Encyclopaedia Britannica [5, 8 ed.]

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Plates
Boring
Botany
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Breakwater
Brewing
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ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA. EIGHTH EDITION.

I

.

JK THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, OR

DICTION AKY OF /

ARTS. SCIENCES, AND GENERAL LITERATURE.

EIGHTH EDITION.

WITH EXTENSIVE IMPROVEMENTS AND ADDITIONS; AND NUMEROES ENGRAVINGS.

VOLUME V.

ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH. MDCCCLIV.

[The Proprietors of this Work aive notice that they reserve the right of Translating it]

ENCYCLOPEDIA BKITANNICA BOMBAY. Bomljay. Description.

Town of Bombay,

THIS island, which is tlie seat of government for the western part of India, is situated in Lat. 18. 57. Long. 72. 53. -^ts from north to south is eight miles, and its breadth about three. It is separated from the mainland by an arm of the sea, and forms, in conjunction with the adjacent islands of Salsette on the north, and Colaba with Old Woman’s Island on the south, a large, commodious, and well-sheltered harbour. The two islands on the south, separated from Bombay and from each other by narrow channels, have been united by causeways, which are now entirely raised above the sea at high water. To the north Bombay is connected with Salsette also, by a causeway with an arched stone bridge ; and, more recently, a second causeway has been thrown over the strait for the purposes of the Great India Peninsular railway. The islands thus linked together form a continuous breakwater, stretching for several miles from north to south. Near the southern extremity of Colaba Island stands the lighthouse, a building of circular form, rising from the sea to the height of 150 feet, and showing its light at the distance of twenty-one miles. Within the harbour, and about a mile from the city of Bombay, is Cross Island, N.E. of which, and at the distance of three miles, is Butcher Island. Abreast of the latter, but more to the eastward, lies the celebrated Island of Elephanta. Caranja Island, to the southward of Elephanta, on the east side of the harbour, and opposite its entrance, is of considerable extent, being four miles long and nearly two broad; it is covered with woods, and has little elevation with the exception of two remarkable hills called Great and Little Caranja Hills. Besides the above there are two small islands, Oondaree and Kundaree, lying at the entrance of the harbour. The town of Bombay within the fort is nearly a mile in length, from the Apollo Gate to that of the Bazaar, and about a quarter of a mile broad in the widest* part, from the custom-house across the Green to Church Gate, which is nearly in the centre between the Apollo and the Bazaar Gates. There are likewise two gates towards the sea, having commodious wharfs and cranes built out from each, with a landing-place for passengers. Between these gates is Bombay Castle, a regular quadrangle, built of hard and durable stone, and having the advantage, in one of the bastions, of a large reservoir of water. The fortifications are extensive, and they have been improved in proportion as the place has risen into greater importance from its increasing trade. They have received a considerable accession of strength

VOL. r.

from Dunganee Hill, which commanded the town, having been included within the fort; and towards the sea they are extremely strong, the harbour being completely commanded by ranges of batteries placed one above another. In the centre of the town is a large open space called the Green, around which are many large, well-built, and handsome houses. Here is also the church, which has an extremely neat and light appearance; and on the left of the Church Gate is the government-house, which is a showy edifice, but liable to the inconvenience of having the largest apartment in each floor a passage-room to the others. On the right of the Church Gate is the bazaar, which is crowded and populous. Here the native merchants reside ; and at the entrance to the street stands the theatre, which is a handsome building. In the year 1803 this part of the town was greatly injured by a destructive fire, which destroyed nearly three-fourths of the bazaar, together with the barracks, custom-house, and many other public buildings, besides property of immense value belonging to native merchants. Another extensive conflagration occurred in 1845, when nearly 200 houses were destroyed. During its progress, information reached the police that one of the houses, the upper part of which was in flames, contained on the lower basement a number of barrels of gunpowder. A party of seamen had been drafted from the ships in the harbour to assist in arresting the progress of the fire; and these men, with the cool intrepidity which characterizes the sons of the ocean, forced their way into the burning premises, and actually succeeded in removing the entire quantity of powder, consisting of several thousand pounds in weight. A large and handsome church, intended as a monument to the British heroes who fell on the banks of the Sutlej, has been recently built on the island of Colaba, where the cantonments are situated. About a mile N.W. of the fort is the Black Town. At Bombay the rise of the tides has been found sufficient to admit the construction of docks on a great scale. The highest spring tides rise to the height of seventeen feet, and the height of the ordinary tides is fourteen feet. In consequence of these natural advantages, the dry dock of Bombay has scarcely its equal for size and convenience; having three divisions, with a pair of strong gates to each, so that it is capable of receiving three ships of the line at a time. Near this dock is a convenient place to heave down several ships at once; and this operation is well executed,

Bombay,

BOMBAY.

2 Bombay,

and with great expedition, by the Parsees, who are generally accounted excellent ship-carpenters. Here is a rope-walk, equal to any in England, with the single exception of the king’s yard at Portsmouth, where cables and all sorts of lesser cordage are manufactured. It has also a covering to protect the workmen from the heat or inclemency of the weather. The dockyard is large and well contrived, having ample supplies of naval stores deposited in the warehouses, together with large quantities of timber for repairing and building ships, and forges for all kinds of smith-work. With these advantages Bombay claims a distinguished rank as a naval arsenal. Many merchant-ships of from 600 to 1300 tons, partly for the country trade and partly for the service of the East India Company, have been built in its docks, and, in beauty of construction, good workmanship, and durability, they have been considered superior to any other class of merchant-ships in the world. Some ships of the line, and several frigates for the British navy, have also been built at this port. Among them may be mentioned the Minden, a 74-gun ship launched in 1810; this was followed some years later by the Wellesley, also a 74-gun ship; and more recently the Meeanee of 80 guns has been added to the list. These ships were all built of Malabar teak, which is esteemed superior to any in India. The teak forests, from which supplies of wood are derived, lie along the western side of the Ghaut Mountains, and other contiguous ridges to the north and east of Bassein; the numerous streams which descend from them affording water-carriage for the timber. The docks belong to the Company. They are entirely occupied by Parsees, who are esteemed remarkably skilful and assiduous. Bombay, thus possessing, in the skill of its workmen, the excellence of its timber, and the superiority of its docks, all that is necessary for a naval arsenal, is a station of the first importance to the British power in India. From its position, Bombay commands an extensive commerce with the countries situated in the Persian and Arabian Gulfs. It also possesses much facility of commercial intercourse with different parts of the territories subject to the other presidencies of India, and it carries on a valuable trade with Europe, America, and China. The chief articles of export are cotton, cashmere shawls, wool, opium, coffee, pepper, ivory, and gums. The principal imports are British manufactures, raw silk from China, wine, beer, and tea. The foreign trade has more than doubled within the last twenty years ; and its exports alone now amount to seven millions sterling. The value (in rupees) of the impoxts and exports to the United Kingdom has increased thus :— Exports.

Imports.

1813-14. Rs. 926,980 Rs. 3,051,543 1823-24. 5,571,313 5,953,859 1833-34. 9,042,390 10,184,795 1843-44. 24,335,718 17,046,748 1852-53. 29,319,750 29,385,955 The shipping that entered and cleared the port in 1852-53, was as follows :— ARRIVED.

Vessels.

Square-rigged, Country craft

Tonnage.

DEPARTED.

Vessels.

Tonnage.

522 227,751 522 215,209 41,719 679,696 41,696 693,119 Population. According to the census of 1849 Bombay Island, with Colaba, contains a population of 566,119. This amount is inclusive of the military and also of the floating population of the harbour. More than one-half of the inhabitants are Hindus. The Mahometans somewhat exceed one-fifth of the entire population. Next in point of numbers are the Parsees. Many of this last-mentioned class are extensively engaged in commerce ; they are the brokers and factors of Eui'opeans, and share largely in most of the foreign speculations of European mercantile houses. They are a rich, industrious, and active body of men, who contribute greatly to the prosperity of the settlement. The Parsees are the

descendants of the ancient fire-worshippers of Persia, who took refuge in Khorassan upon the conquest of that country by the Moslems in the seventh century. Their first appearance in India occurred about the year 766, and their earliest settlement was the island of Diu, on the south coast of the peninsula of Kattywar. From thence they migrated to Surat and Broach, and finally to Bombay. The various castes into which the total population of Bombay is distributed, and the proportion comprised in each, are thus particularized :— Jains, Lingaehs, or Boodhists, 1,902 Brahmins 6,936 Hindus of other castes 289,995 Mussulmans 124,155 Parsees 114,698 Jews 1,132 Native Christians 7,456 Indo-Britons 1,333 Indo-Portuguese 5,417 Pure European 5,088 Seedee, Negro, African 889 Other castes 7,118

Bombay,

Total, 566,119 It has been often remarked that the people of India differ from Europeans, not only in race, in language, and in creed, but also in their manners and modes of thought. A striking illustration of the truth of the observation is afforded in the organization and existence to a very recent period of the great plundering confederacy of Bombay. This partnership, plundering composed of upwai'ds of forty individuals, and affording em- confederployment to between two and three hundred subordinates, acy. had been established upwards of thirty years for the receipt of goods stolen from merchant-ships. The harbour was the principal scene of plunder, where the members of the gang were each day systematically distributed at the different quays, from which their boats and canoes were sent off to the loading and unloading ships. The plunderobtained was conveyed openly to the shore as though legally acquired, and thence ti’ansported to the partnership v/arehouses, where each morning it was brought to auction without any attempt at concealment. The books were kept with strict regularity, and the division of profits made with scrupulous honesty; two shares being invariably x'eserved to be distributed in clxarity. This successful perpetration of offences, though practised without interruption for a series of years, had been carried on without suspicion on the part of the European officers of the government; while the silence of the natives was secured either by the respect for caste, or by resort to intimidation. It was not till the year 1843 that the system was discovered, and those concerned in it brought to justice. The Company’s naval force at Bombay, including frigates, Naval iron steamers, and other craft, consists of forty-six vessels, and force, to man this navy a regular establishment of officers and seamen is required. The western coast of India, from the shores of the Persian Gulf to Goa, was formerly infested by hordes of pirates, who wei*e distinguished, particularly those in the northerly tracts, by courage, address, and habits of extreme ferocity. It was to pi-otectthe country trade against the depredations of these banditti, who had haunted those seas since the time of Alexander the Great, that the East India Company found it necessary to maintain an armed maritime force. The military force of the presidency, composed of the Military regular troops of the Crown and Company, but exclusive of force, local and police coi’ps, amounts to 41,426 men, of whom 10,244 are Europeans, and 31,182 natives. If the strength of the local and police corps be added, the aggregate will be swelled to 59,430. An augmentation of fox*ce being required, consequent upon the x’ecent extension of the British dominions in India, another European regiment is about to be added to the infantry of this presidency.

• Bombay.

The principal divisions of the Bombay army are as follow :— European

Presidency Garrison—•

Native.

Total.

678

3,264

3,942

1,399

8,117

9,516

3,736

10,729

14,465

1,376 14 659

11,828 573 1,405

13,204

2,461 181

12,964 3,757

15,425 3,938

Deduct Madras troops.

10,504 207

2,637 3,504

63,141 3,711

Deduct local and police corps.

10,297 53

49,133 17,951

59,430 18,004

Total regular troops, Crown ) and Company’s J

10,244

31,182

41,426

Headquarters, Bombay

Southern Division—

Headquarters, Belgaum

Poonah Division—

Headquarters, Poonah

Northern Division—

Headquarters, Ahmedabad Asseerghur fortress Aden force

Sinde Division—■

Headquarters, Kurrachee.. Rajpootana field force

Education.

BOMBAY.

2,587

A board of instruction presides over the government educational establishments of this presidency. These institutions consist of two principal classes. The first comprehends all the vernacular schools in which knowledge is communicated through the medium of the native languages. Under the second are ranked the institutions in which the higher branches of learning are taught through the medium of English. Various particulars connected with these seminaries are detailed in the following table. Expense. Teachers Pupils.

English and mixed Instruction.

Elphinstone Institutions— College Schools (two) Branch schools (two) Grant Medical College Poonah school Ahmednuggur school Surat school Ahmedabad school Broach school Rutnagherry school Dharwar school Poonah Sanscrit College

Judicial establishment.

} M

42 520 404 27 169 52 290 99 67 51 40 305

3

Bombay is the seat of a bishopric, subject to the ecclesi- Bombay, astical jurisdiction of the bishop of Calcutta as metropolitan. ^ The ecclesiastical establishment consists of a bishop, an Ecclesiasarchdeacon, seven chaplains, and sixteen assistant chaplains, tiral estaThere are also at this presidency two ministers of the Church blishment. of Scotland, appointed and maintained by the East India Company. Subject to the superintendence, direction, and control of population the governor-general of India in council, the government and extent of the territories of Bombay is vested in a governor and of presithree councillors, styled “ the Governor in Council of Bom- dency. bay.” The following table exhibits the details of the area and population of the several subdivisions into which the Bombay territories are distributed :— Area in Square Miles. Surat 1,629 Broach 1,319 Ahmedabad 4,356 Kaira 1,869 Khandeish 9,311 Tannah, or Northern Con can 5,477 Poonah 5,298 Ahmednuggur, including the sub-collectorate of Nassick 9,931 Sholapore 4,991 Belgaum 5,405 Dharwar 3,837 Rutnagherry, or South Coucan 3,964 Bombay Island, including Colaba 18 Kolaba Territory, now included in Tannah 318 Sattara 10,222 Sinde— Shikarpore. 6,120 Hyderabad 30,000 Kurrachee 16,000 52,120 Native States in connection with the Bombay government— Baroda (Guicowar) 4,399 Khyrpore (Sinde) 5,000 Kattywar 19,850 Kolapore 3,445 Sawunt Warree 800 Cutch 6,764 Mahratta jaghiredars 3,775 Petty States in Guzerat 16,617 60,650 180,715

Population. 492,684 290,984 650,223 580,631 778,112 815,849 666,006 995,585 675,115 1,025,882 754,385 665,238 566,119 58,721 1,005,771 350,401 551,811 185,550 11,109,067

325,526 105,000 1,468,900 500,000

120,000 500,536 419,025 1,030,938 4,469,925 15,578,992

Facilities of communication, so important to the prosperity Roads anc of commerce, agriculture, and manufactures, as well as so railways, essential to social improvements, are for the most part rare 62 2,066 in India. In the Bombay territories government has made considerable efforts to effect beneficial changes in this reVernacular Instruction. spect, but the difficulties are many, various, and sometimes No. of Schools. Presidency 7 429 almost insurmountable. The great expense of constructing 7 First Division 133 133 5,059 roads of materials calculated for durability, with drains, Second Division 37 2,298 37 bridges, and other appurtenances essential to their completeThird Division 56 56 3,608 ness, and of maintaining them in a state of efficiency, is but one among those difficulties. Another is the character of 233 11,394 the country to be traversed; roads, in many cases connecting places of some importance, have in the intermediate space Total Rs. 1,50,408 | 295 13,460 to pass through a tract of country little if at all removed In 1827 a supreme court of justice was established at from the character of a desert. A further, and in a great Bombay, constituted under letters-patent from the crown, degree a peculiar difficulty arises from the frequent deficiency under powers granted by act of parliament. It consists of of water. The construction of roads in the hot climate of a chief justice and one puisne judge, from whose decision Bombay is useless unless water can he found for the conan appeal lies to the queen in council. The modes of pro- sumption of the beasts of burden, and this has frequently to cedure in this court are assimilated to those of the courts be provided by additional works, involving an increased outat Westminster; but its jurisdiction is restricted to the lay. If to these sources of difficulty and expense be added city of Bombay, except in regard to British subjects. that arising from the rugged and mountainous character of

B

4 BombKetch Bona

History.

O

N

BON

a large w;n

part of the country, the feeling likely to be excited of India was both slow and subject to frequent checks. Bona Dea 0f surprise that so nnich should have been Previously to the year 1775 the possessions of the East In|| na dia Company in this quarter of the empire were limited to Bo M. effected. The grand obstacle, after leaving the coast, is the ) range of mountains known as the Western Ghauts, the prin- the island of Bombay, the harbour of Bankote, with Port cipal passes in which are at present the Tull and the Bhore Victoria, and the factories of Ahmedabad, Broach, and Surat. Ghaut, traversed by what may be termed two radical roads, In the year last-mentioned, Salsette and the adjacent islands connecting the port of Bombay with the interior. A rail- were obtained by treaty with the Peishwa. About the same way from the city of Bombay, traversing the country in a period various acquisitions were made in Guzerat, but these, northerly direction, and intended to effect a junction with after a brief occupation by their new masters, again reverted the Calcutta and Delhi trunk line, is now under construc- to the Mahrattas. It was not till the close of the eighteenth tion, and has been opened as far as Tannah. A branch line century that the company obtained the grant of the city and from this will connect the cotton districts of the valley of territory of Surat, nor until the commencement of the nineBerar with the port of shipment on the western coast; teenth, that the district of Broach became permanently a while another in a south-eastern direction, via Poonah and British possession. By the treaty of Baroda in 1805, porBellary, is projected, to facilitate communication with Ma- tions of the collectorates of Ahmedabad and Kaira were dras. ceded by the Guicowar, as were the ports of Malwan, VinBombay Island appears to have been first occupied by the gorla, and some others, by the rajahs of Kolapore and SaPortuguese about the year 1530, having been previously wuntWarree. 1 hese, however, in the aggregate constitute dependent on the ruler of Guzerat. In 1661 it was ceded but a fragment of the territory now comprised within the by the crown of Portugal in full sovereignty to Charles the presidency, the great bulk of which is of' still more recent Second of England, by the treaty of marriage concluded with acquisition. One vast accession took place in 1818, upon that power when he espoused the Infanta ; and shortly after the downfall of the Peishwa, when the possessions of that it was transferred by royal grant to the East India Company. potentate were incorporated with the Company’s dominions. In process of time it superseded in importance the factory Since that period the limits of the British empire on the side at Surat, and became the principal British settlement on the of Western India have been still further extended by the western coast. Aurungzebe, emperor of Delhi, invaded the annexation of Sinde, and the transfer to the Company of island in 1688 and laid siege to the town, but was prevailed the Angrias territories, and the principality of Sattara. The upon to withdraw his troops upon the receipt of a sum of first of these became subject to British rule by the results money. of war ; the latter two lapsed to the paramount power upon The extensionof the British dominionson the western side the failure of heirs to their last native rulers. (E. T.)

BOMB-KETCH. See BOMB-VESSEL. BOMBUS (/Sop/Sos), literally, a deep

hollow sound or humming noise, such as the buzzing of bees. The word was used to denote a kind of applause with the hands in ancient auditories. (Suet. Nero, 20.) This term is also employed to designate a genus of insects, of which our common Humble Bee is the type. See ENTOMOLOGY. BOMBYX, the silkworm. See ENTOMOLOGY. BOMONIC7E (/Sw/j-oveLKau), the name given to those Lacedaemonian youths who contended at the altar of Artemis Orthia for the prize of endurance, by submitting their bodies to the lash. (Hyg. Fab. 261.) BONA, GIOVANNI, a learned and pious cardinal, was born in 1609, at Mondovi in Piedmont, and died at Rome in 1674. His principal work is his Rerum Liturgicarum Lib. II., Rome, 1671, which is an authority on all that pertains to the Romish service of the mass. BONA, a fortified town and seaport of Algiers, in the province, and 85 miles N.E. of the town, of Constantine, is situated on an open bay at the mouth of the Seybouse in Eat. 36. 54. N. Long. 7. 47. E. The town is about two miles in circumference, and is surrounded by a high wall with square turrets and four gates. It has been much improved since it came into the possession of the French, by the formation of good streets and squares, and the erection of many handsome and commodious houses. It now has bazaars, markets, coffeehouses, reading-rooms, hospitals, two Roman Catholic chapels, synagogue, mosque, theatre, barracks, and several schools ; and it is the seat of a tribunal of primary instance. It is the principal seat of the coral fishery, and has a considerable trade in corn, wool, hides, and wax ; and manufactures of native garments, tapestry, saddles, &c. The town and harbour are defended by a citadel, Casbah, on a hill a little to the north of the town, and surrounded by thick walls, about a quarter of a mile in circuit. Remains of the ancient Hippo-regius, celebrated as the see of St Augustine, are to be found about a mile to the

south of the town, and consist principally of large cisterns, and part of the Roman walls. The population of Bona in 1850 amounted to 8134, of whom 5250 were Europeans. BONA Dea, a Roman divinity, who is described as the wife, sister, or daughter cf Eaunus, and so famous for her chastity that after her death she was deified. Her sacrifices were performed only by women, and in so secret a manner that it was death for any man to intrude himself into the assembly. Cicero reproaches P. Clodius with having entered this temple disguised as a singing woman, and by his presence polluted the mysteries of the Bona Dea. What kind of mysteries these were, we learn incidentally from Juvenal, Sat. vi. 313, where the abominations practised in them are very significantly pointed at. BONA Fides, in Laiv. When a person performs any action which he believes at the time to be just and lawful, he is said to have acted in bona fide, “ in good faith.” BONA Mobilia, movable effects or goods. BONA Notabilia are such goods as a person dying has in another diocese than that in which he dies, amounting to the value of five pounds at least; in which case the will of the deceased must be proved, or administration granted, in the court of the archbishop of the province, unless, by composition or custom, any dioceses are authorized to do it, when rated at a greater sum. BONA Vacantia, goods, such as royal fish, shipwrecks, treasure-trove, waifs, and estrays, in which no one can claim a property. BONALD (Louis GABRIEL AMBROISE) VICOMTE DE, a French philosophical writer, was born in the year 1754 at Monna, near Milhau, in the department of Aveyron. He began life as a soldier, but having little sympathy with the revolutionary principles then abroad, he emigrated in 1791 and joined the army of Conde. Soon afterwards he quitted the service and retired to Heidelberg, where he devoted himself entirely to literature. His first work, entitled Theorie du Pouvoir Politique et Religieux, was published at Con-

BON Bonaparte ll Bonaventure

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J

stance in 1796, but was interdicted by the French Directory. It was republished at Paris in 1843. Though a staunch supporter of the Bourbons, Ronald returned in 1804 to Paris, where he supported himself for many years by his pen, refusing various advantageous offers from the family of Napoleon. In 1815 he was chosen deputy for Aveyron, and distinguished himself by his efforts to check the abuses of the press. In 1823 he was nominated a peer of France, and accepted office under the government; but he lost both his title and his place by refusing to take oath to the new government of 1830. In that year be retired to his birthplace, where he died on the 23d November 1840, at the age.of eighty-six. His philosophical, social, and political theories are based on this proposition, “ L’homme pense sa parole, avant de parler sa pensee. Loin que la parole soit le produit de la pensee c’est elle-meme qui en est le principe. Or, si la parole est anterieure a la pensee d’ou peut elle venir, si non de Dieu meme?” The principal works ol M. Bonald, besides thatalready mentioned, are La Legislation Primitive, Paris, 1821, 3 vols. 8vo ; Recherches Philosophiques sur les premiers Objets des connaissances morales, 2 vols. 8vo, 1818 and 1826 ; Demonstration Philosoplnque du principe constitutif de la Societe, Paris, 1830, 8vo.

BONAPARTE, or BUONAPARTE. See NAPOLEON. BONARELLI, DELLA ROYERE, COUNT GUID’ UBALDO, an Italian poet, born at Urbino, A.D. 1563, was the son ot Count Pietro Bonarelli, minister of the Duke of Urbino. He was intrusted with several important negotiations, and was esteemed an able politician and learned philosopher. He was the author of a pastoral entitled Filli di Sciro, printed for the first time at Ferrara in 1607, with cuts, 4to; and of an amatory production entitled Discorsi in difesa del doppio Amor della sua Celia, first printed at Ancona in 1612, 4to. He died at Fano in 1608. His brother Prospero and his nephew Pietro were also writers of poems, &c. BONASONE, GIULIO, an admirable engraver, born at Bologna about 1498. He studied painting under Lor. Sabbatini, but attained small proficiency in that branch. The freedom and expression, however, of his etching needle and burin are most excellent, and we owe to him engravings from the works of Michael Angelo, Raffaello, Titian, and many other illustrious painters, that will always hand down his name as among the most eminent in that department of the arts. BONASSUS. See MAMMALIA, Index. BONAVENTURE (Bonaventura) ST, one of the brightest luminaries of the scholastic age, was born of a good family, atBagnareain Tuscany, in 1221. His original name was Giovanni di Fidenza, butfroma particular incident in his childhood he received the name by which alone he is now generally known. In 1243 he entered the order of St Francis, and after several years’ study at Paris under the celebrated Alexander of Hales, he was in 1253 appointed to lecture publicly on the Sentences of Lombard. In 1255 he took his doctor’s degree on the same day with Aquinas. The year following he was chosen general of his order, which he governed till his death with vigour and prudence. He is said to have declined the offer of the see of York from Clement IV. in 1265 ; and might on the death of that pope have been elected in his stead, the cardinals having solemnly engaged themselves to abide by the choice of Bonaventure, even if he should nominate himself. The person whom he recommended was Theobald, archdeacon of Liege, at that time in the Holy Land. The new pope, who assumed the name of Gregory X., appointed Bonaventure in 1273 to the bishopric of Albano, and soon after raised him to the dignity of a cardinal. Bonaventure died July 15. 1274, while attending the second council of Lyons as legate of the pope. His remains were attended to the tomb by the pope and the whole council: they were exhumed in the sixteenth century by the Huguenots, burnt, and cast into the Saone. Bonaventure was canonized in 1482 by Sixtus IV., and

BON

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ranked in 1587 by Sixtus V. as the sixth great doctor of Bonavista the church. The city of Lyons chose him as her patron II saint. The purity and gentleness of his character, and the ^ondman-> heavenly thoughts with which his writings abound, procured him among scholastic divines the title of the seraphic doctor.

By the Franciscans he is regarded as the greatest doctor of their order, and held up as a rival to St Thomas, the glory ot the Dominicans. His works, printed at Rome 1588-96, in eight vols.folio, comprise commentaries on the Scriptures and on the Book of Sentences, numerous tracts chiefly on ascetic and practical subjects, sermons, letters, &c. This collection includes several apocryphal works, among which is the famous Psalter of the Virgin. His efforts to make philosophy (which with him is a combination of Peripateticism and Neoplatonism) subservient to faith, resulted in a pious mysticism which makes his meaning often obscure. Union with God he regards as the sovereign good, and this principle he has developed in his Itinerarium Mentis in Deumsend his Reductio artium in Theologiam. The latter treatise is devoted to a proof of the thesis that theology is the final consummation of all science and art. Bonaventure is distinguished above all the schoolmen by his freedom from trivial subtleties, his religious fervour, and the practical tendency of his spirit. His commentary on Lombard contains a most acute refutation of the doctrine of the eternity of the world, and some new arguments for the immortality of the soul. He is eulogized by Luther as an excellent man {Bonaventura, prcestantissimus vir); and characterized by Bellarmin as a doctor alike beloved by God and man. BONAVISTA, or BOAVISTA, an island near the western coast of Africa, forming part of the group called Cape de Verd, from their vicinity to that remarkable promontory. It was the first of the number discovered by the Portuguese in 1450. Captain Porter describes the island as consisting of a level plain, rising in the centre into rugged and rocky eminences. A great part is capable of cultivation, and might yield in abundance cotton and indigo, were these properly attended to by the indolent natives. Pop. 4395, chiefly engaged in the manufacture of salt. There are three good roads for shipping. The north-west point is in Long. 22. 56. 24. E. and Lat. 16. 13. 18. N. BOND, JOHN, a commentator on Horace and Persius, was born in Somersetshire in 1550, educated at Winchester school, and at New College, Oxford, by which society he was appointed master of the free school at Taunton. In this situation he acquired some reputation; but growing weary of teaching he applied to physic, and practised, it is said, with considerable success. He died in 1612. His short marginal annotations upon Horace and Persius (1606 and 1614, 8vo) are generally feeble, and without erudition; yet his edition of the former has often been reprinted. Saxius describes him as minorum gentium philologus. BONDAGE properly signifies slavery, but in old law books it is used for villenage. Tenants in bondage paid kenots, did fealty, and were prohibited from felling trees in their own garden, without license of the lord. The widow of a tenant in bondage held her husband’s estate quamdiu vixerit sine marito, as long as she lived single. BONDAGE by the Forelock, or Bondagium per anteriores crines capitis, was when a freeman renounced his liberty, and became a slave to some great man, which was done by the ceremony of cutting oft’ a lock of hair from the forehead, and delivering it to his lord. If he reclaimed his liberty, or became fugitive from his master, he might be drawn again to his servitude by the nose, whence the origin of the popular menace to pull the nose. BONDMAN, in Old English Law, a villain, or tenant in villenage. The Romans had two kinds of bondmen; one, called servi, who were those either bought for money, token in war, left by succession, or acquired by some other lawful title; the other, born of their bondwomen, and called

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We may add a third kind of bondmen mentioned anointing, and depositing them in urns, &c. Among the anby Justinian, called adscriptitii glebce, or agricensiti, who cients, the bones of travellers and soldiers dying in foreign were a species of serfs or boors, not bound to the person, countries were brought home to be buried ; ‘but during the but to the gi’ound or place, and who followed him who had Italic war this was prohibited by the senate. the land. These in our old law are called vilains regardI he Romans acknowledged a deity, called Ossipaga, or ants, as belonging to the manor or place. Ossipanga, to whom the care of the induration and knitting BONDOU, a kingdom of Western Africa, between 14. of the human bones was committed, and who on that account and 15. N. Lat., and 11. and 13. W. Long. The country was invoked by pregnant women. is elevated, and the mountains are generally unproductive, BONET, or BONNET, THEOPHILUS, an eminent physiand covered writh stunted wood. The intervening valleys, cian, born at Geneva, March 5. 1620. He took his degree however, are fertile, and finely clothed with the baobab, the in 1643, and then applied himself to the practice of his tamarind, and various valuable fruit trees. They are traversed profession, in which he acquired great reputation. On reby beds of torrents, which flow rapidly during the rains, but tiring from practice, he found leisure to collect all the obserare empty in the dry season. Cultivation, though it extends vations he had made during an experience of forty years. over only a comparatively small proportion of the whole sur- But his principal title to distinction is rather as a medical face, is carried on with considerable activity. The products writer than a practitioner, and as having in some measure consist of four species of grain, rice, cotton, indigo, and created pathological anatomy, which Morgagni afterwards fruits. The workmen in the different parts display consider- illustrated. He died March 29. 1689. His most valuable able dexterity, though they employ very rude and defective work is Sepulchretum, sive Anatomia Practica ex cadaveritools. The people consist chiefly of Foulahs, though the bus morbo denatis, a valuable mine of morbid anatomy. The country is much frequented by Mandingoes and Serawoollies best edition is that of Magnetus, Geneva, 3 tom. folio, for purposes of trade. The exports consist of provisions and 1700. His other works are, Mercurius Compitalitius, Geneva, cotton cloth manufactured in the country, in exchange for 1682, fob; Zodiacus Medico-Gallicus; Medicina Septenslaves and salt. The caravans, bringing the former from the trionalis Collatitia, Geneva, 1684-86,2 vols. fob; Polyaninterior to the coast, pass usually through Bondou. thes, sive Thesaurus Medico-Practicus, Geneva, 1690-93, 3 The religion and laws of this country are Mahommedan, vols. fob; Theodor i Turqueti de May erne Tractatus de Arthough the precepts of that faith are not observed with the thritide, Geneva, 1671, 1674,12mo, Jacobi Rohaultii Tracsame rigour as in more northern countries. There are tatus Physicus, Geneva, 1674,8vo, both translations; Biblioschools, however, in every town, where the Koran and the theque de Medecine et de Chirurgie, Geneva, 1670, 4 vols. reading and writing of Arabic are taught; but the scholar BONFADIO, JACOPO, a celebrated Italian writer, born is treated as the servant of the teacher, for whom he is ob- at Gazano, in the diocese of Brescia, about the commenceliged to perform the most menial offices. The king is nearly ment of the 16th century. He was secretary to Cardinal absolute, and commands a considerable body of troops, who Merinos, archbishop of Bari, and afterwards to Cardinal are much employed in predatory expeditions, chiefly for the Ghinucci at Genoa. He read public lectures on Aristotle’s purpose of collecting slaves. His revenues are derived from politics, and on rhetoric, and was appointed professor of phia tenth part of the produce of the land, and of the salt im- losophy and historiographer to that republic. He had comported, as also from duties on goods passing through his pleted five books of the annals of that state, which were to territories, with numerous presents expected or extorted. have been followed by others; but having spoken too freely of Mr Park experienced to his cost the rapacity of the reign- some noble families, they resolved upon his ruin, and accused ing prince, being obliged to give up even the coat which him of an unnatural crime. As witnesses were found to conhe wore. He was introduced to the king’s twelve wives, vict him, he was condemned to the flames ; but the sentence who had never before seen a European, and thought that was commuted, as an act of special grace, into beheading. This the white skin had been produced by his having been bathed took place in 1550. Authors have varied in their opinions as in milk by his mother, who had also artificially pinched up to Bonfadio’s alleged guilt; Tiraboschi among others, mainhis nose into its unnatural elevation. The royal residence tains the affirmative of the question. His works are, \.Anwas then at Fatteconda; but when Major Gray visited Bon- nalium Genuensium ab anno 1528 Recuperates Libertatis dou it had been removed to Boolibani, a small town sur- usque ad annum 1550, libri quinque, Pavia, 1586, 4to; rounded by a strong clay wall. The palaces of the king 2. Lettere Famigliari di Jacopo Bonfadio, con altri suoi and his sons consist merely of inclosures about an acre in Componimenti in prosa ed in verso, with a life of the author extent, containing a number of cottages, somewhat larger, by Mazzuchelli, Brescia, 1746, 8vo. but not more commodious, than those of his subjects. BONFINI, ANTHONY, a Latin historian,born at Ascoli, BONE DUST. See AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. in the marquisate of Ancona, in December 1472. His liteBONE, Henry, R.A., the most eminent enamel painter rary fame induced Matthias Hunyadi, king of Hungary, to of Great Britain, was born at Truro in 1755. He was much invite him to his court, where he was retained and pensioned employed by London jewellers for small designs in enamel, by that sovereign, as well as by his successor Wladislaus. before his merits as an artist were well known to the pub- He wrote by royal command the early history of Hungary, lic. In 1800 the beauty of his pieces attracted the notice which he brought down to the year 1495. It is a well-exof the Royal Academy, of which he was then admitted as ecuted work, and has gone through several editions. Bonan associate, and in 1811 as an academician. From the be- fini died in 1502. He has left, 1. Rerum Ungaricarum ginning of this century until 1831, he executed many beau- decades tres, Basle, 1545, fob; 2. Flavii Philostrati Lemtiful pieces of much larger size than had been attempted be- nii Libri ii. de VitisSophistarum, 1516, 4to; 3. Hermogenis fore in this country: among these his 85 portraits of the Libri de Arte Rhetorica et Aphthonii Sophistce Progymtime of Queen Elizabeth, of different sizes, from 5 by 4, to nastica, Lyons, 1538; 4. In Horatium Flaccum Com13 by 8 inches, are most admired. They were disposed of by mentarii, Rome, without date, 4to; and, 5. Symposion public sale after his death, which took place in 1834. His Beatricis, Basle, 1572 and 1621, 8vo. “ Bacchus and Ariadne,” after Titian, painted on a plate, BONFRERE, JAMES, in Latin Bonfrerius, a learned brought the great price of 2200 guineas. Jesuit, born at Dinand-sur-Meuse in 1573. He wrote a BONES. See ANATOMY and Index. commentary on the Pentateuch, and notes on the OnomasBONES of the Dead. Different usages and ceremonies ticon, or description of the places and towns mentioned in relating to the bones of the dead have obtained in different Scripture. He died at Tournay in 1643. ages; as gathering them from the funeral pile, washing, BONGARS, or BONGARSIUS, JACQUES, counsellor and verruB.

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BON Boni II Boniface,

maitre d’hotel to Henri IV., and one of the ablest crities of his time, was born at Orleans in 1546. He studied the belles-lettres at Strasburg under an anabaptist professor, and law at Bourges under Cujas. He was for about thirty years employed in the most important negotiations of Henri IV. at the courts of the princes of Germany, first as resident, and afterwards as ambassador. Bongars was a Protestant, and happening to be at Rome when Sixtus V. fulminated his famous bull of excommunication against Henri IV., he wrote a spirited answer, which he had the boldness to post up in a conspicuous place, and which was afterwards published with his name in the Memoires de la Ligue. He died at Paris July 29. 1612. His printed works are, 1. A Collection of the Historians of the Crusades, under the title of Gesta Dei per Francos, Hanau, 1611, fob ; 2. Jacobi Bongarsii Epistolce, Lugd. Bat. 1641 ; 3. Collectio Hungaricarum Rerum Scriptorum, Francf. 1600, fob; 4. An edition of Justin, with learned notes ; besides notes on Petronius, and various readings of Paulus Diaconus. BONI, or BONY, a state in the island of Celebes, stretching for part of its extent along the western shores of a great cognominal bay which indents the southern side of the island to the depth of nearly 180 miles. The inhabitants of this once powerful and independent country are the Bugis,—a people in many respects the most remarkable of the Eastern Archipelago. Their numbers, by the Dutch census in 1824, amounted to about 200,000. Living, as they do, surrounded by nations notorious for treachery, piracy, and indifference to the arts and objects of civilized life, they have always shown themselves honest, industrious, and ingenious. Agriculture is by them more extensively practised than by any of the adjoining tribes ; and of the cotton cloth called cambays worn in these regions, they not only manufacture enough for their own use, but also export considerable quantities to the Malay islands. They likewise carry on a considerable traffic in the mineral and vegetable productions of their country, such as gold dust, tortoise-shell, pearls, nutmegs, camphor, and various medicinal preparations; and for these they find a ready market at Singapore, the chief commercial entrepot of these Eastern seas. In the form and constitution of their government, likewise, they approach more nearly the spirit of true civilization than any other Asiatic people. The highest officer of state is the king or president, who is elected generally for life, and always from their own number, by the chiefs of the eight petty states that compose the nation. Elis power, however, is so limited that he cannot decide upon any measure of public polity, without the consent of the minor chiefs by whom he was originally appointed. In some of the petty states the office of chief is the hereditary prerogative of a family ; in others any member of the privileged classes may aspire to that dignity. Hence it happens not unfrequently that the state comes to be governed by a woman, as the principle of the Salic law is here unknown. Of the history of Boni not much is known. According to Temminck, it first acquired importance in the year 1666, when the rajah Palakkah, whose father and grandfather had been murdered by the family of Hassan the tyrant of Sumatra, made common cause with the Dutch against that despot. From that date till the beginning of the present century the Dutch influence in the polity of the kingdom remained undisputed. In 1814, however, Boni fell into the hands of the British, who retained it for two years; but by the European treaties concluded on the downfall of Napoleon it reverted to its original colonizers. BONIFACE, the name of several eminent men, particularly of nine popes. To the first of these, who was chosen pope in December 418, St Augustin dedicated his four books in answer to the two epistles of the Pelagians.—Boniface II. was elected pope in October 530, and succeeded Felix IV., who had been nominated by apart of the clergy, the senate, and the people assembled in the basilica of Con-

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slantine, and whose memory he caused to be condemned- Boniface His pontificate was distinguished only for its turbulence.— II Boniface III. was elected in February 606. He prevailed v Bonn- } upon the emperor Phocas to consent that the title of Universal Bishop should be conferred on no other but the bishop of Rome, and that the Holy See should have the supremacy over that of Constantinople.—Boniface IV., raised to the papal chair in August 608, obtained from the same emperor the Pantheon, or temple of all the gods, built by Agrippa, and converted it into a church, which he consecrated to all the martyrs and the Virgin, under the name of Santa Maria della Rotonda.—Boniface V. was elected in December 618, and died in October 624.—Boniface VI. was elected in April 896, but died of the gout fifteen days thereafter.—Boniface VIE, called Franco, is styled an antipope. He was suspected of having caused Benedict VI. to be strangled in prison in 974 ; and after the election of Benedict VII. he removed the treasures of the church to Constantinople. He returned on the death of Benedict, whose successor John XIV. was disposed of in the same way as Benedict VI. This intruder died in December 985. —Boniface VIII., a pontiff conspicuous for his pretensions to temporal authority, was elected in December 1294. He canonized St Louis in 1297, and in 1300 appointed the jubilee to be solemnized every hundred years thereafter.— Boniface IX. was elected pope on the 2d November 1389, after the death of Urban VI., and during the schism of the west. He supported Ladislaus of Hungary in his pretensions to the kingdom of Hungary, against Louis of Anjou, protected by the Avignon pope, Clement VII. Some writers have praised his moral character; but the greater number have accused him of simony, of cupidity in order to enrich his family, and of exactions for the support of his government. He died on the 1st October 1404. BONIFACE, a saint designated as the Apostle of Germany, was an Englishman, by name Winifrid, and was born in Devonshire, A.D. 670. He went to preach the gospel among the barbarous nations of Germany; and although created archbishop of Mayence, he soon after resigned his office, in order to preach in East Friesland, where during a tumult he was murdered by the pagans, June 5. 755. With him also perished Eoban a bishop, three priests, three deacons, four monks, and forty-eight laics. The Bollandists collected the Acta Bonifaciana, containing an account of the miracles of the saint; and a collection of his Letters, amounting to 152, was published by Serrarius in 1605, 4to. In the Spicilegium of D’Achery may be found the canons which he promulgated for regulating the conduct of his clergy ; and one of his sermons is preserved in the Thesaurus Anecdotorum Novissimus, tom. iii. part 2, published by D. Bernard Fez, at Augsburg, 1729. BONIFACIO, a town in the island of Corsica, beyond the mountains, near the strait called Bocca di Bonifacio. It is well fortified, and has a secure harbour, with some trade. Pop. 3120. Long 9. 9. 16. E. Lat. 41. 23. 10. N. BONN, the chief town of the circle of the same name in Rhenish Prussia, is pleasantly situated on the left bank of the Rhine, 15 miles S.S.E. of Cologne, with which it is connected by railway. The town has several good streets and a fine market-place. A statue of Beethoven, who was born here on the 17th December 1770, was erected, in 1844, in one of the squares. The cathedral is a fine old edifice in the Byzantine style, surmounted by five towers. Bonn is chiefly celebrated for its university, established by the king of Prussia in 1818, and occupying the extensive palace of the electors of Cologne. It has faculties of philosophy, law, medicine, and theology, both Protestant and Roman Catholic. The number of students in 1849 was 833, of whom 116 were foreigners. It has numbered among its professors Niebuhr and A. W. Schlegel, and among its students, H.R.H. Prince Albert. The library contains about 150,000 volumes. A beautiful avenue of chestnut trees, about a mile in length, extends

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from the university to the chateau of Poppelsdorf, which [| contains a valuable museum of natural history, and has atBonner. tached to it a spacious botanic garden. Bonn has one ProVs w —'v' ' testant and three Roman Catholic churches, a synagogue, a gymnasium, and riding-school. Pop. (1849), including the military, 17,688, of whom 14,725 are Catholics. Its principal manufactures are cotton, silk, tobacco, and soap; and it has a considerable trade in wine, grain, &c. The circle has a population of 55,872. BONNEFONS, or BONEFONIUS, JEAN, a Latin poet, born at Clermont in Auvergne, A.D. 1554. He studied law under Cujas at Bourges ; became an advocate in the parliament of Paris ; was appointed lieutenant-general of Bar-surSeine ; and by his poems acquired great but unmerited reputation, especially by his Pancharis, written in the style of Catullus. He died in 1614. He must not be confounded with John Bonnefons, his son, another Latin poet, nor with Dom Elia Benedict Bonnefons, alearned Benedictine of the congregation of St Maur, who died in 1702. The most complete edition of Bonnefons’ works is that of Amsterdam, 1767, 12mo, entitled, JoannisBonnefonii patris, Arverni, Opera Omnia. BONNER, or BONER, EDMUND, an English prelate, notorious for his persecutions of the Protestants during the reign of Queen Mary, was born at Hanley in Worcestershire about the end of the fifteenth century, and generally passed for the natural son of George Savage, a priest, who was the natural son of Sir John Savage of Clifton in the same county. Strype, however, says he was positively assured that Bonner was the legitimate offspring of a poor man, who lived in a cottage long afterwards known by the name of Boner’s Place. About the year 1512 he entered as a student of Broadgate Hall (now Pembroke College), Oxford ; and in 1519 was admitted as bachelor of the canon and of the civil law. Having been admitted into orders, he obtained some preferment in the diocese of Worcester. In 1525 he took his degree as doctor; and having attracted the notice of Wolsey, that prelate took him under his patronage. Bonner was with the cardinal at Ca-wood when he was arrested on a charge of high treason. After the death of Wolsey he saw his way towards adopting Lutheran sentiments, and found means to insinuate himself into the favour of Henry VIII., who made him one of his chaplains, and employed him in several embassies abroad. In 1532 he was sent to Rome with Sir Edward Carne, to answer for the king, who had been cited to appear in person or by proxy. In 1533 he was again despatched to Pope Clement VIE, then at Marseilles, to intimate Henry’s appeal to a future general council from the sentence which had been pronounced against his divorce. On this occasion he threatened the pope with so much resolution, that His Holiness talked of having him burned alive or thrown into a cauldron of melted lead. Bonner accordingly judged it prudent to decamp without the ceremony of taking leave. His Holiness did not foresee that the man whom he had thus menaced with the flames was destined to burn heretics in England in support of the very faith which, under Henry, he had lent his aid to overthrow. In 1538, being then ambassador at the court of France, he was nominated bishop of Hereford ; but, before consecration, he was translated to the see of London, and enthroned in April 1540. Henry VIII. died in 1547, at which time Bonner was ambassador at the court of the emperor Charles V. During this reign he was constantly zealous in his opposition to the pope; and, in compliance with the king, favoured the Reformation. Henry VIII. was a man to exact a rigid compliance with all his whims and caprices ; but on the accession of young Edward, Bonner refused to take the oath of supremacy, and was committed to the Fleet, where he remained until he thought fit io promise obedience to the laws. After his release he continued to comply with the Reformation, but with such manifest neglect and reluctance, that he was twice reprimanded Bonnefons

BON by the privy council, and in 1549 was, after a long trial, Bonnet, committed to the Marshalsea, and deprived of his bishopric, The succeeding reign, however, gave him ample opportunity of revenge. Mary was scarcely seated on the throne when Bonner was restored to his bishopric, and soon afterwards appointed vicegerent and president of the convocation. From this time he became the chief instrument of persecuting cruelty, and is said to have condemned no less than 200 Protestants to the flames in the space of three years. Nor was this vindictive and persecuting priest less remarkable for his impudence than his cruelty. On the accession of Elizabeth he appeared with the rest of the bishops at Highgate, to congratulate her on the occasion ; but the queen refused to permit him to kiss her hand. Having, in the second year of her reign, refused to take the oath of allegiance and supremacy, he was again deprived and committed to the Marshalsea, where he died, Sept. 5. 1569, after a confinement of ten years’ duration. The character of Bonner was remarkable for obstinacy and inflexibility in everything save principle; yet even in this respect it exhibits some striking contrasts. In the early part of his career he accommodated his principles to his convenience and ambition ; in the latter, after his return to Catholicism, he remained stedfast in his adherence to the church, and, when disgraced, bore his deprivation and imprisonment with apparent calmness and resignation. The charge of atheism brought against one so defiled with blood was superfluous. He was constitutionally merciless and austere; fitted by nature for a persecutor of all opinions adverse to his own; and equally capable of employing the same burning zeal either against or in favour of any cause that he espoused. BONNET, CHARLES, an eminent naturalist and philosophical writer, born at Geneva on the 13th March 1720, of a French family whose religious principles had obliged them to leave their native country. At the early age of sixteen his attention was so deeply engaged by the study of Pluche’s Spectacle de la Nature, that it seems to have given a bias to his future studies. The history and habits of the antlion, formica leo, particularly attracted his attention. He discovered the haunts of this curious insect, studied its habits, and added many observations to those of Pluche and Reaumur. Reaumur’s memoir on Insects he also perused with great avidity ; and to the observations and experiments of that naturalist Bonnet added many new facts, the detail of which he communicated to Reaumur ; who was not less surprised than pleased to find so much sagacity and acuteness of research exhibited by a youth of eighteen. Bonnet had been destined by his father for the profession of the law; but the bias of his mind leaned too strongly to natural history to permit him to occupy his attention with other pursuits, and the study of law was submitted to merely as a task. In 1738 and 1739 he sent to Reaumur many interesting observations on different species of caterpillars; and in 1740 he communicated a paper to the Academy of Sciences respecting the propagation or multiplication of aphides, or tree-lice, without actual conjunction. This question, which had been left unsettled by Reaumur, was now determined by decisive experiments ; and his paper on the subject obtained for Bonnet the honour of being admitted a corresponding member of the Academy. His experiments on the generation of these insects were conducted with such close attention and minuteness of research as permanently to affect his eyesight. In the year 1741 he instituted a set of experiments on the division of worms ; and he found that many species possessed in some degree the same reproductive power as the polypus. In the following year his investigations and experiments were directed to the respiration of caterpillars and butterflies ; and he proved that this function was performed by means of pores to which the name of stigmata has been given. It was about the same time that he made some curious discoveries respecting the

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Bonnet, or tape-worm. In 1743, when he became a doctor oflaws, —v/—he procured a ready dispensation from the further prosecution of his legal studies, which he now relinquished for ever. A memoir on insects which he communicated to the Royal Society of London in the same year procured his admission into that body. Next year he published his Insectology, and prefixed to it a preface, in which he exhibits a philosophical sketch of his ideas concerning the system of the development of germs, and the scale of organized beings. This work was in general well received, though by some of the journals it was taxed with a want of delicacy in the descriptions of the mode of propagation of tree-lice. Bonnet’s health now began visibly to decline. His eyes particularly were affected with severe pains, which obliged him to lay aside the use of the microscope, and to forego for a time all reading and writing. Like a true philosopher, he bore his afflictions with patience ; yet, although he was interdicted from all observation, his mind was fully occupied in reflection. He was at last restored to tolerable health; but he never could employ his eyes with the same freedom as formerly. About the year 1746 he undertook a course of experiments on the vegetation of plants in moss and other substances; and in the following year his researches were directed to the functions of the leaves of plants, with the view of ascertaining the different action of the two sides of the leaf. He also made experiments on the ascent of the sap; and to determine whether it rose by the bark or wood, he employed coloured injections. This investigation, with some observations which he made on vegetable monsters, was the foundation of one of his most interesting and original works, entitled Inquiries into the use of the Leaves of Plants, Leyden, 1754, 4to. A supplement was added to it in 1779. Bonnet’s inquiries in natural history now led him on to physiology and metaphysics, where he followed in the footsteps of Malebranche and Leibnitz. The first fruit of his meditations was a kind of abridgment of the materials he had collected, under the title of an Essay on Psychology, published in London in 1754, but without his name, nor did he acknowledge it till nearly thirty years afterwards. This work contains, in a concise form, the fundamental principles of his philosophy; some account of which will be found in Mr Stewart’s Dissertation, §§ 3, 4, and 5. It met with some censure, yet its success was brilliant. His next work was a development of the same subject. In 1760 he published, at Copenhagen, in 4to, his Analytical Essay on the Faculties of the Soul, in which, like Condillac, he supposes a statue organized like the human body, which by degrees he animates, and shows how its ideas would arise from impressions on the organs of sense. This essay was well received, though it subjected the author to a charge of materialism, which it cannot be denied was the logical result of its principles. In the case of Bonnet, however, the charge was of easy refutation. His retired and studious habits, together with his deafness and other bodily infirmities, rendering domestic comforts more essential to him, he married, in 1756, a lady of the family of De la Rive, and with her he passed thirty-seven years of domestic happiness. The celebrated Saussure was nephew to his wife, and was brought up as a son by Bonnet, who had no children of his own. His next work, Considerations on Organized Bodies, 2 vols. 8vo, Amst. 1762, was properly the physical part of his great system. Its principal objects were, to give in an abridged form all the most interesting and well-ascertained facts respecting the origin, development, and reproduction of organized bodies; to refute the different systems founded upon epigenesis; and to explain and defend the system of germs. His Contemplation of Nature, Amst. 1764-65, 2 vols. 8vo, was a popular work, in which the principal facts relative to the different orders of created beings are displayed in a manner both instructive and entertaining, and set off

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by the charms of an eloquent style ; with a continual reference to final causes, and proofs of creative wisdom and benevolence. It has been translated into most of the European languages. The concluding work of Bonnet was his Palingenesie Philosophique, Geneva, 1769, 2 vols. 8vo. In this he treats of the past and future state of living beings, and supports the idea of the survival of all animals, and the perfecting of their faculties in a future state. Attached to this work is An Inquiry into the Evidences of the Christian Revelation, and the Doctrines of Christianity, which, with a treatise On the Existence of God, was published separately at Geneva in 1770 and 1771. Again directing his attention to natural history, he published in 1 773, in Rozier’s Journal, a memoir on the method of preserving insects and fishes in cabinets; and, in the following year, another on the loves of plants, originating in the discovery of a kind of cleft of mouth in the pistil of a lily. This was followed by various memoirs and observations on subjects in natural history. His reputation was now fully established. Most of the learned societies of Europe enrolled him among their members; and in 1783 he was elected into the small and very select number of foreign associates of the Academy of Sciences at Paris. Although attached by inclination to scientific pursuits, he did not entirely withdraw' from public duties. He entered into the great council of the republic in 1752, and kept his seat in it till 1768; having frequently distinguished himself by his manly eloquence in support of moderate measures, and his zeal in the cause of morals and religion. The last twenty-five years of his life he passed entirely in the country, in a simple and uniform mode of life, happy in an easy competence, and in a small circle of friends. It appears that he was for some time engaged in the education of youth, in which employment he secured the warmest attachment of his pupils. His health was greatly impaired by the excessive labour he bestowed for nearly eight years on a collective edition of his works. This appeared at Neufchatel in 1797, in 8 vols. 4to, and 18 vols. 8vo. Besides the works already mentioned, it contains a number of smaller pieces, both in natural history and metaphysics. They are all written in French. After a long and painful illness, which he bore with exemplary patience and serenity, this excellent man died on the 20th May 1793, at the age of seventythree. Public honours were rendered to his remains by his fellow-citizens, and his funeral oration was pronounced by his illustrious friend and kinsman M. de Saussure. BONNEYAL, CLAUDE ALEXANDRE, COMTE DE, known afterwards as Achmet Pasha, was descended from an illustrious family of Limousin, and was born July 14. 1675. He entered at the age of sixteen into the service of the crown, and married the daughter of Marshal de Biron. He distinguished himself at the combats of Dieppe, La Hogue, and Cadiz ; a,nd he made the campaign of Flanders in 1690. He soon after left the French army, and, entering into the imperial service under Prince Eugene, signalized himself greatly on several occasions, particularly at the battle of Peterwardin, where the victory was due in a great measure to his intrepidity. The intrigues of the Marquis de Prie, however, ruined his credit at the court of Vienna, and caused him to be banished the empire. He then offered his services to the republic of Venice and to Russia; and these being declined in both instances, his next tender was to the Sultan, who gladly received him. It was stipulated that he should have a body of 30,000 men at his disposal; that a government should be conferred on him, with the rank of pasha of three tails, and a salary of 10,000 aspers a-day; and that, in the event of war, he should be commander-inchief. The first expedition he engaged in after his arrival at Constantinople, was to quell an insurrection in Arabia Petraea, which he happily effected. On his return he had large offers made him by Kouli Khan, which, however, he

9 Bonneval.

10

BOO

BOO

choose to accept. Some time after, he commanded and in different parts of the bazaar, are scattered fragments Book, east;!6 Turkish army against the emperor, over whose forces of columns and mutilated sculptures. The castle stands on ^ v Boodroom ga‘ne^ a victory on the banks of the Danube. Bonneval a broad square rock, which projects into the bay, and has a v y afterwards fell into disgrace, and notwithstanding his ser- small harbour on the western side, which, though it has vices, was first imprisoned, and then banished to the island fallen into decay, is still convenient and safe, and is freof Chio. The sultan, however, continued his friend ; and, quented by f urkish cruisers. This castle is adorned with the evening before his departure, made him pasha of the the most exquisite sculptures in different parts of the walls, Archipelago, which, with his former appointment of beg- and is said to have been built by the knights of Rhodes in lierbey of Arabia, rendered him one of the most powerful 1402. I here are still some traces of the ancient walls, and persons in the Ottoman empire. In this island he found a above the town are the remains of a theatre, about 280 feet retirement quite agreeable to his wishes, but was soon re- in diameter, which appears to have had thirty-six rows of called, and made topidgee or master of the ordnance, a post marble seats. Near the harbour is the palace, with some of great honour and profit. He died in 1747. Doubts have small mosques. Pop. about 11,000, consisting chiefly of been thrown on the genuineness of the Memoires du Comte Greeks and Turks. Long. 27. 33. E. Lat. 37. 7. N. de Bonneval, purporting to be his autobiography. BOOK, the common name for any literary production of BONNYCASTLE, JOHN, an eminent English mathe- bulk; but more particularly applied to a printed composimatician, long professor of mathematics at Woolwich, and tion forming a volume. well known by his valuable Elements of Algebra, in 2 vols., \ arious substances have been used for writing upon ; 1813, his Guide to Arithmetic, and other works. He died such as plates of lead and copper, the bark of trees, bricks, in 1821. stone, wood, &c. Josephus speaks of two columns, the BONONCINI, or BUONONCINI, GIOVANNI MARIA, of one of stone and the other of brick, on which the children of Modena, a composer of music in the seventeenth century, Seth wrote their inventions and astronomical discoveries; whose merit as compared with that of Handel for some time and Porphyry mentions some pillars preserved in Crete, on caused a division of public opinion. Bononcini was also which the ceremonies observed by the Corybantes in their the author of a work entitled II Musico Pratico, published sacrifices were recorded. Hesiod’s works were originally in 1673, and translated into German in 1701. written upon tablets of lead, and deposited in the temple of BONONIA. See BOLOGNA and BOULOGNE. the Muses, in Bceotia; the ten commandments delivered to BONONIA, a town in Pannonia Inferior, between Meursa Moses were written upon stone ; and the laws of Solon were to the N.W. and Taurinum to the east; also a town in inscribed upon wooden planks. Tablets of wood and of Mcesia Superior, on the Danube, now Bonus in Bulgaria. ivory were common among the ancients ; but when of wood, BONVINCINO, or BONVICINO, ALESSANDRO, called they generally received a coating of wax, on which the letII MORETTO, an reminent Italian painter, born at Brescia, ters were traced with a pointed style. The leaves of the A.D. 1514. He w as originally a pupil of Titian, whose style palm-tree were afterwards used instead of wooden tablets; he imitated admirably ; and afterwards, by the diligent study and also the inner bark of such trees as the lime, the ash, of Raphael’s works, he united in some degree the peculiar the maple, and the elm ; whence the word liber, literally the excellencies of both those masters. His works were eagerly inner bark of a tree. As these barks were rolled up, the bought up, being admired for the tenderness of the pencil- rolls were called uo/wmew, a volume; a name afterwards given ing, the correctness and expression of the figures, and the to similar rolls of paper or parchment. rich variety of the draperies. Pie was also excellent in porThe first writing was upon blocks and tablets ; but when trait, and by many was placed in competition even with flexible matter came into use it was found more convenient Titian himself. He died in 1564. to make books in the form of rolls, which were composed BONZES, a general term employed by Europeans to of several sheets fastened to each other, and rolled upon a denote the sacerdotal orders of China, Japan, Cochin-China, staff, the whole forming a kind of cylinder. The ends of the Burmah, &c., but more particularly applied to the priests of staff were usually ornamented with bosses of wood or ivory, the two first-named kingdoms. The bonzes, like the Ca- and sometimes of silver, and even gold and precious stones. tholic priests, practise celibacy, and some of them, like the The title (titulus index) was either suspended to the roll or ancient monks, live in monasteries. Some of their orders pasted on the outside; and the whole volume, when extended, are remarkably superstitious, and pay homage to symbolic might be about a yard or more in breadth, and sometimes figures, and not unfrequently to hideous idols. Far from fifty in length. The square form composed of separate enlightening their countrymen, they mystify them by the leaves was also known, though little used by the ancients. practice and inculcation of their ridiculous devotions; and The internal arrangement of books has undergone many being grossly ignorant themselves, they cannot be expected modifications. At first the letters were divided only into to dispel the thick darkness in the midst of which they live. lines ; then into separate words ; and these, by degrees, Some of them lead lives of contemplation and reflection, and were noted with accents, and distributed by points and stops, if they do no positive good, set a praiseworthy example by into periods, paragraphs, chapters, and other divisions. In the purity of their lives. In the eighteenth century, the some countries, as among the orientals, the direction of the philosophes often allegorically designated the clergy of the lines was from right to left; in others, as among the northern Latin church under the name of bonzes, whom they repre- and western nations, from left to right; while the early sented as intolerant bigots. The allegory, however, was Greeks followed both directions, writing alternately from unjust, for the bonzes, though they disdain other forms of right to left and from left to right, which was called boustroworship than their own, bear no personal ill-will to those phedon, from its analogy to the path of oxen in ploughing. that practise them. They differ still more from the clergy In this manner Solon’s laws were written. In most countries of most Christian countries in this, that in civil affairs they the lines run from one side to the other; in some, particuhave neither influence nor authority of any kind. larly among the Chinese, their direction is from top to bottom. BOODROOM, or BAUDRUN, a small town of Anatolia, in The Egyptian monumental writing, or hieroglyphics, is arAsia Minor, situated at the bottom of a deep bay. It is sup- ranged in all these directions, and in several peculiar to itself. posed to occupy the site of the ancient Halicarnassus, and Sometimes we find it proceeding from right to left; somethe vicinity abounds with many relics of antiquity. The times from left to right; very frequently from top to bottom, houses are irregularly built along the shore, and are inter- in regular parallel columns; in a few instances, and but a spersed, as is usual in Asiatic cities, with gardens,, burying- few, boustrophedon ; occasionally ai’ranged in groups or clusgrounds, and cultivated fields. Throughout the streets, ters, as in anaglyphs; and where the space was irregular Bonny-

f]]d

not

B 0 0 K. Book,

as on the sides of obelisks, disposed in an arbitrary manner, varying according to the circumstances. But this total want of system, or rather this mode of arranging the characters upon all systems and in all ways, can never be productive of any difficulty or ambiguity, as the disposition and true sequence of the writing is in every case clearly and almost intuitively indicated by tbe direction given to the principal figures, more especially to those which represent animals, or the human form. With regard to the other modes of writing practised by tbe ancient Egyptians, that called the hieratic follows to a certain extent the varieties of the hieroglyphic ; but the demotic, enchorial, or civil form, is generally disposed from right to left, in the ordinary manner of oriental writing. Of the scarcity of books during the seventh and subsequent centuries Warton gives the following curious account: —“ Towards the close of the seventh century,” says this writer, “ even in the papal library at Rome, the number of books was so inconsiderable, that Pope Saint Martin requested Sanctamund, bishop of Maestricht, if possible, to supply this defect from the remotest parts of Germany. In the year 855 Lupus, abbot of Ferrieres, in France, sent two of his monks to Pope Benedict III. to beg a copy of Cicero de Orators, and Quintilian’s Institutes, and some other books: ‘ for,’ says the abbot, ‘ although we have part of these books, yet there is no whole or complete copy of them in all France.’ Albert, abbot of Gemblours, who with incredible labour and immense expense had collected a hundred volumes on theological, and fifty on profane subjects, imagined he had formed a splendid library. About the year 790 Charlemagne granted an unlimited right of hunting to the abbot and monks of Sithin, for making their gloves and girdles of the skins of the deer they killed, and covers for their books. We may imagine that these religious were more fond of hunting than reading. It is certain that they were obliged to hunt before they could read; and at least it is probable that, under these circumstances, and of such materials, they did not manufacture many volumes. At the beginning of the tenth century books were so scarce in Spain, that one and the same copy of the Bible, Saint Jerome’s Epistles, and some volumes of ecclesiastical offices and martyrologies, often served several different monasteries. Among the constitutions given to the monks of England by Archbishop Lanfranc, in the year 1072, the following injunction occurs. At the beginning of Lent the librarian is ordered to deliver a book to each of the religious : a whole year was allowed for the perusal of this book, and at the returning Lent those monks who had neglected to read the books they had respectively received are commanded to prostrate themselves before the abbot, and to supplicate his indulgence. This regulation was partly occasioned by the low state of literature which Lanfranc found in the English monasteries. But at the same time it was a matter of necessity, and is in a great measure to be referred to the scarcity of copies of useful and suitable authors. In an inventory of the goods of John de Pontissara, bishop of Winchester, contained in his capital palace of Wulvesey, all the books which appear are nothing more than Septendecim species librorum de diversis scientiis. This was in the year 1294. The same prelate, in the year 1299, borrows of his cathedral convent of St Swithin at Winchester, Bibliam bene glossatam ; that is, the Bible with marginal annotations, in two large folio volumes ; but gives a bond for due return of the loan, diawn up with great solemnity. This Bible had been bequeathed to the convent the same year by Pontissara’s predecessor, Bishop Nicholas de Ely; and in consideration of so important a bequest, that is, pro bona Biblia dicti episcopi bene glossata, and one hundred merks in money, the monks founded a daily mass for the soul of the donor. When a single book was bequeathed to a friend or relation, it was seldom without many restrictions and stipula-

