokhody. See Stole fees Shuflat, George. See Lemko Association of the USA and Canada Shuhai, Nykolai/Suhaj, Nikola (b. April 3,1898, Nyzhna Kolochava [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. August 16,1921, near Kolochava [Czechoslovakia], Ukraine) — one of the last of the Carpathian robber-bandits. During World War I Shuhai was drafted into the Austro-Hungarian Army, but in 1917 he deserted and hid in the high mountains near his native village, from where he began to rob wealthy Rusyn peasants and *Jews. Shuhai was particularly successful during the period of breakdown in civil authority that accompanied the collapse of Austria-Hungary (1918-1919), and he was supported by some local Rusyn peasants who may have shared in his loot. Shuhai himself was an asocial phenomenon and was treated as such by the new Czechoslovak regime. Pursued by the Czechoslovak gendarmerie, Shuhai and a few followers resisted and killed some officers, and a substantial reward was offered by the authorities for the bandit's capture, dead or alive. In the end, he was killed by one of his own neighbors, supposedly for having mistreated that neighbor's family. After Shuhai's death his persona was gradually transformed

by folk legend into a romanticized Robin-Hood-type hero who allegedly defended the interests of the poor and downtrodden Rusyn peasants. In the 1960s and 1970s several of these folk legends were recorded and published by Ivan Sen'ko (Khodyly opryshky, 1983). Such legends had even earlier attracted belletrists. The Hungarian Bela *Illes wrote a short story, "Nikolai Shuhai," first published in a German translation (1922) and later in Russian and Ukrainian, while the Soviet Ukrainian Mykola Marfiievych published an extended poetic work (Mykola Shuhai, 1927). Neither of these were of any literary quality and they were soon forgotten. By contrast, the novel Nikola Suhaj loupeznik (The Bandit Nikolai Shuhai, 1933) by the Czech writer Ivan *Olbracht came to enjoy great popularity and soon became a classic of Czechoslovak literature in the twentieth century. Since the appearance of Olbracht's novel, the Czech public has remained fascinated with the Shuhai phenomenon. After World War II, Olbracht himself wrote the screen-play for the first feature-length film about the robber-bandit (Nikola Suhaj loupeznik, 1947), whose persona inspired other films as well as dramatizations for Czechoslovak State Television (see Cinema). In 1974 Olbracht's novel was dramatized by Milan Uhde and performed with music by Milos Stedron under the title Balada pro banditu at the avant-garde theater in Brno, Divadlo na provazku. That same year a concert version of the novel with music by Petr Ulrych and Ladislav Kopecky was performed in Prague. Ulrych's musical group Javory released a record album ("Nikola Suhaj loupeznik"), from which the song "Zabili, zabili chlapa z Kolocavy" (They've Killed the Young Fellow from Kolochava) became so popular that it became a kind of modern Czech folksong. Ulrych subsequently reworked and added songs for a full-scale musical, Kolocava (2001), staged by Stanislav Mosa to great success in Brno. Some of Ulrych's music was also used in yet another stage performance (2001) created for a theater in Uherske Hradiste by Tomas Mann. The fascination with Shuhai has extended as well to his birthplace in the Rusyn mountain village of Kolochava, which, together with the surrounding forests and meadows where he carried out his "campaigns," has in recent years become a kind of mecca for tourists from the Czech Republic. Further reading: Ota Holub, Vec: loupeznik Nikola Suhaj (Prague, 1985); Ivan Sen'ko, "Mykola Shuhai—u zhytti, fol'klori i literaturi," Carpatica/Karpatyka, Vol. I (Uzhhorod, 1992), pp. 142-154; TomaS Steiner, Kolocava (Brno, 2001). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Shuhaida, Makarii (b. ca. 1690; d. February 18, 17 Krasny Brod [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia) — monk-priest and educator in the Presov Region. Shuhaida was a *Basilian monk from Krasny Brod who first served as superior/protohegumen of the *Mukachevo Monastery of St. Nicholas

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture (1758-1765). In 1766 he returned to the Basilian monastery at Krasny Brod, where he became *hegumen (1769-1778). Shuhaida is best remembered for having established the philosophical and theological school at the monastery. It was because of the school's high reputation that the *Krasnyi Brid Monastery was not closed during the late eighteenth-century secularization campaign carried out by Austria's Emperor Joseph II (r. 1780-1790). The school established by Shuhaida was to remain an important cultural and educational center for Rusyns until the second half of the nineteenth century. IVAN POP

Shul'ha, Illia Havrylovych (b. August 3, 1921, Vereshchaky [Soviet Union], Ukraine; d. December 9, 1993, Vinnytsia, Ukraine) — Ukrainian historian, belletrist, and professor in Subcarpathian Rus'. After completing his graduate studies at the Institute of History of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR Shul'ha began teaching in 1954 at the University of Uzhhorod (professor, 1966), where he was long-time chairman (1958-1972) of the department of history of the Soviet Union. A specialist in peasant movements in Ukraine, he turned his attention to the socioeconomic history of * Subcarpathian Rus' in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. In two monographs on that subject (Sotsial'no-ekonomichne stanovyshche Zakarpattia v druhii polovyny XVIII St., 1962; Sotsial'no-ekonomichni vidnosyny i klasova borot'ba na Zakarpatti v kintsi XVIII—pershii polovyniXIXst., 1965) Shul'ha amassed a wide body of factual data. He presented these, however, within the strict guidelines of the Marxist schema of historical evolution governed by economic determinism and the careful selection of data in order to demonstrate the ever-present "class struggle" as the dynamic element in social development. Shul'ha was also an accomplished belletrist who wrote an historical novel about Carpathian robber-brigands (Brate mii: istorychna povist', 1971). After leaving Uzhhorod he taught at the Pedagogical Institute in Vinnytsia (1972-1991). Further reading: H.M. Avramenko, L.M. Shpyleva, O.D. Zakryvydoroha, and L.O. Mel'nyk, comps., Illia Havrylovych Shul'ha: bibliohrafichnyi pokazhchyk (Vinnytsia, 1991); V. Zadorozhnyi, M. M. Vegesh, and M. V. Olashyn, "Illia Shul'ha," in Istoriia Ukrainy v istorychnykhportretakh (Uzhhorod, 1996), pp. 102-113. IVAN POP

Shutiev, Ivan. See Art

Publishing House. Aside from original poetry and prose by Vojvodinian Rusyn authors, Shvetlosts also publishes translations from world literature, literary criticism, and bibliographies and historical studies on Vojvodinian Rusyns. The journal began as a quarterly; from 1977 until the 1990s it appeared six times a year. It has since been published sporadically. For nearly three decades (1966-1993) Diura *Papharha'i was the journal's editor-in-chief. Further reading: Diura Latiak, "Ruske slovo, " 1945-1985 (Novi Sad, 1985), pp. 102-113; Diura Papharhai', "Plodni i posni roki: 50 roki chasopisa 'Shvetlosts'," in Studio Ruthenica, Vol. VIII (Novi Sad, 2001-03), pp. 55-60. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Shvitania. See Varga, Mikhailo Shyrets'kyi, Ivan. See Art Sich. See Carpathian Sich Sichyns'kyi, Volodymyr lukhymovych (b. June 24, 1894, Kamianets'-Podil's'kyi [Podolia province, Russian Empire], Ukraine; d. Paterson, New Jersey, USA, June 25, 1962) — Ukrainian emigre architect, graphic artist, and art historian. After World War I Sichyns'kyi settled in Prague where he studied at Charles University (Ph.D., 1927) and taught at the emigre Ukrainian Pedagogical Institute. He remained in Czechoslovakia until the end of the World War II and during that period traveled several times to the *Presov Region to research that area's architecture. The result was various scholarly publications on the wooden church architecture of the *Makovytsia region (1937) and the renaissance chapel of Ivan Ostroz'kyi near Bardejov, as well as architectural and historical guides to the towns of Bardejov (1931) and Zborov (1939). His most significant work was a detailed monograph in Czech on wooden architecture throughout the entire Rusyninhabited territory—* Subcarpathian Rus', the Presov Region, and the *Lemko Region—Dfevene stavby v Karpatske oblasti (1940). Sichyns'kyi also designed the monumental Easternstyle Church of the Holy Spirit for the Redemptorist Order in Michalovce (1933-1934) and the Boiko-style wooden church for the Rusyn village of Nizny Komamik just south of the Dukla pass (1937). Further reading: Mykola Mushynka, Volodymyr Sichyns 'kyi i rusyny-ukraintsi Skhidnoi Slovachchyny (Presov, 1995). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Shutka, Mykhai'l. See Sova Shvedova, Anna. See Servyts'ka, Anna Shvetlosts — journal of "literature, culture, and social issues" published in Vojvodinian Rusyn in Novi Sad, Yugoslavia, now Serbia (1952-1954, 1966- ) by the Ruske Slovo

Siladji, Miroslav. See Internet Silets'kyi, Roman. See Historiography: Lemko Region Sil'vai, Ivan, loann/Szilvay, Janos (pseudonym Uriil Meteor) (b. March 15,1838, Suskovo [Hungarian Kingdom],

460 Ukraine; d. February 13, 1904, Nove Davydkovo [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine) — priest, writer, ethnographer, and cultural activist in Subcarpathian Rus' of Rusyn/Russophile orientation. The son of a Greek Catholic priest, Sil'vai completed his gymnasium studies in Uzhhorod and Satu Mare, then attended the Central Theological Seminary of the University of Budapest (1856-1860). After ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1862), he served in several Rusyn villages: Suskovo, Dusyno, Tun Remety (1881-1899), and Nove Davydkovo (1899-1904). Sil'vai wrote a wide body of spiritual and secular poetry, tales, short stories, essays on contemporary life, ethnographic studies, and sermons, most of which were published in newspapers such as Tserkovnaia hazeta, *Svit, *Novyi svit, *Karpat, and Slovo and in Rusyn annual almanacs (*Misiatsoslov). With the help of the Russian pan-Slavist, Vladimir Lamanskii, Sil'vai was able to publish his description ofRusyn wedding customs, "Svadebnye obriady v Ugorskoi Rusi," in the St. Petersburg journal, Zhivaia starina (1891). His critical articles against the magyarization policies of the bishop of Mukachevo, Shtefan *Pankovych, "Polozhenie ugorskikh russkikh pod upravleniem Stefana Pankovicha, episkopa Mukachevskago," also appeared in Russian in the St. Petersburg journal, Slavianskii /m> (1875), which alone attests to the courage of the author in the face of Hungarian state policy. Aware of the importance of historical research for the preservation of national identity, Sil'vai planned to write a history ofRusyn society covering the period from the 1830s to the end of the century. Parish duties prevented him from achieving that goal. The only book he published during his lifetime was a church hymnal, Pisennyk (1903). Of particular historical value is his posthumously published Avtobiogrqfiia (1938). Concerned with preserving his creative legacy, Sil'vai left at his death six volumes of manuscripts, one of which, Nashi sokrovishcha, is a descriptive survey of Subcarpathian churches, monasteries, and religious holidays. Several of his prose works appeared in the collection Sobranie sochinenii (1941). After other manuscripts were discovered in the 1960s, a more comprehensive edition of his works was published by Ivan and Andrii *Shlepets'kyi under the title Izbrannye proizvedeniia (1957). Further reading: Aleksandr V. Popov, Karpatorusskie pisateli: ocherki zhizni i tvorchestva (Mukachevo, 1931), pp. 43-75; Evgenii Nedziel'skii, "Ivan Antonovich Sil'vai (Uriil Meteor)," in I.A. Sil'vai, Izbrannye proizvedeniia (Bratislava, 1957), pp. 13-76; Liubytsia Babota, Zakarpatoukrains 'ka proza druhoi polovyny XIX stolittia (Bratislava and PreSov, 1994), pp. 147-178; lurii Bidzilia, Tvorchist' Ivana Sil'vaia (Uzhhorod, 2000). IVAN POP

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture [Czechoslovakia], Ukraine) — priest, dramatist, painter, composer, and choral director in Subcarpathian Rus'. The son of the priest and writer Ivan *Sil'vai, Sion completed the gymnasium and Theological Seminary in Uzhhorod and was ordained a Greek Catholic priest (1900). In the various villages where he served (Obava, Vorochevo, Turi Remety) Sil'vai established church choirs, some of which reached a professional level. His choir at Vorochevo performed in the Uzhhorod theater (1923). He also published a collection of songs based on Rusyn themes, Pisny (1926), from which the prayer for Rusyns, "Molytva Rusyna," remains one of the most popular hymns still sung at Rusyn cultural programs and other patriotic public events. Sion Sil'vai was best known in his lifetime for several plays he wrote, which were performed by the dramatic circle of the *Dukhnovych Society and by the professional * Subcarpathian Rusyn National Theater. Among these were Marusia (1930), performed as an operetta; Nedobre kota v mikhi kupovaty (1931); losyfprekrasnyi (1934); and Ovchar' (1933), which was dramatized for performance in four acts by Volodymyr Hrabar and Mykhai'l Lugosh (1940). Sil'vai wrote and preached in the "traditional Carpatho-Rusyn language," that is, *Church Slavonic mixed with Russian and Rusyn vernacular. MYKHAILO ALMASHII PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Simirenko, Alex. See Historiography: United States Simon, Constantine (b. May 1,1955, Perth Amboy, New Jersey, USA)—priest, professor, and historian in Italy. Simon is a priest of the Byzantine-Slavonic rite (ordained 1980) and a member of the Jesuit Order, who teaches Russian Orthodox Church and Balkan history at the Pontifical Oriental Institute in Rome. He has published widely on the early history of Carpatho-Rusyns in the United States, in particular on the Orthodox movement and the priest Alexis *Toth, studies which appeared in the journal Orientalia Christiana Periodica (1988, 1993, 1994). He has also written extensively o Teodor *Romzha, the bishop of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo at the time of its liquidation in 1949. Simon' scholarly writings are based on Vatican archival sources and are characterized by an impartial and balanced approach to the historical record. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Simon, Mozes. See Communist party; Jews Sinali, Ilona. See Mandych, Olena

Sil'vai, Sion (b. January 29, 1876, Suskovo [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. August 15, 1932, Tun Remet

Singer, A. See Sas, Andor

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Siryi. See Patrus-Karpats'kyi, Andrii

to become the event's "official" hymn. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Sisak, Jaroslav. See Sysak, laroslav Sivch/Sivc', Helena (b. October 22, 1922, Ruski Kerestur [Yugoslavia], Serbia) — painter, pedagogue, and Communist party activist among the Vojvodinian Rusyns. Sivch completed her studies at the Novi Sad gymnasium (1933-1941) and at the Advanced School of Education in Novi Sad and Sombor (1941-1943). As a student she sympathized with leftist and *Communist ideology, and she was briefly imprisoned for her beliefs by the Hungarian regime that held much of the *Vojvodina during World War II. Sivch began teaching in Ruski Kerestur in 1943; the following year she joined the underground Yugoslav ""Communist party. She took part in the liberation and participated in the town's first postwar administration. For her wartime services she was subsequently awarded with honors by the Communist Yugoslav state. After World War II Sivch studied at the Academy of Art in Belgrade and earned the title of academic artist. She eventually returned to Novi Sad, where she continued to teach and to be active in the town's artistic life. Her own work is in several genres: water colors, oil, drawing, and tapestry. It frequently depicts village scenes and employs folkloric designs and colors reminiscent of Vojvodinian Rusyn traditional life. Further reading: "Dusha ostanie niezadovol'na do kontsa zhivota: portret/interviiu z Heleny Sivchovy," Shvetlosts, XXV, 4 (Novi Sad, 1987), pp. 508-525. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Sivch, lakim/Sivc, Jakim (b. April 26, 1935, Ruski Kerestur [Yugoslavia], Serbia; d. December 2, 1987, Ruski Kerestur [Yugoslavia], Serbia) — composer, pedagogue, and cultural activist among the Vojvodinian Rusyns. Sivch graduated from the law faculty of the University of Belgrade, but he never practiced law. Ever since his youth he was in love with music, to which he devoted his entire life. He taught music in Rusyn elementary schools and from 1970 at the Rusyn gymnasium in Ruski Kerestur. In that same town he organized in 1962 the first annual *Chervena Ruzha Cultural Festival and actively directed or participated in that event each year until the end of his life. Sivch is best remembered as the composer of numerous dance songs and ballads, many of which were published in Zabavni melodii i romansi (1965). Some of his songs ("Kachmar, dai nam vino," "Zahrai gitaro," "PlTva khmarka," "Bili orgoni") so well reflected Vojvodinian Rusyn musical culture and became so popular that they were thought to be folk songs. The song he composed for the first Chervena Ruzha Cultural Festival, "Ruzhi, cherveni ruzhi" (Roses, Red Roses), was

Siwerniak. See Student Circle of Beskyd Mountain Tourist Guides S.K. Rus'. See Rus' Sports' Club Skimba, Stephen/Shkymba, Shtefan (b. February 3, 1895, Wolowiec [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. November 2, 1966, Ballston Spa, New York, USA) — musician and cultural activist of Russian national orientation among Rusyn immigrants in the United States. Skimba left the *Lemko Region in 1912 and emigrated to the United States, where he worked at odd jobs and served in the US Army (1916-1918). After World War I he settled in Waterbury, Connecticut, where he founded a local Carpatho-Russian National Club and, together with Mykhal Shostak, a branch of the *Lemko Committee in West Hazleton, Pennsylvania (1923). In 1926 Skimba moved to Brooklyn and he was to remain the rest of his life in the New York City metropolitan area. There he organized a Lemko musical group and is best remembered for a series of recordings of a Lemko wedding he produced for Okeh Records and another 21 recordings of Lemko folk music for Columbia Records, which together sold more than 125,000 copies. He also played a leading role in producing the film Lemko Wedding/Lemkovske vesil'ia (1929) and helped initiate a Lemko Beauty Contest/Lemkovska krasunia (1932) in nearby Jersey City, New Jersey. At first, Skimba worked closely with Dymytrii * Vyslotskii in promoting the *Lemko Association/Lemko-Soiuz during the early 1930s. When Vyslotskii became more and more Communist in orientation, Skimba broke with the organization and founded with Victor *Hladick the *Carpatho-Russian National Committee/Karpato-russkii natsional'nyi komitet (1935) to promote Orthodoxy and the Russian national orientation among Rusyn immigrants. After World War II Skimba was less active in community affairs, although he did become a member of the *Lemko Relief Committee (1957), intended to aid Lemkos in Poland and Ukraine. Further reading: V.P. Hladyk, "Lemkovske vesil'ia na rekordakh; Patriotychnyy predpriiatiia; Korotkii ocherk fyl'my 'Lemkovske Vesil'ia'," in Jubilee Almanac of the Russian Brotherhood Organization of U.S.A., 1900-1940 (Philadelphia, Pa., 1939), pp. 130-148, 152-156; "Korotkaia istoriia iz zhizni Stefana Shkimby, lemkovskogo starosti," in lubileinyi kalendar 'Obshchestva russkikh bratstv, 1900-1950 (Philadelphia, 1950), pp. 76-78. BOGDAN HORBAL

Skuban, Mikola (b. July 2, 1932, Kucura [Yugoslavia], Serbia; d. September 3, 1993, Ruski Kerestur [Yugoslavia], Serbia) — belletrist, journalist, and amateur actor among

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the Vojvodinian Rusyns. After completing his studies at the gymnasia in Ruski Kerestur and Vrbas Skuban worked as a journalist in the Rusyn division of Radio Novi Sad (19501955) and then for the newspaper *Ruske slovo. He began his literary career in 1951 while still a gymnasium student in Ruski Kerestur. In the 1950s and 1960s Skuban wrote rhyming verse in the spirit of Socialist Realism; by the 1970s he was using free verse. In much of his poetry he is a follower of the Serbian poet Jovan I. Zmaj. Skuban's first published children's poetry (Pisn'iza dzetsi i o dzetsokh, 1965; Dobri toti dzetsi, 1981), followed by poems in prose for adults, Kadzi idze chlovek(l9S\). He also completed three volumes of prose; critics consider the most successful of these to be the collection of short stories, Stari stvari (1976), in which the history of ancient domestic utensils appears to be no less complicated than the history of the life of man. Skuban made literary translations from various languages into Rusyn, and his own works have been translated into Serbo-Croatian, Ukrainian, and Slovak, among other languages. Further reading: luliian Tamash, "Literaturna tvorchosts Mikoli Skubana," Shvetlosts, XIX, 6 (Novi Sad, 1981), pp. 617-621. ALEKSANDR D. DULICHENKO

Skultety — charters issued by Hungary's feudal landlords that granted to peasants the right to settle abandoned villages or to establish new settlements in places not yet acquired by the landlords themselves. Skyba, Teofan. See Blahovistnyk Skvirtnians'kyi, Ivan. See Ukrainian Lemko Museum Slaven. See Dobrians'kyi, Adol'f Slaveno-Rusyn language. See Church Slavonic; Language question Slavic Congress. See Pan-Slavism Slavknyha. See Printing and Publishing; Ukrainian National Council of the Presov Region; Zhydovs'kyi, Petro

Slavjane—Rusyn-American folk ensemble. Established in 1973 and based in McKees Rocks, Pennsylvania, Slavjane has about 50 members organized in youth and senior-level groups. Although it performs dances and songs from several Slavic peoples, its repertory is based largely on Rusyn folk music. Since the late 1980s the ensemble has been sponsored by the *Greek Catholic Union ofRusyn Brotherhoods. Its founding director and choreographer is Jack Poloka (b. 1938), who in recent years has been assisted by his son, Dean Poloka (b. 1971). Slavjane performs at the annual Pittsburgh Folk Festival and

at several venues in western Pennsylvania and neighboring areas; in 1992 it was the first Rusyn-American ensemble to perform in the European homeland, at the annual Festival of Culture and Sport held in Medzilaborce, Slovakia. Further reading: Robert Carl Metyl, "Interethnic Conflict Alliance, and Identity in the History of the Slavjane Folk Ensemble," CarpathoRusyn American, XIX, 4 (Fairfax, Va., 1996), pp. 7-11. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Slavophiles. See Pan-Slavism Slavs, Early settlement patterns. The original homeland of the Slavs is considered by most contemporary scholars to have been between the Elbe, Vistula, Buh, and Pripe rivers north of the Carpathians. The first proto-Slavic tribal unions began to form during the late Bronze and early Iron Ages (1200-1000 BCE). From this core area the proto-Slavs gradually settled the great expanse of land stretching from the Elbe River in the west to the Dnieper River in the east and from the Baltic Sea in the north to the *Carpathian Mountains in the south. Throughout they established an agriculturallybased society which archeologists refer to as the "Lusatian" culture (1400-300 BCE). About 500 BCE these proto-Slavs found themselves in difficult straits. Under pressure from the nomadic Scythians in the east, they retreated to the valleys of the Pripet and Buh rivers. Meanwhile, the dynamic Celts took over Bohemia, Moravia, the upper Vistula region, and part of Silesia and the Upper Tisza Region, while farther west Germanic tribes pushed across the Elbe and moved into the Oder River valley. Consequently, the Slavs were pushed farther away from the centers of civilization, ancient Greece and Rome, with the result that they were to remain behind the general evolution of central, southern, and western Europe. Several more centuries would have to go by before the Slavic tribes would be able to create consolidated sociopolitical entities. In the first century BCE and the first century CE the Slavs began again to expand gradually from their original homeland in an eastward, westward, and southward direction; in the process they assimilated a part of the Germanic and perhaps the Celtic tribes which they encountered. By contrast, in the east (present-day southern Ukraine), the Slavs pushed up against new Irano-speaking tribes: the Antes, the Croats, and the Serbs. The Antes headed a tribal union, composed primarily of Slavs, which attempted to block the advance during the fourth century CE of yet another nomadic people from the east, the Huns. The Croats united the Slavic tribes living in Galicia, the Carpathian region, Silesia, and a part of Bohemia, from which they formed a large tribal union referred to by authors of the ancient world as the lands of the * White Croats, or White Croatia. Somewhat farther to the west, the Serbs established their authority over Slavic tribes living between the Elbe and

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Saale rivers (upper Saxony and Lusatia). In effect, the Antes, Croats, and Serbs formed only the military elite in these tribal unions and they were soon slavicized. Beginning in the third century CE, the Slavs began to cross the western Carpathian passes and to take over territories in Slovakia and the Upper Tisza Region, and to push on even farther south to the borders of the Roman provinces of *Dacia and Pannonia as far as the Danube River. For a certain period, this Slavic advance was held in check by the Germanic Goths and then by Asiatic nomadic peoples, at first the Huns (fourthfifth centuries), then the *Avars (sixth-eighth centuries). By the sixth century, however, the Slavic settlement of central and eastern Europe was completed. At the same time, the Antes tribal union was pushed back into the forest region beyond the steppe by the Huns and then destroyed by the Avars. As a result, the Antes disappeared from history. By contrast, the Croats and Serbs maintained control over the Slavic tribes under their hegemony. The tribal union known as White Croatia extended from the upper reaches of the Dniester river valley proceeding westward along the slopes of the Carpathian Mountains as far as southeastern Bohemia. The Serb/Sorab union was concentrated in the valleys of the Elbe and Saale rivers. But in the sixth century, just as the Slavs had completed the process of replacing the Celts, the Germanic tribes, and the Thracians throughout central Europe, the Avars crossed the Carpathians and created their own state, the Avar Kaganate, in the Danubian Basin. For nearly 200 years the Avars dominated all the peoples, including the various Slavic tribes, living in the region from the Alps in the west to the Carpathians in the east and as far south as the Sava, Drava, and Danube rivers. As a result of the Avar presence, the Slavs of central Europe were held back from general European developments as experienced by their neighbors, the Germanic tribes. The Avars experienced their first great defeat in 627 below the walls of Constantinople. The Byzantine Emperor Heraclius (r. 610-641) defended his capital by reinforcing his imperial troops with Croat and Serb warriors whom he invited to Byzantium from the Carpathian and upper Elbe regions. The Byzantine victory freed the Slavs living in Illyria (present-day Croatia and Serbia) from Avar domination. The grateful emperor then settled this Byzantine borderland with Croats and later Serb tribes from the north. The local Slavic peoples not only welcomed the Croat and Serb leaders and their retinues as defenders, they even adopted their tribal name as their own. Farther to the southeast, along the lower Danubian valley, the local Slavs in 679 accepted into their ranks Bulgar tribes (of Tatar origin) from the upper Volga Region. They did this in an effort to defend themselves from the Avars to the north and their powerful neighbor to the south, the Byzantine Empire. The Bulgar leaders created a state known as the *Bulgarian Khanate/Greater Bulgaria, which during the ninth century

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became the most powerful force in the Balkans. It was also not long after the arrival of the Bulgars along the lower Danube that the local Slavs succeeded in slavicizing the newcomers, although they adopted the name Bulgar as their own. Hence among the Slavs who settled in the Balkans it is only the Slovenes who managed to retain their original Slavic name as an ethnonym. As a result of the exodus southward by the strongest leaders and armed retinues of White Croatia, that tribal union was considerably weakened, although it continued to exist along the northern slopes of the Carpathians and was able as well to extend its influence over the Slavs living along the southern slopes. The Slavic tribes within the White Croatian tribal union survived until the end of the eighth century, when the Avars were defeated and their kaganate destroyed at the hands of the Prankish king, Charlemagne (r. 771 -814), who had formed an alliance with Slavs in the middle Danube region. Immediately thereafter, the first Slavic state in central Europe came into being: the *Great Moravian Empire. At its height, during the reign of Svatopulk (r. 870-894), Greater Moravia eliminated its weak neighbor, White Croatia, and extended its own sphere of influence to the eastern Carpathians. It is to this era of Greater Moravia that scholars attribute the christianization of the Slavs in the Upper Tisza Region, following the late ninthcentury mission of *Constantine/Cyril and Methodius. Early Slavic history in eastern Europe, including the Upper Tisza Region, can be divided into two periods: the Early Slavic Period (second half of the fifth to the seventh century CE), and the Old Slavic Period (eighth and ninth centuries CE). Settlements in the Upper Tisza Region from the Early Slavic Period have as yet been insufficiently studied. The settlement patterns are assumed to be of the "open" variety, that is, falling along river valleys in which the dwellings were grouped together in "nest-like" communities (the Tur, Tisza/Tysa, Latorytsia, Uzh river valleys) or spread out as individual dwelling units (the Laborec, Ondava, Topl'a, Olsava, Torysa river valleys). There were also protected hill forts at Solotvyno, Mala Kopania, Vary, Zemplin, Mukachevo, Uzhhorod, and Sarisske Sokolovce (see Map 1). The dwellings themselves were either partially underground dugouts (8-12 sq. meters) or above-ground log-frame structures (15-20 sq. meters). They were heated with clay or, in a few cases, with stone stoves. Burial practices from the Early Slavic Period were characterized by cremation, after which the ashes were deposited in urns buried in graves or left at the place of cremation. Grave mounds (kurgans) were also known among these early Slavic settlers, the most famous of which is near the village of Cherven'ovo west of Mukachevo in Subcarpathian Rus'. Between 5 and 9 meters of earth were placed above the bodies. The material remains of the inhabitants were quite modest and included Prague-type pottery, frying pans, dishes, and distaffs. Somewhat more varied are the material remains of settlers

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dating from the subsequent Old Slavic Period. These include ceramics made on pottery wheels and some iron implements, such as knives, hoes, scythes, fish hooks, pointed arrows, and female adornments. The Slavic population lived basically from farming and livestock raising and was organized into territorial communes whose basic unit was the family. The communes were headed by tribal leaders who, in turn, were supported by their retinues (druzhyny). During the Old Slavic period the Slavs of the Upper Tisza Region lived in what might be called the stage of military democracy. At the end of the eighth and in the early ninth centuries political structures in the form of tribal unions began to develop, centered around protected hill forts such as Sarisske Sokolovce, Smizany, Zemplin, Brekov, Uzhhorod, Vary, and Solotvyno. Some of these had already been established by the earlier Thracian and Celtic settlers but reinforced by the Slavs with earthen ramparts, moats, and palisades; others were built anew. The Slavic tribal unions continued to exist until the creation of early medieval states throughout central and eastern Europe. Further reading: Markiian lu. Smishko, Karpats 'ki kurhany pershoi polovyny I tysiacholittia nasho'i ery (Kiev, 1960); Les questions fondamentales du peuplement du bassin des Carpathes du VIHeme an Xeme siecle (Budapest, 1972); Valentin V. Sedov, Proiskhozhdenie i ranniaia istoriia slavian (Moscow, 1979); Stepan I. Pen'iak, Rann 'oslov 'ians 'ke i davn 'orus 'ke naselennia Zakarpattia VI-XIII st. (Kiev, 1980); Bohuslav Chropovsky, Die Slawen: historische, politische und kulturelle Entwicklung und Bedeutung (Prague, 1988); Drevniaia istoriia Verkhnego Potis'ia (Eviv, 1991). IVAN POP

Slepecky, Andrej. See Shlepets'kyi, Andrii Slepecky, Andrew. See Russian Orthodox Church in North America; Vavrik, Vasilii Slepecky, Ivan. See Shlepets'kyi, Ivan

Slivka, John (b. November 12,1899, Jessup, Pennsylvania, USA; d. November 1, 1986, Brooklyn, New York, USA) — priest and historian ofRusyn descent in the United States. Slivka was among a small group of American-bom seminarians sent to study at the Greek Catholic Seminary in Uzhhorod just after World War I. After graduation he returned home and became one of the last married men ordained to the priesthood (1926) into the *Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic Church in the United States. Slivka was always concerned with defending the Byzantine rite and other Eastern religious and Rusyn secular traditions. He believed that Rusyns are a distinct nationality, and in several popular works, including Who Are We? (1977), he argued that the name Rusyn (in his spelling Rusiri) should be used to describe the people while Greek Catholic, and not Byzantine, properly described their

church. He was particularly concerned with the increasing slovakization of the Rusyn population in northeastern Slovakia, a theme that dominates his History of the Greek Rite Catholics in Pannonia, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Podkarpatska Rus', 863-1949 (1974). Slivka also prepared short Rusyn-English and English-Rusyn dictionaries (1963, 1973) and a collection of documents on Rusyn-American history, Historical Mirror: Sources of the Rusin and Hungarian Greek Rite Catholics in the United States of America, 1884-1963 (1978). His extensive library and archive was deposited after his death at the Heritage Institute Museum and Library of the Byzantine Catholic Eparchy of *Passaic. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Slobodan, Slavko. See Kercha, Igor

Slobodnyky, Sabadosok — peasants who for extraordinary services were granted by their landlords absolution from feudal duties and the right to own land. In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries this group of peasants gradually lost their rights and once again became subject to feudal landlords. IVAN POP

Slovaks — a West Slavic people living primarily within the boundaries of present-day Slovakia and in smaller numbers as a minority in neighboring countries. Slovaks share a common ethnolinguistic border with Rusyns in northeastern Slovakia, stretching roughly from the Poprad River near the Tatra Mountain range to the city of Uzhhorod, located just east of Slovakia's boundary with Ukraine. Currently within Ukraine there are over 5,700 Slovaks living in several villages and small towns of *Subcarpathian Rus'/Transcarpathia, primarily in the western part of the region (Storozhnytsia/Iovra, Antalovtsi, Turi Remety, Rodnykova Huta, Velykyi Bereznyi) as well as somewhat farther east (Dovhe, Lysychevo). In the 1990s they established two cultural organizations as well as a woman's organization which publishes the bi-lingual SlovakUkrainian magazine, Dovera (2000-). A few books and almanacs about Slovak life in Subcarpathian Rus' have appeared. The Slovak language is taught informally in a few elementary schools, and a Department of Slovak Language and Literature exists since 1996 at Uzhhorod State University. Until 1918 the entire Slovak-Rusyn borderland area was part of the Hungarian Kingdom and divided into the counties of *Spish (Slovak: Spis), *Sharysh (Saris), *Zemplyn (Zemplin), and *Ung (Uz). Slovaks lived primarily in the central portion of each of these counties, the Rusyns farther north in an area that came to be known as the *Presov Region. In 1818 Presov became the seat of a Greek Catholic eparchy, and although the city was well within Slovak ethnolinguistic

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture territory it gradually became a center for Rusyn cultural, educational, and religious life. Most Slovaks, like the Rusyns, earned their livelihood through agriculture and related pursuits, and by the late nineteenth century both peoples suffered from a low standard of living, high unemployment, and extensive emigration abroad, in particular to the northeastern United States. Aside from common socioeconomic characteristics, Slovaks and Rusyns found it easy to communicate with each other, since the eastern Slovak dialects (Saris and Zemplin) were very close to the local Rusyn dialects of the Presov Region. Finally, the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov, at least until 1918, included among its faithful not only most Rusyns but also many Slovaks; the latter included both ethnic Slovaks as well as former Rusyns who had become slovakized, in particular between the 1840s and 1890s (see Map 9). Shared characteristics encouraged mutual sympathy and cooperation between Slovak and Rusyn intellectuals during their respective national awakenings. In the eighteenth century Slovak authors (Matej Bel, Adam F. *Kollar, Anton Szirmay) recognized the existence of Rusyns in their ethnographic and historic studies, a tradition that was to be continued during the first half of the nineteenth century by the *pan-Slavists Pavol Jozef Safarik and Jan Kollar, whose widely read epic poem, Sldvy deem (Daughter of Slavia, 1832), singled out the Rusyn writer Mykhail *Luchkai as one of the Slavic world's five most important national awakeners. The main codifier of the Slovak literary language, Eudovit Stur, recognized Rusyn as a distinct language, and the first Slovak newspapers (Slovenskje ndrodnje novini and Pest'budinske vedomosti) were filled with materials on Carpatho-Rusyns. Several Slovak writers and publicists (Viliam Pauliny-Toth, Andrej Radlinsky, Jonas *Zaborsky, Peter Kellner-Hostinsky) maintained close ties with their Rusyn counterparts, and two Slovaks (Jan Andrascik, Bonus Nosak-Nezabudov) became members of the first Rusyn cultural organization, the *Presov Literary Society. Slovaks and Rusyns also took up common cause as political activists. At the Slav Congress of 1848 Jozef M. Hurban issued a memorandum on behalf of both the Slovaks and Rusyns of Hungary, demanding that they be recognized as distinct nationalities, while the leading Rusyn political activist, Adol'f *Dobrians'kyi, represented a Slovak district in the Hungarian parliament and was a founding member of the Slovak Cultural Foundation/Matica slovenska. Later, on the eve of World War I, Slovak political leaders (Milan Hodza) were quick to defend Rusyns persecuted for their religious and national convictions. Slovak-Rusyn relations changed after the war. Both peoples were co-founders with Czechs of the new state of Czechoslovakia, which took its final form in early 1919. Almost immediately, however, controversy arose over the question of the border between Slovakia and the province of Subcarpathian Rus' to the east. According to the Paris Peace

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Conference (*Treaty of St. Germain, September 1919), Rusyns living south of the Carpathians were to be accorded self-rule within the new Czechoslovak state. Rusyn leaders expected that the Rusyns who inhabited northern Spish, Sharysh, and Zemplyn counties would be part of Subcarpathian Rus'. For their part, Slovaks claimed not only that these three counties but also Ung county and the city of Uzhhorod should be included within Slovakia. In the end a provisional boundary, first along the Uzh River, and after 1928 slightly farther west, was established. This solution pleased neither side. The Rusyns now found themselves to be the state nationality in Subcarpathian Rus', but only a national minority in northeastern Slovakia. Throughout the 1920s and 1930s Rusyn polemicists claimed that the Czechoslovak censuses (1921 and 1930) undercounted the number of Rusyns in northeastern Slovakia and that the Rusyn elementary school system in the Presov Region was being slovakized. Slovak spokespersons, especially in the nationalistic Slovenska liga/Slovak League, claimed that Rusyn national leaders (whether pro-Rusyn, pro-Russian, or pro-Ukrainian in orientation) and priests (both Greek Catholic and Orthodox) were trying to rusynize local Slovaks. For their part Rusyn publicists were quick to believe a statement attributed in the 1930s to the popular and influential Slovak nationalist leader, Andrej Hlinka, that Rusyns should be "deported in wagons" to the East. Tensions increased further in the wake of the Munich Pact, when in October 1938 Rusyn political parties campaigned openly for the detachment of the Rusyn-inhabited Presov Region and its unification with Subcarpathian Rus'. Such demands were no longer feasible following Nazi Germany and Hungary's dismantling of Czechoslovakia in March 1939, but they were renewed at the close of the World War II, when in January 1945 the *Ukrainian National Council of the Presov Region (representing the Rusyns) called for unification with *Transcarpathian Ukraine (the former Subcarpathian Rus'), which in turn was about to be annexed to the Soviet Union. A quick and firm reaction by the Slovak National Council prompted the Presov-based Ukrainian National Council to change its demands to future cooperation with Slovaks and Czechs in the postwar Czechoslovakia. Despite ongoing political controversies between Slovak and Rusyn political and cultural leaders, there was never any violence between the two peoples, and at the village level both groups interacted closely and intermarried without difficulty. It was precisely the ease of interaction between the two peoples that resulted in an unexpected phenomenon: the large-scale assimilation of Rusyns, who adopted a Slovak national identity during the decades following World War II. In part, this development was a function of "natural" assimilatory processes that occur when inhabitants in rural areas (in this case Rusyns) move to urban areas where the dominant or official language (in this case Slovak) is one

466 other than their own. Another important factor was connected with the policies of Czechoslovakia's government after it became Communist in 1948 (see Communism). Anxious to follow the lead of the world's first workers' state, the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia's Communists adopted Soviet policy regarding the nationality question among the Rusyns. In the early 1950s Slovakia's Rusyns (like those in neighboring Soviet Transcarpathia a few years earlier) were declared to be Ukrainian and their school system (which had previously used Rusyn and literary Russian) adopted Ukrainian as the language of instruction. It did not help matters that the implementation of ukrainianization took place at the same time that the traditional symbol of Rusyn identity, the Greek Catholic Church, was abolished (1950) and agricultural lands were forcibly collectivized. Displeased with such developments, but with no recourse in an era of Stalinist-style totalitarian rule, by the late 1950s and especially the 1960s, Rusyn parents began to demand that their children be taught in schools using Slovak as the language of instruction. The change in schools was accompanied by an increasing trend for Rusyns to identify themselves as being of Slovak instead of Ukrainian (the only other legal option at the time) nationality. In 1930 over 91,000 inhabitants identified as Rusyn in Slovakia; by 1970 the number of Ukrainians (i.e., Rusyns) declined to merely 32,000. Paradoxically, as slovakization was on the increase, many Rusyns were enjoying successful careers in the Communist regime and Ukrainian cultural institutions were liberally funded. These developments often caused resentment among Slovaks, who felt "their" society was being ruled by Rusyn Communists (among whom Vasil' Bilak was the most infamous) supported by the Soviet Union. Since the fall of the Communist regime in Czechoslovakia in November 1989 and the establishment of an independent Slovakia in 1993, government policy toward Rusyns has changed. The Slovak state recognized the right of all its citizens to declare freely their own nationality, and Rusyns are once again recognized as a distinct people. The Slovak government provides support for Rusyn cultural and educational institutions and for a Rusyn-language media. Several Slovak scholars, some going back to the Communist era, have written important books on Rusyn-related topics, including the ethnographer Jan *Podolak and the historians L'udovit *Haraksim, Michal *Popovic, and Peter *Svorc. A branch of the Slovak Academy of Sciences in Kosice includes scholars (Marian *Gajdos, Stanislav *Konecny) who since the mid1980s have produced excellent analyses about the recent past and current status of Rusyns in northeastern Slovakia. On the other hand, the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov, which was allowed to function after 1968 and was fully restored (with its former property) after 1989, has become an instrument of slovakization. Under its first bishop of Slovak nationality, Jan Hirka, the Eparchy of Presov has gradually replaced

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture *Church Slavonic (in the liturgy) and Rusyn (for homilies) with Slovak, and it systematically downplays or ignores the traditional relationship of the Greek Catholic Church and its clergy (Aleksander *Dukhnovych, Aleksander *Pavlovych, Emilij *Kubek, loann Kyzak, Bishop Pavel *Goidych) with the Rusyn nationality. These developments in the post-Communist era have elicited criticism of the state and by extension of Slovaks in general: some Rusyns are displeased with the slovakization policies of the Greek Catholic Church and continuing government support of Ukrainian-oriented institutions. Those of Ukrainian national orientation (the so-called Rusyn-Ukrainians) classify the government's recognition of the Rusyn nationality as a deliberate ploy to divide an already small minority people and to advance national assimilation and slovakization. But the vast majority of Rusyns continue to interact positively with their Slovak neighbors who, in turn, have an increasing appreciation and acceptance of the multinational and multicultural reality of the Slovak state. Further reading: Volodymyr Hnatiuk, "Slovaky chy Rusyny?," Zapysky Naukovoho tovarystva imeny Shevchenka, XLII (Eviv, 1901), pp. 1-81; Lubor Niederle, "K sporu o ruskoslovenske rozhrani v Uhrach," Slovansky pfehled, V (Prague, 1903), pp. 345349; Lubor Niederle, "Jeste k sporu o ruskoslovenskou hranici v Uhrach," ibid., VI (1904), pp. 258-261; Frantisek Pastrnek, "Rusini jazyka slovenskeho: odpoved' panu Vlad. Hnat'jukovi," in Vladimir I. Lamanskii, ed., Stat'i po slavianoviedieniiu, Vol. II (St. Petersburg, 1906), pp. 60-78; Stanislav Klima, "Ruskoslovenska hranice na vychodne Slovenska," Slovansky pfehled, IX (Prague, 1907), pp. 60-63 and 112-121; Jan Hiisek, Ndrodopisnd hranice mezi Slovaky a Karpatorusy (Bratislava, 1925); Jaromir Korcak, "Etnicky vyvoj ceskoslovenskeho Potisi," Ndrodnostni obzor, III (Prague, 1933), pp. 209-217 and 266-273; Karol Sidor, Na Podkarpatskej Rusi: uvahy, rozhovory a dojmy (Bratislava, 1933); Jan Ruman, Otdzka slovensko-rusinskeho pomeru na vychodnom Slovensku (KoSice, 1935); Otzyvy po voprosu karpatorussko-slovatskikh otnoshenii (Presov, 1936); Kamil Krofta, "Cechoslovaci a Podkarpatska Rus," in Jaroslav Zatloukal, ed., Podkarpatskd Rus (Bratislava, 1936), pp. 19-29; Andrej R. Malaga, Slovanske osidlenie Potisia a vychodoslovenski greckokatolici (Kosice, 1947); Mykhailo Mol'nar, Slovaky i ukraintsi (Bratislava and Presov, 1965); Omelian Stavrovs'kyi, Slovats 'ko-pol's 'ko-ukra'ins 'ke prykordonnia do 18 stolittia (Bratislava and Presov, 1976); Andrej DudaS, Rusinska otdzka a jej uzadie (Buenos Aires, 1971); Paul Robert Magocsi, "Rusyns and the Slovak State," Slovakia, XXIX (West Paterson, N.J., 1980-81), pp. 39-44; Eubica Babotova, "Zakarpatskoukrajinski narodni buditelia a slovenske narodne hnutie v obdobi romantizmu," in Jednota mlddeze slovenskej a literdrny romantizmus (Kosice, 1989), pp. 155-160; Alena Zel'ova, "Identita prislus'nikov etnickych menSin z narodnostne zmiesanych oblasti Slovenska—socialnopsychologicky pristup," Slovensky ndrodopis, XXXIX, 2 (Bratislava, 1991), pp. 132-142; Paul Robert Magocsi, "Mapping Stateless Peoples: The East Slavs of the Carpathians," Canadian Slavonic

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Papers, XXXIX, 3-4 (Edmonton, 1997), pp. 301-334—in Slovak: Vychodni Slovania v Karpatoch (Bratislava, 2000); Roman Holec, "Postoj Cechov a Slovakov k Rusinom v predvecer prvej svetovej vojny," in Cesko-slovenskd historickd rocenka 1997 (Brno, 1997), pp. 29-37; Ladislav Cam, ed., Slovdci na Zakarpatskej Ukrajine (Bratislava, 1998); Jan Bobak, Slovdci na Podkarpatskej Rusi a ich presidl'ovanie do Cesko-Slovenska v roku 1947 (Bratislava, 1998); Alexander Duleba, Ukrajina a Slovensko (Bratislava, 2000), esp. pp. 65-123; Stanislav Konechni, "Rusyn'skyi vopros v sloven'skii polititsi," in Rusyn skyi narodnyi kalendar' na rik 2001 (Presov, 2000), pp. 88-93; Jan Dorm"a, ed., Slovensko-rusinsko-ukrajinske vzt 'ahy od obrodenia po sucasnost' (Bratislava, 2000); Alexander Duleba, "Podkarpatska Rus a Slovensko: geopoliticke aspekty vzajomnych vzt'ahov so zretel'om na medzivojnove obdobie, 19181939," in Miroslav Peknik et al., Pohl'ady na slovensku politiku (Bratislava, 2000), pp. 228-243; Marian GajdoS, Maria Homisinova, Stanislav Kone6ny et al., Rusini/Ukrajinci na Slovensku na konci 20. storocia (Presov, 2001): I. O. Shnitser, "Slovaky Zakarpattia v 20kh rr. XX St.," Carpatica-Karpatyka, Vol. XIV (Uzhhorod, 2002), pp. 133-142; Peter Svorc, Krajinskd hranica medzi Slovenskom a Podkarpatskou Rusou v medzivojnovom obdobi, 1919-1939 (PreSov, 2003); Alexander Duleba, "A View from Slovakia," in Peter Jordan and Mladen Klemencic, eds., Transcarpathia—Bridgehead or Periphery? (Frankfurt am Main, 2004), pp. 201-219. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Slovo. See Old Ruthenianism Slovo naroda. SeeNevyts'ka, Iryna; Shelepets', losyf

Rus' and the Presov Region Smishko, Markiian. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region Smisko/Smishko, Nicholas. See American CarpathoRussian Orthodox Greek Catholic Diocese Smith, John. See Greek Catholic Union; Russian Brotherhood Organization Smolak, Miroslav. See Cinema

Smor, Adalbert. See Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic Church in the USA

Smoter, Rudolf. See PULS Sobolch. See County Sobolevskii, Aleksander L. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region Sobor of Presov. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov; Unia/Church Union Sobranije greko-kaftoliceskich cerkovnych bratstv. See United Societies of Greek Catholic Religion in the USA

Slyvka, lurii lu. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region

Sobyn, Melanii. See Literature: Lemko Region

Smerekanych, Petro (pseudonym: Hryhorii Maryndia) (b. August 20, 1909, Swierzowa Ruska [Austrian Galicia], Poland) — Lemko journalist and cultural activist of Ukrainian national orientation in Poland and Ukraine. After graduating (1929) from the Teachers' College in Sambir Smerekanych taught in several Lemko elementary schools in the Gorlice district. He promoted a Ukrainian national consciousness among Lemkos as founding editor (1934-1936) of the Ukrainian-language newspaper, *Nash Lemko, and as primary author of a Lemko reader published by luliian *Tarnovych, Persha lemkivs'ka chytanka (1934). In 1945 Smerekanyc emigrated to Ukraine, completed studies at the Kiev Pedagogical Institute of Foreign Languages (1958), and began to teach English. Since retiring (1971), he has prepared a collection of short stories and essays on the life of Lemkos in their former Carpathian homeland. Smerekanych is active in the Eviv branch of the *Lemko Region Society in Ukraine.

Sochka, Vasylii (pseudonyms:Vasilii Borzhavin, Aleksandr Andreichik, lurii Sokolich, Stepan Sokolich, M. Varga) (b. January 3, 1922, Berehovo [Czechoslovakia], Ukraine) — poet, publicist, literary historian, pedagogue, and cultural activist in Subcarpathian Rus' ofRusyn national orientation. After completing the Russian gymnasium in Khust (1940) Sochka entered the University of Budapest during World War II, but he graduated from Uzhhorod State University (1950). He worked on the editorial staff of the newspaper Zakarpats 'ka pravda and as a bibliographer at the Transcarpathian Regional Library in Uzhhorod, and was section head at the Transcarpathian Institute for Teacher Refresher Courses. Sochka's career as a Russian-language poet began during his student years with the appearance of Gory i dolia (1940) published under the pseudonym Vasilii Borzhavin. His next collections appeared much later: Verkhovinskie napevy (1960) and Gory i dolia: poeziia iproza (1990). In the post-Communist era Sochka has become one of the leading figures of the Rusyn movement in Subcarpathian Rus'. He

BOGDAN HORBAL

Smiian, Petro K. See Historiography: Subcarpathian

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was a co-founder and chairman (1991-1992) of the *Society of Carpatho-Rusyns and member (1991-1995) of the executive board (Svitova rada) of the *World Council of Rusyns, and he has participated in several conferences at home and abroad promoting the Rusyn literary heritage. Sochka has published a series of biographies ofRusyn writers, Budyteli podkarpats'kykh rusynov (1995); a small book of his own Rusyn-language poems, Vpodbeskydnykh dolynakh (1996); and a collection of essays and speeches on various aspects of Rusyn literature and culture, Zazvonyly v sell na vychurniu (1999). IVAN POP

Social-Democratic party — political party in Subcarpathian Rus' during the period of Czechoslovak rule. Established in 1920 as the Subcarpathian Rusyn Independent Social-Democratic party/Podkarpato-rus'ka nezavysyma sotsial-demokratychna partiia, it subsequently became the Subcarpathian branch of the Czechoslovak Social-Democratic party. Its founders and early activists included latsko *Ostapchuk, levhenii Puza, and Stepan *Klochurak, and it was supported by Gregory *Zhatkovych during his tenure (1920-1921) as first governor of * Subcarpathian Rus'. The party drew its support mainly from Rusyn, Magyar, Jewish, and Czech factory workers in the region's cities and small towns as well as among peasant farmers and factory workers in rural areas. It established several unions and cooperatives, especially in the lumber industry. The Social-Democratic party claimed to represent the working classes; it was not however Marxist in orientation but "independent" and thus a direct rival to the region's *Communist party, which was allied with the Bolshevik-led international communist movement. While the national Czechoslovak Social-Democratic party was pro-government, its Subcarpathian branch was opposed to Prague because of the latter's refusal to grant *autonomy and to unite the Rusyn-inhabited lands of eastern Slovakia with Subcarpathian Rus'. With regard to the nationality question, the Social Democrats supported the Ukrainian orientation. The party's views were pomoted through several weekly newspapers: the Rusyn- and later Ukrainian-language *Vpered, the Hungarian-language Szabadsdg, and the Czech-language Hlas Vychodu( 1928-33). The Social Democrats were the third largest party in Subcarpathian Rus' with respect to voting strength, garnering in parliamentary elections 23,800 votes (9.4 percent) in 1924; 18,200 votes (7.4 percent) in 1925; 22,900 votes (8.6 percent) in 1929; and 29,700 votes (9.2 percent) in 1935. This support allowed the Subcarpathian branch of the party to be represented by deputies in each parliament: in 1924-1929 by Jaromir Necas; in 1929-1935 by Ihor Husnai; and in 19351938 by luliian *Revai and Chaim Kugel, and, in the Senate, by Joszef Balla. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Society for Admirers of Lemko Culture. See Lemko Section of the Ukrainian Civic and Cultural Society; Vatra

Society for Rusyn Language, Literature, and Culture/Druzhtvo za ruski iazik, literaturu i kulturu — scholarly organization for the study of the Vojvodinian Rusyn language. The society was established in Novi Sad, Yugoslavia, in 1970; its founding chairman was Mikola *Kochish. It includes three sections: (1) the linguistic section—for work on terminology and problems related to language standardization; (2) the literature section—to coordinate the work of the Club of Writers, Journalists, Publicists, and Translators; and (3) the heritage section—to coordinate the work of the Club of Creative Writers. The society publishes the scholarly journal, *Tvorchosts (1975-86), renamed Studia Ruthenica (1988- ), and it sponsors periodically four events: an international scholarly conference named after the Vojvodinian Rusyn linguist Mikola Kochish; a conference on Rusyn schools; a children's theatrical festival; and a literary forum in the town of Kucura. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Society of Carpatho-Rusyns/Obshchestvo karpats'kykh Rusynov — cultural and political organization among the Rusyns in Ukraine. The Society of Carpatho-Rusyns was established in Uzhhorod in 1990 as the first Rusynoriented organization in * Subcarpathian Rus' since World War II. Its founding chairman was Mykhailo M. Tomchanii, the chief architect of Uzhhorod and son of the well-known postwar Ukrainian-language author Mykhailo *Tomchanii. Its organ is the newspaper *Podkarpats 'ka Rus', which has appeared irregularly since 1992. The society was one of the founders of the * World Congress of Rusyns (1991) and its representative is a permanent member of the World Council Rusyns/Svitova rada. Although initially set up as a cultural organization to preserve and promote a Rusyn national identity through publications, lectures, cultural programs, and folk festivals, the society soon began to function as a political lobbying group, especially under the chairmanship of Ivan M. *Turianytsia (1992- ). Its main goals are to achieve autonomy for Subcarpathian Rus' within Ukraine in response to the positive results of the referendum on that issue carried out in December 1991. From among the society's members a Provisional Government of Subcarpathian Rus' was proclaimed in 1993 with Turianytsia as its premier. The virtually exclusive political orientation of the Society of Carpatho-Rusyns as well as personal rivalries has resulted in much internal conflict within the organization. In fact, the name, Society of Carpatho-Rusyns, in some cases Society of Subcarpathian Rusyns, applies to several separate organiza-

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture tions at both the regional (oblast) and district (raion) level. Particularly active in terms of cultural activity have been the district organizations in Mukachevo and Svaliava. Since 2000 the regional level has two organizations: the politically oriented Tovarystvo karpats'kykh Rusyniv and the more culturally oriented Obshchestvo podkarpats'kykh Rusyniv, which is a member of the Council of Subcarpathian Rusyns/Soim podkarpats'kykh Rusynov.

chairman (1990-2002) is the well-known Czech poet Jaromir *Hofec. In an effort to attract persons ofRusyn background living in the Czech Republic and to function officially as a national minority organization, in 2004 the group changed its name to the Society of Rusyns and Friends of Subcarpathian Rus'/ Spolecnost Rusinu a pfatel Podkarpatske Rusi PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Society Of CatechistS. See Dushpastyr'

Society of Magyar Greek Catholics. See IllesIllyasevits, Jozsef

Society of Fine Arts in Subcarpathian Rus'. See Art; Bokshai, losyf; Erdeli, Adalbert; Kaigl, Ladislav

Society of Friends of Carpathian RusV Obshchestvo druzei Karpatskoi Rusi im. F.F. Aristova. See Russians Society of Friends of Subcarpathian RusV Obshchestvo druzei Podkarpatskoi Rusi. See Tsibere, Pavel Society of Friends of Subcarpathian RusV Spolecnost pf atel Podkarpatske Rusi — a cultural and civic organization in the Czech Republic dedicated to promoting knowledge of Rusyns and Subcarpathian Rus'. The society was established in Prague in 1990 and is comprised primarily of Czechs who were born and/or lived in * Subcarpathian Rus' before World War II. The society has also attracted younger Czechs who have no ties to Subcarpathian Rus' other than an interest in its geography, culture, and former relationship to Czechoslovakia. Particularly fruitful have been the society's relations with a student organization of historians at the Advanced School of Pedagogy in Hradec Kralove, with whom it co-sponsored a scholarly conference (1997) on Subcarpathian Rus' and Czechoslovakia. The Society of Friends of Subcarpathian Rus' has members throughout the Czech Republic. Its branch in Brno is particularly active in organizing annual tourist excursions and the branch in Cesky Tesin in sending humanitarian aid to Subcarpathian Rus'/Transcarpathia, especially in the wake of several disastrous floods in the 1990s. The society publishes in Czech a quarterly magazine, *Podkarpatska Rus (1991-); a series of historical and publicistic booklets, Edice Podkarpatska Rus, 21 vols. (1992-); and a series of literary works on Subcarpathian themes, Vrchovina, 3 vols. (1997-). It has also sponsored two international scholarly conferences and several photographic exhibits, and it organizes an annual lecture series on Subcarpathian Rus' at the National Museum in Prague. The Society of Friends of Subcarpathian Rus' is a member of the * World Congress of Rusyns. Its founding

Society of Rusyn Intelligentsia in Slovakia/Zdruzhinia inteligentsii Rusyniv Sloven'ska (ZIRS) — civic and cultural organization established in 1995. Based in Bratislava, the capital of Slovakia, the main goals of the Society ofRusyn Intelligentsia are to promote through lectures and other cultural activity knowledge of Rusyns among its own members and Slovak society at large. Its members are particularly active in lobbying the Slovak government and the foreign diplomatic corps about the status of Rusyns in eastern Slovakia. The society cooperates closely with the *Rusyn Renaissance Society/Rusyns'ka obroda in Presov, and it operates in Bratislava a cultural center and library. Among its leading activists are Mykhal Shten'o (chairman, 1995- ), Shtefan *Ladizhin'skyi, and lanko Lypyns'kyi/Jan Lipinsky. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Society of Rusyn Writers of Slovakia. See Internet; Khoma, Vasyl'

Society of St. Basil the Great. See St. Basil the Great Society Society of St. John the Baptist. See St. John the Baptist Society Society of Subcarpathian Rusyns. See Society of Carpatho-Rusyns Society of Transcarpathians in Kiev. See Bulgarians

Soim podkarpats'kykh Rusynov. See Podkarpats'ka Rus; Society of Carpatho-Rusyns Soiuz karpatorusskikh Amerikantsev. See Hatalak, Peter P.

Soiuz Lemkovyny. See Doklia, Teodor Soiuz molodi Karpat. See Stavrovs'kyi, Emilian;

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Ukrainian National Council of the Presov Region

Soiuz osvobozhdeniia Prikarpatskoi Rusi. See League for the Liberation of Carpatho-Russia

Soiuz pidkarpats'kykh rus'kykh studentiv. See Union of Subcarpathian Rusyn Students

Soiuz podkarpatskykh bortsov ym. Bercheny. See Kozma, Miklos

Soiuz podkarpatskykh zhurnalystov. See Kamins'kyi, losyf

Soiuz pratsiuiuchoho selianstva. See Holos zhyttia Soiuz Rusinokh i Ukraintsokh Horvatskei. See Union of Rusyns and Ukrainians in Croatia

Soiuz Rusinokh i Ukraintsokh luhoslavii. See Union ofRusyn and Ukrainians in Yugoslavia

Soiuz rus'kykh vydavnytstv. See Printing and Publishing Soiuz russkikh iuristov. See Machik, Konstantyn

Soiuz russkikh uchitelei Slovakii. See P"ieshchak, Ivan Soiuz russkykh zhen u Priashevi. See Nevyts'ka, Iryna

Soiuz Rusyniv-Ukrai'ntsiv Slovachchyny. See Union of Rusyn-Ukrainians in Slovakia Sojedinenije greko-kaftoliceskich russkich bratstv V S.S.A. See Greek Catholic Union ofRusyn Brotherhoods in the USA

Sojedinenije russkich pravoslavnych bratstv v Ameriki. See United Russian Orthodox Brotherhood S'okalo, laroslav. See Lemko Association/Lemko-Soiuz Sokol Sojedinenija. See Greek Catholic Union; Sokols Sokols — athletic (gymnastic) societies to promote physical health and to preserve national culture. The Sokol (Falcon) movement began among Czechs in the second half of the nineteenth century and was subsequently imitated by other Slavic peoples. The first Sokol organizations among Rusyns were formed among immigrants in the United States.

