Encyclopaedia Britannica, American Supplements [5, 9 ed.]

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I n fi nit e riches in a Hit l e room — CHRISTOPHER '

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MARLOWE

*

; .

New

Americanized

ENCYCLOPEDIA

BRITAN N (

G A

I

Twentieth Century Edition A

DICTIONARY OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, and

Many

with

)

Articles

by

LITERATURE Special

Writers

FULLY ILLUSTRATED and

Revised

ONE

throughout

VOL. V

New York

Date, with

over

HUNDRED COLORED MAPS

IN

The

to

TEN VOLUMES

— FRANCIS — HORTEN

Saalfield

Publishing Company

AKRON, OHIO

Chicago

i

Copyright, Copyright,

Copyright,

1904,

Copyright,

1905,

Copyright,

1906,

Copyright,

1907,

1890,

1896,

by Belford-Clarke Co.

by The

The Saalfield Pubi.ishing Company The Saalfield Publishing Company by The Saalfield Publishing Company by

by

E.

MADE Dt

.Ha

WERNER COMPANY AKHON, OHIO

Werner Company

by The Saalfield Publishing Company

B.

03X ExXlr?i*r 190 7

/,r

LIST

OF MAPS

VOLUME

Georgia

Germany Greece

V.

••^•••••••ooooo3o«ae .

.

.

.

PAGE

2714 2893

BIOGRAPHIES In Volume X. will be found biographical sketches of the following persons, not treated of in this volume, and not to be found in the English edition: Francis II., ex-King of Naples. Francis-Joseph I., of Austria. Franklin, William. Franklin, William Buel. Franklin, Samuel R. Franz, Robert. Franzos, Karl Emil. Fraser,

Alexander C., LL.D.

Fraser, Charles. Fraser, Christopher F.,

Hon.

Fraser, Simon.

Frazer, John Fries. Frazer, Persifor.

Freeman, Edward Augustus, LL.D. Freeman, James, D.D. Freeman, James Edward. Frelinghuysen, Theodore. Frelingfyuysen, Frederick. Fremont, John Charles, Gen. French, Benjamin F. French, Daniel Chester.

French, Virginia. French, Mansfield. French, William Henry. Freneau, Philip Freppel, Charles Emile.

Edward.

Frere-Orban, Hubert Joseph. Freund, Wilhelm. Freycinet, Charles Louis de. Frey tag, Gustav. Friedlander. Michael

Henry

S.,

LL.D.

Frisby, Edgar. Frith,

William Powell, R.A.

Froebel, Julius.

Frothingham, Octavius Brooks. Frothingham, Richard. Froude, James Anthony, LL.D. Fry, Cary Harrison, Gen. Fry, James Barnet, Gen. Fry, Joseph, Capt. Fry, William Henry. Frye, William Pierce. Fuller,

Frechette, Louis Honors. Frederick Charles, Prince. Frederick William, Grand Duke.

Frere, Sir Henry Bartle Frere, Pierre Edouard.

Frieze,

George.

Fuller, Melville

W., Chief Justice.

Thomas Brock, Bishop. Fullerton, Lady Georgiana. Fuller,

Fulton, Justin

Dewey.

Funke, Otto. Furnivall, Frederick James. Furness, William Henry. Fiirstenburg, Frederick von.

Gabb, William More. Gaboriau, Emile. Gachard, Louis Prosper. Gade, Niels Wilhelm. Gadsden, Christopher. Gadsden, Christopher E., Bishop. Gadsden, James. Gage, Lyman J. Gage, Matilda Joslyn. Gagern, Heinrich Wilhelm Aug., Baron von. Gagnon, Lucian. Gaillard, Claude Ferdinand. Gaillard,

Edwin

Gaillard, John.

Gaine, Hugh.

S.

BIOGRAPHIES.

11

Gaines, Edmund Pendleton. Gaines, Myra Clark. Gale, Samuel. Galignani, John Anthony. Gallagher, Hugh P. Gallagher, John Nicholas, Bishop. Gallagher, Nicholas A., Bishop. Gallagher, William Davis. Gallaudet, Edward Miner. Galle,

George, James Z. Gerhardt, Karl. Germain, Antoine Henri, G6rome, Jean L£on.

Geronimo. Gerry, Elbridge. Gerster, Etelka.

Johann Gottfried.

Gallenga, Antonio Carlo.

Gaston Alexandre, Marquis de. Galloway, Charles B., Bishop. Galt, Sir Alexander T.

Gallifet,

Galt,

Thomas.

Galton, Francis, F.R.S.

Gambetta, L6on. Gannett, Ezra Stiles. Garcia- Calderon, Francisco. Gardiner, James Terry. Gardiner, Samuel Rawson. Gardner, Charles K. Gardner, George Warren. Gardner, John Lane. Garfield,

Gifford, Sandford Robinson. Gilbert, Charles Champion,

James Abram.

Gilbert, Gilbert,

Garland, Augustus Hill. Garman, Samuel. Garnet, Henry Highland. Garnett, Richard. Garnett, Robert Selden. Gamier, Jean Louis Charles. Garnier-Pages, Louis Antoine. Garrard, Kenner.

Gilbert,

Gilbert, Linda.

Mahlon

Gilbert,

Norris.

Rufus Henry. Gilbert, Sir John, R.A. Gilbert, William S. Gilbert,

Gildersleeve, Basil L. Gilfert,

John Work.

Garrett, Robert. Gasparin, Agenor Etienne, Gates, Merrill Edwards. Gates, Sir Thomas. Gates, William, Gen. Gatling, Richard Jordan.

Agnes.

Gilfert, Charles.

Gill,

James. David.

Gill,

Edmund.

Gilfillan,

Comte

de.

Theodore Nicholas. Gilliss, James Melville. Gillmore, Quincy Adams, Gen. Gill,

Gault, Matthew H. Gavazzi, Alessandro.

Gilman, Arthur. Gilman, Daniel Coit.

Gay, Edward. Gay, Sidney Howard.

Gilmer, Jeremy Francis. Gilmore, James Roberts. Gilmour, Richard, Bishop. Gilpin, Henry Dilwood.

Gayarre, Charles E. A. Gear, John Henry. Geary, John White. Geddes, James Lorraine. Geffirard, Fabre. Geikie, Archibald.

Gemunder, George. Genest,

Edmond

Genoa, Duke

Charles.

of.

Genth, Frederick A. Gentry, Meredith P.

George

I.,

King of the Hellenes.

George, Henry.

Gen,

David McC., D.D. Grove Karl. John Thomas. John Gibbs.

Gilbert,

Garibaldi, Giuseppe.

Garrett,

Getty, George W. Gibbon, John, Gen. Gibbons, James, Cardinal. Gibbs, Alfred, Gen. Gibbs, George. Gibbs, Josiah Willard, LL.D. Gibbs, Oliver Wolcott, ivi.D. Gibson, Randall Lee. Gibson, Thomas Milner, M.P. Gibson, William, M.I). Gibson, William Hamilton. Giddings, Joshua Reed. Giers, Nicholas. Gilford, Robert Swain.

Girard, Charles. Girardin, Emile de. Girty, Simon. Gist, Christopher. Givin, William McKendrie.

Gladden, Washington. Gladstone, Rt. Hon. William E. Gleig, George Robert. Glidden, George D. B. Glisson, Oliver S., Admiral. Glynn, James, Capt.

BIOGRAPHIES. Gray, Gray, Gray, Gray, Gray, Gray,

Gneist, Rudolph. Godkin, Edwin L.

Godwin, Parke. Goldsborough, Louis M. Goldschmidt, Madame. Gonzalez, Manuel.

Goodall, Frederick.

Goode, George Brown. Goodrich, Chauncey Allen. Goodsell, Daniel Ayres. Goodwin, William Watson. Gordon, Charles George, Gen-

Peter.

Anna

Katharine.

John Richard. Norvin.

Samuel Abbott. Seth.

Greene, Charles Ezra. Greene, Charles Gordon. Greene, George Washington. Greene, Nathanael. Greene, Samuel Dana. Greene, Samuel S. Greene, Theodore P. Greene, William Batchelder. Greene, William Houston. Greener, Richard Theodore. Greenleaf, Jonathan. Greenwald, Emanuel. Greer, James Augustin. Gregg, Alexander, Bishop. Gregg, Andrew. Gregg, John Irvin, Gem Gregg, David McMurtrie, Gen. Gregg, William.

Gorges, Sir Ferdinando. Gorringe, Henry Honeychurch. Gortschakoff, Alexander, Prince. Goschen, George Joachim. Gosnold, Bartholomew. Gosse, Philip Henry. Got, Frangois Jules Edmond. Gottschalk, Louis Moreau.