11

tions. If any person gave a book to a religious bouse, he be- Book, lieved that so valuable a donation merited eternal salvation ; i and he offered it on the altar with great ceremony. The most formidable anathemas were peremptorily denounced against those who should dare to alienate a book presented to the cloister or library of a religious house. The prior and convent of Rochester declare that they will every year pronounce the irrevocable sentence of damnation on him who shall purloin or conceal a Latin translation of Aristotle’s Physics, or even obliterate the title. Sometimes a book was given to a monastery on condition that the donor should have the use of it during his life; and sometimes to a private person, with the reservation that he who receives it should pray for the soul of his benefactor. The gift of a book to Lincoln Cathedral by Bishop Repingdon, in the year 1422, occurs in this form, and under these curious circumstances. The memorial is written in Latin with the bishop’s own hand, which I will give in English, at the beginning of Peter’s Breviary of the Bible. ‘ I Philip of Repyndon, late bishop of Lincoln, give this book, called Peter de Areolis, to the new library to be built within the church of Lincoln ; reserving the use and possession of it to Richard Trysely, clerk, canon, and prebendary, of Miltoun, in fee, and to the term of his life ; and afterwards to be given up and restored to the said library, or the keepers of the same, for the time being, faithfully, and without delay. Written with my own hand, A.D. 1422.’ When a book was bought, the affair was of so much importance, that it was customary to assemble persons of consequence and character, and to make a formal record that they were present on this occasion. Among the royal manuscripts in the book of the Sentences of Peter Lombard, an archdeacon of Lincoln has left this entry : ‘ This book of the Sentences belongs to master Robert archdeacon of Lincoln, which he bought of Geoffrey the chaplain, brother of Henry vicar of Northelkington, in the presence of master Robert de Lee, master John of Lirling, Richard of Luda clerk, Richard the almoner, the said Henry the vicar, and his clerk, and others ; and the said archdeacon gave the said book to God and St Oswald, and to Peter abbot of Barton, and the convent of Barden.’ The disputed property of a book often occasioned the most violent altercations. Many claims appear to have been made to a manuscript of Matthew Paris, belonging to the last-mentioned library ; in which John Russel, bishop of Lincoln, thus conditionally defends or explains his right of possession. ‘ If this book can be proved to be or to have been the property of the exempt monastery of St Alban, in the diocese of Lincoln, I declare this to be my mind, that in that case I use it at present as a loan under favour of those monks who belong to the said monastery. Otherwise, according to the condition under which this book came into my possession, I will that it shall belong to the college of the blessed Winchester Mary at Oxford, of the foundation of William Wykham. Written with my own hand at Buckdane, 1st Jan. A.D. 1488. Jo. Lincoln. Whoever shall obliterate or destroy this writing, let him be anathema.’ About the year 1225, Roger de Insula, dean of York, gave several Latin Bibles to the university of Oxford, with a condition that the students who perused them should deposit a cautionary pledge. The library of that university, before the year 1300, consisted only of a few tracts, chained or kept in chests in the choir of St Mary’s church. In the year 1327 the scholars and citizens of Oxford assaulted and entirely pillaged the opulent Benedictine abbey of the neighbouring town of Abingdon. Among the books they found there were one hundred psalters, as many grayles, and forty missals, which undoubtedly belonged to the choir of the church ; but besides these there were only twenty-two codices, which I interpret books on common subjects. And although the invention of paper at the close of the eleventh century contributed to multiply manuscripts, and consequently to lacilitate know-

12

BOO

BOO

ledge, yet, even so late as the reign of our Henry VL we present day to the building of a house. The wooden cover have discovered the following remarkable instance of the of a book, with its metal hinges, bosses, guards, and clasps, inconveniences and impediments to study which must have seems, in all but dimensions, fit for a church door; but since been produced by a scarcity of books. It is in the statutes the great improvement in all the mechanical arts connected of St Mary’s College at Oxford, founded as a seminary to with the production of books, together with the extension Oseney Abbey in the year 1446: ‘Let no scholar occupy of education to all classes, and the consequent diffusion of a book in the library above one hour, or two hours at most, knowledge, literature has become almost as necessary as so that others be hindered from the use of the same.’ The clothing and shelter to ..the comfort of civilized man ; hence famous library established in the university of Oxford, by the multiplication of books, and the gradual but radical that munificent patron of literature Humphrey Dukeof Glou- changes witnessed during the present century in the art of cester, contained only 600 volumes. About the commence- bookbinding. When libraries were comparatively of limited ment of the fourteenth century there were only four classics extent, large sums of money were expended upon binding; in the royal library of Paris. These were one copy of Cicero, but, at the present day, when a well-selected library must Ovid, Lucan, and Boethius. The rest were chiefly books of necessity be extensive, a substitute for the old method of devotion, which included but few of the fathers ; many of binding is sought and obtained in the recent adoption treatises of astrology, geomancy, chiromancy, and medicine, of cloth covers. originally written in Arabic, and translated into Latin or As the binding of a book adds considerably to its cost, French ; pandects, chronicles, and romances. This collec- we find that in France, Germany, and other Continental tion was principally made by Charles V., who began his countries, as well as in the United States of America, most reign in 1365. This monarch was passionately fond of read- books when first published are merely sewed together, and ing ; and it was the fashion to send him presents of books covered with a paper wrapper, like our magazines. In Engfrom every part of the kingdom of France. These he or- land, the now elegant and durable cloth binding presents so dered to be elegantly transcribed and richly illuminated ; finished an appearance when ranged upon the shelves of a and he placed them in a tower of the Louvre, from thence library, as to supersede the necessity of resorting to the style called La Tour de la Librairie. The whole consisted of of binding so long prevalent. The libraries of the affluent, 900 volumes. They were deposited in three chambers, however, continue the demand for that durable and ornawhich on this occasion were wainscotted with Irish oak, and mental style of work which has continued in vogue, with ceiled with cypress curiously carved. The windows were slight variations, for the past century; and since all the of painted glass, fenced with iron bars and copper wire. The essential features of other descriptions of binding are conEnglish became masters of Paris in the year 1425, on which tained in this, we shall briefly describe the operations in the event the Duke of Bedford, regent of France, sent the whole successive stages of binding a book, and afterwards indicate library, then consisting of only 853 volumes, and valued at the variations included in the other kinds of binding. 2223 livres, into England, where perhaps they became the The dimensions of the sheets of paper upon which a hook is groundwork of Duke Humphrey’s library just mentioned. printed, together with the number of pages into which the Even so late as the year 1471, when Louis XL of France sheet is divided, necessarily determine the size of a book ; for borrowed the works of the Arabian physician Rhases from instance, a sheet of the size known as foolscap may, according the faculty of medicine at Paris, he not only deposited, by to the number of times it is folded, make a folio book, a quarto, way of pledge, a quantity of valuable plate, but was obliged or an octavo ; and so with other sheets of different dimensions, to procure a nobleman to join with him as surety in a deed, such as demy, royal, imperial, &c. Previous to the present by which he bound himself to return it under a considerable century, folios and quartos were the predominating sizes of library books; but, at the present time, the more portable and forfeiture. Of the excessive prices of books in the middle convenient octavo is preferred, generally the demy sheet folded ages there are numerous and curious proofs. I will mention into that form, making sixteen pages. a few only. In the year 1174, Walter, prior of St Swithin’s The sheets of a book are readily distinguished from each at Winchester, afterwards elected abbot of Westminster, a other by signatures at the foot of the first page of each sheet; writer in Latin of the lives of the bishops who were his pa- and it is to these, and not to the paginal number, that the trons, purchased of the monks of Dorchester in Oxfordshire, binder looks in arranging and collating. In foreign countries Bede’s Homilies and St Austin’s Psalter, for twelve measures these signatures consist of consecutive numbers ; while in this of barley, and a pall, on which was embroidered in silver the country alphabetical letters are adopted : we give the preferhistory of St Birinus converting a Saxon king. Among the ence to the former, as being less productive of error in collaand as possessing certain other advantages. royal manuscripts in the British Museum there is Comestor’s tion, The operations of binding may be conveniently grouped Scholastic History in French, which, as it is recorded in a under two main divisions—“ forwarding” and “ finishing.” blank page at the beginning, was taken from the king of Under the first is comprehended everything necessary to the France at the battle of Poictiers ; and being purchased by preservation of a book—the second concerns merely the emWilliam Montague, Earl of Salisbury, for 100 marcs, was bellishment. ordered to be sold by the last will of his Countess Elizabeth In the first place, the sheets of a book axe folded in such a for forty livres. About the year 1400 a copy of John of manner that the pages follow^ each other in consecutive order. Meun’s Roman de la Roze, was sold at Paris for forty In this operation the binder is guided by the “ signatures,” crowns, or L.33, 6s. 6d.” (VV arton’s History of English which indicate the part of a sheet to be superimposed upon anPoetry, vol. i.) For further information regarding books, other. This labour is performed by women and girls, who acquire incredible dexterity by long-continued practice. The see BIBLIOGRAPHY. sheets, after being folded, are loose and bulky. The next opeBOOKBINDING is the art of fastening together the ration has for its object the bringing them into a more compact sheets of paper composing a book, and inclosing them in form, which is accomplished either by beating them with a cases of pasteboard covered with leather of various kinds, broad-faced hammer upon a smooth flat stone, or by passing or other materials ; the object of which is the preservation them between the cylinders of a “ rolling machine,” invented of the book, and its protection from injury while in use. for that purpose by Mr Burn of Hatton Garden, London. A At the time when books were rarities,—either manuscripts book must not be submitted to the “ beating” process until it produced by patient secluded labour, or the productions of has been printed one or two years; for the heat generated by the printing-press during the infancy of typography,—they the compression of the air under the blows of the hammer, were naturally very highly prized ; and as much labour, skill, causes the printing-ink to soften, and “ set off” or transfer a portion of its substance to the opposite pages, by which the caie, and expense were bestowed upon the protection and book is always disfigured, and frequently entirely ruined. This embellishment or a cherished folio as would suffice at the objection does not lie against the rolling machine, provided

Bookbinding,

BookBinding,

BOOKBINDING. Bookthe cylinders are kept clean ; while a great saving of time is binding, effected by its use. ■. J The next operation is that of sewing sheets together, ^ and to the bands of string or cord by which the book is subsequently secured in its case. The sheets being carefully collated, are given to the sewer, who sits before a contrivance called a “ sewing machine,” in which the bands are fixed at suitable distances apart j the number of these bands depends upon the size of the volume and the. quality of the binding ; six bands are usually allowed to folios, and five or four .to quartos and octavos : the sewer places a folded sheet with its back to the bands, and pierces it through the middle fold with a needle carrying the thread, at distances corresponding to the bands. The thread, when passed through the sheet, is twisted round the contiguous band, and so with each in succession, until all the sheets composing the volume are fastened to the bands. This method involves what are termed raised bands, which are recognised by a projection over each on the back of the book; but if the back is required to be flat and smooth, sunk bandsare adopted. To obtain these, thesheets,before beinggiven to the sewer, are by means of a saw grooved at the back, sufficiently deep to admit the bands. If plates are to be inserted, they are either pasted in at the appropriate places, or, which is preferable, stitched through a marginal fold. When , the book is released from the sewing machine, about half an inch of each band is left attached on either side: these ends are “ frayed” out and beaten flat, to prevent their forming protuberances on the cover to which they are fastened; the “ endpapers” intended to line the inside of the cases are now attached, and the back of the book is covered with glue. Before the glue is quite dry the back is rounded with a hammer, and subsequently placed between two feather-edged boards, above which the back of the book slightly projects ; these are then placed together in a press, for the backing process; that is, the back of the book is well beaten until it projects a little over each side of the levelled boards, so as to form a groove or place for the millboard covers to lie in. The book is now removed to the “ cutting press,” where, by means of an instrument termed a plough, the edges are smoothly cut; but, in order to preserve the concavity of the fore-edge, the back is temporarily flattened, and after the edges are cut, it is restored to its former roundness. The boards were formerly, as the name indicates, really of wood, but now of thick brown paper or millboard, of various thicknesses, according to the size of the book. They are cut a little larger than the book itself, and attached by the ends of the bands, left for that purpose, being passed through holes in the sides of the boards, glued down, and then hammered flat and smooth. The edges of the volume are now coloured, marbled, or gilt and burnished. The head-band is an ornamental appendage employed for the purpose of concealing the leather folded over the back. It consists of a piece of parchment or card-board, worked over with coloured silk, which is sewed to the glued back of the sheets, and gives an elegant finish to that part of the book. Sometimes books are preferred with hollow backs, that is, when the leather of the cover is not attached to the glued back, but this latter is covered with a piece of thick paper. The book is now ready to receive its external covering. This external covering may be of various materials. For the x most part of modern books it is of calf-skin dyed of various colours ; but kid-skin, and its imitation in sheep-skin or roan, and sheep-skin acknowledged as such, in which school-books and many law-books are bound, are also used in great quantities. The piece of leather, cut to a proper size, is moistened with water, next covered on the inner side with paste or glue, and then applied evenly to the millboard sides; the superfluous edge of the leather, first pared to reduce its thickness, is turned over on the inside, and concealed from view by the end papers attached to the sheets forming the book, which are subsequently pasted down upon the millboards. The book is now “ corded,” that is, firmly tied between two boards until it is dry, so as to insure perfect smoothness in the cover; it is next removed from these boards and transferred to the finishers. Besides the “lettering” at the back of a book, there is generally a variety of ornamental work, on the back, edges, and sides, the patterns of which may be executed either in blind-tooling, wherein the leather is simply embossed, without the use of gold-leaf; or the metal may be applied only partially to the patterns, or they may be executed wholly in gold-leaf. This is a matter

13

affording much room for the display of taste and skill on the Bookpart of the binder, and in many instances is taken advantage binding, of; by none more, at the present day, than by Mr James ' Hayday of London, whose productions fully equal those of the most eminent binders of past times. The embossing is performed with the aid of brass tools cut to various patterns ; when leaf-gold is applied, it is made to adhere by moistening the leather with the glair of egg mixed with olive oil; the goldleaf being laid upon this, the hot embossing tool is carefully ap plied, and the pattern permanently impressed upon the leather.

There are many other minute details into which it is not our purpose to enter. Enough has been said to indicate the various operations to which a book is submitted in being “ bound but as good binding is necessarily expensive, those who have large libraries to bind are frequently obliged to study economy. This end is attained without in any degree sacrificing elegance of appearance, or any of the essential qualities of binding, by adopting the method of having the books /ia//-bound, as it is termed. The only difference between this method and that just described consists in the sides of the millboards being covered with paper or cloth, while the back and corners of the cover are protected with leather : the edges of the leaves are often not cut on the front and bottom, but only on the. top, which is usually gilt, to protect the book from disfiguration by dust. The various styles of binding are distinguished from each other by appropriate names, according to the material which is used for the covers. Russia leather is much prized on account of its not being liable to mhuld in damp apartments, nor to the attacks of insects. T hese qualities, together w ith its agreeable odour, it derives from being treated with the empyreumatic oil of birch bark : its peculiar red colour is due chiefly to a dye of Saunders’ wood. Many of the Continental books are bound in vellum, a very elegant but expensive style. In Holland and Spain much hog-skin was formerly used. Besides these various leathers, textile fabrics have at all periods been extensively employed for the purposes of binding ; some specimens of the earliest dates are covered with velvet and satin ; in recent times silk was in great demand for annuals and kindred works ; but lately cotton cloth embossed and dyed has, in the extent of its applications, exceeded any other material ever employed. Previous to the year 1825, new books were generally published in boards ; that is, millboards covered with drab paper, upon which the title, printed on a white label, was pasted. Although this was greatly superior to the Continental mode of covering new books with thin paper, something more elegant and durable was needed, and Mr Archibald Leighton of London endeavoured to meet this want by introducing coloured cloth (glazed calico). One of the first books of importance bound in this material was the edition of Lord Byron’s works in 17 volumes. Since that period there has been a progressive improvement in the adaptation of coloured cloth to the purposes of binding, both in the colours imparted to it, and in “ embossing” upon its surface the grain peculiar to morocco and other kinds of leather; and so perfect is this imitation, that an experienced eye. can scarcely detect the difference. The sides and backs of “ cases” covered with this fabric are also ornamented in bold relief, with elegant patterns, by means of brass tools applied by powerful arming-presses; while the “lettering,” at first so clumsily executed, is now as perfect as that impressed upon leather. Skilful artists are constantly employed in designing ornamental patterns ; and a new class of tool-cutters, who cut these patterns in solid brass, has been called into existence. Expensive machines also for folding, pressing, cutting the edges, &c., have been contrived. This style of binding has been received with so much favour that the rapidity of its extension is almost incredible. At one of the numerous large establishments in London, 310 persons are employed, distributed as follows:—200 women and girls are occupied in folding, collating, and sewing ; and 110 men and boys in the more advanced stages : of these, 40 men are engaged in backing, cutting the edges, &c. ; .5 in gilding or marbling the edges ; 15 in making cases ; 24 in stamping the sides ; 12 as extra binders and finishers of the better kind of work : and 14 as clerks, porters, &c. Ten arming presses for stamping the sides of the covers, each worked by two men, will furnish 3000 impressions per day from a brass block “ in blind,” i.e. without gold leaf, or 1500 impressions if with the gold. The value of the gold leaf consumed amounts to L.4000 per annum. The superfluous gold wiped off the pattern is saved,

14 Bookbinding.

BOOKBINDING. and sold for L.800 per annum. The quantity of millboards USed is at the rate of 8 tons per month. Four men are constantly employed at as many cutting-machines, each of which yields a hundredweight of shavings per week. One man is employed solely in sawung the backs of books ; two others in cutting millboard to the required sizes, and four pairs of men in making cloth cases, each pair producing on the average 1200 cases per diem. The operations in the process of cloth-binding differ from those described under calf-binding in this,—the sheets are not beaten or rolled, nor the edges cut, except that th.e fore-edge and the tail are usually trimmed; the cases are made separately, and not fastened to the sheets by the bands, but only by the end papers, or by a strip of coarse muslin attached to the glued back of the sheets, being also fastened to the inside of the case. Cloth-covered books have always hollow backs. There is a recent improvement in fastening together books of plates, music, account-books, &c., which are required to lie open flat; these are not sewed, but the back edge of the leaves is cut even, rasped, and cemented with liquid India-rubber. The material with which books are covered should be selected with reference to the “ tear and wear” to which they may be subjected. For public libraries, the very best workmanship in the forwarding should be secured, w*hile the finishing bestowed must have reference to neatness and economy. The lettering of books rarely receives the consideration it demands ; a simple rule is, that it should clearly indicate, 1. The author’s name ; 2. The subject, and even the divisions of a subject ; so that the book may be identified without removing it from its place. In serial works, besides the consecutive number, the date should be affixed, and sometimes even the place of publication. These details may appear trifles, but whoever has to do with large libraries will appreciate their utility. If they are left to the discretion of the binder, he generally contents himself with lettering a book “ History of Rome,” or “ Travels in Europe,” which obviously necessitates the opening of the volume before its individuality can be ascertained. For private libraries of large extent there is no better style of binding than “ half morocco” with gilt tops, occasionally interspersed with specimens of other styles. The classification of books in large libraries may be greatly facilitated by appropriating certain colours to specific subjects ; e.g. theology might be clothed in black or dark purple ; history in scarlet ; poetry in light-blue or green. In this manner, and by combining them with coloured labels of various hues, the labour of sorting and replacing books upon the shelves may be much lightened to the librarian. Bookbinding still lacks its historian : it is much to be regretted that on a subject so well deserving the attention of the curious and learned, no researches have been made into the origin, progress, and decline of this art. Beyond a few incidental and fragmentary passages in the writings of bibliographers and travellers, merely descriptive, we may seek in vain for reliable information. In this place we have endeavoured to collect the scattered materials, and present them in a concise form. Although it is customary to refer binding to remote antiquity, it obviously could not have been practised before books assumed their present form. The manuscripts of the ancients consisted of continuous rolls of papyrus or parchment, a form which did not admit1 of being bound like the single leaves of a modern book. These manuscripts were wound upon rollers, as our maps are mounted, to which labels bearing the titles were attached at the ends: these rolls were inserted in parchment cases, and preserved from dust and injury in cylindrical boxes with lids (see Cell’s Pompeii, &c.) It is more probable, however, that the modern book derived its form from the means taken to

preserve the waxed tablets of the Greeks and Romans which were inclosed in covers of wood, ivory, &c. {diptycha, triptychd). It would be easy to substitute pieces of papyrus or parchment for these pieces of waxed wood, upon which the writing was graven by the stilus. These diptycha were frequently elaborately carved and ornamented,and many of them, preserved to the present time, very nearly resemble our modern octavos in size. When parchmentcame to be exclusively employed as a writing material, it gave rise to the invention of libri plicatiles and volumina, names which very clearly indicate the form given to manuscripts. The volumen, so called a volvendo, was the form mostly employed with papyrus and parchment, and now that our books are square or oblong, the term is anomalous; the word remains, but the thing itself has long since entirely disappeared. It would be exceedingly difficult to determine what the art of bookbinding, or that which occupied its place, was during the middle ages, as no evidence remains, and the light of discovery has not been thrown upon it. All that we can at present learn is, that in the ninth and tenth centuries, owing probably to the impulse given to letters, and to everything connected with literature, by Charlemagne and the princes of his line, the external decoration of manuscripts was carried to a high state of perfection. The parchment, in leaves, was inclosed between two tablets of wood or ivory, inlaid and incrusted with jewels and precious stones, bosses of gold and silver, sometimes with hinges and clasps of these metals. The Bibliotheque Imperiale at Paris is very rich in this description of bindings. The library of the Louvre contains the celebrated Book of Hours, written with letters of gold upon purple parchment: it is covered with red velvet. This book was given to the city of Toulouse by Charlemagne. A New Testament of the eighth century, bound in wooden covers, covered with black satin, in an excellent state of preservation, enriches a private collection. It was probably only at the epoch of the invention of paper from rags, and its extended use, that modern binding arose : this was towards the end of the thirteenth century (1280). From this period to the sixteenth century the bindings are numerous, but no name of a binder has reached us; they generally followed the good or bad taste that prevailed at the time in other ornamental arts. Thus, during the fifteenth century, binding, like architecture and the ornamental letters of MSS., abounded in foliages and flowers {arabesque), but at no period do we find the elegant simplicity that prevailed in the arts at the commencement of the fourteenth century. The most beautiful bindings preserved to us of the fifteenth century are those of the famous library formed at Buda by Matthias Hunyadi, king of Hungary ; it consisted of nearly 50,000 volumes of Greek and Latin manuscripts. They are but very little known. The greater portion of the treasures of this sort collected by Matthias are now in the public library at Munich. Apart from mere decoration, the main object aimed at in the early bindings was strength and durability, and whether it was owing to the binders being fettered in their ideas to the ivory or wooden covers of the tablets they first imitated, or from an excess of care in securing the preservation of the treasure they inclosed, it is certain they laboured overmuch in their vocation. A folio of this era, with its timber and metal, must have been a formidable affair ; and the very means employed for the preservation of the book doubtless frequently led to its destruction.2

1 The oft-repeated anecdote which attributes the erection of a statue to Phillatius, an Athenian, for the invention of bookbinding, is evidently founded upon a misconception of the text of Photius; all that the Athenian did was to glue together into one continuous roll {volumen) the pieces of papyrus, which were previously sewed together. 2 In the Laurentian Library at Florence is Petrarch’s manuscript of Cicero’s Epistolce ad Atticum, remarkable for its calligraphy and workmanship. The binding is only of the time of Cosmo. The old wooden covers of this volume, so often handled by the poet, had so wounded him by falling repeatedly on his left leg, that he narrowly escaped amputation. So rude and almost murderous were literary pursuits at that period. This volume has still, as before, brass clasps and corners, but they would not inflict such a wound.—FaZery.

Bookbinding.

v—~

BOO

BOO

The sixteenth century, the epoch of the Renaissance, doubtless that in which the art of binding attained its greatest perfection, and the books extant in various public and private libraries confirm this view. It would be out of place to enumerate these treasures, but it would be difficult to meet with one more beautiful than that of the Hours of Margaret of Savoy. At the court of France, during the time of Catherine de’ Medicis, there was a perfect rage for ornamental binding, its greatest promoters being Diana of Poictiers, the treasurer Grollier, the presic’ent De Thou, and M. d’Urfe. In the seventeenth century, with the exception of the bindings executed by Ruette, bookseller and binder to Louis XIV., the art at first remained quite stationary, and afterwards quickly declined; the intrigues and troubles of this period were by no means favourable to so innocent and harmless a passion as that for choice bindings. The eighteenth century was, however, more congenial ; the names of eminent binders are sufficiently numerous to indicate that their vocation was in the ascendant. We can only enumerate Enguerrand, Boyer, Desseuille, Padeloup, Gascon, Derome, Chameau, Pontchartrain, Simier, father and son, Purgold, Vaugelles, and Bauzerian. Bauzonnet was cotemporary with our Lewis. Upon the whole, the bindings of France excel those of any other nation ; they always exhibit a refined taste, and perfect manipulation in the tooling. At the present day the best designs are generally but close imitations of the productions of the past.

Bookkeeping. is

The most eminent cotemporary binders of France are Madame Gruel, MM. Niedree, Lortic, Simier, Cape, and Ottman. The earliest ornamental binding extant in England is of the time of Henry VII.; many specimens of this period are preserved in the British Museum and the Record Office. Stamping the covers with brass tools appears to have been first practised in the reign of Henry VIII., many of which are supposed, upon what authority we know not, to have been designed by Holbein. In the reign of Elizabeth velvet covers embroidered with gold and silver thread and coloured silk were fashionable. It was only in the eighteenth century that binding assumed importance as an art in England. The first, and still unsurpassed binder, is Roger Payne, who was so completely the founder of his art, that he performed every operation with his own hands, from folding, beating, sewing, cutting, mending, headbanding, colouring his end-papers, covering, tooling, even to the cutting of the brass tools and letters. The other eminent names since his time are Johnson, Lewis, Kalthoeber, Baumgarten, Bohn, Staggemeir—the last four being Germans; Mackenzie,Clarke, Bedford, Jones, Hering, Hay day, Wright, Riviere. In the present day we have produced no original style of decoration for leather-binding; our highest achievements are in imitating the productions of past centuries. When these imitations combine good taste with good workmanship the highest aim of binding is accomplished, until a new style is originated. (c. M—L.)

BOOK-KEEPING. BOOK-KEEPING is the art of keeping books of account, whether in public offices, manufacturing establishments, or mercantile counting-houses ; but the name is generally applied to the books of merchants, on account of the complexity of their transactions, and the care consequently required to prevent obscurity or confusion. It was accordingly among merchants, and in particular among those of Venice, Genoa, Pisa, and other trading towns in Modern Italy, that book-keeping was first reduced to a system, and that the remarkable refinement of double entry was adopted. This, like the discoveries of the Italians in manufactures, the fine arts, navigation, and commerce, was owing, not, as some imagine, to any peculiarity of disposition, or power of invention, inherent in that people, but to their country being the part of Europe in which, in modern times, townpopulation first became considerable, and men derived advantage from living together in large communities. It is in populous towns that employment is divided and subdivided ; that discoveries and inventions take place; and that the education of youth exchanges its antiquated and scholastic form for one of direct utility, adapted to the progress and the wants of the existing generation. The first printed work on book-keeping was the production of an Italian teacher, who, without knowing much of trade by bis own experience, observed the manner in which the intelligent merchants of his country kept their accounts. It was published as early as 1495, and was followed in the succeeding century by several works on book-keeping in French, composed with evident care and solicitude to explain the art, but affording by their complexity a remarkable contrast to the short and clear system afterwards adopted by merchants. English publications on book-keeping came forth somewhat later, but all resembled the foreign treatises in being the composition, not of merchants, but of teachers and accountants. In 1652 Collins, a well-known London accountant, published a long work entitled An Introduction to Merchants’ Accounts, which, like the work of one of his contemporaries on a very different topic (Rich On Short Hand), continued during a century the best, or, to speak more correctly, the least imperfect publication on the subject of which it treated. About a hundred years later, Mair, a well-known writer of books on education, pub-

lished his Book-Keeping Modernized, a work containing a correct statement of the principles of double entry, but in other respects much less clear and concise than it might have been had the author adopted the method of our principal merchants, who had now greatly simplified their plan of keeping accounts. In 1789 appeared the work of a practical merchant, under the title of A Complete System of Book-Keeping, by Benjamin Booth, London, 4to. The favourable expectation excited by Mr Booth’s experience in business was fully confirmed by his book, which contained a great deal of information in short compass, unembarrassed either by minute detail or fanciful theory. The plan which he recommended and exemplified was the Italian method of double entry, in conformity with the practice of the first merchants in this country and the Continent, for more than a century. Practical men could no longer complain of the nonexistence of a correct summary of the principles and practice of book- keeping; and the Italian method seemed likely to be as firmly fixed in the admiration of our young merchants as it had long been in that of their predecessors, when its title to clearness and accuracy was strongly called in question by a writer at that time unknown to the mercantile public. Mr Edward Thomas Jones, an accountant in Bristol, had occasion, like Mr Booth, to see a series of perplexities and losses arising from books being badly kept, namely, disputed accounts, actions at law, and occasionally even bankruptcies. In the case of many merchants the books submitted to him had remained for years unbalanced ; in others the balancing had been incorrect, and deception had been practised either on a partner or the creditors. Such irregularities, ascribed by Mr Booth wholly to the misconduct of book keepers, is charged by Mr Jones on the system itself, which (the Italian method) he does not scruple to describe as “ insufficient to prevent or detect error, rendering the process of balancing very difficult, and not necessarily correct when the balance is completed.” To find a safeguard against such errors, to devise a method by which accuracy in book-keeping might be insured, and the perplexity in balancing removed, was, said Mr Jones, a work of great time and difficulty. He began to give his plan to the public in 1796, and improved on it in the succeeding years. He published a treatise on this subject in 1821, and again in a much more extended form in 1831. Of this work we shall

15 Bookkeeping.

16

BOO K-K EEPING.

Book-

treat more fully in the subsequent part of the present article,

ee in v

P g- after explaining to our readers the nature of the system in ^ question.

In the earlier stages of commerce, such as the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were for the north of Italy, and the seventeenth for England, the transactions of merchants, though varied in their nature, were on a small scale as regarded any particular department. The same individual did business in a number of articles, but in none to an extent to require separate books of account. Hence the practice of recording all transactions, whether purchases, sales, receipts, or payments, in a diary, which, from the rough manner in which it was kept, was commonly called a waste-book. The practice in those days was for a merchant or his chief clerk, as soon as any transaction was made or agreed on, to insert a memorandum of it in this book, minuting the particulars correctly, but taking little trouble as to the form of the entry: for that they relied on the book-keeper, who was not then a partner, or even clerk in the house, but generally gave his aid by intervals in different counting-houses, passing one or two days in the week at each, and bringing the rude entries in their waste-books into regular form in the journal. At present, and for a great length of time, each Folio of Ledger.

JANUARY

mercantile house has its own book-keeper; the art being Booksimplified so as to be within the attainment < f most clerks keeping, of ability, instead of being, as in remote times, a mystery to all except men of long standing and more than usual instruction. But in process of time, as mercantile concerns have acquired extension, the art of book-keeping has been simplified, because particular departments of business have required separate books. Thus money receipts and payments, instead of being mixed, in the waste-book, with the amount of invoices, account sales, and other entries quite different in their nature, are all registered in the cash-book, or book for that special purpose. The same principle of division holds in regard to bills; also as to invoices, account sales, and, in short, every department of business. We shall now give a practical illustration of book-keeping, by exhibiting the course followed by a mercantile establishment. Let the example to be given be a London house under the supposed firm of Baring, Hall, & Co., established during several years, and engaged in the West India and North American trade. Their journal ought to contain, at the beginning of each year, a summary of the monies owing by and to them; in other words, of their debts and assets, in the following form.

1, 1831.

SUNDRIES Das. to STOCK.

For the following Assets and Balances due to the House. ; amount at the Bankers’ this day L.3,730 0 Petty cash in the house 45 10

CASH

3 4 5 8

7 52 9 10 12

14 16 19 .20 21

amount in hand THREE PER CENT. CONSOLS; L.15,000, valued at L.82 per L.100 Stock * * DEBENTURE ACCOUNT; sundry drawbacks on articles exported, payable at the Custom-house BILLS RECEIVABLE ; in hand as follows :— (Here give a list taken from the Book of Bills Receivable) SHIP HECTOR ; our three-eighths of that vessel . ADVENTURE IN ST DOMINGO COFFEE ; cost price of 100 tierces purchased on speculation.. ADVENTURE IN LINT OSNABURGHS ; cost price of 20 bales do. bought on speculation... JAMES ANDERSON, Dublin; balance due by him THOMAS STORY & Co. Liverpool; do GEORGE FOX, Kingston, Jamaica; do JAMES ANNAND & Co. New York; balance due by them ALLAN DEWAR & Co. do. do HENRY STEPHENS, Kingston, Jamaica; do DAVID REYNOLDS, Philadelphia; do EXCHEQUER BILLS;

L.3,775 10,750 12,300 1,473

10 0 0 10

14,715 4.500 2.500 540 1,561 1,382 3,350 3,138 2,890 2,243 2,673

10 0 0 0 0 10 0

L.67,792 0 0

Folio of Ledger.

STOCK DR.

to SUNDRIES.

For the following Sums due by the House. PAYABLE ; amount of acceptances at this date, as per Book of (Here recapitulate the Bills.)

26

To

28 30 32 33 35 37 39

To INSURANCE ACCOUNT ; premiums due to various underwriters; To GREGG AND LINDSAY, Liverpool; balance due to them To THOMAS HUGHES, Jamaica ; do. to him To JOHN RAVENSHAW, New York; do. to him To JOHN CAMPBELL, senior, & Co. Glasgow; do. to them To HENRY TRITTON & Co. London ; do. to them To ROBERT DIMSDALE & Co. London ; do. to them

BILLS

Balance, being the capital of the House.

Bills Payable..

amount in all

L.5,785 2,915 713 1,236 831 2,351 3,153 2,673

10 10 10 5 10 15 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

L. 19,660 0 0 48,132 0 0 L.67,792 0 0

17

BOO K-K E E P I N G. Bookkeeping,

Such is the form of the inventory of the debts and assets of a mercantile house; and the foregoing is, it must be admitted, much more satisfactory than balance sheets in general; because, from the nature of foreign business, the funds of almost every house become unavoidably much more scattered than is stated in this outline. All countries recently settled, such as North America and the West Indies, are bare of capital, and have an interest in drawing money from Europe. This they have found it practicable to do to a great extent from England and Holland, where money is in general abundant, and the rate of interest low. In recently settled countries there generally prevails a spirit of adventure, a strong desire to extend their undertakings; hence a high interest for money, and sometimes little scruple as to the means of obtaining it. To apply to a merchant in London or Amsterdam for a loan of L.2000, for a year, at five per THE CASH-BOOK.—Of

Dr. 1831. Jan. 1

cent, interest, would in general be fruitless; but the case Bookis different when the correspondent abroad holds out the keeping, tempting prospect of selling manufactures to the amount of L.2000, and remitting for them in cotton, tobacco, or sugar. Such a transaction offers a double commission, viz. 5 per cent, on the amount exported, and 2^ per cent, on the amount received in return; advantages which incline a merchant, in particular a young merchant, to take a favourable view of the chances of the proposition. The usual result, however, is, that the balance sheet of a house in such a line of business generally exhibits a long list of debts on the part of correspondents abroad, the recovery of which is more or less doubtful according to the prudence, integrity, or health of the debtor, or according to the degree of prosperity in the country of his residence; for, being obliged to sell on credit, his means are generally dependent on those of his customers.

the entries for the various receipts and payments which daily occur in a counting-house, the following is a specimen :—

L.

To balance in hand To Bills Receivable, received payment of No. 320, James Jacobs To Ship Hector, received of James Williamson & Co. for freight To Thomas Story & Co., received from James Henderson per their account ToDebenture Account, received drawback on tobacco exported by the Three Friends To Bills Receivable, discounted by Smith, Payne, & Smiths, No. 321, on Baring, Brothers, & Co., due 26th February To Profit and Loss, received 2^ per cent, discount on paying the accounts per contra, not due for four months—• John Wilson L.3 16 0 James Henderson....2 8 9 John Jackson 3 5 9 Charles Norton 2 3 6

To Bills Receivable, discounted by Smith, Payne, & Smiths, No. 330, Williams & Co., 20th March To Ship Hector, received for freight, of J. Johnson To Debenture Account,received drawback on paper and printed books, exported by the Fingal 18 To Profit and Loss, ^ per cent, commission on a year’s dividends received on L.1200, 3 per cent, consols, of Jacob Van Neck of Amsterdam 19 To Thomas Story & Co., received from John Maxwell on their account

s.

2,510 0 351 10 179 10 210 3 16 10 0

1,567 0 0

11 14 0

12

1831. Jan. 1 By James Davis & Son, paid them for linen per bill of parcels By Bills Payable, paid No. 250 to J. Anderson.... By James Anderson, paid J. Thomas & Co. for him By Charges paid packet postage of letters received this day..., By Interest paid discount to Smith, Payne, & Smiths, at 5 per cent By John Wilson, paid his bill of parcels By James Henderson do By John Jackson do By Charles Norton do 10 By Bills Payable, paid No. 221, James Morrison 12 By Interest, paid discount to Smith, Payne, & Smiths, e contra By James Anderson, paid J. Johnson for his account By Charges, paid postage and petty disburse this week.

19 23 513 10

By Bills payable, paid No. 227, J. Simpson, By James Davis & Son, paid them farther for linen By balance to next month

L.

s.

d.

157 10 0 1,251 5 0 131 10 0 3 13 0 10

6

0

152 97 131 87

0 10 10 5

0 0 0 0

135 10 0 4 12 7 145 3 0 4 7 0 146 10 0 164 15 0 3,111 9 5

215 7

12 16 0

3 0 0 143 16 0 L.5,734 16 0

VOL. V.

Cr.

CONTRA.

CASH.

L.5,734 16 0

18

BOO K-K E E P I N G.

Bookkeeping.

Book. keeping.

These entries, when transferred to the Journal, are arranged as follows: Folio in Ledger.

CASH

Date.

DR.

to SUNDRIES.

Received during this Month.

1831 To BILLS RECEIVABLE. Jan. 2 Received payment of No. 320, James Jacobs L.351 5 Discounted by Smith, Payne, & Smiths, No. 321, on Baring & Co. 26th February 1^57 12 Do. by do. No. 330, onWilliams&Co. 20thMarch... 513 To

To

To

0

0

0 0

10

L.2,432

SHIP HECTOR.

Received for freight from James Williamson Do. do. from J. Johnson 12

10

394 17 0

&

L.210

3

143

ig

To

353 19 0 0 0

29

PROFIT AND LOSS.

Received discount from— John Wilson James Henderson John Jackson Charles Norton.... 18

0 0

DEBENTURE ACCOUNT.

Received drawback on Tobacco by the Two Friends L.16 10 Do. do. on Paper and Printed Books by the Fingal.. 12 16 40

0

L.179 10 0 215 7 0

Co. Received from James Henderson Do. from John Maxwell

THOMAS STORY

0

.L.3 16 2 3 2

8 5 3

6

0

0 9 9 6

Commission per cent, on L.60, a year’s dividend on L.1200, 3 per cent, consols, of Jacob Van Neck, Amsterdam

L.ll 14

0

3 0 0 14 14 0

Folio in Ledger.

42

Date.

1831. Jan. 1 23

26

SUNDRIES DRS.

2

10

Paid No. 250 to J. Anderson Paid No. 221 to J. Morrison Paid No. 227 to J. Simpson. Paid J. Thomas & Co. for their account Paid J. Johnson for his ditto

154 15

12

46

L.l 251

5 135 JQ 145 JQ

0

0 Q

1,533 5 0 L.131 10 0 145

3

Q

276 13 0

Paid packet postage of letters received this day Paid postage and petty disburse this week....

L.3 13 0 470

INTEREST.

9 12

0

0 0

CHARGES.

3

47 48 49 50

L.157 10

JAMES ANDERSON.

44

L.322 5

&

BILLS PAYABLE.

9 19

0

to CASH.

Paid during this Month. Co. Paid them for linen per bill of parcels Paid them further for do. per do

JAMES DAVIS

L.3,224 16

Paid discount to Smith, Payne, & Smiths......... t0 Do. do John Wilson, 9th, paid his bill of parcels. James Henderson, do John Jackson, do Charles Norton, do

L.10

6

0

‘ 4 12

7

8

0

14 152 97 131 87

18 0 10 10 5

L.2,623

6

0

7

BOO K-K E E P I N G. Bookkeeping.

These entries, few as they are in number, suffice to convey an idea of the advantage of putting them in the journal form. There are, in most of the preceding, two transactions belonging to each account, and these two are merged in the journal in one entry, which abridges and simplifies the posting in the ledger. But in houses of extensive business the cash transactions for a month are as ten, or rather as twenty to one compared to the preceding specimen, and the number of entries collected under one title, such as bills receivable or bills payable for the month, is consequently large. The result is to facilitate greatly the posting in the ledger, and of course the balancing of the books at the end of six or twelve months.

BILLS RECEIVABLE. N o-

Received.

From whom.

Drawn by

Term.

Date.

19

What, it may be asked, is the rule for making cash debtor in Booksome cases and creditor in others? The rule is clear and uni- keeping, form. For all monies received cash is made debtor, or accountable, as these sums are to be accounted for under the head of cash; while for all monies paid, cash is made creditor, the parties who have to account for the sum being made debtors. BILL BOOKS.—Next in importance to the cash are the bill transactions of a mercantile house, whether bills receivable or drafts on other merchants, or bills payable, meaning by the latter the acceptances or bills which the house are bound to pay. For each is appropriated a separate book, in which the respective bills are entered, with a minute notice of particulars, thus : Form of Entry. Drawn on

To order of

Due.

Sum.

How disposed of.

151 5 Feb. Jas. Anderson J. Thomson Dublin, 20 Jan. 2months’date J. Greig Wm. Dick 23 March L.17310 0 Smith, Payne, & Smiths 152 12 do. T. Story & Co. Jas. Wilson Liverpool, 2 Feb. 1 do. T. Gray John Smith 5 do. 232 0 0 Overend & Co. 153 15 do. Geo. Fox Thos. Smith Jamaica, 8 Feb. 60 days’ sight. J. Allan J. Jackson 14 May 197 10 0 Kept till due

The preceding bills are to be entered in the Journal as follows: Ledger Folio-

10 12

14

BIL^S

BILLS RECEIVABLE

To

DR.

to SUNDRIES.

For the following bills remitted. JAMES ANDERSON.

L. s.

No. 151, on J. Greig, due 23d March Tp T. STORY & Co. No. 152, on T. Gray, due 5th March To GEORGE FOX. No. 153, on J. Allan, due 14th May..

d.

173 10 0 232 0 0 197 10 0

L.603 0 0 PAYABLE are acceptances of the house payable to other parties, and may be termed the reverse of Bills Receivable. The following is an example of the mode of entering them in the bill book.

To order of

No.

Drawn by

Qn account of

When accepted-

Jas. Shaw 270 J. Robertson Liverpool, 2 Mar. Gregg & Lindsay 1 month’s date His own order 271 T. Hughes Jamaica, 20 Jan. Thos. Hughes 90 days’ sight J. Knowles 272 J. Williams St. Kitts, 30 Jan. Jas. Anderson 60 days’ sight

5 March 7 do. 10 do.

Due.

Sum.

Held by

8 April L.215 Atkins & Co. 8 June 320 J. Miller & Co. 12 Mav 185 T.Watson&Co.

When brought into the Journal, these bills stand thus: SUNDRIES Das. to BILLS PAYABLE.

For the following Bills drawn and accepted. GREGG & LINDSAY.

No. 170, J. Robertson’s draft on their account, due 8th April. JAMES ANDERSON.

No. 272, J. Williams’ draft on their account, due 12th May...

d,

185 0 0

THOMAS HUGHES.

No. 271, his draft at 90 days’ sight, to his own order, due 8th June.

Bills of Exchange were introduced several centuries ago to enable merchants to make payments to each other without the risk and delay attendant on transmitting the precious metals to a distance. A, a merchant in Liverpool, Dublin, or in Jamaica, having a payment to make in London, instead of collecting and forwarding specie, looks out on his own exchange until he find another merchant, B, who having money to receive in London, is inclined to give him an order to obtain it in his stead. They discuss the terms or rate of exchange ; and when these are agreed on, the bill is drawn by B and delivered to A, who then, or soon after, pays the amount to B. The result is, that the one acquits his debt in London, and the other draws

L. s.

215 0 0

320 0 0

L.720 0 0 his funds from it, without quitting their place of residence or incurring any expense of consequence. Bills of Exchange first became general in the middle ages, and were used chiefly by Jews. In the case of this, as of many other discoveries, the time and manner of their introduction is uncertain; but the accommodation from them must have been so great, and the mode of obtaining it so obvious, that we may safely take it for granted that they were adopted as soon as merchants accounted each other trust-worthy, or the transactions of towns at a distance from each other became such as to supply sums of any considerable amount to be drawn for. TOWN NOTES

are bills drawn by persons residing in the

BOO K-K E E P 1 N G.

20 Book, Keeping,

same town with the acceptors, generally by the seller of goods on the purchaser, who, instead of paying for them in cash, gives his acceptance, payable in two, three, or more months after date. Take, for example, the draft of a West India merchant in London on a sugar refiner, for sugar sold by the former to the latter ; or by a wholesale warehouseman on a West India merchant for linen or cottons supplied to the merchant. It is evident that bills between parties residing in the same town are not strictly en regie, as in their case there can be no expense or risk in forwarding money. Still they can hardly be objected to in transactions like the preceding, which are evidently bona Jide from the respective lines of business of the parties. The Bank of England sanctions town notes as regards the metropolis, by appropriating a day in each week (Wednesday) for discounting them, and by often carrying such discounts to a very large amount. During the war, when monied capital was comparatively scarce, town notes were extremely common. They are still very frequent, but not in so great a degree, first-rate houses being unwilling to give their acceptances where a payment in cash is the regular mode of settling an account. This feeling differs according to the line of business of the parties. Thus, London houses in the East India trade being generally large establishments, confine their acceptances to bills from abroad, and decline giving them to persons in London, such as the wholesale dealers in cloth or hardware, from whom they purchase goods for shipment. They prefer paying such persons in cash, even when not altogether convenient, to the animadversions that might attend their affixing their acceptance to a town note. On the other hand, London booksellers, though often possessed of considerable capital, are obliged, by the nature of their business, to give such long credits, that the postponement of a payment during several months, obtained by giving their acceptance, is an accommodation they readily embrace. Besides, the custom of the trade, in this as in various other lines of business, prevents such acceptances from being an object of much animadversion. THE INVOICE BOOK. A mercantile house connected, as we have supposed, with North America and the West Indies, receives from time to time requisitions, or, as they are commonly termed, orders, from their correspondents abroad for manufactured goods, whether woollens, linens, cottons, or hardware. An order of only moderate amount is generally of the length of several pages, embracing both A. D. and Co. No. 1. 2, 3. 4, 5. 6, 7. 8, 9. 10, 11.

1 2

1 2 2 2

a number of different articles and various qualities of each particular article. The first step on the part of the London merchant is to analyse this order, and to share or distribute its various parts among a number of wholesale dealers, whether in London, Manchester, Birmingham, or Sheffield, that each may supply the articles in his line of business. A few weeks suffice for their getting ready the goods, when they send in their several accounts, or bills of parcels, as they are termed, thus : London, \st February 1831.,

Messrs BARING, HALL, & Co. A. D. Bought of ALEXANDER BALMANNO. & Co. No. 1. 10 Pieces best Lint Osnaburghs, 152 L. d. yards each, at 6d. per yard... 38 0 Inside Wrappers, 14 yards, at 3d... 0 6 Cord, bale, and press packing 0 0 L.38 13

6

{From another dealer.')

Messrs BARING, HALL, & Co. Bought A. D. & Co, No. 2, 1 Case containing 2 dozen Youth’s Hats and Bands, at 14s. each Case 3. 1 Case 6 dozen Felt (coarse) Hats for Negroes, at 24s. each... Case..........

of JOHN L. s.

OAKEY

d.

16 16 0 0 6 0

7 0

4 0 12 0

& Co.

L. s.

d.

17 2 0

7 16

0

L.24 18 0 These are specimens of the simplest class of accounts— of those accounts which form the groundwork of the “ INVOICE,” or general statement of the shipment. The form of that statement is as follows : INVOICE of goods shipped by Baring, Hall, & Co. in the Hector, James Robertson, from London to New York, on account and risk of Messrs Archibald Dixon & Co. there.

Bale Best Lint Osnaburghs, by A. Balmanno’s bill ot parcels. Cases Hats, by J. Oakey & Co. do Case White Platillas, Spitta & Co Cases Linen Tick, J. Jobson & Co Trunks French Calf-Skin Shoes, J. Jackson & Co.... Puncheons strong do. W. Skipwith L. s. d.

Entry, Bond, and Debenture Duty on part of the amount, ^ per cent Cartage, Wharfage, and Shipping Charges Freight and Primage (paid in London) Bills of Lading Insurance on L.500, at L.l. 10s. per L.100 Policy Duty Commission 5 per cent, on L.451 Ditto,, -1 per cent, on L.500 insured Errors excepted. At nine months’ credit; due 10th December 1831. London, \Qth February 1831.

2 6 1 12 2 18 14 3 0 3 7 10 15 L.22

11 2 10

0 0 0 6 6 0 0

L.

s.

38 24 78 69 49 160

13 18 10 10 12 5

0 0 0 0

L.421

8

6

0

29 18 0 0 0

25 BARING, HAIL,

d. 6

& Co.

1

0

L.476 7

6

Bookkeeping,

21 BOO K-K E E P I N G. BookInvoices are in general much longer and larger in amount voice to the articles supplied by each dealer, and to send Bookkeeping, than the preceding, but they are almost always drawn in out duplicate bills of parcels by the vessel. The house Keeping, the same form, containing many particulars in short com- abroad has thus the satisfaction of seeing the different pass ; viz. the mark, numbers, and value of each pack- bills of parcels exactly as furnished by the dealer or age, also the nature of the goods contained in it, as far tradesman. The sum insured is somewhat more than the amount of as can be expressed by a short general notice. It was formerly the practice to make invoices very long, and the Invoice, that, in the event of a loss, there may be enough to copy into them each bill of parcels literally; but the to pay two per cent, commission for recovering it from the usage is now to assign only one or two lines in the in- underwriters. Journal Entries from the preceding Invoice. Ledger Folio. 51 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 28 44 40

Archibald Dixon & Co. Drs. to Sundries. For Goods shipped to them per Hector, Robertson, as per invoice. To Alexander Balmanno ; Lint Osnaburghs, per account To John Oakey & Co.; Hats, do To Spitta & Co.; Platillas, do To James Jobson & Co.; Linen Tick, do To Thomas Jackson & Co.; Shoes, do To W. Skipwith ; Shoes, do To Freight Account, Freight Primage, and Bills of Lading To Insurance, Premium, and Policy To Charges, Entry, outward Duty, and Shipping Charges To Profit and Loss for Commissions

L. 38 24 78 69 49 160 14 8 6 25

s. 13 18 10 10 12 15 16 1

L.476 7 6 Account of Sales.—Having seen in the invoice a specimen of the mode of conducting our exports, we are now to show the manner of disposing of our imports. While our exports are generally in manufactures, our imports are commonly in raw produce, because, except in silks, and a few petty articles of manufacture, foreigners are quite unequal to a competition with the capital and

machinery of this country. Cotton, sugar, coffee, rice, indigo, form the main articles of import to England from tropical latitudes; while wine, brandy, olives, drugs, are sent to us from temperate climates; and corn, timber, hemp, flax, tallow, hides, reach us in large quantities from the Baltic. We shall take, as an example, an account sale of the staple article of our West India colonies.

Account Sale of 20 Hogsheads Sugar by the Andromeda, James Wilson, from Antigua to London, per account of James Robertson, Esq. merchant there. Cwt. qrs. lbs. L. s. dL. s. d. J. R. 20 hhds. weighing....261 2 14 Insurance on L.700 at 60s. 1 to 10. Deduct draft 2 lb. per L.100 L.21 0 0 per hogshead 0 1 12 Policy 1 15 0 22 15 261 1 2 58 11 Freight of 234 cwt. 1 qr. at 5s. per cwt. 1 3 Deduct tare of the Primage, Pierage, and Trade 281 2 casks 27 0 2 Duty on 234 cwt. 1 qr. at 24s. per cwt.. 0 6 Entry Net 234 1 0 5 10 Dock Dues 679 6 6 0 19 at 58s. per cwt. Landwaiters and Entry 2 19 Warehouse Rent, 14 weeks 6 Sampling 9 Insurance from Fire 15 Brokerage, 1 per cent 13 10 Commission on Sale, 2 per cent 3 10 Do. 1 per cent, on L.700 insured Net Proceeds, due 2d November 1831.

L.397 16 281 10 L.679

London, 2d October 1831.

6 6 Errors excepted.

L.679 6 6 Baring, Halt. * Co

In former times the form of an account sale was some- were subjoined; but the plan of putting the goods on one what different from the above. It began with a statement side, and the charges on another, on the principle of of the contents of the packages sold, and the charges debtor and creditor, is evidently an improvement. Seve-

22 BOO K-K Book- ral other entries in this account are entitled to the attenkeeping. tion of a commercial student. The freight is charged, not, as might naturally be expected, on the total weight brought home, but on the weight of the goods exclusive of the packages. Of the allowances for weight, the larger, tare, is the exact weight of the cask; the lesser, draft, is a deduction made by the seller to the buyer, its rate being

E E P I N G. fixed by custom, and bearing no reference to the weight Bookof the package. keeping. If there be found a deficiency in the original weight, from sea damage, from waste, or any other cause, the amount of such deficiency, and the manner of its occurring, must be explicitly stated in the account sale. The same holds in regaid to coffee, of which we shall now exhibit an account sale.

Account of Sale of 40 Tierces Coffee, by the Hector, Robertson, from Jamaica to London, per account of r Simon Taylor, Esq. Jamaica. Charges. S. T. Gross Weight. Tare. Insurance on 40 Tierces at L.20 a L. s. d. 1 to 40 Cwt. qr. lb. Cwt. qr. lb. L. s. d. Tierce, L.800, at 50s....L.20 0 0 190 1 12 21 1 4 (Here specify Policy 2 0 0 Trett 1 3 16 the gross weight and 22 0 0 tare of each Freight on 167 cwt. 0 qr. 20 lb. at 9s. tlPTPPA Together 23 0 20 per cwt Deduct 23 0 20 75 4 Primage, Pierage, and Trade 1 11 Landwaiters, Entry, and Bond 2 1 Net 167 0 20 at 76s. per cwt 635 5 6 Dock Dues 11 3 Trett. Insurance from Fire 0 15 0 Cwt. qr. lb. Cwt. qr. lb. Public Sale Charges 1 10 0 1 overtaker 6 1 2 0 3 12 Brokerage, 1 per cent, on L.660 6 12 0 1 ditto 5 2 4 0 3 4 Commission on Sale 2^ per cent, on L.660 ...!. 16 10 0 11 3 6 1 2 16 Ditto ^ per cent, on L.700 insured... 3 10 0 Deduct 1 2 26 Trett 0 0 10 Net Proceeds, due 2d November.

L.140 17 0 520 0 0

1 2 26 10 0 8 at 64s. per cwt....

L.660 17 0

London, 2d October 1831.

32 4 V

Discount 1 per cent.

L.667 10 6 13

Gross Proceeds

L.660 17 0

Errors excepted.

1 1

Baking, Hall, & Co.