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture In 1910 a Sokol organization was initiated by Pavel *Zhatkovych and the priest Nicholas Chopey (1876-1961) and established within the framework of the *Greek Catholic Union fraternal society based in western Pennsylvania. Aside from gymnastic, basketball, and baseball clubs the Sokols had choirs and theatrical troupes, and they published a newspaper in Rusyn (Roman alphabet) and English, the American Russian Falcon/Sokol Sojedinenija (1914-36), to promote awareness among their members of their Rusyn nationality and Greek Catholic faith. The American Sokols participated in the All-Slav Sokol Festival in Prague (1920), and between 1920 and 1940 they organized eight national gymnastic tournaments (slets). At the height of the movement in 1929, there were over 19,000 Sokol members in 600 branches. By the 1950s the Sokols had ceased to be active in the United States. When * Subcarpathian Rus' became part of Czechoslovakia, the first head of the province's school administration, Josef *Pesek, encouraged the establishment in 1919-1920 of Sokol organizations in Berehovo, Mukachevo, and Uzhhorod. By 1935, there were an estimated 5000 members in 19 Sokol branches throughout the province. Aside from gymnastic and other sport's activities, several Sokols had their own libraries and movie houses, and they stressed the need to develop both the mind and body. Initially, the Sokols attracted primarily Czechs (government functionaries, teachers, doctors, among others) who came to work in Subcarpathian Rus'. During the 1920s the number ofRusyn members gradually increased, although most joined a separate Russian Sokol organization established in 1920 with branches in Uzhhorod and Mukachevo. A related gymnastic organization whose members were primarily Rusyns was the Carpatho-Russian Eagle/Obshchestvo "Karpatorusskii orel," which was established in 1923 and throughout the inetrwar years was under the direction of the political activist Mykhail *Demko. Based in Mukachevo, the Carpatho-Russian Eagle had several branches throughout Subcarpathian Rus', one in the *Presov Region, and it published a monthly illustrated magazine, Karpatorusskii orel' (1936-38). Among the Vojvodinian Rusyns a Sokol organization (Sokolske druzhtvo) was established in 1930 in the town of Kucura. It focused primarily on gymnastic and sports activity. The organization was banned in 1941 after the fall of Yugoslavia and the annexation of the * Voj vodina by Hungary. Further reading: "Jak osnovanno bylo Sokol'skoje Otd'il. Sojedinenija," in Zoloto-jubilejnyj kalendar' Greko-Kaft. Sojedinenija 1942 (Munhall, Pa., 1942), pp. 173-177; Mariia Baianovs'ka, "Sokoly na Zakarpatti," in Kalendar "Prosvita" na 2001 rik (Uzhhorod, 2001), pp. 107-108; Jan Jungmann, "Z historic Sokola," in Wo? cesko-msinsky kalendar'na rok 2002/Nds ces 'korusyns 'kyi kalendar'na 2002 rik (Uzhhorod, 2001), pp. 80-86. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Sokyrnyts'kyi Syrokhman/Syrotiuk. See Hodinka, Antal Soliana komora. See Salt Chamber Solianyi shliakh. See Salt Route Soltys/Sholteis (German: Schultheiss; Hungarian: Soltesz) — a term, derived from the Latin scultetus, referring to an agent who helped to create new settlements on the basis of Vlach Law or German Law on estates (*dominia/latifundid) owned by either manorial landlords or the king of Hungary. In the eastern regions of *Subcarpathian Rus' the agent was known as a kenez/kanaz, derived from the medieval Latin kenetus (Hungarian: kenesz). A landlord, acting through a soltys/kenez, would sign an agreement with new settlers whereby they were exempted from having to pay taxes or other duties for a period of 12, 15, or more years. Thereafter, they would be required to fulfill various duties (*servitudes) and pay the landlord one-tenth of their produce. The soltysl kenez himself was exempt from taxes and other duties and often received the best land, which he could pass on as an inheritance to his children. Initially the soltys/kenez acted as a self-governing village administrator and legal representative, but by the seventeenth century his privileges were reduced until he became little more than a representative of the manorial landlord. Without permission from the soltys/kenez, a village could not accept new settlers. In certain villages, peasants were required to pay the soltys/kenez a special tax for the legal services he performed on their behalf. In cases of conflict between the soltys/kenez and the manorial landlord, decisions were rendered by the *zhupan/foispdn (royal lord lieutenant) of the county or by the king himself. During periods of a weakening of royal authority, a soltys/kenez may himself have become the owner of the village he established, for which he would receive (or purchase) an aristocratic or royal title. In the early stages of the colonization process (12th-13th centuries) the soltys was exclusively of German origin; later he might be a Magyar aristocrat or impoverished landlord; in *Maramorosh county after the fourteenth century the kenez might be a * Vlach chieftain (voevodd). Further reading: Oleksander Mytsiuk, Narysy z sotsial'no-hospo-dars 'koi istorii b. Uhors 'koi nyni Pidkarpats 'koi Rusy, Vol. I (Uzhhorod, 1936), esp. pp. 70-76; Alexander Bonkalo, The Rusyns (New York, 1990), pp. 13-20; Eugen Perfeckij, Podkarpatska Rus ve staled XIII-XV (Prague, 1995). IVAN POP

Sokolich, lurii/Stepan. See Sochka, Vasylii Solynko, Dmytro (b. October 10, 1932, Zydowskie, Po land)—painter, sculptor, and cultural activist of Ukrainian na-

tional orientation among Lemkos in Ukraine. In 1945, Solynko was resettled with his parents from their native village in the *Lemko Region to the Soviet Ukraine. They were first settled in far eastern Ukraine, and after trying unsuccessfully to return to the Lemko Region, they were allowed to live among other resettled Lemkos in the Ternopil' region of western Ukraine. Solynko completed high (serednia) school in Berezhany (1951) and the Forest Technology Institute in L'viv (1956), where he also studied fine arts at the L'viv Teachers' Center. He subsequently worked as an engineer in construction and communications and served as director (1983-1993) of the L'viv cartographic factory. Solynko is a prolific painter with over 1,500 canvases to his credit. Virtually all are devoted to themes connected with his ancestral Lemko homeland, including landscapes and portraiture of ordinary folk and contemporary Lemko activists. His paintings have been exhibited in L'viv and Kiev, at virtually all Lemko cultural events in Poland since 1989, and several are on permanent display at the * Museum of Lemko Culture in Zyndranowa and Center for Orthodox Culture in Gorlice, Poland. Solynko has been active in Lemko community affairs as a founding member of the L'viv-based *Lemko Region Society of Ukraine and *Lemko Research Foundation. He is also the co-author of a popular survey that introduces Lemkos to the Ukrainian reading public (Khto my, Lemky ... , 1991), and that at the same time is critical of Lemko participation and acceptance of what is described as the "idea of an artificial 'Carpatho-Rusyn' people." BOGDAN HORBAL PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Sopka, Liubomir/Sopkov, Ljubomir(b. June 23,1950, Novo Orahovo [Yugoslavia], Serbia) — graphic designer, belletrist, and journalist among the Vojvodinian Rusyns in Serbia. Sopka studied at the gymnasium in Vrbas, the Military Technical Naval Academy in Pula, and the faculty of law of the University of Novi Sad (1975). Since then he has attended the school of journalism in Belgrade and worked as the artistic editor for the *Ruske Slovo Press and Publishing House in Novi Sad. Sopka has been active on the Vojvodinian Rusyn literary scene since 1969; his first volume was a small collection of "poetry in prose," Zheni samotni (1972). Subsequently, he has concentrated on writing prose, including the collection of tales, Vchasni i druhi shl'idi (1983). Critics have described Sopka as having "performed a revolution in the genre of the Rusyn short story." In his prose, he approaches man as a universal category without reference to his place of birth or national identity. Sopka is also a master of caricature and has illustrated many publications, including his own most recent work for children, Izhili dluho i na odplatu (1999). Further reading: luliian Tamash, "Literaturna tvorchosts

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Liubomira Sopki," Shvetlosts, XX, 4 (Novi Sad, 1982), pp. 381385. ALEKSANDR D. DULICHENKO

Sopolyha, Myroslav/Sopoliga, Miroslav (b. March 26, 1946, Svidnik [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — ethnographer and museologist of Ukrainian national orientation in the Presov Region. After graduating from secondary school in Svidnik (1962) Sopolyha attended Safarik University in Presov (1962-1967). He has subsequently been awarded the status ofkandidat nauk(\98l) and doctor of science (1993). Since 1967 Sopolyha has worked at the *Museum of Ukrainian-Rus' Culture in Svidnik as director (1986- ) and editor (1988- ) of its scholarly journal, *Naukovyi zbirnyk Muzeiu ukrains 'koi kul'tury. He was responsible for creating the museum's outdoor exposition (skanseri) of traditional architecture, a subject about which he has written several detailed monographs, including Narodna arkhitektura ukraintsiv SkhidnoiSlovachchyny/Ludovd architektiira Ukrajincov vychodneho Slovenska (1976), Narodne zhytlo ukraintsiv Skhidno'i Slovachchyny (1983), and Perly I'udovej architektury/Perlyny narodnoi arkhitektury (1996). Sopolyha is a firm believer in the view that Rusyns are part of the Ukrainian nationality, and since 1989 he has strongly opposed all attempts to delete the name "Ukrainian" and change the national orientation of the Svidnik museum. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Sopkov, Ljubomir. See Sopka, Liubomir Sotatskii russkii vistnyk. See Russkii vistnyk Sotmar. See County Sova — short-lived illustrated satirical magazine published in 1871 for Rusyns in the Hungarian Kingdom. Although the editor and publisher was listed as Viktor *Kymak, the actual publisher was Emanui'l *Hrabar. In the wake of Bishop Shtefan *Pankovych's success in closing down the newspaper Svit and in installing a pro-Hungarian leadership in the *St. Basil the Great Society (1871), Kymak gathered around himself a group ofRusyn writers and publicists (Anatolii *Kralyts'kyi, levhenii *Fentsyk, Ivan *Sil'vai, Kyryl *Sabov) to create the newspaper Sova. The paper openly attacked the policy of magyarization being carried out by Bishop Pankovych in the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo. This was the first time in the history of journalism in Hungary that publicists systematically poked fun at a reigning high church hierarch. The creator of the sharply critical caricatures of Pankovych contained in Sova's pages remains unknown. Immediately after the appearance of the first issue of Sova (July 2, 1971),

Bishop Pankovych and the Hungarian authorities banned its further publication and paid the Uzhhorod printshop to stop further production. Kymak printed four more issues in Budapest, after which the government authorities succeeded in banning Sova's further appearance. The tradition of publishing a satirical magazine called Sova was revived in 1922-1923 when several issues appeared in Uzhhorod under that title, edited by Mykhai'l Shutka, and again in Uzhhorod in the early 1990s, when a few issues of a satirical newspaper of the same name were published in Ukrainian. Further reading: P.M. Lisovyi, Zhurnalistyka Zakarpattia 50-70kh rokiv XIX st. i n zv"iazky z inshymy ukrains 'kymy zemliamy ta Rosiieiu (Uzhhorod, 1969), pp. 42-49; Olena Rudlovchak, "Do istoriT hazety 'Sova'," in idem, Bilia dzherel suchasnosti (Bratislava and Presov, 1981), pp. 265-274; Vasyl' Habor, Ukrains'ki chasopysy Uzhhoroda, 1867-1944 (L'viv, 2003), pp. 83-87. IVAN POP

Sova, Petro/Petr (b. July 11, 1894, Hajtovka [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. June 10, 1984, Uzhhorod [Soviet Union], Ukraine) —jurist, historian, and civic and political activist of Russophile orientation in Subcarpathian Rus'. The son of a teacher, Sova completed his gymnasium studies in Presov (1913). During World War I he was drafted into the Austro-Hungarian Army and captured on the eastern front (September 1916); while interned he witnessed the Russian Revolution and Civil War. After returning home in May 1919 Sova was appointed a department head (referent) for education in the Czechoslovak administration in Uzhhorod and later advisor on cultural affairs to the governor of * Subcarpathian Rus'. It was at this time that he completed his education at the Law Academy in Kosice (1923). Sova was also active in Uzhhorod's municipal affairs as member of the city council (1922-1924) and vice-mayor (1924-1927), responsible, among other matters, for the city's libraries. He was a member of the presidium of the *Dukhnovych Society and head (19351938) of the educational fund in the *Shkol'naia pomoshch' philanthropic organization. Sova became increasingly interested in the *autonomy question, and during Czechoslovakia's political crisis in 1938, he submitted to the government a law proposal for Subcarpathian autonomy; he was also secretary of the *Russophile faction in the *Central Rusyn National Council. After Uzhhorod was annexed to Hungary (November 11, 1938) Sova moved to Khust, although he was opposed to the pro-Ukrainian autonomous government of Avhustyn * Voloshyn. Together with Vasyl' *Karaman and Pavel *Fedor, he revived the *Central Russian National Council and tried to convince the Czechoslovak authorities to remove the *Ukrainophiles from the Subcarpathian government because of their alleged destructive and non-democratic policies. When

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture the Hungarian Army occupied the rest of Subcarpathian Rus' (March 1939) Sova returned to Uzhhorod and served the new regime as a member of the council of the Hungarian regent's commissariat and as a member of the city council. The day after the Soviet Army arrived in Uzhhorod (October 29, 1944) Sova, as a well-known Russophile, was elected head of the municipal government, later renamed the municipal people's committee. At the first Congress of People's Committees of Transcarpathian Ukraine, organized in Mukachevo (November 26, 1944) as part of the political machinations of the Soviet military, the non-party-affiliated Sova was elected first vice-chairman of the National Council of Transcarpathian Ukraine. With *Stalin's elimination of *Transcarpathian Ukraine as an administrative entity (January 1946) there was no longer any need for non-party-affiliated Russophiles like Sova, who was subsequently removed from all administrative posts. Sova managed to serve for a while as director of the newly created *Transcarpathian Regional Museum in Uzhhorod, but he was soon replaced by more politically reliable cadres sent from the East. For the rest of his life Sova was able to find a relatively neutral niche as a publicist for regional topics. Before the war he had published one of the best histories of Uzhhorod, Proshloe Uzhgoroda (1937). During the Soviet era he completed a survey of regional architecture, Arkhitekturni pamiatnyky Zakarpattia (1958), as well as tourist guides to Subcarpathia's castles and collections of stories about hunting: Zacharovannaia dolina (1966) and Vdebriakh Karpat (1975). Sova was one of the first authors to write about ecological problems in Subcarpathian Rus' and to call for government protection of architectural monuments, folk art, and nature. Further reading: Petro Skunts', "Portret pid tysovoiu hilkoiu," Zhovten', XXXV, 12 (Eviv, 1975), pp. 128-136. IVAN POP

Soviet Rus'ka Kraina. See Rus'ka Kraina

Spala, Frantisek (b. October 7, 1876, Zlunice [Austrian Bohemia], Czech Republic; d. December 30, 1961, Liberec [Austrian Bohemia], Czech Republic) — Czech educator and ethnographer in Subcarpathian Rus'. Before World War I Spala taught at the School of Industrial Arts in Tashkent, in the Russian Empire (1899-1914). Fluent in Russian, he was sent to Czechslovakia's new province of * Subcarpathian Rus', where he served as director (1919-1931) of the School for Metalworking in Vynohradovo/Sevliush and in Uzhhorod as state inspector (1931 -1938) for professional and technical schools. During those years he also studied Rusyn folk arts, in particular embroidery from the *Hutsul region, about which he published a two-part study, Podkarpatske vysivky/ Podkarpatski vyshyvky (1928). He also wrote several school

textbooks for drawing, some of which were published in both Czech and Rusyn editions. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Spinka Hasidim. See Jews Spira, Hayyim Eleazar. See Jews Spish (Hungarian: Szepes; Slovak: Spis) — county in the northcentral Hungarian Kingdom bordering on the Austrian province of Galicia to the north, *Sharysh/Saros county to the east, Liptov to the west, and * Abov/Abauj and Gemer/Gomor counties to the south (see Map 9). In 1910 Spish county covered 3,668 square kilometers and had 172,800 inhabitants, of whom 97,100 were Slovaks; 38,500 Germans; 18,600 Magyars; 12,300 Rusyns; and 6,200 others. It was named after the Spish castle (Spissky hrad), which was its administrative center until the sixteenth century; thereafter, its center was Levoca (Hungarian: Locse). The county is basically a mountainous region drained by two river systems: the Poprad and Dunajec flow northward into the Vistula-Baltic watershed; the Hornad and Torysa rivers flow southeastward into the Danubian Basin. Spish was traditionally known for its cultural and political diversity. In the twelfth century the county became home to German/Saxon settlers, and towns like Levoca (German: Leutschau) and Kezmarok (German: Kasmark) were to retain a Germanic character until the twentieth century. Between 1412 and 1772, 15 towns and 13 villages in the heart of Spish were ruled by Poland (including Stara Eubovna, Poprad, Spisska Nova Ves, and Spisske Podhradie), and as a result they took on a Polish flavor. Rusyns lived for the most part in several villages north of Stara Eubovfia, a town that from time to time functioned as their local cultural center. There were also other isolated Rusyn villages, including a cluster in the far southeastern corner of the county (Zavadka, Porac, Slovinky, Helmanovce, Kojsov). After the collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1918 a small portion of Spish county along the Dunajec River was ceded to Poland; however, the vast majority of its territory (including the farthest western Rusyn village of Ostuma) became part of Czechoslovakia. According to present-day boundaries, the former territory of Spish county includes the districts (okresy) of Poprad, Kezmarok, Stara Eubovfia, Levoca, Spisska Nova Ves, and Gelnica in Slovakia, and a small area near the town of Zakopane in far southern Poland. Further reading: Istvan Udvari, "A szepessegi ruszinok nepelete Maria Terezia koraban/Zivot spisskych Rusinov v obdobi panovania Marie Terezie," Neprajzi Tanulmanyok, Vol. XIX (Komamo, 1994), pp. 317-332; Peter Svorc, ed., Spis v kontinuite casu/Zips in der Kontinuitat der Zeit (PreSov, Bratislava, and Vienna, 1995); Antoni Kroh, Spisz: wielokulturowe dziedzictwo (Sejny, 2000). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

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Spivak, Borys I. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region; Ukrainians

Spolok rusyns'kykh pysateliv Slovens'ka. See Khoma, Vasyl' Sportske druzhtvo "Rusin." See Rusyn Sports' Association Sportyvnyi klub Rus'. See Rus' Sports' Club Sredin, N. See Nedziel'skii, Evgenii Leopol'dovich Srem. See Vojvodina Sreznevskii, Izmail Ivanovich (b. June 1, 1812, laroslavl' [Russian Empire], Russia; d. February 9, 1880, St. Petersburg [Russian Empire], Russia) — Russian Slavist, philologist, ethnographer, and professor at St. Petersburg University. In 1839 he received a fellowship from Russia's Ministry of Education to travel abroad in order to learn about the contemporary life, culture, and history of Slavs in other lands: Prussia, Saxony, Bohemia, Moravia, Lusatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Galicia. At the very end of his travels Sreznevskii arrived in Hungary's Rusyn-inhabited lands (July 13-17, 1842), visiting Presov, Uzhhorod, Mukachevo, and the *Mukachevo Monastery, where he met with Bishop Vasylii *Popovych and Mykhail *Luchkai. In all these places he visited the state, episcopal, and monastic libraries. The impressions from this four-day visit were recorded in a diary and letters addressed to Russia's Ministry of Education, published after his death under the title, Putevye pis 'ma Izmaila Ivanovicha Sreznevskago iz slavianskikh zemel', 1839-1842 (1895). Sreznevskii's description was straightforward but rather one-sided, in that he described the "Rusnaks" he encountered as "Little Russian brethren" and "children of the same blood as here in old Rus'." Therefore, the renowned Rusyn writer and historian Luchkai was a "true Little Russian (khokhol)." Sreznevskii's views were typical of Romantic-era scholars, who exaggerated the importance of language for "national unity"; hence, "an inhabitant of Kharkiv can converse with an inhabitant of Uzhhorod, just as a Muscovite can with someone from Kolomna; or a Russian from the Baikal region can understand a Rusyn mountaineer from the *Beskyds as easily as a Czech can a Slovak." Later, Sreznevskii wrote a more substantive work about the Rusyns, Rus' Ugorskaia: otryvok iz opyta geogrqfii russkago iazyka (1852), in which he raised the question (without giving a clear answer) of when Rusyns first settled the area and provided a description of the 14 Hungarian counties they inhabited. In this work he modified some of the more categorical statements made in his

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture diary/letters. While for Sreznevskii the language of Rusyns "was understandable to any southern Russian," he nevertheless admitted that in terms of pronunciation, grammatical forms, and vocabulary, Rusyn has certain peculiarities "that are unknown in other parts of Rus' [Russia]." Commenting on national consciousness, Sreznevskii noted that such feelings appeared among Rusyns later than among Magyars, Slovaks, and Romanians and took hold, moreover, only among some younger Rusyns. Nevertheless, he had no fears concerning any threat of national assimilation, since the mass of Rusyns were simple rural folk who, he believed, were likely to remain loyal to their native language and the nationality of their ancestors. Sreznevskii's writings represent the beginning of Rusyn studies in Russia. Further reading: Hennadii V. Pavlenko, "I.I. Sreznievs'kyi: doslidnyk istoriT i kul'tury ukrai'ntsiv Zakarpattia," Carpatica-Karpatyka, Vol. I (Uzhhorod, 1992), pp. 94-106. IVAN POP

Sriemets. See Dobrians'kyi, Adol'f

Srpska monastirska stamparija. See Printing and Publishing Stadnicki, Aleksander. See Historiography: Lemko Region Stadtkonvikt — Greek Catholic Seminary at the University of Vienna. The Stadtkonvikt functioned from 1803 to 1848 as a central seminary for Greek Catholics throughout the Austrian Empire. Initially, it accepted students only from eparchies in the province of Galicia (including Przemysl), but after 1811 it accepted as well seminarians from the Hungarian Kingdom (eparchies of Mukachevo, Krizevci, and Presov). Of the 368 seminarians enrolled in the Stadtkonvikt during its existence, 43 were from the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo, 19 from the *Presov Eparchy, 3 from the *Krizevci Eparchy, and 16 from the *Lemko Region. All were exposed to the cultural life of Vienna and to other Slavic scholars working in the imperial capital. Several Stadtkonvikt alumni were to become important activists in the Rusyn national revival, including Mykhail *Luchkai and Viktor Dobrians'kyi. Also among its graduates was the future bishop of Przemysl and Metropolitan of Galicia, the Lemko-born losyf *Sembratovych. Further reading: Dmytro Blazejovskyj, Byzantine Kyivan Rite Students, Analecta OSBM, Series II, Sectio I, Vol. 43 (Rome 1984), pp. 235-255. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Stalin, losif Vissarionovich (b. losif Dzhugashvili, December 21, 1879, Gori [Russian Empire], Georgia; d. March

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture 5, 1953, Moscow [Soviet Union], Russia)—revolutionary activist and Soviet political leader of Georgian national origin. Following the establishment of Bolshevik rule in the Russian Empire in late 1917, Stalin was appointed people's commissar of nationalities (1917-1922). In 1922 he was elected general secretary of the Central Committee of the Russian Communist party (Bolshevik), a post he was to hold until his death three decades later. This was the leading position in what became the Soviet Union (1924), over which Stalin became virtual dictator after 1928. He was ultimately responsible for all major policy decisions affecting the Soviet Union's internal and foreign affairs. Ever since the early 1920s, Stalin was concerned with the "Ukrainian problem," in particular when he oversaw industrialization and forced collectivization of the agricultural sector, which in the early 1930s contributed to famine and death by starvation of several million Ukrainians. The Soviet leader's interest in * Subcarpathian Rus' was linked to the Ukrainian problem in general and more specifically to the establishment of a Ukrainian-oriented province in far eastern Czechoslovakia (October 1938) which soon began to identify itself as *Carpatho-Ukraine. Stalin personally reacted to statements made at the time by anti-Soviet Ukrainian emigres and Subcarpathian *Ukrainophiles who expected Carpatho-Ukraine's existence would be guaranteed by Hitler's Germany because of the general Nazi interest in the Ukrainian problem. On March 10,1939, in an opening speech to the 18th Congress of the All-Russian Communist party (Bolshevik), Stalin derisively dismissed as "insane" all those who dream of "uniting an elephant, that is Soviet Ukraine, to a louse, that is the so-called Carpatho-Ukraine." Considering Stalin's desire to maintain neutrality with Nazi Germany, he was not displeased when Hitler temporarily deferred his interest in the Ukrainian problem and allowed Hungary to reannex Subcarpathian Rus'/ Carpatho-Ukraine (March 1939). Subcarpathian Rus' once again came to the attention of Stalin after Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union (June 1941), which promptly joined the Allies (the United States, Great Britain, and France) in a grand coalition against Hitler. By late 1942, the Soviet Union and the Allies accepted the view that after the end of hostilities Czechoslovakia would be restored according to its prewar boundaries, that is, it would again include Subcarpathian Rus'. In contrast to the generally accepted opinion that Stalin changed his mind on this matter only after the Soviet Army arrived in the region in September 1944 and then responded to the "will of the people" calling for the '""reunification of Transcarpathian Ukraine," some authors suggest that Stalin had decided several months earlier (perhaps May 1944) to annex Subcarpathian Rus'. Formal annexation did take place in June 1945, and it was during the last years of Stalin's rule until his death in 1953 that Subcarpathian Rus'—by then the Transcarpathian oblast— was integrated into Soviet society. This was also a period of the

"cult of personality," when Stalin was glorified as the wartime savior of the Soviet Union and when totalitarian rule was used to eliminate any elements that opposed, or were suspected of opposing, Communist rule. In Subcarpthian Rus', the height of Stalinism coincided with several critical developments: the denial of Rusyns as a distinct nationality; the arrest, imprisonment, and in some cases execution of Rusyn political and civic activists; the wholesale deportation of men of *Magyar (Hungarian) and *German nationality; the forced confiscation of land (collectivization) and the expropriation by the state of privately owned businesses and factories (nationalization); the destruction of the Greek Catholic Church; and the extension by force of Soviet control over neighboring countries in central Europe where Carpatho-Rusyns lived as a national minority. Despite such negative images, Stalin is also remembered in Rusyn society as the "liberator" of Subcarpathian Rus' from Hungarian "fascist" rule. And although local Ukrainian patriots and members of the political and cultural establishment in present-day independent Ukraine are reluctant to admit it, their on-going celebrations and praise for the 1945 "reunification" of Subcarpathian Rus'/Transcarpathia with Ukraine is the result of Stalin's foreign policy successes at the close of World War II. Further reading: Allan Bullock, Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives (New York, 1991); Dmitri Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy (New York, 1991); Ivan Pop, "Rezhysery i statysty: 'vozz"iednannia Zakarpattia z Radians'koiu Ukrainoiu' v dzerkali moskovs'kykh dokumentiv 1944-1945 rr.," Karpats 'kyi krai, V 1 -4 [ 110] (Uzhhorod, 1995), pp. 68-72; VS. Koval', "Stalin pro Karpats'ku Ukrainu," in I. F. Kuras, ed., Politychna istoriia Ukrainy: XX stolittia, Vol. IV (Kiev, 2003), pp. 36-38. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Stara vira — a term meaning the "old faith" referring to the religious orientation of adherents (starovertsi) of the Byzantine rite. The term began to be used by Carpatho-Rusyns in the sixteenth and seventeenth century to contrast themselves from "the Other," that is, from those in their midst who adopted the new Protestant beliefs or who were Latin-rite Catholics. The term sometimes appeared as the "ancient holy faith" (sancta fides antiqua in the words of the Uniate/Greek Catholic Bishop Joseph *De Camelis) or as the "Rus' faith" (rus'ka vira). Subsequently, Orthodox authors used the terms stara vira and rus 'ka vira interchangeably to contrast the legitimacy of their own beliefs with those of fellow Greek Catholic Rusyns who accepted the *Unia/Church Union. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Starorusyny. See Old Rumenianism Starosta — government functionary at various levels throughout Rusyn-inhabited lands in the former Polish

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Kingdom, Austrian Empire, Austria-Hungary, and the latter's successor states. In the Polish Kingdom the starosta (lord sheriff) was appointed by the king to administer the various lands (ziemia) into which the country's *palatinates were divided. This system applied to the historic region of Galicia including the *Lemko Region, which was part of the Sa^cz, Biecz, Krosno/Jaslo, and Sanok lands. After 1772, when the Austrian Empire annexed Galicia, that province was divided into *districts, each headed by a starosta (prefect). The post of starosta as head of individual districts remained in force in the restored state of Poland, including the Lemko Region, from 1918 to 1939. The term starosta (elder) was the name given to the head of a village throughout Rusyn-inhabited lands in the Hungarian Kingdom (*Subcarpathian Rus' and the *Presov Region) as well as Galicia. Initially, the starosta was appointed by the local landlord, but after the *urbarial reforms introduced between 1764 and 1772 during the reign of the Austrian Empress Maria Theresa he was elected for a one-year term by village residents. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Staryns'kyi, lurii. See Kychera Song and Dance Ensemble

Stashko, lulii. See Art State Administration for Rusyn Minority SelfGovernment. See Rusyn Minority Self-Government Stavrovs'kyi, Emilian/Stavrovsky, Emilian (b. July 7, 1924, Habura [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia; d. June 6, 1996, Bratislava, Slovakia) — historian and professor of Rusyn origin in Slovakia. Stavrovs'kyi studied at gymnasia in Mukachevo, Uzhhorod, and Presov (1936-1944). While a student in Bratislava in the years just after World War II he served as chairman of the Union of Carpathian Youth/Soiuz molodi Karpat and the Dobrians'kyi Society of Russian and Ukrainian Students/Obshchestvo russkikh i ukrainskikh studentov "Dobrianskii," which represented Rusyn university students from the *Presov Region studying in Bratislava. Upon graduation from Comenius University in Bratislava (1949) Stavrovs'kyi taught history at that institution for four decades (kandidat nauk, 1960; docent/associate professor, 1961; professor, 1973), and he helped to train for Slovakia a younger generation of Rusyn historians. He specialized in medieval history and published numerous studies dealing with socioeconomic questions, the *Vlach colonization, and the robber-bandit movement in the Carpathian region before the eighteenth century. His most comprehensive work on the subject is Slovats 'ko-pol's 'ko-ukra'ins 'keprykordonnia do 18 stolittia (1961). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Stavrovs'kyi, Ivan A. See Naukovyi zbirnyk Muzeiu ukrains 'koi kul 'tury u Svydnyku Stavrovs'kyi-Popradov, lulii (b. January 18, 1850, Sulin [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. March 3, 1899, Certizne [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia) — poet, pedagogue, ethnographer, philologist, and publicist of RusynRussian national orientation. After completing gymnasia in Levoca and Presov, Stavrovs'kyi-Popradov studied at the Budapest Theological Seminary and the University of Budapest (1869-1874). While a student in Hungary's capital he befriended Konstantin *Kustodiev, a Russian diplomat and priest at an Orthodox chapel just outside Budapest, who introduced him to Russian literature and, in general, exerted an important influence on him as a poet. Stavrovs'kyi-Popradov was ordained a Greek Catholic priest (1875) and worked for a while in the episcopal offices of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov, then from 1879 until his death served as a parish priest in the Rusyn village of Certizne. He was encouraged to go there by the *Russophile political activist, Adol'f *Dobrians'kyi, who was also to have a great influence on the priest-poet. Stavrovs'kyi-Popradov's corpus consists of lyrical poetry filled with a love of nature and descriptions of the unenviable social fate of Rusyns. His poems, ethnographic studies, and folkloric texts appeared in contemporary Subcarpathian newspapers and journals (*Svit, *Novyisvit, * Karpat, *ListoK) as well as in the Hungarian-language press. Continuing the tradition of earlier national awakeners, Stavrovs'kyi-Popradov considered it essential "to study one's own people"; this belief is exemplified in several articles he wrote about the folklore and customs of Rusyns in the Poprad and Spish regions: "Ocherki iz popradskoi Rusi" (1872), "Skazki iz spishskoi Rusi" (1872), "larmarka v odnom gorodie Vyshnago Spisha" (1872), "Rabota so 1'nom i polotna u spishskikh russkikh," among others. Stavrovs'kyi-Popradov wrote in the Subcarpathian variant of the Russian language, although he believed that the first step toward a national awakening was to codify a Rusyn literary language. His articles on language treated such topics as vowels and language instruction in schools. He wrote a Russian-language elementary primer ("Russkii bukvar"), which was never published. Among his other unpublished essays are historical studies dealing with Rusyn-Magyar relations ("Otnoshenie vengro-russkikh k mad'iaram") and Rusyn literary developments ("Niechto ob obrazovanii vengro-russkago naroda"). His histories of the *Krasnyi Brid Monastery and the village of Certizne appeared in Hungarian. Since Stavrovs'kyi-Popradov's death, selections of his poetry and prose have been published by Nykolai *Beskyd (1928) and Olena *Rudlovchak (1984). Further reading: Aleksandr V. Popov, Biografiia luliia Ivanovicha Stavrovskago-Popradova (Mukachevo, 1925); Nikolai A. Beskid,

All

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Mii I. Stavrovskii-Popradov (Uzhhorod, 1929); Stepan Dobosh, lulii Ivanovich Stavrovskii-Popradov (Bratislava and PreSov, 1975); Olena Rudlovchak, lu. Stavrovs 'kyi-Popradov (Presov, 1984). IVAN POP

Stefan, Agoston. See Shtefan, Avhustyn/Stefan, Agoston Stefan, AugUStin. See Shtefan, Avhustyn

Stefanovskii, Pavel/ Stefanowski, Pawel (b. March 3, 1932, Bielanka, Poland)—belletrist, journalist, ethnographer, and civic and cultural activist in the Lemko Region. Together with his family, Stefanovskii was deported in 1947 from his native village but returned in 1959 and went on to study ethnography at the University of Wroclaw (1963-1969). In 1959 he was among the organizers of the Provisional Civic and Educational Committee of Lemko-Rusyns/Tymczasowy komitet spoleczno-oswiatowy Rusinow-Lemkow (1959). It called on the Polish and Soviet authorities to improve the status of *Lemkos in Poland, all the while emphasizing that they are a nationality distinct from *Ukrainians. For this activity Stefanovskii was expelled from the *Communist party. Accused of "Lemko separatism," he was also removed from the Ukrainian Civic and Cultural Society's *Lemko Section of which he was a co-founder (1959). He was later able to return to the organization and in 1972 became head of its Gorlice county branch. During the early 1970s he coordinated a signature campaign calling for the Polish government to improve the status of the Ukrainian minority in Poland, including Lemkos. As early as 1957 Stefanovskii raised a question of indemnity from the Polish government for Lemkos who suffered during the 1947 deportations (*Vistula Operation), and he returned to this issue at the very beginning of the postCommunist era in Poland. In 1989 he founded the *Hospodar Civic Circle of Lemkos /Hromadianskii kruh Lemkiv and two years later a political party, the Hospodar Rusyn Democratic Circle of Lemkos in Poland/Rusynskii demokratychnyi kruh Lemkiv v Pol'shchy "Hospodar". After more than a decade of a intensive lobbying calling on the Polish authorities to have Lemko and *Boiko property (especially forests) returned to their rightful owners, Stefanovskii remained dissatisfied with the government's response; consequently, he opened a case against Poland's parliament at the European Tribunal of Human Rights in Strasbourg (2003). Throughout his career Stefanovskii has been actively involved in the preservation of Lemko culture as an organizer of choirs (in the villages of Bielanka, Losie, Wysowa, Turzansk), of Lemko folk festivals (1962,1963), and as a founding member (1969) of the *Lemkovyna Folk Ensemble and founding co-organizer (1983) of the annual "homeland" *Vatra Festival. He has also been an avid collector of material artifacts docu-

menting traditional Lemko culture as well as tapes and films of Lemko folklore and traditions. Some of these materials are displayed at his home in Bielanka (1964-), at a permanent exhibit at the *Ruska Bursa in Gorlice (1995-), and at the Shtefan Cherhoniak Museum of Lemko Crafts/Muzei lemkivskoho remesla im. Shtefana Cherhoniaka in Bielanka (2001). Stefanovskii has also donated materials to the Museum of Lemko Culture in Zyndranowa, which he helped to set up and for which he has served on its governing body. Among his publications are two collections of poems written in the Lemko variant ofRusyn, Lemkivska ikona/Lemkowski pejzaz (1985) and Lent (1991), as well as a short play, Liubov nevoliu lame (I960). Stefanovskii's views on the nationality question have varied over the years. He began in the 1950s as a staunch defender of Lemko distinctiveness but by the 1970s he accepted the view that Lemkos should be considered within the framework of Ukrainian culture. Since the early 1990s, he has rejected association with Ukrainians and argued that Lemkos are a branch of a distinct Rusyn nationality. Further reading: Olena Duts'-Faifer, "Refleksyi do iuvileiu 70-litia Pavla Stefanovskoho," in Lemkivskii richnyk 2002 (Krynica and Legnica, 2002), pp. 140-148. BOGDAN HORBAL PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Stercho, Peter G./Petro (b. April 14, 1919, Kuz'myno [Czechoslovakia], Ukraine; d. June 18, 1987, Narberth, Pennsylvania, USA) — professor, economist, and activist in the Ukrainian-American community. Stercho studied at the commercial academies in Mukachevo (1936-1938) and in Bratislava (1938-1940), during which time he worked briefly in the press corps of the autonomous government of *Carpatho-Ukraine (1938-1939). As a member of the *Carpathian Sich, he was forced into exile after Hungary annexed *Subcarpathian Rus'/Carpatho-Ukraine (March 1939) and spent the World War II years in Slovakia and western Ukraine (Galicia). At the war's end he was a displaced person (DP) in Austria and Germany until 1950, when he emigrated to the United States. He did graduate work at the University of Notre Dame (Ph.D., 1955), then taught economics at various American universities, including the Drexel Institute in Philadelphia (1963-1987). Stercho published several works on Subcarpathian Rus' in the first half of the twentieth century, among them Diplomacy of Double Morality: Europe s Crossroads in CarpathoUkraine, 1919-1939 (1971) and a monograph focusing specifically on the 1938-1939 period of autonomy, Karpatoukrains'ka derzhava (1965; repr. 1994). In these works he argued that Rusyns are a branch of the Ukrainian people and that they proved their ethnonational affinity by creating a "Carpatho-Ukrainian state" on the eve of World War II. He helped to propagate these views as founding member (1958)

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and later president (1979-1987) of the Carpathian Research Center in New York City. Further reading: VasyP Dovhei, "Litopysets' Karpats'koT Ukrai'ny: korotka biohrafiia prof. Petra Stercha," in Petro Stercho, Karpatoukrains 'ka derzhava (Eviv, 1994), pp. xxiv-xxix. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Stieber, Zdzisiaw (b. June 7, 1903, Szczakowa [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. October 12,1980, Lodz, Poland) — Polish linguist and professor. Stieber taught at universities in Eviv (1937-1945), Lodz (1945-1952), and Warsaw (1952-1956), and was director (1961-1973) of the Slavic Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw. One of his interests was dialects in transitional linguistic zones, and between 1934 and 1939 he conducted several research expeditions in the *Lemko and *Boiko regions of Poland. The results of this research were published after World War II in the form of a monumental eight-volume linguistic atlas of the *Lemko Region (Atlas jqzykowy dawnej Lemkowszczyny, 1956-64). Stieber also published detailed descriptions of toponomy in the Lemko Region (Toponomastyka Lemkowszczyzny, 2 vols., 1948-49) and of Lemko phonetics and phonology (Dialekt Lemkow: fonetyka ifonologia, 1982).

appointed a deputy to the upper chamber (House of Lords) of the Hungarian parliament, where together with Rusyn deputies in the lower chamber (Andrii *Brodii, Shtefan *Fentsyk, Mykhai'l *Demko among others), he called for the implementation of *autonomy that Hungary had promised Subcarpathian Rus'. The government's refusal to deliver on its promise and its policy toward Rusyns in general alienated the bishop. Stoika was also a cultural philanthropist who supported commissions from Rusyn painters, in particular Adalbert *Erdeli, losyf *Bokshai, and Aleksander *Hrabar. Further reading: M. Bendas, "Preosviashchennyi vladyka epyskop Aleksander Stoika," in Zemledils'kii kalendar' na hod 1944 (Uzhhorod, 1943), pp. 43-48. IVAN POP

Stoika, losyf. See Uhlia Monastery Stole fees/Shtolovi dokhody — church fees charged by parish priests for baptisms, weddings, funerals, and consecrations. Striber, luliian See Diadia Rusyn National Theater

BOGDAN HORBAL

Stingl, Pavel. See Cinema Stoika, Aleksander (b. October 16, 1890, Karachyn [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. May 31, 1943, Uzhhorod [Karpatalja, Hungary], Ukraine) — priest, church hierarch, and civic activist in Subcarpathian Rus' of Rusyn national orientation. Stoika completed his studies at the Uzhhorod gymnasium (1910) and at the theological seminaries in Uzhhorod (1912) and Budapest (1915). After ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1916), he served as archivist and secretary to the pro-Hungarian bishop of Mukachevo, Antonii *Papp, under whose influence Stoika developed a strong patriotic attachment to Hungary. He rose quickly in the hierarchy of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo and was appointed as canon (1930), eparchial vicar general (1931), and finally bishop (1932). During his episcopacy (1932-1943) Stoika organized a charitable program to aid the poor in * Subcarpathian Rus' and financed the publication of the pro-Rusyn and pro-Czechoslovak newspaper *Nedilia. Stoika was also a sympathetic supporter of pro-Hungarian Rusyn political activists. After the *Vienna Award of November 2, 1938, that resulted in Hungary's annexation of Uzhhorod, Mukachevo, and southern Subcarpathian Rus', Stoika's eparchial jurisdiction was initially limited to the annexed territory; he therefore welcomed the "return" of the rest of Subcarpathian Rus' to Hungary. When this occurred in March 1939 he re-established his jurisdiction over the entire Eparchy of Mukachevo. In June 1939 Stoika was

Striber, Miroslav (b. June 22,1939, Djurdjevo [Yugoslavia], Serbia; d. April 21, 1971, Timisoara, Romania) — belletrist, professor, and sociologist among the Vojvodinian Rusyns. Striber completed the gymnasium in Novi Sad and the faculty of law at the University of Belgrade. From 1963 until his untimely death in a car accident, he was an assistant professor of sociology at the law school of the University of Novi Sad. Striber first wrote in Serbo-Croatian, but after 1963 he began to publish in Rusyn, resulting in two small collections of poetry, Romansa (1969) and 55 pism'(1971). In his poetry elements of tradition and folklore are interwoven with a modernist inclination toward expressionism and existentialism. Among Vojvodinian Rusyn writers he is considered to be "the founder of intellectual lyrical poetry," which is devoid of any pathos, extreme passion, or euphoria. Further reading: Vladimir Garianski, "Poeziia Miroslava Stribera medzi ekspresionizmom i folklorom," Shvetlosts, XXXII, 2 (Novi Sad, 1994), pp. 115-132. ALEKSANDR D. DULICHENKO

Storozhenko, M. See Stryps'kyi, Hiiador Stovaryshynia Lemkiv. See Lemko Society Stropkovs'kyi, Ivan. See Dukhnovych Theater Stroyen, Basil. See Russian Orthodox Church in North America

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Strumins'kyi Bohdan/Struminski Bogdan (b. March 7, 1930, Biafystok, Poland; d. June 23, 1998, Boston, Massachusetts, USA) — Slavic linguist of mixed Ukrainian and Polish origin. Strumins'kyi worked as a researcher at the University of Warsaw (1955-1961). He left Poland for the United States in 1975, where for most of the rest of his life he was an associate scholar at Harvard University's Ukrainian Research Institute. Strumins'kyi became interested in *Lemkos during his scholarly career in Poland, where he published a few articles on their music and speech. It was in the United States, however, that he produced particularly valuable scholarship on Lemkos and on Rusyns in general. He analyzed the language of the late-seventeenth-century catechism of Bishop *De Camelis ("The First Carpatho-Ruthenian Printed Book," co-authored with Paul R. *Magocsi, 1977) and provided descriptions ofRusyn and East Slavic holdings at the Heritage Institute Museum and Library of the Byzantine Ruthenian Catholic *Eparchy of Passaic (Old Ruthenian Printed Books and Manuscripts, 1980; Byzantine-Ruthenian Antimensia, 1981). His most extensive research on Rusyn matters dealt with the origin of the name Lemko and the various views on their geographic homeland and language. Studies on these topics appeared in a two-volume encyclopedic work under his general editorship: Lemkivshchyna: zemlia—liudy—istoriia— kul'tura (1988). Strumins'kyi understood Lemkos to encompass Rusyns living in both the *Lemko Region north of the Carpathians and the *Pre§ov Region on the southern slopes. Although he considered Lemkos and all Rusyns a branch of the Ukrainian nationality, Strumins'kyi was careful to discuss fairly those viewpoints that differed from his own. Further reading: Marian Jurkowski, "Bohdan Struminski (19301998)," Studia z Filologii Polskiej i Slowianskiej, No. 35 (Warsaw, 1999), pp. 9-18. BOGDAN HORBAL PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Struve, Sava/Konstantin. See Ladomirova Monastery; Russians Stryps'kyi, Hiiador/Sztripszky, Hiador (pseudonyms: la. Bilen'kii, lador, Sydor Mykolaienko, Zoltan Karpati, S. Novyk, Mykola Storozhenko, Tiador Stryps'kyi, Mikesh, Belofi Rusinsky, Ruskotsi, Th. Beregiensis) (b. March 7, 1875, Shelestovo [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. March 9, 1946, Budapest, Hungary) — museum curator, ethnographer, bibliographer, literary historian, journalist, translator, and civic activist of Rusyn orientation. After completing the Uzhhorod gymnasium Stryps'kyi studied at the universities of Budapest (1893-1896), Cluj/Koloszvar (1896-1897), and Eviv/Lemberg (1897-1898). While in Eviv he befriended the leading Galician-Ukrainian activists, Volodymyr *Hnatiuk and Ivan *Franko, and established in the

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Subcarpathian village of Skotars'ke (1897) the first reading room of the Ukrainophile *Prosvita Society. During the next decade he remained in Cluj/Koloszvar, where he worked at the Ethnographic Museum and the Transylvanian Cultural Association and taught the Ukrainian and Russian languages at the university. From 1910 to 1918 he was curator at the Ethnographic Division of the Hungarian National Museum in Budapest, during which time he amassed for that institution a large collection of ethnographic artifacts and publications from * Subcarpathian Rus'. Stryps'kyi's publications about old Romanian printed books led to his election (1913) to the Romanian Academy of Sciences, and his publications in the journal of the Shevchenko Society earned him membership (1914) in that Eviv-based Ukrainian scholarly institution. He continued to correspond with Hnatiuk and Franko; with the latter he consulted about translations into Hungarian of the Lay of Prince Ihor 's Campaign as well as the works of Ukrainian writers like Shevchenko, Franko, Stefanyk, Kotsiubyns'kyi, Makovei, and Rudans'kyi. Following the lead of Franko, Stryps'kyi collected and published several studies on Subcarpathian manuscripts and old printed books, including Starsha rus 'ka pys'mennost' na Uhorshchyni (1907), "A hazai rutenek legregibb nyomtatvanyai" (1911), "Uhro-rus'ki litopysni zapysky" (1911), and "Z starshoi' pys'mennosty Uhors'ko'i Rusy"(1913). In the 1890s Stryps'kyi outlined in the Hungarian-language newspaper *Kelet a detailed plan for research into Rusyn ethnography and folklore, for which he was elected a member of the Hungarian Ethnographic Society. During a research expedition in 1905 he collected 50 tales and 1,000 folksongs in Rusyn villages in *Bereg, *Ugocha, and *Maramorosh counties, and in 1908 he became the first Rusyn researcher to use the phonograph, recording 50 folk melodies. This work resulted in 1921 in an anthology ofRusyn folklore (still in manuscript). In the first two decades of the twentieth century Stryps'kyi also revealed his talents as an accomplished author of poems, short stories, and tales. Stryps'kyi's political activity dates from World War I, when, at the encouragement of the Hungarian government, he published 20 issues of a journal, Ukrdnia (1916), which informed the Hungarian-reading public about Ukraine. Following the establishment of the Hungarian People's Republic in November 1918, he was appointed head of the section for Rusyn affairs in the Ministry of Education and Religion and advisor to the Minister for National Minorities. When *Rus'ka Krai'na came into being in December 1918 Stryps'kyi headed its Office of Education. For that office he prepared a project to codify a Rusyn literary language; a project for a Rusyn regional museum; and one for a Rusyn publishing house in Budapest called Chas, which planned to release a series of books for Rus'ka Krai'na, one of which, a reader for adults, Stryps'kyi himself compiled under the

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pseudonym lador, Chytanka dlia doroslykh (1919). At his initiative a Department (Katedra) of Rusyn Studies was opened (1919) at the philosophical faculty of the University of Budapest. He also edited Rus'ka Krama's official newspaper, *Rus 'ko-Krainska pravda (1919). After *Subcarpathian Rus' became part of Czechoslovakia Stryps'kyi considered returning home permanently, and in 1920 he spent some time in Uzhhorod, where he was elected to the presidium of the newly established pro-Ukrainian *Prosvita Society. He even intended to settle in Uzhhorod, but when he could not reach an agreement with government officials in Prague, he returned to Budapest. There he was under suspicion by Hungary's conservative government of Admiral Miklos Horthy because of his activity during the postwar Hungarian revolutionary era and was therefore not allowed to work at the National Museum. He also broke all contacts with Galician Ukrainians, angered at what he considered their excessive activity in Subcarpathian Rus'. During the interwar years Stryps'kyi supported himself by working as a translator. He also continued to publish on Rusyn history, language, literature, documentary sources, and ethnography. Among such works was Hdi dokumenty starshei ystoriy Podkarpatskoi Rusy? (1924), which called on Rusyns to respect their native language and, in particular, to collect topographic names in their villages. During the last years of his life Stryps'kyi played an active role (1941-1944) in the * Subcarpathian Scholarly Society in Uzhhorod, following Hungary's reannexation of his Rusyn homeland. Further reading: Gedeon Borsa, "Magyar konyvtarosok es bibliografiisok: Sztripszky Hiador," ,4 Konyvtdros, IX, 4 (Budapest, 1959), pp. 263-266; Vasyl' Mykytas', Z nochi probyvalysia (Uzhhorod, 1977), esp. pp. 146-153; Mykola Mushynka, "Svitlyi dukh Uhors'koi Rusi: do 120-littia z dnia narodzhennia Hiiadora Stryps'koho," Karpats 'kyi krai, V, 1-4 [110] (Uzhhorod, 1995), pp. 46-50; Istvan Udvari, "Adatok Sztripszky Hiador konyveszeti munkasagarol," Konyv es konyvtdr, XX (Debrecen, 1998), pp. 67-97; I. Udvari, "Dannye k etnograficheskomu tvorchestvu Giadora Stripskogo," Slavica, XXIX (Debrecen, 1999), pp. 51-70; Istvan Udvari, "Adatok Sztripszky Hiador muforditoi munkassagarol" and "Sztripszky Hiador nagyszombati hagyatekanak bibliografiai vonatkozasii adatai," Konyv es konyvtdr, XXI (Debrecen, 1999), pp. 105-152 and 265-284; Istvan Udvari, "Adatok Sztripszky Hiador kesoi alkotoi korszakahoz," in Polono-Hungarica, Vol. VIII (Budapest, 2000), pp. 361-377; Ishtvan Udvari, "lazykovedcheskaia deiatel'nost' Giiadora Stripskogo," Dissertationes Slavicae: Sectio Lingvistica, XXV (Szeged, 2001), pp. 109-125. IVAN POP

Stryps'kyi, Konstantyn See Subcarpathian Scholarly Society Studencheskii zhurnal. See Dobrians'kyi CarpathoRussian Society

Student Circle of Beskyd Mountain Tourist Guides/Studenckie Kolo Przewodnikow Beskidzkich — Polish student organization for regional ethnography, history, and tourism with branches in Warsaw (1957), Katowice (1963), Rzeszow (1970), Lublin (1971), and Lodz (1981). The organization's basic goal is to disseminate information among the Polish public, especially students, about both Rusyn and Polish areas in the Beskyd Mountains through annual walking tours and the maintenance of tourist centers in the region as well as publications. The most active among the organization's branches is that in Warsaw; since the 1970s it has organized over 500 excursions, maintains two tourist centers in the *Lemko Region (Ropianka, Bartne), and has published over 160 ethnographic and historical publications, including the annual journals Poloniny (1971-1973, 1976-1992) and Magury (1972-1976, 1978-1993, 1996-). The branch in Rzeszow maintains four tourist centers in the Lemko Region (Dolzyca, Wisloczek, Zyndranowa, and Huta Wysowska) and for a while published the journal Nasze Szlaki (1975-95). The branch in Lublin maintains two tourist centers in the Lemko Region (Solinka, Jawornik) and publishes irregularly the bulletin Siwerniak (1979- ). The branch in Lodz maintains two tourist centers in the Lemko Region (Jaworki, Muszyna/Zlockie) and produced eight issues of the magazine Polanka. While the branch in Katowice focuses more on the Polish-populated western Beskyd region, it is also active in the far western Lemko Region (Beskid Sa^decki). Further reading: Jan St. Baran, "Przewodnictwo studenckie w Beskidach," Magury '96 (Warsaw, 1996), pp. 95-105. BOGDAN HORBAL

Student organizations. See Dobrians'kyi CarpathoRussian Student Society; Renaissance Carpatho-Russian Student Society; Student Circle of Beskid Mountain Tourist Guides; Union of Carpathian Youth; Union of Subcarpathian Rusyn Students

Studio. Ruthenica. See Tvorchosts Studia Ukrainica et Rusinica Nyiregyhaziensia — a series of scholarly volumes published since 1993 by the Department of Ukrainian and Rusyn Philology at the Bessenyi School of Higher Education in Nyiregyhaza, Hungary. The series is edited by the department's chairman, Istvan *Udvari, and its first 12 volumes have dealt primarily with Rusyn topics, including the career of the scholar Antal *Hodinka (1993); book reviews (1995) and a bibliography of the works of the specialist in Rusyn language, Istvan Udvari (1995); a dictionary ofRusyn words in early documents by Laszlo *Dezso (1996); and essays in Ukrainian and Rusyn philology (1997). MYKHAILO KAPRAL

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Studium Ruthenum. See Shchavnyts'kyi, Mykhail Studyns'kyi, Kyrylo. See Holovats'kyi, lakiv; Ukrainians; Vienna trials Sturak, Peter. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region Subcarpathian Agricultural Union. See Autonomous Agricultural Union Subcarpathian Bank. See Gorzo, Valentine; Hanchin, Michael; Voloshyn, Avhustyn; Hrabar, Konstantyn; Zhydovs'kyi, Ivan Subcarpathian Barbizon. See Art Subcarpathian Circle. See Rusyn Sector Subcarpathian Rus'/Podkarpats'ka Rus' — name for the territory in the upper Tisza/Tysa River valley along the southern slopes and foothills of the *Carpathian Mountains inhabited historically by Carpatho-Rusyns. The name is relatively recent in origin and first appeared in the writings of Rusyn national awakeners during the nineteenth century. At that time Subcarpathian Rus' designated all Rusyn territory south of the Carpathians in the pre-World War I Hungarian Kingdom, that is, in what is today northeastern Slovakia as well as the *Transcarpathian oblast of Ukraine. The absence of an older "more historic" name for Rusyns living south of the Carpathians is explained by the fact that their homeland was always a territorially peripheral and politically marginal entity within the states that ruled over them. The nineteenthcentury national awakeners tried to argue that Subcarpathian Rus' derived from the existence in the early medieval period (eleventh century) of an entity called *Marchia Ruthenorum, whose ruler was the Dux Ruizorum (the Rus' prince). While it is true that Marchia Ruthenorum did refer to a borderland (marchia is the Latin term for march or mark), the territory in question was centered on the lowlands of northeastern Pannonia, where at the time various Pannonian Slavic (not Rusyn) peoples lived. The earliest documents refer to the territory inhabited by Rusyns south of the Carpathians as the res nullius or terra nullius, that is, the "no-man's land." This mountainous region, covered with ancient forests and connected to the north by only a few, difficult-to-cross passes, was in fact sparsely settled. Moreover, before the early thirteenth century it was little more than an "in-between territory" (terra indagines) among three states: Kievan Rus', Poland, and the Hungarian Kingdom (see Map 7). In practice, no one of these states was able to nor needed to conquer this "in-between" land. At the outset

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of the thirteenth century, however, the Hungarian Kingdom began from the south to push its borders into the in-between territory. In contrast to their neighbors to the north (Poland and Kievan Rus'), the Hungarians had direct access to the territory and did not have to cross high mountain passes. As Hungary gradually took over the region, it did not create a single administrative unit but rather several counties—*Spish (Hungarian: Szepes, 1202), *Sharysh/Saros (1247), *Zemplyn/Zemplen, *Ung, Bereg (1214/1261), *Ugocha/Ugocsa (1262), and *Maramorosh/Maramaros (1303/1330)—which in effect encompassed most Rusyn-inhabited territory. During the nineteenth-century Rusyn national revival, a period which coincided with the rise of Slavophile ideology in the Russian Empire, the terms Ugorskaia, *Uhors'ka Rus'/ Hungarian Rus', and *Carpathian Rus' (which the Slavophiles took to mean eastern Galicia and northern Bukovina as well as Subcarpathian Rus') began to appear in writings. These various names were used until the fall of Austria-Hungary in 1918. The short-lived Hungarian People's Republic christened the territory at the end of 1918 with the name *Rus'ka Krai'na, or Rus' Land (Hungarian: Ruszka krajna), although that name applied only to four of the Rusyn-inhabited counties (Ung, Bereg, Ugocha, Maramorosh). In documents generated at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 the formulation, "territory inhabited by Ruthenians south of the Carpathians," was used; in documents from this period produced by Rusyn-American immigrants the terms Subcarpathian Rus' and Rusinia appeared. It was Czechoslovakia's constitution (1920) which for the first time used as an official name Subcarpathian Rus' (Czech: Podkarpatska Rus), although in some Czech publications the term Rusinsko was employed. Subcarpathian Rus' referred, however, only to the new country's administrative unit, basically east of the Uzh river (eastern Ung, Bereg, Ugocha, and Maramarosh counties). Other Rusyn-inhabited lands south of the Carpathians that fell under a Slovak provincial administration (in western Ung, Zemplyn, Sharysh, and *Spish counties) gradually came to be known as Preshovs'ka/ Priashovs'ka Rus', or the *Presov Region. Ukrainian emigres who settled in Subcarpathian Rus' after 1919 used a wide range of names, including Pidkarpats 'ka Rus' (Subcarpathian Rus'), Prykarpats 'ka Ukra'ina (Ukraine near the Carpathians), Zakarpats'ka Ukra'ina (Ukraine beyond the Carpathians), Karpats 'ka Ukra'ina (Carpatho-Ukraine), and even the vague term Sribna Zemlia (The Silver Land). After Czechoslovakia introduced a new territorial-administrative reform (July 1927) the republic was divided into four lands, the farthest east of which received the formal designation, Zem podkarpatoruskd (The Subcarpathian Land). When, on October 11, 1938, the province was given its own autonomous government, Subcarpathian Rus' became again the official name as entered into Czechoslovak constitutional law (November 22, 1938). After coming to power (October 26), the pro-Ukrainian autonomous government

482 began to use the term *Carpatho-Ukraine. In response, the constitutional law made it clear that the "final name of the autonomous territory of Rusyns living south of the Carpathians would be decided by a law passed [in the future] by the diet of Subcarpathian Rus'." The Ukrainophile premier of the province's autonomous government, Avhustyn *Voloshyn, disregarded the caveat in the Czechoslovak law and decreed on December 30, 1938, that "the name Carpatho-Ukraine may be used alongside Subcarpathian Rus' to designate the province." In practice, however, only the name CarpathoUkraine was used, although it was not officially adopted by the Subcarpathian diet until March 15, 1939. Since the Hungarian Army had already begun to occupy the rest of the province, the term Carpatho-Ukraine as an official designation technically existed for only one day. The Hungarian regime intended to name its new territorial acquisition Karpataljai vajdasag (The Carpathian Voivodeship), which assumed the existence of an autonomous entity. But since the Hungarians never granted any autonomy, the territory was officially called Karpataljai teriilet (The Subcarpathian Territory). After the arrival of the Soviet Army in October 1944 the name *Transcarpathian Ukraine/Zakarpats 'ka Ukraina (literally: Ukraine beyond the Carpathians, from the perspective of Kiev or Moscow) began to be used as a means to indicate Soviet territorial pretentions to this (still formally) eastern part of Czechoslovakia. When the territory was in fact annexed to the Soviet Union (June 1945), the historical and ethnonymic part of its name was dropped within a few months and it became simply the *Transcarpathian oblast/Zakarpats'ka oblast (literally: the territory beyond the Carpathians). Post-Communist independent Ukraine continues to use the term Transcarpathian oblast, although publications and organizations connected with the Rusyn national revival in the region and abroad use the historic name, Subcarpathian Rus'. Further reading: Omelian Stavrovs'kyi, Slovats'ko-pol's'koukra'ins 'ke prykordonnia do 18 stolittia (Bratislava and Presov, 1967), pp. 9-26; Paul Robert Magocsi, The Shaping of a National Identity: Subcarpathian Rus' 1848-1948 (Cambridge, Mass., and London, 1978), pp. 277-281; Ivan Pop, "Homo totalitaricus?: istoriia Zakarpattia, krytychni rozdumy," Karpats 'kyi krai, VI, 5-7 [114] (Uzhhorod, 1996), pp. 1-22; Mykhailo M. Boldyzhar, Nauka vymahaie pravdy (Uzhhorod, 1999), pp. 21-27. IVAN POP

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture in *Subcarpamian Rus' decided to organize and subsidize a professional theater. The plans were not realized until 1934, when officials from the provincial school administration, the Czechs Ladislav *Kaigl and Viktor Klima (1888-19??), organized courses to train local Rusyn actors. The courses continued through the 1934/1935 and 1935/1936 seasons and were taught by emigre actors and directors from the former *Ukrainophile Rusyn Theater of the *Prosvita Society in Uzhhorod and the Moscow Art Theater based in Prague, two companies that had performed in Subcarpathian Rus' during the 1920s. The actors also performed several plays during their two seasons of training throughout Subcarpathian Rus', concluding their second season with performances in Prague (April 1936). In June 1936 the Subcarpathian Rusyn National Theater was formally established in Uzhhorod. Subsidized by the provincial government, the theater was administered by an executive board, although policy was set largely by the board's most influential member, Ladislav Kaigl. The theater's artistic director was the retired Czech director from Prague, Frantisek Hlavaty (1873-1952); its sets were designed by the Rusyn artist Fedor *Manailo; and among its leading actors were Mania Pil'tser (1912-1976), Volodymyr Hrabar, and Mykhail Lugosh (d. 1968). Some of its plays were written by Rusyn authors (in particular Antonii *Bobul's'kyi and Sion *Sil'vai), but most were from the Russian and Ukrainian repertory. They were all usually performed in the "Carpatho-Rusyn" vernacular, a decision which elicited frequent criticism by local *Russophile and *Ukrainophile cultural activists. When the Czechoslovak republic began to disintegrate, the Subcarpathian Rusyn National Theater gave its last performances at the outset of its third season (September 1938). After Hungary annexed Subcarpathian Rus' two of the theater's actors, Mykhai'l Lugosh and Volodymyr Hrabar, staged plays beginning in the fall of 1939. Following up on their initiative, the local Hungarian administration provided funds in 1940 for the creation of the Uhro-Rusyn National Theater/Uhro-russkii natsional'nyi teatr, which continued to function until 1944. Further reading: Evgenii Nedziel'skii, Ugro-russkii teatr (Uzhhorod, 1941). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Subcarpathian Rusyn Independent SocialDemocratic party. See Social-Democratic party

Subcarpathian Rusyn Popular Enlightenment Union. See Fentsyk, Shtefan; Kokhannyi-Goral'chuk, Kirill; Printing and Publishing; Zoria

Subcarpathian Rusyn National Theater/Zemskii podkarpatorusskii narodnyi teatr — the first permanent theater intended to serve as a "national" institution for Rusyns. In 1931 Czechoslovakia's provincial government

Subcarpathian Scholarly Society/Podkarpatskoe obshchestvo nauk — the first scholarly and cultural institution in Subcarpathian Rus' to adopt an unequivocal pro-Rusyn orientation. The Subcarpathian Scholarly Society

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture was founded in January 1941 in Uzhhorod at the initiative of Miklos *Kozma, the regent-commissar of the Hungarian-ruled Subcarpathian territory. The society's goal was "to contribute toward the creation of a distinct national identity among Rusyns" as part of a Hungarian political nation. In this regard its first main task was to codify a Rusyn literary language. In contrast to the interwar *Prosvita and *Dukhnovych Societies, the 35-member Subcarpathian Scholarly Society functioned as a kind ofRusyn academy of sciences, organized into sections for science, arts and ethnography, and the Rusyn language and literature. It was given the building of the former Prosvita Society and the printshop owned by the *Shkol'naia pomoshch' philanthropic organization. The first chairman was the Hungarian historian of Rusyn origin residing in Budapest, Antal *Hodinka (1941-1942), the second the local Greek Catholic canon Aleksander *Il'nyts'kyi (1942-1944); its vice-chairman was the Subcarpathian historian Irynei *Kontratovych. The society was actually run, however, by its director, Ivan *Haraida. Activists from all national orientations were accepted as members as long as they adopted a loyal position toward Hungary and "did not look toward the north [Ukraine], or east [Russia]." Hence, among its ranks were the pro-Hungarians Antal Hodinka, Aleksander *Bonkalo, Hiiador *Stryps'kyi, Bishop Aleksander *Stoika and lulii *Maryna; the *Russophiles Petro *Sova, Konstantyn Stryps'kyi, and Vasylii Sulinchak; the *Ukrainophiles Mykola *Lelekach and Aleksander *Markush; and the Rusynophiles Ivan Haraida, Emilian *Bokshai, Ivan *Muranii, Aleksander Il'nyts'kyi; and the artists AdaFbert *Erdeli, losyf *Bokshai, and Andrii *Kotska. Under the editorship of Haraida, the Subcarpathian Scholarly Society published a bi-weekly literary, scholarly, and civic affairs magazine, *Lyteraturna nedila; a scholarly journal, *Zoria/Hajnal, a youth journal, *Rus'ka molodezh; an annual almanac, * Velykyi sel'sko-hospodarskyi kalendar'; and several series of books: Narodna byblioteka (32 vols.), Ditocha byblioteka (12 vols.), and Lyteraturno-naukova byblioteka (42 vols.), which included original literary works, translations, scholarly monographs, and children's books. The society's first publication was Ivan Haraida's Rusyn grammar (Hramatyka rus'koho iazyka, 1941), which provided the guidelines for the Rusyn literary standard used in all other publications. Of great significance for scholarly research was the first comprehensive bibliography about all aspects of Subcarpathian Rus' compiled by Mykola Lelekach and Ivan Haraida (Zahal'na bybliohrafiia Podkarpatia, 1944; repr. 2000). Literary works by authors of all national orientations appeared in the society's publications, prompting Fedor *Potushniak to remark that the work of the Subcarpathian Scholarly Society "was the golden age of our literature." Further reading: Myroslava O. Petskar, "Rol' 'Podkarpatskoho Obshchestva Nauk' u formuvanni ideolohii 'uhrorusyzmu' ta rozvytku nauky i kul'tury, 1941-1944 rr.," in Molod'-Ukraini, No.

2 (Uzhhorod, 1994), pp. 61-66; Gyb'rgy Csatary, ed., Zoria-Hajnal: a Kdrpdtaljai Tudomdnyos Tdrsasdg, 1941-1944 (Berehovo and Budapest, 1945); Valerii Padiak, "Trahichna dolia rundamental'no! bibliohrafichnoi pratsi Pidkarpattia," in Nykolai Lelekach and Yvan Haraida, Zahal'na bybliohrafiia Podkarpatia, 2nd rev. ed. (Uzhhorod, 2000), pp. 187-196; Mykhayl Kapral'/Mihaly Kapraly, Pudkapats'koe obshchestvo nauk: publykatsii, 19411944/Kdrpdtaljai tudomdnyos tdrsasdg: kiadvanyok, 1941-1944 (Uzhhorod, 2002). IVAN POP

Subcarpathian School of Painting. See Art Subcarpaticus, J. See Haraida, Ivan Suhaj, Nikola. See Cinema; Shuhai, Nikolai Sukha korchma — the so-called "dry tavern," a feudal duty imposed on those villagers who did not purchase wine made in landlord-owned wineries. The duty was to be paid three times a year, although by the village as a whole rather than by individuals. The amount due ranged from 3 to 30 florins, depending on the number of inhabitants in the village. IVAN POP

Sukhors'kyi, Andrii (b. August 21,1932, Wolka, Poland) — Lemko sculptor in Ukraine. Sukhors'kyi is a self-taught sculptor, who after resettlement to the Soviet Ukraine (1945) was eventually employed in the Guild of Artistic Sculpture of the Lesia Ukrainka Factory in Eviv. He has continued the tradition of Lemko folk wood carving and frequently uses Lemko themes in his works (Lemko Carrying Wood, Lemko Sculptor, Lemko in a Heavy Cloak/Chuha, Lemko Ploughing, Lemko House, Young Lemko Girl, Lemko Smiths). Among the most influential of these are In Search of a Piece of Bread and a multifigural sculpture depicting the resettlement of *Lemkos to Ukraine, The Resettlement (1985). Sukhors'kyi has been a member of the Union of Artists of Ukraine since 1958, and his works have been exhibited throughout Europe and North America. Further reading: "Rizbiarstvo pryneslo schast'e i slavu," in Karpatorusskyi kalendar' Lemko-Soiuza na hod 1960 (Yonkers, N.Y., 1960), pp. 133-144. BOGDAN HORBAL

Sukhyi, Shtefan/Suchy, Stefan (b. May 24, 1946, Nechvalova Polianka [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — poet, teacher, and cultural activist in the Presov Region. A graduate of Safarik University in Presov (1970), Sukhyi taught for two decades at the Ukrainian middle (serednid) school in Snina.