Gough, John B. Gould, Benjamin A. Gould, Edward Sherman. Gould, Jay. Gould, Thomas R. Gould, Walter. Gounod, Charles Frangois. Gourgues, Dominique de. Gowen, Franklin B. Gourko, Joseph, Count. Grace, William Gilbert. Grace, Thomas L. Grady, Henry W.

Gregori, Luigi.

Gregory, Daniel S. Gregory, F. M. Gregory, John Milton. Gresham, Walter Q. Grevy, Jules. Grey, Earl. Grier, Robert Cooper. Grier, William N., Gen.

Graham, James Duncan. Graham, Sylvester. Graham, William Alexander. Graham, William Montrose, Gen. Gramont, Antoine, Due de. Granbery, John Cowper, Bishop.

Grierson, Benjamin Plenry, Gen.

Gen. Simon Goodell, Gen. Griffiths, John Willis. Grigsby, Hugh Blair, LL.D. Grimes, James Wilson. Griffin, Charles, Griffin,

Granger, Francis. Granger, Gordon. Granger, Robert S. Granier de Cassagnac, Paul Adolphe. Grant, Hugh J. Grant, James. Grant, James. Grant, Sir James Alexander. Grant, Ulysses Simpson.

Z

Henry

Greenaway, Kate.

Gordon, John B., Gen. Gordon, George Henry, Gen. Gordon, George William.

George Leveson-Gower,

P.

Elisha.

Green, Green, Green, Green, Green,

Gooch, Prank Austin. Goodale, George Lincoln.

Granville,

Edward Dwyer, M.

John Hamilton. John Perdue. Horace. Greely, Adolphus Washington.

Goffe, William.

Graves, William Jordan. Gray, Albert Gray, Asa.

iii

Earl.

Grimshaw, William. Grinnell, Julius S.

Griswold, Alphonso M. Griswold, Rufus Wilmot. Gross, Samuel David, M.D. Gross, Samuel W., M.D. Gross, William Hickley, Archbishop Grover, Cuvier, Gen.

Grow, Galusha Aaron. Grundy, Felix. Guest, John. Guild, Reuben A.

BIOGRAPHIES.

iv

Guiteau, Charles J. Gull, Sir William. Guiccioli, Teresa Gungfl, Josef.

Gamba, Countess.

Gunther, A. C. L. G. Gurowski, Adam. Guthrie, Samuel. Guyot, Arnold. Guy, Seymour Joseph. Guzman-Bianco, Antonio.

Gwin, William. Gwinnett, Button. Gwynne, John Wellington.

Haag, Carl. Habberton, John. Hackett, Horatio Balch. Hackett, James Henry. Hacklander, Fredrich Wilhelm, von. Haden, Francis Seymour. Hading, Jane. Hadley, James. Haeckel, Ernst. Haenke, Thaddeus. Hagarty, John Hawkins. Hagen, Hermann August. Haggard, Henry Rider. Hague, Arnold. Haldeman, Samuel Stehman. Haldimand, Sir Frederick. Hale, Hale, Hale, Hale, Hale,

Edward

Everett.

Eugene. John Parker. Nathan.

Sarah Josepha. Halevy, Joseph. Halevy, Leon. Halevy, Ludovic. Hall, Anna Maria. Hall, Asaph.

Hall, C. B. Hall, James. Hall, John. Hall, Newman. Hall, Samuel Carter. Halle, Charles. Halliwell-Phillips, James Orchard, F.R.S.

Halpine, Charles Graham. Halsbury, Lord. Halstead, Murat.

Hamblin, Thomas Sowerby. Hamerton, Philip Gilbert. Hamilton, Andrew. Hamilton, Andrew. Hamilton, Frank H. Hamilton, George Francis, Lord. Hamilton, James. Hamilton, Sir Robert George. Hamlin, HannibaL

Hammond,

William Alexander, M.D.

Hampton, Wade. Hancock, Winfield Scott, Gen. Harcourt, Sir William George Vernon. Hardee, William J., Gen. Hardy, Thomas. Harlan, James. Harlan, John Marshall, Justice. Harney, William Selby, Gene Harper, James. Harris, Isham G. Harris, Joel Chandler. Harris, Samuel. Harris, Samuel Smith, Bishop. Harrison, Benjamin, President. Harrison, Benjamin. Harrison, Carter H. Harrison, Frederic, Professor. Hart, Ernest. Hart, James McDougal. Hart, Joel T. Hart, William. Harte, Francis Bret. Hartington, Marquis of. Hartranft, John Frederick, Gen. Hartt, Charles Frederick. Hassler, Ferdinand Rudolph. Hatton, Joseph. Hatzfeldt, Count von. Hauck, Minnie. Haussmann, Georges Eugene, Baron. Haven, Erastus Otis, Bishop.

Haven, Gilbert, Bishop. Hawks, Francis Lister. Hawley, Joseph R., Gen. Hawthorne, Julian. Hay, John. Hayden, Ferdinand V. Hayes, Isaac Israel. Hayes, Rutherford Birchard. Hayne, Paul Hamilton. Hayne, Robert Young. Hazen, William Babcock, Gen. Headley, Joel Tyler. Healy, George Peter Alexander. Healy, Timothy M., M.P. Heath, William. Hecker, Friedrich Karl Franz. Hecker, Isaac Thomas. Heckewelder, John Gottlieb Ernestus. Hein, Piet. Heintzelman, Samuel Peter, Gen. Heiss, Michael, Archbishop. Hellmuth, Isaac, Bishop. Helmholtz, Hermann Ludwig. Helper, Hinton Rowan. Henderson, David E. Henderson, Richard.

BIOGRAPHIES. Henderson, Thomas Hendrick.

J.

Thomas Andrews. Hennepin, Lpuis. Henni, John Martin, Archbishop. Henry, Caleb Sprague. Henry, John. Hendricks,

Hensler, Eliza. Hering, Constantin.

Herkimer, Nicholas. Herkomer, Hubert. Herndon, William Lewis. Herve, Aime Marie Edouard. Hewitt, Abram Stevens. Hicks, Thomas.

Hidalgo of

Cortilla.

Higginson, Thomas Wentworth. Hildreth, Richard. Hildreth,

Samuel Prescott.

Hill,

Ambrose

Hill,

Benjamin Harvey. Daniel Harvey. David Bennett. George Handel.

Hill,

Hill, Hill,

Hilliard,

Powell.

Henry W.

Hincks, Sir Francis. Hind, John Russell. Hinojoso, Pedro de. Hiscock, Frank. Hitchcock, Roswell D.

Hitt, Robert R. Hoar, Ebenezer R. Hoar, George Frisbie. Hobart, Augustus Charles. Hobart, John Henry, Bishop. Hodge, Archibald A., LL.D Hodgkinson, John. Hoe, Richard March. Hoffman, Charles Fenno. Hohenzollern, Leopold, Prince Holbrook, John Edwards. Holden, Edward Singleton. Holl, Frank. Holland, Josiah Gilbert. Holland, Sir Henry Thurstan. Holman, Joseph George. Holman, William S. Holmes, George Frederick. Holmes, Oliver Wendell.

Holt, Joseph.

Holyoake, George Jacob.

Home, Daniel Douglas. Homer, Winslow. Hood, John Bell, Gen. Hood, Samuel. Hooker, Joseph, Gen. Hooker, Sir Joseph. Hopkins, Mark, LL.D. Hopkins, Stephen. Hopper, Isaac Tatem.

J

of.

;

AMERICANIZED ENCYCLOPAEDIA

BRITANNICA.

VOLUME FI RANCIS

(1494-1547), king of France, son of Charles of Orleans, count of Angouleme, and Louisa of Savoy, was born at Cognac. He married Claude, daughter of Louis XII., in 1514, and succeeded him on After his accession the the throne January 1, 1515. first and great object that occupied his ambition was the recovery of Milan, the inheritance of which he claimed through his great-grandmother Valentina Visconti. Milan surrendered, and a treaty was concluded between Francis and the Swiss, which subsequently took the form of a perpetual alliance. In 1516, he compromised the long dispute with the popes by superseding the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges by a “Concordat,”

F

I.

an act which, while it recognized the superiority of the pope over the councils, and gave him the command of the annates and other rich sources of revenue, intrusted the French monarch with the power of nominating to In 1517 he entered into an alliance vacant benefices. with the emperor Maximilian and Charles I. of Spain against the Turks; and in 1518 he made an arrangement with Henry VIII. of England, by which France bought back Tour nay. On the death of Maximilian in 1519, Francis became a candidate for the imperial crown but chiefly through the recommendation of Frederick the Wise of Saxony, the choice fell on Charles I. of Spain, from that time known as Charles V War between Charles and Francis could scarcely have been avoided, even if the materials for kindling it had not been already prepared ; but inherited disputes in regard to Navarre, Milan, Burgundy, and Arles would in any case have sooner or later rendered an appeal to the decision of the sword almost inevitable. With a view to such possibilities, the great aim of both was to secure the alliance of Henry of England and the pope, and here fortune again ultimately smiled on Charles. Francis, elated by his previous achievements on the battlefield, and chagrined at the overthrow of his nopes of obtaining the imperial crown, Vas naturally eager to strike the first blow ; and the “ mest of Henry 'll, of Navarre to aid him in regaining ;

.