Journal Entries resulting from the preceding Account Sales. Folio Ledger. 60 61 61

October 1831. Trueman & Cook, Drs. to Sundries. To Sugar per Andromeda. Proceeds of 20 Hhds., J. R. Nos. 1 to 20, sold by them at one month from 2d inst. To Coffee per Hector, Robertson. 40 Tierces, S. T. Nos. 1 to 40, at one month from 2d instant

L. 679 660 17 0 LJ340 3 6

61 59 28 62 44 60 40 63

Sugar per Andromeda, Dr. to Sundries. To Freight Account; for Freight, Primage, and Pierage To Insurance Account; Premium and Policy To Customs Inward ; Duty and Entry To Charges; Dock Dues, Landwaiters, Fire Insurance, Warehouse Rent, Samplii To Trueman & Cook ; Brokerage, 1 per cent To Profit and Loss; for Commissions To James Robertson; Proceeds due 2d November 1831

59 22 281 10 6 17 281

14 15 8 3 15 0 10

6 0 0 6 1 2 3

L679 6 6 61 28 59 44 60 40 64

To To lo To To To

Coffee per Hector, Dr. to Sundries. Insurance; for Premium and Policy Freight Account ; Freight, Primage, and Pierage Charges; Dock Dues, Landwaiters, Fire Insurance Trueman & Cook ; for Brokerage Profit and Loss; Commissions Simon Iaylor; Net Proceeds due 2d November

22 76 15 6 20 520

0 16 9 12 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0

L.660 17 0

BOO K-K E E P I N G. 23 BookWe have now given examples of journal entries from the parties, to put them away in bundles. But the pre- Bookkeeping. the principal books in a counting-house ; from the cash- ferable plan, wherever such accounts are numerous, is, keeping, book, the invoice and account sales book, as well as from after arranging them alphabetically, to have them pasted the bills payable and receivable. After these comes the in a large quarto or folio volume of blue or sugar-loaf petty journal or record of such occasional entries as do paper. A surprising number of accounts may be connot belong to the preceding, or any other subsidiary books. tained in one of these books; and its pages being numSuch entries are in general very few, because, in every re- bered, any account may, by the aid of an alphabetical ingular counting-house, the subsidiary books contain almost dex, be referred to with the same ease as an entry in a every transaction that takes place. ledger. Insurances.—It is customary to have an insurance policy Drawbacks payable at the custom-house on goods exbook, a folio book of the length and breadth of a printed ported, and for which the merchant holds a debenture or policy, and containing a quantity of such policies bound acknowledgment of debt on the part of the custom-house. up, unstamped. In these are filled in, by a clerk, literal Of these a list or register should be kept, either in a small copies of the insurances effected by the house, with the separate book, called the debenture book, or in a specific names of the underwriters, and the amount of their respec- part of one of the larger books. tive subscriptions. From this is posted the insurance The petty cash-book contains the disburse for postages ledger, containing the accounts of the underwriters for and other small matters; the amount is entered weekly nremiums and returns. or monthly in the regular cash-books. Bought Book, or Book of Bills of Parcels.—In former We have now recapitulated the various subsidiary books times, when mercantile transactions were on a limited which form the groundwork or authorities for the journal. scale, the practice of a merchant, as of private indivi- The ledger comes next, and by way of affording a speciduals at present, was merely to fold up the bills of par- men of this, the finale of book-keeping labour, we shall cels, or accounts delivered to him by dealers, in a uni- exhibit the preceding journal entries, carried to their reform size, and, after writing on the back the names of spective heads in the ledger. LEDGER. Dr.

Stock.

Folio Journal.

1831.

L. To Sundries,

Jan. 1. Dr.

To Stock To Sundries.

19,660 0 0

Jan. 1.

Folio Journal-

L. By Sundries.

3,775 10 0 3,224 16 0

To Stock,

Jan. 1.

Jan. 31.

By Sundries.

To Stock.

Jan. 1.

1

Cr.

12,300 0 0

Jan. 1.

To Stock

Cr. 3

By Cash

To Stock.... To Sundries.

Jan. 1. — 31.

14,715 10 0 603 0 0

Jan. 9.

By Cash,

To Stock

Jan. 1.

4,500 0 0

Jan. 9.

3

By Cash

Adventure in St Domingo Coffee.

Dr. 1

To Stock

2,500 0 0

2,432 0 0

Cr.

Ship Hector.

Dr.

29 6 0 Cr.

Bills Receivable.

Dr.

2,623 6 7

10,750 0 0

Debenture Account.

Dr.

67,792 0 0

Cr.

Three per Cent. Consols.

Dr.

s. d.

Cr.

Exchequer Bills.

Dr.

Jan. 1.

1831.

Cash.

Jan. 1. 31.

Jan. 1.

s. d.

Cr.

394 17 0 Cr.

24 Bookkeeping.

BOO K-K E E P I N G. Dr. 1831.

Adventure in Lint Osnaburghs.

Folio Journal.

Jan. 1.

L. To Stock,

Dr. To Stock To Cash To Bills Payable.

Drs. To Stock

Dr. 1

To Stock

To Stock.

Drs.

1,561 0 0 276 13 0 185 0 0

1

To Stock,

Jan. 31.

1

To Stock

1,382 10 0

Jan. 19. 31.

3,350 0 0

1

To Stock.

By Cash By Bills Receivable.

To Cash

Dr.

Jan. 31.

By Bills Receivable...

3,138 0 0

'1

Cr.

2,673 0 0

1,533 5 0

Jan. 1. 31.

Cr. By Stock By Sundries.

215 0 0

Jan. 1.

320 0 0

Jan. 1.

5,785 10 0 720 0 0 Cr.

By Stock By A. Dixon & Co By Sugar Andromeda. By Coffee per Hector.....

2,915 8 22 22

10 15 15 6

0 0 0 0

Crs. By Stock.

Thomas Hughes, Jamaica. To Bills Payable.

Cr.

2,243 0 0

Gregg Lindsay, Liverpool.

Dr.

Crs.

2,890 0 0

Jan. 1. Feb. 10. Oct.

To Bills Payable.

197 10 0 Crs.

Insurance Account.

Drs.

353 19 0 232 0 0 Cr.

Bills Payable. 4

173 10 0

Crs.

David Reynolds, Philadelphia.

Dr.

Jan. 31.

By Bills Receivable.

Henry Stephens, Kingston, Jamaica.

Dr.

Jan. 31.

Cr.

Allan, Dewar, & Co. New York.

Dr.

Jan. 19.

540 0 0

James Annand & Co. New York.

Jan. 1.

Jan. 1.

L. s. d.

George Fox, Kingston, Jamaica.

Drs.

Jan. 1.

Folio Journal.

Thomas Story & Co. Liverpool.

Jan. J.

Jan. 1.

1831.

James Anderson, Dublin.

Jan. 1. 12. 31.

Jan. 1

s. d.

Bookkeeping

Cr.

713 10 0 Cr.

By Stock.

1,236 5 0

BOO K-K E E P I N G. Bonk. keeping.

Dr. 1831.

John Ravenshaw, New York.

Folio Journal.

d.

1831.

Drs.

Drs.

Drs.

Dr.

Dr. To Cash.

Dr. 4

Feb. 10. Oct.

To Cash...,,

To Cash.

Dr. To Cash.

Dr. To Cash

Dr.

By Stock.

To Cash

Drs.

Drs.

2,673 0 0 Cr.

By Cash By A. Dixon & Co By Sugar per Andromeda By Coffee per Hector

14 6 17 20

476 7 6

14 16 0 0

0 0 0 0

Cr. By A. Dixon & Co By Sugar per Andromeda By Coffee per Hector

25 1 0 10 3 6 15 9 0 Cr.

Cr.

Cr.

Cr.

Cr.

Crs.

322 5 0 Archibald Dixon & Co.

To Sundries

Crs.

87 5 0 James Davis & Co. London.

To Cash,

3.153 0 0

131 10 0 Charles Norton, London.

4

2,351 15 0

97 10 0 John Jackson, London.

4

Crs.

152 0 0 James Henderson, London.

Jan. 9.

831 10 0

14 8 7 John Wilson, London.

Jan. 9.

vol. v.

8 0 0

Interest.

Dr.

Feb. 10.

By Stock.

Charges.

Jan. 12.

s. d.

Crs.

Profit and Loss. Jan. 19. Feb. 10. Oct.

Jan. 23.

By Stock.

Robert Dimsdale, & Co. London. Jan. 1.

Jan. 9.

By Stock.

Henry Tkitton & Co. London. Jan. 1.

Jan. 9.

L.

John Campbell, Senior, & Co. Glasgow. Jan. 1.

Jan. 12.

Cr.

Folio Journal.

Jan. 1.

25 Bookl:eeping.

Crs.

26 Book. keeping.

BOO K-K E E P I N G Alexander Balmanno.

Dr>

1831.

Folio Journal.

L. s. d.

1831.

Folio Journal.

Feb. 1. Drs.

By A. Dixon & Co.

By A. Dixon & Co.

Spitta & Co. By A. Dixon & Co.

Jas. Jobson & Co. 5

By A. Dixon & Co.

Wm. Skipwith. By A. Dixon & Co

Freight Account.

Dr. To Sundries,

Oct.

By Sugars per Andromeda By Coffee per Hector

679 6 6

660 17 0

Oct.

By Trueman & Cook.

Oct.

By Sundries,

Customs Inward. By Sugzx'pe.r Andromeda.

James Robertson, St Vincent.

520 0 0

By Sugar per Andromeda.

7

281

8 0

Cr.

Simon Taylor, Jamaica. Oct.

281 10 3

Cr.

Oct. Dr.

6 15 1 6 12 0

Cr.

Oct. Dr.

14 7 0 59 14 6 76 16 0

Cr.

Coffee per Hector. To Sundries.

Dr.

1,340 3 6

160 5 0

Crs.

Sugar per Andromeda.

Dr. Oct.

By A. Dixon & Co By Sugar per Andromeda By Coffee per Hector

Trueman & Cook. To Sundries.

49 12 0

Cr.

Feb. 10. Oct. Drs.

69 10 0

Cr.

Feb. 1. Dr.

78 10 0

Crs.

Feb. 1.

Oct. 31.

By A. Dixon & Co.

Thos. Jackson & Co.

Dr.

24 18 0

Crs.

Feb. 1. Drs.

38 13 6

Crs.

Feb. 1. Drs.

d.

Crs.

Feb. 1.

Oct.

L. s.

John Oakey & Co.

Drs.

Bookkeeping.

Cr.

281 10 3 Cr.

By Coffee per Hector

520 0 0

27 BOO K-K E E P I N G. BookThe entries in the ledger are very concise, containing ference is sometimes very small; a few pounds, a few shil- Bookkeeping. generally nothing more than the head or title of the entry lings, or a few pence ; but the fractional errors are often as peeping, in the journal to which they refer. It was formerly the difficult to detect as a large sum ; and in fact it is not unfrepractice of book-keepers to insert some explanatory words quent, in the process of examining, to discover new errors, in almost every line : thus under profit and loss, instead of which, instead of diminishing, add to the amount of the existing difference, carrying it from L.10 to L.100, or even such short notices as to L.1000. Hence the necessity of experience and habitual January. By Cash L.14 14 0 accuracy in a book-keeper. To one deficient in these reFebruary. By A. Dixon & Co 6 16 0 spects balancing a ledger of length is generally a most October. By Sugar per Andromeda...17 0 0 a book-keeper in a former age would have thought it ne- laborious and tedious task, requiring week after week to be passed in the dry labour of collating, adding, and subtractcessary to write Jan. By Cash received for sundry discounts...L.14 14 0 ing. Mr Jones’ method will, it is to be hoped, be the means of preventing the continuance of these unprofitable Feb. By A. Dixon & Co. commission on goods shipped per Hector 6 16 0 searches; for we are satisfied that the labour given to the precautionary arrangements recommended by him will be Oct. By Sugar per Andromeda, commission on insurance and sale 17 0 0 saved, and doubly saved, in the final winding up of the books. We have already adverted to Mr Jones’s first publicaSuch explanations are not without their use, as by means of them a person looking over the account is quickly in- tion on book-keeping; his second, in 1821, was intended formed of the nature of the different entries. They may to counteract the inconvenience attendant on the form of therefore be inserted wherever the business is on a small his ledger, which required that the accounts should be scale, because in such a case they do not add much to the opened anew each year. His third and most important labour of the book-keeper; but wherever the business is work, published in 1831, is of a much more comprehenextensive, all detail in the ledger ought to be avoided, and sive character, and may be said to exhibit the result of the entries made in the most concise form possible, for more than thirty years’ experience as a public accountant. It is printed in the quarto form, and consists of a number the following reasons. 1. The explanations never can be so full and circumstan- of distinct parts ; first, explanatory statements of his mode tial as to supersede the necessity of an account-current of book-keeping by single as well as double entry, with a number of formulce, in which the same transactions are book. 2. Nor can they supersede a reference to the journal in exhibited by the Italian and by his method, so as to bring what may be called collective entries, such, we mean, as into view the various advantages of the latter. These are the bills payable discharged, or the bills receivable en- followed by a series of instruction to persons in different cashed, in a particular month ; entries in which a number branches of business, viz. bankers, manufacturers, brokers, of particulars are collected in the journal, and carried to wholesale and retail dealers, in regard to the books of account best fitted to their respective occupations; the whole the ledger in one sum. And, 3. It is desirable to have as many of such collective en- followed by a treatise in the form best adapted to the tries as possible, limiting thereby the number of postings government offices. Such are the contents of the first or in the ledger, and lessening the difficulty of balancing it printed half of Mr Jones’s book; the other half is lithoat the end of the year. Such was the recommendation graphed, and exhibits two sets of books, each for a year, of Mr Benjamin Booth, in his printed work, more than half one kept by single, the other by double entry. Along a century ago; and such had long before been the practice with these are given a balance-book and an abstract-book, devised for the purpose of leading promptly to the detecof our best merchants. It follows therefore that the ledger ought to be merely tion of errors or false entries. This they will fully accoman index to the journal, exactly as the journal is an index plish if the plan laid down by Mr Jones is carried into efto the various subsidiary books of the house. To aim at fect ; and they seem to us also well calculated to save the more, and to repeat in any one of these books statements perplexity and loss of time at present so often incurred or particulars already contained in the other, would be in efforts to find the general balance. The Italian method, ingenious as it was, and a surprising improvement at the quite a work of supererogation. Balancing the Ledger.—At the end of each year, and, time on the primitive system of single entry, is not an efin some houses, of each half year, the ledger is balanced; fectual preventive of erroneous or fraudulent insertions in that is, the debtor and creditor side of each account in the books; nor does it present any ready method to facithe ledger is added up, and the balance or difference en- litate the laborious task of balancing the ledger. It is tered in a general list or balance-sheet. Thus a few ac- consequently the practice of Messrs Barings, and several counts taken from the preceding fragment of a ledger ex- mercantile houses of the first rank, to keep two sets of books as a check on each other; but the object of Mr hibit the following balances :— Creditors. Jones is to attain correctness in the first instance, by subDebtors. J. Anderson & Co. L. 1849 3 0 Bills Payable L.4972 5 0 mitting to some extra trouble as the posting of the books Thos. Story & Co. 796 11 0 Gregg & Lindsay 498 10 0 proceed. Thus, his abstract-book is a classed epitome of The balance-sheet is generally very long, comprising his journal, and forms the first check against posting enon one side or the other every open or unclosed account tries to wrong accounts; while his balance-book is an epiin the ledger. The rule in all regular counting houses is tome of the ledger, and forms another check, both against to make the sum of the debtors in the balance-sheet cor- carrying entries to a wrong head, and making a mistake in respond with the sum of the creditors, and to spare no the figures so carried. In many counting-houses the unpains to accomplish such agreement, because until it be certainty of the Italian method is counteracted by habitual done there must evidently be an error in some part or accuracy in the book-keeper; but Mr Jones’s auxiliary other of the journal or ledger. Unluckily, the amount of books are devised with the view of enabling even a methe difference gives almost no clue towards tracing either diocre book-keeper to avoid mistakes, or to detect them how it has taken place, or the part of the journal or ledger soon after they are made. By means of these books he where it is to be looked for: it may be in any day of the may prove his ledger not only in any month, but in any year, or in any of the entries (1000, 2000, or perhaps week, or even in any day, of the year. Nothing is more desirable than frequent balancing of 3000) which the ledger for the year contains. The dif-

28

BOO K-K E E P I N G. service will thereby be ren- Book, keeping counts ^ to ^ °f merchant, andA frequent ac- neral balances, an important his connections. year is transmission evidently toooflong dered to persons in trade.1 keeping. for accounts-current to remain open ; to settle every six An index is indispensable to a ledger, but it ought to be months is more suitable; and if the improvements we have very short and plain, containing merely the titles of the described have the effect of lessening the difficulty ofge- accounts; thus,— 11e

00 s

a

Index to the preceding portion of a Ledger.

Anderson, James, Annand & Co. James Allan, Dewar, & Co Balmanno, Alexander Bills receivable Bills payable Campbell, Senior, & Co. John, Cash Charges Coffee, adventure in Coffee per Hector Customs, inward Davis & Co. James Debenture account Dimsdale & Co., Robert Dixon & Co., Archibald Exchequer Bills Fox, George, Freight account Gregg & Lindsay Henderson, James Hector, ship Hughes, Thomas

Folio. 10 16 18 53 6 26 35 2 U 52 61 62 42 5 39 51 14 59 30 48 8 32

Size of the Ledger.—In some houses of very extensive business the rule is to have a new ledger for every year • but three or four years are the more usual time of a” ledo-er remaining in use. Ihe latter has the advantage of showing the transactions of a long period in succession, as well as of saving the repeated opening of the same accounts. The stock account has no entries during the currency of the year, but at its close (on 31st December} the balances of profit and loss, bad and doubtful debts, and a few such accounts, are carried, as the case may be, to its debit or credit. Collective Entries in the Journal.—It may be proper to explain what is meant by such entries in the journal. W hile in the bill-books every bill is entered the day it comes to hand, and in the cash-book every payment or receipt is entered on the day it takes place, the journal entries are made to comprise in one amount a number of transactions occurring at different dates in the course of the month. Thus the entry of “ Sundries Drs. to Bills Payable” exhibit in succession all the bills accepted during the month; they are then added in one sum, which sum alone is carried to the ledger. In like manner, in the entry of “ Bills Receivable Drs. to Sundries,” the aggregate alone is posted in the ledger; and the same in a variety of cases, the effect of which is to lessen greatly the difficulty of agreeing the books at the end of the year. W'T cannot, therefore, approve of the practice of those book-keepers who, to save themselves the trouble of re-writing the cash-

'

The tUle f Mr J neS 3 ublication is the

°

°

’ P

Jackson, John Jackson & Co., Thomas!.'.”.*.”.” Insurance account Interest do Jobson & Co., James ” Lint Osnaburghs, adventure in. Norton, Charles Oakey & Co., John Profit and loss Ravenshaw, John Reynolds, David Robertson, James Skipworth, William Spitta & Co Stock Story, Thomas, & Co.... Stephens, Henry Sugar per Andromeda.... Taylor, Simon Three per cent. Consols. Iritton and Co., Henry, Trueman and Cook Wilson & Co., John

Folio. 49 57 28 46 59 9 50 54 40 33 21 63 58 55 1 12 20 61 64 4 37 60 47

book in the journal form, are content to post each separate sum directly from the cash-book to the ledger. They thus avoid, it is true, the copying of eight or ten folio pages a month ; but by giving up the advantage of joining in one sum the different payments made under such heads as bills payable, charges, house expenses, they have to carry to the ledger during the month above 100 entries instead of perhaps only thirty or forty. The Waste-Book.—This book has long been disused by icgular merchants, and the name itself would have been forgotten, had it not been reprinted from one work on book* keeping to another, the authors of which, being generally teachers, were unacquainted with the improvements introduced into the practice of merchants. The wastebook of former times consisted of a series of memoranda, so miscellaneous as to comprehend every transaction of the house, whether a sale, a purchase, a payment, or a receipt. 10m Biis general receptacle the book-keeper composed the journal, which was then, as at present, a narrative or record, in regular form, of the transactions of the house. As mercantile establishments acquired extension, separate books became necessary, as well for the cash and bills as for goods exported and imported. These books were round the fittest authorities for the journal, and the waste-book or diary fell altogether into disuse. Single Entry—A wholesale dealer occupying a warehouse, and whose business consists in supplying such articles as woollen, cotton, linen, or hardware, to exporting

of Book-keeping Exemplified, 4to, London, 1831, L.4. 4S.

BOO K-K Book- merclmnts, is generally satisfied with few books. He is accustomed to enter each delivery of goods in his daybook, and to get copied into his invoice-book the bills of parcels made out for his customers, of which examples have been given above in the names of Balmanno and Oakey & Company. He seldom keeps a journal, but a ledger is indispensable, though not kept by double entry. It consists on one part of the names of his customers (the exporting merchants), and, on the other, of those of the manufacturers from whom he makes his purchases. From the latter he receives credit, and to the former he gives it; hence the necessity of opening accounts for both. At the end of the year, a person in such a line of business is accustomed to form an estimate of the state of his affairs by adding up on one side the sums due by him to the manufacturers, and on the other those due to him by the merchants. He takes, moreover, an account of his stock, or goods in hand, which being valued, and the amount added to the sums due to him, the difference between their conjunct amount and the total of his debts affords a tolerably correct idea of the state of his property. It would, however, be much more clear and satisfactory were his books kept by double entry, that is, were every debtor to have a creditor, or, in other words, were every entry to have its counterpart. Suppose him, for example, to make a purchase from Messrs Greenup of Halifax, for L.1250 of the coarse woollens called penistones, he merely enters in his ledger that sum to the credit of Messrs Greenup ; but the proper course would be to find a debtor for the same amount by such an entry as “ Penistones Dr. to Messrs Greenup, L1250.” Subsequently, on effecting sales of the article to exporting merchants, the proper course would be to make entries such as “ Baring, Flail, & Co. Drs. to Penistones for L.225 and by continuing such entries, that is, by crediting the account of Penistones for the sales as successively made, until the whole was disposed of, the ultimate result would be that the creditor side would exhibit a total equal to the L.1250 paid to Messrs Greenup, and to the profit accruing from the transaction. Double Entry has farther and more important advantages to a merchant than to a tradesman, because his dealings are much more varied and complicated. It forms the connecting link of his accounts, and shows in what manner his funds have been successively invested. As every debtor in his books has a creditor, no part of his property is unaccounted for; and when in doubt as to any specific portion, he will find a solution of the difficulty in his own journal. Those who know how soon money becomes absorbed, or at least appropriated in business, and in how few years

E E P I N G. 29 a large sum may be vested in machinery, shipping, or Bookother fixed capital, are aware that merchants would often keeping, consider themselves deceived, if they had not in double entry an unfailing clue to the appropriation of their capital. Next, as to the degree of intricacy in double entry. In the case of a shipment of goods, the merchant abroad who receives the goods is made debtor to the several dealers at home who have supplied them; e. g. A. Dixon & Co. of New York are Drs. to Spitta & Co., Jobson & Co., &c. In like manner, in the case of produce imported, the brokers, Irueman & Cook, who sell it and receive the amount, are made debtors to Simon Fraser, for whose account the produce was shipped. All this is clear and free from intricacy, as also such farther entries as Cash Dr. to Trueman & Cook, on their paying over the proceeds of the sale, or Bills Receivable Drs. to A. Dixon & Co., on their remitting or sending home a bill for the amount of the goods forwarded to them. It is true that a young merchant beginning to study book-keeping will not all at once comprehend such an account as Bills Receivable, nor its counterpart Bills Payable, nor a few other accounts, such as Charges and Merchandise; but practice will convey a distinct conception of them, and render them in time as clear as personal accounts. I he advantages of double entry may fortunately be imparted to almost any account-books, without sacrificing much time and labour. Persons engaged in such business as that of wholesale warehousemen, manufacturers, or retailers, may keep the chief part of their books by single entry, making use of double entry to the extent of a few pages at the end of the month or quarter, to obtain a clear and summary view of their transactions. As to the money or currency in which the books of a merchant should be kept, it is evident, first, that it can be money of one kind only; and, next, that it must be the money of the country in which the merchant resides. Ihus, an English house in Bordeaux must keep its accounts in French money, although its chief business may be the export of wines to London and Dublin. \\ e come, in the last place, to Accounts-current, which, though a most important portion of the accounts of a merchant, are rather the result than a constituent part of his system of book-keeping, being in general written out from the ledger and journal, with very slight variation or addition. Accounts-current are prepared for transmission to the correspondents whose names they respectively bear, and contain the various receipts, payments, and other transactions on their account during the proceeding six or twelve months ; thus-—

Messrs Archibald Dixon & Co. of New Fork, in Account-current with Baring, Hall, & Co. London. Drs.

1830. Jan. 1. To Balance from last Account Mar. 1. Invoice of Goods per Commerce. June 2. Your Draft to Edward Jones.. Sept. 3. Paid J. Jones on your account Dec. 31. Postage and Petty Charges du ring the year Commission ^ per cent, on L.325, paid for your account Do. on L.330 received ... Balance of Interest 4705, divided by 73

L. 950 762 152 173

s. 10 0 0 0

d. 0 0 9 0

Crs.

1830. L. 365 3469 Feb. 28. By your Remittance on J. 306 2332 Schneid r, due 30th June... 150 202 307 Apr. 30. Proceeds of 20 hhds Sugar, per 119 206 Hector, due 31st May..... 473 July 10. Cash received on your account 7 18 0 from J. Bransby 180 Dec. 31. Balance of Interest carried to 1 12 6 Dr 1 13 0 Balance of Account carried to your Dr. in new Account... 1310 65 5 6

L.2113 19 0 London, 3 Li Deceviler 1830.

Days | to 51st InteDec. i rest.

6314 Errors excepted.

s. d.

Days to 51st Dec.

0 0 184

276 0 0 214 1012 0 0 174 261 4765 19 0

L.2113 19 0 6314 Baring, Hall, & Co.

/ 30 BOO BookIt is a rule in the best managed counting-houses to deselling. spatch the accounts-current to the different correspondents as soon as possible after the day to which they are made up. To effect that, they ought to be copied out, in part at least, before the 31st December or 30th June, the dates at which they generally close, particularly as the interest and commission cannot be calculated until they are written out; and the whole has then to be copied into the account-current book. Mode of computing Interest.—To do this correctly on the different sums in an account-current, it is requisite to take the number of days between each transaction, and the state at which the account-current is closed. Take, for example, a sum of L.53I paid on 5th October, and bearing interest consequently during eighty-seven days, until 31st December. On ascertaining the number of days, compute the interest, either by referring to a book of interest tables, or by the following operation. Multiply the pounds, 531, by 87, the number of days, and the product will be 46,197 ; divide that sum by 7300, and the quotient, L.6, 6s. 7d., will be the interest required. The reasons for this process are as follows : interest at 5 per cent, for one year forms a twentieth part of the principal, there being a shilling of interest for every pound of principal. On multiplying the number of pounds by the number of days, the product, 46,197, is so many 365th parts of a v/ shilling; divide it by 365, and the quotient,L.126, Os. 7d., will be the interest. But as it is desirable to have the quotient in pounds, alter your divisor so as to obtain it in that form ; that is, multiply 365 by 20, and make the product 7300 your divisor, or, preferably, 73 by striking off two figures from it, and the same from the dividend: the quotient is the interest in pounds, shillings, and pence. As to the comparative ease of the two processes, where the entries are few the interest tables may be used with advantage ; but whenever they are numerous, as they very often are in accounts-current, it will save time to multiply and divide as above. The product by that process gives the rate of interest at BOOKSELLING. Among the Greeks the trade of the bookseller (/SqSAioKaTr^Aos) was unknown. It arose towards the end of the republican age at Rome, when the literary taste of the nobles demanded an increased supply of books. The Roman booksellers were called bibliopolce, and sometimes librarii, though this term properly belonged to the slaves who were employed in the transcription of MSS., &c. The bookseller’s shop was called libraria or taberna libraria. In Rome, the principal marts for books were the Argiletum, and the Vicus Sandalarius, as St Paul’s Churchyard, Fleet Street, and Paternoster Row, have been in London. The great booksellers of the time of Augustus were the Sosii. (Cic. Be Leg. iii. 20, Phil. ii. 9 ; Mart. iv. 71, xiii. 3, i. 4 ; Aid. Gell. xviii. 4 ; Hor. Ep. i. 20, 2 ; Ars. Poet. 345, &c.) Booksellers are in many places ranked among the members of universities, and entitled to the privileges of students ; as at Tubingen, Salzburg, and Paris, where they have always been distinguished from the vulgar and mechanical traders, and exempted from various taxes and impositions laid on other companies. An acquaintance with booksellers’ marks or signs, as expressed on the title-pages ot their books, is of some use, because many books, especially in the last century, have no other designation. The anchor is the mark of Raphelengius at Leyden ; and the anchor, with a dolphin twisted round it, is that of the Manutii at Venice and Rome. The Arion denotes a book printed by Oporinus at Basle ; the Caduceus or Pegasus, one printed by the Wecheliuses at Paris and Frankfort; the cranes, by Cramoisy ; the compass, by Plantin at Antwerp ; the fountain, by Vascosan at Paris ; the sphere in a bal-

BOO 5 per cent., making on L.400 for a year L.20 0 0 BookBut if 4 per cent, be the agreed rate of inteselling, rest, deduct one fifth, viz 4 0 0 And the remainder is the interest at 4 per cent., viz l.16 0 0 A compounding subtraction will give the interest at other rates, such as 3^, 3, or 2^ per cent.; so that the plan of multiplying the pounds by the days, and dividing by 73, is applicable to any of the different rates of interest. W hen accounts-current are made out, as in general they ought to be, every six months, the 30th June is the concluding date for the earlier half year. West-India houses are accustomed to balance their books and close their accounts-current once a year, viz. on 30th April. There are two modes of preparing accounts-current in a counting-house. 1 he more usual course is to write them out from the ledger and journal, and afterwards to copy them into the account-current book. The other plan is to make no reference, in the first instance, to the ledger or journal, but to post the account-current book from the cashbook, bill-books, account-sales, invoices, and other authorities in the counting-house, so as to render it (the accountcurrent book) a check on the ledger. This, however, is of less importance than may at first be thought, because, from the plan of the journal and ledger, omissions are not so likely to occur in them as in the account-current book ; and the chief advantage of a separately posted account-current book consists in having it brought up to a day, as it may easily be at a time that the journal and ledger are in arrear. Books of Account required by a Merchant.—Journal ; ledger; cash-book; bills payable, or book of his acceptances ; bills receivable, or book of bills on other merchants, to be paid to his order ; order-book ; bought-book, or book for bills ot parcels delivered in ; letter-book ; invoice-book; account of sales book; insurance policy book ; petty journal, or book for such occasional entries as are not inserted in the other books ; petty cash-book, or book of petty disburse. (j. L—E.j ance, by Janson or Blaew at Amsterdam ; the lily, by the juntas at Venice, Florence, Lyons, and Rome; the mulberry tree, by Morel at Paris; the olive tree, by the Stephens at Paris and Geneva, and the Elzevirs at Amsterdam and Leyden ; the bird between two serpents, by the Frobeniuses at Basle ; the Truth, by the Commelins at Heidelberg and Paris; the Saturn, by Colinseus; the printing-press, by Badius Ascenius ; and so of the rest. See Bibliography. I he traffic in books was in ancient times very inconsiderable, so that the book merchants of England, France, Spain, and other countries, were distinguished by the appellation of stationers, as having no shops, but only stalls or “ stands” in the streets. During this state the civil magistrates took little notice of the booksellers, leaving the control of them to the universities, of which they were supposed to be the more immediate retainers, and which accordingly gave them laws and regulations, examined the correctness and fixed the prices of their books, and punished them at discretion. But when, by the invention of printing, books and booksellers began to multiply, it became a matter of more consequence to regulate their proceedings ; and hence sovereigns took the direction of the bibliopoles into their own hands. As despotism and a free press are incompatible, wherever the power of the sovereign has been unlimited, or ecclesiastical authority has prevailed, the trade of bookselling has been put under rigorous restraints. It is only under free and constitutional governments that it is open and unrestricted. In Britain the business of bookselling is carried on by three classes of tradesmen : 1^, Those who are chiefly en-

B00KSELL1N G. gaged in the publication of books, who may be considered or an average per year of 6436 works. The same presses as the manufacturers. 2d, The wholesale booksellers or printed, in 1851, 485 musical wmrks, and in the ten years middle-men, who purchase large numbers from the pub- 3336, or an annual average of 333. lishers, with the view of supplying from their extensive stocks There have also been published 1014 engravings and lithothe demands of the retail dealers. ?>d, The retail booksellers, graphs, and during the ten years 13,085, or an average of through whom the public are more directly supplied. The 1308. terms on which books are published vary according to the Two hundred and fifty-three maps and topographical plans agreement made by the author with the publisher. Some- have also been published during the year ; during the ten times the bookseller purchases the copyright for a fixed sum, years 1005, or a mean of 100 a year. and takes the whole responsibility upon himself; someThus it appears that nearly in every department of presstimes the author and bookseller agree to divide the risk work the year 1851 is in advance of the average of the last and the profit, or only the profit that may be realized on an ten years. The grand total of works published in France edition or editions ;1 or the author may publish on his own during these ten years, engravings, musical works, maps, and account, taking the chance of profit or loss upon himself, plans, is 81,994. paying a commission to the bookseller on the amount of sales. The bookselling and publishing trade in Germany is London is the great seat of the publishing trade in Great differently organized from that of either England or France, Britain ; the only other towns where it is prosecuted to any and, upon the whole, is carried on by a class of persons of considerable extent are Oxford, Cambridge, Edinburgh, superior intelligence. The principal booksellers of llussia, Glasgow, and Dublin. The following is the number of per- Holland, Italy, and Hungary, are Germans or their descendsons returned as booksellers and publishers in England and ants. In Germany there is a much larger number of pubScotland at the census of 1851 :— lishers than in any other country of the same size, and they Males. Females. Persons. are not, as in Great Britain or France, confined to a few of England and Wales 6047 858 6905 the principal towns, but are scattered about over the whole Scotland 1434 52 1486 country, though, of course, their chief sales are in the nuTotal 7481 910 8391 merous small capitals and university towns. The German In Ireland, from the calculation of an extensive book- publishers generally, owing to the small cost of paper and seller in Dublin, the numbers are as follow:— print compared with the expense in England or France, and Booksellers and publishers in Dublin 40 the comparatively small remuneration to the author, realize, Shops for small periodicals in do. 20 if they sell the whole of an edition, a much larger per-cen— 60 tage of profits ; but owing to the system there prevailing of In the other towns of Ireland 108 sending almost all their works in the first year on sale to the — 168 different parts of the country, they are generally obliged, in The editor of the Publishers’ Circular says, that after careful calculation he finds that “ the issues of new publica- order to give a book a fair chance, to print a much larger tions and new editions are now averaging together 4380 edition than there is any immediate prospect of selling. On volumes per annum, which, after making full allowance for the other hand, by this means of making known new books, •the improvements in our system of registration, shows an very little is expended in advertising. There are no wholesale booksellers in Germany, as the annual issue of nearly one-fourth over that of ten years back. This conclusion is drawn from a pretty safe average, term is understood in England and France, the publishers being generally in direct communication with all the printhat of four years, thus :— cipal retail booksellers in every town on the Continent, many New books. New editions. of them keeping as many as 1000 to 1500 trade accounts 773 vols. 1839 2302 vols. open. But every retail bookseller has his agent or “ com821 „ 1840 2091 „ 1841 2011 „ 741 „ missioner” at Leipzig, and sometimes in other towns in the 684 „ 1842 2193 „ south of Germany, to whom all parcels for him are sent and forwarded in one package once or twice a-week. This 3019—Total, 11,616 vols. 1839-42, 8597 „ agent also acts as his banker with the trade, almost all pay1062 vols. ments being made at Leipzig from one agent to another, 1849 3281 „ 1186 „ 1850 3025 „ their weekly or bi-weekly settlements being carried on in 1851 3454 „ 1016 ,, a small way on the plan of the clearing-house of the Lon1852 3359 „ 1140 „ don bankers. At Easter, however, when the general balances of all the booksellers connected with the German 1849-52, 13,119 4404—Total, 17,523 vols. “ This does not include pamphlets, of which we have only trade are made and paid on the booksellers’ exchange at taken the record during the last three years:—In 1850, Leipzig, the sums are very considerable. Owing to the facility with which the trade of publishing there were 1198; in 1851, 940; and in 1852, 908; the noticeable excess for the first year arising from the pamphlet- can be carried on in Germany, the absence of all difficulty writing on the Papal question, upon which there w ere no less in immediate communication with the whole retail trade creates a much larger number of publishers in proportion to than 180 published during one month.” The book trade of France is carried on much in the same the number of books published than elsewhere; in fact, almost every bookseller is a publisher to some extent. Neverway as in England. From the last number of the Journal de VImprimerie theless, the principal publications are in the hands of a limited for 1851 we gather the following statistics of the produc- number of publishers in the strict sense of the word ; and, tions of the French printing-houses during the last ten years : to some extent, they confine themselves to particular classes 1842 1848. 7,2346,445of publications. 1843 1849. 7,3786,009 In the United States of America the business of book1844 1850. 7,6086,477selling is carried on to a large extent, principally in books 1845 1851. . 7,3506,521 reprinted from English copyright works. These being 1846 5,816 produced at the mere cost of paper and printing, the In ten years, 64,5685,530 authors deriving no benefit from their writings, the American 1847 In this case authors should keep In mind that they are, as far as the publication in question is concerned, copartners with the bookseller, and in case of the bankruptcy of the bookseller they are liable for all debts against the book.

31 Bookselling.

BOOKSELLING. booksellers are enabled to sell at prices greatly below those the sale of the works of Peter Parley counts by millions ; of Bookin g - ' > ^le English market. Of late years, however, they have Morse’s Geography und Atlas (50 cents), not less than 70,000 selling. published many valuable original works, chiefly in theology, are sold yearly ; of Abbots’ histories, 400,000 ; Emerson’s law, and natural history. Arithmetic and Header count almost by millions ; of the The publisher of Norton’s Literary Gazette estimates Boston Academy’s collection of sacred music, costing a dollar the number of volumes published in the United States from per volume, the sale has exceeded 600,000 ; and the a Borga muscular motions, or to those phenomena of the animal In his endeavours to make himself Duke of Bologna and Borgia II economy which are in certain points subject to the laws of Florence he was unsuccessful. For the conquest of CameII Borgia, mechanics: and it cannot be denied that it conducted him rino he demanded soldiers and artillery from Guidobaldo of Borg°g’ to the discovery of some principles new in themselves, and Montefeltro,Dukeof Urbino. Camerino was taken by storm, v none' , directly opposed to the received belief of his time. But his and Julius of Barona the lord of the city, and his two sons, followers, less cautious, wished to generalize the application were strangled. This fate Borgia reserved for all whom he he had made; and in framing hypotheses, on which time had pillaged. He scrupled not to attain his ends by the vilest and the return to a sound medical philosophy have done treachery ; and, by fallacious promises to spare life on the justice, they greatly retarded the restoration of the science. condition of surrender, he ensnared many in his toils. His The works of Borelli are, 1. Della Causa delle Febri ma- violence at length aroused the powers of Italy to form a ligne, Pisa, 1658, 4to; 2. De Renum usu judicium, Stras- league against him; but he found means to dissolve this burg, 1664, 8vo ; 3. Euclides Restitutus, 1628, 4to ; 4. Apo- alliance by assembling a body of 3000 Swiss, and winning lonii Pergcei Conicorum, libri v. vi. et vii., Florence, 1661 ; over their troops to his interest by advantageous offers. 5. Theories Mediceorum Planetarum ex causis Phgsicis There now seemed no obstacle to his being proclaimed king deductee, Florence, 1666, 4to ; 6. Tractatus di vi Percus- of Romagna, of the March, and of Umbria, when Alexander sionis, Bologna, 1667, 4to ; 7. Historia et Meteorologia in- VI. was suddenly cut off on the 17th August 1503, by parcendii AEthnei, Reggio, 1669, 4to; 8. De Motionibus natura- taking accidentally of the poison which he and Borgia had libus a gravitatependentibus, Bologna, 1670,4to; and, 9. De prepared for nine newly-elected cardinals, in order to seize Motu Animalium, opus posthumum, Rome, 1680, 1681, 4to. upon their possessions. Borgia likewise suffered severely BORGA, or Borgo, a seaport town in Russian Finland, from the same poison, but by the use of antidotes he rein the laen of Nyland, 28 miles E.N.E. of Helsingfors. It covered. Having obtained possession of his father’s treais the seat of a bishop, contains 2138 inhabitants, and car- sures, he assembled his troops in Rome, but found himries on trade in linen and in timber. self deserted by his officers, and surrounded on every side BORGHESE,anoble Sienese family, one of whom, being by enemies, one of the most bitter of whom was the new elected pope in 1605, assumed the name of Paulo V., after pope, Julius II. Borgia was arrested, and sent to Spain, which the family became among the most powerful of the where he was imprisoned by the Spanish court for two Roman nobility by their union with the Aldobrandini. The years, but at length made his escape through a window, and late prince in 1803 married Pauline, sister of the Emperor fled to his brother-in-law the king of Navarre. He acNapoleon, and widow of General Leclerc. This prince sold companied that prince in his expedition against the Casto his imperial brother-in-law the noble Borghese collection tilians, and fell fighting under the walls of Pampeluna, the of antiquities for 13,000,000 francs. seat of his first diocese, March 12. 1507. BORGIA, Alexander. See Alexander VI., Pope. Borgia may be regarded as an incarnation of whatever is Borgia, Caesar, a man distinguished both for his most detestable and infamous among men. Many princes talents and his crimes, was the illegitimate son of Rodriguez have shed more blood, many have inflicted more terrible Lenzuoli, afterwards Pope Alexander VI., and of a Roman vengeance, but the name of Caesar Borgia is attainted with lady named Vanozza. At a time when the court of Rome was a surpassing infamy. Others have been hurried on by their a school of falsehood and licentiousness; when the frequency passions ; but with Borgia everything was the result of cool of political iniquities had utterly effaced all shame; when deliberation. His manners were as dissolute as those of his treaties afforded no guarantee, and oaths inspired no confi- celebrated sister Lucrezia; yet, like that princess, he was dence, Borgia may be said to have systematized crime, and a patron of letters, even produced specimens of poetic to have carried utter disregard of all ties, human or divine, talents, and found panegyrists to celebrate his genius and to an extent previously unknown. He had scarcely com- taste. His situation imposed upon him the necessity of pleted his studies when he obtained the archbishopric of temperance, but in this is included everything that can be Pampeluna; and in 1492 his father, who was now pope, said in his favour, unless credit be given him for that seducmade him archbishop of Valentia, and soon afterwards gave tive eloquence of which he was an undoubted master’ and him a cardinal’s hat. When Charles VIII.of France appeared which he employed for the purpose of inveigling his intended before the walls of Rome, the pontiff was obliged to treat victims into his toils. It is not without reason, therefore, with him for the preservation of his capital from invasion. that Machiavelli, in his Prince, has taken Caesar Borgia as The king, who knew the character of the pope, demanded a model: he could not among men have chosen a hero better that his son Caesar should accompany him as a hostage ; but qualified to inspire unmitigated horror and detestation. scarcely had the French army quitted Rome when Borgia Borgia, Lucrezia. See Alexander VI., Pope. contrived to escape from the camp. In 1497 Alexander beBORGO, San Donino, a walled town in the duchy of stowed the duchy of Benevento, together with the counties Parma, fourteen miles N.W. of the city of Parma. It has of Terracina and Pontecorvo, on his eldest son, who had al- a fine cathedral and town-hall, and manufactures of silk ready received from the king of Spain the duchy of Gandia. and linen goods. Pop. 4200. His brother’s elevation excited Caesar’s jealousy; and when Borgo, San Sepolcro, a town of Tuscany, province of the duke was murdered about a week after his investiture, Florence, on the Tiber, fifteen miles N.E. of Arezzo. It public opinion ascribed the deed to the cardinal. By his has a strong citadel, a cathedral, and numerous churches. father’s permission he now laid aside the purple, and de- Pop. 4500. voted himself to the profession of arms. He was invested BORGOGNONE, Jacopo Cortese, so called from with the honours of his brother, and employed to carry to Burgundy, the place of his birth, was born at St Hippolite Louis XII. the papal bull of divorce which that monarch in 1621. He studied at Bologna, where Guido was in full had long desired to obtain. In return for this favour Louis reputation, and was befriended by that great artist, whose made Borgia Duke of Valentinois, and gave him a pension mode of colouring he studied with advantage. Cortese was of 20,000 crowns, with a body-guard of 100 men. In 1499 chiefly remarkable for the life and spirit which he imparted Borgia married a daughter of King John of Navarre, and to his battle pieces, which he always represented as scenes accompanied Louis XII. to Italy. He first undertook the that he had witnessed. He resided long at Florence, where conquest of Romagna, and caused the lawful possessors of he acquired a handsome independence by his profession, the land to be treacherously murdered. He was appointed which he assiduously practised till 1655, when some reliDuke of Romagna by his father in 1501 ; and he then gious scruples induced him to become a Jesuit monk. Yet wrested from Jacopo d’Apiano the principality of Piombino. even then he continued to employ his pencil on his favourite

40 BOR BOR Borgoo subjects, until apoplexy put a period to his life in 1676. off only a small portion of the surface at once, a small power Boring. Ij Many of his spirited pictures are in British collections, parti- is sufficient to put the turning machine in motion ; and the orin ^' j cularly four in the Earl of Derby’s residence at Knowsley, longer the edge of the cutter which is applied to the metal v two of which are battle pieces, another a Turkish march, is, and the harder the metal, the greater force is required to and the fourth the overthrow of the host of Pharaoh in turn the machine. the Red Sea. (t. s. t.) Cannon, at first, were frequently made of bars of malleBORGOO, a large kingdom in the interior of Africa, able iron, placed longitudinally, and these bars covered bounded on the east by the Niger, on the south by Eyeo or with iron hoops, the whole welded or brazed together. OrdYarriba, on the west by Dahomey, and on the south by nance of this construction was not sufficiently strong to reGourma. It is about thirty days’ journey in length, and sist the explosion of the powder, and did not admit of the eleven in breadth. It has generally a level surface, though cylindrical cavity being formed with much accuracy. Its crossed by a considerable range of "mountains. The soil is use was, therefore, gradually laid aside, and guns of castmostly fertile, and tolerably cultivated, producing in abun- metal were employed. And before the casting of cannon dance corn, yams, plantains, and limes. The cattle are not became general, guns of cast-metal were reserved for the numerous, but there is a copious supply of all the species most important situations ; thus the ships of the admiral and of game that prevail in Africa. A considerable inland trade vice-admiral alone had cast-metal cannon, the other ships between Houssa and the coast passes through this territory. of war being armed with wrought-iron guns only. M hen Clapperton entered it from Eyeo, he was warned to Copper, without mixture, has been employed to cast be on his guard, as the people were the greatest robbers and guns, as appears from two large cannon made in the time plunderers in all Africa, and he would run the risk of being ^[^nry VldL> and bearing his name, in the armoury of stripped of everything he possessed. Pie found this bad the lower of London. But the only two materials now report altogether unjust, and declares, on quitting it, that used for cannon are bronze, which is a mixture of copper the people had always behaved honestly, and never robbed and tin, and cast-iron. In modern times the use of casthim of the slightest article. They were cheerful, obliging, iron cannon has become more general, as that metal has the good-humoured, and communicative. The acts of robbery, advantage of not being softened by the heat of the inflamtoo frequent in that country, were perpetrated by slaves of mation of the powder ; whereas brass guns, when fired many the chiefs and governors, who were natives, not of Borgoo, times in rapid succession, become heated so nearly to the but of Houssa. These persons, in virtue of the service in melting temperature of the metal, that the muzzle of the which they are employed, think themselves entitled to pilfer gun droops, and the touch-hole is much enlarged. whatever comes within their reach. The kingdom of BorThe first cannon made of cast-metal were cast hollow, goo is divided into the four states of Boussa, Wawa, Kiama, with a cavity as nearly cylindrical as could be executed by and Niki, the three last of which were visited by Clapper- casting. I he surface of this cavity was then smoothed on ton in his journey through interior Africa. Boussa, remark- a boring machine by steel cutters set in a copper head, and able as the scene of the disastrous fate of Mungo Park, disposed so as to describe a cylinder terminated by a half holds the first rank, and all the others are considered as in spheroid. Ihese cutters (in French alezoirs, and the operaa degree of dependence upon it. tion alezer) are represented in the French Encyclopedic— Borgoo, another country of the same name in Central planches, Ponte. This method of making guns has long Africa, of which little is known, and that little by hearsay, been laid aside on account of the holes and inequalities in as it has never been explored by Europeans. It lies to the the cavity thus formed, and the difficulty of casting the cavit y N.E. of Lake Tsad, about midway on the road to Egypt. so as that its axis shall coincide with the axis of the piece. It forms a connecting link between the basin of that lake Cannon are now always cast solid, and the cylindrical cavity and that of the Nile. It is mountainous; the atmosphere is is formed by boring in this solid mass. said to be very pure ; its numerous valleys are irrigated by The power employed for boring cannon ought to be in perennial rivers, and are extremely fertile in date trees. It proportion to the hardness of the metal of which they are is inhabited by the Uelad Soliman, a well-known powerful composed, and to the size of the pieces. For the boring of Arab tribe. In the latter end of 1851 Dr Barth and Dr guns of brass, as it is called, that is, a metal composed often Overweg, then at Kuka, determined to visit and explore this parts of copper, one of tin, and two of brass, or of these interesting region, and set out with a large army despatched metals in other proportions, a metal softer and more easily by the sheikh of Bornu for the invasion of the countries bored than cast-iron, horses are sometimes employed as a eastward from Lake Tsad. Unfortunately, however, this moving power ; but the strong moving powers of water or army was soon met by the enemy, defeated, and put to steam must be had recourse to for boring large guns of castflight so suddenly, that Barth and Overweg saved their lives iron, which is the material used for making the largest guns and instruments only by a quick retreat. They conse- now in use, and is also the hardest substance used in their quently did not succeed in reaching Borgoo, which is al- manufacture. Indeed, some kinds of cast-iron are too hard lied to Bornu. (a. p.) to admit the action of the borer ; and for the making of guns BORING, generally speaking, is the art of perforating a it is necessary to melt pig-iron of different qualities together solid body. In the present article it is proposed to give in order to have a metal that shall possess no more than the some account of the boring of Cannon, of Cylinders, of required degree of hardness. Muskets, of Portland Stone, of Rocks, and of Wooden The quality of pig-iron is known by the appearance Pipes. of its surface, but more decisively by the appearance Cannon. 1. Boring of Cannon is performed by placing the can- which its fracture presents. To obtain this fracture, a non on an axis, which is turned by a very strong power, man takes one end of a pig in each hand, and lifting it as whilst a steel cutter, in form of a drill, is pressed against high above his head as 'he can, throws it with force, so the metal, and excavates the cylindrical cavity which is re- that the middle of the pig shall fall across another pig quired. Boring may be considered as a branch of the art placed on the ground. In this way the pig thrown down of turning, which, in general, is the formation of cones, is broken. Soil or gray pig-iron, which is the most valucylinders, and other figures that have an axis, by making a able, breaks with difficulty, and the surface of its fracture straight line or curve revolve round the axis on which the is of a gray colour, composed of pretty large crystalline material is fixed, or by making the material revolve whilst grains. Hard or white pig-iron breaks easily ; the surface the generating line remains at rest. In turning bodies of of the fracture is white, and not sensibly granulated, the no great degree of hardness, and where it is required to take grains that compose it being small. The pig-iron here

BOR I N G. 41 Boring, spoken of is that smelted by the coke of pit-coal. Pig- it is fixed on the axis of the mill by means of the square Boring, iron smelted with charcoal of wood has a fracture of a piece at the cascabel. w-y-w different appearance, sometimes lamellar, like the fracture In a boring-mill constructed by Smeaton, one gun is of metallic bismuth. Formerly guns used to be cast from placed on the horizontal axis of the water-wheel itself, the blast furnace; that is to say, immediately from the and, consequently, revolves with the same velocity. On ironstone. I his was attended with uncertainty in respect this same axis is a toothed wheel with seventy-eight teeth, to the nature of the metal; for the nature of the metal which works two wheels, one placed on each side of it, given by the blast-furnace varies frequently and suddenly, and each having twenty-nine teeth. On the axis of each from causes either unknown, or not under the command of these a gun is placed ; their power is J^ths of the power of the iron-master, tor this reason guns are no longer of the centre wheel. (See Smeaton’s Reports, vol. i.) On cast from the blast-furnace, but pig-iron already formed is the axis where the power is least, smaller sized guns are taken, of such qualities and in such proportions as to form bored; on the axis of the greatest power the large guns a metal neither too soft nor too brittle and hard for guns. are bored. A crane, movable on a vertical axis, with a The different kinds of pig-iron thus selected are melted sweep that extends over all the carriages, with a tackle together in a furnace, called in iron manufactories an air- hanging from its beam, and wrought by a windlass, serves furnace, and by some writers a reverberatory furnace, by to place the gun on the carriage where it is to be bored, the flame of pit-coal; the flame being impelled by a strong or to remove it from one carriage to another if required; current of air produced by the rarefaction of the air in a and afterwards, when the gun is bored and turned, the chimney of thirty or forty feet in height. The column of crane serves to remove the gun from the boring-mill. the atmosphere of which the air in the chimney makes a The gun, when placed on the machine, has the square part being lighter than the unrarefied columns of the at- at the cascabel fixed in a square iron box (G, Plate mosphere next it, its equilibrium with these columns is GIX. fig. 5) on the axis. This box has a screw passdestroyed. The neighbouring columns, therefore, rush ing through each of its sides, and by the operation of through the grate of the furnace, which is the only aper- these screws the square of the gun is adjusted, centred, ture by which they can attain the bottom of the rarefied and fixed ; the chace of the gun is also fixed in a collar column; and they carry the flame of the coal against the N, in which it is to revolve. (The collar in the figure is pig-iron, which is thereby brought into fusion. From the represented too near the muzzle ring.) iron thus fused only one large gun is cast at a time, the The axis on which each gun is fixed may be set in gear, furnace not being capable of melting more metal than is or put in connection with the revolving axis of the marequisite for that purpose. chine, so as to move round with it; or taken out of gear so The gun is cast with two appendages, which are to come as to remain at rest, although the other parts of the maoff before it is finished and ready for use. The one is a chine continue in movement. There are various methods square piece beyond the cascabel, for fixing the gun so as of doing this. One is given by Smeaton in the work above to revolve with the axis of the boring-mill; and the other cited. After the gun is fixed on the axis, and before beis the head. ginning the operation of boring, the head, which has been The head in cast-iron cannon is a mass of cast-iron two described above, is cut off near the muzzle ring. For this or three feet long, and somewhat bell-shaped. It is a pro- purpose the gun is set in gear so as to revolve on its axis longation of the mass of metal beyond the muzzle ring, and, with the moving power; and a bar of steel, in shape in the position in which the gun is cast, the head is the and size like the coulter of a plough, is applied at right top of the whole mass, the square beyond the cascabel be- angles to the axis of the gun. The narrow side of this ing the lowest part. After the metal has cooled, the upper bar is sharpened to a cutting edge, so that it has the form surface of the head is cavernous, as is the case with the of one tooth of a very large saw; and this cutting edge surface that is uppermost during the casting and cooling is opposed to the direction of the revolving motion of the of any large body of cast-iron. The sides of the cavities gun, and held strongly on to the gun by a screw pressing in the head are frequently formed of cast-iron crystallized on the bar; the cutter takes off an angular portion at right in a fern-leaf form. The intention of the head is to pre- angles to the axis, till the cylindrical part connecting the vent these cavities, which are formed most abundantly at head with the gun is so much diminished, that the head the upper surface of the cooling cast-iron, from forming is made to fall off by the blow of a hammer applied on it. in the gun itself. But, notwithstanding the precaution of In brass guns, cast with a core, the head was sawed off by casting the gun with a large head, and of mixing proper hand with a blade of steel, whose edge was toothed as a kinds of cast-iron in the air-furnace, it frequently happens saw, while the sides were toothed as files. See the French that small cavities occur in the guns. Encyclopedic—pi anch es, Fonte. Vertical The gun with its head being cast and allowed to cool, it is A great degree of heat is generated by the violent fricboring. conveyed to the boring-mill, where the head is to be taken tion of the steel-cutter on the cast-iron during the operaoff, the cylindrical cavity or bore is to be formed, and the tion of cutting off the heads of guns. The quantity of outside of the gun is to be turned. Formerly the boring this heat has been estimated by Rumford in one of his of guns was done in an upright position; the gun being Essays on Heat. placed above the boring-bar, was fixed in a frame sliding After the head is taken off, the workmen proceed to vertically in grooves. This frame was suspended on each bore the gun. This is done by exposing the revolving side by a block and tackle, and the end of each of the two gun to the action of a steel-cutter, fixed on the end of a ropes was wound round a windlass. By turning these bar, which bar is placed on a carriage, and impelled conwindlasses the gun might be raised or lowered, and by tinually towards the gun. The operation of boring is done this means might be allowed either to press with its whole on the same axis on which the head was cut off, if the weight on the boring-bit, or with any part of its whole power be sufficient; if not, the gun is removed, by means weight. A figure of this apparatus may be seen in the of the crane, to an axis, where it is made to revolve by a French Encyclopedic—planches, Fonte. Another verti- stronger power. cal apparatus for boring cannon is represented in Rinman, The boring-bar is fixed on a carriage sliding in iron Eergiverks Lexicon, Stockholm, 1789, tab. iv. grooves, which are truest when made triangular. The Horizontal The practice which has long been followed in this coun- carriage, which, in the apparatus represented at fig. 5, ting* try is to place the gun horizontally in the boring-mill; and consists merely of the bar on which the rack is, is pressed VOL. v.