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He published his earliest works in literary Ukrainian. During the 1990s he embraced the Rusyn national orientation and worked as education consultant for the *Rusyn Renaissance Society. He has published in Rusyn two volumes of poetry, Rusyn 'skyi spivnyk (1994) and Endi sidat' na mashynu vichnosty (1995), and a collection of short stories, lak Rusnaky relaksuiut'(1997). In the year 2000 Sukhyi was awarded the Aleksander Dukhnovych Prize, funded by the Rusyn-Canadian philanthropist Steven *Chepa, for the best recent original work in Rusyn literature. Further reading: Mariia Khomova-Dupkanichova and Vasyl' Khoma, "Umelets'ka proza Shtefana Sukhoho," in Rusyns'kyi narodnyi kalendar'na rik 2001 (PreSov, 2000), pp. 137-143; Vasyl' Khoma, "Poetichna tvorchost' Shtefana Sukhoho," Rusyn, X, 1-2 (Presov, 2001), pp. 11-14. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Sviato kul'tury Rusyniv-Ukrai'ntsiv Slovachchyny. See Svidnik Folk Festival Svientsits'kyi, Ilarion Semenovych (b. April 7,1876, Bus'k [Austrian Galicia], Ukraine; d. September 18, 1956, Eviv [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — Slavic philologist, art historian, professor, and museum director of Russian and later Ukrainian national orientation. Svientsits'kyi was editor of the Galician Russophile journal, Zhivaia mysl'( 1902-05), then after switching to the Ukrainian national orientation became founding director of the National Museum (1905-1939), which he continued to head after it was renamed the Eviv State Museum of Ukrainian Art (1939-1941, 1944-1952). Earlier in his career, when he was still of *Russophile orientation, Svientsits'kyi compiled a two-volume collection of documents, Materialypo istorii vozrozhdeniia Karpatskoi Rusi (1906-09), that included the writings of several nineteenth-century Rusyn national activists (in particular their correspondence with scholars in Russia), as well as previously unpublished studies about "Carpatho-Russians" by lurii *Venelin. Svientsits'kyi also wrote analytical studies about cultural relations between *Carpathian Rus'—understood to be eastern Galician and Bukovina, as well as Subcarpathian Rus'—and the Russian Empire (1906); about the Russophile movement in the region (1918); and on the national revival in * Subcarpathian Rus' and Galicia (1939). Further reading: O.D. Kizlyk and R.Ia. Lutsyk, 7.5". Svientsits 'kyi: korotkyi bibliohrafichnyipokazhchyk (Kiev, 1956). IVAN POP

(Ohliad) of Traditional Culture and Amateur Folk Ensembles among the Ukrainian Inhabitants of Czechoslovakia. The following year it moved to Svidnik, where it has been held ever since. Over the years the name of the festival has varied; it has been known as the Festival of Song and Dance of the Ukrainian Inhabitants of Eastern Slovakia (1958-1960), and later of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (1961-1976), and as the Festival of Culture of the Ukrainian Workers of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (1977-1989). Since 1993 it has been called the Festival of Culture of the RusynUkrainians of Slovakia/Sviato kul'tury rusyniv-ukrai'ntsiv Slovachchyny. The Svidnik Folk Festival lasts two days each June, during which time anywhere from 20 to 60 amateur ensembles from Rusyn villages in the *Presov Region perform songs, dances, and at times skits recalling traditional village life (weddings, children's games, bringing in the harvest, etc.). The second day usually concludes with a review (estradd) of folk ensembles from neighboring countries and the region's own professional *PULS Folk Ensemble from Presov. Established during the height of the Cold War, the Svidnik Folk Festival has always been heavily politicized. Until 1989 it was routinely attended by high-level officials of the Communist party, whose introductory speeches stressed loyalty to the socialist system of Czechoslovakia and its closest ally, the Soviet Union. An integral part of the festival has been a visit to the nearby World War II battle site at the *Dukla pass and the laying of wreaths at Svidnik's cemetery honoring the Soviet war dead. The festival has also been considered an important instrument for stressing the alleged "Ukrainian" national identity of the local Rusyn population. Throughout its history, the Svidnik Folk Festival has been organized by the *Cultural Union of Ukrainian Workers of Czechoslovakia and its successor, the *Union of Rusyn-Ukrainians of Slovakia. In the post-Communist era, it continues to attract officials from the Slovak government as well as from independent Ukraine. Despite the politicized context of the festival, its wide-range ofRusyn and other Slavic folkloric performances attracts large audiences. Some 4,000 people attended the first festival (1955); since the 1960s attendance has ranged from 30,000 to 50,000. Further reading: lurii Bacha, Narod spivaie (Bratislava and PreSov, 1965); Ivan Chyzhmar, Dvadtsiat'rokiv Sviatapisni i tantsiu ukrains 'koho naselennia ChSSR—Svydnyk/Dvadsat'rokov Slavnosti piesni a tancov ukrajinskeho obyvatel'stva v CSSR—Svidnik (Svidnik, 1974); Ivan Chyzhmar, XXVrokiv Sviata kul'tury ukrains 'kykh trudiashchykh ChSSR—Svydnyk/XXV rokov Slavnosti kultury ukrajinskych pracujucich CSSR—Svidnik (KoSice, 1979); Mykola Mushynka, Zapovit predkiv/Odkaz predkov (Presov, 1994). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Svidnik Folk Festival — the oldest and largest Rusyn traditional cultural festival held annually in Svidnik, Slovakia. It began in 1955 in the town of Medzilaborce as the Review

Svidnik gymnasium. See Gymnasium

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Svidnik Museum of Ukrainian-Rus' Culture. See Museum of Ukrainian-Rus' Culture in Svidnik Svistun, Filip F. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region Svit— weekly "non-political newspaper" published in Uzhhorod (1867-71) by the *St. Basil the Great Society. Svtt was the first newspaper for Rusyns published in *Carpathian Rus'. Its goal was "to defend the interests of the Rus' [Rusyn] nationality in the realm of literary culture." Among Svtt's editors were lurii *Ihnatkov (1867), Kyryl *Sabov (1867-1869), and Viktor *Kymak (1869-1871). The editors based their hopes for Rusyns on a liberalization of the ruling Hungarian regime in connection with the adoption of the *Ausgleich (1867) and establishment of the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy and its implementation of a constitutional law code. Developments proved otherwise, however, leading instead to the centralization policies in the Hungarian part of the Dual Monarchy and efforts to create a Hungarian political nation. This led to attempts to magyarize all non-Magyar peoples and national groups living in the kingdom. The unmasking by the founding editor Ihnatkov of the Hungarian government's violation of parliamentary electoral procedures prompted criticism from the bishop of Mukachevo, Shtefan *Pankovych. As a result of the bishop's opposition to Ihnatkov's national and educational policies, the latter was removed from his editorial post (after the first 15 numbers of Svtt) and sent to a job (1867) in Budapest. Similarly, the second editor, Kyryl Sabov, who was protected by young Rusyn writers and historians from the bishop's intrigues, was removed (1869) and sent from Uzhhorod to the southern Hungarian town of Szeged. The third editor, Kymak, "transferred" like his predecessors, gave up his teaching career so that he was no longer subordinate to Hungary's ministry of education. Svit was highly critical of the government's magyarization program, of the policies of Bishop Pankovych, and of the new structure of the Dual Monarchy. Aside from political topics, the newspaper ran critical reviews and the texts of works by Russian belletrists. By 1870 Svit was being described as a "newspaper of literature and civic affairs," and it adopted the format of a journal. It also began to publish the Narodnoe chtenie, a series of books "for the masses." Both the Hungarian government and Bishop Pankovych were opposed to these developments. To undermine the editor Kymak, the bishop cooperated with the associate editor, Viktor Gebei, a priest at the Uzhhorod Theological Seminary, and with Nykolai *Homichkov, an influential figure in the Society of St. Basil the Great. In early 1871 these two figures took over the newspaper and removed Kymak as editor. Soon after Svit ceased publication. Further reading: P.M. Lisovyi, Zhurnalistyka Zakarpattia 50- 70-kh

rokiv XlXstolittia i Tizv "iazky z inshymy ukrdins 'kymy zemliamy ta Rosiieiu (Uzhhorod, 1969), pp. 25-41; Olena Rudlovchak, "Hazeta Svet i il poperednyky," Naukovyi zbirnyk Muzeiu ukrains 'koikul'tury u Svydnyku, XII (Bratislava and Presov, 1985), pp. 83-103 and "Bibliohrafiia materialiv hazety Svet" in ibid. pp. 104-146; Vasyl' Habor, Ukrains'ki chasopysy Uzhhoroda, 1867-1944 (L'viv, 2003), pp. 75-82. IVAN POP

Svit. See Pryslopskii, Roman Svit d'itej. See Greek Catholic Union; Sabol, Sevastiian Svitlo. See Prosvita Society Svitova federatsiia Lemkiv. See World Lemko Federation of Ukrainian Lemko Organizations Svitova rada Rusyniv. See World Congress of Rusyns Svitovyi kongres Rusyniv. See World Congress of Rusyns Svoboda—weekly newspaper published in Uzhhorod (19221938). Svoboda was the successor to the newspaper *Nauka; its executive editor and publisher was Avhustyn *Voloshyn, its editor-in-chief Viktor Zheltvai. Beginning in May 1923, Svoboda claimed to be an "independent and non-party cultural, political, and economic newspaper for * Subcarpathian Rus'," but by mid-1925 it had become the official organ of the *Christian People's party/Khrystyians'ko-narodnapartiia. After 1930 it was published in literary Ukrainian (using the phonetic alphabet) and soon became the leading organ of the *Ukrainophile national orientation. In April 1938 the weekly Svoboda was transformed into the daily newspaper, *Nova svoboda. Further reading: Ivan Dobosh, Istoriia ukrains 'ko'i zhurnalistyky Zakarpattia 20—30-kh rokivXXst. (Ivano-Frankivs'k, 1995), pp. 2643; M.M. Vegesh, "Vid 'Nauky' do 'Novoi'svobody': storinky istorii odniiei zakarpatsko'i hazety," in Carpatika—Karpatyka, Vol. VIII (Uzhhorod, 2001), pp. 33-46; Vasyl' Habor, Ukrains'ki chasopysy Uzhhoroda, 1867-1944 (L'viv, 2003), pp. 257-266. IVAN POP

Svoboda. See Liberty Association/Svoboda Svobodnoe slovo Karpatskoi Rusi. See Gerovskii, Aleksei Svoboda, Ludvik. See Czechoslovak Army Corps; Dukla, Battle of

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Svorc, Peter (b. January 31, 1957, Liptovsky Mikulas [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia)—Slovak historian and docentl associate professor at Presov University. Svorc is a specialist in the history of Czechoslovakia during the first half of the twentieth century with particular emphasis on eastern Slovakia and *Subcarpathian Rus'. He teaches courses in the history of those regions at Presov University and has published several studies on the incorporation of Subcarpathian Rus' into Czechoslovakia and its evolution within that country during the interwar years, including Zakliata krajina: Podkarpatskd Rus', 1918-1946 (1996) and Strucne dejiny Podkarpatskej Rusi, Vol. II: 1918-1946 (1996). He has given special attention to the problem of defining the ethnolinguistic and political border between Slovaks and Rusyns (Krajinskd hranica medzi Slovenskom a Podkarpatskou Rusou v medzivojnovom obdobi, 1919-1939, 2003). Svorc's writings are based on a wide use of archival sources and are characterized by an impartial approach to the Rusyn nationality question. They have contributed much to informing the Slovak public about the historic province beyond their eastern border. Further reading: Peter Svorc, Persondlna bibliografia do roku 2002 (Presov, 2002). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Swabians. See Germans Sydor, Dymytrii (pseudonym: D. Vozdvizhenskii) (b. March 29, 1955, Letsovytsia [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — priest, editor, and civic activist ofRusyn national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus'. After studying computer technology at Uzhhorod State University (1971-1974) Sydor completed the Theological Seminary at Zagorsk, Russia (1976-1980) and the Moscow Theological Academy (1980-1982). He was ordained an Orthodox priest (1980) and since 1991 has headed a large parish in Uzhhorod, for which he has organized the construction of a monumental cathedral church. At the cathedral he has organized a choir (1992) and established the Cyril and Methodius Society/Tovarystvo im. Kyryla i Mefodiia, of which he is chairman (1993- ). Sydor strongly supports the view that Rusyns form a distinct nationality deserving of cultural and political *autonomy. He has expounded this position as a deputy elected to the Perechyn district council (1986-1990) and to Transcarpathia's regional parliament/Oblasna rada (2002- ); as organizer of several scholarly conferences and the Fifth *World Congress of Rusyns in Uzhhorod (1999); and as founding editor of the bi-monthly newspaper, *Khrystyians'ka rodyna (1996- ). Sydor is sympathetic to the traditional pan-Slavic view that the secular culture and spiritual heritage of Rusyns can best be promoted by cooperation with other Slavic peoples, in particular those of Orthodox faith. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Sydoriak, Mykola. See Communist party Sygma. See Voron, Andrii Symbol/Crest of Carpatho-Rusyns. A national symbol for Carpatho-Rusyns was first created after Subcarpathian Rus' was united with Czechoslovakia. Initial proposals were for a symbol based on the crests used by the four historic counties (*Ung, *Bereg, *Ugocha, *Maramorosh) within *Subcarpathian Rus'. In its center was to be a shield emblazoned with the six-sided, two-bar cross of Prince *Koriatovych. In the top portion, above the cross, was a deer with pine trees to the left and right, before a backdrop of mountains. In the middle portion were two figures: a man with a scythe to the left of the cross and a woman with grape vines to the right. The bottom portion included nine horizontal stripes with five fish to symbolize Subcarpathia's main rivers. This proposed symbol did not, however, respond properly to general heraldic principles, and its five parts were too complex and could not be used within the framework of the great and middle symbols of the Czechoslovak republic. On March 30,1920, the Czechoslovak parliament approved a symbol that followed accepted heraldic principles. It consisted of a heraldic shield divided vertically into two parts: on the left were three gold horizontal bars on a field of dark blue; on the right was the red figure of an open-mouthed Carpathian bear standing on its two hind legs and emblazoned on a field of silver grey. The bear symbolized the *Carpathian Mountains; the three golden bars the region's major rivers—Uzh, Latorytsia, and Tisza/Tysa. Dark blue and gold are traditional heraldic colors that exist in the symbols and flags of the counties and cities of * Subcarpathian Rus'. Some pro-Ukrainian scholars argue that the Czechoslovak parliament condoned the use of Ukrainian national colors as an indication of Subcarpathian affinity with Ukraine (although Ukraine did not exist as a state in 1920). But Czechoslovakia, which had just annexed Subcarpathian Rus', was unlikely to wish to show that the new territory belonged to any other foreign entity. At a meeting of the first and last session of the region's autonomous parliament (March 15,1939), Ukrainian nationalist deputies proposed adding to the Subcarpathian symbol the Ukrainian trident with a cross atop its middle vertical fork. From 1939 to 1990, first under Hungarian and then under Soviet rule, the regional symbol of Subcarpathian Rus' was banned. It was only on December 12, 1990, that the Transcarpathian Regional Parliament (Oblastna rada) adopted the interwar symbol for official use in the *Transcarpathian oblast. The larger Rusyn movement that has evolved especially since 1989 has also adopted the interwar crest, which has become the national symbol of the Carpatho-Rusyns worldwide. It is used as the official seal and in publications ofRusyn organizations in Ukraine, Slovakia, Hungary, and Yugoslavia as well as by the * World Congress of Rusyns.

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Further reading: Avhustyn Shtefan, "Kol'ory—herby i prapory Zakarpattia," mAl'manakh 'Provydinnia 'na rik 1971 (Philadelphia, 1970), pp. 151-161; Milan Hlinomaz, "Navrhy znaku Podkarpatske Rusi z roku 1920," Heraldicko-genealogicky zpravodaj, XIX, 2 (Prague, 1986), pp. 187-190; Andrzej Wocial, "Symbols of CarpathoUkraine," The Flag Bulletin, XXX, 4 (Winchester, Mass., 1991), pp. 141-153; O. Filipov, "Istoriia stvorennia herba Pidkarpats'ko'i Rusi," in Doslidzhennia istorii sotsial'no-ekonomichnoho rozvytku krain tsentral'no'i ta pivdenno-skhidnoi levropy (Uzhhorod, 1978), pp. 354-360. IVAN POP

Szabo, Simeon. See Sabov, Simeon

Symchera,Vasyl'. See Communism

Szekfii, Gyula. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region

Symko, Mykola and Pavlo. See Dukhnovych Theater Symko-Pazdernyk, Tamara. See Dukhnovych Theater Syn Lemka. See Cislak, Nicholas

Syrokhman, Sokyrnyts'kyi. See Hodinka, Antal Sysak, laroslav/Sisak, Jaroslav (b. May 25, 1939, Pichne [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — actor, theatrical director, and cultural activist among the Rusyns of Slovakia. Sysak was educated at the Pedogogical School in Presov (1953-1957); later he completed advanced theatrical training in Ukraine at the Institute of Theatrical Studies in Kiev (1966-1971). For over four decades he was associated with the *Ukrainian National Theater in Presov as an actor (19571966), stage director (1971 -1981), and director (1982-1998). Under his leadership the theater began to produce plays in the Rusyn language (1986); after it was renamed the Aleksander *Dukhnovych Theater (1990) the entire repertory was gradually produced in Rusyn. Sysak encouraged the Dukhnovych Theater to perform among Rusyns in neighboring countries and for the first time it travelled with a Rusyn-language repertory to several countries in western Europe. Sysak also served as chairman (1995-1996) of the *Rusyn Renaissance Society/Rusyn'ska obroda. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Szabolcs. See County Szamovolszky, Odon. See Art Szantay-Szeman, Istvan. See Szeman, Istvan Szanter, Zofia. See Historiography: Lemko Region Szatmar. See County

Szeman/Szantay-Szeman, Istvan (b. July 5, 1880, Abaujszanto [Hungarian Kingdom], Hungary; d. December 22, 1960, Miskolc, Hungary) — priest, theologian, pedagogue, and writer in the Presov Region of Hungarian national orientation. A native of a Greek Catholic village within what is today northeastern Hungary, Szeman graduated from the Greek Catholic Theological Seminary in Presov. After ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1903) he was responsible for the parish of Ruska Nova Ves in eastern Slovakia. He also taught Hungarian language and literature at the *Presov Greek Catholic Teachers' College (1905-1920) and served as inspector for schools in the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov (1907-1920). In 1920 Szeman returned to Hungary, where he worked for a few years at the Hungarian National Museum and in government ministries, then from 1925 in the offices of the Greek Catholic Apostolic Exarchate in Miskolc. Szeman wrote numerous studies on the Byzantine rite, the history of the Greek Catholic Church, and idea of *Unia/ Church Union. While at the Eparchy of Presov he compiled a two-volume collection ofRusyn and Slovak folkloric texts, although it was never published. Szeman was also the leading activist behind the 1915 decision of the Eparchy of Presov to replace the *Cyrillic alphabet with the Roman/Latin alphabet for Rusyn publications. For this purpose he prepared a primer and reader for Rusyn schools: Ruten ABC es olvasokonyv (1916). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Syvyts'kyi, Mykola. See Historiography: Lemko Region

Szentivanyi, Jozsef. See Magyars

Szabo, Cyrill. See Sabov, Kyryl

Szepes. See Spish

Szabo, Eumen. See Sabov, levmenii

Szerem. See Vbjvodina

Szabo, Jeno. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Hajdudorog

Szilvay, Janos. See Sil'vai, Ivan

Szabo, Oreszt. See Sabov, Oreszt

Szondy, Janos. See Mukachevo State Teachers' College

T

Takach, Basil/Vasylii (b. October 27, 1879, Vuchkovo [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. May 13,1948, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA) — priest, seminary professor, and church hierarch among Rusyn Greek Catholics in the United States. After graduating from the Theological Seminary in Uzhhorod Takach was ordained a Greek Catholic priest (1902) in the *Eparchy of Mukachevo. In 1911 he was brought to Uzhhorod to serve in the eparchial administration as director of the *Unio Publishing Company, as head of the Alumneum student residence, and later as professor/spiritual director (1920-1924) at the Uzhhorod Theological Seminary. In 1924 he was consecrated bishop and sent to the United States to head the Ruthenian Catholic Exarchate of Pittsburgh, a post he held until his death in 1948. During Takach's episcopate the Vatican issued the *Cum Data Fuerit decree (1929), which reiterated the principle that newly ordained Greek Catholic priests in the United States must be celibate and demanded that all church property be transferred to the legal authority of the bishop. Takach's efforts to enforce the Vatican's decree were met with numerous protests by his own priests and laity (led by the *Greek Catholic Union of Rusyn Brotherhoods) that lasted for over a decade, split the Greek Catholic community, and resulted in the creation of a separate *American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic Diocese (1938) as an alternative to Bishop Takach's jurisdiction. Further reading: Basil Shereghy, Bishop Basil Takach: "The Good Shepherd" (Pittsburgh, 1979). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Taksalisty — villagers in the Hungarian Kingdom who during the feudal era were not given parcels of land to work but who instead leased a homestead for which they paid the landlord a monetary duty (the so-called taks) or a labor duty. When serfdom was abolished in 1848, this group of villagers did not receive any land. IVAN POP

Talerhof (German: Thalerhof) — an internment camp in the Austrian province of Styria (now under the airport in Graz) operated by the Austro-Hungarian imperial government from 1914 to 1917. With the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, hundreds of persons throughout the *Lemko Region were arrested by the Habsburg authorities on suspicion of possible collaboration with the advancing tsarist Russian Army. The arrests were based on intelligence reports, lists of

members of *Russophile organizations, subscription lists to Galicia's Russophile press, and denunciations by local *Ukrainians, *Jews, and *Poles. Trials by military courts followed and executions took place in Nowy Sa^cz and Gorlice (including the Lemko-Rusyn Orthodox priest Maksym *Sandovych). In other places (Piwniczna, Grybow, Radoszyce) summary lynchings were carried out based on verbal accusations. The first transport of Lemkos left Gorlice on August 14 to reach Talerhof four days later. Each cargo wagon, packed with forty prisoners, was labeled "Moscophile traitors," with the result that along the way transports were often attacked by angry mobs. Initially there were no accommodations for inmates; they lived in tents until the end of 1914, when they were moved to barracks, of which more than twenty were eventually built plus five for quarantined persons. Hygiene and nutrition were primitive, while the brutality of the guards was the order of the day. The Talerhof camp housed primarily *Russophile-oriented individuals and families from Galicia, among whom were at least 1,915 *Lemkos (some sources place the figure as high as 5,000) from 151 villages. Of those Lemkos incarcerated, 168 died and numerous others had their health destroyed. The Austrian authorities arrested virtually the entire Russophile-oriented Lemko intelligentsia. Among them were priests (Havryil *Hnatyshak, Teofil' *Kachmarchyk, Dymytrii *Khyliak, Vasylii *Kuryllo, Mykolai *Malyniak, Vasylii *Mastsiukh, Tyt *Myshkovskii, loann *Polianskii, Olympii *Polianskii, Roman *Pryslopskii), lawyers (laroslav *Kachmarchyk, Teofil' *Kuryllo), and cultural activists (Nykolai *Hromosiak, Dymytrii *Kachor, Simeon *Pysh, Metodii *Trokhanovskii, Dymytrii *Vyslotskii). All were suspected of possible collaboration with the advancing tsarist Russian Army that had invaded Galicia at the outset of World War I. In May 1917 the Talerhof camp was closed by order of Emperor Charles I (r. 1916-1918). The barracks were not dismantled until 1936, however, at which time 1,767 corpses were exhumed and reburied in a common grave in the nearby Austrian village of Feldkirchen. In 1924 and 1934 Talerhof Memorial Days were held in Eviv. Four volumes of a memorial book were published, Talergofskii al'manakh (1924-32, repr. 1964) and a Talerhof Museum was established (1928) in Eviv under the direction of Adriian *Kopystianskii, containing physical artifacts of the camp's inmates and archival materials (diaries, letters, photographs, memoirs). Among Lemkos in the United States, Talerhof Day has been observed every year since 1965. The group suffering experienced in Talerhof during World

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture War I is viewed by Lemkos as persecution for their national and religious beliefs. To this day Talerhof remains a defining event in the group's history and at a scale of tragedy that is only overshadowed by the forced *Lemko population resettlements of the 1940s. In the end, the Austro-Hungarian persecution connected with Talerhof did serious damage to the Russophile movement in the Lemko Region, and although it strengthened those who survived it also opened the way for Ukrainian national activists, especially *Ukrainophile priests who, in taking over vacated Lemko Greek Catholic parishes, were able to instill their views among the populace during the 1920s and 1930s. Further reading: Aleksandr Khiliak, Vinovniki Talergofa v osvieshchenii istoricheskikh dokumentov (L'viv, 1933); Jifi Stfibrny, Thalerhof (Prague, 1934); Vasilii R. Vavrik, Znachenie Talergofa (Eviv, 1934); G.S. Malets, "Tsiel' i zadachi Talergofskikh Siezdov," in Illiustrovannyi narodnyi kalendar 'na hod 1935 (Eviv, 1935), pp. 86-160; Voennye prestupleniia Gabsburgskoi monarkhii 1914-1917 gg.: Galitskaia golgofa (Trumbull, Conn., 1964); Vasilii R. Vavrik, Terezin i Talergof: k 50-lietnei godovshchinie tragedii galitsko-russkago naroda (Moscow, 2001), esp. pp. 86-104. BOGDAN HORBAL

Talpash, Teodosii. See Rusyn National Union Tarn, kde Beskidy. See Cinema Tamash, luliian/Tamas, Julijan (b. August 4, 1950, Vrbas [Yugoslavia], Serbia — professor, belletrist, critic, literary historian, journalist, and civic and cultural activist of Ukrainian national orientation among the Vojvodinian Rusyns. After completing the professional technical school in Kula (1966-1969) Tamash studied at the philosophical faculty of the University of Novi Sad (1970-1974, Ph.D., 1982). He worked briefly as an editor for the *Ruske Slovo Publishing House and since 1975 has taught Rusyn literature at the University of Novi Sad's Department ofRusyn Language and Literature (c/oce«//associate professor, 1982; professor, 1987). Tamash began his literary career in the 1970s with several volumes of poetry: Niebo na kolienokh (1972); Shpital'ske shvetlo (1980); and a collection of poems in prose, Zlatna khmara (1990). He has inherited little from the poetic experience of the father of Vojvodinian Rusyn literature, Havriil *Kostel'nik and his followers; Tamash's verse reflects instead "the structure of modernist poetry." Most of his books have received a favorable response, and several have been distinguished with Vojvodinian Rusyn literary prizes, including the Mikola M. Kochish and the Havriil Kostel'nik awards. His only novel, Okupani u vichnostsi (1989), is also written in a modernist style. Composed as a series of montages of various episodes separated by time, it depicts the fate of a father and son of Rusyn descent. Tamash has written widely on the history and theory of

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Vojvodinian Rusyn and general literature, including a volume on the relation between the theory and interpretation of a literary work based on material from Rusyn, Ukrainian, Russian, and Serbian literature (Izmedu knjizevne teorije i interpretacije, 1977), and another devoted to Ukrainian literature (Ukrajinska knjizevnost izmedu Istoka i Zapada, 1995). He also published the first major survey of Vojvodinian Rusyn literature (Rusinska knjizevnost, 1984—revised Rusyn ed., Istoriia ruskei literaturi, 1997) and an extensive analysis of Havriil Kostel'nik (1986). Aside from works on literature, Tamash has compiled a chronicle history of the town of Ruski Kerestur (1992) and a number of textbooks for the town's Rusyn * gymnasium. In the wake of the post-1989 Rusyn national revival Tamash has made it clear that while the Vojvodinian Rusyns need to preserve their distinct language and culture, they are nonetheless a regional branch—as he argues are all Rusyns—of the Ukrainian nationality. He has spoken out in very critical terms against Rusyn-oriented activists in the Vojvodina as well as against the Rusyn movement in other countries ("Chekaiutsi dizhdzh," 2000). The Rusyn edition of his general survey of Vojvodinian Rusyn literature is critical of those writers who favor the Rusyn national orientation. Tamash has tried to direct Vojvodinian Rusyn society toward closer ties with independent Ukraine through the *Union of Rusyns and Ukrainians in Yugoslavia, of which he was the founding chairman (1990). In recognition of his services on behalf of promoting the Ukrainian orientation among the Vojvodinian Rusyns he was elected to the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (1997). Further reading: J. Pogacnik, "Pesnistvo Julijana Tamasa," in Julijan Tamas, Pesak i doba (Novi Sad, 1986), pp. vii-lxxviii; luliian Tamash, Istoriia ruskei literaturi (Belgrade, 1997), pp. 331-350, 616-619. ALEKSANDR D. DULICHENKO PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Tarabchak, Andrii. See Russian National party Tarakhonych, Volodymyr. See Fedynyshynets', Volodymyr Tarasovych, Vasylii/Taraszovits, Bazil (d. 1651) — church activist in Subcarpathian Rus'. A native of Galicia, Tarasovych became in 1634 the Orthodox bishop of the *Eparchy of Mukachevo. He was recognized as "bishop of Mukachevo and Maramorosh" by the region's ruling prince of Transylvania, the Protestant Gyorgy I *Rakoczy, although his status as an Orthodox bishop brought him no particular advantages. Hence, he began to lean toward the idea of *Unia/Church Union, which held out the promise of legal and material equality with Roman Catholic hierarchs. The anti-Habsburg and anti-Catholic Prince Rakoczy grew suspicious of Tarasovych's pro-Union leanings and forced

490 him to leave Mukachevo. He then accepted the Catholic faith and settled in the western part of the Eparchy of Mukachevo in the village of Kallo (Szabolcs county). In 1640 Prince Rakoczy had Tarasovych arrested and brought in chains to Mukachevo, where for nearly two years he sat in the castle's dungeon. Abandoned by all his secular and church supporters, including the pope, Tarasovych was forced to renounce the Unia before being allowed to head once again the Orthodox Eparchy of Mukachevo. Prince Rakoczy still did not allow Tarasovych to remain in Mukachevo, so in July 1642 the bishop traveled to Vienna, where he accepted the Catholic faith. The Austrian Emperor Ferdinand III (r. 1637-1657) granted him a residence in Kallo. Just before he died, Tarasovych returned to Mukachevo on the condition that he would no longer promote the idea of church union. When *Parfenii Petrovych, a consistent supporter of the Unia, was nominated bishop, Tarasovych called on his priests to support the new hierarch. Further reading: Evhenyi Perfetskyi, "Vasylii Tarasovych, iepyskop Mukachevs'kyi," Naukovyi zbornyk Tovarystva 'Prosvita', II (Uzhhorod, 1923), pp. 84-92; Istvan Kaszinecz, Taraszovics Bazil munkdcsipiispok es a Romaval void unio (Debrecen, 1943); Michael Lacko, The Union of Uzhorod (Cleveland and Rome, 1966), esp. pp. 70-99. IVAN POP

Tarkovych, Hryhorii (b. November 20, 1754, Pasika [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. January 16, 1841, Presov [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia) — priest, church hierarch, and government official in the Hungarian Kingdom. Tarkovych completed the gymnasium in Uzhhorod, the academy in Oradea/Nagyvarad, and theological studies at the *Barbareum in Vienna. After ordination as a Greek Catholic priest he served at the parish in Uzhhorod (1797-1803) and at the same time taught at the Uzhhorod Theological Seminary. He subsequently served as censor (1803-1813) for Cyrillic books published by the Royal Hungarian University Printshop in Buda; as vicar (1813-1815) of the Mukachevo Eparchy's *Kosice Vicariate, which had offices in Presov; and as vicar (1815) of the episcopal vicariate in Mukachevo. In 1816 Tarkovych was appointed first bishop of the newly created *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov, although he did not take up this post until 1820. Before that time Tarkovych had worked closely with Bishop Andrii *Bachyns'kyi in the latter's educational projects for the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo. As bishop, Tarkovych established a large eparchial library in Presov, which contained many books acquired from the Russian Empire. Tarkovych is also remembered as a Rusyn writer. He composed a panegyrical ode to Joseph, palatine of Hungary, and dedicated it to the renowned Hungarian cultural awakener, Ferenc Szechenyi: Tezoimenitstvu ego tsarskago vysoch-

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture estva, presvietlieishago gosudaria losifa, ugorskagopalatina (1805). Written in the style of the eighteenth-century Russian poet and scientist, Mikhail Lomonosov, the ode revealed Tarkovych's acquaintance with Russian literature, which he acquired from Ivan *Orlai, the Rusyn educator working at the time in the Russian Empire. Tarkovych's ode was also well known in Russia, since it was cited at length in the first volume of Mikhail Karamzin's popular history of the Russian state, Istoriia gosudarstva Rossiiskogo (1817). Further reading: Ivan Franko, "Hryhorii Tarkovych: zrazok uhrorus'koho madiaro- i moskofil'stva z poch. XIX St.," Zhytie islovo, II, 3 (Eviv, 1897), pp. 461-466; Vasyl' Mykytas', Haluzka mohutn 'oho dereva (Uzhhorod, 1971), esp. pp. 23-25; Elaine Rusinko, "Between Russia and Hungary: Foundations of Literature and National Identity in Subcarpathian Rus'," Slavonic and East European Review, LXXIV, 3 (London, 1996), pp. 421-444. MYKHAILO ALMASHII

Tarnovych, luliian (pseudonyms: luliian/Julian Beskyd, lurii Zemlian, Osyp Zhubryd) (b. January 2, 1903, Rozstajne [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. September 28, 1977, Toronto, Ontario, Canada) — Lemko historian, ethnographer, publicist, painter, and civic and cultural activist of Ukrainian national orientation. After graduating from the gymnasium in Sanok (1921) Tarnovych studied for a while at the Ukrainian Underground University in Eviv before returning to the *Lemko Region, where he published articles on Lemko themes in the Ukrainian-language journals *Beskyd and Nedilia. He then resumed his studies in Eviv at the Economic Academy (19291933) and the University of Eviv (1933). He was co-founder and editor (1934-1939) of the Eviv newspaper *Nash Lemko and of a series of books entitled Lemkivs'ka Biblioteka. When the Soviet Army entered Eviv in 1939 Tarnovych fled westward to Sanok (by then under Nazi German control) and tried to convince *Lemkos not to emigrate to the Soviet east. He then moved to Cracow, where he published a series of books, Narodna Biblioteka (1940), and worked for the Ukrainian weekly newspaper Krakivs 'ki visti. In the wake of the German invasion of the Soviet Union (June 1941) Tarnovych moved back to Eviv, where he edited six Ukrainian weekly newspapers, including Holos Pidkarpattia, and wrote several short stories and novels. With the return of the Soviet Army in 1944 he fled farther and farther westward (Prague, Vienna, Munich), eventually settling in Regensburg in the American zone of Germany. There he operated a printshop and published the newspaper Ukrains'ke slovo. In 1948 he emigrated to Canada, where he edited the Ukrainian Catholic newspaper Nasha meta, the bi-monthly Lemkivshchyna (194953), and the newspaper Ukrains 'kyi robitnyk (1950-1955). During the 1960s Tarnovych turned his energies once again to Lemko matters as founding editor (1964-1970) of the newspaper *Lemkivs 'ki visti and compiler (1965-1969) of the

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annual almanac Lemkivs 'kyi kalendar. He also completed over 300 paintings, mostly of Lemko churches. Tarnovych is best known for a general history of the Lemko Region (Iliustrovana istoriia Lemkivshchyny, 1936, repr. 1964 and 1998), for an introductory survey of its material culture (Materiial'na kul'tura Lemkivshchyny, 1941, repr. 1972), and for promoting tourism through his several guidebooks (Istorychnipamiatky v zakhidnykh Karpatakh, 1937; Verkhamylemkivs'kohoBeskydu, 1938, repr. 1940; Za sribnolentym Sianom, 1938). He also left more detailed historical and ethnographic studies about Lemkos, including: Mova stolit': Lemkivshchyna vperekazakh (1938); 20 rokiv nevoly: Lemkivshchyna pid pol's 'kym iarmom (1940); Na zharyshchakh Zakerzonnia (1954); and Sviata, ridnazemlia (1966). In all his writings Tarnovych presented Lemkos as a regional branch of Ukrainians. Recently, the *Union of Lemkos in Canada created a museum in his honor.

Telep immigrated to the United States in 1903; he worked for a while in coal mines and railways and then opened a printing shop. He was among the organizers (1912) of the *Lubov Russian Orthodox Fraternity based in Mayfield, Pennsylvania, for which he served as a financial secretary and later as editor (1925-1957) of its newspaper organ Liubov. Telep was a selftaught person whose major concern was the education of his fellow Rusyn immigrants, for whom he prepared textbooks for parochial schools, including two editions of a primer (Russkii bukvar dlia tserkovno-prikhodskikh shkol v Sieviernoi Amerikie, 1937,\93>&) and a grammar (Prakticheskiipodruchnik grammatiki dlia tserkovno-prikhodskikh shkol v Sieviernoi Amerikie, 1940). His newspaper articles were mostly didactic in nature; Telep also adopted a didactic approach in several plays written for amateur theater groups (Khytra divchina, 1927; Shchast'e vAmerytsi, 1927; Na druhom sviti; Boh svidok, 1929; Vsudi, 1940).

Further reading: Volodymyr Vasyliv, "Bezsmertnyi Lemko: luliian Tarnovych," Lemkivshchyna, III, 2 (Clifton, N.J., 1981), pp. 12-13; Mykola Martyniuk, "Podvyzhnyk Lemkivshchyny," ibid., XV, 3 (1993), pp. 2-3. BOGDAN HORBAL

Further reading: Petro Lialius', "Stefan F. Telep," mKarpatorusskyi kalendar' Lemko-Soiuza na 1967 hod (Yonkers, N.Y., 1967), pp. 152-155. BOGDAN HORBAL

Television. See Radio and Television Tchaikovsky Musical Circle. See Presov Greek Catholic Teachers' College

Teodorovych, Dosifei. See Uhlia Monastery Teodorovych, Nykolai. See Language question

Teachers' Society. See Revai, luliian; Shtefan, Avhustyn; Uchytel's 'kyi holos; Voron, Andrii

Tereblia prolog. See Literature, Early manuscripts

Teachers' Society of Subcarpathian Rus'. See

Terebovl's'kyi, Shtefan. .See Art

Fedor, Pavel; Narodna skhola

Teater Aleksandra Dukhnovycha. See Dukhnovych Theater

Terletskii, Vladimir. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region; Krasnyi Brid Monastery

Teitelbaum, Joel. See Jews

Terokh, Iliia. See Anthems

Telek/Dilets' — a portion of agricultural land in the Hungarian Kingdom that during the era of serfdom before 1848 belonged to an individual villager. The size of the telek/dilets' in Rusyn-inhabited territories varied. At the time of the urbarial reform in the eighteenth century, its size was fixed at 32 holds. Peasant serfs usually held only a portion (from 5 to 25 percent) of the telek/dilets'.

Tevelov, Matvei G. See Jews; Russians; Verkhovyna

Telep, Shtefan. See Art Telep, Stefan/Stephen F. (b. 1882, Pielgrzymka [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. June 19, 1965, Mayfield, Pennsylvania, USA) — Lemko editor, publisher, educator, and writer of Russophile and Orthodox orientation in the United States.

Thalerhof. See Talerhof Theater. See Diadia Rusyn National Theater; Dukhnovych Theater; Nova stsena; Rusyn Theater; Subcarpathian Rusyn National Theater; Uhro-Rusyn National Theater ThegZC, George/Jurion. See Amerikansky russky viestnik; Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic Church in the USA Theodosius (Lazor). See Russian Orthodox Church in North America

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Theological Society. See St. Basil the Great Society

Thokoly, Imre (b. 1656, Kezmarok [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. 1705, Izmit [Ottoman Empire], Turkey) — Hungarian magnate and Transylvanian statesman. Thokoly headed the Transylvanian revolt of Hungarian aristocrats and landlords, the so-called * kurucz, against the Habsburg Empire during the years 1677 to 1685. Under his direction the kurucz pushed the Habsburg army out of the central, northern, and northeastern (Partium) regions of Hungary, including counties inhabited by Rusyns. In 1677 Thokoly was proclaimed "prince of the Partium." His success was in large part thanks to the support given him by the Ottoman Empire, whose power was so great that the sultan was able to undertake the great siege of Vienna itself (1683). The Ottoman defeat at the hands of a combined AustrianPolish army eventually caused Thokoly to surrender the Partium to the *Habsburgs and to return to Transylvania. Thokoly's wife, Ilona *Zrinyi, however, resisted the Habsburgs for three more years from the last kurucz outpost at the castle of Mukachevo. When Thokoly proved to be a stumbling bloc to the Ottoman effort to reach peace with Austria, he was arrested in 1685 by the grand vizer Kara Mustaffa and brought to Istanbul. The following year, after Ottoman peace overtures toward Austria had broken down, Thokoly was released and dispatched with 9,000 soldiers to attack the Habsburg army. The sultan named him prince of Transylvania (1690-1691), although his subordination to the Ottomans did not turn out well. After the Ottomans lost their next war with Austria, Thokoly was forced once again to go to Istanbul following the Austrian-Ottoman Peace of Karlowitz (1699). Thokoly held on to his title of prince, was awarded property in Izmit near the Ottoman capital, and with his wife Ilona Zrinyi remained in exile for the rest of his life. IVAN POP

Tichy, Frantisek (pseudonym: Zdenek Broman) (b. May 21, 1886, Chynava [Austrian Bohemia], Czech Republic; d. April 31, 1968, Beroun [Czechoslovakia], Czech Republic) — Czech scholar, journalist, teacher, and educational administrator. After completing his university studies in Prague and Leipzig Tichy worked as a school teacher. In 1922 he was transferred from Prague to Presov, where he became director of the Evangelical Collegium. A year later he was named editor-in-chief of the newspaper *Rusyn, which included an illustrated magazine supplement, *Nedilia Rusyna, and a series of 16 brochures in Rusyn vernacular that included authors like Tomas G. *Masaryk, Avhustyn *Voloshyn, Mykhailo *Brashchaiko, and Oleksandr *Badan. Tichy also wrote a series of entries on nineteenth-century Rusyn national leaders for the Czech encyclopaedia, Ottuv slovnik naucny: nove

doby; several articles on Rusyn topics for Czech and Slovak journals (Slovansky pfehled, Slavia, Slovenske pohl'ady); and he compiled one of the first anthologies of the works of Aleksander Dukhnovych (Poeziy Aleksandra Dukhnovycha, 1922). Tichy was the first Czech to write general surveys of Rusyn literature (1923, 1926). In 1927 he visited the *Vojvodina and published an essay on his impressions of the local Rusyn population, "Jihoslovansti Rusini" (1928). He devoted special attention to the *language question in *Subcarpathian Rus', about which he published a major monograph that reflected the Ukrainian perspective on the subject, Vyvoj soucasneho spisovnehojazyka na Podkarpatske Rusi (1938). In the 1930s Tichy returned to Bohemia and settled in Prague. He continued to teach and to translate works of literature from various languages into Czech until 1941, when he was released from his teaching post by the Nazi authorities. After World War II he joined the *Communist party of Czechoslovakia (1945), and by the mid-1950s he was cooperating closely with Ukrainian institutions and publications in Presov. On the eve of his death in 1968 Tichy wrote a memoir of his early years in Subcarpathian Rus', which remained unpublished for nearly three decades: Uzhhorod 1923 (1992). Further reading: Mykola Mushynka, "Frantishek Tikhyi—80 richnyi," Duklia, XIV, 3 (Presov, 1966), pp. 51-53. IVAN POP

Timko, Onufrii (pseudonym: TON) (b. October 5, 1908, Kucura [Hungarian Kingdom], Serbia; d. August 24, 1989, Vrbas [Yugoslavia], Serbia) — priest, ethnomusicologist, composer, and choral director among the Voj vodinian Rusyns. After completing the gymnasium in Travnik (Bosnia) Timko attended the Theological Faculty in Zagreb and the Greek Catholic Theological Academy in Eviv. He also studied music theory in Eviv and was influenced by the Ukrainian ethnomusicologist Filaret *Kolessa. In 1934 Timko was ordained a Greek Catholic priest, and from then until 1951 he served in various Rusyn parishes in the *Vojvodina (Ruski Kerestur, 1934-1938; Kucura, 1945-1951) and in Ukrainian parishes in Bosnia (Lisna, 1938-1942; Banja Luka, 19421945). His last parish was among Vojvodinian Rusyns in Vrbas (1951-1970). In all the parishes he served Timko established choirs which performed religious music as well as Rusyn and Ukrainian folk music. In conjunction with this work, he published several collections of choral music. His most significant publication was a multivolume collection of Vojvodinian Rusyn folksongs, Nasha pisnia: zbornik narodnikh i popularnikh pisn 'okh iuhoslavianskikh rusinokh, 3 vols. (1953-54), which was later republished together with a fourth volume (1989). Timko was very careful to distinguish between "our own Rusyn" songs and those which were borrowed or influenced by surrounding

Encyclopedia qfRusyn History and Culture (Hungarian, Serbian) cultures. "Ours" meant songs brought from *Subcarpathian Rus' and Ukrainian Galicia; "borrowed" songs were melodies like the csardas, which were excluded from his collections even though they may have taken on a distinct Rusyn form. Timko was an active participant in Yugoslavia's scholarly organizations that specialized in ethnomusicology and folklore. He also published several studies on Vojvodinian Rusyn folk music, church plainchant, and a history of settlement in the two largest towns in the *Vojvodina, Ruski Kerestur and Kucura(1969). Further reading: Diura Latiak, "Utsikhnul ton spod ruki Onufriia Timka," Shvetlosts, XXVII, 6 (Novi Sad, 1989), pp. 768-775; Liubomir Medieshi, "Gu integralnomu vidaniu 'Nashei Pisni"," in Onufrii Timko, Nasha pisnia (Novi Sad, 1989), pp. 3-8; luliian Tamash, Diura Latiak, Roman Miz, lanko Ramach, and Mikhal Kovach, "90-rochni'tsa o. Onufriia Timka," Glas/Holos Soiuza, No 2 (Novi Sad, 1998), pp. 29-39. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Timkovic, Gorazd A. See Tymkovych, losafat Timkovic, Jozafat V. See Tymkovych, losafat Tint zabutykh predkiv. See Cinema Tkach, Osyf. See Dukhnovych Theater Tkach, Stephen M. See Carpatho-Russian Congress; Greek Catholic Union Tomashivs'kyi, Stepan Teodorovych (b. January 9, 1875, Kupnovychi [Austrian Galicia], Ukraine; d. December 21, 1930, Cracow, Poland) — Galician-Ukrainian historian, professor, publicist, and diplomat for the West Ukrainian National Republic (1919-1925). After returning to Galicia he served as associate professor (doceni) of Ukrainian history at Jagiellonian University in Cracow from 1928 until his death. Tomashivs'kyi was among the first scholars to provide a critical analysis of Hungarian demographic data concerning Rusyns. His most important works on this subject include the comprehensive statistical studies: "Uhors'ki rusyny v s'vitl'i madiars'koi uriadovo'i statystyky" (1903) and "Prychynky do piznannia etnografichno'i teritori! Uhors'ko'i Rusy teper i davni'ishe" (1905). He also published a large-scale map of Rusyn-inhabited lands south of the Carpathians accompanied by extensive statistical data, "Etnohrafichna karta Uhors'ko'i Rusy" (1910), and an historical survey, "Ugorskaia Rus'," in a Russian-language handbook about Ukraine (Ukrainskii narod v ego proshlom i nastoiashchem, 1916). Further reading: Mykola Olashyn, "Stepan Tomashivs'kyi: shtrykhy

493 naukovoi' diial'nosti," in Kalendar 'Prosvity 'na 1995 rik (Uzhhorod, 1995), pp. 38-40. IVAN POP

Tomchanii, Mykhailo (b. July 16, 1914, Horiany [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. January 20, 1975, Uzhhorod [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — Ukrainian-language belletrist in Subcarpathian Rus'. After graduating from the Ukrainian-oriented Commercial Academy in Mukachevo (1936) Tomchanii served two years in the Czechoslovak army. When Hungary annexed * Subcarpathian Rus'/*Carpatho-Ukraine he was sent to work as a postal clerk (1939-1945) in Hungarian cities like Szolnok, Budapest, and Kisujszallas as part of the government's program for "re-educating" *Ukrainophiles from Subcarpathian Rus'. In 1945 he returned to Uzhhorod and was employed as a civil servant. Tomchanii published his first short stories while still a student in anthologies like Tysa (1934) and the Almanakh pidkarpats'kykh ukrains'kykh pys'mennykiv (1936). He returned to writing in the late 1940s. The summit of his literary career was a trilogy of novels, Zhmeniaky (1964), Tykhe mistechko (1969), and Braty (1972), on the basis of which a screenplay was written for a television movie. Tomchanii was a talented novelist, although living under Soviet rule he never strayed from the principles of Socialist Realism, to which he easily adapted. Further reading: Ivan P. Vyshnevs'kyi, "Mykhailo Ivanovych Tomchanii," in idem, Zakarpats 'ki novelisty (Eviv, 1960), pp. 65-81; Vasyl' Pop, "Mykhailo Tomchanii," in Ukrains 'ki radians 'kipysmennyky: krytychninarysy, Vol. VIII (Kiev, 1976),pp. 85-115; Vasyl'Pop, Tvorchist' Mykhaila Tomchaniia (Uzhhorod, 1997). IVAN POP

Tomchanii, Mykhailo M. See Society of CarpathoRusyns Tomecek, Jaromir (b. September 30, 1906, Kromefiz [Austrian Moravia], Czech Republic; d. July 15,1997, Brno, Czech Republic) — Czech civil servant and writer in Subcarpathian Rus'. In 1926 Tomecek dropped his studies at the law faculty in Brno and went to work in Subcarpathian Rus' in the town administration of the Hungarian-inhabited village of Dertsen/Drysyna. After a year of professional studies in Bratislava he returned to Subcarpathian Rus' to work as a notary public in the Rusyn village of Lalovo (1929-1934), then in the town of Mizhhiria/Volove (1934-1938) in the highland * Verkhovyna region. During these years he was active in the Subcarpathian regional organizations representing fire-brigades and hunters, and he frequently wrote feuilletons on Subcarpathian themes for Czech newspapers in Prague.

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With the end of Czechoslovak rule in the province, Tomecek was forced to leave by the new Hungarian regime and in 1939 he returned to his native Moravia. Subcarpathian Rus' and Rusyn culture were to remain sources of literary inspiration for Tomecek. The first of his works embued with Subcarpathian themes were two collections of short stories (Vui se smeje, 1944; Stfibrny lipan, 1944) and the novel Zeme zaslibend (1947). These were followed by a novel for children, Marko (1968), based on characters from a Subcarpathian village, and a lyrical novel, Mezi dvema vystfely (1972), about the last of the Carpathian robber-bandits, Il'ko Lypei. In subsequent years Tomecek returned to Subcarpathian themes in many of his short stories, in particular the tale "Divocina," from his collection Snebom nadhlavou(\985). Excerpts from Tomecek's prose describing the Carpathians appeared posthumously in the collection Na polonindch (1998). Further reading: Sylva Bartuskova, Jaromir Tomecek (Prague, 1981); Liubytsia Babota, "Pomer laromyr Tomechek," Duklia, XLVI, 1 (Presov, 1998), pp. 72-75. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

TON. See Timko, Onufrii

Torna. See Abov T6r6k, Pal. See Communist party Toronskii, Aleksii (b. 1838, Zawadka [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. 1901, Eviv [Austrian Galicia], Ukraine) — Lemko priest, educator, writer, and journalist. Toronskii graduated from the *Greek Catholic Central Seminary in Vienna (18571860) and after ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1862) he taught catechism classes at gymnasia in Eviv (1862-1867, 1891-1894) and Drohobych (1868-1889) in eastern Galicia, where he also worked for many years as an editor for the Greek Catholic journal Ruskii Sion. He is the author of one of the first ethnographic studies about *Lemkos, "Rusyny-Lemky" (1860), published in the anthology Zoria halytskaia, as well as of several short stories that depict Lemko village life: "Hantsia: povist z zhyt'ia podbeskydskoho naroda (Lemkov)" (1862), "Chernytsia" (1864), and "Dubovyi khrest" (1880). Toronskii wrote about the *language question ("Spory o pravopys' u Rusynov y Rumunov," 1888); he prepared a reader for gymnasium studies (Russkaia chytanka, 1868); and he published a large number of studies on religious themes and on the Greek Catholic Church. Further reading: Olena Duts'-Faifer, "Aleksyi Toronskii," Lemkivskii kalendar 1998 (Legnica and Krynica, 1998), pp. 62-68. BOGDAN HORBAL

Torons'kyi, Emilii. See Directorate

Torun' sbornyk. See Literature, Early manuscripts Torysyn. See Beskyd, Antonii; Zubryts'kyi, Dionizii Toth, Alexis/Tovt, Aleksei (b. March 18,1854, Kobylnice [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. May 7, 1909, WilkesBarre, Pennsylvania, USA) — priest, seminary professor, and "father of American Rus' Orthodoxy." Toth was the son of a Greek Catholic priest in the *Eparchy of Presov. After completing his studies at the Theological Seminary in Uzhhorod (1874-1878) Alexis was ordained a Greek Catholic priest (1878) and soon assigned to work as the archivist for the Eparchy of Presov; from 1881 he also taught canon law and church history at the Presov Greek Catholic Theological Seminary. In 1889 Toth was sent as a missionary priest to the United States (1889), where he served the Greek Catholic community in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Negatively received by the local Roman Catholic bishop, Toth eventually decided to break with the Catholic Church and in 1891 was formally accepted with his parish into the *Russian Orthodox Church in North America. Toth urged other Greek Catholic parishes to follow his lead, and by the time of his death in 1909 he had helped more than 25,000 Rusyn immigrants (three-quarters of whom were from the *Lemko Region) to "return to Orthodoxy." To assist the church in these goals he helped establish (1895) a fraternal society, the Russian Orthodox Catholic Mutual Aid Society/ Russkoe pravoslavnoe kaftolicheskoe obshchestvo vzaimopomoshchi. Because Toth viewed Russia as the spiritual guardian of the Orthodox faith he strove to convince Rusyn Americans that they should identify as Russians and adopt the Russian language as their own. Toth published numerous polemical tracts, directed mainly at Rome, which have subsequently been compiled by George Soldatow: Alexis Toth—Letters, Articles, Papers, and Sermons, 4 vols. (1978-88); The Writings of St. Alexis Toth (1994); and The Orthodox Church in America and Other Writings by St. Alexis (1996). For his services on behalf of Orthodoxy in North America Toth was canonized (1994) as St. Alexis by the Orthodox Church of America. Further reading: Keith Russin, "Father Alexis G. Toth and the Wilkes-Barre Litigations," St. Vladimir's Theological Quarterly, XVI, 3 (1972), pp. 123-149. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Tovarystvo im. Kyryla i Mefodiia. See Sydor,

Dymytrii

Tovarystvo karpats'kykh Rusyniv. See Society of Carpatho-Rusyns Tovarystvo katekhytov Mukachevskoi eparkhii.

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture See Dushpastyr'

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Transcarpathian Oblast/Zakarpats'ka oblast'

Tovarystvo "Lemkivshchyna" v Ukrai'ni. See Lemko Region Society in Ukraine Tovarystvo liubyteliv lemkivskoi kul'tury. See Lemko Section of the Ukrainian Civic and Cultural Society Tovarystvo "Prosvita." See Prosvita Society Tovchok, M. See Markush, Aleksander Tovt, Aleksii. See Toth, Alexis Tovt, Andrii. See Rusyn Small Farmers' (Agricultural) party Tovt, Nykolai. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov; St. John the Baptist Society Transcarpathian Folk Choir/Zakarpats'kyi narodnyi khor — state-supported folk ensemble established in 1945 in Subcarpathian Rus'. Originally called the TransCarpathian Song and Dance Ensemble/Zakarpats'kyi ansambl' pisni i tantsiu, its first director was a Russian emigre living in the region since the interwar years, M. Dobrodiev. As a White Russian Dobrodiev was unacceptable to the local Communist authorities and he was soon removed. The second director, Petr *Miloslavskii (1946-1954), another White Russian emigre, was followed by the Subcarpathian-born Mykhailo *Krechko (1954-1969) and Mykola Popenko. According to the concept of Miloslavskii, the ensemble's basic goal was both to collect and perform the folk music of * Subcarpathian Rus'. The Communist regime, however, quickly transformed the ensemble into an instrument to propagate the new "happy life" in "reunited [with Ukraine] socialist Transcarpathia." Local folk songs were performed, but only those which had been carefully "reworked" and ukrainianized. The ensemble's ballet corps was less susceptible to "ukrainianization," and especially under the choreographer Klara *Balogh it successfully preserved and performed authentic folk dances of Rusyns (although described under the official name "Ukrainian" or the vague term "Transcarpathian") and of other national and ethnic groups living in Subcarpathian Rus'. Known for its high level of professionalism, the Transcarpathian Folk Choir has performed widely throughout Ukraine, in other republics of the former Soviet Union, and in several European countries, including former Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Germany, France, and the Netherlands. Further reading: Ivan Khlanta, Pisni nad Karpatamy: Derzhavnyi zasluzhenyi Zakarpats 'kyi narodnyi khor (Uzhhorod, 1994). MYKHAILO ALMASHII

— administrative entity in Ukraine. The oblast, which coincides with the historic province of * Subcarpathian Rus', was created on January 22, 1946. It replaced Transcarpathian Ukraine, the administrative entity that continued to exist for several months after June 1945, when Subcarpathian Rus' was annexed to the Soviet Ukraine. The Transcarpathian oblast covers 12,800 square kilometers, with a population of 1,258,000 inhabitants (2001), of whom 63 percent live in rural areas and 37 percent in urban areas. The oblast is divided into 13 districts (raiony) in which there are 609 administrative settlements. These include: 579 villages, 20 small towns (so-called settlements of urban character/selyshche mis 'koho typu), and 10 cities. The two largest cities are Uzhhorod (116,000) and Mukachevo (82,000); the remaining eight (Khust, Berehovo, Vynohradovo, Svaliava, Rakhiv, Tiachovo, Irshava, Chop) range in size from nearly 9,000 to over 28,000 inhabitants. The size of the small towns ranges from 1,000 to over 8,000 inhabitants. Of the 509 villages, 70 have over 3,000 inhabitants; the remainder have less. Further reading: V.I. Bielousov, ed., Istoriia mist i sil Ukrains 'koi RSR: Zakarpats'ka oblast (Kiev, 1969); Zakarpats'ka oblast: dovidnyk administratyvno-terytorial 'noho podilu (Uzhhorod, 1996); Naselennia Zakarpats 'ko'ioblasti zapidsumkamy . . . perepysu naselennia 2001 roku: statystychnuyi zbirnyk (Uzhhorod, 2003). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Transcarpathian Region Publishing House. See Printing and Publishing Transcarpathian Regional Museum/Zakarpats'kyi kraieznavchyi muzei — state museum devoted to all aspects of national and human history and culture of Subcarpathian Rus'. The Transcarpathian Regional Museum was established in Uzhhorod in June 1945 by the National Council of Transcarpathian Ukraine on the eve of the formal secession of * Subcarpathian Rus'/*Transcarpathian Ukraine to the Soviet Union. The following year the institution was raised to the status of a state museum, with substantial funding and the expectation that it would serve the ideological interests of the Soviet state. In 1947, it was transferred to the Uzhhorod Castle where it remains to this day. The Transcarpathian Regional Museum was formed on the basis of holdings from three institutions that by the end of World War II no longer existed: the ethnographic and natural history collections from the Ung County Museum and museum of the *Prosvita Society, and the archeological collections from the *Lehoczky Provincial Museum in Mukachevo. The profile of the Transcarpathian Regional Museum was established by its first directors, Ivan G. *Kolomiets (19451948) and Petro *Sova (1949-1956), and by its long-time head of the natural history department, Aleksander *Hrabar.

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496 Since its establishment, the museum has had four main departments: natural history, history, ethnography, and socialist reconstruction. In subsequent years there came into being the Department for the Preservation of Historical and Cultural Monuments (1969), the Department of Spiritual Culture and History of Religion (1990), and the Center for the Study of Folk Music Culture (1991). The Transcarpathian Regional Museum has at various times had branches with historical or ethnographic exhibits in towns throughout the Transcarpathian oblast, including Mukachevo (an independent museum since 1990), Vynohradovo, Svaliava, Khust, as well as museums in Uzhhorod devoted to the painters Fedor *Manailo and Andrii *Kotska. Initially, the Transcarpathian Museum of Folk Architecture and Traditional Life /Zakarpats'kyi muzei narodnoi' arkhitektury ta pobutu was part of the ethnographic department of the Transcarpathian Regional Museum, but since 1970 it has functioned as a separate institution with an administrative center and outdoor ethnographic exhibition (skansen) located adjacent to the Uzhhorod Castle. Since Ukraine's independence in 1991, the Transcarpathian Regional Museum has revised its permanent exhibits to respond to the political and cultural values of the postCommunist era. More emphasis is now given to political and sociocultural achievements before the onset of Soviet rule in 1945, to autonomous *Carpatho-Ukraine, and to the role of religion in Subcarpathian society. As of 1995, the museum's holdings number over 108,000 items, together with another 11,000 items of research-related material. Analyses of the holdings as well as studies on other aspects of material culture in Subcarpathian Rus' are treated in a scholarly journal published irregularly by the Transcarpathian Regional Museum: Naukovyi zbirnyk Zakarpats 'koho kraieznavchoho muzeiu (1995-). Further reading: Stepan I. Peniak, Zakarpats 'kyi kraieznavchyi muzei: putivnyk/Kdrpdtontuli tdjismereti muzeum (Uzhhorod, 1968); Pavlo Fedaka, "Zakarpats'kyi kraieznavchyi muzei na vidtynku svoie'i pivstolitn'oi istorii'," Naukovyi zbirnyk Zakarpats'koho kraieznavchoho muzeiu, II (Uzhhorod, 1996), pp. 5-22. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Transcarpathian Song and Dance Ensemble. See Transcarpathian Folk Choir

Transcarpathian Ukraine/Zakarpats'ka Ukrai'na — a temporary buffer state created by the Soviet military in Subcarpathian Rus' (October 1944-January 1946) to camouflage its annexation of the region. As part of the campaign to detach * Subcarpathian Rus' from Czechoslovakia the Soviet leader losif *Stalin, in cooperation with the political commissars Lev Mekhlis, S. Tiul'panov, and Leonid Brezhnev, the

NKVD, and the military counter-espionage unit SMERSH created the "state" of Transcarpathian Ukraine and supported the local Communists and other sympathizers in the drive to "reunite" the region with the Soviet Ukraine. Stalin's plan was carried out by local Communists headed by Ivan I.*Turianytsia, who, on instructions from the NKVD and the political wing of the Soviet Army, was discharged together with 34 other Communist officers ofRusyn background from the *Czechoslovak Army Corps under General Ludvik Svoboda. These soldiers-turned-political activists organized in Mukachevo (November 19, 1944) the first conference of the *Communist party of Transcarpathian Ukraine. The conference approved several documents prepared in Moscow that called for "the *reunification of Transcarpathian Ukraine with the Soviet Ukraine" and proposed that a "congress of representatives from all the people" of Subcarpathian Rus' be convened. On November 26,1944, under the watchful eye of the Soviet military and its secret service units, the first (and last) Congress of People's Committees of Transcarpathian Ukraine took place in Mukachevo. Congress delegates approved the manifesto prepared in Moscow calling for "reunification" and it elected governing organs for the Transcarpathian Ukrainian "state." These consisted of an executive body, the 17-member National Council of Transcarpathian Ukraine/Narodna rada Zakarpats'koi' Ukrai'ny, that is, a government with alleged full-fledged authority. While this government issued several decrees, a campaign throughout the villages of Subcarpathian Rus' was being carried out in order to collect signatures in favor of "reunification." The signatures were frequently bought from poor villagers in exchange for "gifts" or gathered at meetings where no one was present, the signatures being taken from the school rolls of parents. Those persons reluctant to sign were threatened with deportation. This process the Soviets advertised abroad as a "plebiscite." On December 1, 1944, the National Council of Transcarpathian Ukraine submitted a "note" to Frantisek *Nemec, the authorized representative of the Czechoslovak government (at the time in Khust), which proclaimed the secession of Transcarpathian Ukraine from Czechoslovakia. Within a few days, another decree (December 5) forbade all local government organs from having any contact with the Czechoslovak administration and it ended any further mobilization into the Czechoslovak Army of inhabitants living in the territory of Transcarpathian Ukraine. Transcarpathia's own armed forces consisted of a national guard/narodna druzhyna (under the command of the Soviet officer and partisan commander Oleksander Tkanko) and a national militia/narodna militsiia. Soon after Hungarian and German troops had retreated from the region a professional court system based on the Czechoslovak model had been re-established; it was now dismantled and replaced by Soviet-style "revolutionary" courts. A decree of December 18, 1944 created an Extraordinary

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Court for Transcarpathian Ukraine and an "investigative commission" based on the model of the notorious troika used in the 1930s during the height of Stalinist repression in the Soviet Union. Persons found guilty were almost without exception sentenced either to 10-20 years' imprisonment or to death. The last remaining elements from the previous legal system were finally liquidated on January 1,1945, after which were established people's courts at the first level, a Supreme People's Court/Vyshchii narodnyi sud, and a Prosecutor's Office. The work of all these courts was directed by the Soviet military administration and its secret service (NKVD). Despite the existence of the new Soviet-style legal system in Transcarpathian Ukraine, the security organs of the Soviet Union (NKVD, SMERSH) continued to arrest and intern at will the region's citizens. In the economic sphere, the National Council of Transcarpathian Ukraine also adopted the Soviet model. In December 1944 all banking and credit establishments, mines, factories, railroads, post and telegraph services, and subsequently small businesses and even small trades were nationalized. An agrarian reform was introduced, whereby 113,000 hectares of land were distributed to 27,000 village families. According to two other decrees (December 12,1944 and May 20, 1945) churches were separated from the state and all schools from the churches. Even Moscow time (two hours ahead of the central European time traditionally used in Subcarpathian Rus') was introduced and the Soviet national anthem and flag were adopted. The government of Transcarpathian Ukraine planned to annex those parts of neighboring Romania (the *Maramures Region) and Slovakia (the *Presov Region) inhabited by "Ukrainians," i.e., Rusyns (see Maramorosh Congress of People's Committees; Ukrainian National Council of the Presov Region). Moscow was satisfied, however, that its "Transcarpathian bridgehead" into central Europe was already sufficiently large and, therefore, considered such local expansionist initiatives taken by Uzhhorod's "statesmen" to be excessive. In essence, Transcarpathian Ukraine fulfilled its role as a cover for the Soviet annexation of Subcarpathian Rus', which had effectively taken place in the fall of 1944. Consequently, no representative from Transcarpathian Ukraine was invited, not even in the role of an "extra," to the negotiations and signing of the *Czechoslovak-Soviet Treaty on Transcarpathian Ukraine/Subcarpathian Rus' that took place in Moscow on June 29, 1945. The manner in which this act was carried out revealed that Stalin considered the "government" of Transcarpathian Ukraine to be little more than a puppet. It is not surprising, therefore, that "the state of Transcarpathian Ukraine" was abolished on January 1, 1946 by a decree of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and the area demoted to a just another administrative entity—the *Transcarpathian oblast of the Ukrainian SSR—in the Soviet

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Union. The region lost its juridical status and the validity of any decrees issued by its legislative body. According to some legal theorists the resultant juridical vacuum has provided an opportunity in the post-Communist era to restore Subcarpathian Rusyn statehood within the framework of the Transcarpathian oblast, but efforts toward this end have been unsuccessful. Further reading: J.W. Bruegel, "Pfipad Podkarpatske Rusi (Sovetska agrese proti Ceskoslovensku, 1944-1945)," in Doklady a rozpravy Ustavu dr. Edvarda Benese (London, 1953), pp. 1-24; I. F. Evseev, Narodnye komitety Zakarpatskoi Ukrainy—organy gosudarstvennoi vlasti, 1944-1945 (Moscow, 1954)—in Czech transl: Z dejin Zakarpatske Ukrajiny (Prague, 1956); Frantisek Moudry and Vladimir Moudry, The Soviet Seizure of Subcarpathian Ruthenia (Toronto, 1955); Vasyl Markus, L'incorporation de I'Ukraine subcarpathiquearUkrainesovietique, 1944-1945 (Louvain, 1956)—in Ukrainian transl.: Pryiednannia Zakarpats 'koi Ukrainy, 1944-1945 (Kiev, 1992); Zakarpats 'ka Ukra'ina: shliakh do vozz'iednannia, dosvid rozvytku: zovten' 1944-sichen' 1946 rr. (Uzhhorod, 1995); Mykhailo Boldyzhar and Oleksandr Hrin, Zakarpats 'ka Ukra'ina: derzhavno-pravovyi status i diial'nist'kinets '1944 r.—pochatok 1946 r. (Uzhhorod, 1999). IVAN POP

Treaty of St. Germain — treaty signed at the castle of St. Germain-en-Laye just outside of Paris on September 10, 1919, as part of the Paris Peace Conference following the conclusion of World War I. The Treaty of St. Germain was concluded between the Allied and Associated Powers (the United States, Great Britain, France, Italy, Japan) and the new state of Czechoslovakia. Five articles of the treaty dealt specifically with "the territory of the Rusyn people [peuple ruthene] south of the Carpathians." Czechoslovakia agreed to provide this territory with "the greatest degree of autonomy compatible with the unity of the Czecho-Slovak state" (Article 10). The autonomous territory was to have its own governor and an elected diet with legislative functions in specific areas (Article 11) and elected representatives in Czechoslovakia's national parliament (Article 13); civic servants in the Rusyn territory were to be chosen as far as possible from the local population (Article 12). Czechoslovakia also agreed that all member states of the newly established international body, the League of Nations, would have the right to note any infraction of the above obligations and request that the League's supreme council suggest measures to correct infractions on the rights granted to the Rusyns (Article 14). The specific boundaries of the Rusyn territory were not discussed at St. Germain, but were fixed in a subsequent treaty (June 1920) signed between the Allied and Associated Powers with Hungary (see Treaty of Trianon). The provisions of the Treaty of St. Germain regarding *autonomy for

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what came officially to be called *Subcarpathian Rus' were spelled out in paragraph 3 of the Czechoslovak constitution of February 29, 1920. The Treaty of St. Germain marked the first time that the Rusyns were recognized in international law as a distinct people with the right to their own autonomous territory. When, during the interwar years, the treaty's provisions on autonomy were not fully implemented, Rusyn leaders in *Subcarpathian Rus' and Rusyn immigrant activists in the United States protested to international organizations, including the League of Nations. Czechoslovakia's sovereignty over Subcarpathian Rus' was surrendered in the *Czechoslovak-Soviet Treaty of 1945, although some commentators active in the postCommunist Rusyn national movement in Subcarpathian Rus'/Transcarpathia argue that the 1945 accord is invalid. They argue further that Subcarpathia's right to autonomy is justified by the international legal tradition established by the Treaty of St. Germain. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Treaty of Trianon — treaty signed at the palace of Versailles on June 4, 1920, as part of the Paris Peace Conference following the end of World War I. The Treaty of Trianon was concluded between the victorious Allied and Associated Powers (the United States, Great Britain, France, Italy, Japan) and Hungary, which was considered the partial successor of the defeated and by then defunct Austro-Hungarian Empire. The treaty defined Hungary's new boundaries (Article 27). As well, Hungary accepted the provisions of the previously signed *Treaty of St. Germain and thereby recognized "the independent Czecho-Slovak state, which included the autonomous territory of Rusyns living south of the Carpathians" (Article 48). As a result of the treaty, postwar Trianon Hungary, as the country popularly became known, included only 29 percent of the territory that the Hungarian Kingdom had held before World War I. More than 3.2 million *Magyars now found themselves living as a minority in neighboring countries, including the 111,000 Magyars (1921) inhabiting the southern lowlands and main cities of * Subcarpathian Rus'. Most political parties in post-World War I Hungary felt that the Treaty of Trianon was unjustly imposed on their country, and as early as 1920 a revisionist movement arose that was determined to reverse the country's territorial losses (see Irredentism). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Trembita. See Rusin Association of Minnesota Trianon. See Treaty of Trianon Trier, Tom (b. October, 29, 1965, Copenhagen - Frederiksberg, Denmark) — Danish anthropologist and international

relief worker. While a student in social anthropology at the University of Copenhagen in the late 1980s, Trier became interested in the *Lemkos of Poland and then in the post-1989 Rusyn national movement in general. In the context of his subsequent work at the European Center for Minority Issues in Flensburg, Germany, he organized visits (1997, 1998) for Rusyn activists from all countries to observe democratic governing procedures and the work of civic and scholarly institutions in Denmark and Germany as well as to participate in a week-long festival ofRusyn culture in Copenhagen. Trier has been instrumental in publicizing the existence of Rusyns as a distinct nationality among European Union institutions, and he has organized meetings between Rusyn activists and government officials in Ukraine (1998). The proceedings from these public gatherings were recorded in two volumes which he compiled: Focus on the Rusyns/Zamiriane na Rusyniv (1999) and Inter-Ethnic Relations in Transcarpathian Ukraine (1999). Trier is also interested in how the persona of the American artist and cult figure Andy *Warhol has been used by the post-1989 Rusyn national revival to promote group pride, a subject treated in a documentary film he produced, The Warhol Nation (1997). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Tripartitum. See Werboczi, Istvan Trnava Adalbertine College — institution to train seminarians from the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo. The Adalbertine College was established in 1619 at Trnava in western Slovakia, which by the mid-sixteenth century had become the religious and cultural center for Hungarian lands not ruled by the Ottoman Empire. Greek Catholics as well as Roman Catholics were to benefit from the educational, library, and printing facilities in Trnava. The Roman Catholic Adalbertine College, which also provided theological training for Greek Catholic seminarians, was operated by the Jesuits and connected with Hungary's Central Seminary, which since 1648 was located in Trnava. In 1773, the Jesuit Order was suppressed in the Austrian Empire and the Adalbertine College was closed. Nevertheless, seminarians from the Eparchy of Mukachevo studied at Trnava until 1848, although their number is unknown. While the Adalbertine College existed , it produced more graduates than any other single institution who subsequently become hierarchs in Rusyn lands. These included an uninterrupted line of six Greek Catholic bishops who reigned over the *Eparchy of Mukachevo from 1716 to 1809: Georgii Gennadii *Bizantsii, Symeon Ol'shavs'kyi, Havriil *Blazhovs'kyi, Mykhail Emanuil *Ol'shavs'kyi, loann *Bradach, and Andrii *Bachyns'kyi. Further reading: Belon Rusinsky, "Trnavska univerzita v sluzbe unionistickej idey," in Pamiatka Trnavskej univerzity 1635-1777

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(Trnava, 1935), pp. 243-256; Antonii Hodynka, "Nashi kleryky v Tyrnavi ot 1722 do 1760 r./Papnovendekeink Nagyszombatban 1722-tol 1760-ig," Zoria/Hajnal, I, 1-2 (Uzhhorod, 1941), pp. 1829; Dmytro Blazejovskyj, Byzantine Kyivan Rite Students, Analecta OSBM, Series II, Sectio I, Vol. 43 (Rome, 1984), pp. 48-50, 159160. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

laroslav *Trokhanovskii, in the Lemko village of Bielanka. She has published several collections of poetry in Polish and in Lemko Rusyn which capture the essence of life in the *Lemko Region in the period after the 1947 forced deportation: Potent, teraz, przedtem (1984), Niepozwol uschnqc kwiatom (1991), Verbyna (1993), Motyle (1994).