162

V.

A kingdom came opportunely to second his wishes. Accordingly, in April, 1521, he sent an army to the aid of Henry. Charles at once retaliated by an invasion oi France, and in May concluded a treaty with Pope Leo X. for the expulsion of the French from Italy. Navarre and in after being almost won was again lost by Henry Italy the French, chiefly through the blunders of Lautrec, the brother of the king’s mistress, lost Milan, Genoa, and all their conquests with the exception of the stronghold of Cremona ; but the attempt of the imperialists to enter France was pushed back, and Francis, following in pursuit, only by unaccountable negligence missed the opportunity of inflicting a crushing defeat on Charles between Cambray and Valenciennes. After this, difficulties continued to thicken round the French king; on January 9, 1522, the papal throne was mounted by Adrian VI., who had formerly been tutor to Charles V., and in May Henry VIII. declared war against France; in August, 1523, a coalition waa formed against her which included the pope, the emperor, the king of England, the archduke of Austria, the duke of Milan, and the principal Italian republics and about the same time Charles Constable Bourbon, having been unjustly used by Louise of Savoy, withdrew from France, and offered his sword to Charles V. The Spanish troops crossed the French frontiers at Bayonne; the English entered Picardy, and advanced to within eleven leagues of Paris; and after the repulse of the French army dispatched against Milan, the imperialists passed over into Provence and laid siege to MarThrough cautious but stubbornly defensive tacseilles. tics, however, both the Spanish and English incursions were foiled, and Francis was thus able to advance to the relief of Marseilles with a large army. The imperialists did not wait his approach ; but, determined or. retaliation, he crossed the Alps and laid siege to Pavia, where a strong Italian force had taken refuge. Here he was attacked, February 24, 1525, by a relieving his

;

His army was speedPescara. or dispersed in flight, and he himseit

army under Bourbon and ily

either cut

down

;

FRA

*574 after a desperate attempt to rally,

was mnde prisoner

Me only regained and conveyed by Charles to Madrid. his liberty, February 21, 1526, by signing a treaty whereby he ceded to Charles both Burgundy and Milan. Its stipulations were guaranteed by the retention of his two sons in the emperor’s hand; but he nevertheless resolved to disregard it, and in this he was supported by Pope Clement VII. and also by Henry of England, whom jealousy and alarm at the emperor’s Though formal success had induced to change sides. war was not declared, a French army was dispatched to Italy, but the supineness with which the campaign was prosecuted enabled the imperialists to have it all their own way; and an army of mercenaries under Bourbon, who perished in the assault, marching unopposed to Rome, captured and sacked the city, and took the pope prisoner. On this Francis and Henry at once declared •

war against the emperor; but the army sent into

Italy

under Lautrec almost melted away before the walls of Naples and Genoa, by suddenly declaring for the emperor, completed the ruin of the French cause in The pope soon thereafter saw it to be his interItaly. est to be reconciled with Charles ; and in August, 1529, Charles and Francis agreed to the treaty of Cambray, by which Francis retained Burgundy and obtained by a ransom the release of the French princes, but renounced his claims in Italy and ceded Artois and Flanders to his He also agreed to fulfill the promise entered into rival. at Madrid to marry Eleanor of Portugal, sister of Charles, his first wife having died in 1524. During the years of peace that followed this treaty, Francis, though he had encouraged the Smalkald League in Germany, persecuted with great vigor the adherents of Protestantism in his own kingdom but when war was again The pretext declared, he issued an edict of toleration. for the renewal of the war was the murder of the French ambassador by Duke Sforza of Milan in 1533, but hostilities were delayed till 1535, when, emboldened by the weakened condition of the emperor after his war against the Turks, Francis overran Savoy and took possession of Turin. His advantages were, however, followed up with so little energy that Charles, after driving the French out of Italy, began an invasion of Provence and his progress was only checked by the barbarous destruction of the country before him by Anne of Montmorency. Meantime Francis attacked Flanders, and entered into an alliance with Sultan Soliman II., whose invasion of Hungary induced Charles in 1538 to In 1540 consent to the ten years’ truce of Nice. Charles, while the guest of the French monarch, held complete satisfaction of his out to him the hope of wishes through the invesa.ure of the duke of Orleans with the duchy of Milan; but the promise, if definitely made, was never fulfilled, and Francis, finding a favorable opportunity a fter the disastrous issue of the em;,

;

'

peror’s expedition against Algiers, renewed on a flimsy An offensive alliance was pretext the war in 1542. formed with the Turks, the duke of Cleves, and Denmark and Sweden ; separate armies attacked at various points the Spanish, Flemish, and Italian frontiers; and the united French and Turkish forces captured and burned Nice. The monotony of the indecisive conflict was relieved in April, 1544, by a brilliant French victory at Ceresole, but the success came too late to permit of its being followed up by an advance into Italy; for in the July following, the emperor from Champagne and the king of England from Picardy were marching to The siege of join forces before the walls of Paris. Boulogne by the English gave Francis, however, sufficient time to make a show of defense such as convinced ( 'harlcs of the doubtful nature of the enterprise; and vtthout consulting the king of England he sent to

Francis from Crespy terms of peace, which were signec September 17th. By this treaty France retained Bur gundy and resigned its claims on Flanders, Artois, and Naples, while the duchy of Milan was promised to the duke of Orleans on his marrying one of the imperial

—

an arrangement, however, which his death For some time afterward 1545 rendered nugatory. the English king continued the wair in Picardy, but a treaty of peace was signed in June, 1546. As soon as peace was concluded with the emperor, the persecution of the Protestants in France was renewed, and in 1545 an edict was passed for the expulsion of the Waldenses from Provence. The health of Francis had for several years been completely undermined, and he succumbed to an acute attack of disease, May 31, 1547. FRANCIS II. (1543-1560), king of France, eldest son of Henry II. and of Catherine de’ Medici, was born at Fontainebleau, January 19, 1543. He married the famous Mary Stuart, daughter of James V. of Scotland, April 25, 1558, and ascended the French throne July princesses in

He died in 1560. 10, 1559. FRANCIS I., head of the Holy Roman Empire, the eldest son of Leopold, duke of Lorraine, was born on December 8, 1708. His full name was Francis Stephen. At the age of fifteen he was sent to Vienna, where he received the Silesian duchy of Teschen. In 1735, in return for Lorraine, which Charles VI., at the end of the war of the Polish succession, gave to Stanislaus Leszczynski, Francis Stephen obtained the reversion to the duchy of Tuscany, to which he succeeded in 1737. He was elected emperor after the death of Charles VII., Frankfort on October 4. 1745. He Innsbruck on August 18, 1765, falling into the arms of his second son Leopold, who succeeded him as duke of Tuscany, and ultimately (after the death of Joseph II.) became emperor. FRANCIS II., the last Holy Roman Emperor, and as Francis I., first emperor of Austria, was bom in Florence on February 12, 1768. He was the son of the emperor Leopold II. after whose death, in 1792, he succeeded to the hereditary dominions of the house ol Austria, being crowned emperor in the same year. He wa* immediately involved in the first of his famous wars with France, in which, till 1795, h e had the support of He was compelled, mainly in conthe king of Prussia. sequence of the victories of Napoleon, who pressed northward from Italy into Carinthia, to conclude, on October 17, 1797, the treaty of Campo Formio, whereby the empire lost the greater part of the left bank of the Rhine, and Austria had to give up the Netherlands and Lombardy. Austria received in return Venetia, Friuli, In 1799 war broke out afresh, Istria and Dalmatia. the emperor having on this occasion England and RusDuring the first campaign the French sia as allies. were everywhere defeated; but in the following year Napoleon gained the brilliant victory of Marengo, while Moreau was equally successful at Hohenlinden. The shock of these two battles made it impossible for Austria to continue the war, and on February 9, 1801, she concluded the treaty of Luneville, which confirmed that of Campo Formio, besides exacting fresh sacrifices. France now obtained the whole of the left bank of the Rhine. Once more in association with Russia and England, the emperor began another war with France

and crowned suddenly died

at

at

,

The capitulation of Ulm and the battle of 1805. Austerlitz, great as were these disasters, did not make the case of Austria hopeless, for she still had large forces; Russia was willing to continue the war, and the power of France had been seriously crippled at TrafalBut Francis was dispirited, and craved peace. gar. in