42

BORING. Borinff. forward by a pinion P, whose gudgeons are on a fixed frame the bore, are first bored all through, nearly to the intend- Boring, ' BB ; and this pinion works into a rack 11. The axis of the ed calibre of the chamber, and then that part of the bore pinion has mortised holes in it, through which one end of that requires it is enlarged. a lever L is passed ; and the other end of this lever is loadI he cutters in gun-boring become magnetic, in conseed with a weight W, which causes the pinion to propel quence of being continually rubbed in the same direction, the carriage and boring-bar towards the gun. In many so that the boring dust is seen adhering and hanging from boring-machines there are two pinions on the same axis, their edges when they are withdrawn from the gun. acting on two racks; in others, the carriage is propelled It is required that the bore shall be a cylindrical cavity by two upright levers, on the end of one of which acts a whose axis coincides with the axis of the gun: for this weight, hanging from a rope, that passes over a pulley ; purpose, care must be taken to place the axis of the borthe lower end of the upper lever acts on the upper end ing-bar, and that of the gun, both in one horizontal line, of the lower, whilst the lower extremity of the lower lever and it is requisite that these two lines continue in this presses forward the carriage. This method, which is free position during the whole operation of boring. The from any inequalities that may arise from the teeth of the centring of the boring-bar for this purpose requires to be rack, is figured by Smeaton in his Reports, vol. i. p. 396. done by an experienced workman, and an accurately-conAnother method of propelling the carriage of the boring- structed boring-machine is necessary for the continuance bar, is by a screw acting on the end of the carriage. See of the right position. Meyer in the Transactions of the Academy of Stockholm, Whilst on the axis of the mill, the gun has a smooth 1782, tab. ix. outer surface given it by turning tools, which are applied The boring-bar is a very strong piece of wrought iron, of in the way usual in turning metals; a wooden gauge, or less diameter than the intended calibre of the piece, in cut-out profile, of the gun, with its intended mouldings, order that the boring dust or shavings detached by the being applied to know when the turning has been concutter may be got out. The boring bar is increased in tinued to a proper depth. When this is done the gun is diameter near the end, for some inches, see fig. 6, B; in taken out of the boring-mill; the square at the cascabel this part there is a superficial groove for receiving the is cut oft by the chisel; and the trunions, and other parts sides of the steel-cutter or bit, which is to be firmly fixed which are not susceptible of being turned, are dressed by in the bar. The bit T, fig. 6, is made from a rectangular the chisel. The cyphers and arms which had been cast piece of a steel bar, in which the two upper angles are cut on the gun are finished by the chisel. olf obliquely, so as to form two cutting edges like an obA cannon is said to constitute the ultima ratio regum, tuse-angled drill; the side of the rectangle, opposite to the last argumenUhat governments have recourse to ; and the point of the drill, is then hollowed out in the form of a even this severe kind of argument has sometimes been empigeon hole ; and this hollow fits into and embraces the solid bellished. Amongst ornamented cannon, the brass threepart of the boring-bar, whilst the sides of the pigeon hole pounder in the Tower, brought from Malta, is a masterfit into the grooves of the bar. The point of this obtuse- piece ; it is covered with carving in a good taste by a angled bit is pressed against the revolving metal of the sculptor of Rome. gun, by the force which propels the boring-bar; and the The touch-hole is drilled by stock and bit, or by drill edges coming in contact with the revolving metal, a coni- and bow; the drill being propelled by a lever placed on a cal cavity is produced; so that, by taking off successively carriage, movable on wheels. A figure of this apparatus a multitude of similar shells or shavings, the cylindrical is given in the Encyclopedie—planches, Fonte. Another bore, with a conical termination, is formed. The diameter apparatus for this purpose is figured in Rinman, Bergwerhs of the pointed bit first used must be less than the intend- Lexicon, table xiv. fig. 9, 10. See also Monge, Deed calibre of the piece, as the boring is to be repeated scription de VArt de Fabriquer les Canons, in 4to, Paris, again at least once, in order to make the internal cylin- 1794. This work was published by order of the revoludrical surface as smooth as possible, by taking off any in- tionary government, and distributed to the iron-masters equalities that have been left by the first cutter. In and founders in different parts of France, for their instrucfinishing the bore, a cross bit may be employed. It is a tion. It contains, amongst others, figures and descriptions rectangular piece of steel, ground to a cutting edge at of two kinds of vertical boring machines, of three kinds each end, and put through a hole in the boring-bar, in of horizontal boring machines, of a machine for turning vhich it is fixed. The edges of this cutter, in revolving, the trunions, of two different machines for boring the describe a cylindrical surface. After the cylindrical sur- touch-hole, of a machine for putting copper boshes in face of the bore is made sufficiently true, and of the re- brass guns, and of various instruments for examining and quired calibre, a bit without a point, and rounded off to proving guns. the desired curve, is used to form the bottom of the Before the gun is sent off, it is examined and proved in chamber. various ways. And first, to ascertain whether the bore is Some recommend that the boring-bit for cast-iron free from holes, an instrument is employed, consisting of should have its cutting edges brought to an acute angle, several elastic steel prongs disposed in a circle, and with by being filed hollow; but in this case the two edges can- their sharp points turned outwards. This being fixed on a not be brought into one point; for the obtuse-angled edge pole, is introduced into the bore of the gun, and drawn to formed by the thickness of the metal of the bit joins the and fro; the points of the prongs press against the sides two cutting edges crossways, and forces itself forwards by of the bore, and the presence of a hole is known b}^ one being near the centre, requiring, however, a considerable of the prongs getting into the hole, and preventing the inpressure. These hollow-edged bits are not so well adapt- strument from being drawn out directly, unless by the use ed to continuance of grinding as the plain ones, but they of a ring that is pushed over the prongs to unbend them. make amends by their much less frequently wanting sharpThere is another instrument, composed of a board twice ening. It does not appear, however, that these hollow- as long as the bore of the piece. Along the middle of the edged bits have been found advantageous in gun-boring. board is a groove proceeding in a straight line. In this i he howitzer appears to have had its origin in Ger- groove a button is movable, and on the button, as a centre, many. I his piece of ordnance, the mortar, and the car- are fixed two radii or arms; the two ends of these arms ronade, in all of which the diameter of the chamber for within the gun describe a line on the inside ofthebore when the powder is smaller than the diameter of the rest of the button is pushed inwards, whilst the extremities of the

BORING. 43 Boring, arms on the outside describe two similar lines on the part ed in 1802 by Mr Billingsley, engineer of the Bowling Boring, / ' of the board that is situate without the bore. In this way iron-works, near Bradford. (See Repertory of Arts, second the outline of a longitudinal section of the bore is describ- series, vol. ii. p. 322.) According to his method the cy- Billingsed, and its sinuosities or deviation from the axis are ren- linder is placed with its axis perpendicular to the horizon. "^ema' dered sensible. This instrument is seldom used; it re- The object of this is, first, that the boring-dust may fall quires to be made by a workman skilled in the construc- out, and not remain on one side of the cylinder, wearing the tion of mathematical instruments, or in watchmaking. cutters; so that in this way the cylinder may be bored A lighted wax-candle is introduced into the gun for the through without changing the cutters, by which means a purpose of seeing any defects there may be in the bore, more regular bore is obtained. Secondly, That the cylinor the light of the sun is reflected into the bore by a mir- der may not deviate from its cylindrical form by its own ror. The strength of the gun is proved by firing it with weight, a deviation which is found to take place in large a large charge of powder; and by forcing water into the and slender cylinders when laid on their side ; the vertibore by a powerful forcing pump, the touch-hole being cal diameter being then less than the horizontal diameter. stopped, and also the mouth of the piece, so that water A similar loss of shape may happen to cylinders that are forced in by the mouth cannot return that way. improperly wedged and strapped down for the purpose of Cylinders. 2. Boring of Cylinders for steam-engines, and for being bored. In this method the cylinder is fixed with blowing machines, and the boring of the working barrels screws by the flanges, where it is most capable of resistof large pumps, and other hollow cylinders in which pis- ance, and the screws are disposed so as to press the cylintons are to work, is performed by making the steel-cutters der equally all round. Thirdly, That the operation may describe a cylindrical surface on the inside of the cylin- be sooner completed, which is effected in consequence of der, whilst the cylinder remains fixed. The first steam- less time being employed to fix the cylinder in this meengine cylinders in this country were of brass, or of a mix- thod. In the usual mode of propelling the cutters deture of copper and tin. This was the case with the cylin- scribed above, the attendance of a man is necessary to der of the steam-engine erected in the early part of the change the position of the bar on the axis of the pinion, eighteenth century for lifting water from the colliery of and to raise the weight. This attendance is dispensed Elphinston in Stirlingshire. But since that period the with in the machine under consideration, the mechanism . construction of steam-engines, and the manufacture of for propelling the cutters being as follows : A leather strap cast-iron, have been greatly improved; the uses of both passing over the boring-bar communicates the revolving have been much extended; and cast-iron has now for a motion of the boring-bar to a wheel, which communicates long time been the only material employed in making a slow motion by a train of wheels and pinions to an axis, cylinders for steam-engines, and other large cylinders in bearing two pinions which work into two racks ; and these which pistons are to move! racks push the boring-head and cutters slowly forward on In the boring of cylinders the steel-cutters are fixed in the boring-bar, at the same time that the boring-head is a cutter-head, which revolves with the boring-bar at the revolving with the boring-bar. The velocity with which same time that it is impelled along the interior surface of it is required that the cutters shall advance varies as the the cylinder by a rack, with a pinion moved by a lever and diameter of the cylinder varies, the moving power reweight as already described. The axis or boring-bar em- maining the same. And by altering the train of wheelployed for cylinders is a hollow tube of cast-iron, and has a work, the cutters may be made to advance with any velogroove passing through it; the length of this groove being city required. proportioned to the length of the cylinder to be bored. Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4, Plate CIX., are different views Murray’s The cutter-head consists of two cast-iron rings, the first of the machine for boring cylinders, invented by Mr of which is accurately fitted on the boring-bar, which is Murray of Leeds. Fig. 1 is an elevation, and fig. 2 a turned truly cylindrical, so that this ring may slide along plan, of the machine. W, figs, land 2, is the spur wheel, the boring-bar ; the second ring is fixed round the first by deriving its motion from water or steam, and communiwedges, its diameter being proportioned to the diameter of cating a revolving motion to the boring-bar. The toothed the cylinder to be bored; and on its circumference are wheel A, fig. 1, moves round with the boring-bar B on eight notches to receive the steel-cutters, which are fixed which it is fixed; it gives motion through the wheels U in by wedges. The firstring is fixed on the boring-bar so as and E, and to the screw S, whose threads act on the two to make the whole cutter-head move round with the bor- racks, which racks are fixed to the cutter-head H, and ing-bar, by means of two small iron bars, which go through revolve with it. The velocity with which the cutter-head notches in the first ring, and pass through the groove of is impelled along the cylinder depends upon the number the boring-bar. These small bars have each a round hole of threads of the screw in a given length, and on the proin the part which passes through the geometrical axis of portions of the wheels A, C, I), and E, to each other. By the boring-bar; through these round holes there passes a varying the velocity of the screw, the cutter-head may be bolt, which forms the end of the rack; a key is put made to move in either direction up or down the cylinder. through the end of the bolt, which prevents the rack from F is a pinion whose axis ends in a square, which may be being drawn back by the lever and weight; and by this wrought by a key, so as to bring the cutter-head out of means the rack, impelled by the lever and weight, pushes the cylinder, or push it home by the hand when that is forward the cutter-head, which is at the same time revolv- required. The cylinder is fixed in its bed by screws ing with the boring-bar ; while the connection of the rack passing through two iron rings, as represented at fig. 4; and cutter-head being round, and in the axis of motion, and in this way the cylinder is equally pressed in the difthe rack is thereby free from the circular motion of the ferent parts of its circumference. Fig. 3 is a transverse cutter-head. This mode of constructing the boring-bar elevation of the collar in which the end of the bar at A, was invented in the works of Mr Wilkinson, at the time fig. 1, turns; X is the gudgeon in which the spindle X, when accurately-bored cylinders came to be required in fig. 1, turns. In fig. 3 are also seen the two apertures consequence of Mr Watt's improvements in the steam- through which the two racks pass. By this machine also engine. In the machines about to be mentioned the cut- the flanges are turned truly plane, so that the lid of the ters are made to advance by a train of wheels deriving cylinder may fit on exactly. their motion from the power that turns the boring-bar. The patent granted in 1799 to Mr Murdoch, engineer, An apparatus of great merit was contrived and describ- Redruth, for new methods of constructing steam-engines

44 BOR I N G. Boring. (See Repertory of Arts, vol. xiii.), contains some articles a brass plate, div ided in the same way as the plate of the Boring, Jt'relative to boring. He employs an endless screw, which machine for cutting the teeth of clock-wheels. turne( patent^ 3 wheel, ^ ^.v ^le and works into toothed of Portland Stone, so as to form pipes. Portland whose axismoving carriespower, the cutter-head; and a this me- ..1 hat Boring kind of calcareous stone called by geologists oolite,stoIiethod, he says, produces a more smooth and steady motion which is quarried for building at Portland, Bath, in the than the usual mode of fixing the boring-bar immediately neighbourhood of the city of Paris, and other places, adon the axis turned by the moving power. mits of being cut by means of an iron blade, acting as a Another article in Mr Murdoch’s patent that relates to saw, with sand and water. The more compact limestones boring, is his method of forming the cylinder and steam- and marbles are also cut in this way, but not so easily. case. He casts them of one solid piece, and then bores I he other kinds of stone that can be squared for building, a cylindiical interstice, by means of a boring-tool, made such as ^sandstone and granite, do not yield to the saw, of a hollow cylinder of iron, with steel-cutters fixed to its but aie wormed into the desired shape by the chisel and edge, and acting like a trepan. hammer. A modification of this mode of working PortI he chambers of brass pumps, whose diameter does not land stone consists in forming it into pipes. The method exceed a few inches, are fixed within iron rings, by means of Sir George Wright, proposed in 1805, is as follows : A of screws, in the manner described above when speaking hole is drilled through the block of stone, in which a long of Mr Murray’s apparatus. The rings are made accu^ iron bolt is inserted for the saw to work round as a centre ; rately cylindrical by turning, as is also the boring-bar. this bolt forms the axis of the cylinder which is to be I he boring-bar has four cross arms on its outer extremity, taken out, and projects considerably beyond the block at to one of which a handle is fixed, whereby a workman both ends. Another hole is drilled in the intended circummakes the boring-bar revolve. The cutter-head is made ference ; and into this the blade of the saw is introduced. to advance along the boring-bar by a screw. The frame of the saw is so disposed, that when it is Muskets. 3. Boring the Barrels of Muskets and other wrought to and fro, the blade is guided, by means of the Small Arms. Rectangular pieces of iron are forged of a centre bolt, so as to describe the intended cylindrical cirproper length and breadth ; these are heated in the fire, cumference. In this way a solid cylindrical core of stone and the two long edges, which had been previously thinned is detached, and a cylindrical cavity or pipe left in the off, are welded together on a mandril. The barrel thus block. Or the saw may be made to describe a circle withformed is fixed by a screw on a carriage that moves in out drilling a hole in the centre, by drilling a hole in the iron grooves; this carriage is propelled towards the boring- circumference, and fixing on the surface of the stone two bar by a rope which passes over pullies, and has a weight metallic concentric rings, so that the hole shall be includhanging from its end. The boring-bar is turned by the ed in the interstice between the rings. The saw is then power of the same mill that turns the grinding-stones for introduced into the hole, and being worked, it cuts in the polishing the outside of the barrels. (See Encyclopedie— circular path formed by the interstice of the rings. See planches, Arquebusier ; and Rozier, Introduction aux Repertory of Arts, second series, vol. viii. Observations sur la Physique, tom. i. p. 157.) Water is Mr Murdoch’s method, for which he obtained a patent in thrown on the barrels whilst boring from a trough placed 1810, is preferable in practice to the above-mentioned underneath. After the barrel is bored, the interior sur- method. He employs a cylindrical saw to form the pipe. face of the bore is polished by the action of the boring- A plug of wood is inserted in the centre of the intended bar. The barrel is tried during the operation, by an iron pipe ; this plug receives the lower end of a vertical spindle, gauge of an inch and a half in length, and of a diameter longer than the intended pipe; and this spindle is square, equal to the intended diameter of the musket. When the with sockets sliding on it. On the upper part of the spindle barrel is bored, it is held to the light and looked through, is a pulley or toothed-wheel, by which the spindle is made and if it contains any flaw, the place of that flaw is mark- to revolve. Near the lower end of the spindle is a wheel, ed on the outside with chalk, and the barrel is put on the having a circumference like a hoop, three inches broad. mandril again, and the defective place heated and ham- The diameter of this wheel is somewhat less than that of mered ; the workman also examines with a gauge whether the pipe to be bored. It regulates the motion, and fits the barrel is crooked. When the bore has no flaws, the in the inside of a tube of metal attached to the spindle. barrel then undergoes the operation of the grinding-mill, The diameter of the tube is nearly equal to that of the into the effect of polishing its exterior surface. tended pipe ; but its length is greater by two feet. On the Rifled barrels are put on a bench twelve feet long. The lower edge of the tube is a rim of metal, so much thicker boring-bar is guided by a matrix or female-screw, whose than the tube that the groove cut in the stone by the rim spiral curve is similar to the spiral of the rifles intended may admit the tube to move freely in it. This rim has to be made ; the boring-bar being fixed to a male-screw, an edge like that of a stone-cutter’s saw, and in fact perwhich passes through the female-screw, and fits it exact- forms the office of a saw. The tube is caused to make a ly. The female-screw is fixed to the bench, and has four reciprocating circular motion round the spindle. There threads and as many furrows; and these threads, in general, is a cistern placed above the tube, for the purpose of conreturn to the point of the circumference from which they veying a mixture of sand and water into the cylindrical set out, or make a revolution in the length of two feet. groove formed in the stone, whilst the machine is working. I he male-screw, which fits into the female-screw, has at Stone pipes, made in the above described way, have one end an iron bar attached to it, by which it is put in been tried for conveying water in London. They were motion ; at the other extremity is fixed the boring-bar, joined by means of Parker’s cement, which consists of clay which passes through the barrel to be rifled; and the bor- ironstone, burnt, ground to a fine powder, and mixed with ing-bar has a cutter fixed in it, which forms a spiral furrow mortar. This was the best material that could be got for in the barrel when the screw is turned by the handle. forming the joints; but these joints cracked and allowed I he number of spiral threads in rifle-barrels is from three the water to escape, in consequence of the motion of the to twelve. Sometimes the threads and furrows of the rifle- carriages on the streets under which the pipes were laid, barrel are required to be in straight lines ; in which case or of the requisite beating down of the superincumbent a straight-lined matrix is used. In order that the threads earth. may be placed at an equal number of degrees of the cir5. Boring of Rocks, for the purpose of blasting, has cumference from each other, the bench is furnished with already been treated of under Blasting, and we shall onlyRock °C S"

BOR bor 45 Boring, add here a description of Hunter’s Stone-boring Machine. smaller pipe, or of being applied to some other use in car- Borissov —This implement consists of two parallel bars of steel, bound pentry. {Repertory of Arts, vol. ix.) This kind of borer together at the ends, supporting a traversing carriage, through is like the trepan, which is a hollow cylinder of steel, saw- Borlase. the centre of which passes a spiral auger attached to a toothed on the edge, and, when made to revolve rapidly screwed bar ; this bar fits into a female screw-clamp above on its axis in the hand of the surgeon, saws or bores out the carriage, and on the upper end is a winch with four cross circular pieces of the flat bones of the head. (w. A. c.) handles. When the instrument is to be used, it is fixed BORISSOV, a town of European Russia, government, down to the stone to be pierced by a moveable screw-cramp and 40 miles N.E. of the town, of Minsk, on the left bank at each end, and the auger being made to revolve by means of the Berezina. It is only memorable for the disastrous of the winch, scoops out at each revolution as great a depth passage of the Berezina effected in the neighbourhood of stone as is equal to the distance which the screw de- by the remains of the F rench army on its retreat from scends. I he chips ascend through the spiral channel of Moscow. the auger, and are thrown off at the top. The peculiar BORJA, a towm of Spain, province of Zaragoza, the shape of the point of the auger prevents its being rapidly chief place of a partido of the same name, on the confines abraded, as it operates by chipping the stone and not by of Navarre and Castile. Pop. 4239, chiefly engaged in grinding it away. Ihis implement has been used very suc- agriculture. cessfully at various wrorks. At Arbroath harbour, in partiBORKUM, an island of Hanover, on the coast of East cular, upwards of 30,000 linear feet were bored for receiv- Friesland, situated between the mouths of the East and ing the oaken trenails which were used for strengthening West Ems. It is about twelve miles in circumference, and the masonry against the action of the waves. The Arbroath so low in the middle that it is separated into two parts at stone is from a bed which underlies the old red sandstone. high water. A considerable proportion of the inhabitants It is fissile in one plane like slates, and it is this property consists of seafaring people, and the remainder draw their which fits it for street pavements. It consists of fine grit support from the rearing of cattle, or in picking up the and schistose debris. (Vide Minutes of Institution of Civil fragments of vessels wrecked on their coast. It has a goEngineers, vol. ii., p. 146.) vernor, a Calvinistic minister, and a schoolmaster. The A Mr Talbot of America is reported to have recently spire of the church, which serves as a lighthouse, is in Eat. invented a boring machine of immense power, which was 53. 35. N. Long. 6. 41. E. Pop. about 500. applied with success to tunnelling through solid rock. We BORLACE, Dr Edmond, an eminent physician and have had no means of ascertaining the accuracy of this English writer, was the son of Sir John Borlace, who was report, and any notice of it must be deferred for the master of the ordnance, and one of the lords justices of Irepresent. land in 1643. He studied in Dublin College, and after6. Boring of Wooden Pipes is done by means of a long wards at Leyden, where he took the degree of doctor of Wooden pipes. auger, beginning with one of small diameter, and proceeding physic. He practised with success at Chester, and was into employ successively spoon-formed augers of larger dia- corporated doctor of the faculty in the university of Oxford. meter. Elm is the w ood generally preferred for pipes to con- Among other works he published the following:—The vey water. When a tree is to be bored, it is fixed on a car- Reduction of Ireland to the crown of England, London, riage, with a rack on the under part. This rack fits into a 1675, 8vo; The History of the Irish Rebellion, London, pinion, the axis of which passes through gudgeons on a fixed 1680, 8vo ; Brief Reflections on the Earl of Castlehaven’s frame. On the axis of the pinion is a ratchet wheel, moved Memoirs, London, 1682, folio. He died about 1682. by two catches, which derive their motion from the wind or BORLASE, William, a learned antiquary and naturalist, water power that turns the auger; and the pinion is moved born at Pendeen in Cornwall, of an ancient family, Feb. 2. in a direction that briijgs the tree towards the auger. (See 1696. He was educated at Exeter College, Oxford, where a figure in Belidor, Architecture Ilydraulique, i. 1, 341.) he took his degree as master of arts. In 1720 he was This apparatus is the same as the one employed in saw- ordained as priest; instituted in 1722 to the rectory of Ludgmills. Wooden pipes are frequently bored by an auger van in Cornwall; and in 1732 was presented to the vicarage having at its outer end a wooden drift or handle, which is of St Just, his native parish. In the parish of Ludgvan are put in motion by the workman. The trees are placed on rich copper works, abounding with mineral and metallic tressels, and there are also tressels of a convenient height fossils, of which he made a collection, and thus was led to that support the auger; there is also a lathe to turn one study at large the natural history of the county. In 1750 end of the tree conical, so as to fit into a conical cavity in he was admitted a fellow of the Royal Society; and in the end of the adjoining tree, and thus form a water-tight 1(53 he published in folio, at Oxford, his Antiquities oj joint. The end of the tree which receives the adjoining Cornwall, a second edition of which was published at Lonpipe within it has a surface at right angles to the axis of the don, 1.69, with the title of “ Antiquities, Flistorical and pipe. Into this surface is driven an iron hoop, the diameter Monumental, of the County of Cornwall; consisting of of which is some inches greater than the diameter of the several essays on the ancient inhabitants, Druid superstiaperture of the pipe. This precaution prevents the tree tion, customs, and remains of the most remote antiquity in from splitting when the conical end of the next tree is driven Britain and the British isles, exemplified and proved by home. When the tree is crooked, a bore is driven in from monuments now extant in Cornwall and the Scilly Islands ; each end, and the two bores meet, forming an angle. An with a vocabulary of the Cornu-British language.” His auger whose stalk is formed spirally for some way up is next publication was Observations on the ancient and prefigured in Bailey’s Machines of the Society of Arts. The sent state of^ the islands of Scilly, and their importance to object of this is that the chips may be delivered without the trade of Great Britain, Oxford, 1756, 4to. In 1758 taking the auger out of the hole. appeared his Natural History of Cornwall, Oxford, folio. A patent was granted in 1796 to Mr Howell, coalmaster, He presented to the Ashmolean Museum a variety of fosof Oswestry, for boring wooden pipes by a hollow cylinder sils and antiquities which he had described in his works ; made of thin plates of iron, about an inch less in diameter for which, and similar benefactions, he received the thanks5 than the hole to be bored. To one end of this cylinder is of the university, and the degree of LL.D. Fie died Aug. fixed a, flange about a quarter of an inch in breadth, one 31. 17(2, at the age of seventy-seven, leaving twro sons. part of which is divided, so that, being constructed of steel, Besides his other literary connections, he had a particular it forms a cutter. The object of this method is to bore out a solid cylinder of wood, capable of being converted into a correspondence with Pope; and there is still extant a large collection of the poet s letters to Dr Borlase. Besides the

46 BOR Bormio works above mentioned, he contributed many curious papers I to the Philosophical Transactions. °rn* , BORMIO, a town of the Austrian kingdom of Lorn ^ hardy, in the province of Valteline, 29 miles N.E. of Sondrio. It is situated at the foot of a lofty hill of the same name, on the left bank of the Adda, is wrell built, and contains about 2000 inhabitants. Long. 9. 51. E. Lat. 46. 28. N. In the vicinity are the celebrated Bagni di Bormio, still in repute. BORN, Ignatius, Baron Yon, counsellor in the aulic chamber of the mint and mines at Vienna, an eminent mineralogist and metallurgist, was born of a noble family, at Karlsburg in Transylvania, in 1742. He was educated in a Jesuit college at Vienna, and afterwards entered into that order, which, however, after sixteen months, he quitted. He then studied law at Prague, and afterwards travelled into Germany, Holland, and France. On his return to Prague he engaged in the study of mineralogy. The mines in the dominions of the house of Austria support a numerous population. Idria produces mercury; Bohemia, tin and cobalt; and the other metals are obtained in sufficient abundance, not only for the home supply, but also for export. Maria Theresa did much for the regulation of the mines ; and, with a view to diffusing the knowledge of mineralogy amongst the nobles, she appointed lecturers on that science in the universities. The administration of the revenue arising to government from this source is conducted by a board of managers, overseers, assayers, and other officers, who are instructed in metallurgy and mineralogy, and reside at the mines. The operations of these functionaries are under the control of the aulic chamber of the mint and mines at Vienna. An administration thus constituted offers a field of some preferment; and Von Born was received into the department of the mines and mint at Prague in 1770. About this time he met with an accident which nearly proved fatal. In the course of a mineralogical journey through Transylvania, he came to Felso-Banya, where the gangue is rendered brittle and detached from the rock by exposing it to the flames of wood heaped up in the mine and set on fire. Having gone into the mine soon after the combustion had ceased, whilst the air was hot, and charged with arsenical vapour, he was deprived of sensation for fifteen hours, and long afterwards continued to suffer from a cough and general pain. Some time after this accident he was affected with violent colics, which a large dose of opium removed ; this was succeeded by a numbness of the lower extremities, and lameness in the right leg. In the latter part of his life he was deprived of the use of both legs. These calamities, however, did not repress the activity of his mind. One of the chief objects of his exertion was to introduce amalgamation in Hungary, in place of smelting and cupellation, for extracting silver from the ores. At this time he published his book upon the subject, in which he gives the chemical theory of operation, and describes the method he had adopted at Schemnitz. Von Born met with much opposition in his attempts to introduce amalgamation. After he had succeeded in getting silver from the ore publicly at Vienna, his detractors endeavoured to prove that the process was inferior to that already in use : and when at last his process was tried successfully in the great way by orders of Joseph II. at Schemnitz, his opponents shrugged up their shoulders, saying, “ It is only the old Spanish process of amalgamation.” The emperor ordered that his method should be employed in some of the mines belonging to government, and that he should receive a third part of the savings arising from the improvement during the first ten years, and four per cent, of this third part of the savings for the next twenty years. \ on Born was a satirist, though his attempts in that walk were not particularly successful. The Staats Peruche, a

BOR tale published without his knowledge in 1772, and an attack on Father Hell, the Jesuit, and king’s astronomer at \ ienna, are two of his satirical works. The satirical description of the Monastic Orders, written in form of an academic inaugural dissertation, entitled Monachologia, is generally ascribed to Von Born. In this piece the monks are described in the technical language of natural history; but it is supposed that he was assisted by Professor Herman of Strasburg, the author of the very ingenious work on the mutual affinities of animated beings, entitled Tabula Affinitatum Animalium Commentario illustrata. (Of this clever work a new edition, with additions and illustrations, was published in Edinburgh, 8vo, 1852.) Von Born wtis well acquainted with Latin, and the principal modern languages of Europe. He also possessed information in many branches of science not immediately connected with metallurgy and mineralogy. He took an active part in the political changes in Hungary. After the death of Joseph, the diet of the states of Hungary passed a great many acts, rescinding the innovationsof that scheming ruler ; and it conferred the rights of denizen on several persons who had been favourable to the cause of the Hungarians, and, amongst others, on Von Born. At the time of his death in 1791, he was employed in writing a work entitled Leopoldini, probably relating to the prudent conduct of Leopold II., the successor of Joseph, towards the Hungarians. Von Born lived in splendour, and his house at Vienna was resorted to by scientific men of all nations. It is likely that his profits from the process of amalgamation were not considerable, as at his death his affairs were in a state of insolvency. His family consisted of a wife and two daughters, who survived him. (See Townson’s Travels in Hungary ; and Pezzil, Ostreich Biographien, 1792.) The following is a list of his principal published writings, and of the works of others which he edited. Lythophylacium Borneanum, 1775, 8vo. This is a catalogue of his collection of minerals, which he afterwards sold to Mr Greville. It now forms a part of the magnificent Greville collection in the British Museum. Index rerum naturalium Museci Ccesarei Vindobonensis. Pars I. Testacea. Vindob. 1778, fol. maj. This splendid volume contains the description and figures of the shells in the museum at Vienna. On the Amalgamation of Ores containing Gold and Silver, published in German, 4to, 1786; It has been translated into English by Raspe. Catalogue mhhodique et raisonnl de la Collection des Fossiles de Mademoiselle Eleonore de Ilaab, 8vo, 1790. Poda’s Description of the Machines used in the Alines of Schemnitz, edited by Von Born. Ferber’s Letters from Italy, written to and edited by Von Born. Ferber, in return, published the letters addressed to him by Von Born, under the title of Briefe iiber mineralogische gegenstande auf seiner reise durch das Temeswarer Bannat, Siebenburgen, Ober und Nieder Hungarn. Frankf. 1774. There is an English version by Raspe, and a French one by Monnet. Some papers in the Abhandlungen der Bbhmischer gesellschaft den Wissenchaften. Several papers in the Transactions of a Private Society at Prague, for the improvement of mathematics, natural history, and the civil history of the country. Von Born published an annual periodical work in German, entitled the Philosophical Transactions of the Alasons’’ Lodge of Concord at Vienna, of which institution he was the founder and patron. He was also a zealous member of the Society of Illuminati; and when the Elector Palatine of Bavaria suppressed the masonic societies in his dominions, Von Born who was a member of the Academy of Sciences at Munich, on being required to declare whether he would withdraw from the masonic societies, resigned his place in the academy. He wrote some articles in the German work published by Trebra, mine-director at Zellerfeld in the Hartz, entitled A System of Instruction in the Art of Working Alines, 4to; also Observations in support of the Aletallization of the Alkalies, in Crell’s Annals, 1790, 1791. Ruprecht and Tondi thought at that time that they had reduced the alkalis and barytes to a metallic state, by the heat of a furnace urged by bellows ; but it was afterwards found that the metallic substance thus obtained was phosphate of iron, proceeding from their crucibles and fluxes. The honour of obtaining this result was reserved for Sir Humphry Davy. Relatio de Aurilegio Dacice Transalpince, 1789, in the Nova Acta Academice Naturae Curiosorum, tom. viii. p. 97. This is an account of the method employed in Transylvania in collecting gold from the sand of the rivers. (w. a. C.)

Born

B O R N E 0. 47 Borneo. BORNEO, or, as it is called by the natives Brune, an and measures, manufacture counterfeit articles, and embrace, Borneo, island forming part of the great East Indian Archipelago, in short, every opportunity of cheating that offers. The Eng- v ^ / and, next to New Holland, which may be considered as a lish East India Company made an attempt, in 1772, to estaspecies of continent, the largest in the known world. It blish a factory here, but it did not succeed. jar Massin is the principal state on the southern coast reaches from about 7° north to 4° south latitude, and from of Ban Borneo ; and, like the others, it owes its prosperity to a 109° to 118° east longitude. Its length may be estimated large river, on the banks of which it is situated. This river at 750 miles, its greatest breadth at 600, and its average is five or six fathoms deep ; but, unfortunately, the bar does breadth at 350. Its area has been calculated by Baron not allow above twelve or thirteen feet of water, and requires Melville of Carnbee at 12,745 geographical square leagues. the aid of the tide to produce even that depth. Ships, howIt exhibits the usual insular structure, a mass of lofty moun- ever, may anchor in the port of Tombangou or Tombornio, tains in the centre, sloping gradually down to level and al- near the mouth of the river, where they are well supplied luvial tracts along the sea shore. It is in every part inter- with water and provisions. See Banjakmassin. The sultan sected by fine rivers, many of them navigable to a consi- resides at Martapura, about three days’ journey up the river, which place he is attached by the circumstance of its being derable distance from the sea. The interior of Borneo is to an uncommonly fine hunting station. The district of Ban jar covered with immense forests, filled with wild animals, par- produces gold and diamonds, both of superior quality to those ticularly orang-utans. A great part of the coast is marshy, found in other parts of the island. Pepper is so abundant that, so that it is in portions only that it displays the exuberance in a commercial view, it may be considered as the staple comof tropical fertility. Of all the East Indian islands, Borneo modity. The iron is very excellent, and peculiarly fit for steel; ranks lowest as to civilization and improvement. Nothing, though Dr Leyden asserts that the inhabitants do not themperhaps, has tended so powerfully to check its progress as selves understand the art of manufacturing it. Succadana, or, as Dr Leyden calls it, Sacadina, was once the solid and unbroken form of its coasts, destitute of those large bays or inland seas which have always proved the nur- the most powerful state on the western coast of Borneo. The Dutch began to trade there in 1604, but they soon afterwards sery of commerce. themselves, in preference, to Sambas. In 1623 they The Portuguese discovered Borneo in 1526, though, from attached abandoned their factory at Succadana. In 1786 they united the superior wealth promised by the Spice Islands, it at- with the sultan of Pontianak in an expedition against this tracted comparatively little attention. Yet they, as well as place, which they took and entirely destroyed. It appears to the Spaniards, the Dutch, and the English, formed establish- have been since rebuilt, but is entirely in the hands of the ments on different parts of the coast; but the small force Malays, and scarcely ever visited by Europeans. Pontianak defending them, and the fierce animosity of the natives, is a state of very recent origin, but it now exceeds in wealth made their tenure generally of very short duration. The and power all others upon the western coast of Borneo. This physical structure of Borneo, the vast forests, mountains, distinction it owes to the wisdom of the Arab prince by whom and jungles of the interior, obstruct communication between it was founded. He renounced from the first the pernicious almost universal in these petty states, of embarking in the different parts of its coast, as completely as if an extent policy, and monopolizing its principal articles. He confined of sea had intervened. It is thus split into a number of trade, himself to his proper functions of dispensing justice and sepetty districts, entirely detached from each other, and which curing protection to all, of whatever country or religion, who cannot be satisfactorily described, unless in detail. resorted to his dominions. Under this salutary policy PonBorneo Proper occupies the northern coast, and is reckoned tianak soon rose to be the greatest emporium in those seas. a state of great antiquity. The soil is comparatively fertile, It is situated on a large river, formerly called Laua, and the supplying rice sufficient for the consumption of the inhabitants, country behind produces diamonds the most abundantly of any as well as most of the camphor for which the island is cele- district in Borneo. The Dutch established a factory here in brated. The city, called also Borneo, is built upon alluvial 1776, and maintained ever after a good understanding with the ground, about ten miles above the mouth of the river of the sultan. In 1813, after the British force had taken possession same name. It is compared to Venice ; canals are conducted of Batavia, that prince, dreading an attack from Sambas, solithrough every street, and all business is conducted in boats, cited the protection of a British garrison, which was immediately usually rowed by women. The houses are built upon posts, sent: and he afterwards assisted our troops in the reduction of and ascended to by ladders. The river is navigable for large Sambas. Momparwa, situated a little to the north of Pontianak, vessels considerably above the town ; but there is a bar at its is the best market for opium upon this coast. The city lies entrance, over which there is scarcely a depth of seventeen feet nineteen miles up the river, the entrance of which is obstructed at high water. The sultan is treated with those marks of pe- by a bar and by several small islands. This is probably the culiar respect which in this part of the world usually indicate same district called Mattan by Dr Leyden, who says that the an ancient dynasty ; but the chiefs or pangerans exercise great king possesses the finest diamond in the world, for which a high power in the state. The commerce of this city and district price was offered by the Dutch, which he refused to accept. is almost entirely engrossed by the Chinese, who bring annually Sambas is situated about thirty miles up the river of the same from Amou four or five junks, of about 500 tons burden. As name. Like most other towns in Borneo, it is built of timber the neighbourhood abounds in excellent timber, they frequently and bamboos, and raised by stakes above the swampy foundabuild their junks here, and carry them away loaded with the tion. Sambas has always been a powerful state, but for some commodities of the country. Since the settlement of Sarawak time past has devoted itself so entirely to piracy as to render by Sir James Brooke, in the neighbourhood of this state, it has its existence scarcely compatible with that of its civilized neighsome communication with the English. bours. Upon this principle the British, in 1812, undertook On the eastern coast of Borneo, Mangedava and Pappal are an expedition against it; but they were repulsed with great populous, fertile, and well-watered districts. Malloodoo pos- loss in the attack, and suffered still more from the malignant sesses these advantages in a still superior degree, and grows influence of the climate. In the following year, however, a also a large quantity of rattans. Tiroon produces sago in new expedition was undertaken under Colonel Watson, who, abundance, and birds’ nests more copiously than any other on the 3d of July, carried the fort by storm, and obliged the part of the Eastern Archipelago. None of these states, how- rajah to retire into the interior of his dominions. ever, are much frequented by or known to Europeans. The Besides Sambas and Pontianak, the Dutch government claims chief state on the eastern coast is Passir, situated about fifty possession of all the coast to the river Roti on the east, includmiles up a river of the same name. This district is very low ing the whole of the southern half of the island. With the and flat; and, were it not cooled by the sea breezes, would be exception of a few years, the possession of this extensive intensely hot. Being marshy and filled with woods, it is ex- country has been in the hands of the Dutch since 1787, but tremely unhealthy. The town is said not to contain above 300 they have done very little either to promote the civilization wooden houses, which are built along the river. The sultan of the natives, or to develop the resources of the island. They has a palace and wooden fort along the northern bank. The reckon the population of the residences of Sambas and Ponpeople of Passir have an extremely bad reputation as to their tianak, their possessions on the west, at 590,100, and by census conduct in mercantile transactions. They use false weights made in 1836, 1837, and 1838, they7 calculate the population

48 BORNEO. Borneo, in their dependencies on the south and the east, including most enterprising and industrious character. Their chief set- Borneo Banjarmassin, Mandawa, Sampet, Boeti, &c., at 736,600; in tiement is at Sambas, on the western coast, where the numbers v the islands along the coast at 22,000; making the total popu- cannot be estimated at less than 36,000, composing a sort of lation of the states dependent on the Dutch government independent state. Their almost sole occupation is that of 1,348,700. extracting the gold which abounds upon this coast. It is found On a general view of the state of culture and civilization in m alluvial soil, and is purified by the simple process of passing Borneo, Mr Hamilton estimates the population at 3,000,000, a stream of water over the ore. The processes employed for which we should suppose to be rather above than under the this purpose are daily improving; and the annual yield is caltruth. I he interior is entirely occupied by a native race, culated at about half a million sterling. called variously, according to the parts of the island which 1 he commerce of Borneo, though not equal to its extent and they inhabit, Dyak, Idaan, and Tiroon. Those who subsist natural capacities, is by no means inconsiderable. Gold is its by fishing are commonly called Biajoos. The appellations of principal export. Mr Milburn estimates the annual quantity Horaforas and Maroots have also been applied to these races. exported at 200 peculs, or 26,000 lb. avoirdupois, which would The whole may be considered as one, almost savage race, and com into upwards, of 900,000 guineas. Like some other comnearly similar to that which occupies the interior of Sumatra. modities, it is divided, by a grotesque scale, into three kinds, Some, indeed, cultivate the ground, some display considerable called the head, the belly, and the feet; the first being the industry in fishing, and a few employ themselves in collecting best, and the two others gradually diminishing in value. gold , but their institutions in general indicate the very rudest Camp hire is exported to the extent of thirty peculs (3990 lb.), state of human society. It has been strongly asserted that all to China, where it is more esteemed than that of Sumatra. they devour the flesh of their enemies; an assertion not no- J he singular Chinese luxuries of blche-de-mer or sea-slug, and ticed by Dr Leyden, and which has in many instances been edible bird-nests, are found in Borneo, as over all the Indian made without foundation. All accounts agree, however, as to Archipelago. . Pepper to a considerable amount, canes and the existence of another truly savage custom, by which every rattans of various descriptions, sago, and a little tin, complete man is debarred from the privilege of matrimony till he has, the list of exports. The chief import is opium to a very great with his own hand, cut off the head of an enemy. Those, extent, with piece-goods, hardware, coarse cutlery, arms, and therefore, who are desirous of entering into that state form toys. By far the greater proportion of the trade is in the themselves into, what they call head-hunting expeditions. hands of the Chinese. They make .an inroad into the territories of a neighbouring an< The enterprise of one man, James Brooke, has within the ?’ ^ theirbystrength appear sufficient, endeavour to effect’ their object force ; if otherwise, they conceal themlast few years directed increased attention to this interestinoselves behind thickets, till an unfortunate individual passes, region. whom they can make their prey. Some are also said to imIn 1838 Mr Brooke fitted out with his own funds a molate human victims on the altars of their divinities. The inhabitants of the towns along the coast consist chiefly schooner of 142 tons, for the purpose of exploring the shores of that race so universally diffused throughout the Indian of Borneo. He had previously sailed in the Chinese seas, and islands under the name of Malays. This name, to a European was deeply impressed with the importance of the magniear, has usually suggested every extreme of perfidy and atro- ficent islands to the S.E. of the Straits of Malacca, and con( t T T- .W® have perused, however, a very different estimate ceived the design of reclaiming them from the piratical tribes of their character, formed by an intelligent gentleman, who whose prahus infest the surrounding waters. His first object spent several years in this part of India. He describes them was to obtain more accurate knowledge of the geography as honest, frank, simple, and even gentle in their manners, and condition of the islands. He arrived at Sarawak on decidedly superior, in a moral view, to the degenerate Hindus! the N.W. coast of Borneo, in August 1839, and was well The sanguinary deeds which have exposed them to so much reproach he. ascribes to a proud and almost chivalrous sense of received by Rajah Muda Hassim, the uncle of the then honour, which makes them regard blows, or any similar per- reigning sultan of Borneo, and under him the governor of sonal insult, as an. offence only to be expiated by blood. The Sarawak. Hassim was then engaged in a war with his recoarse and unfeeling treatment which they often experience bellious subjects. After remaining some time at Sarawak, from Dutch and Chinese masters drives them to these dread- making himself acquainted with the country, Mr Brooke ful extremities.. Piracy, however, is a vice of which this race sailed for Singapore, but soon returned. The civil war still cannot be acquitted ; and the western coast of Borneo, situated raging, Muda Hassim solicited his assistance, offering him on the great naval route to China, may be viewed as the grand the government of Sarawak if he succeeded in putting down field for its exercise. To a poor and hardy race, who see half the wealth of Asia passing along their shores, the temptation the rebellion. Mr Brooke joined the rajah, and having comis almost irresistible. Like the Arabs, they have formed for pelled the rebels to surrender, he was then formally instituted themselves, a code of morality, in which plunder is expunged rajah of Sarawak, with the usual native ceremonies. This appointment was ratified by the sultan, and the from the list.of vices. Tet, though individually brave, they possess no skill or discipline which could render them formid- amount of revenue to be paid by Mr Brooke, as rajah of able to the crew of a European vessel. The cowardice of the Sarawak, to the sultan of Borneo, settled at 2500 dollars Lascars, by whom. Indian trading vessels are usually navi- annually. gated, is the only circumstance which has made our trade suffer 1 he wise and vigorous rule of the new rajah was soon so severely from their ravages. visible in the increasing prosperity of his subjects. They Next to the two classes above enumerated, the most numerous are the Chinese. These are considered as the most valu- were, however, cruelly harassed by the numerous pirates able subjects whom an uncivilized state can receive into its by whom they were surrounded. At the conclusion of the bosom. The difficulty of finding subsistence in their own Chinese war in March 1843, H.M.S. Dido, under Captain country has led them to emigrate in vast numbers into Borneo. Keppel, cruising in the straits1 of Malacca, inflicted a severe Nothing, perhaps, except the lawwTiich prohibits female's from chastisement on the pirates. In February 1845 Captain leaving the empire, could have prevented this almost unoccu- Bethune arrived at Sarawak with despatches from the British pied island from being entirely filled with a Chinese popula- government, appointing Mr Brooke Her Britannic Mamn. from this circumstance, however, the Chinese colonists jesty’s regent in Borneo. In 1847 it was resolved by the are composed entirely of men in the vigour of life, and of the British government to take possession of the small island of Coti which^lies on°thp^pic+' Ers^ln® ^urray> Wlth two vessels, entered on a trading expedition to Tanganon, the capital of the Sultan ( river Is inhabfled entireTv hTnJU 1S tlle most °f ^ Same name- The first large town, Semerindon, near the mouth of th srmon and in the conrso nf ve S > bloodthirsty nation of all the tribes of the Archipelago. Passing this, he reached Tar a trade Sons for the seizure o?Thfi-S ne^tlati Tu ftlon ?r °Pofenithe ^ crews ^discovered that the sultan was betraying him, and making prepari destl the shore and from the ni* ^ ' ® ’ - With difficulty the two vessels made their escape from the batteries o nUmerous war and himself was killed g™ boats which followed; and in the encounters during the retreat, Captain Murra

BOR N E O. 49 Borneo. Labuan, lying to the north of the town of Borneo, and the sides these facilities for water communication, there exist three Borneo. —^ N.W. of the island, and which had been ceded by the sultan other branches from the easternmost entrance, called Moratabas, to Gieat Britain. Phis was occupied with the view of form- one of which joins the Samarahan river, and the two others flow ing a convenient naval station between the East Indies and from different points of the mountain range. The country is diverby detached mountains, and the mountain range has an eleChina. Sir James Brooke was appointed governor of this co- sified vation of about 3000 feet. The aspect of the territory may be lony, and took possession on the 2d October 1848. Endea- generally described as low and woody at the entrance of the rivers, vouis were made to induce the sultan to co-operate in the except a few high mountains; but in the interior, undulating in suppression of piracy, but he was either insincere or unable parts, and presenting fine level plains. The climate may be proto induce his subjects to relinquish their cruel practices. nounced healthy and cool, though during the six months from SepIn August 1845 Admiral Sir Ihomas Cochrane, with a con- tember to March a great quantity of rain falls; the thermometer generally about 78°, never above 85°. The more serious siderable force, came to demand reparation for the deten- stands maladies of tropical climates are very unfrequent; the only comtion of two British subjects. He proceeded against a strong plaints to which we have been subject are rheumatism, colds, and body of pirates who occupied a fortified position at the head ague. The soil and productions of this country are of the richest of Maludu Bay, and totally destroyed their works and the description, and it is not too much to say, that within the same town. This lesson, however, had no lasting effect on the given space, there are not to be found the same mineral and vegeriches in any land in the world. The soil of the plains is sultan of Borneo; he resolved to take vengeance on his two table moist and rich, and calculated for the growth of rice, for which uncles, Muda Hassim and Bundureen, who advocated the purpose it was formerly cleared, and used until the distractions of abandonment of piracy. He treacherously attacked them the country commenced. From the known industry of the Dyaks, both during the night in their own houses, and murdered and their partiality to rice cultivation, there can be little doubt that it would become an article of extensive export, provided secuthem and their families. rity were given to the cultivator, and a proper remuneration for Sir Thomas Cochrane in the Spiteful, accompanied by his produce. The lower grounds, besides rice, are admirably calSir James Brooke, ascended the river to Borneo to de- culated for the growth of sago, and produce canes, rattans, and mand an explanation from the sultan, and after destroying forest timber of the finest description for ship-building, and other the forts and batteries on the river took possession of the useful purposes. The Chinese export considerable quantities of timber from Sambas and Pontianak, particularly of the kind called town, which was found entirely deserted. The people, however, soon returned, but the sultan fled Balean by the natives, or the lion wood of the Europeans ; and at Sarawak it is to be had in far greater quantity, and nearer the place into the interior. After remaining eleven days in the city of sale. The undulating ground differs in soil, some portions of it without being able to compel a satisfactory arrangement, Sir being a yellowish clay, while the rest is a rich mould; these T. Cochrane, with the view of procuring at least a tem- grounds, generally speaking, as well as the slopes of the higher porary security to those who were favourable to the British, mountains, are admirably calculated for the growth of nutmegs, left a proclamation to be delivered to the sultan on his return, coffee, pepper, or any of the more valuable vegetable productions of showing how completely he and his people were at the the tropics. Besides the above-mentioned articles there are birds’nests,bees wax, and several kinds of scented wood in demand at Singamercy of the British; offering to live with him at peace, but, pore, which are all collected by the Dyaks, and would be collected in at the same time, thi’eatening him with condign punish-? far greater quantity, provided the Dyak were allowed to sell them. ment should he again evince hostility to Great Britain. “ Of the principal riches of the country, there are diamonds, gold, All these lessons seem to have been lost on the piratical tin, iron, and antimony ore ; and when the country is explored by Dyaks, but a much more severe chastisement awaited them. men of science, it may be expected that its mineral wealth will be found more abundant. The quantity of gold yearly procured at SamWhen Rear-Admiral Sir F. A. Collier was stationed at bas is moderately stated at half a million sterling. The most intelliSarawak in August 1849, information was received that a gent Chinese are of opinion that the quantity got here exceeds the very large piratical flotilla, consisting of upwards of 100 quantity at Sambas, and there is no good reason to suppose it would prahus, averaging 35 men each, had passed the entrance of fall short of it, when once a sufficient Chinese population is settled in the Raluka from the Sarebas, with the intention of attack- the country. Antimony ore is a staple commodity, which is to be proing Sareki, atown on the Rejang. The admiral and Sir James cured in any quantity. Tin is said to be plentiful, and the Chinese working it. Brooke concerted a plan for intercepting them in their pro- propose ‘ In describing the inhabitants I feel sure that their sufferings gress, which was completely successful; the piratical flotilla and miseries will command the interest and sympathy of every was almost entirely destroyed, about 500 men killed, and a person of humanity, and that the claims of the virtuous and larger number are supposed to have perished in the jungle. most unhappy Dyaks will meet the same attention as those of Sir James Brooke, while acting as governor of the British the African. And these claims have this advantage, that much colony of Labuan, retains his dignity and rights as rajah of good may be done without the vast expenditure of lives and money which the exertions on the African coast yearly cost, and Sarawak, from which he considers himself entitled to draw that the people would readily appreciate the good that was consuch revenue as is consistent with the prosperity of his ferred upon them, and rapidly rise in the scale of civilization. The domains. He holds the monopoly of antimony in his own inhabitants may be divided into three different classes, viz., the hands, and his income from all sources is about L.6000 Malays, the Chinese, and the Dyaks; of the two former little need a-year; but this, as he says in a letter to his friend J. C. be said, as they are so well known. The Malays are not numerous, and, generally speaking, with the exception of the Borneo panTempler, even in addition to his private fortune, is small gerans, are well inclined to aid me as far as lies in their power. when opposed to the numerous calls upon it, and is all laid The Chinese are about four hundred in number, and the only imout to advance the good of the country. pediment to their immigrating is their poverty, and the present high The inhabitants of his province of Sarawak he calculates price of provisions. The Chinese are industrious, but greedy, supple, at 12,000 in the town, and from 12,000 to 15,000 in the and oppressive; they are divided into kunsis or companies, and a country, besides from 3000 to 4000 Malays along the coast. rival company to the one at present at Sarawak offers to bring three thousand men in a few months, provided they can get per“ Sarawak,” says Sir James Brooke, “ extends from Tanjong Datu mission to do so. The Dyaks, by far the most interesting portion to the entrance of the Samarahan river, a distance along the coast of the inhabitants, are confined almost entirely to the mountainous of about sixty miles E.S.E., with an average breadth of about fifty country, they have fastnesses to. which they fly on the slightmiles. It is bounded to the westward by the Sambas territory to est alarm.where These people are mild, industrious, and so scrupulously the southward by a range of mountains which separate it from the honest, that a single case of theft has not come under my observaPontianak territory of Sadony. Within this space there are several tion, even when surrounded by objects easily appropriated, and rivers and islands besides the river of Sarawak. There are two tempting from their novelty. In their domestic lives they are navigable entrances to this rivery and numerous smaller branches amiable, and addicted to none of the glaring vices of a wild state; for boats, both to the westward and eastward; the two principal they marry but one wife, and their women are always quoted entrances combine at about twelve miles from the sea, and the river amongst the Malays as remarkable for chastity, nor are theyJ deflows for twenty miles into the interior, in a southerly and westerly graded as in many communities. direction, when it again forms two branches—one running to the he head-hunting, or taking the heads of their enemies, is a fearight, the other to the left hand, as far as the mountain range. Be- tuie J by no means new or extraordinary, and like the scalping of vol. y. G

50 BOR Borneo, the North American Indian, is a trophy of victory and prowess. Amongst the hill Dyaks this custom is confined entirely to the heads of enemies, and is the effect, not the cause of war; their wars are by no means bloody, and are never carried on hut by small companies, who enter on the enemies’ ground, and lie in ambush for parties or individuals of their foes. The exaggerated accounts of some travellers have been drawn from the more savage and predatory tribes of the coast; but these tribes have forsaken their original customs, and have joined piracy to their former practice of taking heads, and they are not different from other pirates who destroy as well as plunder. “ The hill Dyaks, such as I have briefly described them, are a most interesting race, and present more facilities for the amelioration of their condition than any other people. In general, however, they are sunk in misery, and too frequently exposed to famine; but, when only moderately oppressed, I have seen tribes who brought to mind the simplicity, if not the happiness, of primitive society. The number of these people in the country of Sarawak may generally be stated at ten thousand, but, with the slightest protection, numbers who have retired beyond the reach of their cruel oppressors, would return to their former habitations. Their freedom from all prejudice, and their scanty knowledge of religion, would render their conversion to Christianity an easy task, provided they are rescued from their present suffering and degraded state; but, until this be done, it will be vain to preach a faith to them the first precepts of which are daily violated on their own persons. Never, indeed, were people more oppressed, or more wretched; those who are far removed from witnessing their suffering and their patience may consider my sympathy and enthusiasm exaggerated, but I cannot help expressing it. The Dyaks are always considered an inferior race, and a heavy penalty is imposed on them for committing any offence against a Malay; to kill a Malay under any circumstances of aggression, would subject them to death, or even worse punishment; to strike or scufiie with a Mahometan, though he be caught in the act of stealing their property, would likewise be a grave offence; even an accidental injury by a Dyak could only be expiated by the confiscation of all, or nearly all, his property to the Alalay. On the other hand, a Malay killing a Dyak is rarely punished, even by the imposition of a small fine, and the only inconvenience he suffers is being unable to visit that particular tribe, from a just fear of retaliation. The direct tax paid by the Dyaks to their local rulers is trifling in amount, but they suffer afterwards from all sorts of exactions, carried on by means of the most flagrant artifice or violence, by which they are often reduced to famine and starvation.” Sir James Brooke, in his generous and romantic enterprize, has had to contend with obstacles of appalling magnitude,—the barbarism of the inhabitants ; chiefs whose power was exercised in cruel oppression and extortion over the down-trodden natives; rajahs who dreaded his power and influence; the jealousy of the neighbouring Dutch settlement ; the envy of unsuccessful traders ; and, above all, the dreadful scourge of extensive piracy. Nothing but an indomitable courage, and an earnest zeal for the welfare and prosperity of the people and government intrusted to his care, could have sustained him, and carried him forward in his successful career. But in such a contest it was not to be expected that his enemies would refrain from attempts, open or concealed, to counteract his benevolent exertions if they interfered with their selfish designs. Attacks were made upon him in the Straits Times newspaper, and repeated in England, charging him with cruelties perpetrated on the natives; and, on the 10th of July 1851, a motion was brought forward in the House of Commons for a commission of inquiry into the proceedings of Sir James Brooke on the coast of Borneo, which was followed by an elaborate debate. The motion was rejected, and the conduct of Sir James virtually approved by a majority of 230 to 19. These attacks were renewed in the summer of 1853, when the government was persuaded to issue instructions to the governor-general of India, directing him to issue a commission to inquire how far the position which Sir James Brooke holds in Sarawak is advantageous to the commercial interests of Great Britain. In the island of Labuan, next to the monster evil of piracy which scourges the Eastern Archipelago, one of the greatest difficulties the colony has to contend with is the panic w hich

B 0 11 arose in consequence of the sickness which prevailed in the Bornholm first year of the settlement. The improved sanitary condi|| tion of the island by the removal of a portion of the jungle, Bornou. and a partial drainage in the vicinity of the habitations, has abated this apprehension, and the climate of Labuan, as compared with other tropical countries, may be considered as salubrious as any other. The population in 1851 was 1385. Of these 800 were a migratory population of Malay labourers; the fixed population was 585. Of these the deaths were 29, being 4*2 of the mortality of the year. This per-centage is unduly increased by including the Chinese, who, from their gross and dissipated habits, always exhibit a large mortality. The island possesses considerable coal-fields, which are worked by the Eastern Archipelago Company, but in a way so unscientific—that is, by only quarrying the outcrops—as to prove both dilatory and expensive. In 1851 they exported 5032 tons. The examination that has been made of these coal measures has established their extent and value to be fully equal to the expectation formed of them. The large seam alone cannot contain less than 700,000 tons lying above tide-level. The local revenue of 1850 only amounted to L.1798, and the total expenditure to L.4140. No public work of any great extent has been carried on ; the chief outlay has been made in cutting down the forest, and making drains on the plain and near the site of the town, with the view of improving the sanitary condition of the island. (Leyden’s Description of Borneo, in the Asiatic Journal; Hamilton’s Gazetteer; Milburn’s Oriental Commerce; Temminck’s L’lnde Archipelagique ; Letters of Sir James Brooke, by J. C. Templer ; and Reports on the State of H.M. Colonies?) BORNHOLM, an island in the Baltic, belonging to Denmark, in the Stiff of Seeland, between Lat. 54. 59. and 55.18. N.and Long. 14.42. and 15.8. E. It is about 20 miles in length, by 14 in breadth, with a generally mountainous surface, and steep and rocky shores. It yields a good freestone, which is largely exported for building ; and also limestone, blue marble, coal, and clay. The principal products of the soil are oats, flax, and hemp. The population amounts to about 26,000, chiefly engaged in agriculture, fishing, brewing, distilling, and the manufacture of earthenwares. The capital is Roenne. BORNOU, an extensive kingdom, situated in Central Africa. With the exception of Houssa, now subject to the sultan of the Fellatahs, it is superior in power and influence to any other state in that quarter of the continent. Major Denham, to whom we are indebted for the first full and authentic description of this country, places it between the 12th and 18th degrees of east longitude, and the 10th and 15th of north latitude, which would form an extent of nearly 400 miles in every direction. His own map and description, however, oblige us to restrict these dimensions to little more than one-half. Bornou is bounded on the west by Soudan or Houssa, on the east by the Lake Tchad (or Tsad), on the north by the Great Desert, on the south by the kingdoms of Baghermi (or Begherme), Loggun, and Mandara. According to the more recent information derived from the expedition under Richardson, Barth, and Overweg, the limits of Bornou have materially changed since the time of Major Denham, by having extended to the west as far as 9. 30. E. Long. The grandest natural feature of this country is Lake Tchad, an extensive inland water, at least 120 miles in length and 60 miles in breadth. A remarkable variation, however, takes place, according as the rivers by which it is fed are swelled by the tropical rains, or their channels reduced by the continuance of the dry season. At this period the waters on every side recede, and leave uncovered a tract of many miles in extent, to be again overflowed when the rains have swelled the lake. The inhabitants, however, derive little advantage from the short and precarious interval during which they