Trochanowska, Stefania. See Trokhanovska, Stefaniia

Trokhanovskii, laroslav/Trochanowski, Jaroslaw

Trochanowski, Jaroslaw. See Trokhanovskii, laroslav Trochanowski, Piotr. See Trokhanovskii, Petro Troian, Mykhailo (b. June 19, 1923, Verkhni Remety [Czechoslovakia], Ukraine; d. May 20, 1987, Mukachevo [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — professor and historian in Subcarpathian Rus' of Ukrainian national orientation. After completing the Ukrainian gymnasium in Berehovo Troian entered the University of Budapest, but his studies in geography and history were interrupted by the defeat of Hungary in World War II. Returning to * Subcarpathian Rus', he took an active part in the campaign "to reunite Transcarpathian Ukraine with the Soviet Ukraine." He was a delegate to the First Congress of People's Committees of *Transcarpathian Ukraine (November 26, 1944) and a leading activist in the newly established Communist Youth League/Komsomol. Under the new Soviet regime Troian completed his education at the University of Eviv (1946-1948) and the University of Kiev (kandidat nauk, 1954), and was awarded the degree of doctor of historical science from the University of Eviv (1970). He began teaching at pedagogical colleges in Khust and Mukachevo and was appointed head of the regional administration for elementary education. From 1955 he taught history at the University of Uzhhorod (associate professor/Jocent, 1962; professor, 1972). As a confirmed believer in Soviet rule and Communist ideological guidelines, Troian prepared a detailed account of the 1944 Mukachevo Congress (with biographies of each participant) that called for union with the Soviet Ukraine, Toho dnia ziishlo sontse vozz "iednannia (1979), and co-authored a book on the first attempt to create Soviet rule in Subcarpathian Rus' just after World War I: 40 nezabutnikh dniv (1967). Further reading: M.M. Bubriak, Bibliohrafiia naukovykh i naukovopopuliarnykhprats'M.V. Troiana (Uzhhorod, 1980). IVAN POP

Trokhanovska, Stefaniia/Trochanowska, Stefania (b. April 26, 1951, Niemstow, Poland) — Lemko poet in Poland. Trokhanovska lives with her husband, the composer

BOGDAN HORBAL

(b. February 19, 1940, Binczarowa [Generalgouvernement Polen, Germany] Poland) — pedagogue, musical director, and composer among the Lemkos in Poland. In 1947 Trokhanovskii was deported with his family to western Poland (Silesia). There he graduated from the School of Music in Legnica (1955-1960) and then taught violin at the Zarembski School of Music (1960-1965). He also established a Lemko choral ensemble in the nearby village of Lisiec (1965). In 1968 he returned to the *Lemko Region and settled in Bielanka, where he set up or provided artistic direction for choral and musical ensembles among the few Lemkos living in neighboring villages, including the *Zyndranova Amateur Artistic Ensemble. These local ensembles were to form the basis for the *Lemkovyna Song and Dance Ensemble which he founded in 1969. After signing a petition addressed to the government of Poland that called for an improvement in rights for the country's national minorities (1973), Trokhanovskii was removed as director of the Lemkovyna Ensemble and went back to western Poland. He eventually returned to the Lemko Region (1977) and that same year revived the Lemkovyna Ensemble, which he has directed ever since. He has compiled over 300 Lemko folksongs and has written the melody for the popular patriotic hymn, "Na Lemkovyni" (In the Lemko Region), based on a poem by Ivan *Rusenko. Trokhanovskii has tried to remain neutral in the post-1989 struggle between pro-Rusyn and pro-Ukrainian organizations for the allegiance of the Lemko people. Further reading: Andryi Kopcha, "Vrodzhenyi z hushliamy," in Lemkivskii kalendar 2000 (Krynica and Legnica, 2000), pp. 126135. BOGDAN HORBAL PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Trokhanovskii, Metodii (b. May 5, 1885, Binczarowa [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. 1947, Wroclaw, Poland) — teacher, journalist, and cultural and political activist in the Lemko Region ofRusyn national orientation. After graduating from the Teachers' College in Krosno Trokhanovskii worked as a teacher in the Lemko villages of Uhryri and Krynica. At the outset of World War I he was arrested (1914) by the Austrian authorities, sent to the internment camp at *Talerhof, and from there transferred to Vienna (1915), where he was

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sentenced to death at the Second * Vienna Trial (1916-1917). Trokhanovskii was pardoned, however, by Emperor Charles I (r. 1916-1918). After the fall of Austria-Hungary and at the beginning of a movement to form the *Lemko Republic of Florynka (December 1918) he served as a member of the local Rusyn Council in Krynica. He negotiated with the Polish authorities in an attempt to have Lemko teachers excused from having to swear allegiance to the Polish state and he tried, also without success, to create a Lemko student residence (*Ruska Bursa) in Krynica. During the 1920s Trokhanovskii taught in various Lemko village schools, where he fought against efforts to introduce the Ukrainian language; he also promoted the need to create Lemko cooperatives and credit associations. In 1930 Trokhanovskii together with other activists created electoral committees whose goal was to elect a Lemko deputy to the Polish parliament and to obtain economic assistance from the government for the *Lemko Region. He was a co-founder (1933) of the *Lemko Association/Lemko-Soiuz, last editor (1939) of its newspaper *Lemko, and the author of the first textbooks for use in Lemko-language elementary schools: Persha knyzhochka dlia narodn kh shkol (1933) and Druha knyzhochka dlia narodn kh shkol (1934). He was successful in having the Lemko language taught at the Teachers' College in Stary Sa^cz, a subject which he himself taught there until 1939. After the fall of Poland and Nazi Germany's annexation of the Lemko Region Trokhanovskii was denounced by local *Ukrainophiles, arrested by the Gestapo (June 1941), and imprisoned in Kielce. He was released in 1944, but when the German Army fled before the advancing Soviet Army he was rearrested with his son Aleksander by the Soviet security forces (NKVD). Trokhanovskii was eventually released and allowed to return to postwar western Poland, where he died soon after.

in the *Lemkovyna Song and Dance Ensemble, with whom he participated in a concert tour of North America (1987). He is a prominent activist in Poland's *Lemko Society/ Stovarysh nia Lemkiv as its vice-chairman (1989-) and as the founding editor of its magazine (1989-). As a founding editor (1989-) of the society's magazine, *Besida, and annual almanac, Lemkivskii kalendar/richnyk, Trokhanovskii has contributed to the process of the codification of the Lemko literary variant of the Rusyn language, which he teaches to classes in Krynica. Trokhanovskii is the author of four collections of poetry—Suchy badyl (1983), Murianch sko (1984), lak sokil vod na kameni (1989), and Planetnyk (2001). Through sophisticated poetic devices his verses evoke not only the tragic past of the *Lemkos (the forced expulsion from their homeland), but also the recent renewal of Lemko culture, the present-day life of Lemkos in their homeland and "abroad" (western Poland), and the workings of his own inner world. He has written plays (some of which he directed for the Terka amateur youth theater), translated literary works into Lemko-Rusyn, and compiled an anthology ofRusyn poetry for children, Mamko, kup mi knyzhku (1995). Trokhanovskii is the recipient of many awards, including the international Aleksander Dukhnovych Prize for the best work in Rusyn literature (2002), Poland's Stanislaw Pietak Literary Prize (1990—he is the first non-Polish recipient), the Orthodox Prince Ostroz'kyi Prize (1997), and the St. Brother Albert Prize for cultural, charitable, civic, and ecumenical achievements (2003). He was also twice named Distinguished Cultural Activist by Poland's Ministry of Culture (1984,1998) and twice chosen Lemko of the Year (1985, 1987). Further reading: Olena Duts'-Faifer, "Zhazhdushche zh tia: refleksyi do iuvileiu Petra Muriank ," Lemkivskii kalendar 1997 (Krynica and Legnica, 1996), pp. 109-116.

BOGDAN HORBAL

BOGDAN HORBAL

Trokhanovskii, Petro/Trochanowski, Piotr (pseudonym: Petro Murianka) (b. August 10,1947, Parchow, Poland) — Lemko poet, journalist, translator, and cultural and civic activist of Rusyn orientation in Poland. Trokhanovskii was born "abroad" in southwestern Poland (Silesia) after his family was forced to leave their native village of Biriczarowa during the 1947 * Vistula Operation. Since 1976 he has returned to live in the *Lemko Region. He graduated from the Christian Theological Academy in Warsaw (1966), although he was not ordained to the priesthood. Instead, he has served as director of the Orthodox Church choir first in Sanok (1978-1982) and since then in Krynica. Since the 1980s Trokhanovskii has been among Poland's leading Lemko activists. He was a co-founder (1983) of the "homeland" *Vatra Lemko festival; for awhile an editor of its annual publication, Holos Vatr ; and for many years a soloist

Tsaptsara, Andrii. See Literature: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region Tsarevich, Ivan. See Matsyns'kyi, Ivan Tselevych, luliian Andriiovych (b. March 23, 1843, Pavlivka [Austrian Galicia], Ukraine; d. December 24, 1892, Eviv [Austrian Galicia], Ukraine) — Galician-Ukrainian historian and cultural activist. Tselevych is the first author in Ukrainian historiography to write a substantive historical survey of * Subcarpathian Rus' and the movement for *Unia/ Church Union ("Deshcho za poselennie Uhors'koi Ukrainy rusynamy y za unyiu tserkvy pravoslavnoi uhors'kykh rusyniv z Rymom," 1868; repr. 1995, 1996). In this work, he argued that the Rusyns are the autochthonous inhabitants Christian-

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ized during the mission of *Constantine/Cyril and Methodius. Tselevych was also the first writer to use the patriotically *Ukrainophile but historically incorrect term Uhors 'ka Ukrdina (Hungarian Ukraine) to describe Subcarpathian Rus' (the term appears in the title, whereas in the text he used the term *Uhors 'ka Rus *). Among his other writings are numerous articles about seventeenth-century bandits (ppryshky) in the Carpathians. Further reading: Mykola Mushynka, "luliian Tselevych—avtor pershoi ukrai'ns'koT rozvidky pro istoriiu Zakarpattia," Duklia, XLI, 1 (Presov, 1993), pp. 35-42; Mykola Mushynka, "Persha ukrainomovna istoriia Zakarpattia," in Julian Tselevych, Deshcho zaposelennia Uhors 'ko'i Ukrdiny msynamy i za uniiu tserkvy pravoslavno'i uhors 'kykh rusyniv z Rymom (Presov, 1996), pp. i-vi. IVAN POP

Tsentral'na rus'ka narodna rada. See Central Rusyn National Council Tsentral'naia russkaia narodnaia rada. See Central Russian National Council; Central Rusyn National Council TsentraFnyi karpatorusskii natsional'nyi sovet. See Tsibere, Pavel

Tserkovnaia gazeta. See Rakovs'kyi, loann; Voitkovskii, Vasilii Mironovich Tserkovnyi viestnik dlia rusinov Avstriiskoi derzhavy. See Rakovs'kyi, loann Tsibere, Pavei/Cibere, Pavel (b. May 5, 1910, Zaluzhzhia [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. July 28, 1979, Mukachevo [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — lawyer and political and cultural activist of Russian national orientation in SubCarpathian Rus' and abroad. After completing the Russian gymnasium in Mukachevo (1930) Tsibere studied at the law faculty of Charles University in Prague (1930-1935; Ju.Dr., 1936). While a student he played an active role in the *Renaissance/Vozrozhdenie Carpatho-Russian Student Society, representing that *Russophile-oriented group at pacifist and anti-fascist congresses held during the 1930s in Prague, Paris, Vienna, and Belgrade. After returning to *Subcarpathian Rus' (1936) he worked as a lawyer for the provincial government's agricultural bureau. He also helped to establish the Russian National University committee with branches in Uzhhorod, Khust, and Presov, which sponsored lectures by Russian emigre scholars from Prague, Bratislava, and other parts of Czechoslovakia. During Czechoslovakia's political crisis in 1938-1939 Tsibere spoke out against the pro-Hungarian policies of Andrii *Brodii and Shtefan *Fentsyk as well as the *Ukrainophile autonomous government of Avhustyn *Voloshyn. As an

alternative, he established the *Central Carpatho-Russian National Council/Tsentral'nyi karpatorusskii natsional'nyi sovet (November 1938), which was committed to working with the Czechoslovak government. Based primarily in Prague, Tsibere was the council's general secretary and was successful in lobbying the central government not to allow Voloshyn's unilateral decision to rename the autonomous province "Carpatho-Ukraine" before a final decree was issued by the future diet. After the final dissolution of Czechoslovakia (March 1939) Tsibere emigrated to Yugoslavia and then to France (1940), where he worked with the Czechoslovak National Committee and helped to mobilize Rusyns living in that country to join the newly formed Czechoslovak division. He also published in the journal Report a denunciation of Hungary's occupational regime in Subcarpathian Rus', for which the Budapest regime demanded his extradition. After France's capitulation to Germany (June 1940) Tsibere left for London, where the Czechoslovak president-in-exile Edvard *Benes named him a member (October 12, 1940) of the State Council (provisional parliament), responsible for matters pertaining to Subcarpathian Rus'. As part of his work he set up in Britain a Society of Friends of Subcarpathian Rus'/Obshchestvo druzei Podkarpatskoi Rusi. After Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union (June 1941) and the Czechoslovak government-in-exile resumed diplomatic relations with the Soviet government, Tsibere was sent to Moscow to secure the release of Rusyns imprisoned in the Gulag since their "illegal entry" into the Soviet Union (1939) and to mobilize them for service in the newly formed *Czechoslovak Army Corps (1943). During the last months of World War II Tsibere returned to London and Prague, where he expressed dissatisfaction with President Benes's loss of interest in the fate of Subcarpathian Rus'. He even traveled to Moscow in a naive attempt to block the Soviet annexation of his homeland and its ukrainianization. When he finally returned home in 1945, Tsibere offered his services to the newly established Uzhhorod State University. In the atmosphere of "anti-imperialist" hysteria that was beginning to take shape in the Soviet Union, however, a "person from the West" like Tsibere was not only suspicious but actually dangerous. In 1947 he was arrested by the Soviet authorities on charges of being a "British spy"; he spent three years in Moscow's Lefortovo prison and was then sentenced to ten years in the Siberian Gulag. Released in 1956 during the Khrushchev thaw, Tsibere was hired as an English teacher by the University of Kharkiv, but after two weeks released as "unreliable." He then returned to Subcarpathian Rus', supported himself with odd jobs, and during the last years of his life taught in an elementary school in the village of Petrovo. MYKHAILO ALMASH1I IVAN POP

Tsirokhan. See Fedor, Pavel

502

Tsuperiak, Mykola V. See Vistnyk Narodnoi rady Zakarpats 'koi Ukrainy Tsurkanovich, Ilarion lurievich/Curkanovic, Ilarion (b. January 12, 1878, Davydivtsi [Austrian Bukovina], Ukraine; d. 194?, Prague [Czechoslovakia], Czech Republic) — emigre editor and political activist of Russian national orientation in Bukovina and Subcarpathian Rus'. While still a student at the law faculty of the University of Chernivtsi Tsurkanovich was an activist in the *Russophile student organization, Karpat. He later worked on the staff of the Bukovinian Russophile newspaper Russkaia pravda (1910-1913), published by Aleksei *Gerovskii. Tsurkanovich was at the *Maramorosh Sighet trial (1913-1914), where he attempted to speak on behalf of Orthodox Rusyns accused of treason. Suspected himself of Russophile sympathies, Tsurkanovich was arrested by the Austrian authorities at the outset of World War I. He was sentenced to death at the *Vienna treason trial of 1917, but his sentence was commuted to life imprisonment the same year by Emperor Karl I (r. 1916-1918). Released following the collapse of Austria-Hungary, he joined the Czechoslovak Army in early 1919 and made his way to * Subcarpathian Rus'. Tsurkanovich became immediately involved in Subcarpathian political life, joining the *Russophiles Antonii *Beskyd and Andrei *Gagatko in their heated confrontation with local and Galician *Ukrainophiles for influence in the region. He was a co-founder of the *Carpatho-Russian Workers' party, whose program reflected his belief that Rusyns were part of the Russian nationality and that, therefore, the Czechoslovak government should cease its alleged proUkrainian and anti-Orthodox orientation and introduce the Russian literary language for instruction in Subcarpathian schools. He promoted his views while long-time editor (1923, 1925-1938) of the party's newspaper, *Russkaia zemlia, and its senator (1929-1935) in the Czechoslovak parliament. He also served briefly on the editorial committee (1934-1935) of*Russkii narodnyi golos and as director of the *ShkoPnaia pomoshch' printshop. After Hungary annexed Subcarpathian Rus' in 1939 Tsurkanovich settled in Prague, where at the close of World War II he published for Czechs a short grammar of the Russian language (Russkaia grammatika v sokrashchenii dlia uchashchikh i uchashchikhsia, 1946). IVAN POP Tsybul's'kyi, Pavlo. See Ukrainians Tsymbora, lurii/Cimbora, Juraj (b. June 6,1919, Svidnik [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia; d. October 1, 1989, Presov [Czechoslovakia] Slovakia) — choir director, choreographer, and folklorist among the Rusyns of eastern Slovakia. Tsymbora graduated from the *Presov Greek Catholic Teachers'

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture College (1938), and during the late 1930s and 1940s he promoted Russian balalaika music among Rusyn villagers in the Presov Region and among students at the Russian gymnasium in Presov. After studying choral singing and directing in Bratislava (1953) he joined the Duklia Ukrainian Folk Ensemble (*PULS) at the *Ukrainian National Theater in Presov. As choral director, dramatist, and artistic director (1958-1967, 1970-1980) he choreographed many of the dances and wrote much of the music for the ensemble's repertory. Tsymbora's creative works were based on a solid grounding in local Rusyn folk music, on the basis of which he compiled several collections of folksongs, including Ukrains 'ki narodni pisni Skhidnoi Slovachchyny, Vol. 2 (1963) and Zaspivaimo sobi dvoma holosamy (1974). Futher reading: Andrii Cherveniak, "Zacharovanyi pisneiu: do 60-richchia lu. Tsymbory," Duklia, XXVII, 3 (Presov, 1979), pp. 71-74. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Tsyns'kyi, Ivan. See Matsyns'kyi, Ivan Tsysliak, Nykolai. See Cislak, Nicholas

Turian/Turianskii, Kymbal. See Homichkov, Aleksander Turianytsia, lurii (b. May 8, 1929, Kal'nyk [Czechoslovakia], Ukraine) — professor and folklorist in Subcarpathian Rus'. After graduating from the Russian gymnasium in Mukachevo Turianytsia completed Uzhhorod State University (1953) where he also did graduate work at the Department of Ukrainian Literature (1956). He worked for a while as a schoolteacher and principal; since 1960 he has taught at the Department of Ukrainian Literature of Uzhhorod State University (associate professor/docent, 1972- ), where he received the degree ofkandidat nauk (1971) for a dissertation that compared military recruitment and soldier songs among Rusyns, *Ukrainians, *Magyars, *Slovaks, and *Czechs. He has subsequently published several works on Subcarpathian Rusyn folklore, including Zakarpats 'ki pisni ta kolomyiki (1965), Spivanky-khroniky (1972), Kazky odnoho sela (1979), Vid pyttia-nema puttia (1987), and Koliadky Zakarpattia (1992). MYKHAILO KAPRAL

Turianytsia, Ivan I. (b. May 25,1901, Mukachevo [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. March 27, 1955, Uzhhorod [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — political activist in Subcarpathian Rus'. After serving in the Austro-Hungarian Army (19171918) Turianytsia participated in the short-lived Communist government in Hungary and joined its Hungarian Red Army (1919). He remained in Budapest (1921-1925) working as

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a chimney sweep, then returned home in 1925 and was employed as a construction worker in Mukachevo. He entered the Subcarpathian *Communist party and rose rapidly through its ranks. He was made secretary (1928-1929) of the party's Mukachevo cell and was sent to the Institute of Journalism in Kharkiv, Ukraine, where he received training (1930-1933) as a party functionary. Upon returning home he was appointed secretary (1933-1938) of Subcarpathia's Council of the Red Workers' Unions/Chervona profspilka. In 1939 Turianytsia emigrated to the Soviet Ukraine and at first worked in a factory in Voroshylovhrad (1940-1941). Upon instructions from the Czechoslovak Communist party and the Soviet authorities he joined the *Czechoslovak Army Corps in 1942. A year later he represented Subcarpathian Rus' as a delegate to the All-Slavic Anti-Fascist Committee that met in Moscow. In October 1944, following an agreement between the Soviet authorities and General Ludvik Svoboda, the head of Czechoslovak Army Corps, Turianytsia was appointed a member of the Czechoslovak administration for Subcarpathian Rus' under the leadership of Frantisek *Nemec. Following instructions from Soviet security forces, within two days of the Czechoslovak administration's arrival in Khust Turianytsia secretly moved into the zone controlled by the Soviet military and, together with a group of others from the Czechoslovak Army Corps (declared to be deserters by the latter's military prosecutor), he organized the Communist party of *Transcarpathian Ukraine. It was they who headed the "movement" calling for "the *reunification of the Transcarpathian Ukraine" with the Soviet Ukraine, the justification subsequently used by the Soviet Union in international circles to justify its annexation of Subcarpathian Rus'. At the First Congress of People's Committees of the Transcarpathian Ukraine, held in Mukachevo on November 26,1944, Turianytsia was "elected" chairman of the National Council of Transcarpathian Ukraine. For his services to the Soviet Ukraine he was appointed first secretary (1946-1948) of the Communist party (Bolshevik) of Ukraine for the Transcarpathian oblast, member (1946-1954) of the Central Committee of the Communist party (Bolshevik) of Ukraine, and deputy (1946-1948) of the Supreme Council of the Soviet Union. The Soviet policy of removing local cadres and replacing them with "easterners" was to affect Turianytsia's career. In 1948 he was removed as the first secretary of the Transcarpathian oblast Communist party and given instead an uninfluential sinecure as head (1948-1955) of the regional parliament (Oblasna rada). This unexpected political demotion concerned him to such a degree that it contributed to his early death. IVAN POP

Turianytsia, Ivan M. (b. January 16, 1943, Mykulivtsi [Karpatalja, Hungary], Ukraine) — biochemist, professor,

and civic and political activist of Rusyn national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus'. After completing high school (serednia shkold) in Mukachevo (1959) Turianytsia studied at the Cherkassy Pedagogical Institute (1959-1964) and then taught biology and chemistry in various schools throughout * Subcarpathian Rus' (1964-1968). He completed his graduate studies at Uzhhorod State University (kandidat nauk, 1971) and at the University of International Friendship Among Peoples in Moscow (Ph.D., 1988). He taught biochemistry for over three decades—often lecturing in Rusyn—at Uzhhorod State University's Medical School, where he held the rank of senior research fellow (1968), associate professor (docent, 1988), and full professor (1990-2000). He has published several scholarly studies in biochemistry and holds a number of pharmaceutical patents. In the post-Soviet period Turianytsia has been an outspoken proponent of *autonomy for Subcarpathian Rus'/ Transcarpathia within Ukraine and for the official recognition of Rusyns as a distinct nationality. He has made his views on these issues known to the public during several visits to European countries and the United States and within Ukraine as deputy (1994-1998) to the Transcarpathian regional parliament, chairman (1992- ) of the *Society of Carpatho-Rusyns/Tovarystvo karpatskykh Rusynov, member (1993-2001) of the Executive Council/Svitova rada of the *World Council of Rusyns, and prime minister (1993- ) of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Subcarpathian Rus'. Turianytsia has consistently called for the codification of the Rusyn language in Subcarpathian Rus' and is the author of a collection ofRusyn poetry (Rudna zemle pudkarpats 'ka, 1999). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Turii, V. See Nedzel'skii, Evgenii Leopol'dovich Turkovskii, Orest (b. April 18, 1896, Wroblik Krolewski [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. February 28, 1973, Newark, New Jersey, USA) — Lemko composer and music teacher in the United States. A talented violinist from early youth, Turkovskii immigrated to the United States (1913) and studied at the School of Music and Arts in New York City. In 1921 he founded his own school of music in Newark, New Jersey, which he directed for the subsequent quarter of a century. He is best known for producing 16 records of Lemko music and for transcribing 5 albums of Lemko songs (1963-1965). BOGDAN HORBAL Turna. See Abov

Turok-Hetesh, Vasyl'/Turok-Hetes, Vasil' (b. January 8,1940, Habura, Slovakia) — teacher, dramatist, and cultural

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activist of Rusyn national orientation in the Presov Region. Turok-Hetesh completed his secondary studies in Bratislava and went on to Comenius University (1963). For over two decades (1965-1985) he taught Slovak, Russian, philosophy, and aesthetics at the Ukrainian middle (serednid) school in Presov. Since 1985, he has been a dramatist at the *Dukhnovych Theater in Presov, where in the late 1980s he staged plays in Rusyn for the first time. Following the Revolution of 1989 Turok-Hetesh became the leading figure in the Rusyn national revival in Slovakia. While chairman of the *Rusyn Renaissance Society (19901994, 1996-1999) he was instrumental in establishing the weekly Rusyn newspaper *Narodny novynky, a Rusyn television program in Slovakia, and a Rusyn Division at Presov University. It was also largely through his intervention that a Rusyn orientation was adopted by the Dukhnovych Theater (1990); since then he has translated into Rusyn and staged several plays from the world repertory. As founding chairman (1991 -2001) of the * World Congress of Rusyns, Turok-Hetesh successfully convinced Rusyns in Slovakia and in neighboring countries to interact with national minority organizations in other parts of Europe, and he is the executive vice-chairman of the Maison de Pays, an organization based in France that represents stateless peoples. In 2001, he was given the Steven *Chepa Award for Outstanding Service to Rusyn Culture. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Tvorchosts/Studia Ruthenica — scholarly journal published in Novi Sad, Yugoslavia (1975-), in Voj vodinian Rusyn as the organ of the * Society for Rusyn Language and Literature/Druzhtvo za ruski iazik i literaturu. The journal began as an annual, but since its name change to Studia Ruthenica in 1988 it has appeared once every two years. Most of its studies deal with various aspects of the contemporary Vojvodinian Rusyn language. Several issues also include detailed reports on the past work and future plans of the Society of Rusyn Language and Literature and lists of its members. Among its editors have been Diura Varga (1975-1979), Gabriel Koliesar (1982-1984), and Irina *Papuga (1992-). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Tvorydlo, Mykola (pseudonym: Ortoskop) (b. April 4, 1884, Zashkiv [Austrian Galicia], Ukraine; d. ca. 1952, Eviv [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — Galician-Ukrainian economist, agricultural specialist, and cultural activist. Following the demise of the Western Ukrainian People's Republic in July 1919 Tvorydlo settled in *Subcarpathian Rus'. Together with other Galician-Ukrainian emigres he undertook an active enlightenment campaign promoting the Ukrainian orientation among the local population. He was a founding member (1920) of the *Prosvita Society and the Sil's'kyi Hospodar

Society and head of the Committee to Aid Ukrainian Refugees in Uzhhorod. The Prosvita Society published several of his brochures on agricultural topics, including Chym y iak hnoity? (1921), Choho nam vchytysia od dans'kykh selian? (1922), and Shkodlyvi y khosenni zviriata v hospodarstvi, 2 pts. (1925-26). In 1924 he returned to Eviv and was later elected to the Polish Senate (1938-1939). Tvorydlo is credited with being the author of Derzhavni zmahannia Prykarpats'koi Ukrainy (1924; repr. 1993), a booklet published under the pseudonym Ortoskop, which chronicles events in Subcarpathian Rus' during 1918-1919. The process of unification of Subcarpathian Rus' with Czechoslovakia is described in a tendentious manner, pitting the "intriguing" Czech leaders (Masaryk, Benes, Hodza) and their Rusyn "agents" (Zhatkovych, Beskyd) against the self-sacrificing pro-Ukrainian activists (Nevyts'kyi, Brashchaiko). IVAN POP Tyliava schism — the massive conversion of Greek Catholic Lemko Rusyns to Orthodoxy which began on November 16, 1926, in the village of Tylawa (Rusyn: Tyliava) in the Krosno district of the Lemko Region in Poland. The reasons for the movement were several: discontent with latinization influences on the Greek Catholic Church and with Ukrainian national ideology being spread by certain Greek Catholic priests; pro-Orthodox propaganda disseminated by returning Lemko immigrants from the United States and by Poland's Orthodox Church; and the high cost of pastoral services demanded by certain Greek Catholic priests. In 1931 an Orthodox Mission was established in the *Lemko Region, and in 1935 a Lemko Deanery of the Orthodox Eparchy of Warsaw-Chelm was created which by the outbreak of World War II included about 20,000 Orthodox faithful in Lemko villages. The rapid spread of Orthodoxy, most especially between 1926 and 1932, alarmed the Vatican, and in an effort to contain further Greek Catholic losses it created the *Lemko Apostolic Administration. Further reading: Petro Virkhnians'kyi, "Pravoslav"ia na Lemkivshchyni v 1926-1931 rokakh," Zustrichi, VI [19] (Warsaw, 1989), pp. 111-121; Jaroslaw Moklak, "Kszahowanie si? struktury Kosciola prawoslawnego na Lemkowszczyznie w Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej," in Przez dwa stulecia XIX i XX w: studia historyczne ofiarowane prof. Waclawowi Felczakowi (Cracow, 1993), pp. 51-77; Jaroslaw Moklak, "The Phenomenon of the Expansion of Orthodoxy in the Greek Catholic Diocese of Przemysl: Missionary Activities of the Orthodox Church, 1918-1939," in Paul J. Best and Jaroslaw Moklak, eds., The Lemkos in Poland: Articles and Essays (Cracow and New Haven, Conn., 2000), pp. 107-118; Andrzej Stachowiak, "Konwersja Lemkow na prawosiawie w Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej," in Magury'OO (Warsaw, 2000), pp. 14-31. BOGDAN HORBAL

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Tylishchak, VasyP. SeeLemko Tymczasowy komitet spoleczno-oswiatowy Rusinow-Lemkow See Stefanovskii, Pavel Tymkovych, Gorazd A. See Basilian Order; Historigraphy: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region; Tymkovych, losafat

505 their Eastern church, in particular on the Basilian monasteries at *Krasnyi Brid (Letopis Krdsnobrodskeho monastyra, 1995) and *Bukova Hora (Letopis Bukovskeho monastyra, 2004) and a general history of Greek Catholics in the former Hungarian Kingdom through the eighteenth century: Dejiny greckokatolikov Podkarpatska (2004). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Tysians'ka-Kabaliuk, Marusia. See Vinochokdlia podkarpatskykh ditochok Tymkovych, losafat/Timkovic Jozafat V. (pseudonyms: Jozafat Byzantinec, Vladimir Mariansky, Vladimirus de juxta Hornad) (b. Vladymyr Tymkovych, July 19, 1964, Kosice [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — priest, church historian, and editor in the Presov Region of Rusyn national orientation. After completing gymnasium studies at Moldava nad Bodvou (1982), Tymkovych studied at the Advanced Veterinary School in Kosice (1982-1987). On the eve of graduation he illegally left Communist Czechoslovakia for Rome in order to become, like his father, a Greek Catholic priest. In Rome, he completed his undergraduate (1987-1989) and theological training (1990-1993) at the St. Thomas Aquinas Pontifical University, then studied canon law at the Pontifical Gregorian University (1993-1995). In the course of his studies Tymkovych was a noviate at the Basilian Monastery in Glen Cove, New York (1989-1990) and was ordained a Greek Catholic priest at the Basilian Monastery in Presov (1993). It was also while in Rome that he studied Rusyn history and became committed to the idea of reviving the Rusyn identity among the Greek Catholic faithful in the *Presov Region. Returning to Slovakia in 1995, Tymkovych served for two years in a few Rusyn parishes; since then he has been *hegumen/archimandrite of the Basilian monasteries in Trebisov (1997-2000) and Presov (2000-2004). Working closely with his brother Gorazd, losafat Tymkovych adopted a Rusyn orientation for the Basilian monthly *Blahovistnyk while he was its editor (1995-1999), and both brothers emphasize the Rusyn aspects of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov as part of their pastoral work at the Presov monastery church, most especially among young people. He is also founding editor (1996-1998) of the theological and historical journal, Krdsnobrodskyzbornik. Tymkovych has published several studies on the history of Rusyns and

Tyvodar, Mykhailo (b. February 7, 1936, Bedevlia [Czechoslovakia], Ukraine) — professor, ethnographer, and historian of Ukrainian national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus'. Tyvodar studied history at Uzhhorod State University (1953-1958) and since 1966 has taught at that institution (kandidatnauk, 1968; doctor of historical science, 1994; professor, 1996). His most comprehensive publication is a detailed study of traditional livestock-raising practices in the Carpathian region: Tradytsiine skotarstvo ukra'ins 'kykh Karpat druho'i polovynyXIX—pershoipolovynyXXst. (1994). During the final days of the Communist regime in the Soviet Union, Tyvodar openly supported Ukrainian national demands as an active member of the Shevchenko Society for the Ukrainian Language in Uzhhorod and the Transcarpathian branch of the RUKH movement which soon called for an independent Ukraine. He has also consistently spoken out against the nascent Rusyn movement, and in particular against the work of the *Society of Carpatho-Rusyns. Tyvodar's historical and ethnographic scholarship categorically rejects any suggestion that Rusyns are different from Ukrainians as well as distinct from other Slavic peoples in eastern and central Europe, or that they experienced a distinct historical development. His views on these issues are expressed in several articles which have appeared in the collection, Zakarpattia: narodoznavchi rozdumy (1995). Further reading: "Mykhailo Tyvodar," in Mykola M. Vegesh and L. V. Horvat , Istorychna nauka v Uzhhorods 'komu derzhavnomu universyteti (Uzhhorod, 2000), pp. 128-136. IVAN POP

Tziorogh, Elias I. See Anthems

u U siebie: Andy czyAndrzej. See Cinema Uchitel'skoe tovarishchestvo Podkarpatskoi Rusi. See Fedor, Pavel; Narodna shkola Uchytel' (1867). See Ouchytel' UchyteV —journal for teachers in Subcarpathian Rus' published in Uzhhorod (1920-38) monthly during the school year by the School Administration of the Czechoslovak government. Among its editors were Ivan *Pan'kevych (1921-1923) and Josef Pesina and luliian *Revai who served as co-editors (1924-1938). Uchytel' published articles that dealt primarily with pedagogical theory and current school regulations; it also contained reviews of textbooks and publications related to the * language question and at times historical works on education in * Subcarpathian Rus'. It appeared in vernacular Rusyn (following the Ukrainophile language of Pan'kevych); beginning in 1927 it also had sections in Czech and Hungarian. Further reading: Ivan Dobosh, Istoriia ukrains 'koi zhurnalistyky Zakarpattia 20—30-kh rokiv XX st. (Ivano-Frankivs'k, 1995), pp. 95-99. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Uchytel's'ka hromada. See Teachers' Society Uchytel's'kyi holos —journal published in Mukachevo (1930-38) as the official organ of the Populist Teachers' Society/Narodovets'ke uchytel's'ke tovarystvo, later the Teachers' Society/Uchytel's'ka hromada in *Subcarpathian Rus'. Uchytel's'kyi holos appeared monthly (with the exception of July and August) and was edited by Oleksander Polians'kyi (1930-1936) and Andrii *Voron (1937-1938). It included articles on cultural and educational developments in Subcarpathian Rus' as well as reports on the activity of the Teachers' Society. Published in Ukrainian, Uchytel's 'kyi holos promoted the Ukrainophile view and was frequently critical of local *Russophiles, *Rusynophiles, and the Czechoslovak government for its allegedly lukewarm support of the Ukrainian movement in Subcarpathian Rus'. Further reading: I.I. Dobosh, "Borofba chasopysu 'Uchytel's'kyi holos' (1930-1938 rr.) za utverdzhennia ukrains'kol movy u navchal'nykh zakladakh Zakarpattia," in Zbirnyk prats' Naukovodoslidnoho tsentru periodyky.Vol. I (LViv, 1994), pp. 89-99; Vasyl' Habor, Ukrains 'ki chasopysy Uzhhoroda, 1867-1944 (Eviv, 2003), pp. 348-356. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Udvari, Istvan (b. July 14,1950, Tornyospalca, Hungary) — Hungarian Slavist and professor. Udvari completed his studies at Lajos Kossuth University in Debrecen, Hungary (1971-1975; Ph.D., 1986). He was promoted to the rank of professor (1995) and to membership in the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (1997). Since 1982 he has taught the Russian, Ukrainian, and Rusyn languages at the Bessenyei School of Higher Education in Nyiregyhaza, Hungary, where he became founding director (1993-present) of the Department of Ukrainian and Rusyn Philology/Katedra ukrai'ns'koT i rusyns'koi filologiT. Udvari is concerned with uncovering and analyzing Rusyn texts, primarily pre-nineteenth century, held in Hungarian archives. Among his archival works are: Ruszin (kdrpdtukrdn) hivatalos irdsbelisegaXVHI. szdzadi Magyarorszdgon (1995) and Rusyns 'ki zherela urbars 'koi' reformy Marii Teryzi'i (1999). He has also prepared several volumes of previously unpublished manuscripts by the Rusyn-born historian Antal *Hodinka; reproductions of Mykhail Emanui'l *Ol'shavs'kyi's 1746 primer (1999) and loann *Kutka's 1799 primer (1998) and 1801 catechism (1997); statistical data from 1806 prepared for the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo (1990); and analyses of Rusyn-Slovak socioeconomic and linguistic relations in *Spish and *Zemplyn counties during the eighteenth century: A Maria Terezia-fele iirberrendes szlovdk nyelvii dokumentai (1991) and A Maria Terezia korabeli urberrendezes szlovdk nyelvii keziratos forrdsai (1996). Many of his studies on the eighteenth century have appeared in Rusyn translation, Obrazchyky z istori'i pudkarpats'kykh Rusynuv XVIII slolitia (2000). Udvari has also written about the language and literature of the Vojvodinian Rusyns. This and other Rusyn-related topics are treated in a collection of his essays: Tallozdsok ukrdn, ruszin es szlovdk konyvek koreben (1995). Like other Slavists in Hungary, Udvari initially considered Rusyns within the framework of Ukrainian culture, but since the 1990s he has treated them as a distinct nationality. Further reading: Ilona Vraukone Lukacs, Szlavisztikai bibliogrdfia Udvari Istvan munkassaga alapjdn, 1974-1995, 2nd rev. ed. (Nyiregyhaza, 2002); Laszlone Bajnok, Slavisztikai bibliogrdfia Udvari Istvan munkassaga alapjdn, Vol. II: 1995-2000 (Nyiregyhaza, 2001). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Udziela, Seweryn (b. December 24, 1857, Stary Sa^cz [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. September 26, 1937, Cracow, Poland) — Polish ethnographer, educator, and founder of the Ethnographic Museum in Cracow. After graduating from

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Jagiellonian University in Cracow Udziela taught for a while in schools until 1888, when he was appointed school inspector for the Gorlice and Grybow districts. In that post he became aware of the *Lemkos living in those two districts as well as in the neighboring Krosno and Jaslo districts. He studied Lemko material and spiritual culture and published several ethnographic works, including "Rozsiedlenie siej Lernkow" (1889) and Zpodah i dziejow ziemi bieckiej (1926), as well as memoirs and notes from his journeys through the *Lemko Region: Ziemia iemkowska przed polwieczem: zapiski i wspomnienia z lat 1888-1893 (1934).

507 V, Pt. 2 (Vienna, 1900), pp. 463-472; Vasylii Hadzhega, "Dodatky do istorii Rusynov y rus'kykh tserkvei v zhupi Ugocha," Naukovyi zbornyk Tovarystva 'Prosvita', IV (Uzhhorod, 1925), pp. 117-176 and V (1927), pp. 1-62; Istvan Szabo, Ugocsa megye (Budapest, 1937; repr. 1994); Georg Heller, Comitatus Maramarosiensis/Comitatus Ugocsiensis (Munich, 1985); Andras Komaromy, Ugocsa varmegye a tortenelemben (Uzhhorod, 2001). IVAN POP

Ugrorusskaia natsional'naia partiia. See Russian National Autonomist party

BOGDAN HORBAL

Ugocha (Hungarian: Ugocsa) — county in the northeastern part of the Hungarian Kingdom, mostly in Subcarpathian Rus'. It was the smallest county in the kingdom, covering 1,191 square kilometers and surrounded by *Bereg, Sotmar, and *Maramorosh counties; its administrative center was Sevliush (today Vynohradovo)—see Map 9. Its population numbered 91,800 (1910), of whom 42,700 were *Magyars, 34,400 Rusyns, 11,800 *Jews, and 9,700 *Romanians. During the early Middle Ages the territory of the future county was inhabited by Slavic tribes, who during the sixth century drove out or assimilated the Thracian peoples living there. The Chronicle of * Anonymous reports that Magyar tribes entered the region at the end of the ninth century, although it was not until the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries that they established their authority there within the framework of the Hungarian Kingdom. Ugocha's territory was ravaged by the Mongolo-Tatar invasion (1241), then on several occasions resettled by Rusyn and German (Saxon) colonists invited by Hungary's kings. Ugocha was formally constituted as a county in 1262; it reached the height of development during the reign of the Anjou and Luxembourg dynasties in Hungary from the fourteenth to the first half of the sixteenth centuries. Thereafter, until the early eighteenth century, the county became a theater of war between the armies of the Ottoman Empire, *Habsburg Austria, and Transylvania. The resultant conflict transformed Ugocha into an uninhabited wasteland. Gradually, villages were restored during the second half of the eighteenth century. Sevliush remained Ugocha's administrative center, although the town effectively ceased to function as a center for artisanship and trade. According to the *Treaty of Trianon (1920) Ugocha was divided; four-fifths of its territory went to Czechoslovakia and one-fifth to Romania. In Czechoslovakia it became part of Maramorosh county (with an administrative center in Sevliush and later Khust) until the *county (zhupa) system was abolished in 1927. After 1945, in Soviet Transcarpathia, the Sevliush, later Vynohradovo, district (raion) was formed on what was the territory of former Ugocha county. Further reading: Sigmund Perenyi, "Das Ugocsaer Comitat," in Die osterreichische-ungarische Monarchic in Wort undBild: Ungarn, Vol.

Uhlia Monastery — former monastery in Subcarpathian Rus' located in the village of Uhlia about 20 kilometers north of Tiachovo, in historic *Maramorosh county. The first documentary evidence of the Uhlia Monastery (also known as the Polonyn or Zanev Monastery) dates from 1262. Reports from the seventeenth century indicate that at that time the monastery housed 330 monks and its material resources included thousands of sheep. Uhlia functioned as the residence of the bishops of Maramorosh, who were simultaneously archimandrites of the monastery. By the second half of the seventeenth century the monastery had become the main center for those Eastern hierarchs and priests who did not accept the *Unia/Church Union with Rome. Among the resident bishops at this time were loanykii *Zeikan (r. 1664-1687), losyf Stoika (r. 16901711), and Dosifei Teodorovych (r. 1718-1733), considered by some authors to be the last hierarchs of the Maramorosh Orthodox Eparchy. The monastery was also the source of the Uhlia sfeorayMniscellany, also known as the Kliuch (the Key). This collection of religiously inspired instructional readings is considered an important early example ofRusyn literature (see Literature, Early manuscripts). In 1788, during the reform period in the Austrian Empire, the Uhlia Monastery was abolished by Emperor Joseph II. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI JOZAFAT V. TIMKOVlC, OSBM

Uhlia sbornyk. See Literature, Early manuscripts; Uhlia Monastery Uhliarenko, Petro. See Ukrainians

Uhrin, John. See Greek Catholic Union ofRusyn Brotherhoods Uhors'ka Rus'/Hungarian Rus' — name of the territory inhabited by Rusyns living within the pre-World War I Hungarian Kingdom. The term referred to what later became known as * Subcarpathian Rus' (in present-day Ukraine) and

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the *Presov Region (in present-day Slovakia). The term Uhors 'ka Rus' (Russian: Ugorshaia Rus') was first used by Russian scholars in the 1830s and subsequently adopted by Polish, Ukrainian, and other writers. It is from this territorial name that the ethnonym Uhro-Rusyny (Uhro-Rusyns/Hungarian Rusyns) derives. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Uhro-rus'ka politychna partiia. See Uhro-Rusyn party Uhro-russkii natsional'nyi teatr. See Subcarpathian Rusyn National Theater

service, was commissioned to prepare a memorandum for the Entente which proclaimed that the "Uhro-Rusyn people do not want to be separated from Hungary." The Uhro-Rusyn party's hopes to maintain Hungarian rule over Rusyns ended with the signing of the *Treaty of St. Germain (September 1919) and the *Treaty of Trianon (June 1920), which recognized Czechoslovak rule over all Rusyns living south of the Carpathians. Subsequently, the party's leaders joined the general *irrendentist/revisionist movement that dominated Hungary's political life in the 1920s and 1930s. Further reading: Proklamatsiia do uhro-rus'koho naroda— Memorandum do antanta/Proklamdcija do uhroruszjkoho naroda— Memorandum do dntdnta (Budapest, 1919). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Uhro-Rusyn. See Rusyn; Uhors'ka Rus'/Hungarian Rus' Uhro-Rusyn National party. See Russian National Autonomist party Uhro-Rusyn National Theater. See Subcarpathian Rusyn National Theater

Ukra'inets'. See Drahomanov, Mykhailo Petrovych Ukrainian Civic and Cultural Society. See Lemko Section of the Ukrainian Civic and Cultural Society Ukrainian Editorial Office. See Printing and

Publishing Uhro-Rusyn party/Uhro-rus'ka politychna partiia — political organization founded by Rusyn *magyarones who favored remaining within Hungary. The organization traces its origins to late November 1918, when Rusyns in Budapest were preparing to organize a Rusyn Congress to discuss the political future of their homeland. When the congress met on December 10, 1918, it accepted the basic goals set out by the organizers of the Uhro-Rusyn party. These included land reform and support for industrial development and the creation of banking and credit associations in Rusyn-inhabited lands. Those lands were to have their own autonomous government headed by an elected Rusyn ministry and staffed by civil servants ofRusyn background. Rusyn was to be the language of instruction in elementary schools and gymnasia. It looked as though some of these goals would be achieved following the passage of Hungarian Law No. 10 (December 18, 1918) and the creation of an autonomous entity *Rus'ka KraTna. By the spring of 1919, however, Rus'ka KraTna, renamed * Subcarpathian Rus', was held by Czechoslovak and Romanian troops and Hungary itself was ruled by a Communist regime. On the eve of collapse of Communist rule in Hungary, the Uhro-Rusyn party was formally established (August 5, 1918) under the leadership of Miklos/Nykolai Kutka-*Kutkafalvy. On August 11 Kutkafalvy was appointed head of the Rusyn ministry in Budapest, created earlier as part of the administration for Rus'ka Krai'na. Among the Uhro-Rusyn party's leading activists were *magyarones living in Budapest, including Janos/Ioann Prodan, Jozsef *Illes-Illyasevits, and Arnold Dulishkovych (1885-19??). Dulishkovych, the chief of Hungary's border guard secret

Ukrainian Insurgent Army/Ukrai'ns'ka Povstans'ka Armiia (UFA) — an underground military formation that fought during and after World War II for the liberation of Ukraine from Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union with the intention of creating an independent Ukrainian state. The UPA came into being in 1942 in the historic region of Volhynia, present-day northwestern Ukraine. The first units were organized independently or by members from the Bandera faction (named after Stepan Bandera) and Melnyk faction (named after Andrii Mel'nyk) of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists. By the summer of 1943, the Bandera faction (Banderites) eliminated the other two and henceforth dominated the leadership and the rank-and-file of the UPA. It is for this reason that the military formation is sometimes known simply as the Banderites (Rusyn: Banderovtsi}. The UPA's basic combat unit was the infantry company (sotnia), comprised of between 120 to 180 soldiers. At its peak in 1944, the UPA had a total of between 25,000 to 40,000 soldiers under its command. The entire force was divided into three operational regions (krai): UPA-North, UPA-South, and UPA-West, each of which was divided into military districts. Among the military districts in the UPA-West were the 4th district, which covered * Subcarpathian Rus' and Bukovina, and the 6th district, which covered the *Lemko Region and the *Presov Region. Each district was subdivided into tactical sectors, one of which in the 6th district was called the Lemko sector; it covered the Lemko and Boiko regions west of the San River in present-day southeastern Poland. As the Soviet

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Army pushed the German Army further and further westward, so too the focus of UFA operations moved from its original base in Volhynia to Galicia, and by the winter of 1944-1945 to the Carpathian region. From then until 1947, the UFA was most active in the Boiko Region and Lemko Region (by then in Poland) and in part the Presov Region (in Czechoslovakia), and with only a few raids from Galicia into Subcarpathian Rus' (by then in the Soviet Union). Although a small unit of the UPA began to operate in the Lemko Region in 1943, it was in 1944 when companies under officers known as "Les'," "Burlaka," and "Pavlenko" were either transferred into the transitional Lemko-Boiko territory or created there. Initially, almost all their members were from outside of the region. Only in 1946, when Poland's authorities and Polish armed bandits used brutal methods to force the population to resettle eastward to the Soviet Ukraine, did the Lemkos join the UPA in an effort to defend themselves, although without any interest in its ideology or political goals. Eventually, the UPA received massive support in the easternmost Lemko Region and the westernmost Boiko Region, where a full-fledged military struggle with Communist Poland's army was underway. The rest of the Lemko Region, however, witnessed only limited UPA activity. It was only at the end of 1946 that "Ren's" UPA battalion entered the western Lemko Region, that is Lemko-inhabited villages west of the Dukla pass, where most Lemkos were indifferent toward UPA activity. It is nonetheless also true that a few joined UPA units while others denounced them to the Polish authorities. Disappointed by the general lack of support, some UPA units turned against Lemkos. Since the UPA opposed *Lemko population resettlement, whether to Ukraine or within Poland, its forces systematically burned evacuated villages in order to prevent Poles from settling there. The turning point in the UPA's fortunes came in the wake of the death of General Karol Swierczewski, Poland's deputy defense minister who was killed in an ambush (March 28, 1947) by the UPA's Lemko Company. By the summer of 1947, the remaining Lemko and Ukrainian population was forcibly removed from the region during the *Vistula Operation. Deprived of local support and facing a concerted military effort by Polish, Czechoslovak, and Soviet forces, the UPA's supreme command ordered its surviving units to disband and its soldiers to go eastward to the Soviet Union or to cross Czechoslovakia in order to reach the western zones of Germany. Actually, the UPA units were already in the Rusyn-inhabited Presov Region in northeastern Czechoslovakia in the late summer and autumn of 1945. At that time, soldiers and civilian units of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, an estimated 900 persons, passed through most Rusyn villages where they explained to the inhabitants their goals of freeing Ukraine from Soviet rule. Such propaganda activity continued in the course of 1946. When, in the spring of 1947,

509 UPA units from Poland began to cross in ever larger numbers into Czechoslovakia (on their way to West Germany), they were met by Czechoslovak army and internal security forces. For the next several months, the Czechoslovak authorities undertook a military campaign known as Operation "B" (Akcia B}, which lasted until the last UPA soldiers were arrested, killed, or escaped to West Germany. In contrast to the immediate postwar years, when the local Rusyn population was subjected only to the UPA's propaganda campaign, the last months of 1947 and early 1948 were marked by alienation from local villagers, who feared that their livestock and limited food stocks would be raided by what were now considered "dangerous Ukrainian bandits" (Banderovtsi). Scholars sympathetic to the Ukrainian national orientation have subsequently argued that it is this generally negative attitude toward the UPA which subsequently deterred large segments of the Rusyn population in eastern Slovakia from accepting a Ukrainian identity subsequently imposed by the Czechoslovak authorities. After February 1948, when Czechoslovakia was transformed into a Communist state, the new government was eventually to use the albeit limited presence of the UPA in eastern Slovakia as part of its campaign to eliminate the traditional Rusyn religious and cultural elite in the Presov Region. For instance, in the course of the trials that led to the imprisonment of Greek Catholic Bishop Pavel *Goidych and his auxiliary bishop Vasyl' *Hopko, both hierarchs were falsely accused of aiding "Nazi collaborators who fled before the advance of the Soviet Army," in particular the UPA. The UPA presence in southeastern Poland had even longer lasting consequences for the Lemko Region and its Rusyn inhabitants. In fact, UPA activity was used by Communist Poland as its official justification for the forced resettlement of Lemkos in 1947, although today it is well known that the real reason for the Vistula Operation was the government's goal to create a monoethnic Polish state. In order to strengthen their case, Poland's Communist authorities undertook a well-coordinated propaganda campaign (through the mass media and literary works), which depicted UPA soldiers as bandits. The campaign proved successful, with the result that such views prevailed among the Polish public at large throughout the Communist period—and to a degree they continue to prevail to this day. The negative association attached by the Polish public to the UPA and to Ukrainians was often transferred to Lemkos as well. Furthermore, during the first political thaw in Communist Poland (after 1956), when Lemkos tried to create their own civic and cultural organization, the authorities did not allow it. They feared that the very existence of such an organization would imply that Lemkos are not Ukrainians, and that disassociation from Ukrainians would make it easier for Lemkos to argue that forced resettlement was mistakenly and unjustly imposed upon them. Considering the above factors, it is understandable that in

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Lemko-Rusyn circles there is a widespread belief that they not only suffered resettlement but that they continue to suffer from Polish prejudice because of association with the UFA. On the other hand, Ukrainian-oriented Lemkos speak favorably of the UPA's activity, which is credited with increasing a sense of Ukrainian national consciousness among Lemkos. Despite the denials on the part of Rusyn-oriented Lemkos, the involvement of some Lemkos in the UFA just after World War II is emphasized in Ukrainian-language publications in Poland and elsewhere in Ukrainian cicles as one of the major "proofs" that Lemkos are Ukrainians. Further reading: Yuriy Tys-Krokhmaliuk, UFA Warfare in Ukraine (New York, 1972);Litopys Ukrains'koi'Povstans'koiArtnii,4l vols. (Toronto and Eviv, 1978-2004)—especially Vol. 33: Taktychnyi vidtynok UFA 26-yi "Lemko ": Lemkivshchyna i Peremyshchyna (2001) and Vol. 34: Lemkivshchyna i Peremyshchyna: politychnizvity (2002); Stepan Goliash, "Ukrai'ns'ka Povstans'ka Armiia v Beskydi," in Bohdan O. Strumins'kyi, ed., Lemkivshchyna: zemlia, liudy, istoriia, kul'tura, Vol. I (New York, 1988), pp. 212-240; Jan Fiala, Zprdva o Akci B (Prague, 1994); Bogdan Horbal, "Ukraihska Powstancza Armia na Lemkowszczyznie," in Andrzej Zi?ba, ed., Lemkowie i Lemkoznawstwo w Polsce (Cracow, 1997), pp. 45-62; Stanislaw Mysliiiski, Wojna po wojnie: Bieszczady 1947 (Wroclaw, 1998); Grzegorz Motyka, TakbylowBieszczadach: walkipolsko-ukraihskie 1943-1948 (Warsaw, 1999); Mykola Vegesh, "Storinky istorii OUN-UPA v Zakarpatti (1929-50-ti rr.)," Carpatica/Karpatyka, VII (Uzhhorod, 2000), pp. 51-100; Jozef Kodak, "Vpad Banderovcov na vychodne Slovensko a ich d'alsia cinnost' na uzemi nasej republiky," Historica Carpatica, XXXI-XXXII (Kosice, 2001), pp. 109-126; studies by Grzegorz Motyka, Jan Pisulinski, Peter Potichnyj, and Bogdan Horbal in Paul Best and Jaroslaw Moklak, eds., The Lemko Region, 1939-1947: War, Occupation, and Deportation (Cracow and New Haven, Conn., 2002), pp. 131-182. BOGDAN HORBAL PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Ukrainian Lemko Museum/Ukrai'ns'kyi lemkivs'kyi muzei — a division of the Ukrainian Museum and Library of the Ukrainian Catholic Eparchy of Stamford, Connecticut, USA. The Ukrainian Lemko Museum was created in 1970 by the *Organization for the Defense of Lemkivshchina and was initially under the direction of Ivan Skvirtnians'kyi (archivist) and Nicholas Duplak (curator). The museum's two rooms include an exposition of Lemko traditional dress and painted Easter eggs. Also included is a collection of photographs, the archives of the Organization for the Defense of Lemkivshchina, the Lemko Library, and the archives of the *Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UFA). Along with the preservation of artifacts and archival documentation, the goal of the museum is to prove that *Lemkos are a branch of the Ukrainian nationality. BOGDAN HORBAL

Ukrainian National Association. See Rusyn National Union Ukrainian National Council of the Presov Region/ Ukrai'ns'ka narodna rada Priashivshchyny—organization to represent the Rusyn population in Slovakia during the years immediately following World War II. With the arrival of the Soviet Army and the departure of Slovak government officials, village and town councils were formed in late 1944 to administer the Rusyn-inhabited lands of eastern Slovakia. Representatives of those councils met in Presov on March 1, 1945, to form the Ukrainian National Council of the Presov Region. The goal of the council was to act as a representative organ to defend the cultural, national, and socioeconomic interests of the Rusyn population in its dealings with the new postwar government of Czechoslovakia. The council consisted of a plenary body (two representatives elected from each district where Rusyns lived) and an executive/presidium of seven members with Vasyl' *Karaman as chairman, Petro *Zhydovs'kyi as vice-chairman, and Ivan RohaF-H'kiv as general secretary. Both the plenary and executive included members of various national orientations (mostly *Russophiles and *Rusynophiles) and of several political persuasions, although *Communist party members and Communist sympathizers were in the majority. Following the lead of the Communist party of the Soviet Ukraine, which had decided in 1925 that local Rusyns were part of the Ukrainian nationality, regardless of what they might call themselves, the council adopted the name Ukrainian. Despite its name, the national council used literary Russian, not Ukrainian, in its proclamations and publications. Reflecting the long-standing requests of the local Rusyn leaders, the Ukrainian National Council proclaimed its desire for unity with *Subcarpathian Rus', which, at the time known as *Transcarpathian Ukraine, was itself calling for '^reunification" with the Soviet Ukraine. Such pro-Ukrainian political demands worried Slovakia's leaders, who instead urged the Presov Region Rusyns to remain within Czechoslovakia with full rights as a national minority. By May 1945 the Ukrainian National Council declared its intention to remain within Czechoslovakia. The council helped distribute humanitarian and medical assistance to Rusyn villages and to organize in Presov the *Ukrainian National Theater, a publishing house (Slavknyha), an office for schools (Referat ukra'ins'kykh shkil), and a youth organization (Soiuz molodi Karpat). Its official organ was the weekly newspaper *Priashevshchina (1945-51). The majority of theatrical performances and publications as well as instruction in the Presov Region's over 270 schools used the Russian language which reflected the uncertain position of the "Ukrainian" national council regarding the identity of the local Rusyn population. The council's demand to be recognized as a political body