On December l’resburg,

2t, 1805, was concluded the treaty o* which deprived Austria of Venetia and Tyrol

FRA In 1806, after the formation of the Confederation oi the Rhine, he formally resigned the imperial crown, ffius bringing to an end the Holy Roman Empire and Forgetting the true meanthe kingdom of Germany. ing of the word emperor, he had in 1804 proclaimed himself, as Francis I., hereditary emperor of Austria; and this title has been retained by his successors. He took no part in the war of Prussia with France in 1806, but after some time oegan to make preparations for a determined struggle, by which he should regain all the advantages lost in previous wars. The new conflict broke out in 1809, and the whole of Germany awaited the result with intense anxiety. Austria was unfortunate at first; but the highest hopes were excited by her thorough victory of Aspern. It was followed by the battle of Wagram, which enabled Napoleon to dictate peace from the palace of Schonbrunn, where he had once before taken up his quarters. By the treaty of Schonbrunn (October 14, 1809,) he transferred the allegiance of about 4,000,000 of Austrian subjects to other rulers; but as in the following year he married Maria Louisa, the eldest daughter of Francis, it seemed probable that the two sovereigns would in future be on friendly terms. Francis was the ally of Napoleon in his war with Russia in 1812; and when, after the retreat from Moscow, France found herself confronted by Russia and Prussia, Austria at first remained neutral, and in the summer of 1813 acted as mediator. In August of the same year she joined the allies; and, like the sovereigns of Prussia and Russia, Francis accompanied his troops in the war which followed. The settlement of Europe which resulted from the final defeat of Napoleon made Francis a more powerful sovereign than he had been at the beginning of his reign; and from this time forward he lived at peace, except that he had to put down a rising in Lombardy in 1821. Francis was married four times, having by his second wife, Maria Theresa, princess of Sicily, thirteen children. He died March 2, 1835, and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand. FRANCIS, St., a well-known saint of the Roman Catholic Church, the founder of the great order of Franciscans, was born at Assisi in the year 1182. Francis found his vocation, not only in a life of entire devotion and poverty for himself, but in founding an order of mendicants devoted to the service of the church. This was about the year 1208 or 1209, when, therefore, the saint was about twenty-six years of age. He was henceforth a preacher as well as an exemplar of poverty. He essayed to reproduce the picture of the divine life on earth, having not where to lay his head, going about doing good, and preaching the gospel of the kingdom. Gradually there gathered round his cell, which he had fixed outside the town, near a little church, the St. Maria degli Angeli, better known as the Portiuncula, a band of disciples as enthusiastic as himself. In this insignificant manner was laid the foundation of the Franciscan order. At first there were only seven, himself the eighth, but all were animated by the same spirit, and all followed the same rule of life. Francis founded an order of poor sisters as well as poor brothers, known by the name of Poor Claras or

The origin of the sisterhood is encircled in a halo of romance, such as everywhere surrounds the footsteps of St. Francis. Clara was a young lady of the

Clarisses.

neighborhood, who, either attracted by the saint’s preaching, or enamored of his life of poverty, or both, resolved to devote herself to self-sacrifice, as he and his

companions had done.

He

is said to have “ poured into her ears the sweetness of Christ. ” The result was that she forsook her home, fled to the Portiuncula, and, beiny first a member of the order, was then placed in a

|

2575

female convent. From this questionable beginning sprang the sisterhood nearly as famous in its history as the great brotherhood, and which survives till this day There was a third order also sprung up in the course of So marvelous were the consethe saint’s lifetime. quences of his preaching that whole populations, it is said, wished to devote themselves to consecrated poverty. But many, of course, hdd no real vocation to such a service, and Francis, visionary as he was, saw that the So he excesses of his system might prove its ruin. arranged to receive persons of this class into an order of

what was

called Tertiaries or Brethren of Penitence, retained their social position and their customary employments in the world, while coming under general vows to abstain from worldly dissipations, such as the theater, and otherwise to be scrupulous in all their conwere not admitted to this order without duct. the consent of their husbands. Its members did not wear silk or other costly materials, but they had no His special costume, and otherwise were at liberty. conduct in this matter is sufficient to prove that, amidst all the apparently childlike enthusiasm of the saint, he possessed, as indeed cannot be doubted, no inconsider able vein of shrewd discernment and of practical ability This order was established in 1221. St. Francis, worn out by his many labors and consuming zeal, died October 4, 1226.

who

Women

FRANCIS BORGIA,

St.

(1510-1572),

duke

of

Gandia, and afterward general of the Jesuit order, was the son of John, duke of Gandia, a scion of the wellknown family of Borgia, or Borja, to which Popes Ca* lixtus III. and Alexander VI. had belonged, and of Joanna of Aragon, daughter of Alphonso, a natural son of Ferdinand the Catholic. He was born at Gandia (Valencia). His death took place at Rome. He was beatified by Urban VIII. in 1624, and canonized by Clement X. in 1671, his festival being afterward (1683) fixed by Innocent XI. for October loth. FRANCIS, St., of Paola (1416-1507), founder of the order of Minims, was born of humble parentage at Paola in Calabria. His education appears to have made very little progress until he reached his thirteenth year, when, in accordance with a vow, he was taken by his father to the Franciscan convent of San Marco in Calabria. Here he learned to read, and distinguished himself by his austerities; but at the close of a probationary year he, for some reason that is not mentioned, left San Marco, and, after a pilgrimage to Assisi and Rome, retired to the neighborhood of his native town, where in a cave by the sea-shore he gave himself wholly to a hermit life, after the example of the great St. Francis, hav ing no bed but the bare rock, and no other food than the herbs which he gathered in the neighboring wood, or which were sometimes brought to him by his friends. In the course of time he was joined by some others likeminded with himself, and the building of a chapel in 1436 is generally considered as marking the first beginning of the Minimite order. The death of Francis took He was canonplace in his ninety-first year at Plessis. ized by Leo X. in 1519 his day in the calendar being April 2d (Duplex). FRANCIS, St., of Sales (1567-1622), bishop of Geneva, and a well-known devotional writer of the Roman Catholic Church, was born at the Chateau de Sales, near Annecy in Savoy. In 1598 Francis was appointed coadjutor bishop of Geneva, and became the official companion, as he had long been the warm friend, of Claude de Gamier, the aged bishop who had fostered his talents and largely shaped his career. Some years after this, in 1602, he spent some time in France and especially in Paris, where his preaching attracted great crowds, and his influence was felt from the court

—

—

FRA

2576

—

Henry IV. to the poor sisters at Tort Royal. In 1608 Francis published his best known and most valuable work, the Introduction d la Vie Devote the circulaBoth as a preacher and as tion of which was immense. a writer a certain overweening “sweetness ” maybe said to be his marked characteristic a sweetness at times not without duplicity and a taint of cold-blooded fanaticism. He died in the end of 1622, and vas canonized