BOR N O U. 51 Bornou. have access to this portion of their territory. There is are now unacquainted. D’Anville, however, proceeding Bornou. ''-’’"Y'*-' neither leisure nor opportunity to bring it under regu- upon his rigid principle of admitting no object for which lar culture; and the luxuriant fertility derived from the he could not find a positive authority, expunged these inundation is wasted in producing a rank vegetable growth names from his map, and has been generally followed by of grass from ten to twelve feet in height, with impenetrable modern geographers. thickets of trees and underwood. Man scarcely dares to When the African Association in 1788 commenced their penetrate into these gloomy regions, which are filled by operations, they early received some information, collected numerous and formidable wild animals, elephants, lions, by Mr Lucas at Tripoli, with other particulars related by hyenas, and enormous broods of the serpent species. These Ben Ali, a Moorish merchant resident in London. From creatures, when the inundation comes on, seek refuge in these sources were derived pretty copious notices, both the cultivated and inhabited tracts, where their arrival concerning Bornou and Cassina; the former being dediffuses consternation and dismay. scribed as what it then appears to have been, decidedly The rivers by which this great expanse of water is fed the ruling power in the interior of Eastern Africa, all the are the Yeou and the Shary. The former, which enters it kingdoms of which it had reduced into a state of vassalage. from the west, excited great interest on its first discovery, In arranging these accounts, however, a considerable error from being considered, or at least suspected, to be a con- was committed as to the position of this country. Mr Lutinuation of the Niger of Park. Further observation has cas had been informed that it was fifty journeys, or about completely disproved this supposition, and shown it to be six hundred and fifty miles, south from Fezzan ; but his a river of only secondary magnitude. Rising in a range informant added that it was only twenty-five journeys west of hills to the south of Houssa, it flows first north, then from the Nile. To meet this statement Major Rennell eastward through Bornou, till it falls into the Tchad; but conceived it necessary to extend the route, not due south it never, unless when swollen by the rains, presents any as it really was, but south-east, so as to place it in the great body of water. The Shary is a much more con- heart of the desert, seven degrees north and eight degrees siderable river. It rises in the far unknown interior to east of its real position. Kuku, likewise believed, from the south. Dr Barth crossed it on his journey to Bag- the statement of Edrisi, to be a separate kingdom, was hermi, and traced its course by native informations as placed in the same quarter, still nearer to the Nile; and far south as 8. 30. N. Lat. At Kusseri, not far from thus the desert tract to the west of Nubia was filled with Lake Tchad, it received a large tributary, the River Log- countries which, in that quarter, have no existence. gene, which was mistaken by Denham for the Shary itself. The expedition sent out by the British government in The territory of Bornou, extending along the whole 1822, under Denham and Clapperton, completely adjustwestern and part of the southern and northern shores of ed the geography of this part of the continent. It was the great lake, is generally level and fertile. The climate, discovered that Bornou, instead of being so far removed, especially from March to the end of June, is oppressively as our maps represented, from Houssa and Cassina, was hot, rising sometimes to 105 and 107, and even during close on their eastern frontier, and formed a continuation most of the night not falling much below 100. In May of that extensive, fruitful, and finely w atered plain, which the wet season commences, with violent storms of thun- extends from the mouth of the Senegal across Central der and lightning. In the end of June the rivers and Africa. Its relative political circumstances had also unlakes begin to overflow, and for several months the rains dergone, during this interval, a very complete change. are almost incessant, accompanied with damp, cloudy, and Instead of holding all the surrounding states in vassalage, sultry weather. Jhe inhabitants at this season are severe- it had been itself completely subjected to the dominion of ly afflicted with fever and ague, which carry off great the Fellatahs, who, after subjugating all Houssa, had innumbers of them. In October the rains abate ; cool, fresh vaded Bornou, and committed the most dreadful ravages, winds blow from the west and north-west; and for several destroying its capital and other large cities, and bringing months the climate is both healthful and agreeable. the whole country into a state of entire bondage. There No mention is found of Bornou among the geographers was still, however, among the people a strong spirit of of antiquity, although it may be conjectured that the great valour and independence. A mere private individual, lake of Nigritia, placed by Ptolemy in the centre of Africa, in the northern province of Kanem, pretending to, and was perhaps the Tchad. Edrisi, however, in the twelfth perhaps himself trusting in, a celestial mission, hoisted century, describes this country under the appellation of the green flag of the Prophet, and, under the title of the Kuku, which is still borne by its capital. He represents servant of God, undertook a series of struggles for the dethe king as absolute and powerful, with a numerous army liverance of his country. The Fellatahs appear to have and many attendants; the people as martial, though rude ; been taken very much by surprise, and, being defeated and the merchants as carrying on an active trade and pos- in successive encounters, were in ten months driven comsessing great wealth. Leo, who visited it about two cen- pletely out of Bornou. They seem to have now given up turies after, gives a description nearly similar. The people all attempts at reconquering it, although a hostile spirit are represented as Pagans, and extremely rude, though still reigns between the two countries. numerous, and the country well cultivated. The merThe conqueror, called, from his native province, El chants from Barbary supplied the king in his expeditions Kanemy, having the army wholly devoted to him, might with arms and horses, while he made an annual expedi- probably have with little difficulty assumed the sovereign tion to procure slaves to be given in payment. power. More moderate, and perhaps more prudent, he No further relations respecting Bornou were communi- drew forth the nearest heir of the ancient sultans, and cated to Europe during a very long period; yet it is re- invested him with all the appearance and pomp of sovemarkable that, in the maps of Sanson, Delisle, and others of reignty; reserving only for himself, under the title of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, there is found a scheik, all its reality. I he court of the sultan was estalake of Bornou, and in some of them a large lake with the blished at New Bornou, which was made the capital, inname of Guardia, which does not sound very dissimilar to stead of the old city, which had been entirely destroyed that of Tchad. It is difficult to conjecture the ground dm mg the Fellatah invasion ; while the scheik, in military upon which these features were delineated; yet their coin- state, resides at the city of Kuku or Kouka. cidence with those recently discovered seems to show that The Bornouese throne in former times had been electhey were founded upon some information with which we tive, at least among the members of the same family; and

52 BOR N O U, Bornou. the nobles possessed this and other high privileges: but rapidly and dexterously. Their only defect is, that when Bomou. at present the scheik possesses a power nearly absolute, placed in the field against an enemy at all formidable, which he exercises with salutary vigour. Bands of rob- they can by no impulse be induced to fight. They look bers who desolated the country have been nearly extir- on as spectators till the contest issues in victory, when pated, and travelling and property rendered secure, at they engage eagerly in pursuit and plunder, in both of least in the interior. Justice within each city is admi- which they excel; whilst, in case of defeat, they take to nistered, as in other Mussulman countries, by the cadi, flight with the utmost rapidity. As, however, the cavalry with an appeal to the scheik. Murder is punished, on of the armies with which they contend are nearly on a level conviction, by delivering the offender to the relatives of in point of prowess with themselves, the match is tolerably the deceased, who dispatch him with clubs. A young equal. There are usually on each side about a hundred thief is buried in the ground up to the head, which being chiefs, raised to distinction by bodily strength and prowcovered with butter and honey, is exposed under the burn- ess, who engage in single combats, and display often the ing sun to the attack of innumerable flies and mosquitoes. most desperate valour. Barca Gana, the scheik’s general, Insolvent debtors are rather hardly dealt with. But the had obtained the reputation of possessing charms that scheik s zeal was peculiarly directed against moral offences, rendered him invulnerable. The main dependence of that of which conscience and public opinion have been gene- prince is upon a body of 9000 spearmen from his native rally considered as the most appropriate guardians. Such territory of Kanem, who rally round him with the most were the non-observance of the Mahommedan fasts, upon enthusiastic attachment. Though almost naked, and which severe and relentless penalties were levied. He equipped only with shield and spear, they display a discipwas also most strict in punishing those failings in the fe- line beyond that of almost any other African army. They male sex which are elsewhere considered as sufficiently march by tribes, and keep in front of their line a regular visited by disgrace and exclusion from society. Here not chain of piquets, with sentinels, who every half hour pass only the most ignominious punishments, but often death the war-cry along it; precautions very rarely employed in itself, awaited them. On one occasion sixty of these un- barbarian armies. All the sovereigns of Central Africa fortunate offenders were brought before him, of whom likewise consider themselves fortunate if they can engage five were hanged, and four whipt so severely that two af- the services of even a small party of Arab caravan followterwards expired ; an outrageous virtue, which seems with ers, who, being brave and armed with muskets, an instrureason to have been branded as almost diabolical. The ment yet almost unknown in this region, are objects of most frivolous female offences, as talking too loud, and something like supernatural dread. walking in the street with the face unveiled, were consiThe territory of Bornou is fertile and well watered, dered as ground of public indictment at this severe bar. yielding large crops even under very imperfect cultivaBven the spending in courtship or otherwise a larger sum tion. The labour is chiefly performed by female slaves, than a man was supposed to be able to afford, gave ground who, at the commencement of the rainy season, scratch for dragging him before the national tribunal. Major rather than turn the ground, and scatter rather than sow Denham saw one thrown into prison for presenting to his the seed. They are also obliged to watch the growth, in bride two robes or turkadoes, when his station was consi- order to guard against numerous animal depredators; a dered as not authorizing more than one ; although he very perilous occupation, in the course of which they are proved that the lady had refused her consent on any other liable to be carried off by the wild beasts, who are roamterms; which, however, drew upon her also a severe ani- ing about in every direction. The rice and wheat are madversion. inferior, and grown in small quantity. The grain which The sultan of Bornou is surrounded by a mounted forms the staple food of the people is a species of millet body-guard, who likewise compose his principal nobles called gussub, which they form, not into bread, an article and chiefs. Their attire and equipment is the most gro- here entirely unknown, but into a species of paste, that, tesque and unwieldy, perhaps, to which fashion in any by the addition of butter and honey, forms the highest country has given rise. It is indispensable to the chief boast of Bornou cookery. Cotton and indigo are also of rank that he should possess a huge belly, the singular valuable productions, affording the material for the cloths importance attached to which is probably founded on the finely dyed with blue stripes, which form the staple faidea of its being an indication of plenty and luxury; and bric of the country. All the domestic animals are reared, it is held so essential, that even when high feeding can- and very numerous herds of oxen are possessed, chiefly not produce the effect, stuffing is employed to give the by an Arab tribe called Shouaas. Major Denham reckons appearance of it. Again, even in this burning climate, 20,000 on the shores of the Tchad, and double that numthe body is enveloped in successive robes, amounting ber on the banks of the Shary. The empire, however, often to ten or twelve, the number being always consi- is remarkably destitute of the products of horticulture. dered as indicating the rank of the wearer. The head like- There is neither a fruit nor a vegetable, except some wise is inclosed in numerous successive turbans, which onions in the vicinity of the large towns, and a very few are supposed to be rendered more ornamental by leaving limes and figs reared with great difficulty in the garden only one side of the face uncovered. The sultan studies of the scheik. to be still more protuberant and more loaded with clothIhe wild animals are very numerous, finding both ing than any of his courtiers. Yet in this attire he and food and cover in the extensive woody and marshy disthey advance together into the field; but of course they tricts. Lions prowl about in considerable numbers, apcan have no real efficiency in the duties of active warfare. proaching even the walls of the towns. The Bornouese The last sultan had fallen in consequence of the impossi- delight in taming and even making a pet of this noble anibility, caused by his ponderous equipment, of flying with mal. Ihe scheik, as a special favour, sent Major Densufficient speed before a victorious enemy. ham a present of a young lion, which he very prudently I he military force of Bornou consists almost entirely returned, lamenting the want of space for his accommoin cavalry, amounting to about 30,000, who are mounted dation. Elephants, in herds of fifty to four hundred, wanon small but active steeds, which, as well as their riders, der over the tract inundated by the Tchad, and are huntbeing cased in iron mail, present a very formidable ap- ed and killed both for the flesh and the ivory. Hyenas pearance. They also manage their horses with the ut- also, in huge and formidable bands, invade the cultivated most skill, and perform all the manoeuvres of the field most fields, and are with difficulty prevented from penetrating

JB O R N O U. 53 Bomou. into the towns. The tall form of the giraffe is not un- and a complexion of light copper; and they exhibit a Bornou. frequently seen cropping the leaves of the dense forest. strong though improved resemblance to the European The waters abound with crocodiles and hippopotami, and gipsies. Their deportment, however, is not very favourthe flesh of both is valued for food; that of the former, ably spoken of. They do not want courage, and can furindeed, is described by naturalists as extremely delicate. nish the government when necessary with 15,000 horse; The country is filled with swarms of bees, which often but they are arrogant and deceitful, imposing upon the obstruct the passage of the traveller; and the honey, people by the manufacture of charms, and by pretensions though only partially collected, forms one of the chief to prophecy and fortune-telling. Having thus gained Bornouese delicacies. Antelopes, gazelles, ostriches, and admission into the houses, they not only sell these gifts various other quadrupeds and feathered animals, are pur- at a high rate, but embrace opportunities of pilfering. sued as game. Probably they were observed to disadvantage in the heart The population of Bornou is calculated by Major Den- of the cities. One of their tribes, called Dugganahs, who ham at 5,000,000; but by Dr Barth, basing his estimate were visited in their native tents on the Shary, presented on the experience and explorations of three years, at no a most pleasing picture of patriarchal simplicity. Their less than from 8,000,000 to 9,000,000. The leading countenances were noble and expressive, and the attachpeople, called Bornouese or Kanowry, present a complete ments of kindred and domestic affection were displayed in specimen of the negro form and features; having large peculiar force. Another tribe, called the La Salas, almost mouths, thick lips, broad noses, an unmeaning face, but independent of Bornou, inhabit a number of low islands in good teeth and high foreheads. The females heighten the Tchad, covered with rich pasture, and separated from their want of beauty by a most extensive and injudicious the continent by channels so shallow as to be fordable on system of puncturing and tattooing. The people are peace- horseback. A knowledge of the tracts is however requiably disposed, friendly and courteous in their manners, site ; and those troops who without it attempted to peneand distinguished by a sort of good-natured heaviness. trate through them have got entangled in mud, sunk into Though endowed with a slender degree of courage, they deep pools, and signally defeated. are resentful, and addicted to petty larcenies. The The towns in Bornou are of considerable size, surroundlaw allows of polygamy, but the richest have seldom more ed with walls thirty-five or forty feet in height, and twenthan two or three wives, and the rest of the community ty feet in thickness, having at each of the four corners a only one. The favourite amusement is wrestling, not triple gate,^ composed of strong planks of wood, with bars performed in person, but viewed as a spectacle while per- of iron. The abodes of the principal inhabitants form an formed by slaves taken in war from the neighbouring na- inclosed square, in which are separate houses for each of tions, particularly the Beghermes and Musgows. The the wives; whilst the chief himself resides in two or more displays of strength made by these men are said to be elevated structures resembling turrets, connected together often very extraordinary. A powerful wrestler sells at a by terraces. These are well built, of a reddish clay, highly high price, and the masters place extraordinary pride in polished, so as to resemble stucco; whilst the interior roof, the performance of their slaves, cheering them during the though composed only of branches, is tastefully constructcombat, and, on its successful issue, often presenting them ed. The horns of the antelope and gazelle are employed with valuable robes. Even the ladies of Bornou engage to fasten together the different parts, and have suspended occasionally in public contests, where they often throw each from them the quiver, spear, and shield of the owner. The other with violence to the ground. Another favourite ordinary houses are small, being built partly of mud and amusement consists in a rude game bearing some resem- thatched, partly only of straw or coarse grass mats. Major blance to chess, played with beans and holes in the sand. Denham was accommodated in one of eight feet diameter, The Mahommedan religion is universally professed in having a hole two and a half feet high, by which he crept Bornou, and even with violence and bigotry. Through in and out; but this deficiency of aperture was rendered recommendations brought with them, the English travel- almost necessary by the crowds of tormenting insects who lers secured good treatment; but, as unbelievers, they were would otherwise have made good their entrance. Though viewed with the deepest horror, and almost as a species New Bornou and Kouka were the residences, the one of the of monsters. Even from those who showed at first the sultan and the other of the scheik, neither is equal in most friendly disposition, the disclosure of their creed magnitude to Angornou, estimated to contain 30,000 indrew forth deep groans, sometimes screams, and usually habitants, who, on market days, are swelled to 80,000 or arrested all progress to intimacy. A man who had serv- 100,000. On the Yeou are seen the ruins of Old Bornou ed them for two or three weeks, although he pleaded that and Gambarou, which appear to have been greater and it was only under the most extreme necessity, was declar- better built cities than any now in the kingdom; but they ed unfit on that ground to be received as a witness in a had been so entirely destroyed by the Fellatahs in their court of law. There are resident in Bornou a considerable late invasion, that the very site is in a great measure number offighis (writers or doctors), who have visited covered with shrubs and vegetation. The vicinity is alMecca, and are well skilled in Arabic. It is even an em- most laid waste by the inroads of the Tuaricks; and, inployment to write copies of the Koran, which are sent in- deed, all the kingdoms of Central Africa suffer the disadto Barbary, where they bear a considerable price. Its vantage of having their frontier exposed to the ravages of verses are much used as charms or amulets, in the pre- predatory tribes who occupy the rude and desert borders. paration of which the scheik was understood greatly to The English travellers have held out favourable hopes of excel, gaining almost as many victories by his pen as by the commerce which might be opened with Bornou. They his sword. The Bornouese, like other negroes, have songs observed the increased and increasing demand, among a relating to love or war, some of which are said to possess numerous population, for goods which Britain either does merit; but their intellectual character in general seems to or could produce cheaper than any other country; and rank extremely low. these goods were found selling at an advance of 300 per The pastoral districts of this country are occupied by a cent, above their price at Tripoli. On the other hand, it tribe called Shouaas, who are accounted Arabs, and speak must not be forgotten that the route from that city, that language, though they have scarcely any resemblance though the nearest of any from the coast, greatly exceeds to those in the north bearing that appellation. They have a thousand mdes, through the most dreary and desolate fine open countenances, with aquiline noses, large eyes, tracts, amid the domains of numerous predatory tribes.

54 BOR Borodino The merchant has to encounter, therefore, not only accumulated hardships, but all the perils of famine, battle, Borough. and pestilence. It would be vain, therefore, to expect that any one would conduct such a trade without very high profits. It is at present carried on by merchants, or rather chiefs, each with a large body of armed followers, alike prepared for commerce or war. The European who should engage in such a trade would be obliged to follow this example, and might expect to encounter their enmity and rivalry. It seems doubtful, therefore, how far such a trade could now be carried on by any other than its present channel. Amongst the commodities which find a market in Bornou are mentioned writing paper, beads, coral, silks and cottons of gaudy patterns, turbans, small carpets, brushes, caftans, and shirts ready made ; brass basins tinned, small mirrors, pistols, and other arms ornamented, but cheap. The commodities taken in return are almost exclusively slaves, obtained by purchase or capture ; and we fear it will be more difficult than Major Denham supposed to divert the trade from this bad channel. Neither gold nor silver are seemingly to be procured in Bornou. Elephants’ teeth, ostrich feathers, raw hides, musk, indigo, and senna, are mentioned as commodities suited to the market of Europe. (h. m.) B ORODINO, a village in Russia, near the river Moskwa, about ninety miles west of Moscow; remarkable for the terrible battle fought there on the 7th of September 1812, between the French and Russians, in which the latter were defeated. BORON. See Chemistry. BOROUGH, Burrough, Borow, or Burgh (Saxon heorg), is a term frequently used for a town or corporation which is not a city. A borough is by some supposed to have primarily meant a tithing or company consisting of ten families, who were bound and combined together as sureties for one another. Afterwards, as Verstegan informs us, borough came to signify a town that had something of a wall or inclosure about it: so that all places which amongst our ancestors had the denomination of borough, were one way or other fenced or fortified. But in latter times this appellation was also bestowed on several of the villce insigniores, or country towns of more than ordinary note, though not walled. The ancient Saxons, according to Spelman, gave the name of burghs to what in other countries were called cities. But different canons being made for removing the episcopal sees from villages and small towns to the chief cities, the term city came to be attributed to episcopal towns, whilst that of borough included all the rest, even although they had the appearance of cities, as being governed by mayors, having bye-laws of their own making, sending representatives to parliament, and being fortified with a wall and castle, and the like. Royal Boroughs or Burghs, in Scotland, are corporations originally created for the advantage of trade, in virtue of charters granted by several of the kings, and having the privilege of sending commissioners to represent them in parliament, besides other peculiar privileges. The royal burghs are not only so many distinct corporations, but also constitute one entire body, governed by, and accountable to, a general court, anciently called the court of four boroughs, which was held yearly, to treat and determine concerning matters relating to the common interest. The four burghs which composed this court were, Edinburgh, Stirling, Roxburgh, and Berwick; but the last two falling into the hands of the English, Linlithgow and Lanark were substituted in their room, with a saving to the former whenever they should return to their allegiance. But this court not being sufficient to answer the necessities of the roycil burghs, they were all empowered under James III., in 1487, to send commissioners to a yearly convention of their own,

BOR which was then appointed to be held at Inverkeithing, but Borough is now held at Edinburgh, under the denomination of the |] Convention of Royal Burghs, which was vested with great Borromean powers, and had for its object the benefit of trade, and the Islands, interest of the burghs generally. See Municipal Corpo- v>— RATIONS. BoROUGH-English, a customary descent of lands or tenements, in some ancient boroughs and copyhold manors, by which the youngest son, and not the eldest, succeeded to the burgage tenement on the death of his father. Boroughs, Representation of. See Parliament. BOROUGHBRIDGE, a borough and market town of England, in the west riding of Yorkshire, wapentake of Claro, and parish of Aldborough. It is situated on the south bank of the river Ure, which is navigable here, and is crossed by a stone bridge seventeen miles N.W. of York. It is chiefly indebted for its importance to its situation on the great road from York to Edinburgh ; and, previous to the passing of the Reform Act, it returned two members to parliament. Many British and Roman antiquities have been found in the town and vicinity, of which the most celebrated are the three obelisks called “ The Arrows,” about half a mile south of the town. Several fairs are annually held here. Pop. (1851) 1095. BOROVSK, a town of European Russia, capital of a circle of the same name in the government of Kalouga. It is situated on the Prorva, 55 miles S.W. of Moscow. Pop. 5000. It has considerable manufactures of sailcloth, and in the vicinity is a rich convent, founded in 1444. BORRELISTS, a sect of Christians in Holland, so called from Borrel, their founder. They reject the use of the sacraments, public prayer, and all external acts of worship. BORRICHIUS, or Borch, Olaus, one of the most learned men of his age, was born in 1626, at Borchen in Denmark. He studied medicine at Copenhagen, and began to practise during a terrible plague which ravaged that city. He was appointed professor of botany and chemistry ; and in 1660 he visited Holland, England, and France ; was received as doctor at Angers ; and visited Rome in 1665. In the course of his travels he attended the most celebrated schools, and was selected by Queen Christina as her master in chemistry. He returned to Copenhagen in 1666, and discharged the duties of his office wdth great assiduity, as his works abundantly testify. He was made a member of the supreme council of justice in 1686, and counsellor of the royal chancery in 1689. He died of the operation of lithotomy in 1690. The following are the principal works of Borrichius :—1. Bokimasia Metallica, Copenhagen, 1660, 8vo; 2. Be Ortu et Progressu Chemice Bissertatio, ibid. 1668, 4to ; 3. Hermetis, PEgyptiorum, et Chemicorum Sapientia, ibid. 1674, 4to; 4. Lingua Pharmacopceorum, ibid. 1670, 4to; 5. Cogitationes de variis Linguae PEtatibus, ibid. 1675, 8vo ] 6. Be Causis diversitatis Linguarum, ibid. 1675, 4to; 7. Be Somno et Somniferis, Francfort, 1680, 1683, 4to ; 8. Be Usu Plantarum Indigenarum in Medicina, Copenhagen, 1688, 1690, 8vo ; 9. Bissertationes V. de Poetis Grcecis et Latinis, ibid. 1676; 10. Conspectus Chemicorum Scriptorum lllustriorum, ibid. 1696, 4to; 11. Be Antiqua Urbis Romce Facie, ibid. 1697, 8vo; 12. Be Urbis Romce Primordiis, ibid. 1687, 4to; &c., &c. BORROMEAN Islands, a group of four small islands on the western side of Lago Maggiore, in Continental Sardinia. Up to the middle of the seventeenth century these islands were mere barren rocks. About this time Vitaliano, Count Borromeo, master-general of the ordnance to the king of Spain, directed that they should be covered with earth from the neighbouring banks of the lake; and, at an enormous expense, the islands were converted into pleasure gardens. The most celebrated of these are the Isola Bella, and the Isola Madre. The others are called the Isola S. Giovanni or Isolino, and the Isola Superiore or de’ Piscatori, which contains a small fishing village of about four hundred inhabitants, with a parish church. Isola Bella

BOH Borromeo. appears in ten successive terraces, rising one hundred and thirty feet above the level of the water, each regularly decreasing in size from the base to the summit, which is an oblong surface, seventy feet by forty in extent, paved and surrounded by a balustrade. The whole are environed by gigantic marble statues of gods, goddesses, and horses, or other figures ; and the walls are clothed with the finest fruittrees and evergreens, many of which belong to the southern climates. There is, besides, a magnificent palace towards the western end of the island, close to the lake, which almost washes its walls. It is built on arches, which are formed into grottos, with a floor of mosaic, representing various objects, and decorated also with shell-work and marble. The palace itself contains a profusion of marbles and paintings ; and some flower-pieces executed on marble, have been particularly admired, as also busts and statues. At the angles of the garden, which has a southern exposure, there are two round towers with lofty chambers adorned with red and white marble ; and in the vicinity are groves of laurels, orange-trees, lofty cypresses, and other odoriferous plants, rendering it a delightful retreat. Isola Madre, which is the largest of the islands, is between one and two miles from Isola Bella; it consists of a superstructure of seven terraces, apparently lower, but not less beautiful, than the other. It is, however, of equal height in reality, the base being a perpendicular rock, rising considerably out of the water, and on that account not requiring so much covering. Here also there is a palace embellished with paintings and different ornaments; and in the gardens are groves of citrons, cedar, and orange-trees, besides a summer-house close to the lake. All the decorations are necessarily on a limited scale; and it excites the wonder of the spectator, that in a space so small so much has been done. When any foreign prince visited these islands in the night, or resided upon them, they were illuminated with various coloured lights. The expense of keeping them in the same state since 1671, about which time they seem to have been finished, has of course been very great. They are frequently called the “ Enchanted Islands.” “ If anything,” says Coxe, speaking of the Isola Bella, “justly gives this island the appellation of enchanted, it is the prospect from the terrace. The gradual diminution of the mountains, from the regions of eternal snow to the rich plain; the sinuosity of the lake; its varied banks ; the bay of Marzozzo, bounded by vast hills; the neighbouring borough ofPalanza, and more distant view of Laveno, the numerous villages, the Isola Madre, and another island sprinkled with fishermen’s huts, form a delightful assemblage.” BORROMEO, Carlo, a Romish saint, was the son of Ghiberto Borromeo, Count of Arona, and of Mary of Medicis, and was born at the castle of Arona, upon the Lago Maggiore, in the Milanese, Oct. 2.1538. When he was about twelve years old, Julius Caesar Borromeo resigned to him an abbacy, the revenue of which he applied wholly in charity to the poor. He studied the civil and canon law at Pavia under the learned Francis Alciat. In 1554 his father died; and, although he had an elder brother, Count Frederick, he was requested by the family to take the management of their domestic affairs. After a time, however, he resumed his studies, and in 1559 he took his doctor’s degree. In the following year his uncle Cardinal de’ Medicis was raised to the pontificate, by the name of Pius IV.; and Borromeo was made prothonotary, intrusted with both the public and privy seal of the ecclesiastical state, created cardinal deacon, and soon after archbishop of Milan. In compliance with the pope’s desire, he lived in great splendour; yet his own temperance and humility were never brought into question. He established an academy of select and learned persons, each of whom was to write on some chosen subject, either in verse or in prose, and to communicate to the society the fruits of his studies. The works thus produced were pub-

55 BOR lished in several volumes at Venice in 1748, under the title Borromeo. of Nodes Vaticance. About this time he also founded and endowed a college at Pavia, which he dedicated to Justina, virgin and martyr. Upon the death of his elder brother Frederick, his friends, and even the pope himself, advised him to quit the church, and marry, that his family might not become extinct. Contrary to expectation, however, he declined the proposal; and from that time became more fervent than ever in the exercises of piety, and more zealous for the advancement of ecclesiastical knowledge. On the death of Pius IV., January 7. 1566, the skill and diligence of Borromeo materially contributed to stifle the cabals of the conclave. As soon as tranquillity had been re-established, Borromeo devoted himself wholly to the reformation of his large and important diocese, where the most flagitious irregularities were openly practised. He began by making pastoral visits in his metropolis; and by a variety of wise and necessary regulations, he soon restored proper decency and dignity to divine service. In conformity to the decrees of the council of Trent, he cleared the cathedral of its gorgeous tombs, rich ornaments, banners, arms, &c., sparing not the monuments even of his own relations. Nor did his zeal stop here. He divided the nave of the church throughout its whole length into two compartments, so that the sexes, being separated, might perform their devotions with feelings suitable to the place. He proceeded next to the collegiate churches, and even to the fraternities of penitents, particularly that of St John the Baptist. The reformation of the monasteries followed that of the churches; and the vigilance of the archbishop soon extended itself from the city to the country round it. The great abuses which had overrun the church at this time arose principally from the ignorance of the clergy. In order, therefore, to attack the evil at its root, Borromeo established seminaries, colleges, and communities, for the education of young persons intended for holy orders. He met with much opposition in his endeavours to bring about a reformation of manners; but by an inflexible constancy, tempered with great sweetness of manners, he prevailed against every obstacle, and succeeded in rendering the most important services to the cause of morals as well as religion. The governor of the province, and many of the senators, apprehensive that the cardinal’s ordinances and proceedings would incroach upon the civil jurisdiction, addressed many remonstrances and complaints to the courts of Rome and Madrid. These, however, in as far as concerned the king of Spain, Philip II., were referred entirely to the decision of the pope. But Borromeo had more formidable difficulties to struggle with, in the inveterate opposition of several religious orders, particularly that of the Brothers of Humility. Three provosts of the society entered into a conspiracy to cut him off; and one of their confederates, Jerome Donat, surnamed Farina, took upon him to carry the design into execution. For this purpose he mixed with the crowd in the archiepiscopal chapel, where Borromeo spent an hour every evening in prayer with his domestics and other pious persons; and having watched his opportunity, he fired at him with a heavily loaded arquebuss. The shot, strange to say, took no effect, though it was affirmed to have ruffled the rochet of the cardinal. His escape was believed to be miraculous, and was certainly wonderful, considering that the assassin had taken his station within five or six paces of his intended victim. At the moment when the shot was fired the choir were chanting the fine old melody, Non turbetur cor vestrum neque formidet; and it is said that the cardinal continued the service without any apparent emotion. In the year 1576 the city and diocese of Milan were visited by the plague, which swept away great numbers. On this occasion Borromeo, with a spirit truly Christian and heroic, went about giving directions for accommodating the sick and

56 BOR Borromeo burying the dead, avoiding no danger, and sparing no ex-

B 0 S tain a good reputation, because all the members of each Boryg. Borse- Pense* Nor did he content himself with establishing pro- tithing being pledges for one another, and the whole tith- thenes holder. Pner regulations in the city, but went into all the neighbour- mg sureties to the king for the good behavour of all its memII * g parishes where the contagion raged, distributing money, hers, they were very cautious in admitting any into their -Boscawen. providing accommodation for the sick, and punishing those’ society who were of bad or doubtful character. Each tithespecially the clergy, who were remiss in discharging the ing formed a little state or commonwealth within itself, and duties of theii calling. Notwithstanding the fatigue and per- chose one of its most respectable members for its head, plexity which he experienced in thus executing his pastoral who was sometimes called the alderman of such tithing or charge, he abated nothing of the usual austerity of his life ; free burgh, on account of his age and experience, but most bi ead and watei constituting his humble daily fare. commonly borseholder, from the Saxon words borch, a seBut continual labours and austerities combined to shorten cmity, and alder, a head or chief. This magistrate had his valuable life. He was seized with an intermittent fever authority to call together the members of his tithing, to preand died at Milan, Nov. 4. 1584. He was immediately wor- side m their meetings, and to put their sentences in execushipped as a saint, but was not canonized till 1610. Besides tion. The members of each tithing, with their tithing-man the Nodes f aticanat, to which he appears to have contributed, borseholder at their head, constituted a court of justice, the only literal y relics of this intrepid and zealous reformer or in which all the little controversies arising within the tithing are some homilies, discourses, and sermons, with a collection were determined. Any dispute of great difficulty or imof letters. Several lives of him have been published, viz., portance was referred to the next superior court, which was by Godeau; by Touron, a Dominican; by Ribadeneira, a that of the hundred. Spanish Jesuit; and by Bimeus, and others. Through all BORYSTHENEb, in Ancient Geography, the largest the mist of absurdity and superstition in which the character river of Sarmatia Europaea, now called the Dnieper. Its and actions of Borromeo have been involved, it may safely were unknown to the ancients. (Herod, iv., Mela, ii.) be affiimed that if the Church of Rome had had many such sources BOS. See Mammalia, Index. men, religion might have been spared some grievous wounds, Bos (/3o£>s), a very ancient Attic silver coin or didrachand Europe many afflicting and sanguinary convulsions. mon : it was sometimes, though rarely, struck of gold. This Borromeo, Frederigo, nephew or cousin-german of the coin was so called from having on it the impression of an preceding, and likewise a cardinal and bishop of Milan ox ; hence the phrase Bos in lingua, applied to one who is chiefly known as the founder of the Ambrosian library’. had taken a bribe to hold his tongue. SfLjBRARnss. He died a.d. 1632. He was the author BOS A, a city on the western coast of the island of Sarof Meditamenta Litleraria (published in 1633, 4to) and dinia, in a fine valley on the northern bank of the Termo. some other works. It is well built and paved; is the see of a bishop; and BORROMINI, Francesco, an Italian architect, born at Bissone in 1599. He was much employed in the middle of has a cathedral, a diocesan seminary, and several schools. I he harbour is safe, being sheltered by the islet of the same the seventeenth century at Rome; but in’his style he affected name. Pop. 6000. Long. 8. 25. 31. E. Lat. 40. 16. 40. N. oi iginality and richness, which corrupted the noble simplicity BOSCAGE, a grove or thicket. It is used in old laws of the older schools, though his compositions are occasionally for the food of cattle yielded by trees and bushes. imposing. His principal works are the church of St Agnese BOSCAN, Almogaver, Juan, a Spanish poet, born of in Piazza Navona, the church of San Carlo alle Fontane, a good family at Barcelona about a.d. 1500. He was the ^ church of Collegio di Propaganda, and the restoration of San Giovanni in Laterano. He died by his own hand at intimate friend of Garcilaso de la Vega, and with him contributed essentially to the improvement of Spanish poetry. Rome in 1667. He was the first who introduced endecasyllabic verse into BORROWS TOM NNESS, by abbreviation Bo’ness, one Spanish poetry; and he translated into the Castilian tongue of the oldest seaport towns of Scotland, is in the county of the sonnets and other poetical forms consecrated by the Linlithgow, onthe shore of the Firth of Forth, N. Eat. 56. 2. usage of the best Italian authors. His poetry is divided into W. Long. 3. 35. Though now decaying, it was formerly a three books, the first of which contains only redondillas, place of considerable traffic, and had many ships engaged in while two others are filled with the pieces which he comcolonial and foreign trade. Its commerce is now for the posed the after he adopted his new method, namely canciones, most part confined to the Baltic, but it still sends a few sonnets, tercetts, compositions in the ottava rima, and in ships annually to the whaling. The harbour is excellent, blank verse. Boscan was tutor to the celebrated Ferdinand but is now no longer able to defray current expenses, espe- of Duke of Alba, and appears to have died about the cially since Grangemouth began to rise into importance. In yearToledo, 1544. His works were printed in conjunction with the town there are extensive manufactories of salt, of which those of his friend Garcilaso, at Lisbon in 1543 ; at Leon 30,000 bushels are annually exported. A good many ships in 1549 ; and at Venice in 1553. (Bouterwek, i. 232.) were formerly built here, and the patent slip is still freEN, Edward, a brave British admiral, was quently used. Besides the salt works, there are two distil- theBOSCAW third son of Hugh Lord Viscount Falmouth. Having leries, a pottery, rope-work, and vitriol and soap works. There eixrly entered into the navy, he was, in 1740, captain of the are also valuable collieries in the neighbourhood, some of Shoreham ; and he behaved with great intrepidity as a vowhich have been worked for centuries, and extend under lunteer Admiral Vernon, at the taking of Porto-Bello. water to the distance of a mile. Besides the parish school, At the under siege of Carthagena, in March 1741, he had the there are several private institutions. The most interestcommand of a party of seamen who resolutely attacked ing objects in the parish are Graham’s Dyke (a part of the and took a battery of fifteen 24-pounders, though exposed Roman wall of Antonine), and Kinniel House, for many to the fire of another fort of five guns. In 1744, when in ye D^i 6 residence of Dugald Stewart. Pop. (1851) 2645. command of the Dreadnought of sixty guns, he captured the ORSEHOLDER {borough’s elder), among the AngloSaxons, one of the lowest magistrates, whose authority ex- Medea, a French man-of-war commanded by M. de Hoctended only over one free burgh, tithing, or decennary, con- quart, the first ship taken in that war. In May 1747 he sigsisting of ten families. Every freeman who wished to enioy nalized himself under the admirals Anson and Warren, in the protection of the laws, and not to be treated as a vaga- an engagement with the French fleet off Cape Finisterre, lon , was unt er the necessity of being admitted a member of and was wounded in the shoulder with a musket-ball. Here the tithing where he and his family resided ; and in order M. de Hocquart, who then commanded the Diamond of to obtain this admission, it was necessary for him to main- fifty-six guns, again became his prisoner ; and all the French ships of war, ten in number, were taken. On the 15th of July

BOS Boscoi following, he was made rear-admiral of the blue, and comII mander-in-chief of the sea and land forces employed on an Boscovich. expedition to the East Indies. On the 4th November he sailed from St Helen’s, with six ships of the line, five frigates, and 2000 soldiers ; and on the 29th July 1748 he arrived at St David’s, and soon after laid siege to Pondicherry. The men, however, growing sickly, and the monsoons being expected, the siege was raised, and Boscawen in his retreat displayed the skill of an able military commander. Soon afterwards he received news of the peace, and Madras was delivered up to him by the French. In April 1750 he arrived at St Helen’s in the Exeter, and found that in his absence he had been appointed rear-admiral of the white. He was the next year made one of the lords commissioners of the admiralty, and chosen an elder brother of the Trinityhouse. In February ] 755 he was appointed vice-admiral of the blue. On the 19th of April, sailing in order to intercept a French squadron bound to North America, he fell in with the Alcide and Lys of sixty-four guns each, which were both taken. On this occasion M. de Hocquart became his prisoner for the third time, and Boscawen returned to Spithead with his prizes and 1500 prisoners. In 1756 he was appointed vice-admiral of the white, and in 1758 admiral of the blue and commander-in-chief of the expedition to Cape Breton, when, in conjunction with General Amhetst, and a body of troops from New England, the important fortress of Louisberg, and the whole island of Cape Breton were taken ; services for which he received the thanks of the House of Commons. In 1759, being appointed to command in the Mediterranean, he arrived at Gibraltar, where, hearing that the Toulon fleet, under M. de la Cue, had passed the Straits in order to join that at Brest, he got under sail, and on the 18th of August saw, pursued, and engaged the enemy. His ship, the Namur of ninety guns, losing her mainmast, he shifted his flag to the Neicark; and, after a sharp engagement, took three large ships and burnt two, in Lagos Bay, after which he returned to Spithead with his prizes and 2000 prisoners. On the 8th December 1760 he was appointed general of the marines, with a salary of L.3000 per annum, and was also sworn a member of the privy council. He died in 1761, in the fiftieth year of his age, BOSCOI, or Bosci (fioo-Koi), the name given to a class or tribe of monks in Palestine, who took no care about provision, but when eating time came, went into the fields and ate what they could find. BOSCOVICH, Roger Joseph, a celebrated natural philosopher, born May 18. 1711, at Ragusa, a seaport on the Adriatic. His youth appears to have been marked by no precocity of talent while he studied grammar and philosophy in the schools of the Jesuits. Among these shrewd observers, however, his docility and obedience were sufficient to procure him particular attention. In his fifteenth year, after he had gone through the ordinary course of education, he was admitted into the order, and sent to Rome. Here his studies changed their character and direction : the rules and constitutions of the order claimed his attention for two years ; after which he was instructed in rhetoric, and became well versed in general literature, particularly Latin poetry. After completing his noviciate, he was sent to the Roman college to study mathematics and physics; and it was in these sciences that his genius and abilities shone forth so conspicuously. He soon arrived at eminence, and after being exempted from the operation of a law, by which the novices were bound to teach Latin and the belles-lettres for five years before they commenced the study of theology, he was appointed mathematical professorin the Jesuit’s college. For this chair he was eminently qualified, as, besides a thorough knowledge of all the modern productions in the science, he had acquired a classical severity of demonstration by studying the works of the ancient geometricians. Notwithstanding his VOL. v.

57 BOS Boscovich. arduous duties as an instructor of youth, it was about this period that he formed some of those refined and original notions which were destined to grow up into the system that afterwards became so celebrated. The animating spirit of discovery and invention led him to consider every portion of physical science; and indeed so versatile and vigorous was his mind, that we should be at a loss to specify any one portion which, within a few years, it did not comprehend, elucidate, and advance. In confirmation of this it will be sufficient to enumerate the principal subjects on which he published dissertations while he continued in the professorship, These were, the transit of Mercury over the sun, the spots in the sun, the aurora borealis, the construction of spherical trigonometry, the figure of the earth, a new telescope to determine celestial objects, the ancient arguments for the rotundity of the earth, oscillating circles ; on infinites and infinitely small quantities, the motion of bodies in unresisting spaces, the aberration of the fixed stars, the inequalities in terrestrial gravity ; on astronomy, on the limits of certainty in astronomical observations ; on the solid of greatest attraction, the cycloid, the logistic curve lines, the vires vivce, the comets, light, the tides, the rainbow, the calculation of fractions, the centre of gravity, the moon’s atmosphere, the law of continuity, lenses and dioptrical telescopes, the objective micrometer, and the divisibility of matter. Some of these are short, but all of them contain curious and valuable matter. It is only by perusing them that we are able to discover the gradual progress of his mind, and to understand the manner in which he arrived at that theory of natural philosophy which is now known by his name. About this time a taste for philosophical poetry was very prevalent amongst the learned, and some of Boscovich’s acquaintances had laboured in it with success. Of these we may mention Father Noceti, who wvote on the rainbow and the aurora borealis, and Benedict Stay, whose poems on the philosophy of Descartes, and on the more modern philosophy, are considered as excellent examples of Latin composition. Boscovich published the works of both with annotations and supplements which display a rich fund of information and learning. By such undertakings his fame soon became widely diffused. The learned societies of many countries in Europe conferred on him unsolicited honours, and several foreign princes invited him to their courts. His opinions on various subjects of civil architecture, topography, and hydrodynamics, were solicited by Pope Benedict XIV., John V. of Portugal, and others. These applications necessarily required his presence in difterent states of Europe, where he never failed to enhance his reputation, and often terminated disputes which, but for his judicious interference, might have had disagreeable consequences. He was employed to correct the maps of the papal dominions, and to measure a degree of the meridian there. In this operation he was assisted by an English Jesuit named Christopher Maire. An account of their expedition was printed at Rome and Paris, and is interspersed with some curious anecdotes ; but it is chiefly valuable for the detail which is given of their observations. In 1757 he was sent to Vienna by the republic of Lucca, to settle some differences concerning the draining of a lake, in which the grand duke of Tuscany, the emperor Francis I., and that republic, were concerned; and after succeeding in the object of his mission to that city, he published there his Theoria Philosophies Naturalis in 1758. Another occasion for his mediating powers, that more nearly interested him, soon presented itself. The British government having suspected that some ships of war had been fitted out at Ragusa for the service of France, and that its neutrality had thus been infringed, the senate of Ragusa became alarmed at the suspicion, and employed Boscovich, who had often been successful in similar missions for other powers, to proceed to London, where he effected the object of his mission, H

58 V

BOS T111, Aon°ur t0 himself, and satisfaction to his native state. . i ^GO he visited the Koyal Society, which received him ivitli distinguished marks of respect; and he soon afterwards complimented, that body with a Latin poem on the solar and Junar eclipses. Boscovich was invited by the Royal Society to be of the party of their members about to proceed to America in order to observe the transit of Venus over the sun’s disc; but the nature of his embassy, and the necessity of returning home, prevented his accepting he invitation Soon after his return, he was appointed by the senate of Milan to the mathematical chair in the university of I avia with the superintendence of the observatory of the royal college of Brera. He continued in this situation for six years, when the empress queen appointed him professor of astronomy and optics in the Palatine schools of Milan and also requested that he would continue to superintend the observatory; Admired by the learned, beloved by his friends, and having an adequate income, with a sound and vigorous constitution, he promised to himself much happiness in the tranquil cultivation of the sciences. i5ut a cloud ong impending now burst over his head, in

BOS given, and the inclination of the orbit has been nearly found- anorbit" whlnthe01, ^ T™"0De PUrdoes P0Se' nand for finding the elliptical method fo" ^ pa18 Tabokc eIements °t agree with observation; a f a lanet lions tlm ' ; ! c ° ^ toree observaprojection of an orbit inclined Pin the plane of the eclip+-.. A C 0n f an 0rbit calculation^nf i>I aberration i° . of Inclined any other the calculation of the the stars,inarising from plane; the successive propaga^on of light; and some beautiful theorems belongin’oang es, which are of great use in astronomy, reduced to the most simple demonstrations?

After the publication of these works, Boscovich quitted Bassano, and went to Rome to visit the companions of his youth. Prom Rome he proceeded to Milan, where he revised some of his own works, and prepared for publication the two last volumes of Stay’s poems. His death took place on the 13th of February 1787, in the seventy-sixth J year of his age. Besides the different works above mentioned, Boscovich wrote several others on various subjects, as on the project o turning the navigation to Rome from Fiumicino to Maccarese; on two torrents in the territory of Perugia; on the embankments of the river Ponaro; on the river Sidone in the 0r the ab liti0n f his order which V£JdlC5/ ° ° ’ t«ok place in temtory of Placentia; on the embankments of the Po; on the N eX m tl0n from the edic A iheld m offices xf P were dismissed; and t could be procured; all11 who Boscovich sought harbours of Ancona, of Rimini, of Magna Vacca, and Sai efuge in I ans. I hither indeed he was invited by Tur- vona; besides some others, almost all of which were printed. got, through whose means he was made one of the directors A,°r an account of the system developed in the Theoria of optics for the sea service, and received a pension; but he Fhilosophitz Naturahs, see the article Physics. BOSJESMANS, or Bushmen, a race of Hottentots who never ceased to mourn his exile, and the ruin of his order He remained there however, for ten years, on the expiry inhabit the sides and valleys of the Sneuwberg, or Snowy of which he obtained leave to visit Italy; and he published Mountains, which form the northern boundary of the colony at Bassano, m five volumes quarto, a collection of the works of the Cape of Good Flope. They are rude and savage in the extreme, and in their persons present a caricature of which he had completed in Paris. that form which characterizes the Hottentot, the hollow The following is a pretty accurate enumeration of their contents- back, protruding, belly, and large buttocks. Destitute of cultivation, and inhabiting the most desolate tracts, they forcer^f SdmUaphan0 T fs°rbodi determining the refracting and diverging procure with difficulty even a scanty supply of the most TWt ^ es; a demonstration of thethe falsehood of the Newtonian analogy between light and sound; algebraic wretched aliments. Wild animals, roots, and the larvae of Sar< ng the f< C1 f lenses and their cul^S ffc i! ° which’ are to beapplications for cal- ants and insects, form their usual resources. To this, inculating the sphericity ofl those used in achromatic telescopes; the corrections to be made in ocular lenses, and the deed, they add frequent predatory excursions to the storeoi of the sphericity of certain glasses; the causes which hinder farms in the plains; but this involves them in a severe and unequal contest, since their arrows, though tipt with deadly 6 S lar rayS by meanS f the reat bu elLe^andThYf ° of the loss arising ° from S it; the™ing glasses and the determination me- poison, and shot with surprising dexterity, are no match for od of determining the different velocities of light passing through the fire-arms of the colonists. The cruelty with which b the rmT* y™eansof two dioptric telescopes, onecommom they have been pursued by the colonists still renders them ther , .f a ^CW klnd’ containing water between the objective extremely shy of strangers. Mr Barrow met with a youn°fri® r f ima kind ^inutility ^ofa aneW objective micro! man who had made a journey along part of their territory meters the ,defects °and dioptric telescope proposed anil who being asked if he had seen any of them, replied Wl 1Ch giV6S tW imageS of the one dWt thhe other ’° same objec!, the with an air of disappointment, that he had shot only four. V masses floating inverse, inwith contraryasmotions .!hle ble nW objects, the two atmosphere, hail ofofanmovex- Judging from the accounts of travellers who have been ry S1 Ze See 0n the Sun With the snn!Idl!n i. ’ ’- refractions, with telescope, and resembling spots, the astronomical various methods for de- among them, and from the individuals of their race exhiermining them; different methods for determining the orbits of oited in this country, they appear to be by no means uncomets and of the new planet, with copious applications of these susceptible of civilization. They display nothing of that doctrines to other astronomical subjects, and still more generally to s uggish and gloomy deportment which characterizes the geometry and to the science of calculation; the errors, rectifica- servile Hottentot. They bound with wonderful agility from tions and use of quadrants, sextants, astronomical sectors the lock to rock, either in flight or in chase of their prey; and meridian line telescopes called transit instruments, the meridian and the parallactic machine; the trigonometrical differential for’. on certain festive occasions, they give way to an extravamulaa which are of so much use in astronomy; the use of the mi- gant gaiety, dancing whole days and nights, especially bycrometrical rhombus, extended to any oblique position whatsoever • moonlight. Even the pictures of animals which they delie error arising from refractions in using the astronomical rin lining (primordial utricle of Mohl) of others are secreted or set apart for ulterior Unicellular Alga the new cell, and to it all the subsequent purposes in its economy. Those actions are ^ceilTlb' vital actions of the cell are referred. The secretes, frequently accompanied by an evident move- sorbs, Fig u and forms new nucleus either remains in the cell-wall, ment of fluids and granules. In the pro- cells by a process or it is absorbed. The newly-formed of fissiparous digress of time cellules are developed in the vision , first into obliqua, showing the cell contains a formative fluid in which parent-cell ' containing two, tour 6 6, and then interior of the cell which are discharged as mi0 into four parts, parts, c.c. nuclei are produced, which, in their five nucleated cells in independent cell-plants capable of performino- all the func- turn, give origin to other cells. Besides its interior ; b. cell from young bud of a spetion of the parent cell. In other instances, the original cell a nucleus, there are seen occasionally the cies of Aloe, containing gives origin to the new cells, either by means of nuclei (Fig. in cells very minute bodies called nu- -two cells with nuclei or cytoblasts. 12), or by a constant process of division (Fig. 13), until at cleoli, which some consider as being concerned in forming length acellu-r, ° ' the wall of the nucleus. The nuclear formation of cells has lar plant is cr been fully illustrated by Schleiden in the case of the Emproducedconbryo plant. According to Mohl the nucleus is in the centre sisting of nuo the cell, and is attached to its walls by filamentous promerous cells cesses of protoplasm, as seen in the hairs of Tradescantia. variously ar, nucleus is resent ranged. In 11 611 I,pThis P > die or protoplasm at once forms 1. is called non-nuclear cells. free cell-formation. In higher plants, both instances the formation of new cells takes places in the cells undergo interior of previously formed cells. In progress of increase, transformaBig!-■ containing nuclei orFig. 13. nucleated and non-nucleated cells cause absorption of the Fig. 12. Cells cytoblasts, from which tions fitting new cells are produced by intra-cellular cyto- walls of the parent cell, which finally disappears. It somegenesis. • them for their , 13. Diatomaceous Alga, the cells of which are increased times happens that the nucleus itself divides into two by a special funcby a constant process of fissiparous or meris- contraction in the middle, and each of its parts gives origin matic division. The plant increases by3 abscistions. Vital sion of segments. to cells. In this way a rapid multiplication of cells takes operations are carried on in all plants by means of cells, the place. In Figure 14, 6, there is represented a parent or constitution and functions of which vary according to the na- mother cell, containing two nucleated cells ture of the plants and the position in the scale of organization in its interior. These gradually increase, cause which they occupy. In the higher classes of plants, certain cells are concerned in the secretion of organizable products, absorption of the walls of the parent cell, and free. In Figure 14, a, a parent cell which are elaborated by others into new tissues. The life of isbecome shown enclosing five nucleated cells. plants consists in the regular action of different kinds of a cell is formed, we often remark that cells, which are concerned in the formation of new organs its After contents divide into two or four parts. This and of new products. In cells there are observed the absorp- is accomplished by the folding inwards of the tion and movements of fluids, the elaboration of these by protoplasmic inner lining, the primordial utriexposure to air and light, and the formation of new cells. In its early state a plant consists of one or more cells. cle of Mohl. Each division forms for itself a of cellulose. These newly-formed These appear to be produced from a viscid substance of an covering cells increase, cause absorption of the walls of Fig. 15. albuminous nature, to which the names of Protoplasm Cy- the parent or mother of a cellcell, and separate from it Portion ular plant tohlastema, and Vegetable Mucus have been given. This as distinct cellular formations capable of going {Conferva glosubstance is first homogeneous, then granular ; and accord- through the same process of division. Some- merata), showing at a the priing to some exhibits minute fibres. It is coagulated by alutricle times a cell divides into two or more parts, each mordial or inner cellcohol, and coloured yellowish-brown by iodine. It is con- of which becomes a separate cell, without any wall folding sidered as the earliest stage of vegetable tissue, and as beinoinwards, as destruction of the walls of the original one, as to make asosependowed with a certain formative power. By Barry the shown tum or partiin Figure 15. This is accomplished by tion, which is organizing matter is called Hyaline (va\os, glass), from its at pellucid nature. Some say that in this protoplasm nuclei a similar folding of the inner lining, and a sub- represented 5 in a comsequent formation of cellulose in each division, r pleted state. are developed which give origin to cells ; others state that the nitrogenous matter becomes at once divided into cell- but it differs from the previous method of division in the cirlike cavities, each of which produces a covering of cellulose cumstance that the walls of the parent cell remain without for itself. _ The formation of nuclei or cells in a protoplas- being absorbed. These modes of cell-multiplication are called mic matrix, without the influence of another cell previously fissiparous, or merismatic {fissum, cleft, /xepioy/os, division). Cells are also produced by a process of budding; in other existing, may be called extra-cellular. words, by a continuous growth from various parts of pre-

BOTANY. viously formed cells. A cellular protuberance or mammilla The fronds of a species of Lycopodium (L. squamatum or Botany. appears either at the apex or at the sides of these cells, which Selaginella convoluta), from Brazil, curl inwards in the dry elongates and ultimately divides by a partition or septum season, so that the plant appears like a brown ball, and durinto two, one of which is arrested in its development, and ing the wet season they spread out so as to cover the soil. the other goes on elongating and dividing. In this way a I he plant called Rose of Jericho (Anastatica hierochuntina), continuous row of cells is produced, as in certain Algae and shows a similar hygroscopicity in its pod; and some of the in the Yeast plant (Fig. 16), or a branching filament, as in Cape species of Mesembryanthemum open their seed vessels some kinds of Confervae (Fig. 17), and moniliform Fungi when moisture is applied. The spores or germs of Horse(Fig. 18), or a flattened thallus composed of interlacing cells, tails (Equisetum) are provided with cellular clavate filaments (Fig. 9), which contract and expand under the influence of moisture and dryness, and thus assist in placing the germ properly in the soil. These Equisetum spores are interesting objects under the microscope, and their movements are seen by breathing upon them. Hairs, which are composed of cells, also show hygroscopic properties. Liquids pass through the walls of cells by a process of imbibition. 1 hin-walled cells take up fluids very rapidly, fo the movement of fluids through membranes of different kinds Dutrochet has given the names of Endosmose (evSov, inwards, and wa^os, impulsion), or inward movement, and Exosmose (e£o>, outwards), or outward movement. These Fig. 16. Fig. 17. Fig. 18. movements take place both in living and in dead tissue, Fig. 16. Cells of the Yeast plant (Torula cerevisice), in different stages of and they are influenced by the nature of the fluids and growth ; a, single cells ; b, cells giving off' buds either at one or both ends; c, a congeries of cells united, those at the extremities pro- of the membrane. The fluids on either side of the memducing new cells in the form of cellular buds. ... 17. Cells of an Alga (Chcetophora), giving ott'new cells, a, by a process of brane must differ from each other in density, and they budding. ... 18. A species of Mould-fungus (Penicillium), consisting of long cells, m, must have an affinity for the interposed membrane, and for producing cellular buds, which form a continuous row of cells, p’, by gemmation and division, bearing branching moniliform threads, each other. By the endosmotic process, a thin liquid passes c, composed of a congeries of united cells. in large quantity and with great force through a vegetable as in Lichens. This mode of cell-multiplication is gemmi- or animal membrane, in order to mix with a denser liquid, parous, and is said to take place by a process of gemmation. while the latter passes outwards in small quantity by a slower Another mode in which new cells are formed is by the exosmotic movement. If a unicellular plant, as one of the conjugation or union of two cells having different contents cells of the Yeast plant, is placed in a dense liquid, the con(Fig. 19). This is well seen in Zygnema tents of the cell pass outwards rapidly, and the cell becomes and other allied plants, and it will be more or less collapsed; if, on the other hand, it is put into particularly noticed under Embryogeny. a thin liquid, the reverse takes place, so that the cell is disThis process may he called generative tended. cell-production. The cell developed in The cells of plants contain liquids of different densities, this way constitutes the spore or germ and hence these movements must be constantly taking in the lower class of plants, and the first place, so as to cause an interchange of their contents. The cell of the embryo in the higher plants. bursting of the seed-vessel of the Elaterium (Ecbalium purThe embryonic cell produces nuclei, by gans), and of the Balsam (Impatiens), is traced in part to means of which a multiplication of cells the distension of cells by endosmose, which causes a curvais effected. tion in the parts and an ultimate rupture. It must, however, The rapidity with which cells are debe borne in mind, that endosmose is modified in the living veloped in some cellular plants is astonplant by the vital actions going on in the cells, and that it ishing. Ward observed Phallus impuis to these actions we must refer the continued movements dicus shoot up three inches in the space of fluids through the cell-walls. of twenty-five minutes. Bovista giganThe endosmotic phenomena may be illustrated by means {Zygnema), unitteum (gigantic puffball) has grown in a Alga ing by tubes, p, which of a tube of glass, containing syrup or a saturated solution single night in damp weather from the allow the contents of of salt, the end of which is covered by a membrane, such as cell, c, to pass into size of a mere point to that of an enor- one another, d, and thus a piece of bladder, and then placed in water. In this case origin to new cells, the water will enter in such quantity into the interior of the mous gourd. From an approximate s,givewhich receive the calculation, it is found that in this plant name of spores. tube, through the membrane, that the fluid will rise. With a not less than 20,000 new cells were formed membrane about 1*6 inch in diameter, a tube of about l-12th every minute. Kieser calculated that the tissue of an inch, and syrup of density 1*083, the fluid rose, accordof some Fungi augmented at the rate of60,000 ing to Dutrochet, more than an inch and a half in an hour cells per minute. Large tracts of snow in the and a half; when the syrup had a density of 1*145, the fluid arctic regions and in alpine districts are somerose nearly three inches; and when the density was 1*228, times suddenly reddened by the development the rise was four inches. The force with which the moveof innumerable cells of the Red Snow-plant. ment takes place is very great. Dutrochet estimated that Cellular tissue is very hygroscopic. If celluin the case of syrup of density 1*3, the force of endosmose lar plants, such as Sea-weeds, are dried, and was equal to the pressure of 4^ atmospheres. then put into water, they take up the fluid In many cells there is observed a distinct motion of fluids rapidly. Some ofthem,asthe different species and granules. Schleiden thinks that this takes place in of Tangle (Laminaria), have been used as hy^ ^ 20.v all active formative cells at a certain stage of growth. Fig. grometers. In mosses, the cellular teeth of the Sporangium u of Mold looks upon it as a universal phenomenon, and says peristome (Fig. 20, /?), curve inwards on the er-moss (Enca- that it is connected with the protoplasm, and not with the application of moisture, by the distension of Seeth of thf watery cell-sap. This intra-cellular movement or circulathe outer row of cells. The twisting of the peristome, p, tion is seen in many aquatic plants as well as in certain stalk of Mosses, and of the awn of the wild wards “when hairs. It has received the names of Rotation and Gyration. Oat, are accounted for in a similar manner. pi^d.ure is ap' It is confined to individual cells, and its direction is more

BOTANY. 69 Botany, or less spiral. In Characeae (Fig. 21) cially in the cells of Anacharis Alsinastrum, a plant which Botany. this spiral intra-cellular movement is seems to have been introduced into Britain from America, observed easily under a moderate and is now naturalized. microscopic power. During the The cause of these intra-cellular motions is obscure. They healthy state of the plant, a constant appear to be connected with the nourishment of the cell and motion of fluid containing granules the process of cytogenesis. Some have attempted to account takes place, the current passing obfor them by physical causes, but the explanations given are very liquely up one side, changing its diunsatisfactory. Certain authors have referred the phenomerection at the extremity, and flowing non to endosmose depending on different densities in the cell down the other side. The stream contents, while electrical agency has been called into requisitakes a spiral course, and the ascendtion by others. Amici thinks that in Chara the rows of chloroing and descending currents are phyll-granules which line the walls of the cells exercise a galbounded by transparent spaces which vanic action upon the sap, and thus give rise to the motion. The appear to be caused by the adhesion action of the nucleus has also been thought to account for the of an internal membranous sac to the phenomenon. It is not connected with the general circulation outer envelope. The space between of the sap, but is a special movement in individual cells. As the outer and inner wall is thus diyet no good explanation has been brought forward, and all we vided into two cavities, which comcan say is, that the movements are of a physico-vital nature. municate with each other at the ends Some cells connected with the lower tribes of plants move of the cell. The fluid does not pass about in a liquid medium. Species of Oscillatoria have an Fig. 21. from one cell to another, and if one A small portion of a Chara undulating movement, and when placed in water in the field of the long cells is divided by a liga- magnified to show the of the microscope, they seem to pass from one side to the circulation. ture, a separate movement is seen intra-cellular The arrows mark the di- other. Their elongated filamentous cells sometimes twist, rection of the and in each division. Rotation continues granules in the fluid dift'erent and then project themselves forward by uncoiling. Oscillatcells. The clear spaces are ing movements are also seen in species of Pleurosigma and for some days in detached cells placed parts where there is no in water. ” ' movement. other Diatoms. In many Algals the cellular spores are surIn the cells of Vallisneria spiralis (Fig. 22), a dioecious rounded by vibratile hairs called cilia (Fig. 8), which conaquatic found in ditches in tinue to move for some time in fluid after the spore (zoothe south of Europe, an inspore) has been discharged from the plant. The ciliary motra-cellular movement takes tions cease when the spore begins to sprout. place, and is easily seen unIII. VESSELS AND VASCULAR TISSUE. der the microscope by lay1. Anatomy of Vessels. ing a portion of the leaf in water, and making a slanting The vessels of plants which collectively form vascular tissection of the end of it, so as sue or Angienchyma (ayyos, a vessel) may be considered as to render the object more differing from cells chiefly in their length. They are closed transparent by transmitted tubes tapering to each extremity. Their walls are composed light. If the movement is of the chemical matter called cellulose in a membranous not Visible, the leat may be Vallisneria spiralis, an aquatic plant form, and they are thickened and altered in various ways by immprspd for tlmp found in the the south In theof the formation of deposits in their interior. immerseu ror na exthem is cleft and toothedand at flower; Palmatifid, or Pali mately-cleft, when the divisions are more than five, as in Castor oil (Fig. 119). The terms palmate and palmatifid are, however, often used indiscriminately to mark a leaf M

;

90 BOTANY. Botany, having a broad portion like the palm of the hand, and ferent parts determine in a great measure the contour of the Botany, either five or more lobes.* When the parts of a palmatifid leaf. The following are some of the usual terms employed : *P1. CXIV. leaf are narrow, like the fingers, the term digitilobed, —Linear, when the leaf is narrow, and the veins proceed*P1. CXIII.digitipartite* and Fig. 1. dissected, are applied ; and when they are cut into thread - like divisions, as in the submerged leaves of Ranunculus aquatilis, they are said to be JUiformly dissected. The term Pedate (like the foot of a bird) is applied when the lateral divisions of a three-lobed leaf are again divided, as in stinking Helle*P1. CX. bore*p(Fig. T , of Castor-oil plant P 120). / , I-eaf commwm’5). It is T in a reatner-vemea palmately-cleft, and exhibits seven lobes at the loaf eimilar The hence petioletheis leaf inserted a little above Fig. 124. lear Similar rli^aiona Uivisions margin. the base, and is called peltate or give origin to the shieid-iike. terms Pinnatifid, with large lateral divisions, as in the Oak (Fig. 92); Pectinate (comb-like), with very narrow divisions; Pinnatipartite, when the divisions exFig. 123. tend near to the midrib (Fig. 121); Fig. 122. Lyrate leaf of Turnip (Brassica Rapa). It is a simple leaf with rePinnatelg-divided, when the diticulated venation, in which the terminal lobes are united, so as to make the leaf resemble an ancient lyre. When the lateral divivisions extend to the midrib. sions of such a leaf become leaflets articulated to the petiole, then the leaf is compound, and is said to be lyrately-pinnate. When the primary divisions of ... 123. Runeinate leaf of Dandelion (Leontodon Taraxacum). It is a pinnatifid leaf, with the divisions pointing towards the petiole. ... 124. Ovate acute leaf of Coriaria myrtifolia, one of the adulterations of Senna. Besides the midrib there are two intramarginal ribs which converge to the apex. The leaf is therefore tricostate. ing from the midrib are very short, and nearly equal. When linear leaves are sharp-pointed, as in Pines and Juniper, they are called Acerose; when linear leaves taper, so as to be like an awl, they are called Subulate ; leaves are Oblong, when the veins from the midrib are longer than in linear leaves, but still nearly equal, and the apex is rounded (Fig. 115); Rounded and Elliptical, when the veins from the centre of the midrib are longest, and the forms approach more or less to the circle or ellipse. When the veins coming off from near the base are the longest, and the leaf has the shape of an egg, it is called Ovate (Fig. 124) ; it is Obovate (inversely egg-shaped) when the veins at the apex are longest, and the leaf is thus like an Fig-120, Fig. 121. Tig. 120. Pedate leaf of stinking Hellebore (Helleborm fcetidus). The vena- ovate one reversed (Fig. 116); when the apex of an obovate tion is radiating. It is a palmately-partite leaf, in which the late- leaf is straight, or not uniformly ral lobes are deeply divided. When the leaf hangs down it resem- rounded, it becomes Cuneibles the foot of a bird, and hence the name. ... 121. Pinnatipartite leaf of a species of Poppy. The leaf is feather-veined, form (wedge-shaped); when an and the divisions take place laterally to near the midrib. The segments are pinnatifid, and pinnatipartite. The leaf may be called obovate leaf, with a round apex, bipinnatipartite. tapers to the base, as in the such leaves are again subdivided in a similar way, the terms Daisy, it is called Spathulate ; bipinnatifid and bipinnatipartite (Fig. 121) are applied; a leaf is Lanceolate (Fig. 125) and when not only the primary, but also the secondary seg- when the veins near the base ments are divided in a similar way, the terms tripinnatijid are longer than those above and tripinnatipartite are used, In a pinnatifid leaf it some- and below, and the leaf tapers times happens that there are few divisions, in consequence towards the apex; Ovato-lanof the lobes at the apex or base being united, thus giving ceolate, when the general form rise to the Lyrate leaf (like an ancient lyre), with a large is lanceolate, but tbe base is terminal lobe, and segments becoming smaller as they ap- broad (Fig. 113). proach the petiole (Fig. 122); and the Panduriform, when When the lower veins come the lobes have a recess or sinus between them, so as to make off at an obtuse angle from the leaf resemble a violin. When the divisions of a lyrately- the midrib, and are curved pinnatifid leaf have acute terminations, and point down- back so as to form with the „ , waids, as in the Dandelion, the term Runcinate is applied parenchyma two large round lg‘ 'd' oTsenifa.6 iTis’obiiqueat (Fig. 123). lobes at the base, with a nar- ... 126. SagfttatTleafof aspecieaof In the case of reticulated leaves, the angle which the veins row recess or sinus, like the convolvulus, foim with the midrib, and their comparative lengths in dif- heart on cards, the leaf is Cordate (Figs. 105 and 109); it

( BOTANY. 91 stalklets of their own, or are sessile. Compound leaves may Botany. Botany. is Reniform when the recess is large, and the contour rounded, so that the leaf resembles a kidney (Fig. 114); Sagittate, when the lobes of a cordiform leaf are acute, so as to resemble the head of an arrow, as in species of Convol* Plate vulus (Fig. 126), and Arum;* Hastate, udien the lower veins cxxxv. proceed nearly at right angles, and form two lateral narrow fig. 1. lobes, as in Rumex Acetosella (Fig. 127); Auriculate, when the lobes at the base of a hastate leaf are separated from the lamina, so as to be distinct segments; Deltoid-hastate, when a hastate leaf is short, and resembles the Greek letter delta, as in Ivy. Sometimes a leaf cordate at the base (next the petiole), has a rounded contour, and it becomes Rotundatocordate (Fig. 128, a). The lobes at the base of leaves are sometimes united more 129. or less completely, thus giving rise to the Peltate or Shield- Fig. 129.Fig. Pinnate leaf of like form, as in the Indian Cress (Fig. 128, b), and Castor Melilot {Melilotus officinalis), consisting of three leaflets (pinnae), two of which are lateral, and one terminal. The leaves do not all come off at one point, as in the ternate leaf. The leaf is sometimes said to be pinnately trifoliolate. Adherent ... 130. Impari-pinnate (unequally pinnate) leaf of Robinia. There are nine pairs of shortly-stalked leaflets (foliola, pinnae), and an odd one at the extremity. At the base of the leaf stipules are seen.