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture to represent Rusyns in their dealings with the government was rejected by the Slovak National Council. The new Communist regime, which came to power in February 1948 and created a centralized governing structure, had no need for a body like the Ukrainian National Council, which wanted administrative authority over a specific area of the country it called the * Presov Region/Priashivshchyna. Thus the Czechoslovak government managed to convince the organization's pro-Communist general secretary, Rohal'-H'kiv, to have the Ukrainian National Council dissolve itself. The council ceased functioning in 1951, although it existed on paper until December 1952. During its propaganda campaign against the council, Czechoslovakia's Communist government accused its chairman Karaman (who was removed in 1949) and the body as a whole of being a dangerous source of anti-Soviet "Ukrainian bourgeois nationalism." This charge was unjustified, given that the council's members were either Rusynophiles and Russophiles (who rejected the very idea that Rusyns were Ukrainians) or Communists and pro-Communist sympathizers willing to toe the party line. Further reading: Ivan Vanat, Narysy novitn '01 istori'i ukraintsiv Skhidnoi Slovachchyny, Vol. II (Bratislava and Presov, 1985), esp. pp. 218-289; Vasyl' Kapishovs'kyi, "Ukra'ins'ka Narodna Rada Priashivshchyny, iT rozkvit i zanepad," in idem, Mri'i i diisnist' (Bratislava and Presov, 1988), pp. 130-152; Marian Gajdos and Stanislav Konecny, K politickemu a socialnoekonomickemu postaveniu Rusinov-Ukrajincov na Slovensku vpovojnovych rokoch (Kosice, 1991), esp. pp. 13-80; Marian Gajdos, "Pripojenie Zakarpatskej Ukrajiny k ZSSR a Ukrajinska narodna rada Prjasevsciny," in Rusini: otdzky dejin a kultiiry (Presov, 1994), pp. 105-116; Michal Barnovsky, "K otazke takzvaneho ukrajinskeho burzoazneho nacionalizmu na Slovensku," Historicky casopis, XLIV, 1 (Bratislava, 1996), pp. 6482; Ivan Vanat, ed., Materialy do istori'i Ukra'ins 'ko'iNarodno'iRady Priashivshchyny, 1945-1952 (Presov, 2001). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCS1

Ukrainian National Defense. See Carpatho-Ukraine; Rohach, Ivan

Ukrainian National Theater. See Dukhnovych Theater Ukrainian National Union. See Carpatho-Ukraine; Nova svoboda; Revai, luliian; Rosokha, Stepan; Voron, Andrii Ukrainian Publishing House. See Printing and Publishing; Roshko Ivan Ukrainians — persons within Carpatho-Rusyn society, who are either immigrants (and their descendants) from eastern Galicia and eastern Ukraine, or Rusyns (and their descendants) who have adopted a Ukrainian national identity. Traditionally,

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in *Subcarpathian Rus' and other Rusyn-inhabited regions, the ethnonym Ukrainian was not used. Moreover, Rusyn national awakeners in the nineteenth century, and even the future leader of *Carpatho-Ukraine, Avhustyn *Voloshyn (in the period before the collapse of Austria-Hungary), rejected the term Ukrainian as foreign to the Rusyn environment. The interest of Ukrainians in Rusyns living in the Hungarian Kingdom is connected with the Ukrainian national revival in eastern Galicia during the second half of the nineteenth century. The influential Ukrainian political theorist, Mykhailo *Drahomanov, on his way into exile from the Russian Empire, visited Galicia in the 1870s. There he met with younger populist *Ukrainophiles and convinced them to learn about their "Ukrainian" brethren on the southern slopes of the mountains. Among the activists who heeded Drahomanov's call were Galicia's leading belletrist, Ivan *Franko, who wrote about early Carpatho-Rusyn literature, and the ethnographer, Volodymyr *Hnatiuk, who compiled several collections of Rusyn folklore from the Carpathian region and the *Vojvodina/Bachka. Franko and Hnatiuk set a pattern for serious scholarship by other Galician Ukrainians, who were to publish studies about the geography (Stepan *Tomashivs'kyi), language (Ivan *Verkhrats'kyi), and history (luliian *Tselevych, levhenii *Perfets'kyi) of CarpathoRusyns. The tradition of scholarly interest in *Carpathian Rus' was to continue during the interwar years, through the work of Galician Ukrainians who remained at home (Filaret *Kolessa, Volodymyr *Kubiiovych, Kyrylo Studyns'kyi) as well as those who immigrated to Czechoslovakia and worked in the large Ukrainian emigre community in Prague and its environs (Oleksander *Mytsiuk, Stepan Rudnyts'kyi, Volodymyr *Sichyns'kyi, Volodymyr Zalozets'kyi-Sas). A new stage in Rusyn and Ukrainian relations began after World War I, when Ukrainian emigres from eastern or Dnieper Ukraine as well as eastern Galicia settled in Subcarpathian Rus'. By the 1930s their numbers had reached an estimated 2,500 to 3,000. For the most part, these emigres were intellectuals who in the recent past had been politically active in their own homelands and who were deeply committed to the Ukrainian idea. They were able to take advantage of the new Czechoslovak state's need for cadres to staff the restored and expanded school system in Subcarpathian Rus'; in fact, Ukrainian emigres soon came to represent a substantial portion of the province's teaching staff. Almost all of the emigre teachers, including the most distinguished among them, Ivan *Pan'kevych and Volodymyr *Birchak, were from Galicia, and they were often prolific belletrists and publicists as well (Andrii *Alys'kevych, Vasyl' *Pachovs'kyi, Mariika *Pidhirianka, Oleksii *Prykhod'ko, and Kornelii *Zaklyns'kyi). No less important was the impact of Galician Basilian monks (Hlib *Kinakh, Stepan Reshetylo, Polykarp Bulyk) on Subcarpathia's Greek Catholic religious life and the work of other Ukrainian emigres (Mykola Sadovs'kyi, Mykola

512 Arkas) who promoted professional theatrical productions. Via their work in the schools, the church, and the theater the emigres were able to instill pro-Ukrainian ideas among Rusyn youth, who had been heavily magyarized before 1918. The view that Rusyns are part of a "Greater Ukraine," actively promoted by the Ukrainian emigres, was adopted by a portion of Subcarpathian youth to compensate for the sense of inferiority imbedded in the Rusyn psyche by the educational work of pro-Hungarian (*magyarone) elements in the region. The most effective institution propagating the Ukrainian idea in the era of Czechoslovak rule was the *Prosvita Society. Students from Subcarpathian Rus' attending schools in Prague were also "transformed" into Ukrainians as a result of propaganda undertaken by the numerous Ukrainian emigre organizations in the Czechoslovak capital as well as by the semi-legal Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN). The rapid spread of the Ukrainian idea among certain segments ofRusyn youth was further enhanced by the general rise of nationalistic attitudes that took root among the European public as a whole during 1930s. And after 1925 the *Communist party, on instructions of the Comintern based in Moscow, propagated the Ukrainian idea in Subcarpathian Rus'. Despite these various efforts, even by the end of the 1930s the general environment in the province was not pro-Ukrainian. This was evident in the results of a kind of referendum carried out in 1937 by the Czechoslovak government among local parents, who were asked which language they wanted for instruction in schools. A majority of schools (73 percent) voted against having their children taught in Ukrainian. The height of Ukrainian propaganda in Subcarpathia was reached in late 1938-early 1939, during the period of autonomous Carpatho-Ukraine. The subsequent period of Hungarian rule revealed, however, that the Ukrainian idea had penetrated only a small percentage of young people. In general, Rusyn society remained indifferent to Ukrainian propaganda in 1938-1939 and, if anything, felt nostalgia for the previous era of Czechoslovak rule. A revival of the Ukrainian idea and its implementation by the state authorities was carried out by the Soviet government, which, beginning in the fall of 1944 and under the protection of the Soviet Army, was able to influence local developments in Subcarpathian Rus'. For * Stalin, the implementation of Ukrainianism in Subcarpathian Rus' served a purely practical function, that is, as camouflage. The process of annexing a foreign territory was disguised under the slogan: "the unification of all Ukrainian lands in a single Ukrainian state—Soviet Ukraine." In 1946 all Rusyns were by force recorded by the Soviet administrative organs as "Ukrainian." To strengthen further the region's "ukrainianness," the state encouraged the migration of eastern Ukrainians to Subcarpathian Rus'. Appointments to leading positions in the regional (oblast) administration, in state-owned enterprises, and in the newly established University of Uzhhorod more often than not

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture went to "Easterners". Among the university staff were several specialists from "beyond the Carpathians" (losyp *Dzendzelivs'kyi, Vasyl' *Mykytas', Illia *Shul'ha, Borys Spivak, Volodymyr Zadorozhnyi), who provided a solid if often tendentious basis for the Ukrainian interpretation of Rusyn language, literature, and history. Other "Easterners" included writers (Volodymyr Ladyzhets', Vasyl' Polishchuk, Pavlo Tsybul's'kyi, Petro Uhliarenko) who helped assure the use of the Ukrainian language in Soviet Transcarpathia's media and new postwar literary life. For the population as a whole, Ukrainian was introduced as the language of instruction, and in the population censuses and other documents there was only one category to describe the indigenous East Slavic population of the region— "Ukrainian." The statistical record of "Ukrainians" as an absolute majority in Subcarpathian Rus' thus provides no real indication of ethnic identification. Rusyns, rather than identifying themselves ethnically as Ukrainians, increasingly began to designate themselves by a territorial-regional concept as "Transcarpathians" (zakarpattsi), or "Transcarpathian Ukrainians." This situation has remained basically unchanged even after 1991, when Ukraine became an independent state. Under pressure from international organizations the Ukrainian authorities have been forced to acknowledge the existence of a "Rusyn minority" in Subcarpathian Rus', although some Rusyns continue to believe they are treated as second-class citizens and are displeased with the manner in which the Rusyn movement is discussed in Ukraine's state-run media. In contrast to Subcarpathian Rus', only a handful of Ukrainian emigres settled in the neighboring Rusyn-inhabited *Presov Region of Slovakia during the interwar decades. After 1948, however, the government organs of the new Communist regime in Czechoslovakia forcibly implemented a Ukrainian identity among the Rusyns of eastern Slovakia. Local "Ukrainians" suddenly appeared as civil servants, mostly in the educational system and in Communist party structures, as well as in cultural institutions. The majority of the local Rusyn populace voluntarily assimilated and became Slovak in response to the foreign "Ukrainian" phenomenon that had suddenly appeared in their midst. Among the *Lemkos north of the Carpathians, a Ukrainian national identity was promoted by activists from eastern Galicia, in particular by Greek Catholic priests and some teachers. This movement started in the late nineteenth century and was supported by the *Prosvita Society, although it did not make any serious inroads until the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Before then, Ukrainian activists were generally hesitant to come to work in the *Lemko Region. The few who were sent there as priests or teachers viewed their new assignment as a kind of punishment, since the Lemko Region was dominated by *Russophiles and *Old Ruthenians. At the outset of World War I, some Ukrainian activists, seeing an opportunity to destroy their political opponents,

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture cooperated with the Austrian imperial authorities in the arrest and prosecution of Lemko Russophile and Old Ruthenian leaders, who were inevitably sentenced to prison and in certain cases executed. This experience contributed to lasting enmity on the part of Lemko Russophiles and Old Ruthenians toward Ukrainian nationalists. A different approach was adopted by the Ukrainian Greek Catholic priest Panteleimon *Shpyl'ka, who served in several Lemko parishes vacated by arrested priests and at the end of the war was instrumental in the creation of the * Lemko Republic of Komancha, a Ukrainianoriented movement that helped to consolidate the inhabitants in the eastern Lemko Region against Polish rule. In was not until the late 1920s that the Ukrainian movement was able to make any noticeable advances in the Lemko Region. That was largely due to the policies of the Greek Catholic bishop of Przemysl, losafat *Kotsylovs'kyi, a Lemko Ukrainophile, who appointed Ukrainian-oriented priests to Lemko parishes that were vacated by Russophile, Old Ruthenian, or Rusynophile priests. The Ukrainian movement was also promoted by the work of Prosvita Society reading rooms, Ukrainian-oriented cooperatives, and a small group of local Lemko Ukrainophile activists, most notably luliian *Tarnovych, Petro *Smerekanych, Emilian *Konstantynovych, and luliian *Nalysnyk. Following the outbreak of World War II and the collapse of Poland in September 1939, numerous Ukrainian refugees from eastern Galicia fled the Soviet Union (which expanded westward to the San River) and settled in the Lemko Region, which became part of Nazi Germany's district called the Generalgovernement. Some received lower-level positions in the German administration; others worked in local branches of the Ukrainian Central Committee (whose head Volodymyr *Kubiiovych paid special attention to the Lemko Region); still others took up positions at parishes and schools. The refugees contributed to the development of Ukrainian education and the cooperative movement and in some cases helped to obtain from the Nazi administration better treatment for the Lemkos. On the other hand, some Ukrainians, especially those working in the local police, cooperated in the arrest of several Lemko activists who were accused of "dangerous" Russophile and therefore allegedly anti-German sympathies. As a result, several Lemkos were sent to the Auschwitz concentration camp, among them the president of the *Lemko Association/Lemko-Soiuz, Orest *Hnatyshak, who died while incarcerated. These developments only acerbated further the animosity between Ukrainians and the Russophiles, Old Ruthenians, and Rusynophiles. In post-World War II Communist Poland, the Lemkos who were forcibly resettled to the southwestern and northern parts of the country were considered by the government (following the Soviet model) to be Ukrainians. Since the Ukrainian Civic and Cultural Society with its *Lemko Section was the only organization within which Lemkos were allowed to function,

513 it is no surprise that at this time more Lemkos adopted a Ukrainian identity. It was from these fully developed postwar local Lemko-Ukrainian cadres that the *Union of Lemkos, the first independent Lemko-Ukrainian organization in Poland, was established after the collapse of Communist rule in 1989. While a percentage of Lemkos in Poland have adopted a Ukrainian identity, the majority have remained simply Lemkos or, in recent years, have identified as Lemko Rusyns. Finally, the smallest number of "Ukrainians" is found among the Bachka-Srem Rusyns in former Yugoslavia's *Vojvodina region. The weakness of the Ukrainian orientation there, limited as it is to a few intellectuals, is a result of two factors: (1) the geographic distance separating the Vojvodina from Ukraine; and (2) the fact that the Bachka Rusyns codified their own literary language and used it in their schools from the outset of the twentieth century. Because of the political split and breakdown in relations after 1948 between Stalin's Soviet Union and Tito's Yugoslavia, Vojvodina's Rusyns were not subjected to the Communist-inspired ukrainianization programs directed by Moscow that were implemented in other Rusyn-inhabited regions. Nevetheless, there has been at times a strong pro-Ukrainian current in Vojvodinian Rusyn educational, cultural, and intellectual life. Although the "father" of Vojvodinian Rusyn literature, Havrii'l *Kostel'nik, did not spend much of his life in his native region, his pro-Ukrainian orientation had a profound impact on a certain number of Vojvodinian Rusyns. Since World War II a small but effective group of local activists hes been able to implement its Ukrainophile views in the Vojvodinian Rusyn media (Diura *Latiak, Diura Varga), in civic life (Vlado *Kostelnik, Simeon Sakach), the church (Roman *Miz), and in educational and intellectual life (Mikola M. *Kochish, Mikhal *Kovach, lanko *Ramach, luliian *Tamash). Further reading: Aleksandr Khiliak, Vinovniki Talergofa v osvishchenii istoricheskikh dokumentov (Eviv, 1933); Symon Narizhnyi, Ukrains 'ka emigratsiia: kul'turna pratsia ukrains 'koi emigratsii mizh dvoma svitovymy viinamy (Prague, 1942); Myroslav Trukhan, UkraintsivPol'shchipisliadruhoisvitovoiviiny, 1944-1984 (New York, Paris, Sydney, and Toronto, 1990), esp. pp. 302-313; Oleksa V. Mysanyc, "From Subcarpathian Rusyns to Transcarpathian Ukrainians," and Mykola Musynka, "The Postwar Development of the Regional Culture of the Rusyn-Ukrainians of Czechoslovakia," in Paul Robert Magocsi, ed., The Persistence of Regional Cultures (New York, 1993), pp. 7-82; Vasyl'Markus',Politychna iderzhavnopravna evoliutsiia ukrains'koho Zakarpattia (Uzhhorod, 1993); Stepan Vanchyts'kyi, "Lemkivshchyna—samotsvit Ukrai'ny: ohliad ukrai'ns'koho suspil'noho zhyttia na Lemkivshchyni 1918-1944," Annaly Lemkivshchyny, V (Camillus, N.Y., 1993), pp. 19-45; Ann Lencyk Pawliczko, Ukraine and Ukrainians Throughout the World (Toronto, Buffalo, and London, 1994), esp. pp. 157-187; Marek M. Humecki, "Ukraihski ruch spoldzielczy na Lemkowszczyznie w latach 1939-1944," Zeszyty Naukowe Studenckiego Kola Ukrainoznawczego Uniwersytetu Wroclawskiego, No. 2 (Wroclaw, 1994), pp. 10-21;

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Jaroslaw Moklak, "Ukrainski ruch narodowy na Lemkowszczyznie w Drugiej Rzeczpospolitej: organizacje kulturalno-oswiatowe i gospodarcze," Krakowskie Zeszyty Ukrainoznawcze, III-IV (Cracow, 1994-95), pp. 335-363; Vasyl' Markus', "Mizhvoienna ukrai'ns'ka emihratsiia Chekhoslovachchyny na Zakarpatti," in Russkaia, ukrainskaia i belorusskaia emigratsiia v Chekhoslovakii mezhdu dvumia mirovymi voinami, Vol. II (Prague, 1995), pp. 843-854; Oleksandr Zaitsev, "The Lemko Problem as Seen in the Activities of Ukrainian Political Parties in the 1920s and 1930s," in Paul Best and Jaroslaw Moklak, eds., The Lemkos of Poland (Cracow and New Haven, 2000), pp. 189-196. BOGDAN HORBAL PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

newspaper that was not linked to any one political party. Ukra'ins 'ke slovo, as its name (Ukrainian Word) suggests, unequivocally promoted the Ukrainian language and national orientation among the Rusyn population. Among its more frequent contributors was the local *Ukrainophile writer Vasyl' *Grendzha-Dons'kyi and the Galician-Ukrainian emigre literary specialist Volodymyr *Birchak. Further reading: Ivan Dobosh, Istoriia ukrdins 'koi zhurnalistyky Zakarpattia 20—30-kh rokiv XX st. (Ivano-Frankivs'k, 1995), pp. 44-61; M.M. Romaniuk, ed., Periodyka Zakhidnoi Ukrainy 20—30kh rr. XXst., Vol. I (Eviv, 1998), pp. 279-282; Valentyna Barchan, "Natsional'na ideia na storinkakh hazety 'Ukrai'ns'ke slovo'," Naukovyizbirnyk Tovarystva "Prosvita, " IV [XVIII] (Uzhhorod, 2000), pp.138-144. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Ukrainophiles — persons of Rusyn ethnolinguistic background who believe that their people are a branch of the Ukrainian nationality. Ukrainophiles as well as Ukrainians beyond the Carpathian region argue that the ethnonym * Rusyn is simply an older name for the modern-day Ukrainian, and that Rusyn speech represents various dialects of the Ukrainian language. Ukrainophiles, therefore, reject the *Russophile view of a single or "common Russian" nationality that allegedly encompasses Ukrainians ("Little Russians" in the vocabulary of their antagonists). Ukrainophiles also reject the *Rusynophile view that Rusyns could or should form a distinct nationality, branding the proposition as "separatism." In an attempt to capitalize on the continual popularity of the ethnonym Rusyn, Ukrainophiles, especially after the Revolutions of 1989, whether in *Subcarpathian Rus', the *Presov Region, or the *Lemko Region, refer to the "Carpathian branch" of the Ukrainian nationality as "*Rusyns-Ukrainians" (rusynyukraintsi). In the Ukrainophile view Rusyn-Ukrainians have no need for an "artificial" literary language of their own, since Ukrainian should function as "their" language of culture and "higher" communication. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Ukrai'ns'ka narodna oborona. See Carpatho-Ukraine Ukrai'ns'ka narodna rada Priashivshchyny. See Ukrainian National Council of the Presov Region

Ukrai'ns'ka redaktsiia. See Printing and Publishing Ukrai'ns'ke natsional'ne ob"iednannia. See Carpatho-Ukraine; Nova svoboda; Revai, luliian; Roshko, Ivan Ukra'ins 'ke slovo — newspaper published twice a month in Uzhhorod (1932-38). Its founder and editor was Mykhailo *Brashchaiko, who wanted to create a Ukrainian-oriented

Ukrai'ns'ke sotsio-kul'turne tovarystvo. See Lemko Section of the Ukrainian Civic and Cultural Society Ukrai'ns'ke vydavnytstvo. See Printing and Publishing Ukra'ins 'kyi Beskyd. See Beskyd; Kotsylovs'kyi, losafat

Ukrai'ns'kyi lemkivs'kyi muzei. See Ukrainian Lemko Museum

Ukrai'ns'kyi natsional'nyi teatr (UNT). See Dukhnovych Theater Ung/Uzh — county in the northeastern part of the Hungarian Kingdom that functioned as an administrative unit from the twelfth century to 1919. It covered 3,229 sq. kilometers and bordered on *Bereg, Sobolch/Szabolcs, and *Zemplyn counties, and the Austrian province of Galicia (see Map 9). Ung's population in 1910 numbered 162,000, of whom 61,700 were Rusyns; 53,800 Magyars; 36,300 Slovaks; and 17,600 Jews. Its administrative center and largest city was Uzhhorod (Hungarian: Ungvar), and from 1322 to 1691 its lord sheriffs (Rusyn: *zhupan', Hungarian: foispdn) were all members of the *Drugeth family of magnates, who had originally arrived in Hungary from Italy in the early fourteenth century with King Charles/Karoly I (Charles Robert of Anjou, r. 13081342). Following the collapse of Austria-Hungary, the *Treaty of Trianon (1920) awarded Ung county to the new state of Czechoslovakia, with about two-thirds of its territory going to *Subcarpathian Rus' and the remaining western portion to Slovakia. According to present-day boundaries, the former territory of Ung county includes the Uzhhorod, Perechyn, and Velykyi Bereznyi districts (raiony) of Transcarpathia in Ukraine and the Sobrance and eastern half of the Michalovce districts (okresy) in Slovakia. Further reading: Michael Finciczky, "Das Unger Comitat," in Die

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osterreichisch-ungarische Monarchic in Wort und Bild: Ungarn, Vol. V, pt. 2 (Vienna, 1900), pp. 387-401; Vaclav Drahny, Zupa Uzhorodska: jeji pfirodni a zemedelske pomery (Prague, 1923); Vasylii Hadzhega, "Dodatky k ystoriy Rusynov y rus'kykh tserkvei v Uzhanskoi zhupi," Naukovyi zbornyk Tovarystva 'Prosvita', II (Uzhhorod, 1923), pp. 1-64, and III (1924), pp. 155-239; Ungvar es Ung varmegye (Budapest, 1940); George Heller, Comitatus Unghensis (Munich, 1984); Ferdinand Ulicny, Dejiny osidlenia Uzskej zupy (Presov, 1995). IVAN POP

Ung/Uzhhorod estate — a landed estate (*dominium) formed during the thirteenth century in *Ung county. In 1322 it was held in vassalage by the *Drugeth family, which soon came to be its hereditary proprietor, owning the manorial estate until the death of the last male member of the family in 1691. The size of the Uzhhorod estate varied over the years. In 1451 it included two castles (Uzhhorod and Nevyts'ke) and 25 villages; at its largest extent (1625) it included 95 villages. By the time of the last Drugeth landlord (1691), it had decreased to 48 villages, but then again expanded to 81 villages by 1779. The inheritor of the estate, Kristina Drugeth, at the urging of the Austrian Emperor Leopold I, married Count Miklos Bercsenyi, who subsequently joined the anti-*Habsburg revolt and served as minister of foreign affairs in the Transylvanian government of Ferenc II *Rak6czy. With the defeat of the rebellion (1711), Bercsenyi was forced to leave Hungary; his Ung estate was confiscated and became the property of the Habsburg state. Further reading: Frantisek Gabriel, "Selsky stav v uzhorodskem komornim panstvi na sklonku XVIII stoleti," in Sbornik Zemske musejni spolecnosti v Uzhorode (Uzhhorod, 1932), pp. 33-57; idem, "Vyvoj kolonizace drugetovskeho panstvi uzhorodskeho," Naukovyi zbornyk Tovarystva 'Prosvita', IX (Uzhhorod, 1932), pp. 135-155; idem, "Poddanske pom£ry na uzhorodskem panstvi ke konci 18 stoleti," ibid., X (1933-34), pp. 153-184. IVAN POP

Unia/Church Union — the idea and movement for union of the Orthodox with the Catholic Church of Rome. Among Rusyns and neighboring peoples it took the form of the Unia/Church Union, which involved administrative and jurisdictional subordination to the Vatican by Orthodox who nonetheless retained the Greek, or Byzantine Ruthenian rite, and their Eastern Christian practices. Those who accepted the Unia became part of the Uniate Church, whose formation was in part related to events connected with the seventeenth-century Counter Reformation, that is, the reaction of the Catholic Church to the setbacks it had experienced throughout much of Europe during the sixteenth-century Protestant Reformation.

Another motivation was the poor social and legal status of the Orthodox clergy, whose hierarchy initiated the Union movement. In contrast to the Catholic clergy, the Orthodox clergy in both Poland and Hungary had the legal status of vassals and were, like peasant-serfs, required to fulfill feudal duties. For instance, even the bishop of Mukachevo was legally dependent on the landlord of the *Mukachevo estate, and he was forced to suffer indignities imposed by the landlord's representative, the captain of the Mukachevo castle. The clergy of the Mukachevo Eparchy were in general uneducated and the faithful completely passive. The first Union took place among the Orthodox inhabitants of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which included the palatinate of Rus' (Galicia) and the *Lemko Region west of the San River. In 1596 the Union of Brest was accepted by a majority of the Orthodox hierarchy and some of the clergy. After nearly a century the Union was finally accepted by the *Orthodox Eparchy of Przemysl/Peremyshl' (1692), under whose jurisdiction lay Byzantine-rite churches in the Lemko Region. South of the mountains among the Orthodox Rusyns of Hungary the first steps toward Union were undertaken by the landlord of the *Ung/Uzhhorod estate, the magnate Gyorgy III Drugeth, who called on the assistance of the Uniate bishop of Przemysl Atanasii Krupets'kyi. The Union was to be proclaimed on Pentecost Day 1614 at the *Krasnyi Brid Monastery (present-day northeastern Slovakia). A crowd of Orthodox faithful, however, expressed their discontent and dispersed the more than 50 priests who had arrived at the monastery. A second attempt at Union came during the 1630s, when the Orthodox bishop of Mukachevo, Vasylii *Tarasovych, carried on secret talks for two years with the Roman Catholic bishop of *Eger, Gyorgy Lippay. At the last moment these plans were uncovered by an opponent of the Union, the prince of Transylvania and landlord of the *Mukachevo estate, Gyorgy I *Rakoczy, who arrested Bishop Tarasovych and released him only following repeated requests by the pope, the Habsburg emperor, and other Catholic and Orthodox hierarchs. Toward the end of his life Tarasovych returned to Orthodoxy and settled again in Mukachevo, where he was able to ensure that the Basilian monk *Parfenii Petrovych would succeed him as bishop. The experience of Tarasovych convinced Parfenii that the Union could not succeed in a land ruled by a Protestant prince, and so he turned his sights on Uzhhorod, which was under the protection of the Roman Catholic *Drugeth family. Backed by the widow of Janos Drugeth, Anna Jakusich de Orbova, and her brother, the Roman Catholic bishop of Eger, Gyorgy Jakusich, and with the support of a Basilian monk from Galicia, Havryi'l Kosovyts'kyi, Parfenii was able to convene in Uzhhorod on April 24, 1646 a meeting of 63 Orthodox priests. There Parfenii and several priests signed a document that came to be known as the Union of Uzhhorod,

516 according to which the Uniate Church in Hungary would retain its Byzantine rite and Eastern liturgical traditions; its bishops would as before be elected by a council (sobor) of Basilian monks and eparchial clergy, then confirmed by the pope in Rome; and its priests would receive all the rights and privileges accorded to Roman Catholic clergy. Initially, only Orthodox priests from *Spish, *Sharysh, *Zemplyn, and *Ung counties accepted the Union of Uzhhorod, which was confirmed by the new bishop of Eger, Benedikt Kisdi, in the spring of 1648 and publicly announced that same year (September) at a council of Hungary's Roman Catholic bishops held in Trnava. For his services on behalf of the Union, Parfenii was elected bishop of Mukachevo (1651). The Protestant, anti-*Habsburg, and anti-Catholic princes of Transylvania opposed the further spread of the Union. Only Prince Gyorgy I Rakoczy's widow, Zsofia *Bathory, supported the Uniate Bishop Parfenii. As a result of Parfenii's efforts, in 1664 the Orthodox priests and villages in *Bereg and also *Ugocha counties joined the Union. An Orthodox bishopric was able, however, to survive at the *Uhlia Monastery in *Maramorosh county until 1721, when that region finally accepted the Union. Initially, the Uniate bishops of Mukachevo were formally only vicars (auxiliary bishops), jurisdictionally subordinate to the Roman Catholic bishop of *Eger, but during the reign of Empress Maria Theresa the Eparchy of Mukachevo became self-governing (1771). It encompassed all Rusyn-inhabited lands within Hungary. At the same time, the Austrian government agreed to the request of Uniate hierarchs throughout the Habsburg Empire to change the church's designation from Uniate (which they considered a derogatory term) to Greek Catholic. It was also during Maria Theresa's reign that a Greek Catholic eparchy was created at *Krizevci in Croatia-Slavonia (1777), under whose jurisdiction recently settled Rusyn immigrants in the Backa/*Vojvodina were placed. Thereafter, the Eparchy of Mukachevo was reduced in size following the creation of the *Eparchy of Presov (1816, today within Slovakia) and the *Eparchy of Hajdudorog (1912, today within Hungary). Throughout its history, the idea of the Unia/Church Union in the form of the Greek Catholic Church and its Eastern traditions has been threatened by the Roman Catholic ecclesiastical and secular authorities in Hungary and Poland. Periodically, the Byzantine rite has been subjected to latinizing influences; the *Church Slavonic liturgical language has been challenged (the Eparchy of Hajdudorog adopted Hungarian in the early twentieth century, the Eparchy of Presov adopted Slovak in the 1990s); and there have been periodic attempts to replace the *Cyrillic with the Latin alphabet. Despite such problems, the Union has played a positive role in the history of *Carpathian Rus'. Rusyn priests were exposed to the culture of western Europe; they were able to study in seminaries and universities in the Habsburg Monarchy and Italy; and as a result they developed an educational system embued with the principles

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture of enlightened absolutism. All this provided the basis for the development of a clerical and secular Rusyn intelligentsia. In the second half of the nineteenth century economic and other motivations prompted the Greek Catholic hierarchy to become an instrument of the Hungarian Kingdom's state policy of magyarization and national assimilation. As a result, a counter-reactive movement among Rusyns, which called for a "return to Orthodoxy," began slowly in the late 1890s and reached a high point in the 1920s throughout all parts of Carpathian Rus'. Nevertheless, the Greek Catholic Church managed to retain its dominant position, especially among Rusyns in *Subcarpathian Rus' and the *Presov Region, until the arrival of Soviet forces in 1944 and the imposition of Communist rule throughout the region. The Union was brought to the United States by Rusyn immigrants from both Galicia and the Hungarian Kingdom during three decades preceding the outbreak of the World War I in 1914. The religion of Greek Catholic immigrants was not greeted favorably by American Roman Catholic bishops and clergy, and under pressure from Rome many traditional Eastern practices had to be abandoned, especially the possibility for married men to be ordained to the priesthood (1929). Roman Catholic criticism directed against the Byzantine rite and Eastern practices caused great controversy and resulted in extensive "return-to-Orthodoxy" movements among Rusyn-American Greek Catholics, particularly after 1891 and again after 1929. The low point for the Church Union in Europe was connected with the annexation of Subcarpathian Rus' by the Soviet Union (1945) and the imposition of Communist regimes in neighboring Poland (1945) and Czechoslovakia (1948). Only in Hungary (Eparchy of Hajdudorog) and Yugoslavia (Eparchy of Krizevci) was the Greek Catholic Church allowed to function legally. By contrast, it was dissolved in Poland following the deportation of the Lemko-Rusyn population between 1945 and 1947. In Soviet Transcarpathia the Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo was abolished by decree in 1949. Although the hierarchy was arrested or killed, the Union managed to survive in the form of the "Underground Church" throughout the nearly half-century of Soviet rule. In neighboring Slovakia, the Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov was abolished at the behest of Czechoslovakia's Communist authorities at the so-called Council/Sobor of Presov (1950), although it was allowed to function again as a result of political liberalization during the Prague Spring of 1968. The Eparchy of Presov was finally restored to full legal status in 1990 following the collapse of Communist rule. In Soviet Transcarpathia, Greek Catholic Church leaders "emerged from the underground" in the late 1980s and the Eparchy of Mukachevo was legally restored in 1989. At present, it has 209 parishes. Meanwhile, in Poland, the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church was gradually restored between 1981 and 1989; it administers parishes in the Lemko Region as well

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture as among Lemkos living in western (Silesia) and northern (Pomerania) Poland. The Church is generally pro-Ukrainian in orientation. The original, mother Eparchy of Mukachevo, its daughter eparchies of Presov, Hajdudorog, and the Byzantine Ruthenian Metropolia of Pittsburgh (with four eparchies in the United States) are all under the jurisdiction of the Apostolic See of Rome. This status has at times been challenged by Ukrainian Church and nationally-minded lay activists in both Europe and the United States. For instance, in the early 1990s proUkrainian spokespersons in Transcarpathia called for the Eparchy of Mukachevo to be placed under the jurisdiction of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Metropolia of Galicia, whose seat is in Eviv. A few priests of the Mukachevo Eparchy, led by Bishop Ivan Margitych of Khust, tried to replace Church Slavonic with Ukrainian in the liturgy and even called on parishes to break away from the Mukachevo Eparchy and place themselves under the Eviv Metropolia. Such moves were opposed by the Vatican authorities who, in 1992, upheld the distinct jurisdictional status of the Eparchy of Mukachevo which remains under the direct authority of Rome. Further reading: Julian Pelesz, Geschichte der Union der ruthenischen Kirche mil Rom von den aeltesten Zeiten bis auf die Gegenwart, 2 vols. (Wiirzburg and Vienna, 1878-81); Michael Lacko, "The Forced Liquidation of the Union of Uzhorod," Slovak Studies, I (Rome, 1961), pp. 145-185; Vasyl'Markus',"Nyshchennia Hreko-katolyts'koT tserkvy v Mukachivs'kii ieparkhii v 1945-1950 rr.," Zbirnyk na poshanu Zenona Kuzeli/Zapysky Naukovoho tovarystva im. Shevchenka, CLXIX (Paris, New York, Munich, Toronto, and Sydney, 1952), pp. 385-405; Alexander Baran, Eparchia Maramorosiensis eiusque Unia (Rome, 1962); Basil Boysak, The Fate of the Holy Union in Carpatho-Ukraine (Toronto and New York, 1963); Michael Lacko, The Union of Uzhorod (Cleveland and Rome, 1966); Atanasii Pekar, Narysy z istoriitserkvy Zakarpattia, 2 vols. (Rome 1967-97)—English ed. of Vol. 1: Athanasius B. Pekar, History of the Church in Carpathian Rus' (New York, 1992); Michael Lacko, "The Re-Establishment of the Greek Catholic Church in Czechoslovakia," Slovak Studies, XI (Cleveland and Rome, 1976), pp. 159-189; Atanasii V. Pekar, Ispovidnyky viry nasho'isuchasnosty (Toronto and Rome, 1982); Istvan Pirigyi, A magyarorszagi gorogkatolikusok tortenete, 2 vols. (Nyiregyhaza, 1990); Ernst C. Suttner, Church Unity: Union or Uniatism? Catholic-Orthodox Ecumenical Perspectives (Rome and Kerala, India, 1991); Paul Robert Magocsi, "Religion and Identity in the Carpathians," in Boris Gasparov and Olga Raevsky-Hughes, eds., Christianity and the Eastern Slavs, Vol. I (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and Oxford, 1993), pp. 116-138; Michal Fedor, Z dejin greckokatolickej cirkvi v Ceskoslovensku, 1945-mdj 1950 (Kosice, 1993); Ivan Myhovych, Relihiia i tserkvy v nashomu kraiu (Uzhhorod, 1993); Stanislaw St?pien, "Represje wobec kosciola greckokatolickiego w Europie srodkowo-wschodniej po II Wojnie Swiatowej," in Polska-Ukraina WOO lat sqsiedztwa, Vol. II (Przemysl, 1994), pp. 195-262; Daniyl Bendas et al., eds., Ternysta doroha do iednosti: do 350 richchia Uzhhorods 'ko'i Uni'i

(Uzhhorod, 1995); Ivan Hranchak, ed., Uzhhorods 'kii Unii—350 rokiv (Uzhhorod, 1997); Paul Robert Magocsi, "Rusyn Catholics in America," in Michael Glazier and Thomas J. Shelley, eds., The Encyclopedia of American Catholic History (Collegeville, Minn., 1997), pp. 1221-1224; Walerian Bugel, W obawie o wlasna tozsamosc: eklezjologia Unii Uzhorodzkiej (Lublin, 2000). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Uniates/Uniatism. See Unia/Church Union Unio Publishing Company — printshop and publishing house in Subcarpathian Rus'. When the *St. Basil the Great Society was dissolved in 1902, members of its executive decided to continue its work as a publisher and that same year they formed the Unio Book Publishing Shareholding Company/Knyhopechatnoe aktsiinoe obshchestvo Uniia. Its primary goal was the publication and distribution of prayerbooks, school textbooks, and other materials "to promote the religious, moral and patriotic values of the Greek Catholic people of Hungary." Unio was housed at the Greek Catholic Seminary in the Uzhhorod castle and headed by the priests Viktor *Kamins'kyi (1902-1918) and Avhustyn * Voloshyn (1919-1929). The company continued to publish the Hungarian-language weekly newspaper, *Gorog katholikus szemle, and the Rusynlanguage weekly newspaper, *Nauka, as well as several catechisms, other religious books, and school texts. Among its most popular Rusyn publications was the primer (Bukvar') by MykhaTl * Vrabel'; several editions of readers and grammars by Avhustyn Voloshyn; the collection of *Carpathian plainchant (Tserkovnoe prostopiniie) by loann *Bokshai; Emilij *Kubek's multilingual dictionary; and the annual almanac (Misiatsoslovl*Kalendar') compiled by Avhustyn Voloshyn which, beginning in 1907, was published in 10,000 copies. Until the end of World War I Unio was the only "Rusyn" institution in the Hungarian Kingdom. The company continued to exist formally until the end of the Czechoslovak regime in 1938, although it had gradually decreased its activity, ceasing publication ofNauka in late 1921 and the annual almanac in 1932, and liquidating its shareholdings in 1929. Further reading: "Osnovanie aktsionernaho Obshchestva 'Uniia'," Misiatsoslov na 1903 hod (Uzhhorod, 1902), pp. 65-68; Avhustyn Voloshyn, Spomyny (Uzhhorod, 1923), pp. 1-11; losifV. Kaminskii, Dodatki k istorii O-va Vasiliia Velikago v 1895-1902 godakh (Uzhhorod, 1937), esp. pp. 29-44. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Union of Brest. See Basilian Order; Greek Catholic Eparchy of Przemysl; Unia/Church Union Union of Carpathian Youth. See Stavrovs'kyi, Emilian

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Union of Carpatho-Russian Americans. See Hatalak, Peter D.

Union of Greek Catholic Youth. See Rosokha, Stepan Union of Hungarian Greek Catholics. See

Federation. The Union of Lemkos in Poland actively campaigns for the return of Lemko property confiscated during the * Vistula Operation (1947), and it frequently issues demagogic protests to the Polish government as well as to scholarly and educational institutions criticizing "political Rusynism" and what it considers the "anti-scientific" view that Lemkos are a branch of a distinct Carpatho-Rusyn nationality.

Sabov, Oreszt

BOGDAN HORBAL

Union of Lemkos in Canada/Ob"iednannia Lemkiv Kanady — organization of Ukrainian-oriented Lemkos and other Ukrainian-Canadian sympathizers based in Toronto, Ontario. The organization traces its origins to 1961, when it was the Toronto branch of the American-based *Organization for the Defense of Lemko Western Ukraine. In 1973 it became an independent organization under the name, Union of Lemkos in Canada, and from about that time it has operated a 200-acre corporate residence property in Benting Township (170 miles north of Toronto). The main activities of the Union of Lemkos include lectures, concerts, and annual public demonstrations recalling the forced deportation of Lemkos during the *Vistula Operation (1947). Notable in this regard was a large demonstration in front of the Polish Consulate in Toronto (1982). During the last decade of Soviet rule in Ukraine (1980s) the organization also lobbied the Canadian government to intervene on behalf of the imprisoned Ukrainian dissident of Lemko background, Mykola *Horbal'. The Union of Lemkos in Canada supports the view that Lemkos are a branch of Ukrainians, and in recent years it has spoken out critically against the Rusyn national revival in North America and in the European homeland. To promote its position the Union has published the Ukrainian-language newspaper Lemkivs'ki visti (1976-79), the annual almanac Lemkivs 'kyi kalendar (1965-73), and reprints of popular books on Lemko culture and history by luliian *Tarnovych, in whose honor it recently named a small Lemko museum in Toronto. BOGDAN HORBAL

Union of Lemkos in Poland/Ob"iednannia Lemkiv v Pol'shchi — organization of Ukrainian-oriented Lemkos established in 1990. Based in Gorlice, Poland, the Union of Lemkos had, by 1993,485 members in 29 branches. In 1990 it managed to take over the "homeland" *Vatra Festival held annually in the *Lemko Region, and it publishes in Ukrainian the quarterly magazine Vatra (1993-), originally under the editorship of Mykhailo Koval's'kyi. The organization considers Lemkos a branch of Ukrainians and welcomes cooperation with other Ukrainian organizations in Poland and abroad. It receives financial support from the American-based *Organization for the Defense of Lemko Western Ukraine and from the *Union of Lemkos in Canada, and together with those groups it belongs to the Ukrainian-oriented *World Lemkos

Union of Russian Jurists. See Machik, Konstantyn Union ofRusyn Publishers in Subcarpathian Rus'. See Printing and Publishing

Union ofRusyn Teachers in Slovakia. See P"ieshchak, Ivan

Union of Rusyn-Ukrainians in Slovakia/Soiuz Rusyniv-Ukra'intsiv Slovachchyny (SRUS) — civic and cultural organization based in Presov, Slovakia. The Union of Rusyn-Ukrainians in Slovakia (SRUS) is a successor to the *Cultural Union of Ukrainian Workers (KSUT). In the post1989 political situation SRUS has dropped all association with the Czechoslovak *Communist party, to which KSUT had previously been subordinate. SRUS came into being in early 1990, when pro-Rusyn elements left to form the rival *Rusyn Renaissance Society. By 1999 SRUS claimed to have over 5,500 members in 144 branches throughout eastern Slovakia. By adopting the designation "*Rusyn-Ukrainian," SRUS argues that it represents one nationality in Slovakia, whose members may call themselves either Rusyn or Ukrainian. Regardless of which name is used, SRUS is convinced that Rusyns are part of the Ukrainian nationality. The organization continues to publish the Ukrainian-language bi-weekly newspaper, *Nove zhyttia; to sponsor the annual *Svidnik Folk Festival, and to issue periodically brochures by authors like lurii *Bacha, Stepan *Hostyniak, Mykola *Mushynka, Mykola *Shtets', and Ivan *Vanat, who argue that the idea of a distinct Rusyn nationality is an act of separation and a political provocation. Further reading: Slavka Hadusovska, "Rusinska a ukrajinska mensina v procesoch spolocenskej transformacie," in Alena Zel'ova, ed., Minoritne etnicke spolocenstvd na Slovensku v procesoch spolocenskych premien (Bratislava, 1994), pp. 108-123. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Union ofRusyn Women in the Presov Region. See Nevyts'ka, Iryna Union of Rusyn Youth in Slovakia. See P"ieshchak, Ivan

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Union of Rusyns and Ukrainians in Croatia/Soiuz Rusinokh i Ukrai'ntsokh Horvatskei — cultural and popular educational organization in Croatia. The Union of Rusyns and Ukrainians was established in 1968 in the town of Vukovar at a time when Croatia was a federal republic within Yugoslavia. It was founded by Vlado *Kostelnik and other activists who believed that the Rusyns of the *Vojvodina and Srem regions were part of the Ukrainian nationality, and who found the existing Rusyn organizations based in the Vojvodina unattractive because they allegedly followed an anti-Ukrainian, "Rusyn separatist" orientation. The organization was initially called the Union of Rusyn-Ukrainians, but given the strong sense ofRusyn identity among descendants of immigrants from south of the Carpathians, it decided after 1973 to use the two names separately in an effort to address the interests of both Rusyns in the Vojvodina-Srem regions and Ukrainians (i.e., pro-Ukrainian Rusyns as well as the descendants of immigrants from Galicia living mostly in northern Bosnia). Despite its pro-Ukrainian national orientation, the Union of Rusyns and Ukrainians promoted the opening of Rusynlanguage schools in the Srem region of eastern Croatia and summer programs for children to learn Rusyn and Ukrainian history and folklore. The union also has published over 120 issues of a popular educational and cultural magazine, *Nova dumka (1971- ), and several issues of an almanac, Dumki z Dunaiu (1989-), both edited until the early 1990s by Vlado Kostelnik. In 1992 the union's administrative and editorial offices in Vukovar were destroyed during the war between Yugoslavia (Serbia) and Croatia. For the next several years the organization was based in Zagreb, where its publication and cultural activity was greatly reduced. Its headquarters have recently been returned to Vukovar. Further reading: Vlado Kostelnik, ed., Nova dumka: pozacherhovyi vypusk prysv "iachenyi 20-littiu Soiuzu Rusyniv i Ukraintsiv Khorvatii/Okremne chisloposhvetsene 20-rochriitsi Soiuzu Rusinokh i Ukraintsokh Horvatskei, XVII [No. 66] (Vukovar, 1988); Vlado Kostelnik, "Dvatsets roki Soiuzu Rusinokh i Ukrai'ntsokh Horvatskei," in Dumki z Dunaiu, Vol. II (Vukovar, 1989), pp. 21-37. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Union of Rusyns and Ukrainians in Serbia and Montenegro/Soiuz Rusnatsokh i Ukraintsokh Serbi'i i Chornei Hori — civic organization for Vojvodinian Rusyns in former Yugoslavia, now Serbia and Montenegro. The Union of Rusyns and Ukrainians was founded in 1990 in Novi Sad on the eve of the disintegration of Yugoslavia. It was intended to counteract the activity of the *Ruske Slovo Publishing House and the recently re-established *Rusyn Cultural Foundation/Ruska matka, which after the Revolution of 1989 welcomed the Rusyn national revival in the Carpathian

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homeland and the view that Rusyns form a distinct nationality. Initially under the leadership of luliian *Tamash, the Union of Rusyns and Ukrainians argues that the Vojvodinian Rusyns are a branch of the Ukrainian nationality. The organization has assisted Rusyn students from former Yugoslavia to attend universities in Ukraine and has published irregularly a journal in Serbian, Vojvodinian Rusyn, and Ukrainian, Glas/Holos Soiuzu (\991-). Further reading: Simeon Sakach, "Di'ialnosts Soiuzu Rusnatsokh i Ukraintsokh luhoslaviT," in Ruski kalendar 1992 (Novi Sad, 1991), pp. 197-203; lanko Ramach, "Soiuz Rusnatsokh i Ukrai'ntsokh od snovania po nieshka," Glas/Holos Soiuzu, No. 4 (Novi Sad, 2001), pp. 2-6. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Union of Subcarpathian Journalists. See Kamins'kyi, losyf Union of Subcarpathian Rusyn Students/Soiuz pidkarpats'kykh rus'kykh studentiv— organization ofRusyn university students of Ukrainian national orientation in Prague. This organization traces its roots to 1920, when students who disagreed with the *Russophile orientation of the newly founded *Renaissance Carpatho-Russian Student Society established the Aid Society for Subcarpathian Students/Kruzhok sotsial'noi pomoshchy podkarpatskykh studentov. Two years later this group renamed itself the Union of Subcarpathian Rusyn Students, whose basic goal was to assist poor students from Subcarpathian Rus' studying in Czechoslovakia's capital, Prague. The organization also set up an economic and employment section (1929) to provide educational programs for workers from Subcarpathian Rus' in Prague. The union was from the beginning concerned with promoting the Ukrainian national orientation among its members, and toward this end it established in 1921 a theatrical troupe and a male choir called Verkhovyna, both of which performed frequently in Prague and in Subcarpathian Rus'. It also established a branch in Bratislava (1930). Among the organization's most active members were Adalbert Balazh, Mykola Bandusiak, Mykola *Lelekach, Stepan *Rosokha, and lurii Shpyl'ka. Further reading: luvyleinyi al'manakh Soiuzu pidkarpats 'kykh rus'kykh studentiv u Prazi (Prague, 1931); Mykhailo Delehan, "Hromads'ka diial'nist' pidkarpats'kykh studentiv u vuzakh Chekhoslovats'ko! respublyky," Karpats'kyi krai, IX, 1-3 [119] (Uzhhorod, 1999), pp. 66-68. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Union of Uzhhorod. See Basilian Order; Unia/Church Union

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Union of Working Peasants. See Holos zhyttia United Russian Orthodox Brotherhood of America/So] edinenije russkich pravoslavnych bratstv v Ameriki—fraternal society for Rusyn-Americans of the Orthodox faith. Established on July 18, 1915 in Monessen, a steel town in western Pennsylvania, the organization was originally known as the Greek Catholic Pravoslavny Brotherhood/Greko-kaftoliceskoje russkoje pravoslavnoje sojedinenije. In 1924 it was renamed the United Russian Orthodox Brotherhood of America—UROBA. The brotherhood was founded by parishioners who left the Greek Catholic parish in Monessen in protest against the Vatican's 1908 *Ea Semper decree, which placed restrictions on certain traditional Eastern Christian church practices. The main purpose of the UROBA was to provide insurance to its members and to preserve what it considered "Russian" traditions and culture among its members, most of whom were Carpatho-Rusyn immigrants from the *Presov Region and *Subcarpathian Rus'. Throughout its existence the UROBA was affiliated with the *Russian Orthodox Church in North America (the Metropolia). The *Russophile position regarding the nationality and culture of Carpatho-Rusyns was promoted most forcefully by Nicholas Pachuta, the long-time editor (1922-1935) of the brotherhood's newspaper, Russkii vistnik/Russian Messenger (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1917-7? ), which later was known as the UROBA Messenger, then the OSA Messenger. UROBAs newspapers and its annual almanac (Russkii pravoslavnyi miesiatsoslov/Russkij pravoslavnyj kalendar) were until the 1950s published in Russian (Cyrillic alphabet) and in Rusyn (Roman alphabet). The UROBA had lodges for men, women, and youth first in western Pennsylvania, then in other Orthodox Rusyn communities in Ohio, Michigan, eastern Pennsylvania, and Connecticut. Over the years it absorbed other fraternals, such as the American Russian Brotherhood and Cleveland Societies of Russian Orthodox Brotherhoods and grew to nearly 20,000 members on the eve of World War II. By the last decade of the twentieth century, however, UROBAs membership dropped to about 2,000, and to avoid further decline it merged in 1992 with the *Liberty Association based in New Jersey to form the Orthodox Society of America. This new organization, which transferred its headquarters to Lakewood, Ohio, was to last for only a decade and was to lose its distinct Orthodox character after merging in 2003 with the Loyal Christian Benefit Association. Among UROBA's longest serving presidents were Peter Ratica (1926-1946) and Paul P. Ratica (1954-1978). Further reading: Peter Ratica, "Korotka istorija Sojedinenija russkich pravoslavnych bratstv v Ameriki, 1916-1941," in lubileinyi kalendar' na 1941 god/Jubilee Almanac of the United Russian Orthodox Brotherhood of America (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1941), pp. 37-44;

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture United Russian Orthodox Brotherhood of America: Seventy-Fifth Anniversary Diamond Jubilee Celebration (Pittsburgh, Pa., 1990). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI JOHN RJGHETTI

United Societies of Greek Catholic Religion of the USA/Sobranije greko-katholiceskich cerkovnych bratstv — fraternal society for Greek/Byzantine Catholic Rusyns. The United Societies developed among Rusyn communities in the United States dissatisfied with the *Greek Catholic Union fraternal society, either because of its alleged financial mismanagement or because of its frequent criticism of the hierarchy leading the American Greek Catholic Church. Initiated in McKeesport, Pennsylvannia, in 1903, and expanded to other parts of the United States after 1909, the main purposes of the United Societies were: (1) to promote religion, schools, and choirs, and "thereby insure the future of the Greek Catholic faith and the Rusyn nationality"; and (2) to provide insurance benefits for its sick or disabled members and their families. Throughout its history the United Societies supported the policies of the reigning Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic bishops, including the implementation of Vatican decrees that seemed to undermine the church's Eastern traditions. Its message was delivered to members through the weekly and later monthly newspaper Prosvita/The Enlightenment (1917-2000) and its annual almanacs, Kalendar•'Prosvity'/Kalendar' "Sobranije" (1918-38). The organization reached its height in 1928, when it claimed over 20,000 members. Among its presidents have been Andrew Dobosh (1923-1937) and John Zupko (19431962); spiritual advisors who have determined ideological matters have included the priests Valentine *Gorzo (19091922, 1936-1942) and Alexander Papp (1923-1935). In the year 2000, the United Societies ceased to exist as an independent organization when it merged with its one-time rival, the Greek Catholic Union. Further reading: Aleksander Papp, "Korotkij perehl'ad istorii Sobranija Greko Kath. Cerkovnych Bratstv," in Kalendar'Prosvity 1929 (Mc-Keesport, Pa., 1928), pp. 136-152; Basil Shereghy, The United Societies of the U.S.A.: A Historical Album (McKeesport, Pa., 1978). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

University departments/katedry. Since the rise of national movements in the nineteenth century, the educational system has become an effective means of preserving and promoting the cultures, languages, and national identities of peoples who do not have their own state. National activists among stateless peoples have been particular anxious to establish one or more departments (katedry) at the university level. The first Department ofRusyn Language and Literature

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture was established at the University of Eviv in December 1848. Headed by the philologist lakiv *Holovats'kyi, the department taught courses to students and seminarians from all parts of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, although most were from the province of Galicia. After Holovats'kyi left Galicia in 1867, the Eviv University department adopted a Ukrainian national orientation and until its closure in 1939 was concerned with issues dealing with Ukraine as a whole. The first university department to focus specifically on Rusyns living south of the Carpathians was established in 1919 at the University of Budapest. The Department ofRusyn Language was headed by the linguist from Subcarpathian Rus', Aleksander *Bonkalo, who taught courses about the Rusyn language and culture and published a few Rusyn textbooks. The creation of the department reflected the government's expectation that Hungary would continue to rule Rusyns, but in the same year (1919) its Rusyn-inhabited lands were annexed to the new state of Czechoslovakia, a loss which was confirmed by the *Treaty of Trianon one year later. The Hungarian government then lost interest in supporting the University of Budapest's Rusyn Department, which ceased operating in 1924. Throughout the interwar decades there was talk of creating a university in Czechoslovak-ruled Subcarpathian Rus', but none of the plans was ever realized. After the region was annexed to the Soviet Union, Uzhhorod State University was established in 1945. Soviet nationality policy determined, however, that no university department devoted to Rusyn subjects could be established, since those subjects would be subsumed within the framework of Ukrainian studies. Thus it was only outside of Ukraine that Rusyn subjects might be taught at the university level. At the University of Novi Sad in Yugoslavia, a lectureship (lektorat) was established in 1972. A decade later (1982) it was transformed into a full-fledged Department of Rusyn Language and Literature/Katedra za ruski iazik i literaturu. The Rusyn Chair at Novi Sad has been active in teaching and publishing, but it has concentrated almost exclusively on the language and culture of the small Rusyn community living in Yugoslavia's Vojvodina. In 1992 the Bessenyei School of Higher Education in Nyiregyhaza, Hungary, established a Department of Ukrainian and Rusyn Philology/ Katedra ukrai'ns'koi i rusyns'koi filologii. The Nyiregyhaza Department has so far focused its pedagogical work on the Ukrainian language and Ukrainian literature, although its publishing program deals primarily with Rusyn topics: language, history, and ethnography. Other Rusyn university-level institutions have been created in Slovakia and Poland. Although Rusyn community activists in Slovakia failed to achieve the creation of a Rusyn university department (katedrd), which they had been calling for throughout the 1990s, a Rusyn Division/Rusyn'ske oddilinia was established in 1999 within the University of Presov's

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Institute for Nationality Studies and Foreign Languages. The Rusyn Division at Presov University is responsible for training elementary school teachers and for directing research projects in all aspects of Rusyn language and culture. With similar goals in mind, a Division for the Lemko-Rusyn Language within the framework of the Institute of Russian Philology (Kierunek filologia rosyjska z j?zykiem rusinskolemkowskim/Rosyiska filolohiia z lemkivsko-rusyn'skym iazykom) was established in 2001 at the Advanced School of Education/Akademia Pedagogiczna in Cracow. Since its establishment in 1945, the University of Uzhhorod in Ukraine has several departments dealing with various periods of history and with Ukrainian language and literature, which have taught courses and sponsored research projects related to Transcarpathia (historic Subcarpathain Rus'). The province and its Carpatho-Rusyn inhabitants are treated, however, only as a regional component of Ukrainian history, language, and culture. In 1991, the university established an Institute for Carpathian Studies/Naukovo-doslidnyi instytut karpatoznavstva, with the specific goal to provide a better understanding of the region's history and culture and to rehabilitate those aspects of the past deliberately avoided during Soviet rule. Under the first three directors, Ivan *Pop, Mykola *Makara, and *Mykola *Vegesh, the institute and its publications, in particular the scholarly journal *Carpatica/ Karpatyka, have included materials that adopt both the Ukrainian and Rusyn perspective on the region's past. Further reading: Paul R. Magocsi, National Cultures and University Chairs (Toronto, 1980); Istvan Udvari, "Adatok a hazai ukrainisztika tortenetehez," Acta Academiae Paedagogicae Nyiregyhdziensis, XIII/C (Nyiregyhaza, 1992), pp. 267-296; T. Bezeha, "NDI karpatoznavstva: napriamky diial'nosti ta naukovi zdobutky: do 10-richchia Instytutu [karpatoznavsta]," Carpatica-Karpatyka, XXII (Uzhhorod, 2003), pp. 305-339; Mihaly Kapraly, Christian Pischloger, and Andrea Abonyi, Ukran es ruzsinfilologiai tanszek: kiadvdnyok, 19932003/Kafedra ukrainskoi i rusinskoifilologii: publikatsii, 1993-2003 (Nyiregyhaza, 2003). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

University of Uzhhorod. See Uzhhorod State/National University UPA. See Ukrainian Insurgent Army Upper Tisza/Tysa Region. See Archeological

settlements; Art Uram, John. See Pravda/The Truth Urban, Kazimierz. See Historiography: Lemko Region

Urbar (from the Latin urbarium, meaning profit, income, harvest; and from the German urbar, meaning arable, culti-

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522 vable) — a document with an annual inventory of cultivated lands belonging to a manorial estate (*dominium, latifundium) as well as a register of dues-in-kind owed by the peasant-serfs to their feudal landlords. After the collapse of Hungary in 1526 Hungarian magnates and gentry periodically "revised" the urbar so that the number of dues owed them by the peasants would increase. In an effort to restrict this practice, Empress Maria Theresa (r. 1740-1780) began a radical reform resulting in the publication in 1767 of a wide-range regulatory decree (see Urbarial reforms). IVAN POP

Urbarial Commune/UrbariaFna obshchyna — a village commune with collective responsibility for the property under its control. Urbarial property (urbarial'na vlasnist') consisted of arable fields, pastures, meadows, and forests. The village communes were created during Empress Maria Theresa's *urbarial reforms of 1766-1780 and legally they continued to exist in *Subcarpathian Rus' and the *Presov Region until 1945. IVAN POP

Urbarial reforms — a series of reforms introduced throughout the Hungarian Kingdom, including Rusyn-inhabited areas, between 1766 and 1780, during the reign of Empress Maria Theresa. The reforms were intended to establish norms for the feudal relations between landlords and serfs. The heart of the reforms consisted of three demands on the part of the government vis-a-vis landlords: the number of serfs' obligations was to be fixed and unchangeable; the confiscation of peasant land was to be forbidden, or at least restricted; and economic conditions were to be improved so that peasants could pay their state taxes. The reforms we're not implemented simultaneously throughout the entire Austrian monarchy nor even in Rusyn-inhabited regions. For instance, the reforms took effect in *Spish county on May 2, 1768; in *Sharysh on August 19, 1772; in *Maramorosh county on September 30, 1772; in *Ung on May 1,1773; in *Ugocha on April 25,1774; in *Bereg on August 2, 1774; and in *Zemplyn in 1778. Maria Theresa's Urbarium (Regulatio urbarialis), issued on January 23, 1767, defined the size of a peasant plot (dilets 'I *telek), which varied in different parts of the Austrian Empire, depending on the quality of the soil. Gardens alongside a peasant homestead were fixed at a uniform size (2 Poszony miles or 1 hold). The size of the peasant plot was also fixed and protected by the state. The Urbarium decree did, however, permit the landlord to divide a plot or to allow only a portion of it (one-half, one-quarter, one-eighth, sometimes even less) to be farmed. This exception eventually led to abuses. A peasant who held one-eighth or more of a plot (telek) was classified in the Urbarium as a serf with land; a peasant who had less

than one-eighth of a plot or no land at all was classified as a tenant (zselar/zheliar). The land—including in some cases forests and meadows—that made up the peasant plots were taken from the feudal landed estate. For the right to use this land, the Urbarium required that the peasant fulfill various obligations toward the landlord. The primary obligation consisted of one day a week of labor (robot/corvee) with draft animals. If a peasant had fewer than four oxen, he could join together with a neighbor and work the equivalent of two days per week. If he had no draft animals, he was required to work himself two days a week. These regulations were fixed by the Urbarium on an annual basis as 52 days' labor with draft animals or 104 days without draft animals. The landlord was also given the right to require "lazy" peasants to work even more. As well, the Urbarium provided for other peasant obligations, such as the transport of wood and other materials belonging to the landlord, cutting and supplying the landlord's residence with firewood, and three days of hunting for the landlord in the forests. Of great advantage to the peasants was the fact that after completing their obligations the Urbarium guaranteed them the right to dispose of the rest of their time at will, including the possibility of other employment. The Urbarium also allowed peasants to transform their obligations into monetary payments based on a mutually agreeable contract with the lord. Finally, the village commune became an *urbarial commune, that is, it came under the complete control of the feudal landlord. The Urbarium was published by the Austrian imperial government in several languages, including Rusyn vernacular (Oubarium). Hence, it is considered an early monument of the Rusyn literary language. The linguistic characteristics of the Our barium itself and the peasant inquiries it inspired have been analyzed in some detail by Aleksei L. *Petrov, Laszlo *Dezso, and Istvan *Udvari. Further reading: A.L. Petrov, Pervyipechatnyipamiatnik ugrorusskago nariechiia: Urbar i inye sviazannye s krest'ianskoi Marii Terezy reformat dokumenty (St. Petersburg, 1908); Frantishek Gabriel, "Materialy k istorii kriepostnichestva na Podkarpatskoi Rusi," in Nauchnyi sbornik v pamiat'Evmeniia Ivanovycha Sabova (Uzhhorod, 1935), pp. 46-56; I.H. ShulTia, "Stanovyshche selian Zakarpats'koT Ukrai'ny v 70-80-kh rr. XVIII St.," Naukovizapysky Uzhhorods 'koho derzhavnoho universytetu, XXXVI (Uzhhorod, 1958), pp. 3-18; Kamill Neupauer, Maria Terezia urberrendezese Bereg, Mdramaros, Ung es Ugocsa megyeben (Budapest, 1989); Laslo Dezhe, Delovaia pis 'mennost' rusinov v XVII-XVIH vekakh: slovar', analiz, teksty (Nyireghaza, 1996); Istvan Udvari, Rusyns'ka zherela urbars'koi reformi Marii Teryzii (Nyiregyhaza, 1999). IVAN POP

Uriadovyi visnyk. See Grendzha-Dons'kyi, Vasyl' Urich, Robert. See Cinema

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture UROBA. See United Russian Orthodox Brotherhood of America Usenko, VasyF V. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region Ustych, Serhii. See Communism Uzh. See Ung

Uzhhorod Choral Circle. See Bokshai, loann Uzhhorod Civil District. See Rusyn District Uzhhorod Estate. See Ung/Uzhhorod Estate Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College/Uzhhorodska hreko-katolyts'ka pivtso-uchytel'ska semynariia—institution established in Uzhhorod in 1794 to train teachers for service in the Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo. Its first director was Dymytrii Popovych. The academic year lasted for five months, in either the winter or the summer months. Under the director Gyula Kricsfalusi, beginning in 1808, the study program was extended to two semesters. After 1831 the college was administered by the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo. The program was extended to ten months, and from 1834 to 1844 it included two classes. Among its directors were the renowned Subcarpathian historian and linguist Mykhail *Luchkai (1835-1839) and loann *Churhovych (1839-1862); during the latter's tenure the college became a separate corporate entity. Beginning with the 1843-1844 school year the college operated a two-year academic program. The administrative language used by the Uzhhorod Teachers' College (Hungarian: Ungvari kiralyai gorogkatholikus eneklesz-tanitokepezde) changed in 1845 from Latin to Hungarian; in 1861, over the protest of the director Churhovych, the government introduced German as the lan guage of instruction. Churhovych in despair decided to resign. He was succeeded by Mykhai'l Lykhvarchyk (1862-1883), under whom the academic program was extended to three (1876) and then four (1899) years. After 1867 virtually all subjects were taught in Hungarian; Rusyn was a required subject only for Greek Catholics. The college gradually increased its services. It added a cafeteria (1879), where the cost of food

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for seminarians was covered by the eparchy, and in 1883 it built its own two-story building on Kapitul'na Street (popularly known as Preparandiia, today the Law Faculty of Uzhhorod State University) just opposite the Uzhhorod castle. Under its new director, lulii Drohobets'kyi (1883-1891), the Uzhhorod Teachers' College included its own dormitory (the Alumneum), a chapel, and its operated an elementary school where its own students did practice-teaching. Other directors included Andrii *Ripai (1891-1892), Viktor *Kamins'kyi (1892-1917), and Avhustyn *Voloshyn (19171938). Under Voloshyn, whose tenure coincided with the period of Czechoslovak rule, the language of instruction was Rusyn; at this time the college seminary chapel was restored with frescoes added by losyf *Bokshai (later white washed by the Soviet regime in the late 1940s). During the Hungarian regime the college was briefly reorganized into a high school (lycee, 1939-1941) but then returned to the status of a teachers' college. After * Subcarpathian Rus' was annexed to the Soviet Union (1945) the Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College was transformed into a secular school of education, i.e., a two-year teachers' institute, which was subsequently merged with Uzhhorod State University. Further reading: Geza Kaminszky, Emlek-Album az Ungvari kiralyi gorog katholikus eneklesz-tanitokepezde (Uzhhorod, 1894); Pavlo Fedaka, Pam"iatky Zamkovoihory (Uzhhorod, 1999), pp. 66-70. IVAN POP

Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College for Women. See Firtsak, lulii Uzhhorod gymnasium. See Gymnasium Uzhhorod minei. See Literature, Early manuscripts Uzhhorod polustav. See Literature, Early manuscripts Uzhhorod State/National University. See Carpatica; Printing and Publishing; University Departments Uzhhorodska hreko-katolytska pivtsouchytel'ska semynariia. See Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College Uzhhorodska hreko-katolytska zhenska uchytel'ska semynariia. See Firtsak, lulii

V Vahylevych, Ivan. See Historiography: Lemko Region Vajdasag. See Vojvodina

Further reading: V.A. Frantsev, "Iz istorii pis'mennosti Podkarpatskoi Rusi XVIII-XIX st.,"Karpatskiisviet, II, 5-6 (Uzhhorod, 1929), pp. 584-591; Vasyl' Mykytas', Haluzka mohutn 'oho dereva (Uzhhorod, 1971), pp. 19-23. MYKHAILO ALMASHII

Vakarov, Dymytrii (pseudonyms: Dyma, lavor) (b. November 3, 1920, Iza [Czechoslovakia], Ukraine; d. March 1945, Germany) — Russian-language poet in Subcarpathian Rus'. Vakarov attended the Russian gymnasia in Khust and Prague and then during World War II studied at the University of Budapest. Before graduating he was arrested in March 1944, accused of collaboration with the anti-fascist partisan movement, and sentenced to life imprisonment. In the autumn of 1944 he was transferred from Hungary to the Dachau and then Natzweiler concentration camps in Nazi Germany, where one year later he died under torture. Vakarov's literary career is associated with his years as a gymnasium and university student (1939-1944), and his poems are filled with a missionary-like hope of liberation to come from the East. In the late 1950s Soviet Communist propagandists "discovered" Vakarov and transformed him into a martyr, but this made objective analysis of his poetry impossible. As a result of Soviet interest, his poems were published and republished several times: Izbrannye stikhi (1955), Izbrannoe (1963, 1970), Udar za udarom (1980), and Sochineniia (1986). Further reading: Mykhailo Stel'makh, "Slovo o poete," in Dmitrii Vakarov, Izbrannoe (Uzhhorod, 1970), pp. 3-8; la naviky pryishov n zhyttia: zbirnyk spohadiv pro poeta-antyfashysta D. Vakarov (Uzhhorod, 1986), pp. 5-20. IVAN POP

Val'kovs'kyi, Andrii/Valkovszky, Andreas (b. 1784; d. 1844) — priest and belletrist in Subcarpathian Rus' at the outset of the nineteenth century. After completing his theological training under the Jesuits at the *Trnava Albertine College Val'kovs'kyi was ordained a Greek Catholic priest (1809). He served in the Rusyn village of Drahovo in *Maramorosh county for most of his life where he also held the post of archdeacon and regional school inspector. Among the manuscripts he left after his death was a play, "Doinyk, Kuzlyk, Syrodav," and an untitled ode, both completed in 1807 and dedicated to the then reigning bishop of Mukachevo, Andrii *Bachyns'kyi. The play took the form of a dialogue and its bucolic poetry was in style similar to Russian odes from the late eighteenth century. Val'kovs'kyi's literary works were known and highly praised by the mid-nineteenth century national awakener, Aleksander *Dukhnovych.