or Poor Claras the Franciacan nun*; (3) the ord«i of Penitent Men and Women, which includes (a) all those who dwell in Franciscan cloisters and keep the third rule, ( b ) those who live in cloisters of their own, keeping the third rule, and (c) the Tertiaries properly so called. All these three orders of Friars, Nuns and Tertiaries are more or less under the jurisdiction of the general minister of the Franciscan order. in 1665. The-rule originally prescribed by St. Francis was very FRANCIS, Sir Philip, a conspicuous Whig poli- strict, and, rigidly enforced, would have made all the tician, and, even apart from his supposed connection with members of the order pious beggars. This was the the Letters of Junius , a powerful pamphleteer, was born founder’s idea, but when the order became popular it In 1761 he became personally known in Dublin, in 1740. was found that few of its members could act up to its to Pitt, who, recognizing his ability and discretion, requirements; and even in the lifetime of the founder once and again made use of his services as private attempts were made to relax them. The relaxations amanuensis. In 1762 he was appointed to a principal sanctioned by the decrees of popes and by general usage clerkship in the war office, and in the same year he were repeatedly fought against by small but zealous married Miss Macrabie, the daughter of a retired London minorities, and these struggles gave rise to various diviHe is known to have written for the Public sions in the order. Since the time of Leo X. and his merchant. Ledger and Public Advertiser, as an advocate of the union bull these divisions have been reduced to three popular cause on many occasions about and after the the Observants, the Conventuals and the Capuchins — ear 1763; he frequently attended debates in both all of whom belong to the first order of the Franciscans; louses of Parliament, especially when American quesand they are the survivals of a much more numerous tions were being discussed ; and between 1769 and 1771 division. The Observants are supposed to keep the rule he is also known to have been favorable to the scheme in of Francis with some strictness, and they take the first which Calcraft and others were engaged for the over- rank among the Franciscans; their minister general hai turn of the Grafton government and afterward of that of pre-eminence. The Conventuals follow the rule of Lord North, and for persuading or forcing I ,ord Chatham Francis with certain relaxations permitted by successive into power. In January, 1769, the first of the Letters of popes. Their general has to be confirmed by the great Junius appeared, and the series was continued till Jan- minister general, but otherwise they are independent. uary 21, 1772. They had been preceded by others Since 1528 the Capuchins have had an independent genander various signatures, which, however, are all attrib- eral under the minister general. uted to one and the same hand. The Franciscan soon became one of the most imIn January, 1772, the office of deputy secretary in the portant of the mediaeval monastic orders. It had a offered by peculiar character, and attracted minds of the sympawar office became vacant, and the post was Lord Barrington to Francis, who declined it. In July thetic mystical cast. This led to its curious connection of the same year he left England for a tour through with many of the mediaeval heretical sects. Th« FranFrance. Germany and Italy, which lasted until the fol- ciscan theology was also peculiar. It had the same lowing December. On his return he was, according to Pelagian characteristics that distinguish the modem an autobiographical Tsgrneut which has been preserved, Jesuit theology, which has done little more than develop contemplating emigration to New England, when, in the Franciscan ideas on the immaculate conception, the During the Middle June, 1773, Nord North, on the recommendation of doctrines of freedom and grace, etc. Lord Barrington, appointed him a member of the newly Ages the Franciscans, however, furnished many strong constituted supreme council of Bengal, at a salary of opponents to the papal theology and ecclesiastical claims. He returned to England in Octo- The order has produced a long array of distinguished ,£10,000 per annum. Bonaventura, Alexander In the general election of April, 1784, ber, 1781. theologians and churchmen Francis was returned by the borough of Yarmouth, Isle Hales, John Duns Scotus, and William of Occam were On this occasion he took an opportunity to all Francisfans. Wadding, the great historian of the of Wight. disclaim every feeling of personal animosity toward Franciscans, has filled a folio volume with names of This did not prevent him, however, on the distinguished members of the order. Hastings. his power in doing all in of the latter, from FRANCISQUE. Jean Francis Millet (c. 1644return 1786, to bring forward and support the charges which ulti1680), commonly called Francisque, was born at Antwerp, mately led to the impeachment resolutions of 1787. and is generally classed among the painters of Flanders, The acquittal of Hastings in April; 1795, disappointed on account of the accident of his birth. He was received Francis of the governor-generalship, and in 1 798 he had a member of the Academy of Painting at Paris, in 1673, and, after gaining consideration as an imitator of the to submit to the additional mortification of a defeat in He was once more successful, Poussins, he died in 1680, bequeathing his art and some the general election. Though of his talents to one of his sons. however, in 1802, when he sat for Appleby. re-elected fer Appleby in 1806, he failed to secure a Jean Francois Millet, the younger, was bom ia Paris, and was made a member of the Academy of seat in the following year; and the remainder of his life was spent in comparative privacy. In 1814 he married Painting at Paris in 1709. He died in 1 773 FRANCK. The name of Franck has been given his second wife, Miss Emma Watkins, who long survived him, and who has left voluminous manuscripts re- indiscriminately but improperly to painters of the school He died on December 23, of Antwerp, who belong to the families of Francken lating to his biography. *f

,

—

—

*

FRANCISCANS.

One artist, (see Francken and Vranex). truly entitled to be called Franck, is Gabriel, who erlerea the guild of Antwerp in 1605, became its president in Gabriel Franck taught a great 1636, and died in 1639.

and Vranex

1818.

The Franciscan

orders include the three orders of the Minorites, and all the less important associations who trace their rule to Francis of The three orders of the Minorites, or FrancisAssisi. cans proper, include (1) the Minorite friars, properly socalled, under a succession of generals of the whole order rrom the foundation; (2) the older of the Poor Ladies

number of

pupils,

among whom we

notice

Abraham

Genoels the elder, and Laurent Franck, the master F rancisque. N one of his works are now to be traced.

FRANCK

or

FRANK,

Sebastian

(e.

of

1500-1543),

FRA mot unfrequentiy called by the Latinized form of his name, Francus an important German writer of the Reformation period, was born at Donauworth. FRANCKE, August Hermann, an influential German philanthropist and theologian, was born 1663 at He graduated at Leipsic in 1685, but, having Liibeck. ,

found

employment as

quit the university

a

“ privat-docent,”

until the

end of 1687.

did

He

not next

passed a number of months at Liineburg as assistant or curate to the learned and pious superintendent Sandhagen, and there his religious life was remarkably quickOn leaving Liineburg, he spent ened and deepened. some time in Hamburg, where he was engaged as a teacher in a private school, and there also he considered himself to have acquired some experience which proved After a long visit to Spener, invaluable in after life. who was at that time in Dresden, and who encouraged him in the plans he had formed, he returned to Leipsic in the spring of 1689, and began to give Bible lectures of an exegetical and practical kind, at the same time resuming the collegia philobiblica of earlier days. He rapidly became very popular as a lecturer; but the peculiarities of his teaching almost immediately aroused a violent opposition on the part of the university authorities; and, before the end of the year, he was, on the ground of his alleged pietism, interdicted from lecturing. Thus it was that Francke’s name first came to be publicly associated with that of Spener, and with one of the most fruitful church movements of the seventeenth cenProhibited from lecturing in Leipsic, Franck e, tury. in 1669, found work at Erfurt as “ deacon ” of one of Here his evangelistic fervor atthe city churches. tracted multitudes to his preaching, but at the same time excited the jealousy of his less zealous colleagues as well as the antipathy of the Catholic section of the population; and the result of their combined opposition was that, after a ministry of fifteen months, he was, in September, 1691, banished from the town by The same year witnessed the the civil authorities. In December, expulsion of Spener from Dresden. Francke received and accepted an invitation to fill the thair of Greek and Oriental languages in the new university of Halle, which was at that time being organized by the elector Frederick III. of Brandenburg; and at the same time, the chair having no salary attached to it, he was appointed minister of the parish of Glaucha, in the immediate neighborhood of the town. Here, for the next thirty-six years, he continued to discharge the two-fold office of pastor and professor with rare energy and success. He died at Halle on June 8, 1727. Eleven painters of this family cultivated their art in Antwerp during the sixteenth and sevSeveral of these were related to each enteeth centuries. other, while many bore the same Christian name in succession. Hence unavoidable confusion in the subsequent classification of paintings not widely different in style or execution. When Franz Francken the first found a rival in Franz Francken the second, he described himself as the “elder,” in contradistinction to his son, who signed himself the “ younger. ” But when Franz the second was threatened with competition from Franz the third, he took the name of “ the elder,” while Franz the third adopted that of Franz “ the younger.” It is possible, though not by any means easy, to sift the works of these artists.

FRANCKEN.