Fig. 127. Fig. 127. Hastate (Halbart-shaped) leaf of Sheep’s sorrel {Rumex Acetosella). The lobes at the base are in this specimen unequal. ... 128, a. Rounded leaf of Mallow {Malva rotundifoliaA It is cordate at the base, and is hence called rotundato-cordate. The margin is toothed and crenate. oil (Fig. 119); and the Orbicular form, when the petiole is attached in the centre of alarge rounded leaf, as in Pennywort (Hydrocotyle vulgaris) and Victoria regia. Very succulent leaves, until obscure veins, assume certain thickened forms, so as to become cylindrical, conical, Fig. 128,6. SWOrd - shaped, Peltate (Shield-like) leaves of Indian Cress(Trop&olutn and axe-shaped. majus). Simple parallel-veined leaves usually have their margins entire, especially when the veins converge. They assume some of the forms already noticed, such as linear, oval, elliptical, oblong, and ovate. It is comparatively rare to find any marked divisions of their laminae. When the veins diverge at the base, or come off at obtuse angles, we meet with hastate, sagittate, and cordate forms, and their various modifications. In some Palms, where the veins running in straight lines diverge, the margin of the leaf is cut into linear segments of different lengths (Fig. 110). In some Monocotyledons the leaves present a reticulated venation, and they are hence called Dictyogenous (Slktvov, a net). Compound Leaves.—These originate, like simple leaves, in the form of undivided cellular projections from the axis. When fully formed, they consist of laminae divided down to the petiole or midrib into distinct pieces or leaflets, which are articulated, more or less distinctly, to the common stalk (Fig. 129). These leaflets (foliola) are either supported on

be reduced to two well-marked forms ; those formed by the divisions of a feather-veined unicostate leaf, and including the various pinnate forms (Fig. 130) ; and those traced to the division of a radiating-veined multicostate leaf, including the various digitate forms (Fig. 131 )When there is a distinct midrib giving off primary veins laterally, which are covered with parenchyma in such a way as to form separate articulated leaflets, the leaf is Pinnate, as seen in Figure 130, which represents a compound leaf composed of nine pairs (juga), of shortly petiolated pinnae, and an odd leaflet at the end. If a pinnate leaf ends in Septenate leaf of the Horse-chestnut {JEsculus a nair nf leanois, Ipuflpfs; thp leaves, espepair OI Uic pvcx dallyUippocastanum). when there are fiveSuch leaflets, are called tremity of the midrib digitate. being either leafless or ending in a tendril or point, the leaf is said to be Equally or Abruptly-pinnate (pari-pinnate). When there is a leaflet at the point, the leaf is said to be Unequally-pinnate (impari-pinnate), as in Figure 130. When a lyrate leaf becomes truly pinnate, i. e., has its divisions articulated to the midrib, it is Lyrately-pinnate; and when the leaflets of a pinnate leaf are of different sizes, the term Interruptedly-pinnate\s&\)Y>\\e&. Some parallel-veined leaves, as those of the Coco-nut, Date, and Sago Palms, are pinnate. The number of pairs (juga) of leaflets in a pinnate leaf varies. There may be only three leaflets (Fig. 129), in which case two are lateral, and one is terminal. Such a leaf approaches to the ternate leaf which belongs to the radiating venation, and is distinguished by the distance intervening between the two articulated lateral pinnae and the terminal one. When the leaflets of a pinnate leaf are divided into separate pieces or pinnules, the leaf becomes Bipinnate (twice pinnate), as in Figure 132. When the subdivision takes place

) BOTANY. The petiole is usually either round, or half cylindrical, with Botany, Botany, to a further extent, the leaf becomes either Tripinnate or a flattening or grooving on the upper surface. In the Aspen it is compressed laterally, or at right angles with the blade and hence the trembling of its leaves from the slightest breath of air. When the leaves of a plant float in water, the petiole is sometimes distended with air cavities, as in the Water Chestnut. The edges of the petiole in plants such as the Orange (Fig. 133), the Quassia plant, Venus’ Fly-trap, the Sweet Pea, and other species of Lathyrus, are bordered by a leaf-like expansion called • Fig. 132. a Wing, and hence they are denominated Bipinnate (doubly pinnate, twice pinnate), leaf of Gleditschia triacanthos. Winged or Bordered petioles. Such leafEach of the primary pinnae is divided into small leaflets. It may be said to —)— p be a pinnate leaf, with the leaflets also pinnate. stalks are occasionally united to the axis for multicostate with diverging ribs, are distinguished from those some extent, and thus become Decurrent. referred to the feather-venation, by the leaflets coming off In many Endogens, especially grasses, the Fig. 133. from one point. When the leaflets coming from one point leaf-stalk forms a Sheath round the stem; are two, the leaf is Binate or Unijugate (one pair) ; when this sheath in grasses terminates at the up- rus Aurantium), three, Ternate ox Trifoliolate, as in Woodsorrel and Straw- per part, in a process called a Ligule, as seen ®etioiefp,Wwhich berry; when five, Quinateox Quinquefoliolate, as in Hemp; in Figure 134, where g is the sheath (va- is articulated to when seven, Septenate or Septemfoliolate, as in the Horse- gina), I the blade of the leaf, and lig the i^cor^idered a chestnut (Fig. 131). When the leaflets are five, the leaf is ligule. In Umbelliferous plants* the petiole hayingUoniy ’one *P1.CXX. often called Digitate. Similar forms may occur among pinnate is expanded, and forms a conspicuous sheath leaflet, leaves (Fig. 129), but in them the leaflets will be seen not to round the stem. This sheathing portion of the petiole is come off from the point of the petiole, but at certain distances formed by the divergence of the vascular bundles on either from each other. In the case of a ternate leaf, the two lateral side. The vessels thus surround the stem, and are covered leaflets may disappear, while the central one remains articu- with parenchyma. This petiolary sheath may be considered lated to the petiole. Some consider this as being the case in as a modification of stipules. the Orange leaf (Fig. 133), which is therefore looked upon as In some Australian plants belonging to the genera Acacia a compound leaf with a single jointed leaflet. A ternate and Eucalyptus, the petiole is flattened, and becomes a foliar (trifoliolate) leaf may divide in such a way as to form three expansion, which occupies the place of true leaves. Such leaflets on the secondary veins, proceeding from each of its petioles have received the name of Phyllodia (f)vXXov, a leaf). primary veins, and thus become Biternate (doubly ternate) ; while a further subdivision, in a similar way, will render it Triternate (triply ternate). 4. Petiole or Leaf-Stalk. The stalk supporting the blade of the leaf is denominated the Petiole (Fig 105, p). It is absent in the case of sessile leaves; and, in certain instances, the distinction between the lamina and the stalk is not well defined. The petiole consists of a definite number of vascular bundles enclosed in a small amount of parenchyma. The vessels are woody, dotted, spiral, and laticiferous, and they are derived from the internal part of the stem, as shown in Figure 108, where the vessels,/?;, surrounding the pith, m, are traced into the leaf-stalk,/. At the point where the vessels leave the stem there is often a small enlargement (pulvinus), composed of cellular tissue, and an articulation or joint. When the leaf dies, it separates from the stem at the joint, leaving a mark or scar (cicatrix, cicatricula) in which the ends of the different vascular bundles are seen arranged in a definite order. The form of the scar, and the arrangement of the bundles, differ in different plants, and furnish, in some instances, distinct characters. In the case of many Palms, and of Tree-ferns, the scars left by the leaves are very conspicuous. When there is no articulation between the petiole and the stem, as is the case with many Endogens, the leaf is continuous with the axis, and is not deciduous, but withers on the stalk. In many Liliaceous plants, the leaves during their decay continue attached to the plants. In compound leaves there is usually an articulation, where the leaflet or The trees bearing them give a peculiar character to some leaflets join the petiole. At this joint also a cellular swell- forests in New Holland. These phyllodia are usually placed ing (struma) occurs. In many pinnate leaves, as those of vertically, presenting their edges to the sky and earth, and the Sensitive plant, the axial and foliolar joints and swellings their venation is parallel. They occasionally bear pinnate or (pulvinus and struma) are very evident. Where the petiole bipinnate laminae, and in such cases they are frequently much joins the blade its vessels diverge, so as to form the ribs narrowed in their dimensions. In Figure 135 a bipinnate and veins—the vascular bundle which continues in the di- leaf is represented, with its flattened petiole or phyllodium, rection of the stalk being the midrib. The epidermis of the venation of which is straight. On the same tree may be seen naked and leaf-bearing phyllodia. By this, as the petiole has few stomata.

BOTANY. 93 Botany, well as by their venation, their petiolary character is deter- (Robinia) are spiny. In these instances the vascular bun- Botany. mined. Trees producing naked vertical phyllodia only dles are developed in a marked degree, while the paren- ' have a singular effect as regards light and shade. Some chyma is deficient. To the same cause is attributed the shrubby species of Wood-sorrel exhibit phyllodia, which are spiny margin of the Holly-leaf. In the Gooseberry, the either naked, or bear ternate leaflets. swelling (pulvinus) at the base of the petiole, and below the leaf, assumes a spinose character. 5. Stipules or Stipulary Appendages. Changes in the appearances of leaves are produced by Stipules are leafy appendages situated at the base of adhesions and foldings of various kinds. When two leaves the petiole, and having normally a lateral position as re- unite at their bases, as in some species of Honeysuckle spects the leaf. They have usually the same structure (Fig. 137), they are called Connate. When the lobes at as leaves, and, in some instances, as in Lathyrus Aphaca, the base of a leaf unite on the opposite side of the stem they constitute the only leaves which the plant produces. In the Pansy (Fig. 136), they are as conspicuous as the ordinary leaves. In the Pea, they are also large, and in many of the pea tribe they assume peculiar sagittate forms. Stipules are not present in all plants. Those having stipules are called Stipulate, those without stipules are Exstipulate. At a certain stage of their growth, some stipules are larger than the leaves or leaflets produced before them. Thus they serve as a protection to the leaves in the young state, as in the India-rubber Fig, Potamogetons, Magnolias, and the Beech. These Fig. 138. protective stipules generally fall off when Fig. 137. the leaf expands. Fig. 137. Connate leaves of a species of Honeysuckle (Lonieera Caprifoliumy The form and appearance of stipules Two leaves are united by their bases. ... 138. Perfoliate leaf of a species of Hare’s-ear (Bupleurum rotundifolium). vary; some are leaf-like, others cirrhose; The two lobes at the base of the leaf are united, so that the stalk appears to come through the leaf. some are small, others large; some assume Fig. 136. a scaly or membranaceous appearance, others are hard and spiny; some are sepa- Leaf °[ faPs>T’ ®e- from the lamina, a Perfoliate leaf is the result, as seen in ti. fromlyratethe some species of Bupleurum (Fig. 138) and Baptisia. The rate and tree, others are united. In this parated flower; the way the nature of the stipules gives cha- ^"Tr^^iatmotTy formation of Peltate and Orbicular leaves has been traced racters in many natural orders. In the pybie, and their to the union of the lobes of a cleft leaf. In the case of the Victoria leaf the transformation may be traced during gerLmchona bark trees, which have oppo- seen, site leaves, the stipules unite, so as to form one on each side mination ; the first leaves produced by the young plant of the stem between the petioles, hence they are called In- are linear, the second are sagittate and hastate, the third terpetiolar. In the Rhubarb tribe, which have alternate are rounded-cordate, and the next are orbicular. The cleft *P1 CXXX.leaves, the stipules unite, so as to form a sheath or Ochrea* indicating the union of the lobes remains in the large leaves. round the stem. In the Plane tree, and in the Astragalus, Many forms of stipules, such as petiolar, interpetiolar, and they unite, so as to form a leafy expansion on the opposite sheathing, are traced to adhesion. Folding of the leafy appendages, and union of their edges, side from the leaf, and in the Rose tribe they are united to each other and to the petiole, thus becoming adnate. give rise to the formation of a hollow leaf or Pitcher (asciThe petioles of many plants have a sheathing portion at dium, ascus). In the Side-saddle flower the ascidia are their base (Fig. 117), which may be considered as adherent considered as being formed by the petiole or phyllode, a stipules. On this account the reticulum, or mat-like sub- part of which, in an unadherent state, is prolonged upwards stance, at the base of the leaves of palms, is often called (Fig. 139). In the ^ stipular. Besides the leaves at the base of the petiole, Pitcher-plant there smaller leaflets (stipels) are occasionally produced at the is an evident lid, united to the pitbase of the pinnae of compound leaves, as in the bean. cher by a joint (Fig. 140,/). The 6. Transformations of Leaves and their Appendages. lid is looked upon Some of these transformations have been already noticed, as the metamorbut there are others to which it is necessary to direct atten- phosed lamina, artion. The morphological relations between leaves, scales, ticulated to the holand spines—between petiole and laminae, and between low petiole or phylstipules and petioles, have been adverted to. All these nu- lode. It may be tritive organs are sometimes changed into tendrils (cirrhi), said to resemble with the view of enabling the plants to twine round others the jointed leaves for support. In Leguminous plants (the pea tribe) the pinnae of the Orange, or are frequently cirrhose. Sometimes a whole leaf becomes Dionaea, with their Fiff. 139. Fig. 140_ cirrhose. as in some species of Lathyrus. In Smilax there petioles folded >0 Fig. 139. Pitcher (Asridium) of a species of Sirle-sadare two stipulary tendrils, while in the Cucumber tribe there as to adhere by the die pitj ckerplant(Sarraceniapurpurea). is supposed be formed by theThe folded is a single one at the base of each leaf. In the Passion- edges, and],,. their petiole, which istoprolonged. 140. Pitcher, of a species of Pitcher-plant {Neflower the lateral leaf-buds, and in the Vine the terminal laminae reduced in penthes distillatoria'). It is supposed to be formed by a folded petiole, p, the edges of ones, become tendrils. size, so as to form which are united. The lid, l, at the top is The leafy parts of plants are also liable to become har- a lid (operculum). supposed to represent the lamina, united by articulation to the pitcher. dened and spinescent. The leaves of some species of As- The hollow (fistutragalus and Barberry, and the stipules of the False Acacia lar) leaves of the onion, and of other species of Allium, may

—

94

BOTANY. be traced to the folding and adhesion of the margins of the tabular view of the quantity of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Botany. Nitrogen, or the organic constituents, and of Ash or the infoliar appendages. It has been already remarked, that buds and bulbils are organic constituents:— produced at the Wheat. points where leaves join the stem. In some Grain. Straw Grain. Straw o instances, however, we find that 461 48-4 50-7 50-1 46-5 49-4 45-8 42-9 44-0 Carbon budsare produced 5-8 5-3 6-4 5-4 61 5-8 5 0 5-6 5-8 Hydrogen from the margins Oxygen ... 43-4 38'95 36-7 390 401 35-0 38-7 42-2 44-7 2-3 •35 2-2 •4 4-2 7-0 1-5 1-7 1-5 or surfaces of Nitrogen leaves. In Bryo2-4 7-0 4-0 5-1 3-1 2-8 9-0 7-6 4-0 Ash phyllum (Fig. 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 141), this is a common occurrence, veins. and it is met with in many plants of the order Gesneraceae> This table shows that the quantity of ash is small, and the leaves of which, when placed on the surface of moist that of the organic elements Carbon and Oxygen are the most abundant. The relative proportions of the different earth, become what is called proliferous, or bud-bearing. organic elements, it will be seen, vary in different plants, and in different parts of the same plant. Thus nitrogen is ii_physiology op the nutritive organs. more abundant in the grain than in the straw of wheat and I. CHEMISTRY OF VEGETATION. CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS, oats. It is also more abundant in yellow peas and in clover seed, than in the cereal grains and hay. Some of the AND SOURCES WHENCE THEY ARE DERIVED. organic vegetable compounds consist of Carbon, Oxygen, It is impossible to study the functions of plants without Hydrogen, and Nitrogen or Azote, and are hence called knowing their chemical composition, and the sources whence Nitrogenous or Azotized. Others are composed of Carthey derive the materials necessary for carrying on their bon, Oxygen, and Hydrogen, without the addition of Nitrovital processes. Hence, before proceeding to consider the gen, and are hence called Non-Nitrogenous or Unazotized. plant in a state of activity, and as performing vital actions, In considering these constituents, we shall make some it is necessary to give a general view of the Chemistry of remarks on the elements of which they are respectively Vegetation. This subject has engaged the attention of formed. many distinguished chemists, among whom may be mentioned Saussure, Sprengel, Davy, Liebig, Dumas, Mulder, a. Non-Nitrogenous or Unazotized Constituents and their Elements. Boussingault, and Johnston. The subject has assumed imThe organic compounds, denominated unazotized, are portance in an agricultural point of view, and a knowledge of it is essential for carrying on farming operations in an important constituents of all plants. Some of them, such as enlightened manner. The theory of manures, and the prac- cellulose, lignine, starch, gum, sugar, and oily matters, are tical application of them, is intimately connected with the universally diffused over the vegetable kingdom. Others, such as vegetable acids, bitter principles, and resins, are knowledge of the composition of plants and of soils. more limited in their distribution. All of these substances, 1. Organic Constituents of Plants. except cellulose and starch, which are organized, and gum, The materials of which the substance of plants is com- which is amorphous, are crystalline when they can be got posed are of two kinds, Organic and Inorganic. The or- in a solid state. Those unazotized matters, which are still ganic constituents form the great bulk of the tissues of subject to the law of crystallization, do not take part in the plants; they are completely consumed when the plant is formation of tissues. Starch and cellulose, on the other burnt; they are produced by living organs alone, and can- hand, are concerned in the development of the organized not be manufactured in the laboratory of the chemist. The parts of plants, but in order to effect this, they require the inorganic constituents, on the other hand, form a small por- addition of certain azotized products as well as some inortion of the tissues ; they are incombustible, and remain in ganic matters. Cells and vessels cannot be formed without the form of ash after the organic constituents have been the presence of albuminous matter, which contains nitrogen consumed by fire ; and they can be produced in the labo- and sulphur in its composition, and which cannot be proratory of the chemist. The former may be called the com- duced without the presence of phosphates. 1 he physicobustible materials produced by living plants ; the latter in- vital energies of the plant effect the union of carbon, oxycombustible materials, found not only in plants, but also in gen, and hydrogen, in different proportions. These elethe mineral kingdom. Both are derived originally from un- ments, existing in certain states of combination in the atorganized matter, and both enter into the composition of mosphere, are within the reach of plants at all times. Carbon—enters largely into the composition of plants. organized structures in a greater or less degree. The vegetable organic constituents are composed chiefly of Carbon It is said to form two-thirds of the weight of dried plants in (C), Oxygen (O), Hydrogen (H), and Nitrogen (N). The general. This substance is familiar to us in the form of inorganic constituents are composed of metallic bases in com- wood-charcoal, and in its purest state it is seen in the diabination with oxygen, acids, and metalloids. In the fresh mond. Charcoal is porous, and has the power of absorbing plant there is always a large quantity of water (H O). This soluble gases in large quantity, of separating saline and other is removed by drying. The quantity varies in different matters from solutions, and of taking away disagreeable plants—succulent and fleshy species containing a larger pro- odours. When combined with two equivalents of oxygen, carbon forms carbonic acid (CO2), and it is in this condition portion of water than those which are dry and hard. After the plants have been dried so as to remove the that it is taken up by the leaves and other parts of plants. water, an estimate can be made, by burning, of the relative Some maintain that this carbonic acid is derived by plants proportion of organic and inorganic matter—the former be- entirely from the atmosphere, which contains about 1-1000th ing dissipated by the action of fire, and the latter remaining of its volume of the gas. T he quantity contained in the air, in the form of ashes. Boussingault gives the following although it appears small when compared with the whole

BOTANY. 95 Botany, bulk of the atmosphere, is nevertheless sufficient to supply Botany. b. Nitrogenous or Azotized Constituents, and their all the carbon of plants. A room 40 feet long, 24 feet wide, Elements. and 16 feet high, will contain in its atmosphere 15 cubic feet of carbonic acid, equal to 28 ounces by weight of carbon. Another class of substances found in the tissues of plants, The leaves of plants have a great power of absorbing car- and essential to the process of vegetation, consists of carbon, bonic acid. Boussingault proved this by passing air con- hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen (N), with the addition ot taining the usual proportion of carbonic acid over a vine leaf. sulphur (S), and alkaline or earthy phosphates. They are Even by coming for a few seconds into contact with the leaf, commonly called Nitrogenous or Azotized or Azoto-sulthe air was deprived entirely of its carbonic acid. The car- phurized substances. Some authors include them under the bonic acid in the atmosphere is derived from various sources. general name of Mucus or Protoplasm. The constituents Amongst the most evident of these are—1. The respiration of these organic matters are known by the names of vegeand transpiration of man and animals. 2. The decomposi- table albumen, fibrine, and caseine. The general name of tion of dead animal and vegetable matter. 3. Various pro- gluten is given to the glutinous part of wheat which remains cesses of combustion on the surface of the earth. 4. Volcanic after the starch and soluble constituents of the grain have action going on in the interior of the earth in different been removed. This gluten consists usually of fibrine and countries. albumen. Wheat contains from 8 to 24 per cent, of gluten ; The function of respiration in animals consists in the giv- barley 3 to 6; oats 2 to 5. ing out ol carbonic acid, or, in other words, the oxidation Nitrogen enters largely into the composition of the tisof carbon, while the great function of vegetables is the eli- sues of animals, and hence it must be supplied to them in mination of oxygen or the deoxidation of carbonic acid. their food. Without the presence of azotized compounds, The two processes are antagonistic, and a balance is kept up no blood nor muscle can be formed. Hence the quantity between the carbonic acid given off by animals, &c., and the of these compounds in plants, along with phosphates which oxygen given out by plants. A grown person is said to give form bone, indicates their blood-forming or sanguigenous off 3^- lb. of carbon in a day, and every pound of carbon value. Nitrogen is known to us as a gas forming 79 voburnt or oxidized yields more than 3-^ lb. of carbonic acid. lumes per cent, of the atmosphere, and moderating the effect While active volcanoes give out carbonic acid, there are also of oxygen on all oxidable bodies. Like hydrogen, it is extinct ones which do so. The soil in the country on the sparingly soluble in water. It enters into combination with Rhine, to the south of Bonn, gives out carbonic acid; and hydrogen, and forms ammonia, composed of 1 equivalent of all the waters in that district are charged with it. The nitrogen and 3 of hydrogen (NH3). Ammonia is given off carbonic acid of coal arises from the decay of vegetable during the decay of animal tissues, in the form of a pungent matter. vapour, which is readily absorbed by water, and also in comWhen plants decay they furnish to the soil a large supply bination with other substances, such as carbonic acid and of carbon in the form of humus or common vegetable mould. sulphuretted hydrogen. The nitrogen of the air may also, This cannot be taken up directly as food by plants, but it as some think, combine with hydrogen in the soil, and form is acted on by air and moisture, and undergoes certain ammonia. The presence of ammonia in the atmosphere changes by which a portion of carbonic acid is probably was determined by Saussure in 1806. Ville has recently formed. It also has the power of absorbing gases, such as stated that the nitrogen of the air is assimilated by plants, ammonia, and sulphuretted hydrogen, as well as saline sub- but his observations have not been confirmed. stances, and of making them available for the use of plants. In order that azotized matter may be formed, plants must Oxygen—is another organic element of plants. It is known have a supply, not only of nitrogen, but also of sulphur and to us in a gaseous state as forming 21 per cent, of the bulk phosphates. The two latter are derived from the soil, in of the atmosphere, and as supplying materials for respira- the form of soluble compounds of sulphuric and phosphoric tion and combustion. When one atom of oxvgen is com- acids, while the former is derived, according to Liebig, not bined with one of hydrogen, water is formed, and carbonic from the nitrogen of the air, but from the ammonia diffused acid is the result of the union of one atom of oxygen with through it. This ammonia constitutes only 1-10,000th of two of carbon. In its combinations with metals and metal- the bulk of the air at the utmost; it is usually much less. loids, oxygen forms a large proportion of the solid materials This, however, has been shown to be sufficient for the supof the globe. All the oxygen in plants seems to be derived ply of nitrogen to plants. Ammonia is returned to the air from carbonic acid and water. No vegetable contains more during the processes of putrefaction which go on in dead oxygen than can be accounted for by these two sources. animals and plants, as well as in the excreta of the former, Hydrogen—is another element of plants which is known such as the urine. It is also yielded by transpiration. Thus to us in the state of a gas. It does not, however, occur free ammonia is continually sent into the atmosphere, and by and in a simple state in nature. It exists in small quantity the constant movement of the air the supply is diffused. in animal and vegetable substances, forms l-9th of the Ammonia is also absorbed by the soil, and may thus be weight of pure water, and enters into the composition of rendered available for the use of plants. It is known also coal. The hydrogen of plants is derived from water. that in some instances volcanic action gives rise to the forAs carbonic acid and water therefore exist at all times, mation of ammonia. Daubeny believes that the ammonia, more or less, in the atmosphere, it appears that the air is as well as the carbonic acid which formed the food of the the source whence plants procure the carbon, oxygen, and first plants, was produced, not by processes of animal decay, hydrogen, which enter so largely into their composition. At but by such as were proceeding within the globe prior to the same time, it cannot be denied, that these elements also the creation of living beings, and that the disengagement of exist in the soil, and may be taken up by the roots of plants both these compounds has been going on slowly and conin the form of carbonic acid and water. The various non- tinually from the earliest period to the present time. Others azotized vegetable products {i.e. the products consisting of think that part of the nitrogen of plants is derived from carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen) can be derived from car- nitric acid and nitrates, and this view is gaining ground. bonic acid (C02), and water (HO), by a process of deoxida- Nitric acid is produced during thunder storms, and in the tion ; and as this process is constantly going on in every rain which falls during these storms this acid has been deplant, by means of which oxygen is given out, we may con- tected in small quantities. The nitric acid in these instances jecture that it is in this way that the products are formed.1 probably proceeds not only from a combination between the 1

Gregory’s Handbook of Organic Chemistry, p. 460.

BOTANY. 96 Wood. Leaves. Botany, nitrogen and oxygen of the air, but also from a combinaBotany. n Poplar 9-2 1-97 ti° between the ammonia and oxygen. The minute quanWillow 0'45 8-2 tity of nitric acid and nitrates in some springs may also supBirch 0-34 5-0 ply nitrogen. The nitric acid in these instances appears to Elm 1-88 11-8 proceed from the decay of animal matter, and from the oxiAsh.... 0-4 to 0-6 dation of ammonia. Oak 0-21 4-5 All the azotized matters to which we have alluded are formed by a process of deoxidation from carbonic acid Thus the quantity of inorganic matter in the same weight (C02), water (HO), hydrated ammonia (NH3HO), nitric of different crops varies. It will be seen, for instance, that acid (NOg), and sulphuric acid (S03). They all contain the grain of barley yields more ash than wheat or rye. much less oxygen than is necessary to convert their hydro- The quantity of inorganic matter also in different parts of gen into water, their carbon into carbonic acid, and their the same plant varies, as seen in the grain and straw of sulphur into sulphuric acid. They are never found alone cereal grains, and the wood and leaves of trees. The following comparative results are given by Johnston in plants, but generally two of them together. They cannot exist without the presence of phosphates. Hence the of experiments made by different chemists regarding the ashes of plants are in part derived from the sanguigenous more important inorganic constituent in 100 parts of some (blood-producing) matters, such as albumen and fibrine, of the cultivated plants and trees:— which enter along with cellulose into the composition of the cell-walls. NAMES OF PLANTS. P-'d o.z; 2. Inorganic Constituents of Plants. 's'S The terrestrial or telluric food of plants, as it is termed, 33 3 12 59 0-25 1 consists chiefly of certain inorganic matters, the amount of Wheat Barley 22 3 7 39 0-10 27 which is ascertained by the ash left after burning. While Oats .. 26 6 10 44 11 3 the organic constituents of plants are destroyed by a high Rye ... 34 5 10 50 1 0-4 temperature, and undergo decay under the agency of moisMaize. 33 1 16 45 3 1 ture and warmth, the inorganic constituents are incomRice .. 30 1 12 53 0 3 bustible, and do not undergo the putrefactive process. Beans.. 44 6 8 38 1 1 There are at least 12 inorganic elements which enter into Peas .. 44 5 8 33 4 0-51 the composition of plants :— Wheat Straw 13 3 6 65 7 4 Sulphur, S, as Sulphuric acid, S03. Barley do 3 7 10 3 2 71 Phosphorus, P, as Phosphoric acid, P06. Oat do 29 8 4 3 3 48 Silicium, Si, as Silicic acid, Si03. Rye do 18 9 2 4 1 65 Calcium, Ca, as Lime, CaO. Maize do 35 8 7 17 0 28 Magnesium, Mg, as Magnesia, MgO. Rice do 14 0 5 1 4 74 Potassium, K, as Potassa, KO. Bean do 55 20 7 1 7 7 Sodium, Na, as Soda, NaO. Pea do 5 55 7 5 20 7 Chlorine, Cl, in combination with metals. Red Clover .. 36 33 8 8 3 7 Iodine, I, do. do. Fluorine, F, do. do. Potatoes 2 5 13 14 4 57 Iron, Fe, in combination with oxygen, Fe203. Turnips 8 8 14 47 14 5 Manganese, Mn, do. do. MnO. Beet 56 9 5 2 10 8 Cabbage 32 21 6 12 22 074 Alumina (A1203), the sesquioxide of Aluminum, which has Potato Haulm 44 4 8 17 7 7 been noticed by some authors as another inorganic conTurnip do 34 23 3 1 9 13 stituent of plants, seems to be an accidental ingredient, being sometimes present, and at other times absent. Mr Elm Bark 12 72 3 8 17 0-6 Stevenson Macadam has recently obtained indications of Elm Wood 35 47 7 3 3 1-2 Lime Bark the presence of Bromine (Br.) in plants. 21 60 8 4 2 07 Lime Wood 41 29 4 4 5 5 The quantity of inorganic matter in plants is small when Cherry Bark 23 44 5 3 0-8 21 compared with the organic constituents. It is nevertheCherry Wood ... 36 35 11 9 4 2 less essential to the life and vigour of plants. The cellScotch Fir Seeds 23 2 15 45 10 walls cannot be formed without inorganic matters, and some of them enter into the composition of the azotized substances formed by plants. Thus sulphur and salts of phosFrom this table it will be seen that the quantities of difphoric acid are necessary for the formation of albumen, ferent mineral matters vary in different plants, and in differfibrine, and caseine. In some rare instances of plants form- ent parts of the same plant. Silica is present in large ing mould, no ash has been detected. quantity in the stems of grasses, while it forms usually a The quantity of ash left by 100 parts of the following small proportion of grains, leguminous plants, and succulent plants is thus given by Johnston:— roots. Phosphoric acid is more abundant in the grain of cereal plants than in the straw; it exists also in considerGrain. Straw. able quantity in nutritive seeds and in potatoes and turnips. Wheat 1-2 to 2‘0 3'5 to 18'5 Lime abounds in the stems of beans and peas, in clover, Barley 2-3 to S’S 5'2 to 8‘5 Oats 1-6 to 2-8 and in the bark and wood of trees; while it exists in small Rye 1-0 to 2-4 2T to 5-6 quantity in the cereal plants and grasses. The proportion Indian Corn 1-3 2'3 to 6‘5 of lime in the bark of trees is greater than in their wood. Field Peas 2-5 to 3-0 4'3 to 6-2 Potash and soda enter more largely into the composition of green crops than into that of white crops; they are also Wood. Leaves. more abundant in the wood than in the bark of trees. Larch 0-33 6.0 Most plants contain more or less of potash and soda in Scotch Fir 0T4 to 0T9 2-0 to 3'0 Beech 0T4 to 0-60 4-2 to 67 their composition. The former prevails in inland plants,

BOTANY. 97 Botany, the latter in maritime and marine plants. Some succulent rive inorganic matter. In hothouses these Epiphytes have Botany. sea-shore plants, such as Salsola Kali, and Salicornia her- also a quantity of moss round their roots, which is another bacea, yield a large quantity of soda in their ashes. Some source of inorganic matter. Lichens seem to have the species of plants which grow both in maritime and inland power, in many cases, of acting upon hard rocks, and derivsituations contain a preponderance of soda in the former ing from them inorganic matters. Mulder states that mould locality, and of potash in the latter. This is the case with plants found on the surface of saccharine and gummy soluthe common Sea-pink (Armeria maritima), Scurvy-grass tions, as well as in vinegar and other organic substances, (Cochlearia officinalis), and sea-side Plantain (Plantago consist of cellulose and nitrogenous compounds, without any inorganic matter. These plants, according to him, leave maritima). The presence of lime has been detected in almost all no ash on being burnt. plants. It is an abundant ingredient of the soil, and is 3. Composition and Properties of Soils as supplying often associated with magnesia. In combination with phosFood for Plants. phoric acid, it is an essential ingredient of the nitrogenous Having considered the various organic and inorganic matter of cereal grains, and of many other cultivated plants. As sulphate it occurs largely in some of the Charas and matters which enter into the composition of plants and Medicks. It sometimes appears as an incrustation on the of vegetable products, and having noticed the chief sources cells of plants, in the form of carbonate. This is seen in whence plants derive their carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and species of the genus Chara (especially Chara hispida) which nitrogen, we shall now examine generally the nature of the grow in ponds. In the interior of cells, salts of lime are soil, as the source whence the mineral or inorganic matters often seen in a crystalline form, constituting Raphides. required for vegetable growth and nutrition are derived. Oxalate of lime crystals occur in Rhubarb root; in the best We have seen that the atmosphere, with its carbonic acid, Turkey Rhubarb they constitute 35 per cent, of the dried water, nitric acid, and ammonia, is capable of supplying the tissue, in East India Rhubarb 25 per cent., and in English organic constituents of vegetables. At the same time we Rhubarb 10 per cent. In some of the Cactus tribe, espe- have found that sulphur and phosphates enter into the comcially in old specimens of Polocereus senilis, these crystals position of some of the most important sanguigenous (bloodare so numerous as to render the stem brittle. Crystals of producing) products. To the salts of sulphuric and phosphosphate, sulphate, carbonate, tartrate, malate, and citrate phoric acid in the soil, we must look, therefore, for the means of enabling plants to assimilate their organic proof lime also occur in the cells of plants. The presence of silica (Si03) in plants give solidity and ducts. While we allow that the atmosphere is the great firmness to their stems. The quantity in some plants, such reservoir whence the organic elements are derived, still we as Equisetum, is very large. In these plants, as well as in cannot consider it as the exclusive source. It is probable grasses, the silica exists in the form of small plates, grains, that some of the carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen of or needles, as may be shown by the action of sulphuric plants may be supplied by the soil, and at all events we acid. In the Bamboo (Bambusa arundinacea, and other have seen that these elements cannot be combined in the species) the quantity of silica at the joints is frequently very form of albumen, fibrine, and caseine, without certain large, and may be collected in masses, to which the name mineral matters of telluric origin. The atmospheric supply of food is pretty uniform, and is of Tabasheer is given. In the Diatomaceae, belonging to the lowest tribe of Algae, the cells have a siliceous cover- not under the control of man. It is to the terrestrial (teling, which enables them to retain their form, even after being luric) supply he must look as that which can be increased and modified by his efforts. The horticulturist and farmer acted on by strong acids. Iodine was considered formerly as an ingredient of ma- direct their attention to the soil, and by alterations in its ritime and marine plants only, but it has been recently composition endeavour to effect changes in the plants which detected in fresh-water plants, as well as in many ordi- they cultivate. It is therefore of importance to ascertain nary land plants, by Chatin and by Macadam. The pre- the mechanical nature and chemical composition of the soil. The following are the substances which enter generally sence of fluorine in plants was first detected by Will of Giessen, and his observations have been confirmed and into the composition of soils:—Silica, clay, lime, and hugreatly extended by Dr George Wilson. It occurs in mus or vegetable mould. According to the prepondesmall quantity in plants, and it is often associated with rance of one or other of these ingredients, soils are usually silica, from which it is separated with great difficulty. classified. Plants growing on the .sea-shore, such as Sea-pink and The presence of sand and gravel in soils renders them Scurvy-grass, have been proved by Voelcker to contain loose and friable. Such soils part with moisture easily, and fluorine. The test for the presence of fluorine is the etch- are usually dry. When the proportion of sand is very ing which hydrofluoric acid produces on glass. large, the soils are barren and unproductive. The addition Plants derive all their inorganic materials from the soil, of clay, chalk, and marl, is useful in rendering sandy soils and it is consequently of importance to determine the com- more tenacious. As silica enters more or less into the position of the latter. Some plants, however, are enabled composition of plants, it must be taken up from the soil by to grow without coming into contact with the soil. Thus the roots of plants. In order that this absorption may take in the Botanic Garden of Edinburgh, Urostigma elasticum, place, the silica must be dissolved in water. In its uncomArdisia crenulata, Agave (Littaea) gemmipara, Billbergia bined condition it is insoluble, but by combining with alkanudicaulis, and Phoenix farinifera, have continued to grow lies such as potash, it forms soluble silicates, which enter for nearly four years suspended in the air, and merely mois- the cells of plants. Clayey soils contain a large quantity of insoluble silicates, tened by common water allowed to come into contact with the roots by the capillary action of a worsted thread. Uro- and of alumina, which does not appear to be an essential stigma australe has grown suspended in the air for nearly constituent of plants, although it is occasionally found as an twenty-five years. The plants have produced leaves and accidental addition to their tissues. The presence of clay some of them flowers. They derive their organic nourish- has a tendency to make soils stiff and firm, so that they can ment from the air, and the quantity of inorganic matter in retain the roots of plants and give them support. Clay the M'ater appears to be sufficient to supply their wants in soils are usually moist, impervious, and cold. Heavy clay that respect for a long period. Air-plants or Epiphytes, land is improved by draining, by burning, and by mixing such as Tillandsias and Orchids, are usually attached to chalk and sand with it. Way finds that clay in the soil reother plants, from the decaying bark of w. .ch they may de- moves various important matters from the manures put upon VOL. v. N

BOTANY. 98 Botany. Botany, it, and does not allow the active ingredients to pass off into dom in apatite and phosphorite, and in the animal kingdom ^.»» v ^ jlie drains. It retains the alkalies, as ammonia, potash, soda, in bones, shells, and corals, as well as in blood, milk, and ^ other fluids. Fluorides are much more widely distributed and magnesia. Calcareous soils contain upwards of 20 per cent, of lime. than is generally imagined. They exist in well, river, and This substance exists abundantly in the vegetable juices, sea water. The productiveness of soils is very various. Some are and hence its presence is required in all productive soils. Calcareous soils exhibit different physical characters accord- entirely barren, such as quartz rock. This kind of soil is ing to the proportion of lime, clay, silica, &c., which enter seen in many mountainous districts in which the bare quartz into their composition. The addition of lime to soils is rock continues to show itself without any vegetable coveroften highly beneficial, by destroying noxious weeds, and ing whatever. Others contain materials fitted for nourishby preventing disease in crops. Lime, in combination with ment, but notr available until they are disintegrated. This phosphoric acid, is a valuable ingredient of soils. Sulphate is the case w ith many granitic rocks containing valuable of lime or gypsum seems to be useful, not merely in supply- nutritive matter which can only be taken up by plants after ing sulphuric acid and lime, but also in fixing ammonia. In the rocks have been pulverized by the action of the weather. marly soils lime exists in proportions varying from 5 to 20 Some hard granites which are not thus acted upon are per cent. In loamy soils lime is in smaller quantity, and barren. Some soils are unproductive on account of their physical characters, such as very stiff clays; others are so the clay does not exceed 50 per cent. Humus soils contain much vegetable mould. This is in on account of being too loose and sandy; while others, from itself insoluble, and cannot be taken up by plants. By the excess of water, are too moist, and require draining before action of air and moisture, &c., the humus is decomposed,^ they can be productive. The presence of substances in an and various acids are formed, which seem to be capable of unavailable form is the most common cause of sterility in supplying carbon to plants. Vegetable moulds also absorb soils. Barren felspar soils may be rendered fertile—by exgases, such as ammonia, in large quantity, and thus supply posure to the air, or in other wmrds, by lying fallow; by frequent ploughing and turning up; by the use of quicklime, nutritive matter to plants. The alkalies, potash and soda, are important constituents w hich acts by accelerating the decomposition of felspar and of plants, and they exist in greater or less quantity in soils. clay, and separating the silica and potash from the former; They enter into the composition of minerals, such as felspar. by burning or calcination which acts in the same way as They are taken up by plants in combination with acids. lime. Thus fallow, ploughing, liming, and burning act in They render silica soluble, and they are essential to the the same way on barren felspar soils, by causing decompodevelopment of acids, such as oxalic, citric, and malic, with sition, and separating the materials required for the nourishwhich they are found in combination. They appear to re- ment of plants. They all promote the solubility of different place each other in certain circumstances. In many fertile parts of the soil. Below the ordinary soil there occurs what soils magnesia exists in combination with carbonic acid, is called the subsoil, in which there is less organic matter phosphoric acid, and lime. In flax there is a large propor- than on the surface. Into this soil many soluble matters tion of magnesia. In its caustic state magnesia is injurious are carried down by rains. The effect of subsoil and trenchploughing is to bring up these matters and render thein to vegetation. Iron has been detected in greater or less quantity in the available for the use of plants. The beneficial results of ashes of all plants. It exists in the soil in combination with this kind of ploughing will depend upon the composition of oxygen, sulphur, and carbon. The oxides of iron are found, the subsoil. more or less, in all soils, and the peroxide, which is the 4. Rotation of Crops and Application of Manures. most abundant, imparts that reddish colour so often obSome plants require certain inorganic matters in larger served on the earth’s surface. The protoxide of iron is of less value than the peroxide for vegetation, as it readily quantity than others, and it is upon the knowledge of this forms salts which are injurious to plants. It frequently ab- that the rotation of crops is founded. The soil is constantly stracts oxygen from the soil, and becomes fully oxidized. losing inorganic matters. By continuing to cultivate the Manganese exists sparingly in plants, and it is found in the same crop, we deprive the soil, to the depth to which the soil combined with peroxide of iron. The presence of roots extend, of certain materials, while others are left nearly iodine in plants has been fully recognised by many ob- untouched; but by alternation of crops the latter may be servers. Chatin believes that there is an appreciable quan- made available for the purposes of growth. Farmers on this tity of iodine in the atmosphere, in rain water, and in the account have different crops succeeding each other in the soil, varying in different districts, and that the relative same field. Wheat, barley, and oats are described as silica amount of iodine, in any one locality, determines, to a great plants ; peas, beans, and clover as lime plants; turnips and extent, the presence or absence of certain diseases, such as potatoes as potash plants. These ci'ops, from the difference goitre and cretinism. Mr Stevenson Macadam, from a very in their predominant inorganic ingredients, are made to alaccurate series of experiments, has been led to the conclu- ternate with each other. In some virgin soils, rich in phossion, that air and rain water do not contain iodine, at least phates and other inorganic matters, the same plants may be in such quantity as to be detected by the most delicate cultivated successfully for many years. There is often a great quantity of fertilizing matter in the tests. It is probable that it is derived from soluble iodides in the soil. Iodine is said to exist in coal and in the waters soil, but not in a condition immediately available for the of the globe. The waters from igneous rocks, and from the growth of plants. Hence, in some cases where the crop is rocks of the coal formation, are said to contain a consider- deficient, there are valuable materials still in the soil unasable quantity of iodine. It is found in combination with similated. Thus phosphates exist often potentially in a dorsulphur, the ores of iron and manganese, and the sulphuret mant state in the soil in great abundance, but it is not until they have been brought into a soluble form that they are of mercury. The sources of the Fluorine found in plants, Wilson re- of any use as the food of plants. It is of importance for an gards as pre-eminently two—Simple fluorides such as that agriculturist to discover the dormant inorganic materials, and of calcium, which are soluble in water, and through this to adopt means of rendering them available. Allowing the medium are carried into the tissues of plants; and Com- ground to lie fallow, and stirring and pulverizing of it, are pounds of fluorides with other salts, of which the most im- methods by which air and moisture are admitted, and time portant is probably the combination of phosphate of lime is allowed for the decomposition of the materials, which are with fluoride of calcium. This occurs in the mineral king- thus rendered available for plants.

90 BOTANY. The materials of which plants are composed, and which fit of the crop to which they are applied, while comparatively Botany, Botany. '-V—' are all withdrawn from the unorganized world, are given little effect is expected to be produced on those that succeed back to the air and soil again by the disintegration of the it. These may be called rapidly-acting manures. The first living structures of which they have formed a part. If plants is of importance for cereals which are slow-growing plants; were not used for food, they would by their decay restore the second are valuable for green crops, which of all others all that they had taken away for the purposes of growth. require the greatest quantity of nourishment in a given time. But as they contribute to the nourishment of man and While ammonia may be supplied by both, still, in the foranimals, it follows that a portion of vegetable matter is con- mer it is slowly produced by a gradual combination between stantly removed in order to build up the animal structures. nitrogen and hydrogen, while in the latter it is ready formed, This portion must be again supplied in order that the plant and capable of being at once used by the plant. Farm-yard manure consists of complex animal and vegemay be nourished. This is the principle of the application of manures. The farmer and horticulturist add to the soil table compounds, which by free exposure to the air underwhat has been removed from it by crops. In order to do go a kind of fermentation, so as to be converted into other this properly, there must be a knowledge of the composition substances, of which carbonic acid and ammonia are the of the plant, of the soil, and of the manure ; and hence the most important. This fermentation is promoted by moisimportance of accurate chemical analyses. In addition to tening and turning over the manure, in order to permit the this, attention must be directed to the functions of plants, free access of air. It may be applied in a solid or in a more and to the mode in which they take up nourishment; and or less fluid state. The term liquid manuring is properly the materials of growth must be supplied in such a way as given to the use made of the urine of cattle, containing a large amount of urea, which, by decomposition, becomes to be made available for the purposes of plant-life. The object of manuring is to improve the properties of carbonate of ammonia. Of late, however, this has been the soil, and to supply what has been taken from it by crops mixed with other matters from the farm-yard, as well as with which have been used for the food of man and animals. We carbonaceous and peaty substances, and the whole has been may either supply the whole or some portion of the vege- pumped over the field in the form of a fluid containing solid table constituents in a soluble state, or we may add to the soil ingredients suspended in it. This kind of fluid manure something which will decompose and act on its insoluble is more beneficial than liquid manure properly so called. Among Special manures there are some which supply ingredients, so as to render them fit for the use of plants. Natural manures, such as those of the farm-yard, are excel- ammonia and phosphates either separately or united, others lent, because they restore to the land nearly all the sub- furnish acids or bases, such as Sulphuric acid, Nitric acid, stances which have been taken from it. Other manures Potash, Soda, Lime, &c. The liquor of gas works and soot supply one or two ingredients only. The exposure of the owe their manurial value principally to ammonia. Bones soil to the influence of the weather tends to make up for are prized on account of the phosphate of lime in their comloss, by causing the decomposition of substances previously position, which amounts in general to about 50 per cent. unfit for vegetable nutrition. Fallow then acts, in a certain In place of using bone-dust, which acts slowly, from the degree, in restoring the fertility of the soil, but it will not insoluble nature of the phosphate of lime, farmers are in the give us all that is required, and, moreover, involves loss of habit of mixing bones with sulphuric acid, and thus getting a soluble compound of phosphoric acid and lime (supertime and money. In the case of cultivated plants, those manures are con- phosphate), which, when dissolved in water, is easily taken sidered the most valuable which furnish the materials neces- up by the roots of plants. The addition of sulphuric acid sary for forming the azotized compounds required for the also acts beneficially in supplying sulphur for the azosanguigenous food of man and animals. Hence the impor- tized compounds. One of the most important special matance of manures containing ammonia and phosphates, sub- nures is Guano, or the dung of sea-fowl, which has accustances which do not usually exist abundantly in the soil, mulated for centuries in some parts of the coast of South and which are annually required in large quantity by crops. America and Africa, and now forms enormous deposits. Its It has been found by comparative experiments that the value depends partly on ammoniacal salts and partly on quantity of gluten in wheat and other cereal grains is in- phosphates. Some guanos, as Peruvian, Anagamos, and creased by the use of ammoniacal and phosphatic manures. Bolivian, are rich in ammonia ; while others, as Patagonian The sewerage of towns, in this point of view, is one of the and Saldanha Bay, are rich in phosphates. Various other special manures have been recommended, most valuable manures, and it is to be regretted that so little is done to save it for the purposes of the farmer and horti- containing one or two of the inorganic constituents of plants. Nitrates and Carbonates of Potash and Soda appear to act culturist. The soil has a great power of absorbing ammonia, and by furnishing alkaline matter as well as nitrogen and carsupplies it gradually to the roots of plants in a state fit for bon. Sea salt (Chloride of sodium) is considered by Mr their nutrition. The vigour of plants is much increased by Way as beneficial both to white and green crops. He the judicious application of ammonia either in the soil or in thinks that it probably acts on the silicates of lime present the air. It is essential that ammonia should be supplied in in the soil setting the lime free, and acting on the silica so moderate quantity at a time, and at the proper season. It as to render it fit for the purposes of vegetable life. In the requires also the presence of phosphates, in order that its case of cultivated plants which naturally grow near the sea, full effect may be secured in the production of nitrogenous such as Sea-kale, Asparagus, Cabbage and its varieties, salt matter. Some manures give off ammonia in large quantity may be expected to be useful. Lime acts beneficially as a by a process of fermentation ; and in order to prevent the manure in the case of some plants, prejudicially as regards loss thus occasioned, it is frequently necessary to add sul- others. Occasionally a green crop is grown with the view phuric acid or sulphate of lime, so as to procure a non-vo- of being afterwards ploughed into the soil, and of supplying, during its decomposition, materials which had been taken latile sulphate of the alkali. Manures maybe divided into—1. Farm-yard manure, up by its roots from a considerable depth in the soil. This containing all the ingredients required for a crop. This, is called green manuring. Sea-weeds are also used as when applied to the soil, is slowly decomposed, and its effects manure. extend over several years, so that it exerts a beneficial influence upon all the crops of a rotation. It may be called II. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE DESCENDING AXIS OR ROOT. in general a slowly-acting manure. 2. Special manures, comThe Root is the descending system of the plant, and is posed of ingredients which are intended for the special bene-

100 B 0 T Botany. t]^e organ directly concerned in the absorption of nourish'■“’■v"""' ment from the soil. In its earliest state it is a cellular prolongation from an axis which is common to it and the stem. In cellular plants, the root consists also of cells. Root-cells are developed in a downward direction, and the fibrils spread through the soil, so as to absorb nutriment and to fix the plant firmly. The additions to roots are made at their extremities, and there it is that the chief absorbing cells are situated, constituting what have been called Spongioles (Fig- 62). Connected with young roots there are hairs or cellular prolongations from the epidermis, which also absorb fluid food. These hairs die early with the epidermis from which they sprung ; the root then becomes covered with a corky layer, while its extremity continues to grow and send out fresh hairs. Any injury done to the absorbing extremity interferes more or less with the proper nutrition of the plant. As plants are fixed to a spot, their food must be always within reach, and it is requisite that the roots should have the power of spreading, so as to secure renewed supplies of nutriment. A beautiful provision is made for this by the elongation of the roots taking place at their extremities, so that their advancing points are enabled easily to accommodate themselves to the nature of the soil in which the plant grows. If roots had increased by additions throughout their whole extent in the same way as stems, they would in many instances, when meeting with an impenetrable soil, have been twisted in such a way as to unfit them for the free transmission of fluid. But by the mode of lengthening at the point, they insinuate themselves easily into the yielding part of the soil, and when obstacles are presented to their progress, they wind round about them until they reach a less resisting medium. They are thus also enabled to move from one part of the soil to another, according as the nourishment is exhausted. The root, in its growth, keeps pace with the development of the stem and its branches. As the stem shoots upwards and develops its leaves, from which water is constantly transpired, the roots continue to spread, and to renew the delicate cells and fibrils which absorb the fluid required to compensate for that lost by evaporation, or consumed in growth. There is a constant relation between the horizontal extension of the branches and the lateral spreading of the roots. If the roots are not allowed to extend freely, they exhaust the soil around them, and are prevented from receiving a sufficient supply of food. The plants in such a case, deprived of their proper means of support, become stunted and deformed in their appearance. If we wish trees to be firmly rooted, we must allow the branches to spread freely. When they are so planted that the branches and leaves of contiguous trees do not interfere with each other, and thus all parts are exposed to air and light equally, the roots spread vigorously and extensively, so as to fix the plants in the soil, and to draw up copious supplies of nourishment. But in crowded plantations, where the branches are not allowed freedom of growth and exposure, and the leaf-buds are consequently either arrested or feebly developed, the roots, also, are of necessity injured. They do not spread, and the trees are liable to be blown over by the wind; they exhaust the soil in their vicinity, circumscribed by the roots of the trees around ; their functions become languid, and thus they react on the stem and branches, so that the additions to the wood are small, and the timber is of inferior quality. The spreading of roots in favourable circumstances is often remarkable. Thus, the roots of trees and other plants, when they reach reservoirs of water, as wells or drains, are found to increase very rapidly, and extend to a great length. Drains are sometimes completely blocked up by roots, in consequence of a single fibril entering at a small crevice, and then expanding into a large fibrous mass.