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Valyi, Antonii. See Art Valyi, loann. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov; Presov Greek Catholic Teachers' College; St. John the Baptist Society Van Nuys, Eparchy of. See Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic Church in the USA Vanat, Ivan (b. August 13, 1926, Vysna Pisana [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — historian and educator of Ukrainian national orientation in eastern Slovakia. After graduating from the *Presov Greek Catholic Teachers' College (1947) and Comenius University in Bratislava (1958) Vanat taught in elementary schools in the Presov Region (1947-1951), worked in Presov in the Regional Office of Education (1951-1958), then served as head of the historical section in the Presov Institute for Pedagogical Advancement (1958-1990). He has written extensively on the history of Rusyns in Slovakia during the twentieth century, including the comprehensive two-volume Narysy istorii ukraintsiv Skhidnoi Slovachchyny, 1918-1948 (1979-85). His other studies focus on the history of Rusyn education in eastern Slovakia (1973), the peasant movement in the region (1976-77), the participation of Rusyns in the *Czechoslovak Army Corps during World War II (1966), and the postwar Rusyn-Czech exchange of population between Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union (Volyns'ka aktsiia, 2001). He has also edited a collection of documents dealing with the *Ukrainian National Council of the Presov Region (2001). Throughout his writings Vanat emphasizes that Rusyns are a branch of the Ukrainian nationality. He has consistently opposed the post-1989 Rusyn national revival in Slovakia, often criticizing it in polemical and demagogic articles and brochures, including Dopytanniapro takzvanu ukrainizatsiiu rusyniv Priashivshchyny (1993). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Vancura, Vladislav (b. June 23, 1891, Haj u Opavy

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture [Austrian Silesia], Czech Republic; d. June 1, 1942, Prague [German Protectorate of Bohemia-Moravia], Czech Republic) — Czech author of lyrical prose works, historical novels, and short stories, some of which dealt with themes from Subcarpathian Rus'. Vancura was a leftist political sympathizer and member of the *Communist party of Czechoslovakia during the interwar years of the twentieth century. An active member in the anti-fascist movement, he was arrested during World War II by the occupying Nazi German authorities and executed. His novel, Posledni soud (1929; repr. 1958; Ukrainian trans., 1986), dealt with the fate ofRusyn emigrants in search of work in the United States. In 1933 Vancura visited *Subcarpathian Rus', where together with another Czech writer, Ivan Olbracht, he made a film about contemporary life in a Rusyn village, *Marijka nevernice (The Unfaithful Marika). Further reading: Oleg Malevich, Vladislav Vanchura (Leningrad, 1973); Milan Blahynka, Vladislav Vancura (Prague, 1978). IVAN POP

Vaiiko, Juraj (b. March 25, 1945, Mlynarovce [Czecho slovakia], Slovakia) — linguist and professor in Slovakia of Rusyn origin. After completing his secondary education in Svidnik (1962) Vanko studied in Presov at the philosophical faculty of Safarik University (1963-1968). He was subsequently a researcher (1973-1975) at the university's Institute of Ukrainian Studies; his work on the syntax ofRusyn dialects in the Bardejov region became the subject of his kandidat nauk thesis (1976). Since 1975 Vanko has taught in western Slovakia at the Faculty of Education in Nitra (docent/associate professor, 1983; professor, 2003), which in 1996 became part of the University of Constantine the Philosopher. Aside from his writings on Slovak dialects and general issues related to language in literary works, Vanko published the first major syntactic analysis of the Rusyn dialects in the Presov Region (The Language of Slovakia s Rusyns/Jazyk Rusinov na Slovensku, 2000). In this and other writings on the subject he supports the view that Rusyn is a distinct Slavic language. Further reading: "Biography of Juraj Vanko," in Juraj Vanko, The Language of Slovakia's Rusyns/Jazyk Rusinov na Slovensku (New York, 2000), pp. ix-xni. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Varadi-Sternberg, Janus See Shternberg, lakiv Varady, Gabor. See Magyars/Hungarians Varga, Diura. See Communism; Ruske slovo; Ruske Slovo Publishing House; Tvochost/Studia Ruthenica; Ukrainians

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Varga, M. See Sochka, Vasylii Varga, Mikhailo (b. November 5, 1940, Ruski Kerestur [Yugoslavia], Serbia) — pedagogue, educational administrator, editor, and civic and cultural activist of Rusyn national orientation in the Vojvodina. After graduating from the Pedagogical School in Sombor (1955-1960) Varga taught at the Rusyn elementary school (1960-1985) in Ruski Kerestur and then served as director (1985-1993) of that town's elementary school and gymnasium. He also prepared a Rusyn-language reader for schools (Lektira za Ilklasu: Maiske veshelie, 1977) and was founding editor of a magazine for children, Dvonchok (1970-1991) and for youth Shvitania (1972-1974). Varga has been an active participant in Vojvodinian Rusyn cultural and civic life as a co-organizer of the *Chervena Ruzha Cultural Festival since the 1970s and as mayor (19962001) of Ruski Kerestur. He has supported the post-1989 revival of a Rusyn national orientation in the * Vojvodina and has promoted close contacts with Rusyns in the Carpathian homeland as chairman (1994-2000) of the *Rusyn Cultural Foundation/Ruska matka and member of the World Council/ Svitova rada of the *World Congress of Rusyns. He has edited books about the work of both these organizations (Zbornik wbotokh zoz tretsoho shvetovoho kongresa rusinokh/rusnatsokh, lemkokh, 1997; Ruska matka luhoslavii, 1998). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Varholiak, William. See Lemko Association of the USA and Canada

Varmed'shchyna — the labor duty, consisting of work on roads and various state-owned structures, owed by the inhabitants within the *county system of the Hungarian Kingdom before 1918.

Varmegye. See County Varzaly, Stefan (b. October 6,1890, Fulianka [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. June 3, 1957, Rankin, Pennsylvania, USA) — priest, editor, and community activist in the United States. Varzaly completed his theological training at the Greek Catholic Seminary in Presov (1915). He was ordained a Greek Catholic priest (1915) and served in several Rusyn parishes in eastern Slovakia until 1920, when he emigrated to the United States. He is best known for his defense of the church's Eastern Christian traditions, in particular the right of married men to be ordained to the priesthood. This was one of the main issues during the so-called celibacy controversy of the 1930s, when Varzaly was able to have his views disseminated via his position as editor-in-chief (1930-1937) of the *Amerikansky russky viestnik and founding editor of

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Vistnik (1936-). Varzaly was a founding member (1932) of the *Committee for the Defense of the Eastern Rite (KOVO), and because of continuing support for that organization he was excommunicated from the Greek Catholic Church. He supported the creation of the *American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic Diocese (est. 1936), but then broke away to support a new Carpatho-Russian People's Church (1949) within the jurisdiction of the *Russian Orthodox Church in North America—the Metropolia. Varzaly initially emphasized the distinctiveness of Carpatho-Rusyns and published in his native dialect, including poetry and a popular play Selska svad'ba (1930s). By the 1940s he argued that Rusyns were a branch of the Russian nationality and hoped their Orthodox community in America would eventually be united with the Russian Orthodox Church—Moscow Partiarchate. Both Varzaly and his newspaper Visnyk were suspected by the United States authorities of sympathy for *Communism and were under surveillance during the "Red Scare" that characterized American life during the 1950s. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Vasil'evich. See Kralyts'kyi, Anatolii Vasilevskii, L. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region Vas'ko, Ivan. See Literature: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region; Shtefan, Avhustyn Vasylenko, Mykhai'l. See Narodna shkola; Russkii narodnyi golos Vasyliiany. See Basilian Order

Congress of Rusyns. Attendance ranges from 3,000 to 3,500 people. The Vatra held in the Carpathian homeland first took place in 1983, in a field between the *Lemko Rusyn villages of Czarna and Uscie Gorlickie. Since then the "homeland" Vatras have taken place in several different *Lemko Region villages where a portion of the inhabitants are Lemkos (Hariczowa, Bartne, Zdynia). Anywhere from 4,000 to 8,000 people attend the "homeland" Vatra, which since the year 2000 is permanently set in Zdynia, where a piece of land was bought and gradually an infrastructure added. In connection with the festival a magazine was published under various titles, Holos Vatry (1984-89), Holos Lemkiv (1990-92), which later evolved into a separate quarterly, Vatra (1993- ). Initially, the "homeland" Vatras in the Lemko Region were Rusyn in orientation, but since 1990, under the influence of its chief organizer, the pro-Ukrainian *Union of Lemkos in Poland, they have become increasingly Ukrainian in flavor. Several other Vatras take place on a smaller scale in North America and Europe. Since 1986 the *Union of Lemkos of Canada organizes one at the Lemkivs'ka oselia in the Durham region (some 200 miles north of Toronto). It attracts about a thousand spectators. The first Vatra in Lugi (west-central Poland) took place in 1990. Organized by the Society of Admirers of Lemko Culture/Stowarzyszenie Milosnikow Kultury Lemkowskiej, it draws about a thousand spectactors. An annual festival called "Dzvony Lemkivshchyny" (Bells of the Lemko Region), but popularly referred to as a Vatra, was first held in Ukarine's Ternopil' region (village of Hutys'ka); since 2001 it takes place in the largely Lemko-inhabited town of Monastyrs'ka and has become an all-Ukrainian event. In 2000, the *Organization for the Defense of Lemko Western Ukraine inaugurated the first Vatra in the United States at the Ukrainian American Youth Association (SUM) resort in Ellenville, New York. BOGDAN HORBAL

Vatra —general name for a series of unrelated annual festivals of Lemko culture organized in various places in Europe and North America. The Vatra (English: Bonfire) festivities usually last two or three days over an extended weekend and are centered around a stage where Lemko and other ensembles perform. Also, there are activities such as lectures, art and folkloric exhibits, sport and intellectual competitions, and Lemko-related objects for sale (books, art, tapes/CDs, folk costumes, etc.). The original Vatra was organized for the first time in 1979 "abroad" in the village of Michalow near Legnica in Lower Silesia among *Lemkos resettled in western Poland after World War II. The Vatra "abroad" has always been Rusyn oriented, and since the early 1990s it has been organized by the *Lemko Society/Stovaryshynia Lemkiv. Among its participants in recent years are Rusyn folk ensembles from neighboring countries and representatives of the *World

Vavrik, Vasilii Romanovich (b. March 21, 1889, lasnyshchi [Austrian Galicia], Ukraine; d. July 5, 1970, Lviv [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — Galician Russophile editor, historian, belletrist, and cultural and political activist. While still a student at the law faculty of the University of Lviv, Vavrik was arrested by the Austrian authorities at the outbreak of World War I on suspicion of *Russophile sympathies (1914). Interned initially at Terezin, and later at *Talerhof, he was mobilized into the Austro-Hungarian army (1915). Taken prisoner by the Italians (1916), he was freed with the help of the Russian ambassador in Italy and allowed to join Russian forces in France to fight the Germans (early 1917). On the eve of the Bolshevik revolution Vavrik went to Petrograd and eventually moved south to Rostov-na-Donu. There he was instrumental in the creation in early 1918 of the Carpatho-Russian Military

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Unit/Karpato-russkii dobrovol'cheskii otriad, which was part of the anti-Bolshevik White forces under General Lavrentii Kornilov and later Anton Denikin. After the Bolshevik victory Vavrik left Russia and eventually reached Czechoslovakia, settling in Uzhhorod, where he worked as an editor (1920) for the Orthodox newspaper Russkiipravoslavnyi viestnik. He received a Ph.D. in Slavic studies from Charles University in Prague (1925) and then moved to Eviv, where he continued his education at the University of Cviv, receiving a Ph.D. in Slavic philology (1929). He also edited several Russophile publications in Galicia: the newspaper Russkii golos as well as the scholarly publications, Vremennik Stavropigiiskago instituta and Nauchno-literaturnyi sbornik Galitsko-russkoi matitsy. After World War II, under Soviet rule, he initially taught Russian at the University of Eviv, then until his retirement in 1956 worked at the Eviv Historical Museum. Entirely dedicated to the *Russophile cause, Vavrik did his best to promote a Russian national identity in Galicia and among Carpatho-Rusyns. Sharing some vital World War I experiences with Russophile Lemkos, he continued to publicize them in his numerous journalistic and scholarly writings on the World War I Talerhof internment camp. He compiled the last three volumes of the camp's memorial book(Talergofskii almanakh, 1925-32) and published separate pamphlets on the subject (Znachenie Talergofa, 1934; Vinovniki Talergofa, 1934; Terezin i Talergof, 1966), as well as a memoir-like study on "Carpatho-Russian" participation in the military struggle during the Civil War in southern Russia (Karpatorossy v Kornilovskompokhode, 1923). Vavrik also published biographical sketches of several Rusyn cultural and religious activists: Tyt *Myshkovskii (1962); Ivan *Shlepets'kyi (1963); Andrii *Karabelesh (1965); and Andrew Slepecky (1968). His own literary works explored themes important to Carpatho-Rusyns, including a collection of lyric poetry, Piesni. Rus'. Trembita (1921), and the play Talergof (1933). Many of Vavrik's works were published by Carpatho-Rusyn organizations abroad, especially the *Lemko Association/Lemko-Soiuz of the USA and Canada, and they had a profound impact in promoting the Russophile orientation among Rusyn immigrants. Further reading: Roman D. Mirovich, "Predislovie," in V.R. Vavrik, Krest'iane-poety (Louven, 1973), pp. 7-9. BOGDAN HORBAL

Vegesh, Mykola (b. November 28, 1962, Mizhhir'ia [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — pedagogue and historian of Ukrainian national orientation in Subcarpathian Rus'. After completing his university studies at the historical and pedagogical faculty of the Pedagogical Institute in IvanoFrankivs'k (1979-1984), Vegesh taught secondary school in Synevyr while doing post-graduate work in history part-time at the University of Uzhhorod (kandidat nauk, 1994; doctor of historical science, 1998). Since 1993 he has taught history

527 at the University of Uzhhorod (professor, 2000), where he is also director (1999-) of the Institute of Carpathian Studies/Instytut karpatoznavstva. Vegesh is a prolific writer who has concentrated on the history of * Subcarpathian Rus' during the first half of the twentieth century. Aside from co-authoring a biography (1995) and bibliography (1994) of the *Ukrainophile cultural and political leader Avhustyn *Voloshyn, Vegesh has published several works on the half-year of *autonomy in Subcarpathian Rus'/*Carpatho-Ukraine, including Karpats 'ka Ukrama, 1938-1939: sotsial'no-ekonomichnyi i politychnyi rozvytok (1993) and the two-volume Karpats'ka Ukrama u zahal'noievropeis 'komu istorychnomu konteksti(\99T). In all these works he presents the classic Ukrainophile view that the very existence of Carpatho-Ukraine ostensibly proved that the local Rusyn population had been transformed into conscious Ukrainians. Further reading: Volodymyr Fedynyshynets', Mykola Mykolaiovych Vegesh: bibliohrafichnyi pokazhchyk (Uzhhorod, 1997); Marian Tokar, ed., Mykola Vegesh—istoryk Ukrainy (Uzhhorod, 2002) . PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Venelin, lurii/Venelin-Gutsa, lurii Ivanovich (b. Ivan Hutsa, April 22,1802, Velyka Tybava [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. March 267April 7,1839, Moscow [Russian Empire], Russia) — Slavist, historian, and ethnographer of Carpatho-Rusyn origin in the Russian Empire. After completing his study of Slavistics at Eviv University (1822-1823) Venelin moved (1823) with his cousin Ivan Mol'nar to the province of Bessarabia in the Russian Empire, where he worked for two years in the city of Chisinau/Kishinev as a teacher and studied the life and culture of the Bulgarians. In 1825 he went to Moscow and, at the suggestion of a fellow Carpatho-Rusyn, Ivan *Orlai, entered the medical school of Moscow University, from which he graduated in 1829. At the same time he continued his study of Slavistics and became one of the founders of Bulgarian studies in Russia and of folklore studies in Bulgaria. Venelin was the author of one of the first studies of Bulgarian history, literature, and folklore, Drevnie i nynieshnie bolgary v politicheskom, narodopisnom, istoricheskom i religioznom ikh otnoshenii k rossiianam (1829), which was followed by separate studies of Bulgarian literature (1838), folksongs (1835), and the early history of the Bulgars from their arrival in the Balkan peninsula to the late tenth century (1849). He is also credited with being the first writer to use the name Slovenia, which appeared in his book on Bulgarians and then in a study he wrote on Slovenians which appeared posthumously (1841). Venelin carried out research on the early history, the church, and folklore among the Rusyns of Subcarpathian Rus' in three manuscripts published by Ilarion *Svientsits'kyi in 1906: "NieskolTco slov o Rossiianakh Vengerskikh, i takzhe odno

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slovtso istoricheskoe o Pravoslavnoi Greko-vostochnoi tserkvi v Vengrii" (1822), "O piesnoliubii slavian zakarpatskikh," and "Karpato-rosskiia poslovitsy." Despite insufficient research, inaccuracies, and questionable views, Venelin's works had a great influence on Slavic studies in general and on Bulgarian studies in particular. In recognition of his contributions, grateful Bulgarians from Odessa erected a monument at his gravesite in Moscow (1842) and subsequently a statue of him was erected near his native village in the Subcarpathian town ofSvaliava(1991). Further reading: O.D. Zakryvydoroha et al., comps., lurii Ivanovych Venelin-Hutsa (1802-1839): bibliohrqftchnyipokazhchyk (Uzhhorod, 1989); Petr Polianskii, "lurii Venelin, maloross, otroditel' Bolgarii," in Sbornik literaturno-gumoristichnyi (Eviv, 1889), pp. 51-70; lulii Gadzhega, Kratkii obzor nauchnoi dieiatelnosti luriia Ivanovicha Venelina Gutsy (Uzhhorod, 1927); Tamara Baitsura, lurii Ivanovich Venelin (Bratislava and Presov, 1968); Ivan Matsyns'kyi, "lurii Ivanovych Venelin (Hutsa)," Duklia, XVIII, 6 (Presov, 1970), pp. 71-76 and XIX, 1 (1971), pp. 72-79; In. I. Venelin i rozvytok mizhslovians'kykh zviazkiv (Uzhhorod, 1989); Dimitur Raikov, lurii Venelin i bulgarskoto vuzrazhdane (Sofia, 1994); Dmytro D. Danyliuk, lu.I. Hutsa-Venelin (Uzhhorod, 1995); O.K. Venediktov, ed., In. I. Venelin v bolgarskom vozrozhdenii (Moscow, 1998); Raymond H. Miller, "Venelin and the Slovenes," Slovene Studies, XX, 1-2 (Syracuse, N. Y., 2000), pp. 62-89; Dmytro Danyliuk, ed., lu. Venelin: z naukovoi spadshchyny vyznachnoho slavista (Uzhhorod, 2002); Volodymyr le. Zadorozhnyi and Mykola I. Zymomria, eds., lurii Hutsa-Venelin: do 200-richchia vid dnia narodzhennia (Uzhhorod, 2002); Naukovyi visnyk Uzhhorods 'koho natsional 'noho universytetu: Seriia istoriia, Vol. VIII: do 200-richchia vid dnia narodzhennia lu. I. Venelina (Uzhhorod, 2003). IVAN POP

Venhrynovych, Stepan (b. 1897; Chyrzyna [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. June 19, 1954, Dzhonka [Soviet Union], Russia) — priest and cultural activist of Ukrainian national orientation in the Lemko Region. After graduating from the Theological Seminary in L'viv Venhrynovych was ordained a Greek Catholic priest and began teaching catechism classes in gymnasia in Drohobych (1921-1927) and later Sanok (19281939). He was also one of the co-founders of the *Museum of the Lemko Region (1930) in Sanok. During World War II he was appointed inspector for Ukrainian schools in the Sanok district, that is, in the eastern part of the Lemko Region which at the time lay within the Nazi German-controlled part (Generalgouvernement) of former Poland. Throughout his career Venhrynovych wielded great authority as a priest and was able to influence the development of a Ukrainian national consciousness among many *Lemkos. In 1946 he was "repatriated" to the Sambir region of the Soviet Ukraine, where two years later he was arrested and together with his family deported to the Khabarov region in the Soviet Far East.

There he spent the rest of his life. His memoirs were published posthumously: Dobrovil'no (1989). BOGDAN HORBAL

Venhrynovych, Tyrs/Wenhrynowicz, Tyrs (b. September 21,1924, Drohobych [Poland], Ukraine) — Ukrainian artist of Lemko origin. The son of the priest and Ukrainian cultural activist Stepan *Venhrynovych, Tyrs Venhrynovych completed his training at the Academy of Art in Cracow (1945-1952). He is a masterful graphic artist with more than 500 ex libris to his credit. Many of his works include Lemko themes, such as the cycle of "Lemko Churches" and symbols for the * Vatra Lemko festivals as well as ex libri dedicated to Lemko organizations and Lemko cultural activists. BOGDAN HORBAL

Verets'kyi/Vorits'kyi pass — the name given to two passes through the Carpathian Mountains that connect Subcarpathian Rus' with Galicia to the north. The Verets'kyi pass proper, which is 841 meters above sea level, is at the headwaters of the Latorytsia River on the Subcarpathian side and Stryi River on the Galician side. A few kilometers to the east is the Serednii (Middle) Verets'kyi pass at 839 meters above sea level (see Map 5). Both passes have from earliest times allowed contact between the populations living on both sides of the Carpathians. They served as the gateway to central Europe for various nomadic peoples from Central Asia; from the north Caucasus region; and from the steppes north of the Black Sea, including the Scythians, Sarmatians, Huns, and Avars. It was through the Serednii Verets'kyi pass that in 896 Arpad led the Magyar tribes into the Danubian Basin, and at the pass itself, in 1241, the Mongol-Tatar armies annihilated the Hungarian troops under the Palatine Dionisii, thereby gaining access to central Europe. Located along historic Hungary's northern border, the Verets'kyi passes continued to have military significance. At the outset of World War I (September 1914) the tsarist Russian Army took control of the Serednii Verets'kyi pass and it was not dislodged by the Austro-Hungarian Army (with the help of German forces) until early 1915. During World War II both passes became part of the so-called Arpad Line, a fortified defense system for the German and Hungarian armies which they abandoned only in late 1944, when Slovakia and central Hungary came under threat from the advancing Soviet forces. After World War II the new Soviet regime built a highway through the Verets'kyi pass to connect *Subcarpathian Rus' (via Mukachevo and Svaliava) with Eviv in Galicia and it used the Serednii Verets'kyi pass as the route for the Brotherhood/Bratstvo pipeline to bring natural gas from Siberia (Urengoi) through Transcarpathia (via Uzhhorod) to central and western Europe as well as for electrical lines and

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a petroleum pipeline. The Serednii Verets'kyi pass (referred to in the literature simply as the Verets'kyi pass) has traditionally had great symbolic significance for *Magyars and the Hungarian state. A four-meter high stone obelisk with four inscribed tablets commemorating the arrival of the Magyar tribes into the Carpathian Basin was erected at the pass during Hungary's millennial celebrations of 1896. Sometime during the 1920s under Czechoslovak rule the tablets were destroyed but then replaced in 1939, when Hungary re-annexed Subcarpathian Rus'. The obelisk remained in place until 1956, when allegedly Soviet troops removed it entirely as they pressed forward to crush the Hungarian Revolution. After the collapse of the Soviet Union local Magyars in Subcarpathian Rus', with the assistance of the government of Hungary (and the approval of the Transcarpathian regional parliament—Oblastna rada), began in 1996 to construct another monument at the pass. The new monument to celebrate 1,000 years of the arrival of the Magyars was opposed by Ukrainian nationalists from Galicia, who within a few months vandalized the project and forced the local authorities to stop its further construction. The remnants of the proposed monument's base remain in an open field near the pass. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Vergun, Dmitrii Nikolaevich (b. October 18, 1871, Horodok [Austrian Galicia], Ukraine; d. September 3, 1951, Houston, Texas, USA) — Slavist, pedagogue, literary scholar, publicist, and poet of Russian national orientation from Galicia. After completing the German gymnasium in Eviv (1890) Vergun studied at the University of Vienna, where, at the outset of the twentieth century, he was one of the ideologists of *neo-Slavism. Supporters of that ideology looked to Russia to protect the Slavic people from the rise of pan-Germanism and the eastward expansion of the German Empire. To promote these views, Vergun published in Vienna a multilingual general Slavic journal, Slavianskii vek (1900-1905). In 1907 he moved to the Russian Empire, where he was responsible for the Slavic section in the newspaper Novoe vremia and helped to organize the Slavic Congresses held in Prague (1908), Petrograd (1909), and Sofia (1910). At the Sofia congress he was elected general secretary of the All-Slavic Executive committee. After the Bolshevik Revolution he taught Slavic philology for a short while at Moscow University. In early 1919 Vergun was part of the "Carpatho-Russian delegation" at the Paris Peace Conference, where, with Dmitrii Markov, he edited Le Bulletin du Comite carpatho-russe. Later that year he left for the United States, where he participated in *Russophile political activity, in particular the *CarpathoRussian Congress in New York City. He returned to Europe, eventually settling in Prague in 1921, where for the next two

decades he taught the Russian language and Slavic studies at various secondary schools. He also lectured and published a few short works dealing with Rusyn literature, including an historical survey, "Karpatorusskaia literatura: kratkii ocherk" (1925), and an analysis of levhenii Fentsyk in the context of Russian literature (1926). A collection of Vergun's poems, Karpatskie otzvuki (1920), included many themes concerning Rusyns and their Carpathian homeland. On the eve of the German occupation of Prague Vergun emigrated (1939) to the United States. Further reading: Giinther Wytrzens, '"Das slawische Jahrhundert': ein Wiener Presseorgan des Neoslavismus und sein Herausgeber," Osterreichische Osthefte, XX (Vienna, 1978), pp. 220-227; A. Shlepets'kyi, "Blyzkyi karpats'komu sertsiu," Narodny novynky, No. 4(Presov, 1993), p. 3. IVAN POP

Verkhovinka, Tania. See Kercha, Ivan Verkhovyna (Highlands) — the upper mountainous region in Subcarpathian Rus' just below the crests of the Carpathians. The Verkhovyna can theoretically refer to any highland region in the *Carpathian Mountains, although it usually refers specifically to the extreme northwestern and northcentral parts of * Subcarpathian Rus'/Transcarpathia. Scholars have considered this area to be part of an ethnographic region inhabited by *Boikos, although the inhabitants of the 100 or so villages there have designated themselves in the past as Rusnaks/Rusyns and more recently as Ukrainians or simply Verkhovyntsi/Highlanders (see Map 3). The natural beauty of the Verkhovyna region and the traditional life-style of its inhabitants have long provided inspiration to artists, especially of the Subcarpathian School of Painting (losyf *Bokshai, Adalbert *Erdeli, Andrii *Kotska); composers (Dezyderii *Zador); and Rusyn poets and novelists, as well as foreign authors like the Czechs Ivan *Olbracht and Jaroslav *Zatloukal and the Russian Matvei Tevel'ov, all of whom have used the name Verkhovyna in their texts or for the titles of their works. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Verkhovyna—krasa moia. See Cinema Verkhovyna Theater Circle. See Sheregii, luriiAvhustyn; Union of Subcarpathian Rusyn Students Verkhovyns'ka aktsiia. See Highlands Program Verkhovyns'kyi, A. See Voloshyn, Avhustyn Verkhovyntsi. See Boikos

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Verkhrats'kyi, Ivan Hryhorovych (b. April 26,1846, Bil'che Zolote [Austrian Galicia], Ukraine; d. September 29, 1919, Eviv [Poland], Ukraine) — Ukrainian pedagogue, biologist, and linguist. Verkhrats'kyi completed his studies at the University of Eviv (1865-1868) and Jagiellonian University in Cracow (1874) and then worked as a gymnasium teacher in Drohobych (1868-1871), Eviv (1871-1879, 18911908), and Stanyslaviv (1879-1890). He was a member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society in Eviv, where he created an Ethnographic Museum. Verkhrats'kyi undertook several research trips to the Carpathian region in order to study the local dialects. The results were published in Ueber die Mundart der Maramoroscher Ruthenen (1883); "Hovir zamishants'iv" (1894); Znadoby dlia piznania uhorsko-ruskykh hovoriv, 2 vols. (1899-1901); and Pro hovor halytskykh lemkiv (1902). Verkhrats'kyi's studies provide a wide range of linguistic data, including extensive dictionary appendices of Lemko-Rusyn vocabulary, although his efforts to classify and identify the etymology ofRusyn dialectal words are often amateurish in nature. BOGDAN HORBAL

Vershan, K. See Halas, Kyrylo

Veselka Musical and Theatrical Troupe. See Sheregii, lurii-Avhustyn Vico, Fedor. See Vitso, Fedor

Viddil ukrams'ko'i literatury. See Printing and Publishing

during World War II. Further reading: Ivan I. Pop, Chekhoslovatsko-vengerskie otnosheniia 1935-1939 (Moscow, 1972); F. Vavra and J. Eibel, Viedenskd arbitraz—dosledok Mnichova (Bratislava, 1963); Ladislav Deak, ed., Mnichovpre Slovensko (Bratislava, 1993). IVAN POP

Vienna trials — two political trials organized by AustriaHungary and directed at *Russophiles from Galicia (half of whom were Lemkos) accused of state treason and activity on behalf of the Russian Empire. The accused were defended by the Czech lawyer and University of Vienna professor, Vaclav Vondrak; prosecution witnesses at both trials included several prominent Galician-Ukrainian national activists, among them the university professors, Kyrylo Studyns'kyi and Oleksandr Kolessa, and the parliamentary deputies, levhen Petrushevych and Kost Levyts'kyi. At the first trial (June 21 -August 21,1915) seven Galician *Russophiles were accused, among whom were two Lemkos, the lawyer Kyryl Cherliunchakevych and the deputy to the Austrian imperial parliament from the Sanok district, Vladimir Kurylovych. All seven defendants were sentenced to death. At the second trial (September 4, 1916-February 3, 1917), 24 individuals came before the court, of whom 15 were Lemkos. Seventeen of the defendants were sentenced to death, the remainder to long prison terms. Tsar Nicholas II of Russia asked the king of Spain, Alphonse XIII, to intervene on behalf of the prisoners, with the result that the death sentences were commuted to long prison terms. In the spring of 1917 all were released following an amnesty pronounced by the new Austrian emperor, Karl I(r. 1916-1918).

Vidra, Ferdinand. See Art Vienna Award — change in Czechoslovakia's borders dictated by Germany and Italy as a follow-up to the Munich Pact of September 1938. Signed by Germany, Italy, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia on November 2, 1938 at the Belveder Palace in Vienna, the Vienna Award forced Czechoslovakia to cede to Hungary territory in southern Slovakia and southern *Subcarpathian Rus', including the cities of Uzhhorod, Mukachevo, and Berehovo. The very survival of autonomous Subcarpathian Rus' was put in jeopardy following the loss of these important urban centers (including its capital Uzhhorod), as well as the lowland part of the province with its transportational links to the rest of Czechoslovakia. The November 1938 decision is often referred to as the First Vienna Award, because on August 30, 1940 a Second Vienna Award was concluded whereby Hungary obtained from Romania northern and eastern Transylvania including the partially Rusyn-inhabited *Maramures Region. The decisions reached at both Vienna Awards were negated by the Allied coalition

BOGDAN HORBAL

Viko — a unit of measurement for liquids and solids. It was the equivalent of 32 liters or 25 kilograms of grain. At times viko was also used as a measurement for land, the equivalent of about 300 sq *sazhen'.

Village committees/SiFski komitety, upravy, uriady — self-governing elected administrative organs at the village level in * Subcarpathian Rus' and the *Presov Region They existed during the period of Czechoslovak rule (19191939) and were headed by a village elder (*starosta). IVAN POP

Village Farmer's Republican party. See Agrarian/ Republican party Vil'shyts'kyi, F. See Potushniak, Fedor Vinai, Matfei. See Literature: Vojvodina

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Vinochok dlia pddkarpatskykh ditochok — monthly magazine published in Uzhhorod (1920-1923) for children in Subcarpathian Rus'. Vinochok was initially edited by laroslav Rozvoda, then, after his death in October 1920, by Ivan *Pan'kevych until it ceased publication in mid-1923. In early 1924 the journal was renewed under the editorship of Aleksander *Markush as a monthly supplement to *Nash rodnyi krai, until it was absorbed by that journal in 1927. The main purpose of Vinochok was to popularize Subcarpathian folklore and history as well as the study of the natural sciences. As well it included letters from elementary school and gymnasia students. The magazine introduced the works of Ukrainian authors like Taras Shevchenko, Markiian Shashkevych, and Ivan *Franko to Subcarpathian youth and provided translations into Ukrainian of Russian, Czech, and other European authors. Among Rusyn writers who began their literary careers on the pages of Vinochok were Fedor *Potushniak, Fedir *Lazoryk, and Marusia Tysians'kaKabaliuk. Further reading: Vasyl' Habor, Ukrains 'ki chasopysy Uzhhoroda, 1867-1944 (Eviv, 2003), pp. 183-187. IVAN POP

Vir, lurii. See Nedzel'skii, Evgenii Leopol'dovich Virag, lulii/Viragh, Gyula (b. September 13, 1880, Khust [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. March 22, 1949, Mukachevo [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — artist and one of the founders of twentieth-century Subcarpathian painting. Virag began his formal training in 1898 with the Hungarian painter Simon Hollosy; he entered the Munich Academy of Art (1900-1901) and then continued at the Budapest School of Modelling and at the Academic Julian in Paris. Virag received commissions in Paris and New York City, where he remained until 1906. Soon after returning home he was named the official artist (1908) for the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo. Virag is best known for his monumental murals in the church of the *Mukachevo Monastery of St. Nicholas, his portraits, and his genre scenes, all rendered in a traditional academic realistic style. In 1921 he tried to unite a working group of all artists in * Subcarpathian Rus', but the lack of any ideological or aesthetic unity among them led to the failure of his short-lived effort. Virag never changed his views or style, and during the 1920s he was pushed from the center of the Subcarpathian artistic scene by a younger generation of post-Impressionists. At his death after World War II he was virtually forgotten. Further reading: M.A. Vodop"ianova, Kataloh memorial'noi' vystavky tvoriv khudozhnyka luliia Heorhiievycha Viraha (Uzhhorod, 1950). IVAN POP

531

Virkhnians'kyi, Petro. See Historiography: Lemko Region Viruk, Mykola. See Mushynka, Mykola Vishchak, O. See Balets'kyi/Baleczky, Emil Visti Etnografichnoho tovarystva Pidkarpats 'ko'i Rusy. See Ethnographic Society of Subcarpathian Rus' Vistnik. See Varzaly, Stefan Vistnyk Narodno'irady Zakarpats 'ko'i Ukrainy — biweekly newspaper published in Mukachevo (1944-45) as the official organ of the National Council of Transcarpathian Ukraine. The newspaper was edited by Mykola V. Tsuperiak and contained the decrees of the National Council which at the close of World War II governed * Subcarpathian Rus' (renamed *Transcarpathian Ukraine) from November 1944 until its incorporation into the Soviet Ukraine in June 1945. Thereafter, both the council and its newspaper ceased to function. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Vistnyk Rusynov — newspaper first published semi-weekly, then thrice weekly, and finally weekly in Vienna (1850-66) for Rusyns living in the Austrian Empire. Its full name was Vistnyk, povremenne pys 'mo, posviashcheno polytychnomu y nravstvennomu obrazovaniiu Rusynov Avstryiskoy derzhavy. During its early years, under the editorship of the Galician *Old Ruthenian lakiv *Holovats'kyi, the Vistnyk Rusynov functioned as an organ for the "political and moral edification" of Rusyns in both Austrian Galicia and the Hungarian Kingdom (*Subcarpathian Rus' and the *Presov Region). Among the contributors to the paper was the Carpatho-Rusyn national leader Aleksander *Dukhnovych. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Vistula Operation/Akcja Wisla —the forced deportation in 1947 of the remaining Rusyn and Ukrainian population from the *Lemko Region and other borderland territories of postwar southeastern Poland. The deportation was carried out between April 28 and August 12, 1947, by 20,000 Polish army troops and militia of the so-called Vistula Operational group. The operation was a repressive measure intended to eliminate the anti-Soviet and anti-Communist *Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA), which at the time was holed up in the Carpathian Mountain regions of southeastern Poland and northeastern Czechoslovakia. An estimated 150,000 people, of whom 50,000 to 60,000 were *Lemkos, were deported in special transports; this deportation came to be known as their "Road to Calvary." The deportees were forced to wait several

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weeks, during which time an estimated 4,000 Lemkos and Ukrainians were arrested, either directly from their villages or later removed from the transport itself. Over 450 Lemkos were interned at a camp at *Jaworzno in Upper Silesia, where several died. The deported Lemkos and Ukrainians were resettled in the western and northern territories of Poland (former German lands of Silesia and Pomerania) in towns and villages located at least 50 kilometers from the country's borders and 20 kilometers from district (palatinate) administrative centers. In no one village or town could the resettled deportees form more than 10 percent of the population. They lost all their property in the Lemko Region, including their buildings, land, and forests. After 1956 the Lemkos were officially allowed to return home, although unofficially they were prevented from doing so by a host of administrative obstacles. Nevertheless, in 1957-1958 about 2,000 deportees managed to return. After the fall of the Communist regime in Poland (1989) the Polish Senate condemned the Vistula Operation as an inhumane act; this move was debated but not approved by the parliament's lower house (Sejm). Since that time nothing has been done to compensate the deported Lemkos for their losses. In 1996 the central part of the Lemko Region was transformed into the Beskyd National Park, effectively closing the question of whether the Lemkos might be able to regain their homesteads and forests in that area. Further reading: Kazimierz Pudlo, Lemkowie: process wrastania w srodowisko Dolnego Slqska, 1947-1985 (Wroclaw, 1987);Aldona Chojnowska, "Przesiedlenie ludnosci ukrainskiej na ziemie zachodnie ipohiocnew 1947 roku," Zeszyty Historyczne, No. 102 (Paris, 1992), pp. 3-102; Eugeniusz Misilo, comp., Akcja Wista (Warsaw, 1993); Roman Drozd, Droga na Zachod: osadnicto ludnosci ukrainskiej na ziemiach zachodnich ipotnocnych w ramachAkcja 'Wisla' (Warsaw, 1997); Jerzy Zurko, Rozsiedlenie ludnosci w ramach Akcja 'Wisla 'w dawnym wojewodztwie wroclawskim (Wroclaw, 2000). BOGDAN HORBAL

Vitso, Fedor/Vico, Fedor (b. November 9,1944, Sapinec, Slovakia) — caricaturist and Rusyn cultural activist in Slovakia. Since the 1960s Vitso has been one of the leading political cartoonists in Czechoslovakia and has published consistently in the leading Czech and Slovak newspapers. He also created a series entitled, Il'ko Sova from Bajusovo, in Slovakia's Ukrainian-language newspaper Nove zhyttia (1974-1984) and the Rusyn-language Narodny novynky (1991-). A large selection of cartoons from both these series was published in a tri-lingual Rusyn-Slovak-English volume, Il'ko Sova from Bajusovo (2001). Prior to 1989 Vitso's cartoons contained cautious criticism of the Communist system in Czechoslovakia; since then his acerbic wit has been directed at Slovak government officials and pro-Ukrainian organizations and activists opposed to the

Rusyn movement. The texts of his cartoons dealing with the Rusyn question have always been written in Rusyn, even when they appeared in Ukrainian-language publications. Since its establishment in 1990 Vitso has been active in the *Rusyn Renaissance Society/Rusyn'ska obroda as a member of its executive board and as its vice-chairman (1999-2001). Further reading: Paul Robert Magocsi, "Vstup/Uvod/Introduction," in Il'ko Sova z BajusovalIl'ko Sova from Bajusovo (Presov, 2001), pp. 5-19. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Vlach colonization — settlement of parts of the Eastern Carpathian and Western Carpathian mountain ranges from the late thirteenth through the fifteenth century by sheepherders from the Balkans. The newcomers were of Romanian origin, but they also brought with them Rusyn sheepherders. During the colonization process the migrants enjoyed the privileges of the so-called Vlach Law, a codified body of traditional rights associated with *Vlach settlers. These rights represented a combination of norms from German law as well as common law practiced by the local inhabitants in the Carpathians. New settlers were thus exempt from feudal duties for periods ranging from 6 to 20 years. When the "free years" came to an end, the settlers had to pay the local landlord (either to the royal estate or manorial landlord) a portion of their livestock and labor, which usually amounted to a tenth of their swine, honey, sheep's cheese, sheep's wool, and horse-drawn labor, among other items. The Vlach settlers were expected to guard roads and defend frontier areas, including the forests belonging to the royal and manorial estates (*dominia). A supplemental tax was paid by those who lived on arable land. The *soltys/sholteis who organized the settlement process was given special privileges. The rest of the Vlach settlers had their own law courts and a socioeconomic and legal status that was much more advantageous than that of the peasant serfs. Further reading: Karel Kadlec, Valasi a valasske pravo v zemich slovanskych a uherskych (Prague, 1916); lurii Krai', "Ystoriia kolonyzatsii Podkarpatskoi Rusy," Podkarpatska Rus ',1,2 and 3 (Uzhhorod, 1923), pp. 37-43 and 68-72; Ondrej Malaga, Slovanske osidlenie Potisia a vychodoslovenski greckokatolici (Kosice, 1947), pp. 64103; Jerzy Czajkowski, "Woioskie elementy osadnicze" and Jifi Langer, "Znaczenie kolonizacji woloskiej w ksztaftowaniu kultury ludowej polnocnych i zachodnich Karpat," in Jerzy Czajkowski,ed., Lemkowie w historii i kulturze Karpat, Vol. I (Rzeszow, 1992), pp. 143-158 and 239-248;Tibor Miklos Popovics, "Vlach jog—vlach kolonizacio: adatok a ruszin telepiilesek letrejottenek kerdesehez/ Vlach Law—Vlach Colonization: Contribution on the Ruthenian Settlements," in Erno Eperjessy, ed., Tanulmdnyoka magyarorszdgi bolgdr, gorog, lengyel, ormeny, ruszin nemzetiseg neprajzdbol, Vol. Ill (Budapest, 2000), pp. 165-204. IVAN POP

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Vlach Law. See Vlach colonization Vlachs — an eastern Romance people related to the Romanians and Moldovans. As sheepherding pastoralists in the Balkans, the Vlachs were displaced from their traditional grazing lands by the expanding Ottoman Empire during the second half of the thirteenth and at the outset of the fourteenth century. Some moved with their flocks northward into the highland pastures (polonyny] of the Eastern Carpathians; thus began the so-called *Vlach colonization that eventually covered all of *Subcarpathian Rus' and mountainous areas farther west. In the Eastern Carpathian ranges the Vlachs were joined by Rusyn shepherds and soon slavicized, as evidenced by documents from the period which refer to Valachos sen Ruthenos (Vlachs together with Rusyns). Further reading: Dumitru Cranjala, Rumunske vlivy v Karpatech se zvldstnim zfetelem k Moravskemu Valassku (Prague, 1938); Jozef Macurek, Valasi v zdpadnich Karpatech v 15-18 stoleti (Opava, 1959). IVAN POP

Vladimir. See Fentsyk, levhenii Vladimir (Rajic). See Orthodox Eparchy of Mukachevo-Uzhhorod

Voditsa — Greek Catholic religious and pilgrimage site for Rusyns in the Vojvodina. Voditsa refers to a well located about three kilometers southwest of the town of Ruski Kerestur. Sometime in the year 1817 the first report was recorded of an extraordinary event that took place near the well. People began to report seeing a powerful light and hearing underground rumblings coming from the well, and an increase in the number of shining stars above. Some claimed to have seen the image of a small child or a woman with a baby in her arms. Such reports drew more and more people, who reported in turn other kinds of miraculous sightings. Initially a cross and eventually a small wooden chapel (1856) and church (1958) were constructed; for a while Voditsa was also the site of a men's monastery (1941-1954) and women's convent (1955-1958). Since 1853 Voditsa has been the destination of a pilgrimage held each spring. Further reading: Vladislav Varga, Voditsa: monografiia (Ruski Kerestur and Novi Sad, 1990).

Vodzik, Hryhorii/Wodzik, Grzegorz (pseudonym: Wyscig) (b. 1907, Mszana [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. May 24, 1943, Pielgrzymka [Generalgouvernement, Nazi Germany], Poland) — Lemko pro-Communist political activist. A member of the Polish *Communist party since early youth, Vodzik was arrested by the Polish authorities and

sentenced to four years in prison for Communist agitation in the *Lemko Region. During the Nazi German occupation in World War II he was a leading figure in the leftist opposition (the Communist movement in the Carpathian region), for which he was again arrested. He managed to escape, and by 1942 helped to organize in the Lemko Region the Polish Workers' (Communist) party; he then served as commander of its armed militia, the People's Guard/Gwardia Ludowa. Vodzik created the party's first partisan detachment, which attacked the Nazi German authorities and Ukrainian police in their service. In 1943 he was killed by a member of the rival anti-Communist Polish underground movement (Narodowe Sify Zbrojne). BOGDAN HORBAL

Voice of the Carpatho-Rusyn People. See Radio and Television Voitkovskii, Vasilii Mironovich (d. 1904) — Russian priest, pedagogue, and church historian. From 1850 to 1869 Voitkovskii was the Russian Orthodox priest at the chapel attached to the mausoleum of the wife of the former Hungarian palatine, located at Urom just outside of Budapest. During his nearly two decades in Urom he cooperated with the Russian diplomat in Budapest, Mikhail *Raevskii, in the spread of *Russophile ideology among the Rusyns of Hungary. Voitkov-skii helped the Rusyn cultural activist loann *Rakovs'kyi to publish the Russian-language newspapers, Zemskii pravitel'stvennyi viestnik dlia Korolevstva Ougorshchiny (1850-59) and Tserkovnaia gazeta (1856-58), and together they reworked Aleksander *Dukhnovych's Rusyn grammar, which appeared in Russian as Sokrashchennaia grammatika pis'mennago ruskago iazyka (1853). After returning to the Russian Empire in 1869 Voitkovskii taught church history and theology at Odessa University, and he published several articles about the Greek Catholic Church in Austria-Hungary, including "Ob unii vengerskikh rusinov" (1859). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Vojvodina — autonomous region in former Yugoslavia (Serbia) north of the Sava-Danube Rivers and home to a small number of Rusyns, who first began settling there in the 1740s (see Map 13). Geographically, the entire region is a flat lowland extension of the Hungarian Plain. The lands encompassed by the * Vojvodina had since the early medieval period been part of the Hungarian Kingdom, specifically its historic counties of Bachka/Bacs, Srem/Szerem, Torontal, Keve, and parts of Bodrog, Csongrad, and Valko. By the second half of the sixteenth century the entire area had been conquered by the Ottoman Empire. When, in the late seventeenth century, the *Habsburgs were

534 able to regain the Vojvodinian territories for the Hungarian Kingdom, they became part of the Austrian Empire's military frontier zones and were settled with agriculturalists who formed permanent military defense units (granicari/Grenzer). Serbs south of the Sava River still living under Ottoman rule were invited to settle, and they received promises from the Habsburg emperor that they would be allowed to elect their own ruler, or vojvoda, from which the territorial name Vojvodina derives. Between 60,000 and 70,000 Serbs did arrive (1690), and soon after Austria's Habsburgs also invited Germans (Swabians), Croats, Romanians, Magyars, Slovaks, and Rusyns, among others, to settle in the region. Despite the imperial government's promises, the Vojvodina was not given any autonomous status (with the exception of a brief period after the Revolution of 1848), being subdivided instead into the Hungarian counties of Bacs-Bodrog (Rusyn: Bachka), Szerem (Srem), and Torontal. The region was annexed to Yugoslavia at the end of World War I, but when that country was invaded by Nazi Germany in 1941 its ally Hungary annexed that part of the Vojvodina (Hungarian: Vajdasag) west of the Tisza River, that is, the area where most Rusyns lived. After World War II Yugoslavia regained its pre-war territories, and under Communist rule the Vojvodina was formally constituted as an autonomous region (1946) of the republic of Serbia. Full autonomy, which included a provincial assembly in Novi Sad and eventually equal representation in the Presidential Council alongside Yugoslavia's six republics, did not come to the Vojvodina until 1974. Certain restrictions on this autonomy, however, were put in place during the early stages (1990) of the recent crisis in former Yugoslavia. As a multinational region, the Vojvodina has five official nationalities, one of which, despite their small size, is the Rusyns (Rusnatsi}. This means, among other things, that Vojvodinian Rusyn is an official language in the region; all laws and signs appear in Rusyn alongside the other four official languages. Rusyns are concentrated in only a few communities in the Vojvodina, most particularly in Ruski Kerestur (94 percent of the inhabitants), Kucura (60 percent), and Djurdjevo (42 percent). Since these villages are in what had been the historic county of Bachka/Bacs-Bodrog, it is not uncommon to find in the literature references to the Bachka Rusyns and the BachkaRusyn language. Other villages with a high percentage of Rusyns are in the former historic county of Srem/Szerem, some within what is today the Vojvodina (Privina Glava, 45 percent; Berkasovo, 31 percent; Bacinci, 27 percent), others in neighboring Croatia (Petrovci, 87 percent; Miklusevci, 84 percent). During the last decades of the twentieth century, the number of Rusyns—in large part because of emigration prompted by the civil war in former Yugoslavia—has decreased between the years 1980 and 2002 from 19,300 to 15,900 in the Vojvodina and from 3,300 to 2,300 in Croatia. In general throughout this encyclopaedia, the term Vojvodina

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture is used whenever referring to the territory inhabited by Vojvodinian Rusyns, regardless of whether their villages are in the former Bachka or Srem counties and whether that territory is at present part of Serbia or of Croatia. Further reading: C.A. Macartney, Hungary and Her Successors (London, New York, and Toronto, 1937), pp. 380-437; Neboisha Tomashevich, ed., Sotsiialistichna Avtonomna Pokraina Vojvodina (Belgrade, 1980). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Vojvodina Exarchate/Vicariate. See Bachka/Backa Apostolic Administration; Greek Catholic Eparchy of Krizevci Volians'kyi, Ivan. See Sembratovych, Syl'vester Volhynian Operation. See Optanty Voloshyn, Avhustyn/Volosin, Agoston (pseudonym: A. Verkhovyns'kyi) (b. March 17, 1874, Kelechyn [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. July 19,1945, Moscow [Soviet Union], Russia) — pedagogue, educational administrator, author, editor, and leading civic, cultural, and political activist in Subcarpathian Rus' during the first half of the twentieth century. Voloshyn completed his studies at the gymnasium in Uzhhorod (1884-1892), spent a year at the Theological Faculty of the University of Budapest, and then returned to the Theological Seminary in Uzhhorod (1893-1896). After ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1897) he served for a short while at a parish in Uzhhorod, then became a professor (1900-1917) and later director (1917-1938) at the *Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College. He was also professor of pedagogy at the Theological Lycee in Uzhhorod (1906-1934). Voloshyn prepared for Rusyn schools a series of primers and grammars, the most widely used of which, Metodicheskaia grammatika ugro-russkogo literaturnogo iazyka, went through eight editions (1899-1930) and several linguistic changes (see also Language question). He also prepared elementary textbooks for literature (chytanky), arithmetic, physics, logic, and religious studies. His long years of teaching experience formed the basis of publications on the theory of pedagogy, including Pedagogyka y dydaktyka dlia uchytel'skykh semynarii (1923) and Korotka istoriia pedagogiky dlia uchtyel's'kykh semynarii (1931). Voloshyn was also well known as a literary critic; the author of popular plays (Fabiola, 1913, 1942; Marusia Verkhovynka, 1931; Bez Boha ni doporoha, 1935); and as a publicist on current politics (Dvipolytychmrozmovy, 1923), religious problems, and the language question (O pys 'mennom iazytsi podkarpatskykh rusynov, 1921; "Oborona Kyrylyky," 1937). During the last decades of Hungarian rule he was among the founders (1902) of the *Unio Publishing Company and editor (1903-1922) of its Rusyn-language newspaper, *Nauka; its annual almanacs (*Misiatsoslov);

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture its journal, Selo; and its series of church homilies, "Slovo Bozhie." During the interwar years Voloshyn published the newspaper Rus 'ka Krayna (1919), the short-lived successor to *Nauka; he played an active role in several other press organs, including the Greek Catholic journal *Blahovistnyk and the newspapers * Rusyn, *Svoboda, and *Nova svoboda; and he was an initiator and editorial board member of the scholarly journal of the *Prosvita Society, *Naukovyi zbornyk. Such a broad gamut of activity shows that Voloshyn was indeed an enlightener during the latter stages of the national awakening in *Subcarpathian Rus'. Voloshyn's ethnopolitical views underwent a marked evolution during his long career. He began as a patriot of the Hungarian state but later became a supporter of Czechoslovakia; once a believer in Rusyn national distinctiveness (from both Ukrainians and Russians) he became a supporter of the Ukrainian national orientation. As a member of Hungary's Central Commission for Greek Catholic Eparchies (1915) Voloshyn actively opposed that body's efforts to magyarize Carpatho-Rusyn parishes. He nevertheless considered himself a Hungarian state patriot, so that after the fall of Austria-Hungary in late 1918 he played a leading role in the Uzhhorod National Council, which supported the view that "Uhro-Rusyns" should remain within Hungary. The weak and indecisive policies of Budapest toward Rusyns angered Voloshyn, however, and the creation of the Soviet Hungarian Republic (March 1919) transformed him into a supporter of the new state of Czechoslovakia. He, in fact, became the leading pro-Czechoslovak propagandist among Rusyns, heading the Rusyn Society/Rus'kyi klub (March 1919) and helping to unite the various Rusyn political factions into the *Central Rusyn National Council which proclaimed the unification of Subcarpathian Rus' with Czechoslovakia (May 8, 1919). He was elected vice-chairman and was a member of the delegation that brought the Central National Council's declaration of unity to the Czechoslovak government and president in Prague. In the new political situation the Czechoslovak government appointed him a member of the *Directorate for * Subcarpathian Rus' (1919-1920) responsible for education and cultural affairs. Voloshyn was most politically active during the 1920s and 1930s, when he became the leading figure within the Ukrainian orientation in Subcarpathian Rus'. He was founding chairman (1923-1939) of the *Christian People's party, which chose him as their deputy in the Czechoslovak parliament (1925-1929). He also played an important role in Subcarpathia's economic affairs as founder of the Subcarpathian Bank (1920) and Union of Cooperatives. Following the Munich Pact he became a state secretary in the first autonomous government (October 11, 1938) for Subcarpathian Rus' headed by Andrii *Brodii. Then, under the influence of Nazi Germany, the Czechoslovak government appointed him prime minister of the second government (October 26) of Subcarpathian Rus'. Under

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his leadership Subcarpathian Rus' was renamed *CarpathoUkraine and made up exclusively of pro-Ukrainian activists, even though *Ukrainophiles comprised only a certain portion of the province's population at that time. Voloshyn understood that his minority government could not function within a normal parliamentary system; hence, he systematically did away with parliamentary-style rule, thereby responding to the desire of Nazi Germany that province be governed by a more authoritarian-style regime. All political parties were banned, and in their stead the single pro-government *Ukrainian National Union/Ukrams'ke natsional'ne ob"iednannia was created. His government also had its own internment camp at *Dumen and a paramilitary organization called the *Carpathian Sich, and it appointed "governmental commissars" to oversee the work of various offices of the province's administration. Under Voloshyn's leadership authoritarian tendencies in political life and administration took root quickly; government in Subcarpathian Rus' assumed the style typical of all provinces in post-Munich federal Czechoslovakia and was thus brought in line with the new order that came to dominate central Europe under the leadership of Hitler's Nazi Germany. As prime minister, Voloshyn proved to be a weak politician. He was no longer active as a pedagogue and priest and he allowed himself to be influenced by radical nationalists, although he did not share their ideas about Carpatho-Ukraine serving as a "Ukrainian Piedmont," i.e., constituting the first stage toward the creation of a future independent state on all Ukrainian territory. For their part, the radical nationalists from Galicia and among the ranks of the Galician-based Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists considered Voloshyn a soft and indecisive figure and plotted to remove him from office. During the critical days of March 14-15, 1939, it was Voloshyn who stopped the armed conflict between the Czechoslovak army stationed in the province and the Carpathian Sich, which had been provoked by the Ukrainian radical nationalists. Following the collapse of Czechoslovakia on March 14 Voloshyn agreed to the proclamation of Carpatho-Ukraine as an independent state, and he convened the diet (March 15) to adopt the appropriate law for this purpose. He was symbolically elected president on the same day. When his efforts to have Carpatho-Ukraine become a protectorate of Nazi Germany were rebuffed by Hitler, he turned to both Budapest and Bucharest with the request that Carpatho-Ukraine become an autonomous territory within either Hungary or Romania. When these efforts fell on deaf ears, Voloshyn with the members of his government left through Romania for Yugoslavia, spending some time in Zagreb before moving on to German-occupied Prague. In the former Czechoslovak capital, now within Nazi Germany's Reichsprotektorat of Bohemia-Moravia, Voloshyn returned to teaching as head of the Department of Pedagogy and vice-dean (1940-1945) of the Philosophical Faculty of

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the Ukrainian Free University. During the World War II years, as an emigre in Prague, he maintained his distance from the political excesses of Ukrainian nationalists, refusing to unite with either the forces loyal to Ukraine's former Herman Pavlo Skoropads'kyi, the Melnikite faction of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, or the supporters of the Ukrainian National Union from his own Carpatho-Ukraine. Rather, his goal was "to remove the Hungarians from Carpatho-Ukraine and restore the latter's autonomy"; which country CarpathoUkraine was to become part of was never made clear. In May 1945 Voloshyn was arrested by the SMERSH counter-espionage unit of the Soviet Army and transferred to Lefortovo Prison in Moscow, where he died two months later.

historian, and translator. In 1928 Vondracek was appointed the Czechoslovak government's chief inspector for schools in *Subcarpathian Rus', and before he left that post in 1937 he succeeded in raising the educational system to the level of other provinces in the country. He was considered at that time one of the persons most knowledgeable about Rusyn folk poetry, and he translated several of these works into Czech for Prague publications like Ceske slovo and Prazske noviny. A collection of his translations into Czech of Rusyn folk ballads appeared after he left Subcarpathian Rus': Lidove balady karpatoruske (1938).