FRANCOIS DE NEUFCHATEAU,

Nicolas Count (1750-1828), a French statesman and was bom at Saffais, in the district of Meurthe. He had very multifarious accomplishments, and interested himself in a great variety of subjects, but his fame rests chiefly on what he did as a statesman for the encouragement and development of the industries of Louis,

poet,

162

25 77

His maturer poetical productions did not fid the promise of those of* his early years, for though some of his verses have a superficial elegance, his poetry generally lacks force and originality. He had consider able qualifications as a grammarian and critic, as is wit nessed by his editions of the Provinciates and Pense'es of Pascal, Paris, 1822 and 1826, and Gil Bias, Paris, 1820. He is also the author of a large number of works on agriculture. in German, Franken, a name of very different application in different historical periods. It properly signifies the land of the Franks, and is, consequently, identical in original meaning with the word In the beginning of the fourth Francia, or France. century the Frankish territory stretched from the Loire eastward to the basin of the Rhine and the Main; but it was shortly afterward broken up into two divisions Austrasia, Francia Orientalis, or the kingdom of the East Franks, and Neustria, Francia Occidentalis, or the kingdom of tne West Franks. As time went on both France.

fill

FRANCONIA,

—

kingdoms extended their boundaries; and when the treaty of Verdun, in 845, settled the claims of the grandsons of Charles the Great, there was a kingdom of Western France with Latin tendencies, and a kingdom of Eastern France with Teutonic tendencies, each possessing a central district or duchy of its own name. These districts were separated from each other by the district of Lotharingia or Lorraine. The western was soon after of but the eastern continued for a long period to be the very core and kernel of the German kingdom, and a theory became prevalent that it was the original seat of the Franks in Germany. Under the lost sight

;

it was subdivided into Ost-Franken, Francia Orientalis, or Eastern Franconia par excellence, and Rhein-Franken, Francia Rhenensis, The former, which was also or Rhenish Franconia. distinguished as Saal-Franken, stretched from the Fichtelgebirge and the Rhone to the Danube, and from the Upper Palatinate to the Spessart and the lands of the Neckar; while the latter was the country between the Spessart and the Rhine, and included the present district of Frankfort-on-the-Main. Though the name frequently occurs in our histories, there was probably n( proper “duchy” of Franconia, in the same sense at least as there was a duchy of Saxony or a duchy of Ba varia. Both Eastern Franconia and Rhenish Franconia were broken up into a number of distinct territories countships, lordships, etc. When Maximilian divided Germany into circles, in 1501, he gave the name of Franconia to the circle which included the bishoprics of Wurzburg, Bamberg, and Eichstadt, the district 'of Mergentheim belonging to the grand master of the Teutonic Order, the territory of the abbey of Schonthal, the principalities of Baireuth and Ansbach, the countships of Henneberg and Schwarzenberg, the territories of tne curia of Franconian counts, the imperial towns of Nuremberg, Rothenburg, Schweinfurt, Weissenburg, and Windsheim. Altogether the circle comprised sixty-nine territories, and had an area of about 10,430 square miles, and in 1790 its population amounted to 1,547,00a The name of Franconia ceased to be officially used after

Saxon and Franconian emperors

-

—

the dissolution of the German empire, in 1806; but in 1837 King Louis I. of Bavaria gave the names of Upper, Middle, and Lower Franconia to what had previously been known as the circles of the Upper Main, the Rezat, and the Lower Main. Upper Franconia forms the northeast portion of Bavaria, and is partly conterminous with the frontiers of Bohemia, Saxony and Prussia. a town of Holland, province ol Friesland, is situated ten miles west of Leeirwarden, on the canal between that town and Haarlingen.

FRANEKER,

FRANKENBERG,

an

important manufacturing

2578

FRA

town of Saxony, circle of Zwickau, is situated on the Zschopau, seven miles northeast of Chemnitz. AUSEN, a town of Germany, principality of Schwartzburg-Ruclolstadt, is situated on the Little Wipper, thirty-six miles north-northeast of Hoflia. Population f 1900), 5,600. FRANKENSTEIN, a town in the Prussian province

so-called “ Frankfort Bank ” wa» founded in 1854, will a capital of 10,000,000 gulden. Frankfort has been the birthplace of not a few of the most celebrated men of Germany. T. G. Schlosser the historian, Feuerbach the philosopher, Kirchner the scholar and naturalist, Clement Brentano, Bettina von Arnim, and Ludwig Borne, are all in the list but

of Silesia, government of Breslau, is situated thirty-five miles soutn by west of the town of that name. atown in the Rhenish district of Bavaria, is situated on the Isenach, nine miles northwest of Mannheim, and is connected with the Rhine by Population, 8,000. a canal four miles in length. a city of the United States, capital of Franklin county and of the State of Kentucky, is picturesquely situated on both sides of the Kentucky river, on a space of elevated ground bounded by a bluff 150 feet high. It is distant twenty-nine miles westnorthwest from Lexington, and sixty-five miles east from Louisville, by rail. The river is crossed at Frankfort by two bridges, and that portion of the town lying on the south side of the rivet is known as South Frankfort. The principal buildings are the State house, a marble building with a handsome portico supported by Ionic columns, the institution for imbecile children, the State penitentiary, the county court house, and the public hall. The beautiful cemetery contains the remains of Daniel Boone, the pioneer of Kentucky, who died September 20, 1820. Frankfort has distilleries and flour and cotton mills, and a considerable trade in lumber. The river is navigable for steamers forty miles above the city. Frankfort was laid out in 1787, and became the capital of the State in 1792. Population, '7900), 9487a city of central Indiana, the countyseat of Clinton county, is on three railway lines, and is surrounded by a fine farming country. The city contains a court-house, six churches, high and graded schools, two national banks, three elevators, furniture factories, planing mills, etc. Natural gas is utilized for fuel and manufacturing purposes. One daily, one semiweekly, and three weekly papers are published. Frankfort is a considerable shipping point, and had a population in 1900 of 7,100.

what the

FRANKENH

FRANKENTHAL, FRANKFORT,

FRANKFORT,

FRANKFORT-ON-THE-M AIN; German, Frankor Frankfurth-am-Main, one of the principal of the German empire, in the circle of Wiesbaden, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, and till 1866 one of the four free cities of Germany. The position -vhich it occupies is one of no small natural beauty in the broad and fertile valley of the Main, its northern Horizon being formed by the soft outlines of the Taunus range. The surrounding country is richly clad with orchard and forest, and in the season ofspring especially presents a prospect of indescribable luxuriance. The principal ecclesiastical building in Frankfort is the cathedral of St. Bartholomew’s, which is situated not far from the river between the Domplatz on the aorth and the Weekmarkt on the south. Of the secular buildings in Frankfort perhaps the most characteristic fe the Rathhaus or Romer, which, by a strange coincidence, bears a name suggestive of, though not derived from, its principal historical associations. It was here, ki the Wahlzimmer or election room, that the electors or their plenipotentiariesdecided the choice of the emperors. Frankfort has always been much more of a commercial than an industrial town, and at present it manufactures little el9e but Frankfort black, waxcloth, jewelry, gold and silver thread, tapestry and such like The city has long been famous as one of the articles. principal banking centers of Europe; and throughout the city there are ’mward of 220 banking offices. The

furt

cities

;

is

city considers its highest literary distinction

the fact that Johann

Wolfgang Goethe was born

in

1749 at No. 23 Hirschgraben. Of memorial monuments the largest and most elaborate in Frankfort is that erected in 1858 in honor of the early German printers. It was modeled by Ed. von der Lausitz and executed by Herr von Kreis. The present municipal constitution of the town date* from 1867, and conforms to the Prussian system. Including the suburban villages (Bornheim 10,085, Bocken-

heim 13,043, Oberrad 4,609, and Rodelheim 3,903), the total population (1900),

was

288,489.

FRANKFORT-ON-THE-ODER; German, FrankFURT-AN-der-Oder, a town of Germany at the head of a government in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, about fifty miles in an easterly direction from Berlin. The university of Frankfort, which was founded in 1506 by the elector of Brandenburg, Joachim I., was removed to Breslau in 1811. The population, vhich in 1849 was 29,969, had at the census of 1900 lttnined to 61,835.

FRANKINCENSE,

or Olibanum, a gum-resin obtained from ceitain species of trees of the genus Boswellia , and natural order Burseracece. From the freauent employment of frankincense in the sacrifices of tne ancients, shown by numerous passages in their prose and poetic writings, it is evident that the trade in that substance must formerly have been very extensive.

Frankincense, or olibanum, occurs in commerce in semi-opaque, round, ovate, or oblong tears or irregular lumps, which are covered externally with a white dust, the result of their friction against one another. Its fumes are an excellent insectifuge. As a medicine it was in former times in high repute. Pliny mentions it Avicenna recommends as an antidote to hemlock. it for tumors, ulcers of the head and ears, affections of the breast, vomiting, dysentery, and fevers. Dr. Delioux, of Toulon, considers its curative properties equal to those of other balsamic medicines, and that for cheapness it is preferable for hospital use to the balsams of Peru and Tolu, and, being more agreeable to the stomach, to tar. As a fumigating agent, he advocates its employment in bronchitis and chronic laryngitis. In the East frankincense has been found efficacious as an external application in carbuncles, blind boils, and gangrenous sores, and as an internal agent it is given ita gonorrhoea. In China it was an old internal remedy For leprosy and struma, and is accredited with stimulant, tonic, sedative, astringent, and vulnerary properties. Its stimulant action appears to be directed chiefly to the mucous surfaces of the body. Common Frankincense, or Thus, is the term applied to a resin which exudes from fissures in the bark of the Norway spruce fir; when melted in hot water and strained it constitutes “Burgundy pitch.” The concreted turpentine obtained in the United States by making incisions in the trunk of a species of pine, Pinus It is commercially australis, is also so designated. known as “ scrape,” and is similar to the French “ galipot ” or “ barras.” Common frankincense is an ingredient in some ointments and plasters, and on account of its pleasant odor when burned, has been used in incense as a substitute for olibanum. The “ black frankincense oil ” of the Turks is stated by Hanbtiry to b* liquid storax.