A N Y. Roots, by depriving the soil of certain nourishing matters, Botany, render it unfit for the growth of the same species of plant, v*. although it may still be able to contribute to the growth of other species. This is the principle of the rotation of crops, to which allusion has already been made. This exhaustion of the soil affords an explanation of the phenomenon called fairy rings, consisting of circles of dark green grass seen in old pastures. These have been traced to the successive generations of certain fungi spreading from a central point, exhausting the soil at first, and afterwards by their decay, causing a luxuriant crop of grass. The spongioles and cellular hairs of the fibrils of roots absorb fluid food, and by diffusion communicate the matter absorbed to the neighbouring cells, and these in turn send it through their membrane upwards into the stem. Senebier proved by experiments that the absorption takes place principally by the cells at the points of the roots. After the corky layer is formed, the cells seem to have less power of taking up fluids through their walls. The imbibition by the roots may be traced in part to the process of endosmose already described, and in part to certain vital actions going on in the cells. By virtue of the chemical composition of its cell-walls and juices, and by vital affinity, a plant absorbs one substance more quickly than another, and consequently in a given time more of one than of another. That the roots of plants have a certain power of selection was proved by the experiments of Saussure. He immersed the roots of plants in water, containing in solution an equal weight of two different salts, and when the plants had absorbed half the water, he took them out and evaporated the remaining water, so as to determine how much of the salts remained. This of course indicated what the plants had taken up. The salts were not absorbed in equal quantities. This difference in the proportion of salts taken up was only observable so long as the roots were entire ; for when their extremities were cut off the different saline matters were taken up in the same proportion. The absorption of saline matters by the roots of plants varies in individual plants of the same species, as well as in plants belonging to different species. The absorption, according to the observations of Saussure, does not seem to have reference to the value of the substances as nutriment. Substances are taken up which prove injurious to plants. Trinchinetti placed different species of plants in mixtures of two salts—nitre and common salt— which do not decompose each other, and he found that one plant absorbed the one, and another plant the other salt, in preference. Besides absorption, it has also been stated that excretion takes place by roots, or in other words, that matters which have been taken up from the soil, and which are not required for the use of the plant, are again returned by the roots. This subject was investigated by Macaire, who looked upon these excretions as injurious to plants. The recent observations of Gyde and others, however, lead to the belief that the excretions of roots are in small quantity, and that they do not possess the deleterious properties which were attributed to them. It is probable that the substances given off by roots may be referred to a process of exosmose. Some roots which do not ramify have reservoirs of nutriment stored up in the form of nodulose or tubercular masses. This occurs in terrestrial Orchids, and in Dahlias. In the case of Spondias tuberosa, the tubercles of the roots contain a large quantity of watery fluid. In climbing plants, such as Ivy, the root-like processes by which they are attached to trees or walls seem to be means of support rather than organs of nutrition. Aerial roots take up nourishment from the atmosphere chiefly. This is the case with the roots of many Epiphytic Orchids, and in consequence of not being in a resisting medium like the soil, the elongation in them seems not to be confined to the extremities, as

EOT Botany, shown by the experiments of Lindley on Vanilla and Aerides cornutum. The roots of these Epiphytes or air-plants may derive some nourishment from the decomposition of the bark of the trees on which they grow, as well as from the decay of mosses, lichens, &c., which accumulate around them, but their principal nutriment appears to be supplied by the water, carbonic acid, and ammonia of the air. Roots, when exposed to the air, lose their fibrils, and take on the functions of stems, so as to produce leaf-buds. Some plants, in place of sending their roots into the soil, or extending them into the air, have the power of attaching themselves to other plants in such a way as to prey upon their juices. These are called Parasites. Some of them have green leaves, such as the Mistleto; others have only white or brown scales, as the Scalewort and Broom-rape. In the former, the juices, after being taken up by the plant, are altered in the leaves by exposure to air and light. Some of these are root-parasites, in other words, become attached to the roots of other plants ; as Broom-rape, Eyebright, Bastard Toad-flax, and Cow-wheat; others are stem parasites, growing by attachment to the stems of other * PI ate plants; as the Mistleto, Myzodendron, RafHesia, and Dodder.* CXXV. All of them send cellular prolongations more or less deeply into the tissue of the plants on which they feed, and by means of these, which act as roots, they derive nutriment. They often cause great injury to the plants on which they grow. m. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ASCENDING AXIS OR STEM. The stem produces buds which are developed as branches, leaves, or flowers. It conveys fluids in various directions, and allows the organs of plants to be exposed to the influence of air and light. In the case of subterranean stems, the leafy and flowering branches are sent upwards into the air, and they perform the functions of aerial stems. Herbaceous stems carry on their functions for one year, or for a limited period, while those of a woody nature continue to perform their functions for many years. While the former attain a moderate size, and perish after a brief period of existence, the latter are permanent, and frequently, as in the case of trees, acquire a great height and diameter. Herbaceous axes occasionally attain a large size, as may be seen in Bananas. Many cone-bearing trees, as Pines, Spruces, Larches, Araucarias, Sequoia, and Wellingtonia, have stems varying from 100 to 300 or more feet in height. Other dicotyledonous forest trees in Britain sometimes attain the height of 120 feet; while on the Continent and in America, they are sometimes 150 feet high. Monocotyledonous stems, such as those of Palms, are usually unbranched, and their height is sometimes 150 or even 180 feet. The Cable Palm runs among the trees of the forest to the length of 500 feet. Acotyledonous stems, as those of species of Alsophila, Dicksonia, and other Tree-ferns, attain a height of 50 or 60 feet. Some cellular stems also attain a large size. Dr Hooker mentions a sea-weed—Lessonia fuscescens—with a trunk 5-10 feet long, and as thick as the human thigh. Stems often attain a great thickness. The stem of the Dragontree of Orotava is 70 feet in circumference ; that of the Baobab has a circumference of 90 feet; some Cedars of Lebanon at the present day have a girth of 40 feet. Chestnut trees have occasionally a circumference of 60 feet, and trees of the South American forests are mentioned by Martius with a girth of 84 feet at the base of the trunk. While some Palms, such as Kunthia montana and Oreodoxa frigida, have slender reed-like stems ; others, such as Cocos butyracea and Jubaea spectabilis, have trunks which are three or even five feet in diameter. By means of terminal and lateral buds, stems increase in height and diameter. In their earliest state they are composed of cellular tissue, in the midst of which there is de-

ANY. 101 veloped vascular tissue, which is arranged in different ways, Botany, as already described. The cellular tissue of the young dicotyledonous stem is early separated into two portions—a medullary or inner, and a cortical or outer—by the formation of vascular and woody bundles, which increase in concentric zones. In its young state, the pith is succulent and seems to be a reservoir of nourishment for the embryo plant during its early growth. The sheath surrounding the pith contains numerous spiral vessels, which extend upwards and outwards to the leaves. In ordinary circumstances these vessels contain air. The outer cellular portion of the stem constitutes the bark, which protects the other tissues, and often contains secretions, such as gums, resins, and alkaloids. When the bark is green, it seems to exercise the same functions as leaves. It is united to the pith by medullary rays which give a character to the wood. The cells and vessels of the stem are concerned in the circulation of sap, as will be afterwards noticed, and the woody tubes, when fully formed, give stability and durability to the trunk. Between the pith and bark, as well as at the extremities of the buds and roots, there exist cambium cells, which, according to Schacht, form the first stage of the vascular bundles, and give origin to the proper parenchyma or nourishing tissue. A cylindrical layer of this cambium or organizing tissue is distributed in all the most perfect plants, so as to divide the parenchyma into pith and bark, as well upwards in the stem, as downwards in the root. In Dicotyledons, this cylindrical layer, called by Schacht the thickening zone, is active as long as life remains. It is by means of it that the stem enlarges—the cells of the tissue forming, toward the interior, new wood, and, towards the exterior, new bark. In Monocotyledons and the higher Cryptogams, the thickening zone—in other wmrds, the cylindrical layer of organizing tissue—continues active only for a short period of time, and hence these plants do not enlarge beyond a certain point; and at length they grow only in one direction— namely, in height. This thickening layer of cambium, while it adds to the size of the stem of Monocotyledons, causes the increase of the vascular bundles. After a certain period, however, this zone becomes woody, and then the vascular bundles only grow at their extremity, by means of unchanged cambium cells which are in immediate connection with the bundles. This cambium of the vascular bundles is essential to them, and gives them their character. In Monocotyledons it is situated in the centre of the bundles, and is surrounded by spiral, pitted, or woody vessels; in Cryptogams it surrounds the vascular bundles. The vascular bundles in both these classes of plants are limited, and they can only increase laterally by ramifying, as in Dracaena and some Tree-ferns. The cambium appears to be the immediate agent in the development of new tissues. The origin of the cambium cells, and the mode in which the wood of trees is formed, as well as the influence exerted by the leaves and green parts of plants, have long been subjects of dispute among physiologists. Grew and Malpighi thought that the new woody layers were formed by the bark, while Hales maintained that they were formed from the previously existing wood. Dr Hope loosened the bark of trees, and found new layers of alburnum formed on its inside. Duhamel put plates of silver between the woody and cortical layers, and found the new formation on the outside of the plates; he also removed a portion of the bark of a plum-tree, and replaced it with a similar portion of a peach-tree, and after union had taken place, he ascertained that at the point of junction a thin layer of wood had been formed by the peach bud, and none by the wood of the plum. Hence these experimenters concluded that the new wood was produced by the bark. De Candolle, as the result of his observations, maintained that both the bark and the wood were concerned

BOTANY. 102 Botany. in the formation of woody matter. All appear to agree in particular manner the development of the Date, and he has Botany, »« looking upon the cambium layer as concerned in the de- been led to the conclusion that the fibres increase from below upwards, and not from the leaves downwards. He velopment of the wood. We have seen that recent authors have ascertained more says that a Monocotyledon produces at its summit a mass fully the nature of cambium, and that they consider it in of cellular tissue called a phyllophore, into which the vessels the'light of active formative tissue, developing cells and from the stem penetrate to form the vascular system; that vessels in an upward and downward direction. Some adopt after this the leaves are produced; that the vessels come the view that there are in reality two systems in plants, an from the internal periphery of the young part of the stem, ascending and a descending one; and that what takes place arising at all heights, and that the roots have at first no imin the sprouting of the embryo continues to be manifested mediate connection with the leaves. Trecul has examined during the life of the plant. This view, variously modified, the stems of Dicotyledons, and has been led to deny the was adopted by De la Hire in 1708, was supported by Dar- downward tendency of the wood formation. He states that win and Knight, and w^as particularly espoused by Aubert after the bark has been removed, a new layer of woody du Petit-Thouars in 1806, and subsequently by Gaudichaud tissue and bark is formed at detached points, into which the medullary rays are continued directly without the slightest and others. According to Petit-Thouars and Gaudichaud, we see in interruption. He thinks that the woody tissue is a lateral the embryo a radicular and a caulinary portion, the one development from the already existing longitudinal cells; having a' tendency to ascend, the other a tendency to that fresh bark is formed on the woody tissue by the dedescend. In both of these systems cells and vessels of dif- velopment of cells from the tissue, while the medullary rays ferent kinds occur. In Dicotyledons the ascending system penetrate directly into the new patches of wood; and that is connected with the medullary sheath, and passes into the woody fibre is equally capable of throwing off lateral the buds and leaves, while the descending system is the cells, which, while in immediate connection with the old woody tissue sent down from the leaves between the sheath fibre, exhibit more or less imperfectly the character and and the bark. The woody fibres of the leaves, favoured by form of the tissue from which they arise, while the free ends the cambium, are developed from above downwards. In are mere parenchymatous cells. According to him the the wood the ligneous tissue of the upper leaves envelopes fibro-vascular bundles are not continued without interrupthat of the inferior ones, w hile in the bark the fibrous tissue tion from the extremities of the leaves to the rootlets; the is inserted in the reverse way—the internal layer, corre- diameter of the stem may increase without the intervention sponding also to the superior leaves, being the newest. The of ligneous fibres descending from the leaves or buds; and extension of the cellular tissue of the stem takes place in a the tissue of the wood and vessels, as well as the medullary rays and bark, are formed in situ, independently of the horizontal or transverse direction. The Radicular or vertical theory of wood formation has tissues higher up. Amidst these opposing views, it is difficult to come to a been supported by reference to the arrangement of the vascidar bundles in Palms (Fig. 85) and Dracaenas, and to the decided conclusion. There is undoubtedly an ascending development of aerial roots from different parts of the stems and a descending system in plants—a stem developed in an of Screw Pines (Fig. 66), Figs, Vellosias, and Tree-ferns. upward, and a root in a downward direction. The leaves Many travellers, such as Gardner, who examined Palms in are also of importance in the formation of wood, and the their native countries, have espoused the vertical theory of cambium cells are the active tissue of the stem. In so far wood formation. In these plants the bundles of woody all are agreed. The points of difference are the exact revessels can be traced from the base of the leaves, taking a lation which the leaves bear to the woody fibres of the stem, peculiar curved direction downwards, and interlacing in a and the direction in which these fibres are developed. The remarkable manner. In many Palms the fibres burst ex- peculiar arrangement of fibres in the stems of Palms, and ternally through the stem, and appear as roots. In the case the production of aerial roots from various stems, favour in of Screw Pines, the formation of external or adventitious some measure the vertical theory of wood formation; while roots is very remarkable ; in them the thickness of the the woody excrescences occurring in the bark ot some trees, stem is diminished below the points whence the roots and the production of particles of woody matter in the centre proceed, as if the woody matter had appeared externally in of decorticated portions of wood, and at the lower part of place of proceeding internally. Adventitious descending wounds, as shown by Trecul, seem to show that woody fibres roots are also seen in many of the Fig tribe, sucb as the are formed in some instances without any direct connection Banyan (Fig 65) and the Peepul tree. In Tree-ferns the with leaves. While the weight of authority is in favour of lower part of the stem is often much enlarged by these the view s recently propounded by Trecul, there are many aerial roots being applied closely to it. Brown says that in facts brought forward by Gaudichaud which still require Kingia (an Australian plant) the leaves send down, be- explanation, and which are not easily accounted for, unless tween the true stem and the bases of the petioles which we suppose an upward and downward tendency to be imform the only bark of the tree, a series of adventitious roots pressedr on the tissues of the stem and of the buds, in the closely covering the stem, and resisting to a great degree same w ay as on the embryo at its earliest growth. Physiothe action of external destructive agents, such as fire. A logists in general concur in believing, that without the prefurther development of this root structure is seen in Barba- sence of leavds on the stem, no woody matter is formed. cenia and Vellosia, where the whole outer part of the stem is made up of interlaced roots, which are traced inwards and IV. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LEAVES. upwards to the leaves. In Bananas and Plantains, as grown The leaves are arranged upon the axis in such a way as in the hothouses of Britain, we often see roots proceeding from the base of the leaves forming the herbaceous shoot. to be fully exposed to the influence of air and light. They Roots are to be seen proceeding from sound portions of the are thus enabled to perform very important functions. As wood of Willows, and running into those which are de- regards the development ofleaves, Trecul states that some cayed, and wounds made in the stems of trees are some- are developed from below upwards, as in the Lime; others times covered by radicular fibres sent down from the upper from above downwards, as the pinnate leaves of Sanguisorba officinalis and Rosa arvensis, and the digitate veins of rapart. These views of Gaudichaud and others have been opposed diating leaves ; a third set, as the leaves of Acer, exhibit by many able physiologists, more especially by Mirbel, both kinds of development, the lobes being formed from Payen, Naudin, and Trecul. Mirbel has examined in a above downwards, and the secondary venation and toothing

BOTANY. 103 Botany, from below upwards ; and a fourth set, as those of Mono- and with which they are impregnated. His conclusions are : Botany. —— cotyledons, have their veins formed in a parallel manner, the —1. The cuticle possesses a decided endosmotic property, ^ leaf lengthening by the base of the blade or petiole. Leaves the intensity of which is greater the younger the organ having sheaths, or their lower portion protected by other which it covers; when leaves become old they seem to lose organs, grow most at the base ; those of which the whole pe- their absorbing power. 2. The absorption of the cuticle is tiole is very early exposed to the air, grow more towards greater, the less there is of fatty or waxy matter in it. 3. the upper part of the petiole. The fluids which reach the The cuticle which covers the superior surface of the ribs, cells and vessels of the leaves undergo changes by which and more especially that which covers the petiole at the they are elaborated and fitted for the formation of various point where it joins the stem, is that part of the foliar survegetable secretions. In ordinary plants the non-develop- face which has the most marked power of absorption. 4. ment of the leaves arrests the formation of woody matter In some instances in which the cuticle or outer skin is aband of many important products. Leaves have the power sorbent, the epidermis or inner layer of integument presents of absorbing carbonic acid, ammonia, water, and aqueous obstacles to absorption. 5. Simple washing with distilled solutions. They also exhale a certain amount of water, and water, more especially washing with soap and water, augthey give off1 gaseous matters, especially oxygen. Thus leaves, ments the absorbing property of leaves. 6. When leaves in the performance of their functions, absorb and exhale have lost their power of absorbing water, they can still take watery and gaseous substances. up carbonic acid. 1. Absorption by Leaves. When liquids are brought into contact with the leaves of plants, absorption takes place. Bonnet found that plants of Mercurialis, with the surface of their leaves in contact with water, absorbed as well, and kept for a time nearly as fresh as those of which the roots were immersed in the liquid ; that the under surface of ordinary leaves took up liquids rapidly in consequence of the thinness of the cuticle, the laxity of the cellular tissue, and the presence of stomata; and that the thick and hard epidermis on the upper surface having few stomata, presented an obstacle to absorption. The hairs which occur especially on the under surface of leaves, seem to act like cellular rootlets, and to absorb moisture. Hoffmann ascertained that liquids are absorbed by the leaves in large quantity, and that in such cases they pass downwards by the tracheae and the prosenchyma immediately surrounding them, displacing for a time the air usually contained in the spiral vessels. He states that after every fall of rain or dew there is an absorption by the leaves, and that this is followed by an immediate descent of sap. The absorption takes place with greater or less rapidity according to the nature of the leaves, and the fluid passes through the intercellular spaces, as well as the cells and vessels. The greater and the more rapid the absorption, so much the more have the fluids a tendency to enter the spiral vessels. The absorbing power of the epidermis of leaves varies. When composed of delicate thin-walled cells, with numerous stomata, the imbibition of liquids is carried on rapidly ; but when the epidermal cells are hardened, and have thick walls, absorption is much impeded. Some gaseous matters are taken up rapidly by leaves. Boussingault found that air was speedily deprived of carbonic acid by coming into contact with the leaves of the Vine for a few minutes. Chevandier calculates that the trees of a forest, during the five summer months in which they bear leaves, withdraw from the column of air around them about l-9th of its contents of carbonic acid. Some researches have been made by Garreau in regard to the absorption of different liquids by the external surfaces of plants, and more especially by the leaves. In making his experiments, he employed endosmometers (long tubes with large open bulbs at the end) of nearly equal calibre, the diameter of the orifice of the ball being in all of them about half an inch, and the diameter of the tube about one-twelfth of an inch. Each epidermis, or cuticular surface, was fixed to the end of the endosmometer by means of a wax thread, and covered by wax at the margin. The fluid in the bulb of the endosmometer was a solution of one part of sugar in two parts of water. He found that the young epidermis is endosmotic, or has the power of absorbing fluids, but that it loses this property as it gets old. He attributes the absence of absorption in the epidermis of old leaves to the fatty or waxy matter which covers them,

2. Exhalation by Leaves. a. Exhalation of Watery Fluid, or Transpiration. The leaves of plants, in the performance of their functions, give off a quantity of watery fluid. This constitutes what is commonly called Transpiration. The quantity of liquid transpired varies according to the structure of the leaves and the nature of the climate. When the texture of the leaf is hard and dry, as in Banksias, Proteas, and many other Australian plants, or the skin covering the leaf is thick and dense, as in the American Aloe and the Oleander, the amount of transpiration is comparatively small. In this way certain succulent plants, as Cactuses (Fig. ] 42), are enabled to withstand the effects of dry and hot climates, without being destroyed by the great loss of water by exhalation. The thick covering of hairs on some leaves, as on those of Culcitium, seems to be connected also with the amount of transpiration. Some very hairy plants, as Shepherd’s Club, have been known to resist the effects of great drought. The hairs have the power of becoming more or less erect, and of absorbing the dew, Species of Meion-Cact«s, while in dry weather they lie flat on a succulent plant, the surface and hinder the passage of fluid. In leaves with a very thin epidermal covering or skin the exhalation is great. Schacht remarks that in the epidermis of plants the external sides of the cells become thickened generally more than the internal. They offer, especially when corky, resistance to the evaporation of the liquids in the parts filled with sap. They would completely prevent transpiration, were it not for the presence of stomata, which allow gaseous and vaporized substances to be exhaled as well as absorbed. The epidermis of the stem, as soon as it dies, is replaced by cork, which, when completely formed, prevents all transpiration, although by its porosity it may condense gases at the surface of the plant. The presence of corky matter in the cell-walls, which has been noticed by Mitscherlich, may thus materially modify the functions of absorption and exhalation. In order that leaves may perform their functions properly, there must be a certain degree of exhalation. If from the leaves being covered with soot or dirt, or with the cottony productions of scale insects, the proper amount of exhalation is prevented, much injury is done to the plant. Hence, the importance of having the leaves of plants, when growing in hothouses and conservatories, well washed and cleaned, in order that they may perform their healthy functions. The passage of vapour through the pores of the leaf is an imperceptible process, which is constantly going on, and the existence of it is ascertained by its effects. Woodward and

B O T A N Y. 104 Botany. Hales made various experiments on the amount of exhala- shelter the soil from the direct action of the sun, and thus Botany, In ^ tjprv The latter found that a common Sun-flower, 3^ feet prevent evaporation of the water furnished by rains. high, weighing 3 lb., with a surface of leaves equal to 5616 this way they contribute to the copiousness of streams. square inches, exhaled 20 ounces of liquid in the course of When "forests are destroyed, as they are everywhere ia a day ; a Cabbage plant, with a surface of 2736 square inches, America by the European planters, with an imprudent prewas found to exhale, on an average, 19 ounces; a Vine of cipitation, the springs are entirely dried up, or become less 1820 square inches, from 5 to 6 ounces; and a Lemon-tree abundant. In those mountains of Greece which have been of 2557 square inches, 6 ounces per day. He remarked deprived of their forests, the streams have disappeared. that Evergreens exhaled less than plants with deciduous The inconsiderate felling of woods, or the neglect to mainleaves, and he associates this with their capability to endure tain them, has changed regions noted for fertility into scenes the cold of winter. The exhalation from leaves, according of sterility. The sultry atmosphere and the droughts of to Henslow, depends chiefly upon the effect of light on the the Cape de Verd islands are attributed to the destruction of forests. Dr Cleghorn states, that in large districts of vital energies of the plant. Garreau made a series of experiments on the exhalation India, climate and irrigation have rapidly deteriorated from of leaves, by enclosing a living leaf between two bell-jars, a similar cause, and that the government are now using one applied to the upper, and the other to the under sur- means to avert and remedy the mischief. In wooded counface, and ascertaining the quantity of liquid exhaled, by tries, where the rains are excessive, as in Rio Janeiro, the means of chloride of calcium which absorbs water with climate has been improved by the diminution of the trees. great rapidity. He found that the exhalation from the Gardner says, that since the axe has been laid on the dense lower surface of the leaf was usually double, and even forests surrounding the city of Rio Janeiro, the climate has triple or quadruple, that of the upper surface. The quan- become dry. In fact, so much has the quantity of rain ditity of water exhaled has a relation to the number of sto- minished, that the Brazilian government was obliged to mata. The exhalation is greater at the line of the ribs, or pass a law prohibiting the felling of trees in the Corcovado at the part of the epidermis where there is least fatty or range. Muller states that the cultivation of grain, which waxy matter. The secretion of this matter in abundance has so completely transformed one part of the wilderness of during the warm days of summer, may tend to prevent the Australia, has already exercised a most beneficial influence plants being injured by rain and by the heat of the sun. By on the increase of rain. It is necessary to keep up the correspondence between impeding exhalation, it tends to retain the moisture which the fluid given off by the leaves and that taken up by the is necessary for the functions of the leaves. In some plants, when water is supplied abundantly, there roots. If the former exceeds the latter, the leaves become is a sort of distillation of liquid from the leaves. Arendt languid and fall off. This is one cause why plants growing noticed this in a stalk of the Nettle when immersed in in the rooms of dwelling-houses succeed badly. The atmowater. The liquid passed upwards in the grooves on the sphere is too dry, and the exhalation from the leaves is not upper surface of the petiole, followed the ribs of the leaves, compensated by the fluids taken up by the roots. 1 his and then dropped from the apex of the leaves. From the cannot be remedied by an extra supply of water, for the extremity of the leaves of Richardia africana (Calla aethio- roots are not capable of taking up the additional quantity pica) a watery fluid has been observed to drop in consider- required. Hence the use of Wardian Cases in preventing able quantity. The amount varies at different periods of the loss caused by transpiration, and thus enabling the the day, being most copious after mid-day. It ceases with plants to live even in a warm and dry room. the development of the spathe and organs of reproduction. A similar watery secretion has been noticed in other Ara- b. Exhalation of Gaseous Matter.— Vegetable Respiration. ceous plants, such as Arum, Colocasia, and a plant called The leaves of plants give off gases, the nature and quanCaladium distillatorium; the water in these instances flows from an orifice near the point of the leaf, upon the upper tity of wdrich vary according to the circumstances in which surface, in w’hich terminates a canal running along the the plants are placed, and their state of vigour or decay. margin of the leaf, while smaller canals, running along the Hence leaves produce important effects on the atmosphere, principal ribs, open into the marginal one. Williamson and we shall find that they are employed as the means of found that from each healthy leaf of the latter plant about keeping up its purity. In the year 1771, Priestley observed half-a-pint of liquid dropped during the night. Water also that plants were able to grow in air vitiated by the breathdrops from the margins of the leaves of Canna indica, an- ing of animals, and that they soon restored such air to its gustifolia, and latifolia. In the hollow leaves of plants, such original purity. Percival confirmed these observations, and as Nepenthes, Sarracenia, Dischidia, and Cephalotus, a quan- showed that air containing so much carbonic acid as to prove tity of watery exhalation accumulates. Voelcker analyzed destructive to animal life, was rendered fit for respiration the liquid in the pitcher of Nepenthes, and found it to con- after plants had grown in it. Ingenhousz examined the subject more fully, and made sist of water, containing in solution malic acid and a little citric acid, chloride of potassium, carbonate of soda, lime, an extensive series of experiments. In air that had been so far depraved by respiration as to extinguish a lighted candle, and magnesia. The exhalation of watery fluid from the leaves of plants he placed a plant of Peppermint, and then exposed the vesinfluences the climate of a country. Humboldt remarks, sel for three hours to the sun, at the end of which time the that plants exhale water from their leaves, in the first place, air again supported flame. When a Nettle was put into a for their own benefit, but that various important secondary similar portion of impure air during the night, the air was effects follow from this process. One of these is, maintaining not improved ; but when exposed to the sun for two hours, a suitable proportion of humidity in the air. Not only do its original purity was restored. Such was also the case they attract and condense the moisture suspended in the with plants of Mustard. When similar portions of the air, and borne by the wind over the earth’s surface, which, same impure air were confined in vessels with similar plants, falling from their leaves, keeps the ground below moist and respectively placed in sunshine and shade, the air and cool; but they can, by means of their roots, pump it exposed to the sun recovered its purity in a few hours, while up from a very considerable depth, and, raising it into the that in the shade continued impure. Ingenhousz also peratmosphei’e, diffuse it over the face of the country. Trees, formed experiments with immersed leaves, and found that by the transpiration from their leaves, surround themselves they purified the air in the course of a very few hours in with an atmosphere constantly cold and moist. They also sunshine.

105 BOTANY. Botany. Senebier also instituted a series of experiments which The third view of vegetable respiration has been brought proved the production of oxygen gas by plants exposed to prominently forward of late years by Mr Haseldine Pepys. the direct rays of the sun. He considered the oxygen as From careful experiments, conducted during several years, derived from the decomposition of carbonic acid ; and he he is satisfied that leaves which are in a state of vigorous thought that plants in a healthy state do not give out carbonic vegetation, always operate so as to keep up the purity of the acid in darkness. Ellis, De Saussure, Daubeny, and others, air, by absorbing carbonic acid, and disengaging oxygen; have corroborated these statements more or less fully. Aquatic that this function is promoted and accelerated by the action plants appear to surpass all others in their power of decom- of light; that it continues during night, although more slowly; posing carbonic acid. In some lakes in volcanic countries, and that carbonic acid is never disengaged when the leaf is where carbonic acid rises in great quantity through the wa- healthy. He also finds that the fluid abundantly exhaled ter, vegetation is very vigorous, and the separation of oxy- by plants during their vegetation is pure water, and congen goes on rapidly. Schleiden mentions that there is a tains no carbonic acid; and that the first portions of carrich vegetation round the springs in the valley of Gottingen, bonic acid gas contained in an artificial atmosphere are taken which abound in carbonic acid. up with more avidity by the plant than the remaining porPhysiologists still differ in regard to the actual amount of tions. The giving out of carbonic acid by leaves is attributed change produced in the air by leaves during the perform- to disease, or to a change in the healthy state of the tisance of their functions. Some maintain that oxygen is sues ; and in many experiments, the abnormal condition of given off by the leaves during the day, and a moderate the plant may perhaps account for the appearance of carquantity of carbonic acid is exhaled by a process of endos- bonic acid. In some of Mr Ellis’s experiments, the decaymose during night; others say that carbonic acid is exhaled ing condition of the leaves gave rise to a fallacy in the reby plants in greater or less quantity at all times, and that sults. Cloez and Gratiolet confirm Pepys’ observations. during the day it is decomposed so as to give out oxygen; They state that oxygen is disengaged rapidly in solar light, while a third set of authors state that no carbonic acid is insensibly in diffused light, and not at all in darkness, and evolved by leaves in a healthy state, and that their true that in the latter case no carbonic acid whatever is given off function is one of deoxidation, or rather decarbonization, by plants. which consists in the fixation of carbon and the elimination From all that has been stated, it would appear that an of oxygen. absorption of carbonic acid by the leaves of plants and an The first of these views was for a long time generally elimination of oxygen takes place during daylight, and that adopted, but some recent experiments have tended to throw this process ceases in a great measure during the night. doubts upon it, and to confirm the views of Senebier. Mold The exhalation of carbonic acid by healthy leaves is still still supports this view. He says plants have a double re- doubtful, and the appearance of this acid gas may in many spiration—one consuming carbonic acid and exhaling oxy- of the experiments be traced to an abnormal condition of gen by day in the green-coloured organs, and one connected the leaves. The great function of the leaves thus seems to with a consumption of oxygen and a formation of carbonic be deoxidation, by means of which they are instrumental in acid in the green organs by night, and in those not green, keeping up the purity of the atmosphere. This function of by day and night. If we wish to speak of a respiration in plants is antagonistic in its results to animal respiration ; for plants, he says, this oxygen-consuming breathing deserves while the latter takes oxygen from the atmosphere, and rethe name far more than the exhalation of oxygen by the places it by carbonic acid, the former removes carbonic acid, green organs connected with the nutrient processes. fixes carbon, and gives out oxygen. The processes of reThe second view was propounded by Burnett, who con- spiration and combustion are pouring into the atmosphere a siders the constant exhalation of carbonic acid both by day large quantity of carbonic acid gas, while the active leaves and by night as true vegetable respiration, while the decom- of plants are constantly removing it, and, under the action position of carbonic acid during light, accompanied with the of light, substituting oxygen. While plants thus get carevolution of oxygen, is regarded by him as a process of di- bonaceous food, the air is by them kept in a state fitted for gestion ; respiration thus going on at all times, and consist- animal life. ing, like that of animals, in the separation of carbon, while As the decomposition of carbonic acid is only carried on digestion only goes on during light. He has been sup- vigorously during the day, it follows that an accumulation ported by Carpenter, who says that the respiration of vege- of it will take place in the atmosphere during darkness. tables is not an occasional process, but one which is con- Saussure found, from a mean of fifty-four observations made stantly going on during the whole life of the plant—by day, in a country district, that the proportion of carbonic acid in by night, in sunshine, and in shade—and consists in the dis- the atmosphere during the night was to its proportion in the engagement of the superfluous carbon of the system, either day-time as 432 to 398; or in other words, the carbonic by combination with the oxygen of the air, or by replacing acid in the atmosphere was diminished nearly 10 per cent, with carbonic acid the oxygen that has been absorbed from during daylight. It is said also that during summer, when it. If the function is checked the plant soon dies, as when animal life is more active, the proportion of carbonic acid is placed in an atmosphere with a large amount of carbonic greater than in winter, as 7T3 to 4-79 parts in 10,000. The acid, and without the stimulus of light which enables it to usual quantity of carbonic acid in the atmosphere, before decompose the acid gas. Garreau has also recently adopted being drawn into the lungs, is about l-2500th; in that rethese views. Henfrey says a distinction is to be drawn be- turned from the lungs it is about l-25th,orit has increased tween the process of respiration in which the liberation of 100 times in quantity. So long as plants are kept in a superfluous oxygen takes place, leaving the other elements vigorous and healthy state, they do not give off any carbonic combined in an assimilated or organic condition, and that acid. If, however, they are kept long in the dark they beprocess in which the assimilated matter is again chemically gin to fade; the green colouring matter called chlorophyll altered by the oxidation of a certain amount of carbon, which is not produced as it ought to be; the plants are blanched is liberated as free carbonic acid by plants unprovided with or etiolated, and in fact get into a state of disease. In such leaves, but under most circumstances decomposed again by circumstances no oxygen is given off, but, on the contrary, green plants. He thinks that carbonic acid is given off by carbonic acid is produced. living plants as a vital process even during light, and he Experiments have been made by Draper as to the partisuggests that the re-absorption of the evolved acid gas dur- cular rays of the spectrum which are concerned in the deing the day has disguised the fact in most previous experi- composition of carbonic acid by the green parts of plants. ments. They were made with a series of tubes half an inch in VOL. v. o

B 0 T A N Y. 106 Botany, diameter and six inches long, which were arranged so that leaves to perform their functions perfectly, there are certain Botany, ^ v -m / die coloured spaces of the spectrum fell on them. In these cases in which he endeavours to interrupt these functions, and tubes water impregnated with carbonic acid and a few to produce an unnatural condition, by which the plants are green leaves of Poa annua were placed. In the tube that rendered more suitable for domestic purposes. All are fawas in the red space a minute bubble of gas was sometimes miliar with the fact that blanching deprives the leaves of their formed, sometimes none at all^ that in the oiange contained green colour, and prevents them from acquiring their usual a considerable quantity; in the yellow ray a very large qualities. This depends on the effect of darkness in arrestamount was found, comparatively speaking; in the green a ing the formation of chlorophyll or the green colouring matmuch smaller quantity; in the blue, indigo, and violet, and ter, and in hindering the production of various secretions. the extra-spectral space at that end, not a solitary bubble. In the case of Asparagus and Sea-kale, gardeners succeed by Hence he drew the conclusion that the light-giving rays artificial etiolation (blanching) in preventing the plants from and those nearest the yellow have the greatest effect in the producing woody tissue—cells and thin-walled vessels being alone formed, which are delicate in their texture. The decomposition. It has been stated that plants, when blanched, give off tenderness and succulence of the heart of the cabbage are carbonic acid. Morot says that in partially etiolated plants, due to the outer leaves obstructing the access of light. In when exposed to the direct rays of the sun, the yellow por- Celery the effect of blanching is to deprive the plant not tion of the tissue gave out carbonic acid, while the green only of the woody tissue, but also of certain other secretions parts gave out oxygen. Plants having no green leaves ex- which render it in its ordinary condition unpalatable. It is hale carbonic acid. Thus Lory found, from thirty experi- thus distinctly proved that leaves owe their green colour to ments, that Orobanches in every stage of their growth, the action of light, and that it is only when light and air are whether exposed to light or not, absorb oxygen and give supplied freely, that they can form the secretions which are out carbonic acid. Lory took two parts of the same weight, requited for the vigorous and normal growth of the plant. one of Orobanche Teucrii, and the other of the leafy stalk of Teucrium Chamaedrys, on which it was parasitic, and Effects of Various Gases upon Leaves.- ■ Wardian placed them in two jars of the same capacity, filled with six Cases. volumes of air to one of carbonic acid. Both were exposed In considering further the functions of the leaves, it is of to light from 9 a.m. until 3 p.m. of the succeeding day, and at the end of that time the air in which the Teucrium was importance to notice the effects produced upon them by placed contained no trace of carbonic acid, w'hile that in different gases. The atmospheric air, with its oxygen, which the parasitic Orobanche was placed yielded a large nitrogen, carbonic acid, and ammonia, is the gaseous mixquantity of carbonic acid and a diminished amount of ture best fitted for the growth of plants. Certain gases in their unmixed state are poisonous to plants, while others do oxygen. not seem to produce any deleterious effects further than the retardation of growth caused by the exclusion of atmo3. Influence of Leaves on Vegetable Secretions. spheric air. Saussure found that a plant of Lythrum SaliBy means of the processes of absorption and exhalation caria flourished for five weeks in hydrogen gas, and the which are carried on by leaves under the influence of air Messrs Gladstone ascertained that nitrogen, oxygen, and and light, the contents of the cells and vessels are elaborated nitrous oxide were innocuous. Plants would not of course and fitted for the production of various important secretions. continue to be vigorous in such atmospheres, inasmuch as To the action of the leaves must be traced in a great mea- they are deprived of the cai’bon which is necessary for them, sure the elaboration of the azotized and unazotized com- and which can only be procured from carbonic acid. Plants, when exposed to light, will thrive in an atmopounds, to which allusion has already been made. When the functions of the leaves are interrupted by non-exposure sphere containing a considerable amount of carbonic acid, to light, or by the attacks of disease, and when plants are but they cease to perform their functions in an atmosphere deprived of their leaves by injuries of various kinds, their composed of carbonic acid alone. Daubeny found that secretions are either wholly stopped, or they become altered Ferns and Lycopodiums, which are the plants most nearly in their nature. When leaves are blanched by being ex- allied to those of the coal epoch, can at the present day cluded from air and light, they lose their properties, their exist without injury in an atmosphere containing at least 5 fragrant oils and resins are not developed in a proper man- per cent, of carbonic acid, and he thinks that this in some ner, chlorophyll is not formed, nor is woody matter pro- degree supports Brongniart’s hypothesis as to the cause of duced. Potatoes grown in the shade become watery, and the enormous production of carbon by the plants of that epoch. While plants in bright light can live in an atmoproduce little starch in their tubers. The importance of leaves in the production of timber is sphere containing 5 to 10 per cent, of carbonic acid, Dauuniversally acknowledged. If they are prevented from per- beny ascertained that the addition of a larger per-centage forming their functions properly, by being kept in darkness caused injurious effects. In the atmosphere of towns, more especially those in or in the shade, wood is imperfectly formed ; and if the leaves are constantly stripped off a tree, no additions are which chemical and other manufactories exist, there are made to its woody layers. Some troublesome weeds with many gaseous and other matters present which interfere in underground woody stems may be enfeebled and ultimately a marked degree with the growth of plants. Every cultiextirpated by repeatedly cutting off their whole foliage. vator knows the difficulty of growing Roses and many valuThe difference of the wood in crowded and properly thinned able garden flowers in such situations. Drs Turner and plantations, depends in a great measure on the growth and Christison were led to examine the influence of gases on exposure of the leaves. Wood grows more rapidly, and the plants, on account of having been called upon to give evizones or circles are larger, when there is free exposure. dence as to the effects of a black-ash manufactory on the Hence the necessity of judicious planting if we wish to have vegetation in its neighbourhood. I hey found that many good timber. When a tree forms large circles of woody gases, even in minute quantity, injured and destroyed the matter, and thus grows rapidly, it has been found that the leaves of plants, some of the gases acting as irritant poisons, quality of the timber is better than when the same species others as narcotic poisons. The former destroyed the texture of the leaves and altered their colours, while the forms small circles and grows slowly. While in the cultivation of trees, shrubs, and ordinary latter killed the leaves without producing any local effects flowering plants, the object of the gardener is to allow the on the textures. Sulphurous acid gas, which is very com-

107 BOTANY. Botany, monly met with in the atmosphere of towns was found to of well-seasoned wood, containing earth. The bottom of Botany. be exceedingly deleterious. Where four or even only two the box is covered cubic inches were introduced, along with a young Migno- to a moderate depth nette plant, into the air of a glass jar, capable of containing with gravel and 470 cubic inches, the leaves of the plant became greenish- broken bricks, over gray and drooped much in less than 2^ hours ; and, though which the soil is then taken out and watered, it soon died altogether. In spread, composed of some of the experiments, the proportion of the acid gas was fibrous loam, sand, a ten-thousandth only, the quantity being one-fifth of a and peat. The nacubic inch, and yet the destruction of the leaves was com- ture of the soil may plete in 48 hours. This proportion of the gas, although be vai'ied according destructive to plants, is hardly or not at all discoverable by to circumstances, the smell. The effects of other irritant gases, such as hy- and the box may be drochloric and nitric acid, on the leaves of plants were also divided into comwell marked. The former destroyed the whole vegetation partments containof a plant of considerable size in less than two days, even ing soils of different kinds. The soil is when diluted with 10,000 parts of air. Acid gases attack first the tips of the leaves and then ex- well watered, and tend to the stalks, and it is found that when the quantity is the superfluous waFig. 143. not great the parts not attacked generally survive, if the ter is allowed to run A Wardian Case, made by Messrs Drummond and Son, Canonmills, Edinburgh. plants are removed into the air. Narcotic gases act very freely from two holes differently. Thus, Drs Turner and Christison found that in the bottom of the box. After draining fully, the holes 4| cubic inches of sulphuretted hydrogen in 80 volumes of are tightly closed with corks, and the glazed roof or cover, air, in the course of 24 hours, caused several of the leaves b, is fitted on carefully in a groove round the upper part of of a plant to hang down perpendicularly from their stalks the box. This glazed cover may be formed in various ways. in a flaccid state, without injuring their colour ; and though It is frequently made of zinc, with large panes of glass, the the plant was then removed into the air, the whole stem upper one being curved. Plants in these Cases are enabled to stand great changes soon began to droop, and the plant died. When 6 cubic inches of the gas were mixed with 60 times their volume of of temperature without being injured, and they are proair, the leaves began to be affected in 10 hours; they be- tected from noxious matters in the atmosphere, besides havcame quite flaccid, but did not appear changed in colour. ing always sufficient moisture. Ferns and Lycopodiums, in When the leaves had once drooped the plants did not in an especial manner, succeed in such Cases. Those ferns which require much moisture and shade, such as Trichoany instance recover when removed into the air. The effects produced by ammonia, cyanogen, carbonic manes radicans, can be grown successfully. The atmooxide, and common coal gas, are in many respects similar sphere, however, can be varied as regards moisture and dryto those now described, viz., a drooping of the leaves with- ness, and thus can be suited to different tribes of plants. out alteration of colour, and the death of the plant even The cases are well fitted for rooms or dwelling-houses, inthough removed into the air. The phenomena, when com- asmuch as they prevent the excessive exhalation which so pared with what was observed in the instances of sulphur- generally injures plants grown in these circumstances. The ous and hydrochloric acid, would appear to establish, in re- Cases have been applied most successfully to the transport lation to vegetable life, a distinction among the poisonous of living plants, and many valuable productions have thus gases nearly equivalent to the difference existing between been introduced into different countries. the effects of the irritant and narcotic poisons on animals. The gases which rank as irritants in relation to animals 5. Coloration of Leaves. seem to act locally on vegetables, destroying first the parts The green colour of leaves depends on the production of least supplied with moisture. The narcotic gases, including under that term those which act on the nervous system chlorophyll, which is only developed under the agency of of animals, destroy vegetable life by attacking it throughout light. The leaves in the young bud are of a pale yellowish the whole plant at once—the former probably only abstract- hue, and assume their green tint in proportion as they are ing the moisture of the leaves, the latter acting by some exposed to light. The change of colour takes place more unknown influence on their vitality. or less rapidly, according to the intensity of the light. The The experiments just detailed show the importance of leaves of French Beans, which sprung white out of the attending to the nature of the atmosphere in which plants earth, were observed by Senebier to become green in one grow. The blighting effects of the air of large cities are hour under exposure to very bright sunshine. Plants, when owing to the gases contained in the smoke, and unless means grown in darkness, have pale leaves, which become green are taken for guarding against these, it is not to be expected on exposure to light. It is said that an etiolated plant, that town vegetation can be luxuriant. The common gas when exposed to light, becomes green at the end of twentyused in houses is also prejudicial to vigorous growth, and four hours, even under water. Diffuse daylight, and even this combined with the dry atmosphere of rooms is the cause the light of lamps, will cause a green coloration, but the inof plants not succeeding well in private dwellings. The tensity of the colour is much less than in full sunshine. transpiration from the leaves in such circumstance is very Experiments have been made in regard to the effects of great, and it is impossible to make the roots take up suffi- the difterent rays of the spectrum in the production of the cient moisture to supply the loss. Hence the leaves fall off green colour of leaves. Senebier ascribed it to the violet rays, and Ritter and Wollaston to the chemical or tithonic and the plants become sickly. With the view of enabling plants to grow in the atmo- rays, which are next the violet. Plunt thinks that the sphere of towns, notwithstanding the fuliginous matter and blue rays are the most active in this respect, while Morren, gases with which it is loaded, Mr N. B. Ward invented Daubeny, Draper, and Gardner, say that the yellow rays, closely-glazed Cases, in which he succeeded in cultivating or those having the greatest illuminating power, have the tender plants, even in one of the most populous and smoky greatest effect in producing chlorophyll, as well as in delocalities of London. One of these Cases is represented in oxidation. The subject requires further elucidation. In temperate climates the leaves during the period of Figure 143. It consists of a strong box or trough, a, made

BOTANY. 108 Botany. their diminished activity exhibit changes of colour which its natural state, but when it is in darkness, as we 11 as when jrive rise to the yellow, brown, and red autumnal tints. the leaves are touched or These colours seem to depend on different states of oxida- irritated, the pinnules fold tion in the chlorophyll. Hunt thinks that the brown co- upwards, so as to bring their louring of the autumnal leaves is due to the rays called by upper surfaces into contact, Herschel parathermic, which can scarcely be said to have and at length the petiole is a defined place amid the calorific radiations, but which are depressed, so that the enusually most strongly manifested in the red rays. A slight tire leaf falls down. When tint of green was found to stop these parathermic rays, and the whole leaves are thus on that account glass stained green with oxide of copper folded and depressed the plant appears as if it were has been used in glazing the Palm-House at Kew. Variegation in leaves is produced either by an alteration withered and dead. When in the green chromule or chlorophyll, or by the presence light is introduced, or when of air in certain foliar cells. Sometimes a single group of the irritation is removed, cells contains the yellow product of the decomposition of the leaflets gradually unfold, and leaves of Sensitive plant the chlorophyll, as in Phalaris arundinacea picta, a variety and the leaf-stalk rises. In Branch (Mimosa pudica), showing the petiole in its erect state, a, and in its which appears in a dry soil, and disappears in a wet one ; the ordinary state of the depressed state, b; also the leaflets closed, c, and the leaflets expandor as in variegated varieties of Holly. At other times the plant these motions go on ed, d. daily. If two of the leafepidermis separates itself from the cells lying under it in particular places, and the layer of air lying between these lets at the extremity are touched, or are irritated by heat appears like a bright silvery spot, as in Begonia argyro- from a lens, or by electricity, without agitating other parts, stigma and Carduus Marianus. Treviranus states that in they fold upwards, and a similar movement takes place in Monocotyledons the variegations form bands parallel to the the adjoining leaflets in regular succession from the apex to veins ; in Dicotyledons, such as Carduus Marianus, the the base of the petiole. The irritation is also communicated white is produced in the veins, while in such as Aucuba to the neighbouring partial petiole, the leaflets of which fold japonica, the yellow spots are distributed without order. in a reverse order, namely, from base to apex. The moveHe states also that variegation is sometimes visible on the ment may be propagated until the partial petioles converge upper surface of the leaves, and not on the under. Varie- and fall down; and, finally, the general leaf-stalk is depressed. gation, according to Morren, has its seat deeper in the leaf If the lower leaflets are first irritated, the foldings take place than what is called spotting. The latter is confined to the from the base to the apex of the petiole; if the middle cuticle or skin, while the former extends to the parenchyma leaflets are touched then the foldings occur on each side. The stem itself seems not to be directly concerned in the or cellular tissue below. motions. It may be injured in various ways without causing contractions to take place. A section may be made of 6. Irritability and Contractility of Leaves. it with a leaf attached, and yet the leaflets may remain exCertain leaves display evident movements under the influ- panded. Artificial light from six lamps, according to De ence of light, heat, and a stimulus either of a mechanical Candolle, caused the expansion of the leaves ; and Zanteor chemical nature. The effects of light and darkness are deschi states that the lunar rays also affect the motions. The action of the wind, or any general agitation, causes frequently very marked in causing the elevation and depresoion of leaf-stalks, and the expansion and folding of leaves. the simultaneous folding and depression of the leaves ; but The changes which take place in leaves during darkness the quick repetition of an irritation exhausts the sensitivewere included by Linnaeus under what he called the sleep ness towards it. It appears that the plants may become of plants. During darkness leaves often hang down, and, accustomed to a weak stimulus. The more vigorous the in the case of compound leaves, there is also a folding of the plant, and the higher the temperature to which it is exposed, leaflets, either in an upward direction, as in the sensitive the more sensitive it is. The leaf of the Mimosa is sensitive of various kinds of stimuli, such as shaking, wounding, Mimosas, or downwards, as in Tephrosia caribaea. Very obvious movements occur in the leaves of many burning, contact of irritating fluids, electric and galvanic species belonging to the natural orders Leguminosae, Ox- shocks. Many chemical stimuli cause the leaves to fold. alidaceae, and Droseraceae. Among Leguminous plants Thus the vapours of prussic acid, of chloroform, and of ether, may be noticed species of Mimosa, Robinia, iEschynomene, Smithia, Desmanthus, and Neptunia; in the family of Oxalidaceae, many species of Oxalis exhibit a certain degree of irritability, but it is chiefly observed in the pinnate-leaved Biophytum sensitivum ; while among Droseraceae the leaves of Dionaea muscipula have a remarkable irritability, and those of the species of Drosera also exhibit traces of it. In some plants the movements are most marked in the young state. The movements exhibited by the leaves of plants may be divided into—1. Those which depend upon the periodical returns of day and night; 2. Those, which, besides being influenced by light and darkness, are also occasioned by any external or chemical agency; 3. Those independent, to a certain extent, of external influences. Fig. 145. Fig. 146. In Mimosa pudica and sensitiva, which usually receive of Venus’s Fly-trap (Diontra muscipula), wliicli exliibit evi the name of Sensitive plants, the motions of the leaves are Fig. 145. Leaves dent consists of two two halves parts, aoflamina or blade l, andirritability. a petiole or The leafleaf stalk, p. The the blade are very conspicuous. They are influenced by light and darkanited by a sort of hinge, a, and there are on each of them three ness, and they are exhibited on the slightest touch. In these hairs, which, when touched, cause the folding of the lamina: in the way represented at J and 6. . , plants the leaf, as represented in Figure 144, is a compound 146. A portion of the branch and leaf of the moving plant of India(l/e), which is discharged through the absence of the petals. slits or holes. The whole staminal whorl, taken collectively, is styled the Andrcecium (avrjp, male, and olklov, habitation). The Pistil is the central organ (Fig. 180), below and around which the other floral whorls are arranged. It consists of one or more folded leaves, called Carpels (/capTros fruit), either separate (Fig. 181), or combined (Fig. 180), and collectively forming the pistilline whorl, which is denominated the Gt/noecium (yvvrj, female, and olklov, habitation). The parts distinguished in the pistil are the Ovary (Fig. 180, o), which is the lower portion inclosing the Ovules destined to become seeds, the Stigma (Fig. 180, g), a porFig. 183. tion of the loose cellular tissue, uncovered by epidermis, calyx and beak-like process of Geranium, with the parts of the which is either sessile on the apex of the ovary, as in the Fig. 183. The pistil (the carpels) curled upwards, so as to scatter the seed; a, the extremity of the rostrum or beak, whence the name crane’s bill is Poppy, or is separated from it by a prolonged portion called derived); b, the carpels curled up by means of the styles which are attached to the beak ; c, the calyx. the Style (Fig. 180, /. The essential organs must be pre... 184. Fruit of the Strawberry (Fragaria vescd), consisting of an enlarged sent, in order that seed may be produced, but the floral ensucculent prolongation of the receptacle, bearing on its surface numerous carpels, which are often erroneously called seeds. The velopes may be wanting, and still the reproductive funccalyx is seen at the lower part. fruit of the Rose cut vertically. The receptacle, re, lines the tions may be performed. When both calyx and corolla are ... 185. The interior of the calyx, ca,and the carpels with their ovaries, ov, and present, the flower is Dichlamydeous (Sts, twice, xXa/xvs, a styles, sty, are attached to it. The stamens and petals are seen at the upper part, attached to the calyx. covering), when the corolla is wanting, the flower is Monothe Strawberry (Fig. 184) the receptacle, after giving origin chlamydeous (/iovos, one), and when both are wanting, it is to the calyx, corolla, and stamens, becomes enlarged and Achlamydeous (a, privative). All the organs of the flower are attached to the extremity succulent, bearing the parts of the pistil on its surface, and of the flower-stalk, and the part on which they are situated constituting what is commonly called the fruit. The sacred has received the names of Thalamus, Torus, and Recepta- Bean of India and of the Nile (Nelumbium), has a large topcle (Figs. 177, 180 r). The different organs are verticillate shaped (turbinate) receptacle inclosing the pistils. In the leaves, produced at nodes which are placed close to each other, fruit of the Rose the portion of the receptacle (Fig. 185, re), without the intervention of marked internodes. Each organ bearing the parts of the pistilline whorl, ov, is adherent to forms one or more whorls, and the parts of each whorl are the inner surface of the calyx, ca. In some monstrous specimens of Avens and Rose there is occasionally an unusual g development of the central part of the receptacle, so that the pistilline leaves become arranged alternately on an axis which ends in an abortive flower-bud. The leaves and the different parts of the flower are conSt'Jsidered by botanists as homologous (o/mAoyos, having an agreement). In other words, they are constructed on the same plan, and the forms which they assume depend on the nature of the functions which they are required to perform. Leaves being concerned in nutrition and in the assimilation of food, assume an arrangement and colour fitted for these purposes, and have all their parts developed in conformity ) with the functions allotted to them. The parts of the flower, on the other hand, are concerned in the function of reproFig. 182. Fig. 179. Stamen, consisting of a filament (stalk),/, and an anther, duction, and in their structure and development are fitted a, containing powdery matter, p, denominated pollen, for the office which they have to perform. The parts of the which is discharged through slits in the two lobes of the anther. flower originate in the same way as the leaves, in the form ... 180. The pistil of Tobacco (Nicotiana Tabacum), consisting of the ovary, o, containing ovules, the style,*, and the capiof simple cellular projections from the axis. The appeartate stigma, g. The pistil is placed on the receptacle, r, ances which they afterwards present depend on organogenic at the extremity of the peduncle. ... 181. The gynoecium (pistil) of Columbine (Aquilegia vulgaris), (organ-producing) laws of development—the arrangement situated on the receptacle, r, which occupies the summit ^ of the peduncle, p. The pistil consists of five carpels, of the cells and vessels, and their contents, being modified each of which has an ovary, o, containing ovules, a style, * ‘Ssty, and a stigma, stig. in each special organ. ... 182. Calyx and pistil of Fraxinella (Zlicfamnw* Fraxinelld). The pistil The leaf is considered as the Type of all. This idea was consists of several carpels, which are elevated on a stalk prolonged from the receptacle. The stalk is called Gynophore or Thecaphore. started by Linnaeus, and was afterwards more fully brought placed alternately in relation to those of the whorls next it. forward by Goethe. In speaking of the parts of the flower

BOTANY. 119 Botany, as metamorphosed or modified leaves, it must not be sup- floral axis, in place of bearing flowers, produces whorls of Botany. posed that we mean that these parts have, at any period of leaves. The alteration in such instances is either complete, their existence, been true leaves. All that is implied in or there is a partial change of the organs, some of them rethe statement is, that both are formed on the same general maining unaltered. It sometimes happens that, from the plan, that both are arranged upon the same principle, and centre of the flower, a leaf-bearing axis is prolonged at the that one law pervades their morphology. The cell from expense of the pistil. All these cases prove the general which the leaf is formed is no doubt very different as re- law of development in leaves and flowers to be in reality gards the organogenic law impressed upon it from the cell the same, and they point out the means of explaining many which gives rise to a sepal, a petal, a stamen, or a carpel. of the anomalous appearances presented by the flower. The parts of the flower being thus considered as modiNevertheless, when we examine the parts scientifically, we perceive certain homologies in form and structure belong- fied leaves, we naturally look for a similar mode of arrangeing to the one set of organs which are represented in the ment. As leaves are alternate, opposite, and verticillate, other. This morphological view of the organs of the flower we may expect the parts of the flower to be arranged in the associates them with the leaves in a very interesting man- same manner. We might conceive a flower, as in the ideal ner, and enables us to give a philosophical exposition of the representation in Figure 188, to be formed of a sepal, c, a petal, p, a stamen, s, and a pistil,/; each of the parts alterharmonies subsisting between them. In passing from leaves to flowers, there are certain inter- nating with that next to it, and separated by an internode, mediate organs called bracts, which are merely altered or and all arising from a single bract, b. In plants such as modified leaves, producing flower-buds at the part where Hippuris, with one stamen, and one pistil, and an abortive they emerge from the stem. From these we proceed to calyx, such may be reckoned the tendency, although, from the flower-stalks, which are branches bearing flower-buds non-development of certain parts, the flower becomes incomin place of leaf-buds. The outer whorl of the flower has plete. We generally find that the parts of the flower are generally more or less of the appearance and colour of arranged in twos, threes, fours, or fives. When the parts of a flower appear in pairs, they may leaves, and, in many instances, the leaflets produced on the flower-stalk pass by insensible gradations into sepals. Be- be considered as formed of opposite decussate leaves. In tween sepals and petals there are transition forms, as seen Figure 189, there is an ideal representation of such a flower, in the White Water-Lily, the Magnolia, and many plants with its bracts, 6, its sepals, c, petals, stamens, s, and carwhere the colour of both is similar. The petals, in their pels, / separated by marked internodes. If the internodes turn, sometimes become narrowed and altered, so as to in Figures 188 and 189 were taken away, or very much pass into stamens, as in the White Water-Lily, where it shortened, we would then have the arrangement usually is scarcely possible to say where the different whorls end. seen in the flower. These diagrams also illustrate what It is very rare to find the stamens passing into the pistil. occurs in the case of some plants, where the different floral In the case of monstrosities, however, produced by cultiva- whorls are distant from each other. When the parts of a tion, the pistil undergoes such changes as to prove that it is flower are arranged in threes, fours, or fives, they may, if formed on the same type as the rest. Occasionally all the placed in a circle at the same level, be regarded as verticils, parts of a flower, as in some monstrous specimens of Dutch or, if at different levels, as following a spiral arrangement. A flower is said to be Symmetrical when each of its Clover, are converted into leaves. When sepals are changed into petals, petals into stamens, whorls consist of an equal number of parts, or when the or the latter into carpels, the alterations are said to be in parts of any one whorl are multiples of that preceding it. the ascending series, and it is called a case of ascending Thus, a symmetrical flower may have five sepals, five petals, or 'progressive metamorphosis. By cultivation, and other five stamens, and five carpels, or the number of any of these causes, this series of phenomena is sometimes reversed. parts may be ten, twenty, or some multiple of five. In Thus, in the double cherry, the pistil is frequently altered, Figure 175 there is a diagram of a symmetrical flower, with so as to appear in the form of one or more leaves (Fig. 186, a five parts in each whorl, alternating with each other. In and 5); and in double flowers the stamens are changed more or less completely into petals. In Figure 187 is exhibited o 6