Voloshyn published memoirs (Spomyny, 1923; repr. 1959, 1995) which covered the early period of his life until the unification ofRusyn lands with Czechoslovakia in 1919. His publicist, scholarly, pedagogical, and literary works have been republished in Tvory (1995) and Vybrani tvory (2002). Further reading: Mykola Vegesh and VasyF Turianytsia, Avhustyn Voloshyn (1874-1995): bibliohrafichnyi pokazhchyk (Uzhhorod, 1994); Volodymyr Byrchak, Avhustyn Voloshyn: ieho zhytia y diiatel'nost' (Uzhhorod, 1924); Volodymyr Birchak, Karpats'ka Ukraina: spomyny i perezhyvannia (Prague, 1940); Avhustyn Shtefan, Avhustyn Voloshyn:prezydent Karpats 'koi Ukrainy (Toronto, 1977); Mykola Zymomria, Vasyl' Homonnai, and Mykhailo Vegesh, Avhustyn Voloshyn (Uzhhorod, 1995); Karpats 'ka Ukraina i Avhustyn Voloshyn: materialymizhnarodnoinaukovoikonferentsii (Uzhhorod, 1995); Marianna I. Kliap, Pedahohichna ta osvitn'o-kul'turna diial'nist' Avhustyna Voloshyna v mizhvoiennyi period (Uzhhorod, 2001); Mykola Vegesh and V. Rosak, "Velych i trahediia Avhustyna Voloshyna," Carpatica-Karpatyka, Vol. XXIV (Uzhhorod, 2003), pp. 265-343. IVAN POP

Vorhach, laroslav. See Historiography: Lemko Region

Voloshynovs'kyi, losyf. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo Voloshynovych, Mykhal (pseudonym: Van'o Berezyna) (b. 1897, Krolik Woioski (?) [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. unknown) — Lemko belletrist and cultural activist of Russophile national orientation. After World War I Voloshynovych helped to organize in the *Lemko Region reading rooms of the *Kachkovs'kyi Society, in whose publications his poems appeared. Among his works is a tale about the fate of village elementary schoolteachers, Svit shkola a bida uchytel' (1931). BOGDAN HORBAL

Vondracek, Jan (b. January 25, 1882, Pacov [Austrian Bohemia], Czech Republic; d. September 28, 1953, PragueVsenory [Czechoslovakia], Czech Republic) — Czech pedagogue, educational administrator, literary and theater

IVAN POP

Vorits'kyi pass. See Verets'kyi pass Voron, Andrii (pseudonyms: Sygma, A. Kruk) (b. November 7, 1901, Zatysivka/Choma [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. June 22, 1962, Khust [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — pedagogue, writer, and political activist of Ukrainian orientation in Subcarpathian Rus'. After graduating from the *Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College (1921) Voron taught in elementary schools throughout * Subcarpathian Rus' and played an active role in *Ukrainophile organizations, in particular the Teachers' Society/Uchytel's'ka hromada, for which he edited (1937-1938) the journal *Uchytel's'kyi holos, and the Plast scouting movement, for which he edited (1934-1935) the magazine Plastun. His prose, poetry, and essays on *Hutsul *ethnography appeared in the periodic press during both the period of Czechoslovak and World-War II Hungarian rule, and he was the co-editor of an anthology of Ukrainian-language writers in Subcarpathian R.\is':Al'manakh pidkarpats 'kykh ukrains 'kykhpys 'mennykiv (1936). In autonomous *Carpatho-Ukraine Voron was secretary to luliian *Revai, the minister of the economy in the Voloshyn government, and was elected general secretary (January 1939) of the authoritarian political party, the *Ukrainian National Union/Ukrai'ns'ke natsional'ne ob"iednannia. After Hungary's annexation of Carpatho-Ukraine (March 1939) Voron was arrested, but then released when the country's leader, Admiral Miklos *Horthy, granted an amnesty (1940) to local Ukrainophiles. In 1942 Voron was again arrested during the Hungarian government's concerted attack on local Ukrainophiles, who were interrogated at the Kovner Palace in Mukachevo. Some pro-Ukrainian patriots have accused Voron of betraying the code of silence maintained by his fellow Ukrainophiles. In any case, he was released and for the rest of the war years continued to publish with the *Subcarpathian Scholarly Society translations and his own prose works, including Dvi otdanytsi (1942) and Hutsulska pomsta (1944). With the arrival of the Soviet Army in the fall

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture of 1944 Voron was arrested for being a Ukrainian nationalist, then commandeered by the military to work as a Czech and Hungarian translator. At the war's end he was with Soviet troops in Prague (May 1945), after which he returned home to teach at the Pedagogical School in Khust. Before long, however, Voron came under the surveillance of the Soviet secret police (NKVD-KGB); he was forced from his teaching post and left to spend the rest of his days supporting himself at odd jobs. Further reading: V. Bakhno, "Voron iz sertsem leva," Karpats 'kyi krai, No. 33 (Uzhhorod, 1991). IVAN POP

Vostok, Alexander. See Karpatska Rus 7Carpatho-Rus

Vostok Printing Company. See Printing and Publishing Vostok/The East — official newspaper of the *Liberty/ Svoboda Greek Catholic Carpatho-Russian Benevolent Association Liberty, published in Perth Amboy, New Jersey (191950). Among its editors were Basil K. Izak (1919-1921) and John E. Petach (1922-1935). The newspaper was published weekly in Rusyn using the Roman alphabet; it focused on the activity of the Liberty fraternal association and provided news about the Carpatho-Rusyn homeland. The editorial staff also published an annual almanac, Kalendar Organizaciji 'Svobody'( 1924-40). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Vox clamantis. See Potushniak, Fedor Vozdvizhenskii, D. See Sydor, Dymytrii Vozniak, Semen. See Lemko Association/Lemko-Soiuz Vozrozhdenenie Society. See Renaissance CarpathoRussian Student Society Vpered — newspaper published in Uzhhorod (1921-38) as the organ of the Social-Democratic party of Subcarpathian Rus'. Actually, the newspaper began in 1920 as a weekly under the title Narod, but beginning with the fifteenth issue in 1921 it adopted the name Vpered. Connected with the name change was a change in policy of the local *Social-Democratic party, which at the time broke with the Bolshevik-dominated Comintern and instead functioned as the "Subcarpathian Rusyn independent Social-democratic party." The founding editor of Narod/ Vpered was Stepan *Klochurak; other long-time editors included levhen Puza and Dmytro Nimchuk. Throughout its nearly two decades of existence, appearing weekly then twice weekly, Vpered supported its party's interests, was criti-

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cal of the economic shortcomings of Czechoslovak rule in * Subcarpathian Rus', and encouraged the Ukrainian national orientation among its readership. Further reading: Ivan Dobosh, Istoriia ukrains 'koi zhurnalistyky Zakarpattia 20—30-kh rokiv XX st. (Ivano-Frankivs'k, 1995), pp. 33-43; Vasyl' Habor, Ukrains 'ki chasopysy Uzhhoroda, 1867-1944 (Eviv, 2003), pp. 187-191 and 215-221. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

VrabeF, Mykhai'l (pseudonyms: Ivan Gazda) (b. November 20,1866, Vyrava [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. January 4, 1923, Budapest, Hungary) — pedagogue, journalist, and folklorist in the Presov Region and the Vojvodina. After graduating from the *Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College (1887) Vrabel' taught one year of elementary school in eastern Slovakia and then went to the *Vojvodina/Bachka region in southern Hungary, where he taught for a decade (1888-1898) in Rusyn elementary schools in Ruski Kerestur, Stari Vrbas, and Novi Sad. In 1898 Hungary's Ministry of Agriculture invited him to Budapest to serve as editor of the new Rusynlanguage government-sponsored newspaper, *Nedilia, which he edited for its entire existence until 1918. On its pages, aside from current news and farming information, Vrabel' helped to popularize classic works of Ukrainian and Russian literature as well as folklore, prose, and poetry by Rusyn authors. He also compiled as a supplement to Nedilia the annual almanac, Pryiatel' selian, and prepared for schools a popular reader, Bukvar' (1898; 4th ed., 1910), published by the *St. Basil the Great Society in the *iazychiie, that is in a mixture of Russian, *Church Slavonic, and Rusyn vernacular. Vrabel' is best known for the collection ofRusyn folksongs "in various Uhro-Rusyn dialects" he published at his own cost, Russkii solovei (1890; repr. 1981) He also compiled a collection of Rusyn folksongs from the *Maramorosh region, Uhrorussky narodny spivanky, Vol. I: spivanky Maramoroshsky (1900), and published several articles on the history, culture, and civic life in *Subcarpathian Rus'. Further reading: Kornii Zaklyns'kyi, "Deshcho pro Mykhaila Vrabelia, 1866-1923," Naukovyi zbirnyk Muzeiu ukrains 'koi kul'tury u Svydnyku, III (Bratislava and Presov, 1969), pp. 293-302; lanko Ramach, "Uchitel'ovanie Mikhaila Vrabelia u Novim Sadze (18951898)," Shvetlosts, XXIX, 6 (Novi Sad, 1991), pp. 48-66; Diura Varga, "Mikhailo Vrabel' i bachvanski rusnatsi," ibid., XXX, 2-6 (1992), pp. 94-103. IVAN POP

Vrabets, Savatii. See Orthodox Eparchy of MukachevoUzhhorod Vsederzhavnyi rusynskyi visnyk. See Internet; Kishshova, ludita; Popovych, Tibor Miklosh; Rusyn Minority Self-Government

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Vsegor'ev. See Polianskii, Olympii Vynnyts'kyi, lurii. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Przemysl Vyshens'kyi, Ivan. See A

Vysianyk, Mykhai'l. See Dobrians'kyi, Adol'f Vyslotskii, Dymytrii/Vislocky, Dmitri (pseudonym: Van'o Hunianka) (b. November 4, 1888, Labowa [Austria Galicia], Poland; d. December 28,1968, Eviv [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — editor, journalist, belletrist, and political and cultural activist among Lemkos in Europe and North America. After completing his gymnasium studies in Nowy Sa^cz (1910) Vyslotskii worked for the first Lemko-language newspaper, *Lemko (1912-13), and the Galician Russophile organ, Russkaia zemlia (1914). At the outset of World War I he was arrested by the Austro-Hungarian authorities, incarcerated in the *Talerhof internment camp, accused of treason, and sentenced to death at the Second * Vienna trial (1917). The sentence was commuted to life imprisonment. Freed after the collapse of Austria-Hungary, he was one of the organizers of the *Lemko Republic of Florynka (1918). Vyslotskii was also a member of the Carpatho-Rusyn National Council based in Presov (1918) and the *Central Rusyn National Council in Uzhhorod (May 1919), where he called for the unification of the *Lemko Region with other Rusyn lands in Czechoslovakia. He eventually remained in Czechoslovakia and settled in Presov, where he worked for the *Russophile newspapers Golos russkago naroda (1919) and Rus' (1921-22) and pub lished two issues of an almanac, Karpatorusskii kalendar' "Lemko" (1922-23), that were critical of the "ukrainianization" of *Subcarpathian Rus' and that favored the growth of the Orthodox movement. In 1922 Vyslotskii emigrated to Canada, where he was active in the Lemko community in the province of Manitoba. In 1927 he moved to the United States, where he became founding editor (1928) of the newspaper *Lemko and published for *Lemkos throughout North America an annual almanac, Karpatorusskii kalendar' Vania Hunianka (1930-38), and a popular language textbook, Karpatorusskii bukvar' Vania Hunianky (1931). Using the pseudonym Van' o Hunianka, he wrote several short stories depicting Rusyn life in Europe ("Marko Bohach," 1932; "Leshko Myrna,"

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture 1932) and in America ("Agenty," 1928; "Za schast'om"). His plays, such as Sholtys (1935) and Petro Pavlyk (1937), were designed to evoke in audiences a feeling for the harsh socioeconomic conditions and political oppression in his native Lemko Region. Vyslotskii was very active in Lemko secular organizations. He was co-founder (1929) of the *Lemko Association/LemkoSoiuz of the USA and Canada and organizer of its first congress (1931). Vyslotskii encouraged the Lemko Association's *Russophile and pro-Communist orientation; in 1934 he visited the Soviet Union and upon his return to the United States began a campaign urging Lemkos as well as all Rusyn Americans to emigrate to what was described as the Soviet "paradise." Throughout the 1930s he helped to finance proCommunist Rusyn activists in the European homeland, and he was one of the founders of the Carpatho-Russian National Committee (1938), the Carpatho-Russian National Congress (1939), and the *Carpatho-Russian American Center (1939) in Yonkers, New York. At the close of World War II Vyslotski returned to the Lemko Region but then immediately joined the resettlement process to the Soviet Ukraine (1946), living for a while in Uzhhorod and then L'viv. Throughout his career Vyslotskii was a controversial figure with seemingly contradictory political and cultural views. Although a long-time defender of Lemko interests, in 1962 he published an article (perhaps under pressure from the Soviet authorities) entitled "Shcho treba znaty Lemkam v Amerytsi," which appeared in North America and in Poland's Ukrainian-language newspaper, Nashe slovo. He called the Lemko Region a "Polish" land and tried to justify the *Lemko population resettlement of 1944-1946 by arguing that Lemkos were Ukrainians who should be living in Ukraine. The article caused great consternation and criticism in Lemko circles in Poland as well as North America. On the other hand, while he generally supported the Soviet approach to the Lemko problem Vyslotskii called for the preservation and use in publications of the Lemko vernacular, which included the very popular anthology of Lemko literature and publicistic essays under his editorship that appeared in the United States before he returned to Europe, Nasha knyzhka (1945). Further reading: Mykola Mushynka, "Dmytro Vyslots'kyi—nespravedlyvo zabutyi robitnycho-selians'kyi pys'mennyk," in Repertuarnyizbirnyk, No. 2 [127] (Presov, 1989), pp. 50-55; Bohdan Horbal', "Dymytryi Vyslotskii," Lemkivskii kalendar 1998 (Krynica and Legnica, 1998), pp. 89-98. BOGDAN HORBAL

w Walko, Ann. See Literature: United States Warhol, Andy (b. Andrew Warhola, August 6,1928, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA; d. February 22, 1987, New York City, New York, USA) — painter, filmmaker, publisher, and one of the world's leading figures in the Pop-Art movement of the 1960s and 1970s. Warhol's mother and father emigrated from the Rusyn-inhabited village of Mikova in northeastern Slovakia to the United States on the eve of World War I. Warhol himself never contributed anything to Rusyn culture, although some writers have attributed the choice of themes and motifs in his paintings to his Carpatho-Rusyn background. Since his death, however, Warhol's fame as an international celebrity has been used by activists in Europe as a means to assist them in raising awareness in international circles about Carpatho-Rusyns as a distinct people. The Warhol Foundation in New York City helped to fund the Warhol Family Museum of Modern Art (est. 1991) in Medzilaborce, Slovakia an Andy Warhol clubs have been established in Slovakia and in Hungary. Recent Rusyn literary works by Gabriel *HattingerKlebashko and Shtefan *Sukhyi among others have been inspired by the persona of the American artist as have several film directors in Europe and the United States (see Cinema). The specific relationship of the Warhol legacy to the post-1989 Rusyn national revival has been recorded in a documentary film by the Danish anthropologist, Tom *Trier, The Warhol Nation (1991), Further reading: Victor Bokris, Warhol (London, 1989); Bob Colacello, Holy Terror: Andy Warhol Close Up (New York, 1990); Raymond Herbenick, Andy Warhol's Religious and Ethnic Roots: The Carpatho-Rusyn Influence on His Art (Lewiston, N.Y., 1997). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Warhol Nation, The. See Cinema Warzeski, Walter C. See Historiography: United States Weiss, Josef Meir and Isaac/Eizik. See Jews Weller, Catherine Roberts (b. Catherine Roberts, 1862, Staveley, England; d. December 21, 1934, Mukachevo [Czechoslovakia], Ukraine) — English philanthropist in Subcarpathian Rus'. While still a student in England, Catherine Robarts became interested in foreign cultures and the welfare of peoples in other countries. In 1888 she married a wealthy American, Harry Weller, and lived for several decades in the United States and Canada. She returned to Europe during

World War I and worked in France caring for wounded soldiers from the Russian Empire. At the end of the war Weller met Ekaterina *Breshko-Breshkovskaia, who aroused in her an interest in *Subcarpathian Rus' and its people. In 1921 Weller moved to Czechoslovakia and a year later settled in the small Rusyn village of Neresnytsia, just north of Tiachovo in the far eastern part of Subcarpathian Rus'. There she founded and operated at her own expense an orphanage for 15 to 20 children and paid for the construction of a village school. She devoted the last 12 years of her life to the welfare of Rusyn youngsters and made provisions that after her death all her funds and property in Czechoslovakia would be donated to the *Shkol'naia pomoshch' society. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Werboczi, Istvan (b. 1458, Verbovets' [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. October 13, 1541, Buda [Hungarian Kingdom], Hungary) — landlord, lawyer, and Hungarian statesman. Werboczi was born into the lesser Hungarian gentry on an estate in Verbovets', a small village near Vynohradovo/Sevliush in former *Ugocha county. His origins are a source of controversy: some authors claim he is a magyarized Rusyn or a magyarized Slovak; others point out that he was buried in a Jewish cemetery. Werboczi studied at universities in Bratislava (Academia Istropolitana), Vienna, Padua, Bologna, and Cracow (Jagiellonian University), and then began to work in the Ugocha county administration. Thanks to his broad education, he quickly established a successful career, rising from archivist and registrar in the royal chamber (1483) and keeper of the royal list of property holdings (1483-1484) to the notary at the royal court for several magnate families (1484-1492) and for Transylvania (until 1517). In the first quarter of the sixteenth century Werboczi was one of the leading figures among the lower gentry, a social estate that eventually succeeded in attaining equal legal status with the upper gentry, or magnates. At the suggestion of King Ulaszlo II (Wladyslaw Jagiello, r. 1490-1516) and the Hungarian State Council Werboczi wrote down and edited all the laws of the kingdom that were in effect at the time (1498). This became the basis for a three-volume collection of law codes, Opus tripartitum iuris consuetudinarii requi Hungariae, popularly known as the Tripartitum. According to Werboczi's text, all inhabitants of the Hungarian Kingdom—with the exception of the gentry, clergy, and residents in free royal cities—were declared to be serfs (*jobbagionis). This meant that virtually the entire Rusyn population was enserfed, since they had no gentry of

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their own and very few residents in royal cities. Moreover, they had no exempt clergy, as their Orthodox priests were considered religious "schismatics." The provisions on enserfment were to remain in force until 1848. Although the Tripartitum was never approved by the State Council, it was published in 1517, implemented in practice by the gentry, and subsequently enshrined in Hungary's law code (1628). During their struggle for equality with the magnates the lower gentry suffered a setback, and their leader Werboczi left his high government post in protest. But after the death of King Ulaszlo II in 1516, Werboczi began a new stage in his career as judge of the royal court (1516-1526) and was elected the palatine of Hungary (1525). Following the Ottoman defeat of the Hungarian Army and the death of the king at the Battle of Mohacs (1526), which prompted a struggle for control of the Hungarian Kingdom between the *Habsburgs, Ottomans, and the Transylvanian magnate Janos Zapolyai, Werboczi joined Transylvania's cause. He became Zapolyai's royal chancellor and supported his pro-Ottoman political orientation. When the Ottomans secured their rule over central Hungary and its capital Buda, the sultan appointed Werboczi as "chief judge of the Magyars" in their newly formed administrative unit, the pashalik of Buda. Further reading: Karel Kadlec, "Stepan z Vrbovce a jeho Tripartitum," in Sbornik ved prdvnich a stdtnich, No. 2 (Prague, 1902); Oleksander Mytsiuk, Narysy z sotsial'no-hospodars 'koi istori'i b. Uhors 'koinyniPidkarpats 'kol'Rusy, Vol. I (Uzhhorod, 1936), esp. pp. 105-114; Gyorgy Bonis, Ajogtudo ertelmiseg a Mohacs elo'tti Magyarorszagon (Budapest, 1971). IVAN POP

White Croatia. See Slavs, Early settlement patterns; White Croats White Croats/Bily khorvaty — a tribe or union of tribes (confederation) of Sarmatian or Alan (Iranian-speaking) origin. The White Croats were first mentioned by the Byzantine emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus (r. 913-959) in his study, De administrando imperio. During the sixth century CE the White Croats took the place of the Antes, who had just been driven out of southwestern Ukraine by new invaders from the east, the *Avars. Like the Antes, the White Croats ruled over Slavic peoples. They created a confederation, known as Greater or White Croatia, which encompassed several Slavic tribes throughout territory stretching from the so-called Cherven towns along the upper valley of the Western Bug River in the east to the upper valleys of the San and Vistula rivers and along the northern slopes of the *Carpathian Mountains (present-day southern Poland) as far west as Silesia and Lusatia (the Sorbian tribes) as well as a part of northeastern Bohemia. From its political and economic center in Cracow, the White Croat confederation strove to control the important Dniester-

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture San-Vistula water route westward to the Oder and middle Elbe valleys. By the sixth century the originally Iranian-speaking White Croat elite had been largely slavicized. In the year 626 the Byzantine emperor Heraclius (r. 610641) called upon the White Croats to assist him in lifting the Avar seige of his capital, Constantinople. A large number of White Croat leaders responded to the emperor's call and with their retinues descended the Danube River into Byzantine territory to help Heraclius in his eventual victory over the Avars. The grateful emperor invited the White Croats to settle in the Byzantine province of Illyria where they came to rule over the local Slavic inhabitants to whom they bequeathed the name, Croat, used by their descendants to this day. That portion of the White Croats who remained along the northern slopes of the Carpathians were eventually drawn into the sphere of *Greater Moravia. After the reign of Prince Svatopluk (r. 871-894), however, the White Croats were separated from Moravian influence and eventually assimilated with the local Slavic tribes among whom they lived. The eastern branch of the White Croat confederation (perhaps an East Slavic tribe that lived in the upper valley of the Dniester River and who adopted the name of those who subjected them) were mentioned in the Rus' Primary Chronicle as allies of the grand prince of Kiev, Oleg (r. 880-912). Another chronicle entry mentions a revolt of the Croats in 992 against another Kievan grand prince, Vladimir (r. 980-1015), who defeated them. Some slavicized White Croats also settled along the southern slopes of the Carpathians. Traditional historiography associates the origins of Carpatho-Rusyns with the White Croats and their tribal confederation. Further reading: Francis Dvornik, The Making of Central and Eastern Europe (London, 1949; repr. 1974), esp. pp. 268-304; Constantine Porphyrogenitus, De Administrando Imperio, 2 vols., trans, with Commentary (Vol. II) by Gyula Moravcsik, R.J.H. Jenkins, Francis Dvornik et al. (Washington, D.C., and London, 1962-67); Konstantin Bagrianorodnyi, Ob upravlenii imperiei, trans, with commentary by G.G. Litavrin, in Razvitie etnicheskogo samosoznaniia slavianskikh narodov v epokhu rannego srednevekov 'ia (Moscow, 1982); losyp Kobal', "Bili Khorvaty ta Zakarpattia: problemy lokalizatsiT," Ekzyl', No. 1 (Uzhhorod, 1996), pp. 29-31. IVAN POP

Wiedergeburt. See Germans Wiesel, Elie. See Jews Winch, Michael. See Historiography: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region Winter, Eduard (b. September 16, 1896, Hradek/Grottau [Austrian Bohemia], Czech Republic; d. March 3, 1982, Berlin [German Democratic Republic], Germany) — German

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture historian and Slavist. In the mid-1920s Winter turned his attention to *Subcarpathian Rus' and visited the region, in particular its German-inhabited urban and village communities, which he wrote about in Die Deutschen in Slowakei und KarpatorusslandXI926). He later described the efforts of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo to gain jurisdictional independence from the Roman Catholic diocese of *Eger during the eighteenth century in "Die Kampfe der Ukrainer Oberungarn um eine nationale Hierarchic im Theresianischen Zeitalter"( 1939-40). Further reading: Mykola Zymomria, "Zakarpattia v otsinkakh akademika Eduarda Vintera," in Kalendar "Prosvity" na 1991 r. (Uzhhorod, 1991), pp. 47-48. IVAN POP

Wodzik, Grzegorz. See Vodzik, Hryhorii

541

headed by a chairman who, for the first decade of the Congress (1991-2001) was Vasyl' *Turok-Hetesh of Slovakia. The bimonthly magazine *Rusyn (1991-) functions as the official organ of the World Congress. The congress meets every two years in a different country where Rusyns live: Slovakia (Medzilaborce, 1991); Poland (Krynica, 1993); Yugoslavia (Ruski Kerestur, 1995); Hungary (Budapest, 1997); Ukraine (Uzhhorod, 1999), the Czech Republic (Prague, 2001) and Slovakia (Presov, 2003). Some congresses have included scholarly conferences from which several cooperative projects have arisen among Rusyns from various countries, resulting in anthologies ofRusyn poetry and prose, business arrangements, cultural exchanges, and school programs. The World Congress is considered by informed observers and government officials to be the authoritative representative ofRusyn interests. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Wojewodztwo. See Palatinate Wooden churches. See Architecture

World Academy of Rusyn Culture. See Chepa, Steven; Internet World Congress of Lemkos. See Lemko Region Society in Ukraine World Congress of Rusyns/Svitovyi kongres Rusyniv — a federation of organizations concerned with encouraging the development of the ethnic, cultural, and economic interests of Rusyns worldwide. Its participants accept the view that Carpatho-Rusyns (Rusyns, Lemkos, Rusnaks) form a distinct Slavic nationality that should be recognized as such by the governments of each country in which they live. The World Congress was established in March 1991 an is made up of eight permanent founding organizations and several associate organizations. The first organizations to be represented were from Poland (*Lemko Association/ Stovaryshynia Lemkiv), Slovakia (*Rusyn Renaissance Society/Rusyn'ska obroda), Ukraine (*Society of CarpathoRusyns/Obshchestvo karpats'kykh Rusynov), the United States (*Carpatho-Rusyn Research Center), and Yugoslavia (*Rusyn Cultural Foundation/Ruska matka). Subsequently, organizations from Hungary (*Organization of Rusyns in Hungary/Organizatsiia Rusynov u Madiarsku), the Czech Republic (*Society of the Friends of Subcarpathian Rus'/Spolecnost pfatel Podkarpatske Rusi), and Romania (* Cultural Union of Rusyns in Romania/Kulturne tovarystvo Rusyniv RomaniT) were added as permanent members. The congress is governed by the World Council of Rusyns/Svitova rada Rusyniv, comprised of one representative from each of the eight permanent founding organizations. The council is

World Council of Rusyns. See World Congress of Rusyns World Federation of Ukrainian Lemko Organizations/Svitova federatsiia ukra'ins'kykh lemkivs'kykh ob"iednan' — a group of Lemko organizations of Ukrainian national orientation. The federation was established in 1973 in Yonkers, New York, by its founding chairman (1973-1997) Ivan Hvozda. Originally called the World Lemkos Federation/Svitova Federatsiia Lemkiv, its goal was to unite all Lemko organizations and to raise their international profile. At first the federation cooperated with Lemko organizations of various national orientations, but it subsequently limited its contacts to Ukrainian organizations and it has taken an increasing interest in general Ukrainian problems. Together with the Boiko Regional Society the federation addressed a letter (1974) to the General Secretary of the United Nations protesting the government of Poland's alleged violation of its Ukrainian inhabitants' human rights; it sent similar protests to the Polish and American governments and to other international organizations. Among the federation's organs were the newspaper Lemkivs 'hi visti, published in Toronto (1975-79) by the *Union of Lemkos in Canada, and the first two volumes of the scholarly journal devoted primarily to Lemko history and culture, Annaly LemkivshchynylAnnals of the World Lemkos Federation (1974-75). After 1989 and the collapse of Communist rule in centra and eastern Europe the federation's two organizations in North America, the *Organization for the Defense of Lemko Western Ukraine based in the United States and the *Union of Lemkos of Canada, were joined by the *Union of Lemkos in Poland, the *Union of Rusyn-Ukrainians in Slovakia, the *Lemko Region Society in Ukraine, the *Union of Rusyns and Ukrainians in Croatia, and the *Union of Rusyns and

542 Ukrainians in Yugoslavia. This body is governed by a presidium, which comprises the chairmen of each of the participating organizations. The federation organized two world congresses that took place in Eviv, Ukraine. At the second congress, the member organizations wanted to make clear their national orientation and adopted a new name: the World Federation of Ukrainian Lemko Organizations/Svitova federatsiia ukra'ins'kykh lemkivs'kykh ob"iednan'. The revised federation supports Ukrainian-language education, helps to organize cultural events, and lobbies the Ukrainian government to assist Ukrainians abroad (i.e., *Ukrainophile Lemkos and Ukrainophile Rusyns) whom it claims to represent. The federation has also been very vocal regarding the moral and material indemnity for the Lemko victims of the *Vistula Operation of 1947 and it repeatedly condemns what it alleges are the anti-Ukrainian tendencies of the current Rusyn move-

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture ment in Slovakia and Poland. Further reading: Volodymyr Kikta, "1-yi Svitovyi kongres SvitovoT federatsiT lemkiv u vil'nii Ukraini," Lemkivshchyna, XV, 4 (Clifton, N.J., 1993), pp. 18-28. BOGDAN HORBAL

World Wide Web. See Internet Wyscig. See Vodzik, Hryhorii Wyszynski, Stefan Cardinal. See Greek Catholic Eparchy of Przemysl Wosciansko-robotniczy komitet Lemkowszczyzny. See Peasants and Workers Committee of Lemko Region

Y Yadlovsky, Semen. See Rusyn National Union

Yuhasz, Michael Sr. See Carpatho-Russian Congress; Greek Catholic Union; Mid-European Democratic Union Yurcisin, John (b. August 17, 1918, Barnesboro, Pennsylvania, USA; d. June 20, 2003, Ebensburg, Pennsylvania, USA)—priest, editor, and seminary professor in the United States of Rusyn descent. After graduating from New Jersey State College in Trenton (1940), Yurcisin began to work as assistant editor responsible for youth and *Sokol matters at the *Greek Catholic Union of Rusyn Brotherhoods. When that organization ended its struggle against Latinization and reconciled with the Greek (Byzantine) Catholic bishop, Yurcisin decided to enter the seminary of the newly established church jurisdiction which eventually became known as the *American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Diocese. He was ordained a priest of that diocese in 1944, where he served in various capacities until his retirement in 1996. He served

most of his career at the parish in Johnstown, Pennsylvania (1952-1996), which eventually became the seat of the diocese and for which he was responsible for overseeing the construction of the diocesan cathedral (1952-1954). As long time chancellor and later vicar general (1990-1996), Yurcisin was among the most influential figures in the Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Diocese. His impact on the larger church community and ability to propagate knowledge about the Carpatho-Rusyn heritage came primarily through his work as editor (1949-1964) of the diocesan newspaper, *Church Messenger-/Cerkovnyi vistnik, and as professor (1951-1996) and dean (1951-1975) of the diocesan seminary in Johnstown, where among the subjects he taught were "Carpatho-Russian" history and language. For the larger public he prepared short Carpatho-Rusyn church histories, Korotka cerkovna istorija karpatorusskaho naroda (1954) and A History of the Carpatho-Russian People and Their Church (1984), and an English/Carpatho-Russian Dictionary (1994). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Z

Zaborsky, Jonas (b. February 3, 1812, Zaborie [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. January 23, 1876, Zupcany [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia) — Protestant minister, later Roman Catholic priest, writer, and Slovak cultural awakener. Educated at Halle University in Germany (1839-1840), Zaborsky is the author of grotesque and satirical tales, comedies describing socioeconomic conditions among Slovaks, and an autobiographical tale in which he calls himself a *panSlavic priest, Panslavistickyfardr(lSlQ). In 1853 Zaborsky was transferred to a parish in the Slovak village of Zupcany near Presov. He was to spend the rest of his life in eastern Slovakia, where he maintained close contacts with Aleksander *Dukhnovych and other Rusyn cultural awakeners. In an earlier collection of poetry, Zehry (1851), he dedicated poems to Adol'f *Dobrians'kyi and Aleksander *Pavlovych, and he also published a study on what he called the eastern Rusyn-Slovak dialect (1867). Further reading: Frantishek Shtraus, "lonash Zabors'kyi (18121876) ta ukrai'ntsi," Naukovyi zbirnyk Muzeiu ukrains 'ko'ikul'tury v Svydnyku, XII (Bratislava and Presov, 1985), pp. 147-165. IVAN POP

Zador, Dezyderii (b. October 20, 1912, Uzhhorod [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. September 16,1985, Eviv [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — pianist, organist, orchestral director, composer, and pedagogue of Magyar origin in *Subcarpathian Rus'. Both his parents were professional musicians. After completing the gymnasium in Uzhhorod (1924-1932) Zador was trained in Prague at the conservatory (1932-1934), after which he did graduate work in composition and musicology and served as department head (referent) responsible for music in *Subcarpathian Rus' in the Czechoslovak Ministry of Education (1936-1938). He began his long pedagogical career in music as a teacher at various schools in Subcarpathian Rus' (1938-1943), as professor and later director of the School of Music in Uzhhorod (1946-1949), and as professor at the Eviv Music Conservatory (1963-1985). While still in Subcarpathian Rus' he performed extensively as director and soloist with the Uzhhorod Symphony Orchestra (1947-1950) and as director of the Uzhhorod Philharmonia (1954-1963). Zador was always interested in local folk music and participated in several folkloric expeditions throughout Subcarpathian Rus' while working for the Czechoslovak Ministry of Education. He was a co-compiler of a collection of Rusyn folksongs (Narodnipisnipodkarpatskykh rusynov, 1944) and wrote a theoretical analysis of the kolomyika-style songs ("Kolomyika v rus'kom narodnom tvorchestve," 1942). Many of his compositions for piano, chorus, and orchestra

were embued with themes and melodies from Rusyn folk music, including the cantata Karpaty (The Carpathians, 1959) and the symphonic poems Verkhovyna (1971) and Karpats 'ka rapsodiia (Carpathian Rhapsody, 1974). Further reading: laroslava Rak, Tvorchyi portret Dezyderiia levhenovycha Zadora (Uzhhorod, 1997). IVAN POP

Zadorozhnyi, Volodymyr. See Ukrainians Zadunaiov. See Kovach, Mikhal ZagrebeFskii, lurii. See Dukhnovych Theater Zahoroda — quarterly illustrated magazine published in Zyndranowa, Poland (1994-) as the organ of the *Museum of Lemko Culture; its first nine issues (to 1996) were under the editorship of the Lemko writer Volodyslav *Hraban. Zahoroda contains articles written in Lemko Rusyn, Polish, and Ukrainian that present in a popular manner various aspects of the history, ethnography, and culture of *Lemkos. Also included are original works of Lemko-Rusyn literature and reports on current developments in Lemko cultural life in Poland. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Zahradka. See Ruske Slovo Publishing House Zajic, Josef. See Agrarian/Republican party; Czechs Zajicek, Jaroslav (b. August 26, 1894, Dolany [Austrian Bohemia], Czech Republic; d. September 20, 1980, Mlada Boleslav [Czechoslovakia], Czech Republic) — Czech civil servant and painter in Subcarpathian Rus'. Aside from his work as a Czechoslovak government official for political affairs in Uzhhorod during the 1920s and 1930s Zajicek played an active role in Subcarpathian artistic life. He was a founding member of the *Society of Fine Arts in Subcarpathian Rus'/Obshchestvo deiatelei izobrazitel'nykh iskusstv na Podkarpatskoi Rusy (1931) and displayed his own work in its exhibitions. Zajicek's paintings were filled with subjects from life in * Subcarpathian Rus'. After he returned to Bohemia (1938) a cycle of his works on Subcarpathian themes was exhibited the following year in the town of Mlada Boleslav. IVAN POP

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Zakarpats'ka oblast'. See Transcarpathian Oblast Zakarpats 'ka pravda. See Karpatskaia/Karpats 'ka pravda

Zakarpats'ka Ukrai'na. See Transcarpathian Ukraine Zakarpats'ke oblasne vydavnytstvo. See Printing and Publishing Zakarpats'kyi ansambl' pisni i tantsiu. See Transcarpathian Folk Choir Zakarpats'kyi kraieznavchyi muzei. See Transcarpathian Regional Museum

Zakarpats'kyi narodnyi khor. See Transcarpathian Folk Choir Zaklyns'kyi, Kornelii (b. August 1,1889, Eviv [Austrian Galicia], Ukraine; d. May 1,1966, Prague [Czechoslovakia], Czech Republic) — Galician-Ukrainian emigre pedagogue, folklorist, and literary scholar. After World War I Zaklyns'kyi settled in *Subcarpathian Rus', where he taught at the Ukrainian-language gymnasium in Berehovo (1920-1938). He was among the most active in a group of Ukrainian emigre intellectuals from Galicia who did their best to educate Rusyn youth in a Ukrainian national spirit. Zaklyns'kyi was also an avid collector of Rusyn folklore, about which he published several articles in the journal *Podkarpatska Rus' and a collection of folk legends from the region: Narodni opovidannia pro davnynu (1925). As a Ukrainian cultural activist Zaklyns'kyi was briefly arrested in 1939 after Subcarpathian Rus' was annexed to Hungary. He then moved to Prague, where he continued to teach in the Ukrainian gymnasium during World War II and resumed his research in eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century Rusyn literature. IVAN POP

Zalman Jewish Museum. See Jews: Lemko Region; Museum of Lemko Culture in Zyndranowa Zalozets'kyi-Sas, Volodymyr. See Naukovyi zbornyk Tovarystva "Prosvita "; Ukrainians Zamosc, Council/Synod of. See Archimandrite; Art; Basilian Order; Hegumen Zapletal, Florian (b. June 10, 1884, Bochof [Austrian Moravia], Czech Republic; d. October 16, 1969, Prague [Czechoslovakia], Czech Republic) — Czech scholar, publicist, and civil servant. Zapletal studied journalism at Charles

University in Prague and art history in Vienna. In 1914 he was drafted into the Austro-Hungarian Army. While his unit was fighting the tsarist Russian Army, which had reached the Carpathian foothills in the *Presov Region of eastern Slovakia, Zapletal encountered for the first time Rusyn wooden churches, whose beauty he recorded in sketches. Before the end of 1914 he surrendered to the tsarist forces and spent the rest of the war years in the Russian Empire. There he joined the Czechoslovak Legion, edited its weekly newspaper Czechoslovak, and witnessed the Bolshevik takeover in St. Petersburg and Moscow (1917). Zapletal saw a positive side to the Bolshevik government's expropriation of art works, and he discussed his interests in Carpathian wooden architecture with the director of Moscow's Tretiakov Gallery, the art historian and restorer of Rusyn origin, Ihor *Hrabar. In late 1918 Zapletal returned to what by then had become the new country of Czechoslovakia, where he was appointed as an expert advisor to the government on eastern Europe. In 1919 he was sent to * Subcarpathian Rus', where he subsequently became secretary (1920-1921) to the province's first governor, Gregory *Zhatkovych. At the same time, Zapletal wrote on political and cultural matters, and he researched further the region's cultural monuments, in particular its wooden churches. After governor Zhatkovych's resignation in early 1921 Zapletal returned to Prague, where he worked at the Ministry of Defense. Despite living in the western part of Czechoslovakia, Zapletal continued to visit Subcarpathian Rus' for several summers in order to study the area's history and wooden architecture. One result of his research was a classification scheme for Subcarpathian architecture that took into consideration comparisons with the rest of central Europe: "Dfevene chramyjihokarpatskych Rusinu" (1923), "Vytvarny stfedovek na Podkarpatske Rusi" (1924), "Lemkovsky typ rusinskeho chramu" (1924). He also published several historical works dealing with Czech-Rusyn cultural relations in the nineteenth century—Rusini a nasi buditele (1921) and A. I. Dobrjanskij a nasi Rusini r. 1849-51 (1927)—as well as an analysis of the early medieval rotunda church at *Horiany: Horjanskd rotunda (1922). On the eve of his death, Zapletal donated his archive and library of books and Subcarpathian newspapers from the 1920s and 1930s to the *Museum of Ukrainian-Rus' Culture in Svidnik, Slovakia. Subsequently, his widow gave to the folklorist Mykola *Mushynka Zapletal's unique photo archive (500 glass negatives) of wooden architecture. With the help of Rusyn-American donors, some of these photographs were published in a book devoted to Zapletal compiled by Paul Robert Magocsi: Holzkirchen in den Karpatenl Wooden Churches in the Carpathians (1982). Further reading: Mykola Mushynka, "Doslidnyk kul'tury zakarpats'kykh ukraintsiv," Duklia, XXVIII, 1 (Presov, 1970), pp. 56-60; Paul R. Magocsi, "Einleitung/Introduction," in Holzkirchen in den Karpaten: Die Fotografien Florian ZapletalsI Wooden Churches

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546 in the Carpathians: The Photographs ofFlorian Zapletal (Vienna, 1982), pp. 7-35. IVAN POP

Zapotocky, Antonin. See Pratsuiucha molod' Zapysky KSUT. See Cultural Union of Ukrainian Workers Zarechnak, Michael. See Dobrians'kyi CarpathoRussian Student Society Zaria. See Russka zaria Zaria Cultural and Enlightenment (National) Union of Yugoslav Rusyns/Kulturno-prosvitni (natsionalni) soiuz iugoslavianskikh Rusinokh "Zaria"—popular cultural organization among the Vojvodinian Rusyns of Russian national orientation. Zaria was founded in 1933 in Stari Vrbas, Yugoslavia, by Rusyns dis satisfied with the clerical and *Ukrainophile tendencies of the *Rusyn National Enlightenment Society/Ruske Narodne Prosvitne Druzhtvo. They wanted instead an organization that would promote the idea that Vojvodinian Rusyns, like all Rusyns, were a branch of the Russian nationality. To stress their "Russianness," the organization's weekly newspaper included a symbolic second "s" in its title, Russkii batoh (later *Russka zaria), and the Vojvodinian Rusyn language used in these and other publications was heavily influenced by Russian. Zaria also promoted the Orthodox movement and was particularly successful in the town of Kucura, where it formed an Orthodox parish. Aside from its weekly newspaper, the organization's religious and national ideology was presented in an annual almanac, Russkii narodni kalendar "Zaria" (1935-1941), and in an influential history of all "Russians" (including Belarusans, Ukrainians, and Rusyns) by Nikolai D. *Oleiarov, Istoriia russkogo naroda (1934). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Zarichniak, Mikhail. See Dobrians'kyi CarpathoRussian Student Society

he acquired an interest in the Rusyns living in the eastern part of the country, and he was to become one of the most active promoters of *Subcarpamian Rus' and its culture. In 1935 he became head of the Club of Friends of Subcarpathian Rus'/ Klub pfatel Podkarpatske Rusi, based in Bratislava, which had its own Czech-language publishing house. Zatloukal published a large volume about all aspects of Subcarpathian Rus', with essays by a wide range of Rusyns and Czech officials and specialists on the region, Podkarpatskd Rus (1936; repr. 2004). He also published a collection of his own poetry, Vitr z polonin (1936), based on themes from Subcarpathian Rus'. The opening poem from this collection, "Podkarpatorusky zalm" (The Subcarpathian Rusyn Psalm), was set to music in a cantata for chorus and orchestra, Zalm zeme podkarpatoruske (1938), by the noted Slovak composer Evgen Suchon. Zatloukal was founding editor (1936-1938) of the monthly magazine *Podkarpatoruskd revue, a publication intended for the intellectual elite which included critical analyses of Rusyn society, the works of Rusyn journalists and younger belletrists (in Czech translation), and Zatloukal's own poetry. When, in 1938, Czechoslovakia was faced with imminent destruction, Zatloukal protested what he was witnessing in a collection of poems entitled the Betrayed Land (Zrazendzeme, 1938). During World War II he lived in Nazi German-occupied Brno, where he led an underground organization. This resulted in his arrest by the Gestapo and imprisonment in a concentration camp (1941-1942). He had managed before his arrest to publish another collection, Promeny (1939), which included a cycle of poems, "Kfiz a pest," filled with recollections about Subcarpathian Rus' (in particular a ballad about the village of Kanora). Zatloukal's last work on a Subcarpathian theme was a libretto written in the early 1950s for an opera, Verchovina, by the Czech composer Zdenek Blazek. A selection of Zatloukal's poems based on Subcarpathian motifs appeared posthumously (Vitr s polonin, 2000). Further reading: Mecislav Krhoun, "Jaroslav Zatloukal a Zakarpats'ka Ukrajina," in Mykhailo Rychalka, ed., Zhovten' i ukra'ins'ka kul'tura (Presov, 1968), pp. 248-254; Ladislav Soldan, "Jaroslav Zatloukal, basnik Podkarpatske Rusi," in Jaromir Hofec, ed., Stredni Evropa a Podkarpatskd Rus (Prague, 1997), pp. 23-27. IVAN POP

Zatkovic, Gregory. See Zhatkovych, Gregory I. Zatkovich, Paul J. See Zhatkovych, Pavel

Zatloukal, Jaroslav (b. March 6, 1905, Opava [Austrian Silesia], Czech Republic; d. September 23, 1958, Brno [Czechoslovakia], Czech Republic) — Czech pedagogue, poet, literary scholar, and publicist. After graduating from the Masaryk University in Brno, Zatloukal moved to Slovakia, where he worked as a teacher in Bratislava. It was there that

Zazuliak, Mikhailo. See Diadia Rusyn National Theater Zc. Denes atya. See Zhatkovych, lurii Koloman Zdacha. See Kontingent/Zdacha Zeedick, Peter I. (b. November 14,1891, Clayville, Pennsylvania, USA; d. August 14, 1970, Wexford, Pennsylvania,

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture USA) — physician and cultural activist of Russian national orientation in the United States. Although born in the United States, Zeedick was sent to Europe for his high school (gymnasium) education in Presov and Levoca (1903-1910); there he met several prominent leaders among Rusyns in eastern Slovakia. He returned to the United States, was trained as a physician (M.D., University of Pittsburgh, 1916), and served for nearly half a century as medical advisor (1920-1968) to the *Greek Catholic Union ofRusyn Brotherhoods. Aside from his advice to Rusyn Americans about health problems, Zeedick was concerned with promoting Rusyn culture. He organized the first annual Rusyn Day (Russkij den') in the Pittsburgh area (1921); published numerous articles on Rusyn history; and was a founding member (1932) of the Committee for the Defense of the Eastern Rite (KOVO), for which he translated a study about the late-nineteenth-century struggle for church autonomy in *Subcarpathian Rus', Back in Eighteen Seventy-One (1933). Zeedick believed that CarpathoRusyns are a branch of the Russian nationality, and therefore he helped mobilize the Rusyn-American community to create a Russian Nationality Room at the University of Pittsburgh (1938) of which he was for many years chairman. Further reading: "Zizneopisanije Dr-a Petra Iv. Zeedick-a HI. Eikarja Gr. Kaft. Sojedinenija," in Michael Roman, ed., ZolotoJubilejnyj Kalendar 'Greko Kaft. Sojedinenija, Vol. XLVII (Munhall, Pa., 1942), pp. 113-117;"Zolotyj JubilejDoktora Petra I. Zeedick-a v Medikal'noj Professii," in Michael Roman, ed., Jubilee Almanac of the Greek Catholic Union of the U.S.A.,Vol. LXXI (Munhall, Pa., 1967), pp. 252-255. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

ZegUC, Ivan. See Zheguts', Ivan Zeikan/Zekany, loanykii (b. unknown; d. November 6, 1687, Uhlia monastery [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine) — Orthodox priest and church hierarch in Subcarpathian Rus', where in the mid-seventeenth century he founded the monastery at Imstychovo. In 1661 the lord of the Mukachevo landed estate, Gyorgy I *Rakoczy's widow Zsofia *Bathory, appointed Zeikan bishop of the *Eparchy of Mukachevo. This was done against the will of the Orthodox clergy as part of the secular ruler's attempt to block the arrival in Mukachevo of the reigning bishop, *Parfenii Petrovych, who had accepted the *Unia/Church Union with Rome. The historian Mykhai'l *Luchkai later suggested that Zeikan had actually been bishop since 1658. In any case, it was during Zeikan's residency at the *Mukachevo Monastery that its stone church was built (16611664). In 1664 Zsofia Bathory returned to her original Roman Catholic faith, welcomed the pro-Union Bishop Parfenii to Mukachevo, and forced the Orthodox Bishop Zeikan to retire (1665) to the *Uhlia Monastery beyond her domains in the

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eastern part of * Subcarpathian Rus'. During the next two decades, until his death in 1687, Zeikan administered the Maramorosh Orthodox Eparchy, both its Rusyn parishes and, after 1680, its Romanian parishes. IVAN POP

Zeikan, Ivan (b. 1670, Karachyn [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. 1739, Karachyn [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine) — Russian diplomat and pedagogue ofRusyn origin. Zeikan studied in a wide number of secondary schools and universities at Satu Mare, Eviv, Regensburg, Prague, and Vienna. In 1697 he was hired as a translator at Tsar Peter I's newly expanded Russian embassy in Vienna. Zeikan worked there until 1702, when he moved to Moscow. His reputation as a teacher, his knowledge of several languages, and his connections at the tsarist court won him an appointment as tutor to the tsar's cousins, Aleksandr and Ivan Narishkin. During these years (1708-1721) Zeikan traveled widely throughout western Europe. In 1724 he reluctantly agreed to become tutor to the tsar's son and successor. Linked closely as he was to the tsarist court, Zeikan got caught up in the political intrigue that followed Peter I's death (1725). Zeikan's property was confiscated, and in 1727 he was forced to return to the Hungarian Kingdom, where he spent the rest of his days in his native Rusyn village of Karachyn. Zeikan is frequently remembered in historiography as the first Rusyn immigrant "success story" in the Russian Empire, an example that was to be repeated by several other individuals at the outset of the nineteenth century. Further reading: A.V. Florovskii, "Karpatoross I. A. Zeikan—nastavnik imperatora Petra Il-go," in Karpatorusskii sbornik (Uzhhorod, 1930), pp. 112-122; A.V. Florovskii, "I. A. Zeikan—pedagog iz Zakarpat'ia: stranitsa iz istorii russko-zakarpatskikh kul'turnykh sviazei pri Petre Velikom," in Russkaia literatura XVIII veka i slavianskie literatury (Moscow, 1963), pp. 105-122; lakov VarodiShternberg, "Zakarpatets Ivan Zeikan v okruzhenii Petra I," Naukovyi zbirnyk Muzeiu ukra'ins 'koikul'tury u Svydnyku, XIV (Bratislava and Presov, 1986), pp. 33-46. IVAN POP

Zem spieva. See Cinema Zeman, Kamill. See Olbracht, Ivan ZemledieVskaia politika. See Karpatorusskii viestnik Zetnlia i volia — Ukrainian-language newspaper published twice weekly in Uzhhorod (1934-38) as the organ of the populist *Ukrainophile wing of the pro-Czechoslovak * Agrarian/Republican party in Subcarpathian Rus'. Although strongly committed to the idea that Rusyns are a branch of the Ukrainian nationality, Zemlia i volia, under its editor Stepan

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*Klochurak, favored cooperation with local *Russophiles to promote Rusyn political and socioeconomic interests. The editors also published an annual almanac: Kaliendar 'Zemli /vo//'(1936). Further reading: Vasyl' Habor, Ukra'ins 'ki chasopysy Uzhhoroda, 1867-1944 (Eviv, 2003), pp. 379-383. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Zemlian, lurii. See Tarnovych, luliian Zemplyn (Hungarian: Zemplen; Slovak: Zemplin) — county in the northeast of the former Hungarian Kingdom. Zemplyn county covered 6,269 sq. kilometers and was bordered by *Sharysh/Saros and *Abov/Abauj-Torna counties in the west and by *Ung county in the east (see Map 9). Its northern boundary was formed by the crests of the Carpathian Mountains (the Lower Beskyd ranges), beyond which lay the Austrian province of Galicia. Along its southeastern edge was the Vihorlat ridge. Zemplyn came into being in the thirteenth century. Its name derives from its first administrative center (1299-1666) at Zemplin castle, whose ruins are near the present-day village of Zemplin along the Bodrog River in eastern Slovakia; from 1666 to 1918 its administrative center was Satoraljaujhely. Among other important towns were Humenne and Stropkov in the north, which were centers of large manorial estates owned until the end of the seventeenth century by the *Drugeth family. Of Zemplyn's 343,000 inhabitants in 1910 the vast majority were *Magyars (194,000) who lived primarily in the southern part; * Slovaks (93,000) lived in the middle, Rusyns (39,000) in the north, and scattered throughout were *Jews (33,000) and *Germans (9,700). With the collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1918 Zemplyn county was divided between Czechoslovakia and Hungary. According to present-day boundaries, the territory of the former county includes the districts (okresy) of Stropkov, Medzilaborce, Humenne, Snina, Vranov, Trebisov, and part of Michalovce in Slovakia, and the eastern edge of Borsod-Abauj-Zemplen county in Hungary. Further reading: Alexander Wekerle, "Das Zempliner Comitat," in Die osterreichisch-ungarische Monarchie in Wort undBild: Ungarn, Vol. V, pt. 2 (Vienna, 1900), pp. 363-386; Samu Borovsky, ed., Zemplen vdrmegye, Magyarorszag varmegyei es varosai, Vol. XXI (Budapest, n.d.); Vasylii Hadzhega, "Dodatky do ystorii rusynov y rus'kykh tserkvei v buvsh. zhup! Zemplynskoi," Naukovyi zbornyk Tovarystva "Prosvita, " VII-VIII (Uzhhorod, 1931), pp. 1-167; IX (1932), pp. 1-67; X (1934), pp. 17-120; XI (1935), pp. 17-182; and XII (1937), pp. 37-83; Ferdinand Ulicny, Dejiny osidlenia Zemplinskej zupy (Michalovce, 2001). IVAN POP

Zemsk'u pravitel'stvennyi viestnik dlia korolevstva Ougorshchiny. See Rakovs'kyi, loann; Voitkovskii,

Vasilii Mironovich

Zemskii podkarpatorusskii narodnyi teatr. See Subcarpathian Rusyn National Theater

Zems'kyi muzei im. Lehots'koho. See Lehoczky Provincial Museum Zganec, Vinko (b. January 22,1890, Vratisinci [Hungarian Kingdom], Croatia; d. December 12, 1976, Zagreb [Yugoslavia], Croatia) — Croatian ethnomusicologist. Although trained as a lawyer (Ju.Dr., 1919), Zganec studied music privately and after 1945 he became one of Croatia's leading ethnomusicologists. He collected folk melodies from all parts of Croatia and from some neighboring lands, including the *Bachka region inhabited by Vojvodinian Rusyns. Zganec published a collection of 116 Vojvodinian Rusyn folksongs (Pjesmejugoslavenskih Rusina, 1946), which he had earlier transcribed from students at the Greek Catholic Theological Seminary in Zagreb. He provided four-part harmonies for each song, several of whose melodies were published for the first time. Zganec's collection was used widely by Rusyn amateur choirs in the *Vojvodina and was republished in 1996. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Zhak, Ivan. See Literature: Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region Zhatkovych/ZatkovicVZsatkovich, Gregory I. (b. December 2,1886, Holubyne [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. March 26,1967, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA) — lawyer and Rusyn political activist in the United States and Europe. At the age of five, Zhatkovych emigrated with his parents to the United States. After graduating from high school in Pittsburgh he attended the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia (1903-1907) and later its law school, from which he received a doctorate (LL.D., 1910). That same year he began his own law practice and then worked for the General Motors Corporation in Pittsburgh. Although the son of Pavel *Zhatkovych, the founding editor of the influential Rusyn-Amrican newspaper, *Amerikansky russky viestnik, Gregory was not active in Rusyn-American affairs until the late summer of 1918, when he was asked to become spokesperson for the *American National Council of Uhro-Rusyns. In that role he negotiated on behalf of Rusyns in Europe with U.S. President Woodrow Wilson and future Czechoslovak president Tomas Masaryk, and he headed the "Uhro-Rusyn" delegation to the *Mid-European Democratic Union in Philadelphia (October 23-26, 1918). In order to mobilize support for Rusyns joining the new state of Czechoslovakia Zhatovych drafted the

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Scranton Resolution (November 1918), organized a plebiscite among Rusyn-American immigrants (December 1918), and headed the Rusyn-American delegation at the *Central Rusyn National Council in Uzhhorod (May 1919), which called for unification of Rusyn-inhabited lands with Czechoslovakia. The Czechoslovak government appointed Zhatkovych the chairman of the *Directorate (August 1919) and then governor of *Subcarpathian Rus' (1920-1921). Zhatkovych believed that Rusyns form a distinct Slavic nationality and that Subcarpathian Rus', as the "third" state of a Czechoslovak federation, should have the fullest degree of political and cul tural *autonomy. He also favored Rusyn representation in the Czechoslovak parliament and the unification of Rusyns living "temporarily" under Slovak administration (in the *Presov Region) with Subcarpathian Rus'. When these goals were not achieved, he resigned in protest from the governorship (March 1921) and returned to the United States. Zhatkovych published two works criticizing Czechoslovakia for not fulfilling its political promises to Rusyns—OtkrytieExpose byvseho gubernatora Podkarpatskoj Rusi, o Podkarpatskoj Rusi (1921) and The Rusin Question in a Nutshell (1923). He modified his views during World War II, met with representatives of the Czechoslovak government-in-exile (Edvard *Benes, Jan Masaryk), and agreed to work for the restoration of that country on the condition that Rusyns would be politically equal to Czechs and Slovaks. To mobilize the Rusyn-American population on behalf of the Czechoslovak cause, he became founding co-chairman of the * American Carpatho-Russian Central Conference (1942) and edited the magazine, The Carpathian (1941 -43). After the war and the Soviet annexation of Subcarpathian Rus' (1945), which Zhatkovych opposed, his direct involvement in Rusyn affairs in Europe ended. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Zhatkovych, lurii Koloman/Zsatkovics, Kalman Gyorgy (pseudonyms: —Zc. Denes atya, Zsatkovics Denes) (b. October 14, 1855, Uzhhorod [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. September 25, 1920, Stroine [Czechoslovakia Ukraine) — priest, historian, ethnographer, writer, and translator in Subcarpathian Rus'. After graduating from the gymnasium (1867-1876) and Theological Seminary (1876-1881) in Uzhhorod, Zhatkovych was ordained a Greek Catholic priest and served in the Rusyn villages of Velykyi Rakovets', Iza, and from 1887 until his death at Stroine. Following in th tradition of the nineteenth-century national awakeners, he studied his people's *history and *ethnography and published on these subjects in the Subcarpathian journal *Listok and in the annual Greek Catholic almanac *Misiatsoslov. His publications included articles on the medieval prince Fedor *Koriatovych (1891), and several general surveys ofRusyn history: "Niskol'ko slov o russkykh, zhyvuchykh v Uhor-

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shchyni" (1890), and "Voevodstvo krainianskoe" (1903). He also published in the leading Hungarian journal Szdzadok a critical history of Rusyn historiography, "A magyarorszagi oroszok tortenetirasanak tortenelme" (1890; Ukrainian trans., 1999), and an extensive analysis of the eighteenth-century struggle of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo to free itself from the jurisdictional control of the Roman Catholic Diocese of *Eger, "Az egri befolyas es az ez ellen vivott harcz a munkacsi gorog szertartasu egyhazmegye tortenelmeben" (1884), published in the United States in Rusyn under the title Jagerskoje vl'ijanije (1933). Zhatkovych's interest in the Rusyn church resulted in a brief history of the *Hrushovo Monastery (1906) and short surveys of the various Greek Catholic eparchies and their bishops in the Hungarian Kingdom. He also wrote in Hungarian a comprehensive survey of "Uhro-Rusyn" ethnography and translated it into Rusyn. The Galician-Ukrainian ethnographer Volodymyr *Hnatiuk published part of this study in Ukrainian in the journal of ethnography of the Shevchenko Scientific Society in Eviv under the title, "Zamitky etnohrafichni z Uhors'koi Rusi" (1896). Its appearance in that context upset Zhatkovych who, while sympathetic to the Galician *Ukrainophiles, did not support their political program. Zhatkovych was also the author of the first history of Ukrainian literature published in Hungarian (1900) and he prepared several Hungarian translations of Ukrainian and Russian literature. For his scholarly achievements he was elected a member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society in Eviv and the Hungarian Historical Society in Budapest. Further reading: Emyliian Mustianovych, "lubylei lyteraturnoi diiatel'nosry o. luriia Zhatkovycha," in Misiatsoslov na 1907 hod (Uzhhorod, 1906), pp. 62-66; Oleh Mazurok, "lurii Zhatkovych iak istoryk ta etnohraf Uhors'koi Rusy," Ukrains 'kyi istoryk, XXX, 1-4 (New York, 1993), pp. 142-156—also in Carpatica/Karpatyka, II (Uzhhorod, 1993), pp. 176-186; Oleh Mazurok, lurii Zhatkovych iak istoryk ta etnohraf (Uzhhorod, 2001). IVAN POP

Zhatkovych, Pavel/Zatkovich Paul J. (b. 1852, Uzhhorod [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. October 8, 1916, Brooklyn, New York, USA) — editor and cultural activist of Rusyn national orientation in the United States. The older brother of the cultural activist lurii Koloman *Zhatkovych, Pavel served as a *notary public for 15 years in *Subcarpathian Rus' before emigrating to the United States in 1891. He was among the founders of the *Greek Catholic Union of Rusyn Brotherhoods and from 1892 to 1914 served as the first editor of that organization's newspaper, the *Amerikansky russky viestnik. He also founded the organization's almanac (*kalendar'), whose annual publication began in 1892. As editor of the largest circulating newspaper, Zhatkovych wielded great influence over the Rusyn-American community

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for more than two decades. During that time he opposed efforts by the Hungarian government to influence Rusyns in the United States, and he was critical of fellow Greek Catholic immigrants from Galicia who favored the adoption of a Ukrainian national identity. In order to promote a sense of Rusyn national distinctiveness among future generations Zhatkovych became a co-founder (1910) of the *Sokol youth and gymnastic association within the framework of the Greek Catholic Union.

publishing Lemko-language short stories, novellas, and other informative articles about his people in the Lemko section, "*Lemkivska storinka," of Poland's Ukrainian newspaper, Nashe slovo. Further reading: Olena Duc'-Faifer, "Ivan Zhelem," Lemkivskii kalendar 1998 (Legnica and Krynica, 1998), pp. 129-132. BOGDAN HORBAL

Zheliar. See Urbarial reforms

PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Zheltvai, Viktor. See Nova svoboda; Svoboda Zhatkovych, Teofil. See Directorate/Directorium Zhenets'kyi, Ivan. See Holos Lemkivshchyny Zheguts'/Zeguc, Ivan (b. June 26, 1923, Vil'khovat [Czechoslovakia], Ukraine) — historian and educational administrator in Germany of Subcarpathian origin. Zheguts' studied (1939-1943) at the Ukrainian gymnasium at Modrzany near Prague, then fled westward before the arrival of the Soviet Army to the American zone in Germany, where he completed his studies at the University of Munich (1956-1961; Ph.D., 1964). During the 1950s, he served as an administrative sec retary at the Ukrainian Free University in Munich, and for the next two decades he was a research fellow at the German Technical University in Munich. His doctoral dissertation on nationality developments among Subcarpathian Rusyns dur ing the second half of the nineteenth century was published in German, Die nationalpolitischen Bestrebungen derKarpatoRuthenen, 1848-1914 (1965). Despite Zheguts's Ukrainian national orientation, this work is characterized by an impartial historical analysis. He has also published a dictionary of the vernacular speech and short description of a *Hutsul village in far eastern * Subcarpathian Rus', Materialy do hutsul's 'koho hovoru v Zakarpatti: hovirka s. Berlebash (Kostylivka) r-nu Rakhiv u 30-kh rr. (1999). Further reading: Hanna Bozhuk, "Syn Sribnoi' zemli," Novyny Zakarpattia (Uzhhorod), August 8, 1998, p. 14. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Zhelem, Ivan (b. April 3, 1925, Wapienne, Poland; d. September 6, 1988, Boryslav [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — Lemko belletrist and journalist in Ukraine. Zhelem began his gymnasium studies in Gorlice in 1937, but two years later they were interrupted by the outbreak of World War II. For most of the war he served as a forced laborer (Ostarbeiter) in Nazi Germany. Upon his release in 1945 Zhelem was resettled with his family in Boryslav, Ukraine, where he was able to resume and complete his gymnasium studies. He also went on to study at the Veterinary Institute in Lviv, but he was expelled for his anti-Communist views and sentenced to six years of hard labor in the Soviet Gulag. Upon his release, he graduated from the institute in Eviv. After 1965 Zhelem began

Zhinchak, Ivan. See Greek Catholic Union; Russian Brotherhood Association Zhirosh/Ziros, Miron (b. June 1, 1936, Ruski Kerestur [Yugoslavia], Serbia) — pedagogue, lawyer, journalist, radio publicist, and historian among the Vojvodinian Rusyns. Zhirosh graduated from the Teachers' College in Sombor (1953), the Advanced School for Administration in Novi Sad (1961), and the Faculty of Law in Belgrade (1969). He taught in several Rusyn schools in the *Vojvodina and later worked as a legal consultant and director (1962-1965) of the agricultural cooperative and food-processing factory (Pershi mai) in Ruski Kerestur. He then worked as a journalist (1966-1991) for the Rusyn program at Radio Novi Sad, where he wrote over 100 scripts about various aspects of the Vojvodinian Rusyn past, published in his Pohliadi do preshlostsi (1995), as well as television scenarios about contemporary Rusyn life. After retirement Zhirosh moved to northern Hungary, near the Rusyn-inhabited village of Mucsony, about which he has written several studies, including the first of three volumes entitled Zhiva Horriitsa (1996). Zhirosh is a prolific popularizer who has published numerous short essays in the Rusyn press that introduce to readers in an accessible manner the Vojvodinian Rusyn past. His more substantive socioeconomic and statistical research deals with the eighteenth-century settlement of Rusyns in Ruski Kerestur and Kucura and the cholera epidemic that struck these two towns in the early nineteenth century. These topics, as well as the emigration of Vojvodinian Rusyns abroad, are documented in great detail in his planned six-volume opus, Bachvanskosrimski rusnatsi doma i u shvetse, 1745-1991 (1997-). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Zhubryd, Osyp. See Tarnovych, luliian Zhupa. See County Zhupan/Ishpan — the head of a *county. The Rusyn terms

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zhupan/ishpan are in Hungarian zsupdn/ispdn; in some English-language sources the terms are rendered as lord lieutenant, or lord sheriff. In the pre-World War I Hungarian Kingdom the original title ofispdn becamefoispdn (chief lord lieutenant) in the fifteenth century. The holder of the office was appointed by the king and functioned as the royal representative at the head of each county administration. The appointees were usually drawn from among the upper ranks (magnates) of the nobility. Certain zhupans (from the *Drugeth, *Perenyi, and *Schonborn families) who ruled in counties inhabited by Rusyns were able to transform the appointment into a hereditary post that was passed on to several generations of their descendants. In Czechoslovakia after 1919 the post (Czech: zupari) was held by an appointee of the government for a fixed term. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Zhupan, losyf (b. June 22,1904, Borodivka/Barbovo [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. December 5,1987, Mukachevo [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — pedagogue and Russian-language writer in Subcarpathian Rus'. Zhupan completed his studies at the Uzhhorod gymnasium in Uzhhorod and the *Mukachevo State Teachers' College (1924). Later in life he earned a degree from Uzhhorod State University (1956). Zhupan taught in several elementary schools throughout * Subcarpathian Rus during the interwar years and eventually became a school principal in Mukachevo. During the period of Soviet rule after World War II he was editor-in-chief of the Uzhhorod branch of the Kiev-based state pedagogical publishing house, Radians'ka Shkola, and he headed the Transcarpathian branch of the Union of Writers of Ukraine. Zhupan's first short stories and novellas appeared in the 1920s, and although written in Russian they were in a style that reflected the essence ofRusyn life. After World War II his tales were propagandistic in character, praising the anti-fascist struggle of the Subcarpathian populace during World War II and the so-called happy life of people whose homeland was "reborn" under Soviet auspices. Further reading: Ivan Vyshnevs'kyi, Zakarpats 'ki novelisty (Eviv, 1960), pp. 175-181; Petro Skunts', "Rik narodzhennia—vysokosnyi," in Zemlia z imenem: narysy (Uzhhorod, 1985), pp. 73-90. IVAN POP

Zhydovs'kyi, Ivan/Zidovsky, Jan (pseudonym lastreb Karpatskii) (b. September 2, 1897, Sarisske Jastriabie [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. April 2, 1982, Presov [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — lawyer, publicist, and political activist of Russophile orientation in Subcarpathian Rus' and the Presov Region. Zhydovs'kyi's student years at the Piarist Fathers' gymnasium in Sabinov were interrupted in 1915, when he was drafted into the Austro-Hungarian Army.