FRA FRANKLIN. FRANKLIN,

See Freehold. the county seat of Venango county,

Pennsylvania, is situated at the junction of French creek and the Allegheny river, on four lines of railway. The river is navigable here at high-water. The manufactories of the city number thirteen, among which are foundries and machine shops, four oil refineries and two flour mills, the latter run by water power from French creek. Franklin contains eleven churches, high and graded schools valued at $50,000, and a city hall costing $30,000. There are five banks, and one daily and two weekly newspapers. Population (1900 census), ^,317. The city is lighted with gas, has a good sewerage system, and water-works supplying pure spring water. Fire and police departments are maintained. The city receipts from May 1, 1889, to May 1, 1890, were $24,282.52. FRANKLIN, Benjamin. There are those who, with a full understanding of his remarkable career, regard Benjamin Franklin as the greatest American. He was the embodiment of the genius of common sense. He is the darling of American biography. He was journalist, author, diplomatist, statesman, financier and philosopher, and is he who, at the age of 43, when the dreams and enthusiasms of youth were gone, conceived the idea, perhaps the most sublime that has entered into the heart of man, of drawing the lightning from the heavens. He alone at the moment knew that lightning and electricity were identical, or understood how the fact might be demonstrated by simple and childish means but should all other services be forgotten, and the details of a splendid career pass into oblivion, by this will he be remembered. The June afternoon in 1749, the passing showers, the kite, the string and the key. The manifest foolishness of the act would have excited ridicule, ;

and he went alone. He had no idea of pecuniary profit to accrue. He wrote of his discoveries to a friend in London. The Royal Society ridiculed them, only to afterwards apologize and acknowledge when all others had done so. All his long life he was engaged in a ceaseless but unruffled search for the reason why. There was no sub-

He

invented ject that did not attract his attention. the musical glasses. made a successful stove. made a table of the conductivity of heat in metals.

He

He He

studied the Gulf-Stream. As an author he wrote everything but poetry, and as a philosopher he studied everything but theology. A tallow-chandler’s son, a working printer, an apprentice who was whipped by his elder brother even after he was competent to edit that brother’s newspaper, a toiler and wage-earner from early youth, he yet stood among princes, was the ablest diplomatist America ever produced, and ere he died the best known, the most highly-honored, and the best-beloved old man in the old world and With these facts in view the details of his the new. career, given meagerly here of necessity, may be more appreciatively examined. He was born in the city of Boston, and in the colony of Massachusetts Bay, on January 17, 1706. In his eighth year Benjamin, who never could remember when he did not know how to read, was placed at school, his parents intending him for the church. In his tenth year he was taken from school to assist his father, in the business of tallow-chandler and soapboiler. In his twelfth year he was apprenticed to his In elder brother James, in the printing business. 1720-21 James Franklin also started a newspaper, the second that was published in America, called The New England Courant. The relations of the two brothers, however, gradually grew so inharmonious

2570

Benjamin determined to quit his brother’s employment and leave New England. He sold some of his books and with the proceeds, in October, 1723, he found his way to the city of Philadelphia, where, 400 miles from home, at the immature age of seventeen, without an acquaintance, and with only a few pence in his pocket, he was fortunate enough to get employment. Keith, the governor of the province, took him under his patronage, and proposed to start him in business for himself, and to give him the means of going to England and purchasing the material necessary to equip a new printing office. Franklin embraced the governor’s proposal, and took passage for London, but on his arrival there found that he had been made a dupe of by Keith. He readily found employment and continued to work until July 23, 1726, when he again set sail for Philadelphia in company with a Mr. Dunham, who offered him employment in a mercantile house. Only a few months after Franklin’s return to Philadelphia, the death of Mr. Dunham put an end to his career as a merchant. While awaiting something more favorable, he was induced by large wages to return to his old employer Keimer. This led to his making the acquaintance of a bright young man named Meredith. He was learning the printer’s art, and offered to furnish the capithat

—

establish a new printing office his father beman of some means if Franklin would join him and direct the business. This proposal was accepted, the types were sent for, a house was rented at 7!0 a year, part of which was sublet to a glazier who was to board them, and before the expiration of a year from his return to Philadelphia, Franklin, for the first time in his life, was in business for himself. tal to

—

ing a

£

Almost simultaneously, in September, 1729, he bought for a nominal price the Pennsylvania Gazette a newspaper which Keimer had started nine months before to defeat a similar project of Franklin’s which accidentally came to his knowledge. It had only ,

ninety subscribers.

new

Franklin’s superior journalism,

some spirited remarks on a controversy then waging between the Massachusetts as-

his

type,

sembly and Governor Burnet (a son of the celebrated Bishop Gilbert Burnet) brought his paper into immediate notice, and his success, both as a printer and as a journalist, was from that time forth assured and complete. During the next seventeen years, he was at the head of journalism in America. In 1731 he established the first circulating library on the continent; in 1732 he published the first of the Poor Richard's Almanacs, a publication which was continued for twenty-five years, and attained a marvelous popularity. The annual sale was about 10,000 copies, at that time far in excess of any other publication in the colonies, and equivalent to a sale at the present time of not less than 300,000. In the next ten years he acquired a convenient familiarity with the French, Italian, Spanish and Latin languages. In 1736 Franklin was chosen a clerk of the general assembly, and was reelected the following year. He was then elected a member of the assembly, to which dignity he was reelected for ten successive years, and was appointed one of the commissioners to treat with the Indians at Carlisle. In 1737 Colonel Spotswood, then postmaster-general, appointed him deputy postmaster at Philadelphia. About this time he organized the first police force and fire company in the colonies, and a few years later initiated the movements which resulted in the foundation of the university of Pennsylvania and of the American Philosophical Society, in the organization of a militia force, in the paving of the streets, and in the foundation o i a hospital. It was

FRA

2580 during

and

the midst of these very miscellaneous avocations, that he made the discoveries this period,

in

which have secured him undisputed rank among the most eminent of natural philosophers. He was the first to demonstrate that lightning and electricity are one. The Royal Society, when an account of his experiments, which had been transmitted to a scientific friend in England, was laid before it, made sport of them, and refused to print them. Through the recommendation of his friend they were printed, however, in an extra number of the Gentleman's Magazine of which the publisher ultimately sold five editions. A copy chancing to fall into the hands of Buffon, he saw their value, and advised their translation and publication in France, where they immediin electricity

,

ately attracted attention. The “ Philadelphia experiments,” as they were called, were performed in the presence of the royal family in Paris, and became the sensation of the period. The Royal Society of London found it necessary to reconsider its action, published a summary of the experiment in its Transactions , and, as Franklin afterward averred, more than made him amends for the slight with which it had before treated him, by electing him an honorary member, exempting him from the customary payments, and sending him for the rest of his life a copy of the Transactions. Since the introduction of the art of printing, it would be difficult to name any discovery which has exerted a more important influence upon the industries and habits of mankind. In consequence of complications arising from legislation affecting the taxation of the colonies Franklin was sent to England to petition the king for redress of their grievances. There he remained five years. During this sojourn of five years in England, Franklin made many valuable friends outside court and po-

among whom the names of Hume, Robertson and Adam Smith are conspicuous. In the spring of 1759 he received the degree of doctor of laws from the Scottish university of St. Andrews. litical circles,

On October 25, 1760, King George II died, and his grandson ascended the throne. A clamor for peace followed. Franklin was for a vigorous prosecution of the war then pending with France. Franklin sailed again for America in August, 1762, after an absence of five years, during which he had found an opportunity of visiting large portions of the continent, and of acquiring information about Euroean affairs both in and out of England, which made im more than ever an enlightened and trustworthy authority in America upon all foreign questions affecting the interest of the colonists. The peace with the proprietary government was only temporary. The question of taxing their estates had come up in a new form, and finally resulted in a petition from the as-

sembly drawn by Franklin himself for a change of government for Pennsylvania. The election which took place in the fall of 1764, turned upon the issue raised in this petition, and the proprietary party succeeded, by a majority of twenty-eight votes out of 4,000, in depriving Franklin of the seat to which he had been chosen for fourteen successive years in the rovincial assembly. The victory, however, was a arren one, for no sooner did the assembly convene than it resolved again to send Franklin as its special agent to England to take charge of their petition for a change of government, and to look after the interests of the province abroad. On November 7th, following his defeat, he was again on his way across the Atlantic. may as well here say at once that the petition which he brought with him for a change of government came to nothing. Franklin presented it,

Wc

and the Penns opposed it but matters of so much graver consequence continually arose between 1765, when it was presented, and 1775, when the revolution began, that it was left to the final disposition of time. The Penns at last had the sagacity to sell betimes what they were not wise enough to keep. The State of Pennsylvania gave them ,£130,000 for their interest in its soil, and the British Government settled upon the head of the family a pension of ,£4,000 a ;

year.