A year later he was captured on the eastern front; then, during the Civil War in Russia he served the Bolsehviks as a political commissar (1918-1919) in the 216th International Communist Brigade. After returning home to the new state of Czechoslovakia Zhydovs'kyi completed his gymnasium studies in Presov (1919) and studied law at Comenius Uni versity in Bratislava (LL.D., 1924). He worked for a while as a tax inspector for the Czechoslovak authorities in Uzh horod. By the 1930s he had a law practice in Uzhhorod and was director of the Presov branch of the Uzhhorod-based Subcarpathian Bank. Zhydovs'kyi was a strong critic of the Slovak administration in the *Presov Region where he hoped to stem the tide of national assimilation by expanding the network of Russianlanguage schools throughout Rusyn villages. He promoted his views in two newspapers that he published, *Narodnaia gazeta (1924-1936) and Russkaia narodnaia gazeta (19371938), and in brochures on the Rusyn language and nationality questions (lazykovyia prava avtonomnoi Podkarpatskoi Rusi, 1930; Ruskd otdzka v Ceskoslovensku, 1933). He was also the chairman of the *Russian National party, the Russophile faction of the *Central Rusyn National Council, the *Dukhnovych Society, and the Druzhyna Society. During the period of the Slovak state (1939-1944) Zhydovs'kyi operated a law practice in the East Slovak town of Giraltovce. He remained an opponent of the regime and participated in the underground *Carpatho-Russian Autonomous Council for National Liberation —KRASNO (1943). When Czechoslovakia was restored at the close of World War II he worked for the State Council (provisional parliament) in Kosice and then for the Ministry of Information in Prague (1945-1947). In 1947 he returned to Presov and worked as a lawyer until his retirement. As a *Russophile, he played no role in the cultural and civic life of the Rusyns following the introduction of the Ukrainian orientation in the early 1950s. IVAN POP Zhydovs'kyi, Petro/Zidovsky, Peter (b. June 6,1890, Sarisske Jastrabie [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. November 25, 1947, Presov [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — political activist and publicist of Russian national orientation in the Presov Region. As a young teenager Zhydovs'kyi emigrated to the United States (1905). Despite having no formal education, he returned five years later, determined to assist in educational and popular enlightenment work among the Rusyns of his native region. With the outbreak of World War I in 1914 he was drafted into the Austro-Hungarian Army, but he deserted, then was captured and sentenced to prison. Following the collapse of Austria-Hungary in late 1918 Zhydovs'kyi played an active role in the political life of the new Czechoslovak republic. As a member of the pro-government * Agrarian/Republican party, he served as deputy (1935-1938) to the Czechoslovak

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parliament. He criticized the government's economic policies with respect to the Rusyns of the *Presov Region and, in particular, he deplored the increasing slovakization taking place there in the 1930s. When Czechoslovakia was faced with the international political crisis of 1938 Zhydovs'kyi supported the movement for Rusyn autonomy. Together with Ivan *P"ieshchak he submitted a memorandum to the British diplomatic envoy, Lord Runciman, calling for the unification of the Presov Region with autonomous *Subcarpathian Rus'. Such activity alienated him further from the new Slovak state, although throughout the World War II years Zhydovs'kyi was able to continue his protests against the government's support of further slovakization among the Rusyn population. He also participated in the underground *Carpatho-Russian Autonomous Council for National Liberation—KRASNO (1943). Following the arrival of the Soviet Army Zhydovs'kyi re-entered official political life as vice-chairman of the *Ukrainian National Council of the Presov Region (March 1945) and director of the Rusyn publishing house Slavknyha. His work was cut short, however, by his accidental death in 1947. IVAN POP

Lemkivskii kalendar 1999 (Krynica and Legnica, 1999), pp. 112117. BOGDAN HOPvBAL

Zidovsky, Jan. See Zhydovs'kyi, Ivan Zidovsky, Peter. See Zhydovs'kyi, Petro

Zl£ba, Andrzej (b. August 28, 1958, Nowy Wisnicz, Poland) — Polish historian of Ukraine and Ukrainians in Canada. Zi?ba has since 1982 worked at the Polonia Institute of Jagiellonian University (Ph.D., 1992) in Cracow, where he has published studies about Carpatho-Rusyn immigrants in North America and on Polish historiography about the Lemkos. He has also organized several conferences on Carpatho-Rusyns (in particular *Lemkos). The papers given at one of these were published under his editorship as Lemkowie i lemkoznawstwo w Polsce (1997). Zi?ba accepts the view that Carpatho-Rusyns form a distinct Slavic nationality. He has written frequently on the post-1989 Rusyn national revival in the Polish press and scholarly publications and was featured in a television documentary on the *Lemko Republic of Florynka. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Zhydyk, Petro Ivan. See Zeedick, Peter I. Ziemia. See Palatinate

Zhylko, Fedir. See Language Zhylych, Nestor (pseudonym: Liubomyr Kamianskii) (b. May 19, 1914, Kamianna [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. 1989, Vodiane [Soviet Union], Ukraine) — Lemko teacher, poet, and publicist of Russian national and pro-Communist orientation in Poland and Ukraine. After graduating from the gymnasium in Muszyna and the Teachers' College in Sambir Zhylych began to teach in *Lemko Region elementary schools in the late 1930s. Because of his leftist views, he was arrested by the Polish authorities and again in 1942 by the Ukrainian Police, when the Lemko Region was ruled by Nazi Germany. He escaped from prison in 1944 and was among the first *Lemkos to emigrate to the Soviet Ukraine, where he worked as a teacher until 1974. In the postwar years Zhylych wrote over 350 poems, arranged in a collection entitled Karpatsky dumky, and hundreds of short humorous tales, Karpatsky smikhovynky. Both collections remain unpublished. He also wrote a long autobiographical poem ("Za Rus', voliu y pravdu"), a tale about Lemko life (Hainytsa), and numerous articles about the horrors of Nazi Germany's occupation of the Lemko Region. Zhylych's published works appeared almost exclusively in the newspapers and almanacs published by the *Lemko Association/Lemko-Soiuz of the USA and Canada. Further reading: Olena Duts'-Faifer, "Nestor Zhylych," in

Zilyns'kyi, Ivan (pseudonym: Ivan Korostens'kyi) (b. Ivan Kobasa, May 22,1879, Krasna [Austrian Galicia], Poland; d. April 20, 1952, Prague [Czechoslovakia], Czech Republic) — linguist and professor of Ukrainian national orientation from the Lemko Region. After completing the Ukrainian gymnasium in Przemysl (1892-1900) Zilyns'kyi first studied theology at the University of Eviv (1900-1902) and then transferred to the University of Vienna, where he studied Slavic philology (Ph.D., 1907). He taught in several Ukrainian gymnasia in eastern Galicia (1913-1914, 1921-1926) before joining the staff of Jagiellonian University in Cracow (1926-1939), where he became professor of East Slavic and Ukrainian linguistics in 1931. At the end of World War II he emigrated to Czechoslovakia, becoming a professor of Slavic philology at Charles University in Prague (1944-1952). Zilyns'kyi was a specialist in dialectology and Ukrainian phonetics and published several works on these subjects including detailed studies of the Lemko dialect in the village of Jaworki/Javirky (1934) and the problem of the Lemko-Boiko linguistic boundary (1937). His concern with the classification of Ukrainian dialects resulted in an influential article, "Proba uporiadkovannia ukrai'ns'kykh hovoriv" (1914), and a large-scale dialectal map, Karta ukra'ins 'kykh hovoriv (1933). Although Zilyns'kyi considered Rusyn speech to consist of dialects of Ukrainian, he was among the first Ukrainianists to emphasize that the largest number ofRusyn dialects found in

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture *Subcarpathian Rus', which he labeled central Transcarpathian dialects, form a group distinct from the *Boiko and *Hutsul dialects spoken mainly in Galicia and in a few villages south of the Carpathian mountain crests. Further reading: Wolodymyr T. Zyla, "Translator's Introduction," in Ivan Zilyns'kyj, A Phonetic Description of the Ukrainian Language (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), pp. 1-15; Mykola Mushynka, "Ivan Zilyns'kyi: zhyttia i naukova diial'nist'," in Zbirnyk pam "iati Ivana Zilyns'koho 1879-1952 (New York, 1994), pp. 13-49. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Zilyns'kyi, Orest/Zilynskyj, Orest (b. April 12,1923, Krasna [Poland]; d. July 17, 1976, Vinne [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — Ukrainian literary scholar and folklorist in Czechoslovakia of Lemko origin. Zilyns'kyi preceded his father, the linguist Ivan *Zilyns'kyi, by going to Prague in 1940, where he studied at the Ukrainian Free University (1940-1948; kandidat nauk, 1966). From 1958 until his death Orest worked as a researcher at various institutes of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences. He also played an active role in promoting the Ukrainian national orientation among Rusyns in the *Presov Region, for whom he prepared Ukrainian-language teaching programs, textbooks, and literary anthologies. Aside from numerous studies on Soviet and pre-Soviet Ukrainian literature and folklore, Zilyns'kyi wrote several critical essays about contemporary Ukrainian-language literary production in the Presov Region. Among his most significant scholarly contributions were an anthology of Rusyn folk ballads (scheduled for publication in 1971 but banned by the Communist authorities) and a comparative study ofRusyn, Slovak, Czech, and Polish folk ballads in the western Carpathian region, Lidove balady v oblasti zdpadnich Karpat (1978). In these and other works, Zilyns'kyi always described Rusyn folkloric texts as Ukrainian and considered them to be part of Ukrainian folklore. Further reading: Mykola Mushynka, Naukovets'z dusheiu poeta: do 60-richchia vid narodzhennia Oresta Zilyns'koho, 1923-1976 (South Bound Brook, N.J., 1983). PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Zionism/Zionists. See Jews Ziros, Miron. See Zhirosh, Miron

553

he served in Rusyn village parishes at Izky, Kopashnevo, Zolotarevo, and Drahovo. During this period he wrote poetry and short stories and collected numerous folksongs, tales, and proverbs. His most important ethnographic study, "Superstitions, Beliefs, and Other Customs of the Subcarpathian Rusyn People living in Vil'khivka/Vlakhovo (Ugocha county) and Kopashnevo (Maramorosh county)" appeared in the local Hungarian-language newspaper *Kelet (1888-1889). Zlots'kyi at first wrote in the *Slaveno-Rusyn book language, but later used the Rusyn vernacular. His lyrical poems, tales, and plays were heavily influenced by the forms used in oral folk literature. Most of his Rusyn published writings appeared in newspapers before and after World War I; his only book was a collection of poetry, Vyboryzpoezii(\923). Upon his death Zlots'kyi left several manuscripts, including two collections ofRusyn folksongs and proverbs and in Hungarian a historical grammar of the Subcarpathian Rusyn language. Further reading: Nykolai Lelekach, "Podkarpatskoe pys'menstvo na pochatku XX vika," Zoria/Hajnal, III, 1-4 (Uzhhorod, 1943), esp. pp. 238-241; A.H., "Prolomnyk novykh svitohliadov v literaturi podk. rusynov—Teodozii Zlotskyi," Rus 'ka molodezh', III, 9-10 (Uzhhorod, 1943-44), pp. 15-18; Vasyl' Mykytas', Z nochi probyvalysia (Uzhhorod, 1977), esp. pp. 88-99. IVAN POP

Zlupko, Andrii. See Lemko Apostolic Administration

Zmii-Myklovshii, losyf/Zmij-Miklossy, Jozsef (b. March 20,1792, Slovinky [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. December 1, 1841, Presov [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia) — painter in Austria-Hungary ofRusyn origin. After completing his studies at the *Basilian monastery school in Krasnyi Brid (1809-1814) Zmii-Myklovshii served as a cantor at the *St. Barbara Greek Catholic Church in the Austrian imperial capital (1814-1823) while at the same time studying painting at the Vienna Academy of Art. He then went to Italy, where for two years (1825-1826) he copied the paintings of the Renaissance and Baroque masters. Upon his return to Vienna Zmii-Myklovshii worked as a professional painter until, in 1833, he was appointed iconographer to the * cathedral chapter of the *Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov. Aside from iconostases created for village churches in the *Presov Region he also painted portraits of local distinguished citizens, genre scenes, and landscapes. IVAN POP

Zlots'kyi, Feodosii/Zloczky, Theodoz (b. September 11, 1846, Osii [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine; d. July 30, 1926, Drahovo [Hungarian Kingdom], Ukraine) — priest, ethnographer, poet, and journalist in Subcarpathian Rus'. Zlots'kyi completed his theological formation at the Uzhhorod Theological Seminary and Central Theological Seminary in Budapest. After ordination as a Greek Catholic priest (1874)

Zoreslav. See Sabol, Sevastiian Zoria —journal published in Uzhhorod (1921-1931) as the organ of the Subcarpathian Rusyn Popular Enlightenment Society/Podkarpatorusskii narodoprosvietitel'nyi soiuz. Zoria was founded and edited by the Russian emigre Kirill *Kokhannyi-Goral'chuk while he worked for Czechoslovakia's Minis-

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try of Schools and Popular Education in Subcarpathian Rus'. The journal was published in Russian and included popular and scholarly articles about Rusyn history and culture, commentaries on contemporary society, literary works by Subcarpathian authors, reviews, and news of current cultural events. Originally planned to appear twice a month, during its last years Zoria was published sporadically. Soon after Kokhannyi left Subcarpathian Rus' (1930) to return to the central ministry offices in Prague, Zoria ceased publication. Further reading: Vasyl' Habor, Ukrains 'hi chasopysy Uzhhoroda, 1867-1944 (Eviv, 2003), pp. 221-224. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Zoria/Hajnal — scholarly journal of the *Subcarpathian Scholarly Society/Podkarpatskoe obshchestvo nauk published in Uzhhorod (1941-1943). Although originally planned as a quarterly, only three annual volumes appeared. Zoria/Hajnal was under the formal editorship of Irynei *Kontratovych and Ivan *Haraida, although the latter was the effective compiler of all volumes. The journal, whose articles appeared in either Rusyn or Hungarian, included studies dealing with all aspects ofRusyn history and culture, as well as book reviews, a chronicle of recent cultural events in Hungarian-ruled Subcarpathia, and necrologies of recently deceased Subcarpathian political and cultural figures. Many of the studies were the size of small monographs. They were written by both established and younger Rusyn scholars, such as Vasylii *Hadzhega (the impact of the Reformation on Rusyns), Ivan *Haraida (Hungary's medieval relations with Galicia), Aleksander *Hrabar (orinthology), A. Izvorin/Evgenii *Nedzel'skii (contemporary Rusyn art), Mykola *Lelekach (early twentieth-century Rusyn literature), Petr *Miloslavskii (Rusyn folksongs), Fedor *Potushniak (ethnography), Petro *Sova (early history of Uzhhorod), and Hiiador *Stryps'kyi (printing in Subcarpathia). The Hungarian-language texts of several studies from Zoria-Hajnal were later republished in a volume edited by Gyorgy Csatary (1995). Further reading: V.I. Didyk, "Vnesok chasopysu Zoria—Hajna (1941-1943) u rozvytok istorychno'i dumky Zakarpattia," in Vasyl' Mel'nyk and Roman Ofitsyns'kyi, eds., Ukrains 'kizemli v rokyDruhoi svitovoi viiny (Uzhhorod, 1998), pp. 196-205; Roman Ofitsyns'kyi, "Zoria-Hajnal—zakarpats'kyi naukovyi zhurnal 1941-1943 rokiv," in Roman Ofitsyns'kyi, ed., Istorychna shkolaprofesora Volodymyra Zadorozhnoho: Naukovyi zbirnyk, No. 1 (Uzhhorod, 1999), pp. 178183. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Zozulia, Hryts'. See Hanuliak, Hryhorii

Zozuliak, Aleksander/ZozuPak, Alexander (b. April 6, 1953, Presov [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — editor, painter, and cultural activist among Rusyns in Slovakia.

Son of Vasyl' *Zozuliak, the prominent Ukrainian-language writer in eastern Slovakia, Aleksander Zozuliak completed his studies at the Ukrainian middle (serednia) school (1971) and at Safarik University in Presov (1976). He then worked at the Ukrainian-language newspaper *Nove zhyttia, where in 1989 he became editor-in-chief and established a Rusynlanguage supplement, Holos Rusyniv (1990). After the fall of the Communist regime in November 1989 he co-founded the Initiative Group of Rusyn-Ukrainians. From that time he rejected the Ukrainian national orientation and adopted the view that Rusyns form a distinct Slavic nationality. Zozuliak has promoted the Rusyn orientation as official spokesperson for the *Rusyn Renaissance Society/Rusyn'ska obroda. He is founding editor-in-chief of that organization's weekly newspaper, *Narodny novynky (1991- ), and its bimonthly magazine, *Rusyn (1990- ) and heads the Rusynlanguage publication program of the Rusyn Renaissance Society, which publishes works in Rusyn literature, language, and history and school textbooks. He has served as the executive secretary (1992-) and chairman (2001-2003) of the *World Congress of Rusyns. Zozuliak has also organized the Plenum of Rusyn Professional Artists/Plener rusyn'skykh profesional'nykh khudozhnykiv, which holds periodic joint exhibits ofRusyn painters from the *Presov Region. His own paintings are in the neo-Expressionistic mode and frequently depict introspective figures overwhelmed by the alienation of modern society. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Zozuliak, VasyP/Zozul'ak, VasiP (b. September 19, 1909, Certizne [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. May 15, 1994, Lechovice, Czech Republic) — belletrist and political and cultural activist in the Presov Region. Although a native of the *Presov Region, Zozuliak completed his studies in * Subcarpathian Rus' at Mukachevo's Russian gymnasium and at the *Mukachevo State Teachers' College (1933-1937). He remained in Subcarpathian Rus', where he taught elementary school; toward the end of World War II he joined the partisan movement and he was subsequently employed as a cultural and educational administrator for the new Soviet regime in the area (1944-1947). In 1947 Zozuliak returned to his native Presov Region, where he served as an administrator for the *Ukrainian National Council of the Presov Region (19471949) and as director of the Ukrainian-language Presov editorial office (1952-1960) of the Slovak Bellettres Publishing House. During these years he also played an active role in the establishment of the *Museum of Ukrainian Culture in Svidnik and of the *Svidnik Folk Festival. Zozuliak is best known for his wide range of short stories, novels, and plays. His earliest works were written in Russian, including several plays (Odnoaktnye p 'esy, 1952; P'iesi, 1953) and a collection of short stories (V krovavom

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture tumane, 1956). By the mid-1950s he had adopted the new official nationality policy in the Presov Region; Zozuliak not only began to publish in Ukrainian, he became as well head of the Union of Ukrainian Writers in Slovakia (1970s). Aside from several collections of short stories, Zozuliak published three novels in Ukrainian: the trilogy Neskoreni (1962, 1967, 1973); Metamorfozy (1979), and Ne hliadiach na semafory (1981). Zozuliak's works were all written in the officially accepted Socialist Realist mode that was expected of authors in Communist Czechoslovakia. Nevertheless, he remained enamored with the Russian language and classic nineteenth-century Russian literature and wrote in Ukrainian only with difficulty and as a kind of pro forma concession to the Ukrainian nationality policy imposed on the Rusyns of the Presov Region in the early 1950s. Regardless of language, Zozuliak's literary works all concerned the life of CarpathoRusyns, so that it was not difficult for him to accept and even welcome the return to publishing in Rusyn that has characterized cultural life in the Presov Region since the Revolution of 1989. A selection of his writings appeared under the title Vybrane (1974).

555 in Vienna. For her service to the Ottomans, Sultan Mehmed IV awarded her a medal for bravery and ransomed her from captivity in 1692. She joined her husband Thokoly in exile, spending the rest of her days in comfort on an estate at Izmit, just east of Ottoman capital of Istanbul. In 1906 Ilona Zrinyi's remains were transferred for internment alongside her son, Ferenc II Rakoczy, at the cathedral in Kosice. IVAN POP

Zsatkovich, Gregory. See Zhatkovych, Gregory I. Zsatkovics, Denes. See Zhatkovych, lurii Koloman Zsatkovics, Kalman Gyorgy. See Zhatkovych, lurii Koloman Zselar. See Urbarial reforms Zsupan. See Zhupan Zubach, Vasyl'. See Karpatorusskii viestnik

Further reading: Vasyl' Zozuliak: zbirnyk stattei do 70-richchia z dnia narodzhennia (Presov, 1979). ANNA PLISKOVA

Zrinyi, Ilona (b. 1643, Ozalj [Hungarian Kingdom], Croatia; d. February 18, 1703, Izmit [Ottoman Empire], Turkey) — lord of the Mukachevo landed estate and political figure in Transylvania and the former Hungarian Kingdom. Zrinyi was the daughter of the magnate and ban of Croatia, Peter Zrinyi (1621-1671), and the wife of the Hungarian magnate and prince of Transylvania, Ferenc I * Rakoczy (r. 1652-1660). After the death of Rakoczy she married Imre *Thokoly, the prince of the Partium region (1677-1687) and later of Transylvania (1690). Their son was the future leader of the last great Transylvanian anti-*Habsburg revolt, Prince Ferenc II *Rakoczy(r. 1704-1711). Through her first marriage Zrinyi became lord of the *Mukachevo estate (*dominium). Transylvania was at the time a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire, and as an opponent of Habsburg rule in Hungary, Zrinyi, together with her first husband and her father, participated in the Wesselenyi conspiracy (1670-1671) as well as in the anti-Habsburg *kurucz revolt (1670s and 1680s) led by her second husband, Thokoly. During that time Zrinyi became known as the legendary defender of the Mukachevo castle (1685-1688), the last stronghold to survive against the Habsburgs. With Thokoly, she supported the Ottoman Turks during their siege of Vienna in 1683; as a result of that alliance 20 of her supporters (townspeople and nobles) were executed in Presov. After finally surrendering the Mukachevo castle in 1688, Zrinyi was captured by Austrian troops and incarcerated in a monastery

Zubryts'kyi, Dionizii/Zubricky, Dionyz (pseudonym: Torysyn) (b. June 20, 1895, Dacov [Hungarian Kingdom], Slovakia; d. April 15, 1949, Presov [Czechoslovakia], Slovakia) — pedagogue, school administrator, literary scholar, painter, and civic and cultural activist in the Presov Region. After completing the gymnasium at Presov (1913) Zubryts'kyi continued his studies at the Greek Catholic Theological Seminary in that city (1913-1917), the Law Academy in Kosice (1922), Comenius University in Bratislava (1924-1925), and the Ukrainian Free University in Prague (1926). At the end of World War I Zubryts'kyi was among the organizers of the Rusyn National Council in Stara Eubovfia (November 1918). After working for a short time with the new Czechoslovak administration in *Subcarpathian Rus' (1919) he returned to Presov to help establish a Rusyn-language junior high school (*horozhans 'ka shkold), where he was to serve as vice-principal and principal (1929-1945). He was also a long-time contributor to the newspaper *Russkoe slovo, in which he defended the need for Rusyn, not Slovak, elementary schools throughout the *Presov Region, and he was a co-founder of the Presov branch of the *Prosvita Society (1930). Zubryts'kyi's own writings, in Rusyn as well as in the "traditional Carpatho-Rusyn book language," consisted mainly of poetry, popular biographies of the leading nineteenthcentury writers from the Presov Region—Nash Aleksander Dukhnovych (1923) and Aleksander Pavlovych: opysanie eho zhytiay kharakterystyka ehopoezii (1925)—and popular textbooks, including a translation into Rusyn (Roman alphabet) of a Christian catechism (Christianska nauka dl'apodkarpatskich

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Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture

grekokatoliceskich d'itej, 1925) and an anthology of Russian literature (Russkoe chtenie, 1946). Further reading: Mykola Mushynka, "Pryzabutyi iuvilei: do 100littia z dnia narodzhennia Denysa Zubryts'koho," Duklia, XLIII, 6 (Presov, 1995), pp. 26-31. PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI IVAN POP

Zudar family. See Makovytsia v

Zupan. See Zhupan

Lemkiv, and since then he promoted Lemko history and culture in the Polish and Lemko press and radio. Among his publications are a collection of documents on the *Lemko Region during World War II (Lemkowie w obronie wlasnej, 1996), an autobiographical tale covering the years 1945-1959 (Rapsodia dla Lemkow, 1994), a popular history of his native village of Florynka (Florynka na Lemkowszczyznie: nasze selo, co-authored with laroslav Merena, 1999), and a bi-lingual Polish-Lemko collection of poetry (Znaki czasu/Znaky chasu, 1991). Zvolinskii was a member of the Union of Polish Writers and a participant in the annual literary festival, *Lemkivska tvorcha osin'.

Zupko, John. See United Societies of Greek Catholic Religion Zvolinskii, laroslav/Zwolinski, Jaroslaw (b. December 31, 1929, Florynka, Poland; d. June 7, 2002, Koszalin, Poland) — Lemko writer, journalist, and cultural and religious activist in Poland ofRusyn national orientation. During World War II he completed the Teachers' Seminary in Krynica and in 1950 began to study at the Orthodox Theological Seminary in Warsaw. He was soon required to do his military service and never returned to the seminary; instead, he became a leading Lemko-Rusyn cultural activist (1952-1957) in the Zielona Gora region of western Poland. His patriotic zeal was not, however, appreciated by the hard-line Communist authorities who at the time dominated Poland, and he was forced to seek employment elsewhere. He eventually settled in the northern Polish town of Koszalin, where from 1960 until his retirement in 1990 he worked as an administrator, serving for two decades as director of a clothing factory. For his services he was awarded a medal from the city of Koszalin (1980). After the Revolution of 1989, Zvolinski played an active role in the Lemko revival. He was among the co-founders of Poland's Rusyn-oriented *Lemko Society/Stovaryshynia

BOGDAN HORBAL PAUL ROBERT MAGOCSI

Zyndranova Amateur Artistic Ensemble/ Samodiial'nyi khudozhnyi ansambF sela Zyndranova — Lemko folk ensemble established in 1954 by Fedor *Goch. Under the artistic direction of laroslav *Trokhanovskii, the Zyndranova Ensemble included four groups (theatrical, choral, dance, and musical) which gave a total of 70 performances. In 1956 it staged a Lemko Wedding that was shown on Polish State Television. The plays it staged in the Lemko variant of the Rusyn language were written by Fedir Goch. The Zyndranova Ensemble took part in several festivals (Rzeszow, 1958; Losie, 1962; Sanok, 1967) and its choral and musical troupe was given an award by Poland's Ministry of Culture and the Arts. At the outset of the 1970s the ensemble ceased its activity. BOGDAN HORBAL

Zyndranowa Museum of Lemko Culture. See Museum of Lemko Culture in Zyndranowa Zynin, Sergei. See Durkot, Serhii

List of Entries Abov/Abaiij Agrarian/Republican party Aleksovych, Klavdiia Almashii, Mykhailo Alys'kevych, Andrii American Carpatho-Russian Central Conference/ Amerikanska karpato-russka centralna konferencija American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic Diocese/Amerikanska karpato-russka pravoslavna greko kaftoliceskaja jeparchija American National Council of Uhro-Rusyns/ Amerikanska narodna rada uhro-rusinov Amerikansky russky viestnik/Amerykanskii russkii vistnyk Anonymous Anthems, Rusyn national Anthologies Antonych, Bohdan Ihor Apponyi School Law/Lex Apponyi Archeological settlements Archimandrite Architecture Aristov, Fedor Fedorovich Aristov Society of Friends of Carpathian RusV Obshchestvo druzei Karpatskoi Rusi im F. F. Aristova Art Artym, Mykha'il Astriab, Matvii Ausgleich Austro-Slavism Autonomous Agricultural Union/Avtonomnyi zemledil'skii soiuz Autonomy Avars Babota, Liubytsia/Babotova, Eubica Bacha, lurii/Baca, Juraj Bachka/Backa Apostolic Administration Bachyns'kyi, Andrii/Bacsinszky, Andras Bachyns'kyi/Bacinsky, Edmund Badan, Oleksandr Baiko sisters Baitsura, Ivan/Bajcura, Ivan Baitsura/Bajcurova, Tamara Baius, Vasyl' Bakov, lakim/Iasha

Balahuri, Eduard Balega, lurii Balets'kyi, Emilian/Baleczky, Emil Balog, Mykhai'1 Balogh, Klara Baludians'kyi, Andrii/Baludjanszky, Andras Baludians'kyi, Mykhail/Balug'ianskii, Mikhail/ Balugyanszky, Mihaly Banat Barabolia, Marko Baran, Alexander Barbareum Barna, Volodymyr Basilian Order Bathory, Zsofia Bazylovych, loanykii/Basilovits, Joannicius Bedzyk, Dmytro Belen', Mykhailo Benes, Edvard Bereg, county Besida Beskyd Beskyd, Aleksander/Beskid, Alexander Beskyd, Antonii/Beskid, Anton/Beszkid, Antal Beskyd, Konstantyn/Beskid, Konstantin M. Beskyd, Mykhai'l/Beskid, Michal Beskyd, Nykolai/Beskid, Mikulas/Beszkid, Miklos Best, Paul Bethlen, Gabor Bidermann, Hermann Ignac Bihar Bilak, Izydor Bil'nia Vladimir Bindas, Diura/Dura Birchak, Volodymyr Ivanovych Bizantsii, Georgii Gennadii/Bizantius, Georgius Gennadius Blahovistnyk Blazhovs'kyi, Havrii'l Georgii /Blazsovszky, Gabriel Georgius Bobul's'kyi, Antonii Bodnar, Georgii Bogatyrev, Petr Grigor'evich Boichuk, losyp Boikos Bokshai, Emilian Bokshai, loann/Boksay, Janos

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Bokshai, losyf Boldyzhar, Mykhailo Bolyki, Lajos Bonkalo, Aleksander/Bonkalo, Sandor Borets'kyi, AdaFbert/Borecky, Vojtech Borkaniuk, Oleksa Borolych, lurii/Borolic, Juraj Borshod/Borsod, county Borshosh-Kum"iats'kyi, lurii Borshov, county Botlik, Jozsef Bozhuk, Mykolaia Bradach,loann Brashchaiko, lulii/Brascajko, Julius Brashchaiko, Mykhailo/Brascajko, Michal Breshko-Breshkovskaia, Ekaterina Broch, Olaf Brodii, Andrii/Brody, Andras, Andrej Brodlakovych, Illia Brovdi, Ivan Brykowski, Ryszard Buchats'kyi, Volodymyr Bukova Horka/Bukov Monastery Bulgarian Khanate/Greater Bulgaria Bulgarians Bunganych, Shtefan/Bunganic, Stefan Systran, Mykhail Bytsko, Mykhal/Bycko, Michal Byzantine Catholic World Cadastre/Jotar Calugers/Kalugeri Calvi, Luca Cantors/Kantory Cantor's fee/Kantors'kyi hrosh, peniaz Carpathian Mountains Carpathian Plainchant/Prostopiniie Carpathian Rus'/Karpats'ka Rus' Carpathian Sich/Karpats'ka Sich Carpatho-Russian American Center/Karpatoruskyi amerykanskyi tsentr Carpatho-Russian Autonomous Council for National Liberation/Karpatorusskii avtonomnyi sovet natsional'nogo osvobozhdeniia—KRASNO Carpatho-Russian Congress/Karpato-russkii kongress Carpatho-Russian National Committee/Karpatorusskii natsional'nyi komitet Carpatho-Russian Workers' party/Karpatorusskaia trudovaia partiia Carpatho-Rusyn American

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Carpatho-Rusyn Research Center Carpatho-Rusyn Society/Karpato-rusyns'koe obshchestvo Carpatho-Ukraine/Karpats'kaUkrai'na Carpatica Cathedral chapter/Kapitula Central Russian National Council/Tsentral'naia russkaia narodnaia rada Central Rusyn National Council/TsentraPna rus'ka narodna rada/Tsentral'naia russkaia narodnaia rada Cenzus/Tsenz Chabala, Mykhal/Cabala, Michal Chendei, Ivan Chepa, Steven Chereshnovsky/Chereshn'ovs'kyi, Mykhailo Chernetskii, Vasylii Chervena Ruzha Cultural Festival Chopei, Laslov/Csopey, Laszlo Chornock, Orestes/Chorniak, Orest Christian People's party/Khrystyians'ko-narodna partiia Chuchka, Pavlo Church Messenger/Cerkovnyj vistnik Church Slavonic Churchich, Mariia/Curcic, Marija Churhovych, loann/Csurgovics, Janos Cinema Cislak, Nicholas/Tsysliak, Nykolai Civil Administration in Subcarpathian RusV Hrazhdanskoe pravlenie Podkarpatskoi Rusy Communism Communist party Compossessoratus Congrua/Kongrua Consistory/Konsystoriia Constantine/Cyril Council of Free Sub-Carpathian Ruthenia in Exile/ Rada svobodnoj Podkarpatskoj Rusi v exile County Cultural Union of Rusyns in Romania/ Kulturne tovarystvo Rusyniv Romanii' Cultural Union of Ukrainian Workers/Kul'turnyi soiuz ukrams'kykh trudiashchykh—KSUT Cum Data Fuerit Curia/Kuriia Cyrillic Alphabet Czajkowski, Jerzy Czechoslovak Army Corps Czechoslovak-Soviet Treaty of 1945 Czechs

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture D^bkowski, Przemyslaw Dacia Dami, Aldo Danyliuk, Dmytro Danylovych-Korytnians'kyi, Ivan/Danilovics, Janos De Camelis, Joseph Dem"ian, Luka Demko, Mykhail Den '/Den De Vollan, Grigorii Aleksandrovich Dezso, Laszlo Diadia Rusyn National Theater/Ruski narodni teatr "Diadia" Directorate/Directorium District Dobosh, Shtefan/Dobos, Stefan Dobrians'ka, Iryna Dobrians'kyi, Adol'f/Dobrzansky, Adolf Dobrians'kyi Carpatho-Russian Student Society/ Obshchestvo karpatorusskikh studentov "Dobrianskii" Doklia/Dokla, Teodor Dolynai, Mykola Dolyniane/Dolyshniany/Lowlanders Dominium, Latifundium Donskii, Mykhal/Donski, Michal Dovhanych, Omelian Dovhovych,Vasyl'/D6hovics, Bazil Drahomanov, Mykhailo Petrovych Drugeth family Dubai, Mykhail/Dubaj, Michal Dubai/Dubay, Orest Dubets'/Dubec, Adam Dudash, Nataliia Dudick, Michael J. Dudra, lakov Dukhnovich Society of Carpatho-Russian Canadians/ Obshchestvo karpatorusskikh kanadtsev im. Aleksandra Dukhnovicha Dukhnovych, Aleksander Dukhnovych Society/Obshchestvo im. Aleksandra Dukhnovicha Dukhnovych Theater/Teater Aleksandra Dukhnovicha Dukla, Battle of/Carpathian-Dukla Campaign Duklia Dulichenko, Aleksandr Dmitrievich Dulishkovych, Ivan/Ioann Dumen Durkot, Serhii Durych, Jaroslav

559

Dushpastyr' Duts'-Faifer, Olena/Duc-Fajfer, Helena Dzendzelivs'kyi, losyp Oleksiiovych Dzindz'o, Mykhailo Dzubay, Alexander Ea Semper Egan, Ede/Edmund Eger Ehrenfeld, Petr Ekzekutsiia Erdeli, AdaFbert/Erdelyi, Bela Ethnographic Society of Subcarpathian RusV Etnohrafichne tovarystvo Pidkarpats'koi Rusi Ethnography Farynych, Aleksei/Farinic, Aleksej Fastnacht, Adam Fedaka, Pavlo Fedelesh, Vira Fedor, Pavel Fedoronko, Joseph Fedynets', Atanas/Fedinecz, Atanaz Fedynyshynets', Volodymyr Feisa, lanko/Fejsa, Janko Feisa, Mikhailo/Fejsa, Mihajlo Fel'deshii, lulii/Foldesi, Julius/Foldessy, Gyula Fentsyk, levhenii/Fenczik, Edmundus, Jeno Fentsyk, Shtefan/Fencik, Stepan/Fenczik, Istvan Filevich, Ivan Porfir'evich Finciczky, Mihaly Firtsak, lulii/Firczak, Gyula Fogarashii, loann/Fogorashii, Ivan Fontanski, Henryk Franko, Ivan lakovych Frantsev, Vladimir Andreevich Gabriel, Frantisek Gaganets', losyf Gagatko, Andrei Mikhailovich Gai, Andrii/Gaj, Andrej Gajdos, Marian Garianski, Vladimir Gebei, Petro/Gebej, Petr Geneology General Statute/General'nyi statut Geography and Economy German-Rusyn Friendship Society/Rusnaci DeutschRuthenische-Freundschaft Germans

560

Gerovskii, Aleksei lulianovich Gerovskii, Georgii lulianovich Gets, Lev/Getz, Leon Glagolitic alphabet/Glagolitsa Gliuk, Havrylo Goch, Fedor/Gocz, Teodor Goga, Lawrence A. Goida/Hoida, lurii Goidych, Pavel/Gojdic, Pavel Goidych, Shtefan/Gojdic, Stefan Gorlice, Battle of Gorog katolikus szemle Gorzo, Valentine Greater Moravian Empire Greek (Byzantine Ruthenian) Catholic Church in the USA/Amerikanska greko-katoliceska russka cerkov vostocnoho obrjada Greek Catholic Central Seminary Greek Catholic Eparchy of Hajdiidorog Greek Catholic Eparchy of Krizevci Greek Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo Greek Catholic Eparchy of Presov Greek Catholic Eparchy of Przemysl Greek Catholic Union of Rusyn Brotherhoods/ Sojedinenije greko-kaftoliceskich russkich bratstv v S.S.A. Grendzha-Dons'kyi, Vasyl' Greshlyk, Vladyslav Gubash, Emilian/Gubas, Emiljan Gubash/Gubas, Milutin Gustavsson, Sven Gymnasium Gypsies/Roma Habda, Vasyl' Habsburg family Hadzhega, lulii/Hadzsega, Gyula Hadzhega, Vasylii/Hadzsega, Bazil Halas, Kyrylo Hafta Halchak, Anna/Halcakova, Anna Halgashova, Anna/Halgasova, Anna Hanchin, Michael J. HanudeP, Zuzana/Hanudel'ova, Zuzana Hanuliak, Hryhorii Hanulya, Joseph/Hanulia, losyf Hapak, Shtefan/Hapak, Stefan Haraida, Ivan/Harajda, Janos Haraksim, I!udovit Harasymowicz, Jerzy

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Hardy, Peter S. Hartl, Antonin Hasal-Nizborsky, Antonin Bohuslav Hatalak, Peter P./Hataliak, Peter Petrovich Hattinger-Klebashko, Gabriel/Gabor Hegumen, Protohegumen Herts, lurii Highlands Office Highlands Program/Hegyvideki akcio Historiography History Hladick, Victor P./Hladyk, Viktor Hnatiuk, Volodymyr Mykhailovych Hnatyshak, Havryi'l Hnatyshak, Orest Hodinka, Anton/Hodynka, Antonii Hold Holos Lemkivshchyny Holos zhyttia Holovats'kyi, lakiv Fedorovych/Golovatskii, lakov F. Holovchak, Ivan Homichkov, Aleksander Homichkov, Nykolai Hopko, Vasyl' Horbal, Bogdan Horbal', Mykola Hofec, Jaromir Horiany Rotunda Horoshchak, laroslav Horozhans'ka shkola Horthy, Miklos/Nicholas Hoshovs'kyi, Volodymyr Hospodar Civic Circle of Lemkos/Hromadianskii kruh Lemkiv "Hospodar" Hostyniak, Stepan/Hostynak, Stefan Hraban, Volodyslav/Graban, Wladyslaw Hrabar, Aleksander Hrabar, Emanui'l/Grabar, Emmanuil Ivanovich Hrabar, Ihor/Grabar, Igor' Emmanuilovich Hrabar, Konstantyn/Hrabar, Konstantin Hrabar, Ol'ga/Grabar, Ol'ga Adol'fovna Hrabovs'kyi, Emilian Hranchak, Ivan Hromosiak, Nykolai Hrushovo Monastery of St. Michael the Archangel Hryb, Ian Hrynda, Mykhal Hrytsak, Mykola Humetskii, Modest Husek, Jan

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Hutsuls Hyriak, Mykhailo lablochyn Monastery of St. Onufrius labur, Vasyl'/Jabur, VasiF lavir/Jawor lavorskii, lulian Andreevich lavors'kyi, Vasyl' lazychiie Ihnatkov, lurii Ilarion/Hilarion Illes, Bela Illes-Illyasevits, Jozsef/Illeish-Iliashevych, losyf Il'nyts'kyi, Aleksander/Ilniczky, Sandor Internet Irredentism Itsa luhasevych-Skliars'kyi, Ivan lunoshestvo lusta Jaworzno Jews Jobagiones Jumba, Jerry Kabaliuk, Aleksei Kachkovs'kyi Society/Obshchestvo im. Mykhaila Kachkovs'koho Kachmarchyk, laroslav/Kaczmarczyk, Jaroslaw Kachmarchyk, Teofil' Kachor, Dymytrii Kaigl, Ladislav Kalendar/Misiatsoslov Kamenitski, Mikola Kamins'kyi, losyf Kamins'kyi, Viktor/Kaminszky, Geza Kaniukh/Kanjuch, Helena Kapral', Mykhailo/Kapraly, Mihaly Karabelesh, Andrii Karaman, Vasyl' Karmazyn-Kakovs'kyi, Vsevolod Karpat Karpatorusskii golos Karpatorusskii viestnik Karpato-russkoe slovo/Carpatho-Russian Word Karpatska Rus '/Carpatho-Rus' Karpatskaia/Karpats 'ka pravda Karpatskii krai Karpatskii sviet

561

Karpats 'kyi krai Karpats 'kyi proletar Kashshai, Anton Kasinec, Edward Kelet Kemyn', Mykhailo Kercha, Igor Kercha, Ivan Keshelia, Dmytro Khlanta, Ivan Kholoshnia'i, loakim/Holosnjaj, Joakim Khoma, Vasyl'/Choma, VasiF Khomiak, Myroslava/Chomiak, Miroslawa Khomyk, Vasyl' Khrystyians 'ka rodyna Khyliak, Dymytrii Khyliak, Vladymir Kinakh, Hlib Hryhorovych Kishshova, ludita/Kiss, Judit Kitchura, Stephen/Kychura, Shtefan Klochurak/Klocurak, Stepan Klympush, Dmytro KobaF, losyp Koblyk Koblyna Kochish, Evgen/Kocis, Jovgen Kochish, Evgenii/Kocis, Jevgenij Kochish, Mikola M./Kocis, Mikola M. Kocisko, Stephen J. Kohanik, Peter/Kokhanik, Petr Kohut/Kohutov, Petro Kokhannyi-GoraFchuk, Kirill Vasil'evich/KochannyjGoralcuk, Cyril Kokovs'kyi, Frants/Kokowski, Franciszek Kolberg, Oskar Kolessa, Filaret Mykhailovych Koliadky Koliesar, Dragen/Kolesar, Dragutin Koliesar, luliian/Kolesar, Julijan Koliesar/Kolesar, Vladimir Kollar, Adam Frantisek Kolomiets, Ivan Gavrilovich Komasatsiia/Comasacia Konecny, Stanislav Konstankevych, Ivan Konstantynovych/Konstantynowicz, Emilian Kontingent/Zdacha Kontratovych, Ernest Kontratovych/Kondratovych, Irynei/Kontratovics, Iren

562

Kopach/Kopash Kopanytsi/ Irtashi Kopcha, Andrii/Kopcza, Andrzej Kopystianskii, Adriian/Kopystianski, Adrjan Koriatovych, Fedor Kosash Kostel'nik, Havrii'l/Gabor Kostelnik, Vlado Kostiuk, lurii/Kost'uk, Juraj Kotigoroshko, Viacheslav Kotradov, Mykhail Kotsak, Arsenii/Kocak, Arsenij Kotska, Andrii Kotsylovs'kyi, losafat Kovach, Fedir/Kovac, Fedor Kovach, Mikhal/Mikhailo Kozma, Miklos Kozminova, Amalie Krafcik, Patricia A. Krainiak, Frantishek/Krajfiak, Frantisek Krai, Jifi Kralyts'kyi, Anatolii Krasnyi Brid Monastery Krasovs'kyi, Ivan Krechko, Mykhailo Kreitser/Graitsar Kresyla, lurii/Kresila, Juraj Krofta, Kamil Kroh, Antoni Krushko, Shtefan/Krusko, Stefan Krynytskii, Mykhail Kseniak, Mykulai/Ksenak, Mikulas Kuba, Ludvik Kubek, Emilij A. Kubiiovych, Volodymyr Mykhailovych/Kubijovyc, Volodymyr Kukhar/Kuchar, Silvester Kurtiak, Ivan Kurucz Kuryllo/Kuryllo, Teofil' Kuryllo, Vasylii/Kurytto, Wasyl Kustodiev, Konstantin Lukich Kutka, loann Kutkafalvy, Miklos/Kutka-Kutkafalvy, Nykolai Kutlan, Stepan Kuziak, Teodor Kuzmiak, Petro Kwilecki, Andrzej Kychera Song and Dance Ensemble/Ansambl' pisni i tantsiu "Kychera"

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Kymak/Kimak, Viktor Kyzak, loann, Ivan/Kizak, Joann Kyzak, losyf/Kizak, Jozef Laborets' Labosh/Labos, Fedor Lacko, Michael Ladyzhin'skyi, Shtefan/Ladizinsky, Stefan Ladizinsky, Ivan A. Ladomirova Monastery Language Language question Latiak, Diura/Latjak, Dura Latta, Vasyl' Lazho, lurii/Lazo, Juraj Lazoryk, Fedor/Lazorik, Fedor League for the Liberation of Carpatho-Russia/Soiuz osvobozhdeniia Prikarpatskoi Rusi Legeza, Irynei Lehoczky, Tivadar Lehoczky Provincial Muzeum Lelekach, Mykola Lemkivshchyna "Lemkivska Storinka" Lemko (1911-13) Lemko( 1928-39) Lemko (1934-39) Lemko: pismo dla naroda Lemko Apostolic Administration/Apostol'ska administratsiia Lemkivshchyny/Apostolica Administratio pro Lemkis Lemko Association/Lemko-soiuz/Zwiazek lemkowski Lemko Association of the USA and Canada/LemkoSoiuz v SShA y Kanadi Lemko Committee/Lemkovskii komitet of the USA Lemko Hall Lemko Park Lemko population resettlement 1944-1946 Lemko Region Lemko Region Affairs Committee/Komitet do spraw Lemkowszczyzny Lemko Region Society in Ukraine/Tovarystvo "Lemkivshchyna" v Ukrai'ni Lemko Relief Committee/Lemkovskyi relyfovyi komytet Lemko Republic of Florynka/Ruska narodna respublika Lemkiv Lemko Republic of Komancha/Komanchans'ka respublika Lemko Research Foundation/Fundatsiia

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture doslidzhennia Lemkivshchyny Lemko Research Foundation in Eviv/Fundatsiia doslidzhennia Lemkivshchyny u Evovi Lemko Section of the Commission for Scholarly Research on the Eastern Lands/Sekcija lemkowska komisji badan naukowych ziem wschodnich Lemko Section of the Ukrainian Civic and Cultural Society Lemko Society/Stovaryshynia Lemkiv/ Stowarzyszenie Lemkow Lemkos Lemkovshchyna Lemkovyna Choir Lemkovyna Song and Dance Ensemble/Ansambl' pisni i tantsiu "Lemkovyna" Libertash Libertini Liberty Association/Svoboda Lintur, Petro Listok Literature Literature, Early manuscripts Liubimov, Aleksandr Andreevich Liubymov, Volodymyr Lodii, Petro/Lodii, Petr Dmitrievich Lokot Lubov Russian Orthodox Fraternity/Russka pravoslavna Liubov Luchkai, Mykhai'l/Lutskay, Michael Lyteraturna nedilia Lytynskii, loann Lyzanets', Petro/Lizanec, Peter Machik, Konstantyn/Macik, Konstantin Machoshko, Mariia/Madoskova, Marka Maczkov, Peter J. Madzelian, Seman/Madzelan, Szymon Madzelian, Vasyl' Magocsi, Paul Robert Magocsy family Magyar Kdrpdt Magyarones Magyars/Hungarians Majorati/Fideicommisia Maka'i, Silvester Makara, Mykola Makovskii, Sergei Konstantinovich Makovytsia Mal'tsovs'ka, Mariia/Mal'covska, Maria Malyniak, Mykolai

563 Manailo, Fedor Mandych, Olena Maramorosh/Maramaros, county Maramorosh Congress of People's Committees/ Maramoros'kyi z'Tzd narodnykh komitetiv Maramorosh Sighet trial Maramures. Region Marchia Ruthenorum/Rus' March Mariapocs Monastery Markovych, Pavlo/Markovic, Pavol Markus, Vasyl Markush, Aleksander Martel, Rene Marton, Istvan/Stepan Marusyn, losyf Maryna, lulii/Marina, Gyula Masaryk, Tomas Garrigue Mastsiuk, Vasylii/Masciuch, Wasyl Matezonskii, Konstantin Matsyns'kyi, Ivan/Macinsky, Ivan Mayer, Maria Medieshi, Helena/Medesi, Helena Medieshi, Liubomir/Medesi, Ljubomir Melika, Georg Meszaros, Karoly Michna, Ewa Mid-European Democratic Union Miloslavskii, Petr Petrovich Miravchyk, Georgii/Miravcik, Jifi Miz, Roman Mokliak, laroslav/Moklak, Jaroslaw Molchan, Mykhai'l Mol'nar, Mykhailo Mondok, Ivan Mount St. Macrina Mudri, Mikhailo Mukachevo Monastery of St. Nicholas Mukachevo State Teachers' College/Derzhavna koedukatsiina uchytel'ska semynariia v Mukachevi Mukachevo Theological School/Mukachivs'ka bohoslovs'ka shkola Mukachevo-Chynadiievo estate Muranii, Ivan Museum of Lemko Culture in Zydranowa/Muzei kul'tury lemkivskoi v Zydranovii Museum of the Lemko Region/Muzei Lemkivshchyna Museum of Ukrainian-Rus' Culture in Svidnik/Muzei ukraiins'ko-rus'koT kul'tury u Svydnyku Mushynka, Mykola/Musinka, Mikulas Muszyna estate/Panstwo muszynskie

564

Myhovych, Ivan Mykyta, Volodymyr Mykytas', Vasyl' Lazarovych Myllyi, Dezyderii/Milly, Dezider Myshanych, Oleksa Myshkovskii, Tyt/Myszkowski, Tytus Mytrak, Aleksander/Mitrak, Sandor Mytsiuk, Oleksander Nad', Havriil Nalysnyk, luliian Narodna shkola Narodnaia gazeta Narodny novynky Nash Lemko Nash rodnyi krai Nasha zemlia Nashi stremleniia Nationalism Nauka Naukovi zapysky Uzhhorods 'koho derzhavnoho universytetu Naukovyi zbirnyk Muzeiu ukrains 'koi kul'tury v Svydnyku Naukovyi zbornyk Tovarystva 'Prosvita' Nedilia (1898-1919) Nedilia (1935-41) Nedilia (1941-44) Nedilia Rusyna Nedzel'skii, Evgenii Leopol'dovich Nemec, Frantisek Nemeshi/Niameshi Neo-Slavism Neumann, Stanislav Kostka Nevyts'ka, Iryna Nevyts'kyi, Emilian New Rusyn Times Niaradi, Zvonimir Niaradii, Dionisii Niederle, Lubor Nod', Nykolai/Nagy, Nikolaj Notary public/Notar Nova dumka Nova svoboda Nove zhyttia Novoe vremia Novoje vremja Novyi svit Nowosielski, Jerzy/Novosil'skii, lurii Nykyfor Krynytskii/Nikifor Krynicki

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Obushkevych, Teofan Odrekhivs'kyi, Vasyl' Ofitsyns'kyi, Roman Andriiovych Olbracht, Ivan Old Ruthenianism Oleiar, Nikola D./Oleiarov, Nikolai D. Ol'shavs'kyi, Mykhai'l Emanuil/Olsavszky, Manuel Olszanski, Tadeusz Optanty Optatsiia Organization for the Defense of Lemko Western Ukraine/Orhanizatsiia oborony Lemkivshchyny Organization of Rusyns in Hungary/Organizatsiia Rusynov u Madiarsku Orlai, Ivan/Orlai, Ivan Semenovich Orosvygovs'kyi-Andrella, Mykhai'l Orthodox Eparchy of Mukachevo-Uzhhorod Orthodox Eparchy of Przemysl Ortynsky, Soter Orysyk, Mykhailo Ostapchuk, lats'ko Dmytrovych Ouchytel' Pachovs'kyi, Vasyl' Mykolaiovych Pahyria, Vasyl' Padiak, Valerii Palatinate Pan'kevych, Ivan Artemovych Pan'ko, lurii/Panko, Juraj Pankovych, Shtefan/Pankovics, Istvan Pan-Slavism Pap, Stepan/Papp, Stefan Papharha'i, Diura/Papharhaji, Dura Papp, Antonii/Antal Papuga, Irina Parfenii Petrovych/Petrus Parthenius Parkanii/Parkanyi, Ivan Pastelii/Pasztelyi, loann Patriarchal society Patrus-Karpats'kyi, Andrii Pavlovych, Aleksander Peasants' and Workers' Committee of the Lemko Region/Selians'ko-robitnychyi komitet Lemkovyny Pekar, Athansius B./Atanasii V. Pengo Peniak, Stepan Perenyi family Perenyi, Joszef Perenyi, Zsigmond Perfets'kyi, levhenii luliianovych/Perfeckij, Eugen

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Pesek, Josef Petronii/Petronius Petrov, Aleksei Leonidovich Petrovai, Vasyl' Ben'ko/Petrovaj, Vasil Benko Petrovtsii, Ivan Petrushchak/Petruscak, Ivan Petsukh, Hryhorii/Pecuch, Grzegorz Pidhirianka/Podhorianka, Mariika Pidhirs 'kyi dzvin P"ieshchak, Ivan/Pjescak, Ivan Plishkova/Pliskova, Anna Podkarpatoruska revue Podkarpatska Rus (1991 - ) Podkarpatska Rus' (1923-36) Podkarpats 'ka Rus'(1992- ) Podkarpatske hlasy Podolak, Jan Pogorelov, Valerii Aleksandrovich Pol, Wincenty Poles Polianskii, laroslav/Polanski, Jaroslaw Polianskii, loann Polianskii, Olympii Polianskii, Petro Polianskii, Toma/Polanski, Tomasz Political Rusynism Polivka, Ivan Polivka, Mikhailo Pop, Dymytrii Pop, Ivan Popov, Aleksandr Vasil'evich Popovic, Michal Popovych, Mykhail/Popovich, Mikhail Popovych, Tibor Miklosh/Popovics, Tibor Miklos Popovych, Vasylii/Popovics, Bazil Potushniak, Fedor Povchii, Aleksii/Potsi, Alexii Pratsiuiucha moled' PravdalThe Truth Pravoslavnaia Karpatskaia Rus'IPravoslavnaia Rus Presidium of the Civil Administration in Subcarpathian Rus' Presov Greek Catholic Teachers' College/ Priashevskaia hreko-katolyts'kaia pivtsouchytel'skaia russkaia semynariia Presov Literary Society/Lyteraturnoe zavedenie priashevskoe Presov Region Priashevshchina Priashevskaia Rus'

565

Printing and Publishing ProsvitalThe Enlightenment Prosvita Society/Tovarystvo "Prosvita" Prut/ Pruh Prykhod'ko, Oleksii Kindratovych Pryslopskii, loann Pryslopskii, Roman PULS Pysh, Simeon/Pyzh, Symeon Radians 'ke Zakarpattia/Karpaty Radio and Television Raevskii, Mikhail Fedorovich Rakoczy, Ferenc II Rakoczy, Gyorgy I Rakoczy, Gyorgy II Rakovs'kyi, loann/Ivan Ramach, lanko/Ramac, Janko Ramach, luliian/Ramac, Julijan Reinfuss, Roman Remanentsii Renaissance Carpatho-Russian Student Society/ Obshchestvo karpatorusskikh studentov "Vozrozhdenie" Reunification Revai, luliian/Revay, Julian Rieger, Janusz Righetti, John Senich Ripa, Ivan Ripai, Andrii/Ripaev, Andrii Riznich-Diadia, Petro Roccasalvo, Joan Rohach, Ivan Rokovyna Roman, Michael Roman, Mykhailo Romanians Romzha, Feodor/Teodor Roshko, Ivan Roshkovych, Ignatii/Roskovics, Ignacz Rosokha/Rosocha, Stepan Rozsypal, Antonin Rudlovchak, Olena/Rudlovcakova, Helena Rus' Sports Club/S.K. Rus' Rusenko, Ivan RusinlThe Ruthenian Rusin Association of Minnesota Rusinko, Elaine Ruska Bursa Rus'ka Krai'na

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Rus 'ka molodezh' Rus 'ka nyva Rus'kapravda Ruske slovo Ruske Slovo Publishing House/Novinsko-vidavatel'na robotna organizatsiia "Ruske Slovo" Ruski novini Russian Brotherhood Organization/Obshchestvo russkykh bratstv Russian National Autonomist party/Russkaia natsional'no-avtohomnaia partiia Russian National party/Russkaia narodnaia partiia Russian Orthodox Church in North America/Russkaia pravoslavnaia tserkov' v Sievernoi Amerike Russians Russka zaria Russkaia zemlia Russkii narodnyi golos Russkii vistnyk Russkii zemledielets Russkoe slovo (1924-38) Russkoe slovo (1940-44) Russophiles Rusyn Rusyn( 1920-21) Rusyn (1923) Rusyn (1990- ) RusynlRusin/Ruthenian (1952-60) Rusyn Association of North America/Ruske druzhtvo Sivernei Ameriki Rusyn Cultural Foundation/Ruska matka Rusyn District/Rus'kyi okruh Rusyn Minority Self-Government/Rusynske men'shynove samoupravleniie Rusyn National Enlightenment Society/Ruske narodne prosvitne druzhtvo Rusyn National Union/Ruskii narodnyi soiuz v Amerytsi Rusyn People's Commissariat Rusyn Renaissance Society/Rusyn'ska obroda Rusyn Sector Rusyn Small Farmers' party/Rus'ka khliborobska partiia Rusyn Sport's Association/Sportske druzhtvo "Rusin" Rusyn-Ukrainian Rusynophiles Rusynskyi zhyvot/Ruszin elet Ruthenian Rychalka, Mykhailo/Ricalka, Michal

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Sabados, Julian/Sabadosh, Julian Sabol, Sevastiian Sabov, levmenii, Evmenii/Szabo, Eumen Sabov, Kyryl/Szabo, Cyrill Sabov, Orest/Szabo, Oreszt Sabov/Szabo, Simeon St. Basil the Great Society/Obshchestvo sv. Vasiliia Velikago St. John the Baptist Society/Obshchestvo sv. loanna Krestitelia Sak, lurii Sakhanev, Vsevolod Vasilevich Salamon, Silvester Salt Chamber/Soliana komora Salt Route/Solianyi shliakh Sandovych, Maksym Sas, Andor/Sas, Ondrej Savka, Andrii Sazhen' Schonborn family Segedi, loakim Segregacia Sembratovych, losyf Sembratovych, Syl'vester Servitudes Servyts'ka, Anna/Servicka, Hanka Shafranko/Safranko, Ivan Nestor Shandor, Vikentii/Vincent Sharysh/Saros/Saris, county Shchavnyts'kyi, Mykhail Shchavynskii, Vladymir Shchyrets'kyi, Ivan Shelepets', losyf/Selepec, Jozef Shereghy, Basil/Sheregii, Vasylii Sheregii, lurii-Avhustyn/Seregij, Juraj Shkol'naia pomoshch'/School Aid Society Shlepets'kyi, Andrii/Slepecky, Andrej Shlepets'kyi, Ivan/Slepecky, Ivan Shmaida, Mykhailo/Smajda, Michal Shnur Sholtes, Zoltan ShpyFka, Panteleimon Shtefan, Avhustyn/Stefan, Agoston Shtefan, Avhustyn/Stefan, Augustin Shternberg, lakiv/Varadi-Sternberg, Janos Shtets', Mykola/Stec, Mikulas Shuhai, Nykolai/Suhaj, Nikola Shuhaida, Makarii Shufha, Illia Havrylovych Shvetlosts

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture Sichyns'kyi, Volodymyr lukhymovych Sil'vai, Ivan, loann/Szilvay, Janos Sil'vai, Sion Simon, Constantine Sivch/Sivc, Helena Sivch, lakim/Sivc, Jakim Skimba, Stephen/Shkymba, Shtefan Skuban, Mikola Skultety Slavjane Slavs, Early settlement patterns Slivka, John Slobodnyky, Sabadosok Slovaks Smerekanych, Petro Sochka, Vasylii Social-Democratic party Society for Rusyn Language, Literature, and Culture/ Druzhtvo za ruski iazik, literaturu i kulturu Society of Carpatho-Rusyns/Obshchestvo karpats'kykh Rusynov Society of Friends of Subcarpathian Rus'/Spolecnost pfatel Podkarpatske Rusi Society of Rusyn Intelligentsia in Slovakia/ Zdruzhinia intelihentsii Rusyniv Sloven'ska Sokols Soltys/Sholteis Solynko, Dmytro Sopka, Liubomir/Sopkov, Ljubomir Sopolyha, Myroslav/Sopoliga, Miroslav Sova Sova, Petro/Petr Spala, Frantisek Spish/Szepes/Spis, county Sreznevskii, Izmail Ivanovich Stadtkonvikt Stalin, losif Vissarionovich Stara vira Starosta Stavrovs'kyi, Emilian/Stavrovsky, Emilian Stavrovs'kyi-Popradov, lulii Stefanovskii, Pavel/Stefanowski, Pawel Stercho, Peter G./Petro Stieber, Zdzislaw Stoika, Aleksander Stole fees/Shtolovi dokhody Striber, Miroslav Strumins'kyi, Bohdan/Strumihski, Bogdan Stryps'kyi, Hiiador/Sztripszky, Hiador Student Circle of Beskyd Mountain Tourist Guides/

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Studenckie Kolo Przewodnikow Beskidzkich Studia Ukrainica et Rusinica Nyiregyhaziensia Subcarpathian Rus'/Podkarpats'ka Rus' Subcarpathian Rusyn National Theater/Zemskii podkarpatorusskii narodnii teatr Subcarpathian Scholarly Society/Podkarpatskoe obshchestvo nauk Sukha korchma Sukhors'kyi, Andrii Sukhyi, Shtefan/Suchy, Stefan Svientsits'kyi, Ilarion Semenovych Svidnik Folk Festival Svit Svoboda Svorc, Peter Sydor, Dymytrii Symbol/Crest of Carpatho-Rusyns Sysak, laroslav/Sisak, Jaroslav Szeman/Szantay-Szeman, Istvan Takach, Basil/Vasylii Taksalisty Talerhof Tamash, luliian/Tamas, Julijan Tarasovych, Vasylii/Taraszovits, Bazil Tarkovych, Hryhorii Tarnovych, luliian Telek, Dilets' Telep, Stefan/Stephen F. Thokoly, Imre Tichy, Frantisek Timko, Onufrii Tomashivs'kyi, Stepan Teodorovych Tomchanii, Mykhailo Tomecek, Jaromir Toronskii, Aleksii Toth, Alexis/Tovt, Aleksii Transcarpathian Folk Choir/Zakarpats'kyi narodnyi khor Transcarpathian Oblast/Zakarpats'ka oblast' Transcarpathian Regional Museum/Zakarpats'kyi kraieznavchyi muzei Transcarpathian Ukraine/Zakarpats'ka Ukrama Treaty of St. Germain Treaty of Trianon Trier, Tom Trnava Adalbertine College Troian, Mykhailo Trokhanovska, Stefaniia/Trochanowska, Stefania Trokhanovskii, laroslav/Trochanowski, Jaroslaw

568 Trokhanovskii, Metodii Trokhanovskii, Petro/Trochanowski, Piotr Tselevych, luliian Andriiovych Tsibere, Pavel/Cibere, Pavel Tsurkanovich, Ilarion lurievich/Curkanovic, Ilarion Tsymbora, lurii/Cimbora, Juraj Turianytsia, lurii Turianytsia, Ivan I. Turianytsia, Ivan M. Turkovskii, Orest Turok-Hetesh, Vasyl'/Turok-Hetes, Vasil' Tvorchosts/Studia Ruthenica Tvorydlo, Mykola Tyliava Schism Tymkovych, losafat/Timkovic, Jozafat V. Tyvodar, Mykhailo Uchytel' Uchytel's 'kyi holos Udvari, Istvan Udziela, Seweryn UgochaAJgocsa, county Uhlia Monastery Uhors'ka Rus'/Hungarian Rus' Uhro-Rusyn party/Uhro-rus'ka politychna partiia Ukrainian Insurgent Army/Ukrai'ns'ka povstans'ka armiia Ukrainian Lemko Museum/Ukrai'ns'kyi lemkivs'kyi muzei Ukrainian National Council of the Presov Region/ Ukrai'ns'ka narodna rada Priashivshchyny Ukrainians Ukrainophiles Ukrains 'ke slovo Ung/Uzh, county Ung/Uzhhorod estate Unia/Church Union Unio Publishing Company Union of Lemkos in Canada/Ob"iednannia Lemkiv Kanady Union of Lemkos in Poland/Ob"iednannia Lemkiv v Pol'shchi Union of Rusyn-Ukrainians in Slovakia/Soiuz rusyniv-ukrai'ntsiv Slovachchyny Union of Rusyns and Ukrainians in Croatia/Soiuz rusinokh i ukrai'ntsokh Horvatskei Union of Rusyns and Ukrainians in Serbia and Montenegro/Soiuz rusnatsokh i ukramtsokh Serbii' i Chornei Hori Union of Subcarpathian Rusyn Students/Soiuz

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture pidkarpats'kykh rus'kykh studentiv United Russian Orthodox Brotherhood of America/ Sojedinenije russkikh pravoslavnych bratstv v Ameriki United Societies of Greek Catholic Religion of the USA/Sobranije greko-katholiceskich cerkovnych bratstv University departments/katedry Urbar Urbarial commune/Urbariarna obshchyna Urbarial reforms Uzhhorod Greek Catholic Teachers' College/ Uzhhorodska hreko-katolytska pivtso-uchytel'ska semynariia Vakarov, Dymytrii Vaflcovs'kyi, Andrii Vanat, Ivan Vancura, Vladislav Vafiko, Juraj Varga, Mikhailo Varmed'shchyna Varzaly, Stefan Vatra Vavrik, Vasilii Romanovich Vegesh, Mykola Venelin, lurii/Venelin-Gutsa, lurii Ivanovich Venhrynovych, Stepan Venhrynovych, Tyrs/Wenhrynowicz, Tyrs Verets'kyi/Vorits'kyi pass Vergun, Dmitrii Nikolaevich Verkhovyna/Highlands Verkhrats'kyi, Ivan Hryhorovych Vienna Award Vienna trials Viko Village committees/Sil's'ki komitety, upravy, uriady Vinochok dlia podkarpatskykh ditochok Virag, lulii/Viragh, Gyula Visnyk Narodnoi rady Zakarpats 'koi Ukrainy Vistnyk Rusynov Vistula Operation/Akcja Wisla Vitso, Fedor/Vico, Fedor Vlach colonization Vlachs Voditsa Vodzik, Hryhorii/Wodzik, Grzegorz Voitkovskii, Vasilii Mironovich Vojvodina

Encyclopedia ofRusyn History and Culture

Voloshyn, Avhustyn/Volosin, Agoston Voloshynovych, Mykhal Vondracek, Jan Voron, Andrii Vostok/The East Vpered Vrabel', Mykhai'l Vyslotskii, Dymytrii/Vislocky, Dmitri Warhol, Andy Weller, Catherine Roberts Werboczi, Istvan White Croats/Bily khorvaty Winter, Eduard World Congress of Rusyns/S vitovyi kongres Rusyniv World Federation of Ukrainian Lemko Organizations/ Svitova federatsiia ukra'ins'kykh lemkivs'kykh ob"iednan' Yurcisin, John Zaborsky, Jonas Zador, Dezyderii Zahoroda Zajicek, Jaroslav Zaklyns'kyi, Kornelii Zapletal, Florian Zaria Cultural and Enlightenment Union of Yugoslav Rusyns/Kulturno-prosvitni soiuz iugoslavianskikh rusinokh "Zaria" Zatloukal, Jaroslav Zeedick, Peter I.

569

Zeikan/Zekany, loanykii Zeikan, Ivan Zemlia i volia Zemplyn/Zemplen/Zemplin, county Zganec, Vinko Zhatkovych/Zatkovic/Zsatkovich, Gregory I. Zhatkovych, lurii Koloman/Zsatkovics, Kalman Gyorgy Zhatkovych, Pavel/Zhatkovich, Paul J. Zheguts', Ivan/Zeguc, Ivan Zhelem, Ivan Zhirosh/Ziros, Miron Zhupan, Ishpan Zhupan, losyf Zhydovs'kyi, Ivan/Zidovsky, Jan Zhydovs'kyi, Petro/Zidovsky, Peter Zhylych, Nestor Zi^ba, Andrzej Zilyns'kyi, Ivan Zilyns'kyi, Orest/Zilynskyj, Orest Zlots'kyi, Feodosii/Zloczky, Theodoz Zmii-Miklovshii, losyf/Zmij-Miklossy, Jozsef Zoria Zoria/Hajnal Zozuliak, Aleksander/Zozul'ak, Alexander Zozuliak, VasyiYZozul'ak, Vasil' Zrinyi, Ilona Zubryts'kyi, Dionizii/Zubricky, Dionyz Zvolinskii, laroslav/Zwolinski, Jaroslaw Zyndranowa Amateur Artistic Ensemble/ Samodiial'nyi khudozhnyi ansambl' sela Zyndranova