Early in the year of 1764 Grenville, the prime minhad sent for the agents of the American colo-

ister,

nies resident in

London, and told them

that the

war

with P rance which had just terminated had left upon England a debt of ,£73,000,000 sterling, and that he proposed to lay a portion of this burden upon the shoulders of the colonists by means of a stamp duty, unless the colonists could propose some other tax equally productive and less inconvenient. He directed the agents to write to their several assemblies for instructions

upon

this point.

The assembly

of

Pennsylvania, which expressed the sentiment of all the colonies, was decidedly of the opinion that to tax the colonies, which were already taxed beyond their strength, and which were surrounded by aboriginal enemies and exposed to constant expenditures for defense, was cruel, but to tax them by a parliament in which they were not represented was an indignity. While such was their feeling, they allowed it to be understood that they would not reject any requisition of their king for aid, and if he would only signify his needs in the usual way, the assembly would do their utmost for him. These views were summed up in a “ resolution ” thus expressed “ that, as the assembly always had thought, so they always should think, it their duty to grant aid to the crown, according to :

whenever required of them in the usual To prevent the introduction of such a bill as the ministry proposed, and which Franklin characterized as “ tne mother of mischief,” he left no stone unturned, by personal intercession, by private correspondence, and through the press. At last, in despair, he, with his associate agents, sought an interview with the minister. They found him inexoratheir abilities,

manner.”

ble.

The government wanted

the money, and

it

did

not wish to recognize the principle upon which the colonists resisted the government method of obtaining it. The bill was introduced, and was promptly passed, only fifty voting against it in the Commons, and the Lords not dividing upon it. The sum expected from this tax being only ,£100,000, it was thought the colonists would soon be reconciled to it. This was evidently Franklin’s hope, which he did his utmost to realize. But when the news of the passage of the Stamp Act reached the colonies, and its provisions came to be scanned, the indiscretion of those who advised it was manifest. Meetings were held in all the colonies, where resolves were passed unanimously to consume no more British manufactures until the hateful Act was repealed. For simply recommending a trusty person to collect the tax, Franklin himself was denounced, and his family in Philadelphia was in danger of being mobbed. The Act not only failed of its purpose in producing a revenue, but before it went into operation a formidable agitation for its repeal had already commenced. The news of the repeal filled the colonists with delight, and restored Franklin to their confidence and From that time until the end of his days affection. he was, on the whole, the most popular man in America. Franklin, when he went to London in 1764, confidently expected to return in the following

FRA year ; but he was not destined to leave England till ten years later, and then with the depressing suspicion that the resources of diplomacy were exhausted. Meantime he remitted no effort to find some middle ground of conciliation. Equipped with the additional authority derived from commissions to act as the agent of the provinces of Massachusetts, of New Jersey, and of Georgia, and with a social influence never possessed probably by any other American representative at the English court, he would doubtless have prevented the final alienation of the colonies, if such a result, under the circumstances, had been possible. But under the pressure of the crown, negotiation and debate seemed rather to aggravate the differences than to remove them. Satisfied that his usefulness in England was at an end, he placed his agencies in the hands of Arthur Lee, an American lawyer practicing at the London bar, and on March 21, 1 775 * again set On his arrival collisions had sail for Philadelphia. occurred, some two weeks previous, between the people and the royal troops at Concord and at Lexington. He found the colonies in flagrant rebellion, and himself suddenly transformed from a peacemaker into a

warmaker. The two years which followed were among the busiest of his

life.

The very morning

of his arrival

he was elected, by the assembly of Pennsylvania, a delegate to that continental congress then sitting in Philadelphia, which consolidated the armies of the colonies, placed George Washington in command of them, issued the first continental currency, and assumed the responsibility of resisting the British gov-

ernment. In this congress he served on not less than ten committees. One of its first measures was to oranize a continental postal system and to make

f'ranklin postmaster-general. Thus he was avenged for his dismissal eighteen months before from the office of deputy by being appointed to a place of higher rank and augmented authority. He planned an appeal for aid from the King of the French, and wrote the instructions of Silas Deane, a member of the congress, who was to convey it; he was sent as one of three commissioners to Canada, in one of the most inclement months of the year, on what proved an ineffectual mission to persuade the Canadians to join the new colonial union ; he was elected a delegate from Philadelphia to the conference which met on June 18, 1776, and which, in the name of the people of the colonies, formally renounced all allegiance to King George, and called for an election of delegates to a convention to form a constitutional government for the United Colonies. He was also one of the committee of five which drew up the “Declaration of Independence.” He was also chosen president of the convention called to frame a constitution for the State of Pennsylvania, which commenced its session on July 16,1776. He was selected by congress to discuss terms of peace with Admiral Lord Howe, who had arrived in New York harbor on July 12, 1776, to take command of the British naval forces in American waters, and on September 26th, upon the receipt of encouraging news from France, he was chosen unanimously to be one of three to repair to the court of Louis XVI. and solicit his support. His colleagues were John Adams, destined to be Washington’s successor in the presidency, and Arthur Lee, Franklin’s successor in the agency in London. Franklin, now in the seventieth year of his age, proceeded to collect all the money he could command, amounting to between ^3,000 or ^4,000, lent it to congress, and with two grandsons set sail in the sloop of war Reprisal on October 27th, arriving at Nantes

2581

on December same month.

7th,

and

at Paris

toward the end of the

At the time of Franklin’s arrival in Paris, he was already one of the most talked about men in the world. He was a member of every important learned society in Europe ; he was a member, and one of the managers of the Royal Society, and one of eight foreign members of the Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris. Three editions of his scientific works had already appeared in Paris, and a new edition, much enlarged, had recently appeared in London. To all these advantages he added a political purpose the dismemberment of the British empire which was entirely congenial to every citizen of France. He became at once an object of greater popular interest than any other man in France an interest which, during his eight years’ sojourn there, seems always on the increase. He animated French society with a boundless enthusiasm for the cause of the rebel colonists, persuaded the government that the interests of France required her to aid them, obtained a treaty of alliance at a crisis in their fortunes in the winter of 1 777, when such an alliance was decisive, and the great moral advantage of a royal frigate to convey the news of it to America. A few months later he signed the treaties which bound the two countries to mutual friendship and defense, and on the morning of March 20, 1 778, the three envoys were formally received by the king at Versailles, and through them the country they represented was first introduced into the family of independent nations. In February of the following year General Lafayette, who had distinguished himself as a volunteer in the rebel army, returning to France on leave, brought a commission from the American congress to Doctor Franklin as sole plenipotentiary of the United States to the court of France. From this time until the close of the war it was Franklin’s paramount duty to encourage the French government to supply the colHow successfully he discharged onists with money. this duty may be inferred from the following statement of the advances made by France upon his solicitation: In 1777, 2,000,000 francs; in 1778, 3,000,000 francs; in 1779, 1,000,000 francs; in 1780, 4,000000 francs; in 1781, 10,000,000 francs ; in 1782, 6,000000 francs; in all, 26,000,000 francs. To obtain these aids at a time when France was not only at war, but practically bankrupt, and in defiance of the strenuous resistance of Necker, the minister of finance, was an achievement, the credit of which, there is the best reason for believing, was mainly due to the matchless diplomacy of Franklin. Franklin had been for some years a martyr to the gout, which, with other infirmities incident to his advanced age of seventy-five, determined him to ask congress, in 1781, to relieve him. Congress not only declined to receive his resignation, but with its refusal sent him a commission, jointly with John Adams and John Jay, who had been the agent of congress in Spain, to negotiate a peace. Active negotiations with Franklin and his associates were opened, and on November 30th a preliminary treaty was signed by the English and American commissioners ; a definite treaty was signed on September 30, 1783, and ratified by congress January 14, 1784, and by the English government on April 9th following. At the conclusion of the preliminary treaty Franklin renewed his application to congress to be relieved, to which he received no answer. A few weeks after signing the definite treaty he renewed it again, but it was not until March 7, 1785, that congress adopted the resolution which permitted “'r?vs Hon-

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