Fig. 180. Fig. 186. The carpel of the Uouble-flowering Cherry. In this plant the fruit is abortive, and in its place one or more leaves are produced. The Fig. 188. carpellary leaf is either expanded, a, or folded, b. This shows that the fruit of the Cherry is formed on the same type as the leaf. ... 187. Transformations in the stamen of the Hose. The complete stamen, 6, is altered gradually, passing through the states represented at 5, 4, and 3, until it becomes a complete petal, 2, and the petal at 1 ideal representation of a flower arising from a bract, 6, and begins to assume the appearance of a sepal, with a strongly-marked Fig. 188. Anformed by a single sepal, c, a single petal, p, a single stamen, s, midrib prolonged beyond the apex. and a single carpel,/; the parts being alternate, and separated by internodes. ... 189. An ideal representation of a dimerous flower, formed of two parts in the series of changes through which a stamen of the Rose each whorl. The bracts, 6, the sepals, c, petals, p, stamens, s, and passes, from the normal state, 6, until the complete petal, carpels,/. The parts of the flower are decussate, and thus follow a law of alternation. Each whorl is separated by an internode. If 2, is formed, and this, in its turn, becomes altered, as seen the internodes were removed the whorls would be closely applied to each other, as in ordinary flowers. in 1, so as to resemble a coloured sepal, with a prominent ... 190. Diagramatic section of a symmetrical pentamerous flower of Stoneand projecting midrib. In some cultivated flowers the crop (Seduni), consisting of five sepals externally, five petals alternating with the sepals, ten stamens in two rows, and five carpels petals assume a green colour, so as to resemble the calyx, containing seeds. The dark lines on the outside of the carpels are glands. which, in its turn, often appears like true leaves. This is called retrograde metamorphosis. In certain cases the Figure 190 there is a section of a symmetrical flower of

120 EOT A N Y. Botany. Stone-crop, with five sepals, five alternating petals, ten anterior, and the other two are lateral; the petals (when Botany. stamens in two rows, and five carpels. Figure 191 shows a flower of Heath, with four divisions of the calyx and corolla, eight stamens in two rows, and four divisions of the pistil. In Figure 192 there are three divisions of the calyx, corolla, and pistil, and six stamens in two rows. In all these cases the flower is symmetrical. Flowers in which the number of parts in each whorl is the same are Isomerous (icros, equal, and p.epos, a part); when the number in some of the whorls is different, the flower is Anisomerous (dncros, unequal). When the parts of any whorl are not equal to, or some multiple of the others, then the flower is Unsymmetrical. This is seen in Veronica as given in Fig. 194. Figure 193, where there are four divisions of the calyx, four of flower of Rose, showing one division of the calyx superior of the corolla, and only two stamens, and two parts of the pistil. Fig. 194. Diagram or next the axis, and two inferior or next the bract. The petals are arranged alternately with the calycine segments, and lienco two of them are superior, and one inferior. ... 195. Diagram of flower of Sweet-pea (Lathyrus), showing five parts of the calyx, of which two are superior, one inferior, and two lateral ; five parts of the corolla, of which one is superior, two inferior, and two lateral; ten stamens in two rows; one carpel, in consequence of four being undeveloped. two are posterior, and two anterior; while the four stamens are arranged like the sepals. In a pentamerous flower it happens, that either one sepal is superior, two inferior, and two lateral, as in the calyx of Rosaceae (Fig. 194); or two are superior, one inferior, and two lateral, as in the calyx of Leguminosae (Fig. 195). The reverse, of course, by the Fig. 191. Diagram of the flower of Heath (Erica), having four sepals, four law of alternation, is the case with the petals. divisions of the corolla, eight stamens in two rows, and four diviA flower normally consists of four whorls, calyx, corolla, sions of the pistil. The flower is tetramerous, complete, symmetristamens, and pistil, and when these are all present, the cal, and regular. ... 192. Diagram of the symmetrical trimerous flower of Fritillary, having flower is complete. When each whorl consists of the same three divisions of the two outer whorls, and of the pistil in the centre, and six stamens in two rows. ... 193. Unsymmetrical flower of Speedwell ( Veronica). The two outer whorls number of parts, or of a multiple of the parts, successively consist of four parts each, while the two inner have only two alternating with one another, we have seen that the flower parts. is symmetrical. When the different parts of each whorl are Symmetry, then, in botanical language, has reference to alike in size and shape, the flower is regular. The absence a certain definite numerical relation of parts. A flower in of any of the whorls renders the flower incomplete. Want which the parts are arranged in twos is called Dimerous (Sis, of correspondence in the number of the parts of the whorls twice, and /xepos, a part), the symmetry being Binary, and causes want of symmetry, as has been already shown, while the arrangement marked thus ty. When the parts of the differences in the size and shape of the parts of a whorl makes floral whorls are three, the flower is Trimerous (rpls, thrice), the flower irregular, as in the papilionaceous flower repreand the symmetry being Ternary ox Trigonal, is marked^. sented in Figure 195. When the floral pieces are in a series of four, the flower is In their earliest stage of development all the parts of the Tetramerous(rerpa, four times), its symmetry being Quater- floral whorls are regular and symmetrical, consisting of nary, and marked V. A Pentamerous (irevre, five) flower, similar minute cellular papillae arising from the axis. The marked V, has Quinary or Pentagonal symmetry. The alterations in their regularity and symmetry depend on symmetry which is most commonly met with in the vege- changes taking place during their growth. These alteratable kingdom is trimerous and pentamerous—the former tions are traced to the adhesion of one part to another, the occurring generally among Monocotyledons, the latter among union of different whorls, irregular growth, complete suppresDicotyledons. Tetramerous symmetry occurs also among sion of one or more parts or whorls, degeneration or degraDicotyledonous plants, and the numbers 2 and 4 prevail in dation, multiplication of parts, and chorisis or deduplication. A flower becomes incomplete by the non-development, the reproductive organs of Acotyledons. The parts of the flower are, generally speaking, arranged or by the transformation of one or more whorls. It becomes so that those of one whorl are alternate with those of the irregular by one or more parts of a whorl being enlarged or next whorl. Thus, the petals alternate with the sepals, and diminished in size, and by irregular cohesions; and it bethe stamens with the petals. When the numbers in any comes unsymmetrical when some of the parts of one or series, such as the stamens, are multiplied, and the flower is more whorls are suppressed, so that their numerical relastill symmetrical, then the organ is found to consist of a de- tions do not correspond. The consideration of all the finite number of whorls alternating with each other. Thus, changes which the parts of plants undergo, or, in other in diagram 192, the stamens are six in place of three, and words, the permanent deviations from what may be conthey are arranged in two alternating whorls—the parts of sidered as their normal state, is included under the term the outer whorl alternating with the petals, and with those Teratology (repas, a monster, and Aoyos, discourse). Every of the inner series. The pistilline whorl is more liable to alteration in the organs of the flower may be traced to the changes than the other parts of the flower. It frequently morphological laws to which we have already alluded. In happens, that when it is fully formed, the number of its treating of the separate floral whorls, notice will be taken parts is not in conformity with that of the other whorls. In of the changes which they undergo ; in the meantime some such circumstances, however, a flower is still called symme- general remarks will be made on the causes to which these trical, provided the parts of the other whorls are normal. changes are referred. The various parts of the flower have a certain definite Union or adhesion of the floral whorls, or of the parts relation to the axis. The terms superior and inferior have composing them, gives rise to various changes in form and reference to their position. Thus, in axillary tetramerous symmetry. The adhesion is sometimes very irregular, so that flowers (Fig. 191) one sepal is next the axis, and is called certain parts are more completely united than others. Many superior or posterior; another next the bract, is inferior or forms of irregular flowers are due to this cause. The non-

BOTANY. 121 Botany, development of whorls gives incompleteness to the flower. is either spread out, as the sepals in the bud of the Lime- Botany. The absence of the corolline whorl renders a flower Ape- tree ; or folded upon itself (conduplicate), as in the petals of talous or Monochlamydeous, the absence of both the caly- some species of Lysimachia; or slightly folded inwards or cine and corolline whorl makes the flower Naked or Achla- outwards at the edges, as in the calyx of some species of mydeous. The suppression of the stamens, or of the Clematis, and of some herbaceous plants; or rolled-up at pistil, renders the flowers Unisexual. The non-appearance the edges (involute or revolute); or corrugated and crumpled, of a whorl deranges the relation of the different parts, and as the petals of the Poppy.* *P1. CXII. destroys their alternation. Thus, in the apetalous flower of I he position of the parts of the flower the Nettle, the stamens, in place of being alternate with relative to each other, in the bud, gives the whorl on their outside, are opposite to it, and this re- origin to the terms valvular, contortive lation of parts leads to the detection of the suppressed whorl. or twisted, and imbricated. In the first Various parts of the flower are apt to become abnormal, two the parts are placed at the same or degenerate by Transformations of different kinds. Some level, in a circular manner, while in the of the parts may be converted into scales or into hairs. latter they are at different heights, and The floral leaves of the catkin of the Willow, and those of follow a distinctly spiral order. The the Hop, are membranous scales, while those of the Cone are aestivation is Valvular, or the parts are ng. x™. hardscales; the Wig-tree (Fig. 158) produces hairs instead of arranged in a valvate manner (Fig. 196), Diagram to illustrate flowers on some of its peduncles, and the calyx of the Dan- when they are so applied as to be in IftivalfoV^nVwhfch ♦Plate delion,* and other compound flowers, assumes the form of contact at their edges without any folding. ^iSwitholTovovCXXtV. hairs, which remain attached to the fruit. In double flowers Fhey are in a circular verticil. When Japping or folding, ‘ the stamens and pistils degenerate by being converted into the parts of the verticil are slightly folded inwards at their petals. edges the aestivation is Induplicative (Fig. 197), when folded Sometimes the parts of a flower are increased in number by the growth of additional parts, or by the splitting of organs during their development. This latter process is called Chorisis (^wpims, separation), and seems to account satisfactorily for the appearance of certain anomalous parts which do not follow the law of alternation. This chorisis consists in the formation of two parts out of one, the separated parts being either placed one in front of the other by transverse chorisis, or side by side by collateral chorisis. Fig, 197. Fig. 198. Fig. 199. The lamina of a petal may be split in such a way that a to illustrate induplicative or induplicate .-estivation, in scale is produced on part of it, as seen in Lychnis. Sta- Fig. 197. Diagram which the parts of the verticil are slightly turned inwards at the edges. mens may be divided so that two standing collaterally are to illustrate reduplicative or reduplicate sestivation, in produced in place of one ; in this way some account for the ... 198. Diagram which the parts of the whorl are slightly turned outwards at the edges. abnormal state of the stamens in cruciferous flowers, such ... 199. Diagram to illustrate contortive or twisted aestivation, in which the parts of the whorl are overlapped by each other in turn, and are as Stock and Wallflower. In these plants, while the calyx twisted on their axis. and corolla consist offour parts, the stamens are six (Fig. 177), owing, it is said, to collateral chorisis of two of them. The outwards Reduplicative (Fig. 198). When the parts of the flowers are thus considered normally tetramerous. In the corolla are united they are occasionally folded in a plaited Fumitory there are two sepals, four petals in two rows, and manner. six stamens. The latter consist of two perfect stamens, In Contortive sestivation the parts are in a circle, or apand four incomplete, which are considered as being pro- parently so, and one edge of each is directed inwards, so as duced by collateral chorisis of two stamens. In this way to be overlapped by the contiguous part, while the other the flower would be normally dimerous. When the parts edge covers the margin of the part adjacent on the other of contiguous floral whorls are opposite to each other, in side; each part also is, as it were, twisted on its axis, and place of being alternate, the occurrence may be accounted the whole whorl exhibits a convolute appearance (Fig. 199). for, either by suppression of a whorl, or by chorisis. It is well seen in the unexpanded petals of Malvaceous plants,* in the corolla of Cyclamen, and in that of many ApoCXIV. b. The Flower-Bud. cynaceae, which were called Contortae by old authors. The various parts of the flower, consisting of the floral The aestivation called Imbricated or Imbricative emenvelopes and the essential organs of reproduction, are con- braces those bud arrangements in which the parts are placed tained in the flower-bud. They appear at first in the form at different heights so as to overlie each other, and form a of small cellular mammillae, or prominences, the parts of more or less evident spiral cycle (Fig. 200). When the each verticil being equal and separate. In their develop- parts of a floral whorl are five, as is the case in many Exoment (organogeny) they follow the same order as leaves—> gens, it is often found that there are two parts wholly on the extremities of each of the parts being first formed, and the outside, two completely internal, and one intermediate, irregularities, caused by adhesion and other causes, occur- overlapped at one edge by one of the outer parts, whilst its ring only during the progress of growth. In general the other edge covers one of the inner parts (Fig. 201). This whorls are developed successively, from the calyx to the is Quincuncial or Spiral imbrication, and is the normal arpistil; but, in some instances, the petals are retarded in rangement in pentamerous flowers, corresponding with the their growth, so that the stamens are completed before f arrangement in leaves. In personate flowers, as Frogsthem. mouth, a variety of imbricated aestivation occurs, called The terms Prcefloration (prce, before, and flos, flower) Cochlear, in which the second part of the cycle, in place of and ^Estivation (cestivus, pertaining to summer) are used being external (as in the ordinary quincuncial arrangement), to express the arrangement of the different parts of the becomes wholly internal. When imbricated aestivation ocflower in the flower-bud. The relation of these parts to curs in trimerous flowers, there is one part outside, one ineach other is similar to that which occurs in the leaf-bud, side, and one intermediate, the arrangement being i, as in and which has been considered under praefoliation. The leaves. When the flower is tetramerous, there are two same terms are also used to express the nature of many of outer parts and two inner parts; this being analogous to these arrangements. As regards each leaf of the flower, it what occurs in opposite decussating leaves. In pea-like VOL. v. Q

BOTANY. 122 Botany, blossoms it is usual to find a modification of imbricated palous calyx the venation assists in the determination of the Botany. number of sepals. When the union of the sepals is not equal in all the parts, the calyx has an irregular form, as in Labiate flowers (Fig. 204). In the latter case the calyx is ttvo-lipped (bilabiate), the upper lip being composed of three sepals, one of which is either arched or stands out from the rest in a marked manner, and the lower lip being formed of two sepals. The united parts of a gamosepalous calyx form the tube, the free portions at the apex are the lobes or segments of the limb, and the orifice of the tube is the throat (faux). Fig. 200. Diagram to illustrate imbricative or imbricated aestivation, in which The tube of a gamosepalous calyx frequently adheres the parts are arranged in a spiral cycle, following the order indicated by the figures X, 2, 3,4,5, 201. Diagram to illustrate the quincuncial aestivation, in which the parts more or less completely to the other whorls, especially to the of the flower are arranged in a spiral cycle, so that 1 and 2 are wholly external, 4 and 5 are internal, and 3 is partly external and partly overlapped by 1. . 202. Diagram of a papilionaceous flower, showing vexillary aestivation, 1 and 2 the alae or wings, 3 a part of the carina or keel, 4 the vexillum or standard, which, in place of being internal, as marked by the dotted line, becomes external, 5 the remaining part of the keel. The order of the cycle is indicated by the figures. gestivation, called Vexillary, in which the large petal called the vexillum, and which is superior or next the axis, overlaps the rest (Fig. 202). In some instances, as in the Judastree, the vexillum is included between the lateral petals (alse), as represented by the dotted lines, 4, Figure 202. The different verticils of the flower have not always the Fig. 204. Bilabiate gamosepalons calyx of the Dead-nettle (Lamiurti), It is composed of two lips, the upper lip formed by three sepals, the lower same aestivation. In the Mallow tribe the calyx is valvate, by two. One of the upper sepals stands prominently out from the rest. while the corolla is twisted; in St John’s Wort the calyx ... 205. Calyx of Madder (Rubio), adherent to the pistil, its limb appearing in the form of a rim. The calyx is called obsolete. is imbricated and the corolla twisted ; in the Rock-rose the ... 206. Feathery pappus attached to the fruit of Salsafy (Tragopogonporrithree inner sepals are twisted in one direction, while the folius). The calyx adheres to the fruit, and its limb is pappose. petals are twisted in an opposite direction. pistil. In the latter instance the calyx remains persistent, c. The Floral Envelopes. and forms part of the fruit, as in the Gooseberry. In such instances the limb of the calyx often becomes degenerate, * The Calyx or Outer Floral Envelope. The Calyx is the outer floral envelope, and is composed and is either absent, or appears in the form of scales or of a whorl of leaves called Sepals. These leaves have usu- pointed projections, or of a circular rim (Fig. 205), or ot ally the structure and appearance of ordinary leaves, as re- pappus, as in Composite flowers (Fig. 206). In the adhegards the distribution of their cells and vessels. They are rent calyx of Valerian, the limb is at first a ring, but ultifrequently of a greenish hue, having chlorophyll in their mately expands in the form of hairs, and hence is called cells, and stomata on their low-er (outer) epidermal covering. pappose. The calyx may continue persistent, and yet be separable When not green the calyx is said to be coloured, as in Columbine, Monkshood, Larkspur, Fuchsia, and Indian from the fruit, as in Henbane,* and cress. It is not common to find the individual sepals di- in the Peruvian Winter-cherry and vided. Sepals are usually sessile leaves, having no stalks. other species of Physalis (Fig. 207), They are either distinct from each other, as in Wallflower, where it increases after the flower or they are combined, as in the Melon. M hen the sepals has withered, and surrounds the are of the same size and form, the calyx is regular, when fruit like a bladder. It sometimes continues in a withered state, as in not so it is irregular. When the sepals are separate the calyx is Polysepalous, the Heath, and is called marcesPolyphyllous, or Dialysepalous (ttoXvs, many, SiaXveiv, to cent. The term superior is applied separate), the number of sepals being marked by the Greek to the calyx or perianth when it is numerals prefixed. Thus, disepalous means a calyx with so united to the fruit as to appear to two distinct sepals; trisepalous with three ; tetrasepalous arise from its summit, as in Melon, J with four ; pentasepalous with five ; hexasepalous with six: and Iris. In the Rose (Fig. 185) the !/ tube of the calyx bears numerous or the Greek word phylla, meaning leaves, is used, and a Fig. 207. disepalous calyx is denominated diphyllous, and so on. carpels on its concave surface, and Bladder-like calyx of tbe Winter Cherry (Physalis When sepals are united by adhesion, they form a Gamosepa- the limb at the summit is divided Alkekengi), laid open to show the mode in which it lous or Gamophyllous (ydgos, union) calyx (Fig. 203), terms into five segments. surrounds the In place of being persistent, the adhering to it.fruitThewithout calyx implying union of sepals or leaves, and therepersistent, but not adhecalyx is frequently deciduous, fall- isrent. fore preferable to monosepalousand monophylIt enlarges after the ing off immediately after the flower flower withers, and is calllous, which mean literally one sepal or leaf. expands, as in Crowfoot. In the ed accrescent. This adhesion of sepals varies in extent, and Poppy* (Fig. 208) the two sepals are detached before the *P1. CXU. thus gives rise to the terms entire, when the anthesis or the opening of the flower, and they are said union is complete, and there are no divisions at to be caducous. In Eschscholtzia,* the calyx is composed *hP1-£XI11the top, toothed, cleft, and partite, when the of sepals united together, and joined by an articulation to S- • divisions are mere toothings, or extend to the the thalamus; as the flower expands, they give way at the middle, or to near the base. Thus, a gamoFig. 203. sepalous calyx (Fig. 203), may be five-toothed Gamosepalons, joint, and fall off in the form of a candle-extinguisher. By fivetoothed (quinque-dentate), five-cleft (quinquefid), or (quinque - den- the irregular development of one or more sepals, the spurred calyx of five-partite (quinque-partite), the number of tate) Campion(X?/cA- (calcarate) calvx of Larkspur and of Indian Cress is produced, as well as the hooded or helmet-shaped (galeate) divisions usually indicating thenumberof se- nis). pals of w hich the calyx is composed. In an entire gamose- calyx of Monkshood. In Grasses and Rushes the perianth

BOTANY. 123 Bo*&nv. assumes a glumaceous or scaly appearance. It is very rare flower (Fig. 212), one narrow, c, forming the claw, and the Botany, to find the calyx wholly other broad, l, constituting the limb or lamina. Petals absent. This, however, being like leaves, exhibit varieties in their outline or ciroccurs in some of the Eucumscription. In some plants they are split at the apex, phorbias,* in which the so as to be bifid or trifid, or cut into numerous segments * Plate cxxxir. flowers are naked (achla(Fig. 213). When a small portion of their apex is deficient figs. 2 and mydeous), as shown in Fithey become emarginate and obcordate, and when lobed at 3. gure 209. In these plants the base they are cordate. The apex of petals is somethere is a series of bracts times prolonged in the form of a narrow thread, as in Strowhich at first sight appear phanthus, or it ends in a point, which is either straight or inflexed, as in Umbelliferous plants.* Some petals are folded, *pj cXXI. to be the calyx; but they so as to assume a tubular or pitcher-like form, as in the fig. i. are really an involucre inclosing several distinct Hellebore* (Fig. 214), a spurred form, as in Columbine *pi. CX. Fig. 210. flowers (Fig. 210). In (Fig. 215), Violet, and Larkspur, a gibbous form, as in Fumitory, the Strawberry, Poten\ Fig. 209. or a horn-like aspect, as in the tilla, and Mallow, the ca208. lyx consists of two alter- Fig.Fig. 208. Caducous calyx of Poppy (Papel- petals under the helmet-shaped nating whorls, the exterior ver). It is composed of two sepals, sepals of Monkshood (Fig. 216). which fall off before the petals These anomalous petals someof which has been called expand. flower of Spurge (Euphorbia), times assume a normal form, as Epicalyx, and is by some ... 209. Male consisting of a single stamen, a, in a variety of Columbine, in considered a row of bracts. without any envelope. The flower is hence called Achlamydeous. which the spurs disappear. An epicalyx is also seen The peduncle,p, has a bract, b, at the base, and is united to the When the petals are separate in the Carnation. When flower by a joint at a. there is only one floral ... 210. Calyx-like (Calyciform) involucre (free and distinct) the corolla is of Euphorbia, inclosing numerous Polypetalous or Dialypetalous envelope present, as in male flowers, and one female flower,/, with three forked styles. (ttoXv?, many, and SioAueiv, to seGoosefoot (Fig. 178), it The individual flowers are really naked or achlamydeous, in con- parate), and the number of the belongs to the calycine sequence of the floral envelopes petals is indicated by prefixing whorl, whatever may be being suppressed. the Greek numerals to the term its form or colour. petalous, in the same way as in f The Corolla or Inner Floral Envelope. the case of the sepals ; thus, in Fig. 216. The Corolla is the inner envelope of the flower, and is Figure 217, the corolla is pentaTwo peculiar horn like stalked composed of a whorl of leaves called Petals (ttctoAoj', a petalous. In the Vine (Fig. 218), petals, p, of Monkshood (Aconitum Napellus). They are situlamina or leaf), which alternate with the sepals, as seen in in which the corolla is polypeta- ated under the helmet-shaped coloured sepal, and Figure 175, and are frequently equal to them in number lous, the petals in their early state (galeate) consist of a grooved stalk (isomerous), or some multiple of them. The petals differ are un ited together by their apices, they supporting a hollow spurred pefrom the sepals in being rarely green. They usually ex- and afterwards separate and fall tal. hibit showy colours, and are often odoriferous. Structurally off. When the petals are united, the corolla is Gamopetathey are composed of cellular and vascular tissue, the latter lous or Monopetalous (yd/aos, marriage or union, /adi/o?, one), being spiral vessels and delicate tubes. The epidermis of and the number of its parts is marked by the venation, or petals does not in general exhibit stomata, but it sometimes by the divisions of the apex, just as in the case of the calyx. displays beautiful hexagonal and radiating markings under Thus, in Figure 219, the corolla consists of five petals the microscope. It is usually smooth (glabrous), but occa- united, their number being ascertained by the lobes at the sionally coloured hairs occur on it, as in the Bogbean. Pe- apex, as well as by the midribs. The united portion is tals originate in cellular projections, which are either con- called the tube, the divisions are called lobes, and the orifice nected by a ring of cellular tissue, or are separate, accord- is the throat (faux). The term limb is often given to the ing as the parts are ultimately to be united, or to remain expanded and free part of a gamopetalous corolla. distinct. Even when the petals become irregular in after growth, they are equal in the first instance. Some petals continue to increase in size after the flower has expanded. The forms of petals vary. Sometimes they resemble sessile coloured leaves, as in Crowfoot (Fig. 211) ; at other

Fig. 217. Polypetalous or Dialypetalons corolla of Biting Stonecrop (Sedum acre). It is composed of five separate petals, and hence is pentaFig. 211. Fig. 212. Fig. 213. Fig. 214. Fig. 215. petalous. Fig. 211. Petal of Crowfoot (Ranunculus), without a claw, and thus resem- ... 218. The flower of the Vine (Vitis vinifera) in the young state, showing bling a sessile leaf. At the base of the petal a nectariferous scale the union of the petals at their upper part, and the mode in which is seen. they separate before they fall off. ... 212. TJnguiculate or stalked petal of Wallflower (Cheiranthus Cheiri); c, ... 219. Regular gamopetalous bell-shaped (campanulate) corolla of Harebell the claw or unguis; i, the blade or lamina. (Campanula rotundifolia). It is composed of five petals united. ... 213. One of the lateral petals of Mignonette (Reseda). Its blade is cut The ovary is inferior, and is united to the calyx, c. into numerous segments, and has been called laciniated. ... 214. Tubular petal of Hellebore (Helleborus), formed by folding and adSome varieties of polypetalous corollas deserve notice. hesion, in the same manner as pitchers. ... 215. Horn-like hollow petal of Columbine (Aquilegia vulgaris), formed Of the regular forms may be mentioned the rosaceous, by folding and adhesion of the edges. as in the Rose and the Strawberry (Fig. 220), in which times they are separated into two portions, as in the Wall- there are spreading petals, without claws or with very short

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124 B 0 T Botanv. claws ; the liliaceous, where the petals gradually taper from the apex to the base, as in the Lily; caryophyllaceous, where the petals have long, narrow, tapering claws, inclosed in the calyx, as in the Carnation and Pink; cruciferous or cruciate, in which there are four petals, usually with claws (Fig. 212) and arranged in the form of a cross, as in Wallflower (Fig. 176). Among the irregular forms of polypeta. ^ Ions corollas we may notice the papiliona- Rosaceous2'corolla * Plate ceous (butterfly-shaped) corolla,* as seen in cxvir. the Pea (Fig. 221), consisting of five parts, composed of five flittering in size and shape, the upper, st, called claws, the standard (vexillum), the lower, car, called the keel (carina), formed of two partially-united petals, and the two lateral, a, called wings (alae). These parts are separately represented in Figure 222, a being the vexillum, b the carina, and c one of the alae.

Fig. 221. Fig. 222. Fig. 221. Flower of Pea (Pimm sativum), showing a papilionaceous corolla, with one petal superior, st, called the standard (vexillum), two inferior, car, called the keel (carina), and two lateral, a, called wings (ala;)- The calyx is marked c. ... 222. Parts of the papilionaceous flower of Broom (Sarothamnus scoparius). a. The vexillum or standard cordate at the base; t>, the carina or keel, composed of two petals partially united in a boat-like manner ; c, one of the alee or wings. In Monocotyledonous plants the coloured perianths are often polyphyllous, and there is a peculiar irregular kind

spur, s, extendsThe backwards lvpnidnr egutar anti anu irrpnnlnr crregular thelabellum. ovary.o, isfrom informs. In the former ferior, i.e., below the divisions of . , . the perianth, the parts are equal in ... 221. Regular gamopetalous funnelsiyp anu and pnmllv shaped (infundibuliform) Size, equally iinitpd uniteu, of Tobacco (Nicotianacorolla, TabaCMm while in the... latter theyJ )it is composed of five petals united. The calyx, 6, consists of are unequal in these refive sepals united. spects. Regular forms are bell-shaped (campanulate), that is, shaped like a bell, and swelling out regularly from base to apex, as in the Flarebell (Fig. 219) ; funnel-shaped (infundibuliform), in which the tube is narrow below, and expands towards the summit, as in Tobacco (Fig. 224); tubular, or nearly uniformly cylindrical, as in some composite flowers ; salver-shaped (hypocrateriform), when the limb or lobed portion spreads out at right angles to the tube, which is long, as in Auricula and Primrose ; and wheel-shaped (rotate), when a salver-shaped corolla has a

A N Y.

Fig. 225. Regular gamopetalous wheel-shaped (rotate) corolla of Forget-me-not (Myosotis), consisting of five petals united, with a very short tube, a, corolla entire; b, corolla laid open to show the short tube, the five stamens attached to the corolla, and the five scales on the petals alternating with the stamens. are also intermediate forms, as in Comfrey, in which the corolla is campanulately-tubular, presenting a combination of the bell-shaped and tubular forms. Irregular gamopetalous corollas are seen in the lipped (labiate and bilabiate) forms (Fig. 173), in which the union of the petals takes place in such a way as to produce an upper and lower portion, with a gap (hiatus) between them, like the mouth of an animal (Fig. 226). The upper lip is usually com-

Fig. 22G. Fig. 227. Fig. 226. Irregular gamopetalous labiate corolla of the Dead-nettle (Lamium album). The upper lip, u, is composed of two petals united, the lower lip, l, of three. Between the two lips (labia) there is a gap (hiatus). The throat is the part where the tube and the labiate limb join. From the arching of the upper lip this corolla is called ringent. Fig. 228. ... 227. Personate corolla of Frogsmouth (Antirrhinum majus), showing the gibbous base, b, of the corolla. The lower lip, l, is pushed up on the upper, u, leaving a chink (rictus). ... 228. Irregular gamopetalous ligulate flower of Ragwort (Senecio). It is a tubular floret, split down on one side, with the united petals forming a strap-like projection, l. The lines on the flat portion indicate the divisions of the five petals. From the tubular portion below, the bifid style projects slightly. The terete fruit (achsenium), a, is surmounted by pilose pappus, which is the metamorphosed calycine limb. The flower is female, having no stamens. posed of two petals, the lower of three. The same form is met with in the calyx (Fig. 204), but the number of parts in the lips is reversed. A labiate corolla or calyx, i ' with the upper lip much arched, like a helmet (galea), is said to be ringent (Fig. 226). Sometimes the upper lip is very short and nearly wanting, as in Bugle. When Fig. 230. Fig. 229. the lower lip is appersonate _gamopetalous . (Linaria), ... with proximated to thp Fig. 229. Irregular flower of Snapdragon a long spur, c (calcar), at the base. upper, so as to leave 230. Irregular gamopetalous wheel-like coonly a chink (rictus), rolla of Speedwell (Veronica). The irregularity consists in the different with a projecting sizes of the lobes of the corolla, especially the lower lobe, l, which is portion below it, smaller than the rest. called the palate, the corolla is denominated masked (personate), as seen in Frogsmouth (Fig. 227). In Calceolaria there is a peculiar irregular corolla with two hollow lips. When a tubular corolla is split down on one side (Fig. 228), as in the florets of the

BOTANY. Botany. Dandelion,* and in the white florets of the Daisy, it is called strap-shaped (ligulate). * Plate The lower part of some gamopetalous corollas, such as CXXIV. Valerian and Frogsmouth (Fig. 227 h\ projects in the fig. 2. form of a bag or sac, and is called saccate or gibbous. Sometimes the projecting part assumes the form of a spur (calcar), as in Red Valerian, and Snapdragon (Fig. 229). In some gamopetalous corollas there is a very slight irre* Plate gularity of form. Thus, in Digitalis* the corolla has a CXXIX. somewhat campanulate form, but its development is not equal; the Speedwell (Fig. 230) has a form nearly rotate, but the lobes are unequal; the Bugloss has a funnel-shaped corolla with a curved tube. In some gamopetalous corollas with a single spur, it happens occasionally, that what are called Pelorian varieties occur in which five spurs are produced. This occurs in common SnapFig. 232. dragon frequently, as well Fig. 231. qciv-» r n ct c _ Biff.6 231. On 6 of tlicseen glumes of Wlies/tThese ( Ttiab in species oOI"f* Y' r logs ticum), in profile. Ilumes are bracts or floral mouth. eaves which constitute the In Grasses and Sedges outer covering of the spikelet. 232. External (outer) palea or gluthe arrangement of the mella of the flower of Wheat. It is a glumaceous scale marked parts of the flower is pecuwith two ribs on each side of the liar. In place of verticillate midrib. 233. Internal (inner) palea or gluleaves forming the flower, mella of the flower of Wheat. It is thinner and more memthere are alternate scales branous than the outer glumella, its edges are folded inor glumes. The flowers wards, and its apex is bifid. of grasses usually occur in ■ Plate spikelets* (Fig. 165), which consist of one or two glumes, a, 'XXXVII. covering several flowers, b. In Wheat each spikelet cons’ 4’ sists of two glumes, having the form represented in Figure 231, and inclosing flowers which are composed of scales (paleae or glumellae), delineated in Figures 232 and 233—the former being the outer, and the latter the inner pale or glumella, which are placed at different heights in an alternate manner. In the Fig. 234. Fig. 235. flower of the Oat Fig. 234. Flower of Oat and {Avena sativa), with the two glumes, the outer glumella (Fig. 234), after reor palea removed. The inner glumella or palea, pi, is seen, of a lanmoving the outer pale ceolate form, and bidentate at the apex. By removing the outer gluor glumella, the inner mella there are seen two scales (lodione, pi, is seen with culse, squamse), sq, with the three stamens(pistilliferous and two feathery two scales (lodiculae 235. Female or styles. pistillate) flower of a Sedge (Carex), with a or squamae), sq, at the single glume or scale, s. The pistil is base, inclosing the covered by an urceolate glumaceous bag, u, called perigynium. There is essential organs of one style, st, with three stigmas at its summit. reproduction. In Carices the male flowers are borne on scales, and so are the female, as shov/n in Figure 235, in which the scale, s, is placed on one side. Within the scale the female flower is situated, having a peculiar bag-like covering, u, termed perigyniutn. Abnormalities in the Coralline Whorl.—The parts of the corolla are frequently adherent to those of the calyx, and any change taking place in the latter also causes an alteration in the former. Some of the petals are occasionally suppressed, and sometimes the entire corolla is wanting. The latter occurs normally in apetalous monochlamydeous flowers, such as Chenopodium (Fig. 178) ; and it also

125

occurs accidentally. Petals, which are in general coloured, Botany, sometimes become green. A corolla, normally gamopetalous, is sometimes divided into separate petals. Flowers become double by the multiplication of the parts of the coralline whorl. This arises in general from a metamorphosis of the stamens. Union of separate flowers (synanthos, orv, together, and avQos, flower) occasionally occurs, and the adhesion which thus takes place causes various changes in the whorls. Connected with the inner surface of the petals, there are placed occasionally appendages in the form of scales* or *P1.CXXV. 2 filamentous processes. ’ These are considered as being modified petals, and they are usually traced to transverse chorisis, in consequence of their being placed opposite to the petals. In many of the Borage order, such as Fig. 236. the Comfrey (Fig. 236), Fig. 237. Forget-me-not (Fig. 99^ O), K\ as ac wen well as oc in me Fig. 236. Regular corollaof ComAAO, ^ (S*gamopetalous wmph£tum)t laid 0pen> 8ho ing the tube, t, and the limb, l. At Chickweed tribe, and in the part where the tube and limb the Crowfoot(Fig.211), unite, the five stamens are placed, attached to the corolla (epicorolpetaline scales or lamelline). Between the stamens, and alternating with them, are five lai of this nature are coloured scales. observed, which, like 237. Petal of the grass of Parnassus (Parnassia palustris). bearing a remarkmany other processes able fringed glandular scale, which may be considered as a modified connected with the petal, produced by transverse choflower, received, in the risis, or as an altered condition of the stamens. days of Linnaeus, the name of Nectaries. Peculiar changes in an inner row of petals and in the stamens may also give rise to corolline appendages, as, for instance, the beautiful fringes of the Passion-flower, the crown of the Narcissus (Fig. 149), and the glandular scales of the grass of Parnassus (Fig. 237). d. Essential Reproductive Organs. These organs constitute the inner whorls (verticils), and originate, like the floral envelopes, from the thalamus or torus (the upper part of the axis or peduncle), in the form of minute cellular processes. In their development they resemble leaves, but in general they differ much more in their appearance from the leaves than the floral envelopes do. The essential organs are the stamens and pistil, as shown in Figure 238, where there are five stamens%rising from the thalamus, Fig. 238. and surrounding one pistil. The Andrmcium and Gynoecium, stamens constitute the Andrcecium, semTai^rgTnrfTumen^and pistil) of of the the Vine (Fitis viand the pistil the Gyncecium. pistil) nifera). Therev are five stawith introrse twoThese organs are necessary to mens, lobed anthers, a. Between form a perfect flower, and without the anthers at their base are forming the disk. them no seed is produced in flower- Thescales ovary is large, sty e ing plants. When, by cultivation, short, and stigma undided. they are changed into floral envelopes, the flower cannot perform its proper functions. These organs are not, however, always present in every flower. When both are present in the same flower, it is Bisexual, Hermaphrodite, or Monoclinous (/xdvo?, one, and kXlv'q, bed), and is marked 5 • When one of the organs only is present, the flower is Unisexual or Diclinous, and is marked 5 ? ; being called Staminate, male or sterile, when the stamens alone are developed, as indicated by the mark 5 ; and Pistillate, female or fertile, when the pistil only is produced, as indicated by the mark ?. Unisexual Plants, such as the

BOTANY. 126 Botany. Hazel and Arum (Fig. 166), in which the staminiferous and the Virginian Spiderwort (Tradescantia), Anthericum, and Botany, pistilliferous flowers are on the same individual, are deno- Verbascum, where the stamens are called stupose, and in minated Momrcious (fxovos, and olkcov, habitation), and are Anagallis tenella, where the hairs have a beautiful knobbed marked J—?; unisexual plants, such as the Willow and appearance. The anther, like the lamina of the leaf, is developed beHemp, in which the staminiferous and pistilliferous flowers fore its stalk. It consists originally of a cellular mammilla, are on separate individuals, are denominated Dioecious (Sts, twice, and oi/abv, habitation), and are marked 5 : In the containing a mass of thin-walled cells (Fig. 240, ce and ci). case of Palms it often happens that, while some flowers are In the progress of growth larger cells are produced in the staminate and others pistillate, there are others which are interior (Figs. 241 and 242, cm), forming four separate perfect or hermaphrodite; on this account such plants are clusters, each of which is surrounded by a special cellular called Polygamous (ttoAvs, many, and ya/xos, marriage), and covering (Fig. 242, cl). These larger cells are destined are marked 5 5$. In all cases in which one of the whorls of the essential organs is absent, it is considered as depending on suppression or non-development; and this view is confirmed by the fact that, in many unisexual flowers, the rudiments of the suppressed organ may be seen, and that in certain circumstances it is developed. * Andrcecium or Staminal Organs. The stamens are placed immediately within the petals. When there is one whorl the stamens are usually equal in number to the petals, and alternate with them (Fig. 175). When the stamens are twice as many as the petals, they Fig. 241. are in two whorls, alternating with each other (Figs. 191 and 192). When there are more than two whorls, each succesFig. 242. sive verticil alternates with that preceding it. When, in place Fig. 241. Vertical section of an anther lobe of the Melon in the progress of growth, showing two large central cells, cm, filled with smaller of being alternate with the petals, the stamens are opposite nucleated cells. The outer epidermal layer, ce; the inner cells, ci, being partially absorbed. to them, as in the Primrose, the abnormality is considered section of an anther lobe of the Melon, showing the two as depending, either on the suppression of an outer row, or ... 242. Vertical large central cells filled, with other cells, containing pollen, cm. The latter are called mother pollen cells. The two large cells on transverse chorisis of the petals, or vertical chorisis and in the centre are now surrounded by a special covering, cl, which constitutes ultimately the endothecium, or inner lining of union of the stamens. the anther. The parenchyma, ci, is being absorbed. The outer In cases in which the stamens are not equal in number to epidermis, ce, constitutes the exothecium, or outer covering of the anther. The endothecium, and the cells between it and the exothe petals, the abnormality may be traced to suppression of thecium, usually contain spiral fibres. a certain number, to abortion, adhesion, or chorisis. In Cruciferous plants there are four sepals, four petals, andjux for the formation of pollen, and the four places at which their stamens, four of which are longer than the others (Fig. 177). development commences may be seen on a transverse section It is supposed that in this case each pair of long stamens is of a very young anther. These clusters of pollen cells inin reality one which has been split by lateral chorisis. This crease in size, and gradually cause absorption of the suris confirmed by finding teeth only on one side of the fila- rounding parenchyma. It generally happens that two of ments of these stamens, while in the tw^o shorter ones teeth the adjacent clusters of pollen ceils unite by obliteration of exist on both sides, and also by the fact that partial adhe- their special covering at one side, and thus ultimately two sions between them are sometimes seen, as in Streptanthus, pollen cavities are found in the anther, in place of four. In its fully developed state, the anther presents two lobes and that some cruciferous plants have only four stamens. A perfect stamen consists of two parts, the Filament (Fig. (Fig. 239, l), like the two halves of the blade of the leaf; 239,/), representing the petiole of the leaf, and \}aQ Anther these lobes being united by a partition, called the Connective (Fig. 239, g), representing the midrib, and consisting of cells and spiral vessels. Each anther lobe has one or two cavities, which are receptacles of the cellular grains of pollen. These cavities correspond to the large cells seen in Figure 242, cm, with their special covering, cl, which forms the inner lining of the anther case, called Endothecium (cvSov, within, Opidov, a box or loculament). This lining exhibits Fig. 243.' elastic Spiral fibres, which probably Broken-down fibrous cells’ . . f . . , .j 1 /. of the endothecium of Fig. 240. assist m bursting the outer epidermal the anther of the Melon. Fig. 239. covering of the anther called ExoFig. 239. Stamen with its filament, /, anther lobes, a, connective or union of the lobes, (d,pp). The filament, like the times obliterated, so that the delicate fibres alone are left, petiole, is sometimes wanting, and the anther is then sessile. as is seen in the Melon (Fig. 243), and in Cobaea. These fibres appear also to fill up the space between the The filament is usually articulated to the thalamus, so that spiral r the stamen falls off after performing its functions; but in tw o coverings in many full-grown anthers. Thus the anther represents the lamina of a leaf, with its some instances it is persistent and not articulated. In the filament cellular tissue exists in a condensed form, two halves divided by a midrib, surrounded with a double surrounding a central bundle of spiral vessels, which repre- epidermal covering, the inner being fibro-cellular, and consents the fibro-vascular system of the petiole. It has a taining cellular tissue which assumes the form of pollen. thin epidermal covering, which sometimes presents stomata. When there are four cavities (loculi or thecae as they are Cellular prolongations also occur in the form of hairs, as in. called) in the anther, they may be considered as represent-

127 BOTANY. Botany. Botany, ing the two halves of the leaf, each with its upper and true nature of the organ. The flowers represented in lower stratum of cells. This division into four is seen in Figure 247 are therefore naked or achlamydeous male and the young state of anthers, and is considered as the normal female flowers on one plant, which is therefore said to be state. When it remains in the fully developed anthers they monoecious. The position of the stamens is normally within the are called quadrilocular or tetrathecal (Fig. 244). When, petals, and outside the pistil. They arise from the part of owing to obliteration of some r the peduncle below the latter, and hence they are Hypoof the partitions, only two gynous, which means under the pistil (viro, under, and yvvr], ■ II loculi remain, as is very generally the case, the anther female or pistil). But, as in all other parts of the flower, adhesions take place by which changes in apparent position is bilocular or dithecal (Fig. are produced. Thus the stamens, in place of being free 239 a). and truly hypogynous, sometimes adhere to the tube of the It happens occasionally calyx, becoming Perigynous (wept', around), which means that, by the suppression of surrounding the pistil; while at other times they adhere one lobe, as in Gomphrena, or by the disappearance of completely to the ovary, and appear to arise from the top of it, and are hence called Epigynous (eVt, upon). When the partition between the the stamens adhere still more completely to the pistil, the two lobes, the anther beFig. 244. Fig. 245. union extending above the ovary, they become Gynancomes dimidiate, or one244 In Uie Mil Ilnur triVio - Quadrilocular or Tetrathecal celled, in iviauow moe anther of the flowering Rush drous (yvvr], female, and avrjp, male), as in Orchis, and in (Butomus umbellatus). The Birthwort (Fig. 248), and form with the pistil a column in the divergence of the base anther entire, a, with its filaof the anther lobes, and ment ; section of anther, b, the centre of the flower. showing the four loculi. their complete union at the 245. The distractile connective of Sage (Salvia), bearing a single apex, render them onesessile anther lobe, and an celled (unilocular, monotheabortive one, b. cal); while in Labiate plants, by the turning of one of the lobes, a union takes place by their bases, so that they form one cavity. The long connective of the Sage and other species of Salvia separates the anther lobes, so that each appears a monothecal anther (Fig. 245), one of which, a, contains pollen, while the other, b, is abortive. The stamens vary in number, and names are given to flowers accordingly. Thus,— Fig. 250. Fig. 249. ' 1 stamen is Monandrous (/jlIvos, one, and avija, male or staFig. 248. Essential organs of Birtbwort (Aristolochia). Above the ovary, o, are the stamens united in a men). Hippuris. column with the style, so as to be gynandrous. 2 stamens is Diandrous (Sif, two). Veronica. On the summit is the stigma above the stamens. 3 stamens is Triandrous (roi7s, three). Grasses. ... 249. Andrcecium of Mallow (Malva). The stamens 4 stamens is Tetrandous (rirpu;, four). Alchemilla. are monadelphous, i. e., united into one cluster 5 stamens is Pentandrous (arivrt, five). Primula. by their filaments. The anthers are one-celled, ,24a and open by a slit all round. A 6 stamens is Hexandrous (t|, six). Tulip. Stamens and pistil of Sweet Pea (Lathyrus). The stamens are dia7 stamens is Heptandrous (swra, seven). Trientalis. delphous, nine of them being united by their filaments,/, while one of them, e, is free; the upper part of the pistil is marked st, ■S 8 stamens is Octandrous (oktu, eight). Heath. the calyx, c. 9 stamens is Enneandrous (Ima, nine). Butomus. In place of adhering to the contiguous organs, the 10 stamens is Decandrous (U»u, ten). Saxifrage. 12 stamens is Dodecandrous twelve). Asarum. stamens may be distinct from them, but united to each 20 stamens is Icosandrous (uxom, twenty). Strawberry. other either by their anthers or by their filaments. When Numerous and indefinite stamens is Polyandrous oo (waA-i/f, the filaments are combined into one mass, more or less many). Poppy. completely, the flowers are Monadelphous (p.dvos, one, and In the common Mare’s-tail there is only one stamen in abeXcfibs, brother), as in the Mallow (Fig. 249); when in each flower, while in Cereus nycticalus 400 have been two sets or bundles they are JJiadelphous, as in Fumitory, counted. The number of the stamens determines some of and in some papilionaceous flowers, in which the bundles the classes in the Linnaean artificial system of classification. are often unequal, nine stamens being united in one set, In the case of Euphorbia, flowers are met with, consisting and only one (which is superior) in the other (Fig. 250); of a single stamen ,, ~ when in three sets they are Triadelphous, as in St John’s (Fig. 246), and others "" Wort; and when in more sets Polyadelphous, as in the consisting of a single Castor-oil plant (Fig. 251). The numerous stamens in the pistil. These, when Mallow and St John’s Wort, and Castor-oil plant, are by inclosed in one comsome traced to collateral chorisis, or repeated divisions of mon involucre, or the stamens. Sometimes the filaments are united by means bracteal envelope of an interposed membrane (a sort of crown), as in the Pan(Fig. 247, i), seem to cratium. When the stamens are united by their anthers, be stamens and pistils the flowers are termed Syngenesious or Synantherous (crvv, in the same flower. together, yeVecm, origin, avOrjpa, anther), as in Composite Fig. 246. Fig. 247. But on examination Fig. 246. Male flower of Euphorbia. The whole (Fig. 252), in Violet, and in Lobelia. flower consists of a stamen, 6, supit is seen that a joint Stamens are often shorter than the corolla, and are then ported on a peduncle,}?, to which it is occurs at a part of united by an articulation at a. The said to be included ; but at times they elongate and extend flower is naked (achlamydeous). In the supposed filament some Euphorbias a perianth appears beyond it, when they are exserted. In some flowers we at the joint. (Fig. 246, a), indi- ... 247. Numerous male and one female flower, find certain stamens constantly longer than others. Thus, cating its connection p, of Euphorbia, inclosed in a com- in many Labiate flowers (Fig. 253), and in Frogsmouth, mon involucre, i, composed of gamowith the peduncle,/*, phyllous bracts. The plant is monoe- we meet with two long and two short stamens, the flowers cious. and so also in the being Didynamous (3ts, twice, and SiW/us, superiority), case of the pistil. In some of the species of Euphorbia a and in Cruciferous flowers there are four long and two proper floral envelope appears at the joint indicating the short (Fig. 177), the flowers being Tetradynamous (rerpas,

128 Botany.

BOTANY. our, Swa/us, superiority). Stamens in general stand regu- the edge of the leaf, and in innate anthers it is lateral, arly round the pistil, but occasionally their upper portions while in others its position is more or less distinctly on the face of the anther, or on the side opposite to the attachment of the filament. At the suture the epidermal tissue is thin, and the endothecium is wanting. The face of the anther is usually directed towards the centre of the flower, in which case the anther is called Introrse, as in the Vine (Fig. 238); at other times it is directed towards the circumference of the flower, and the anther is Extrorse, as in the Meadow-saffron and in the Iris. The mode of opening or of dehiscence varies in different anthers. Sometimes the lobes split along the whole face, either in the centre or at the side, longitudinally (Fig. 239), at other times transversely (Fig. 259). Sometimes the slit

Fig. 252. Fig. 251. Male flower of Castor-oil plant (Ricinus communis). The perianth is reflexed, and the stamens are seen in numerous clusters, united by their filaments. The flower is polyadelphous. The different clusters are branching, owing to the filaments being united up to different heights. ... 252. Regular gamopetalous tubular corolla of one of the flowers of Ragwort {Senecio). The single-seeded ovary, o, is united to the tube of the calyx, while the limb of the latter is seen above the ovary in the form of hairs (pappus) surrounding the corolla. In the centre of the flower above are seen the syngenesious stamens forming a tube, through which the style passes before it ends in a bifid stigma, s. ... 253. Irregular gamopetalous labiate flower of Germander (Teucrmm), seen in profile. The upper lip, u, is short, and the didynamous stamens, s, are much exserted beyond it. Fig. 258. Fig. 260. are curved to one side of the flower, and they become deFig. 258. Male flower of a species of Sedge {Carex). It consists of a glume or cimate, as in the Amaryllis and Horse-chestnut. scale supporting three stamens, with slender thread-like filaments, and innate anthers. The filament is slender and cylindrical, or slightly flatof Lady’s Mantle (Alchemilla), with the anther opening tened. It is curved and elastic in the Pellitory (Fig. 254) ... 259. Stamen transversely. ... 260. Stamen of a species of Nightshade (Solanum), showing the divergence of the anther lobes at the base, and the dehiscence by pores at the apex, a. ... 261. The stamen of the Barberry {Berberis vulgaris), showing one of the valves of the anther, v, curved upwards, bearing the pollen on its inner surface. ... 262. Two stamens of Pansy (Viola tricolor), with their two anther lobes, and the process, p, extending beyond them. One of the stamens has been deprived of its spur, the other shows its spur, c. only takes place at the apex, so as to present two holes or pores, as in Rhododendron and Solanum (Fig. 260), or four pores, as in.Poranthera, or two tubes, as in the Heath, or so as to form a separable lid, as in Gamboge. In the Barberry, each lobe of the anther opens by a single valve, which is rolled upwards (Fig. 261, v) ; and the same thing Fig. 254. Stamen of Pellitory (Parietaria), with its two-lobed anther, and occurs in many Lauraceae, in which, however, there are elastic curved filament. ... 255. Stamen of Borage (Borago officinalis). The anther lobes, s, are frequently four valves, that is, two to each lobe, correspondpointed, the filament is appendiculate, i.e., is furnished with an ing to the antherine cavities. appendage, a. in the form of a long slightly-curved process. ... 256. One of the anthers of Asclepias, showing the filament,/,- anther, a, The union of the anther lobes is effected either by a concontaining pollen masses, and the peculiar staminal appendages, J3. ... 257. Adnate anther of Barberry (Berberis vulgaris). The lobes of the tinuation of the filament (Fig. 257), or by a mass of celluanther open by hinged valves. lar tissue with spiral vessels, called tYieConnective (Fig. 238). and in the Nettle, petaloid in the White Water-Lily, and This extends to a greater or less height between the lobes, in Indian Shot and Ginger, broadened at the base in Cam- and is sometimes so narrow as to be inconspicuous, as in panula, thickened in Barberry (Fig. 257), with appendages Euphorbia. Sometimes it reaches beyond them in the form in Borage (Fig. 255) and Asclepias (Fig. 256). The fila- of a cellular expansion, as in Magnolia, Violet (Fig. 262, p), ment is attached to the anther lobes, either by adhering and Asarum, or of a long feathery appendage, as in Oleanalong their whole length on one side, called the back, and der ; while at other times it proceeds backwards in the form the anther is then adnate, as in Magnolia, Crowfoot, and of a spur, as in the Violet (Fig. 262, c), and in the Heath. Barberry (Fig. 257) ; or it extends only to the base of the It divides into two branches occasionally, each bearing an lobes, which are firmly fixed to it, and the anther is innate, anther lobe, as in Sage (Fig. 245), and then it is distractile. as in Carex (Fig. 258), or its apex is attached to a single The Pollen—is contained in the anther, and presents point of the anther, which then swings easily about, and is the appearance of a minute, usually yellow powder, which, called Versatile, as in Grasses (Fig. 165). 1 2 3 The anther presents a groove or depression between its lobes, indicating the place where the septum or partition is situated (Fig. 239, —stigma has a hooded and are intimately united at one point by a cellular and vascu- ' '» hooked appearance. lar process, called the Chalaza (Fig. 292, ch), where the The name of stigma is e nd sometimes erroneously given to parts of the style. Thus the upper petaloid portions of the style of the Iris (Fig. 290, sty) have been called Fig. 291. stigmata, a term which ought to be restricted to the little Fig. 293. ch ‘ii-Jtli slits at their apex (Fig. 290, Fig. 289, Fig. 292. stig). So also the umbrellaFig. 291. Young ovule of Celandine (Chelidonium majus) before its coverintrs like stigma of Sarracenia is are developed. It consists of the nucleus, n, which at this staveof growth is naked. The base of the nucleus,’where the nourithingS in reality an expansion of vessels enter, is marked ch. This point is called the clnla/-! ... 292. Orthotropous or Orthotropal ovule of Polygonum, showing the emthe styles with the stigmata in e nuoI us n £2'°'% V’ or chalaza, ® .> - ^e different ovular coverings, the at their edges. In some stigbase of the*’ nucleus ch, and the apex of the ovule with 290 its foramen, m. mata, as those of Mimulus,J . .. , ^ . , ,, . 9Rq p t ... 293. The ovule of Polygonum, with its nucleus, n, covered bv the inner 4.the 1 ^ two . ilamellae n are irritable, . .*„ui„ ., 289. Pistil of the Pansy (Violet tnlo^^Uoo^ coat, s, orthe secundine, and theouter coat, »,orthe primin'* The color) it consists of ovary, opening in the secundine, end, is called the endostome, that in the style, and a peculiar hooded and close when touched. In primine, ex, is the exostome. The point of the n ucleus is seen proand hooked stigma, s, with a jecting at the foramen. Ihe end by which the ovule is attached to marked hole, as represented Orchids the stigma is sessile the placenta is marked/. by the dark round spot. on the common column (gy290. Gynoecium of the Flower-de- nourishing vessels enter from the placenta. At the apex Luce (/ns), consisting of an nostemium, yw?), pistil, and ovary, o, adherent to the pe- of the ovule they leave an opening called the Foramen or rianth, and a style, sty, which oTTy/iw, stamen), and apdivides into three petaloid Micropyle (plxpos, small, and irv\v, a gate), through which pears as a viscid space imsegments bearingstigmas,stigu the influence of the pollen is afterwards conveyed. This The ovary is inferior, and the mediately below the anther perianth superior. foramen extends through both ovular coats, the opening in lobes. the outer (big. 293, ex) being the Exostome (t^w, outside, Transformations of the Pistil.—These are of frequent and (rro/xa, mouth), and that in the inner (Fig. 293, end) occurrence, and depend, generally, on abortion of a certain being the Fndoscome (tvdov, within). The foramen indinumber of carpels, and on adhesions of various kinds. In the cates the organic apex of the ovule, while the part connected apocai pous pistils of Aconite, Nigella, Larkspur, and Pasony, with the placenta by means of the stalk (Fig. 293,/) called we find on the same plant pistils composed of two, three, the A umculus or Podosperm (ttops, a foot, o-n-lpua, a seed) four, five, and six carpels. In some of the Brambles, Mo- is the base or Eilum. quin-Tandon has seen all the carpels except one disappear, Ihe relation which the hilum, the micropyle, and the thus making the fruit resemble that of the Plum. In the chalaza bear to each other, varies in different ovules. In an case of Leguminous plants, there is usually only a single Orthotropous (op^os, straight) or straight ovule (straight as carpel, although the flower is pentamerous; this state has regards its axis), the chalaza is at the hilum, and the microbeen traced to abortion of carpels, and the view is confirmed pyle at the opposite extremity (Fig. 292). In such an ovule by finding plants in the same natural order with more than the chalaza, ch, is at the base, and the micropyle, m, at the one carpel. Pistils of a succulent nature, such as those of apex, and no curvature nor inversion takes place either in the Sloe and Bird-cherry, sometimes assume the form of a the nucleus or in its coverings. In a Campylotropous pod, like that of the Pea. Occasionally stamens are changed (KayTTvAos, curved) or curved ovule, the chalaza is still at into carpels, and at other times the carpels are transformed the hilum, but the whole ovule is bent upon itself, so that into stamens, and bear pollen. the micropyle apex approaches the hilum. This is shown The Ovule—is the rudiment of the future seed (Fig. 275, ^ Fjgure 294,orwhich exhibits a vertical section of the ovule ov), and in its early state it appears as a minute cellular pro- of W allflower; the nucleus, n, is curved on itself, and so are jection or mammilla of the placenta. It is analogous to a the primine, p, and secundine, s; the chalaza, eh, is at ) bud produced on the edge of a leaf, or to a bud formed on the base of the ovule, s a branch in cases where the placenta is axile. The cells and the foramen or multiply until the ovule assumes a more or less enlarged apex is close to it. In ovate form, constituting what has been called the Nucleus, an Anatropous (avaor the central cellular mass of the ovule (Fig. 291, n). Tpeireiv, to subvert) The ovular nucleus alters in the progress of growth, so as or inverted ovule to be prepared for the development of the embryo plant in (Fig. 295), an inverits interior. At the apex of the nucleus an absorption or sion of the nucleus, obliteration of cells takes place, by which a hollow cavity is n, takes place, so that formed, which becomes lined with a thin cellular membrane its base, ch, is re(epithelium), and forms the sac in which the rudiments of to the opposite the embryo first appear (Fig. 292, s). This embryo-sac is moved side from the hilum, cTf/ ,o „ro„... c.meT,.Sp.T„nIO W nt surrounded by a cellular layer derived from the nucleus h, or base of of the ovule, °[ ^ ^oWeT(Cheiranthus), the funiculus which attachesshowing,/ the ovule (Fig. 292, n), to which the name of Tercine has been and the micropyle,/, to the placenta, p the primine, s the given. In some instances the tercine appears to be the is so placed as to be secundine, n the nucleus, ch the chalaza. The ovule is curved upon itself, only covering of the sac, as in the Mistleto. In most close to the hilum. so that the foramen is near the funiculus. cases, however, other cellular layers are formed, which first In this case the cha295. Anatropons or Anatropal ovule of Danappear in the shape of annular appendages at the base, and laza, ch, is at the apdelion (Leontodan Taraxacum,), showin g the coats of the. ovule surrounding the * uuiiiuiiig tilt? then gradually spread over the central mass. These ovular n.-- which isto inverted, nucleus, n, so that parent apex of the its hase. cA, where the chalaza exists,is coverings are usually two, one next the nucleus, and first ovule, and its conremoved from the base or hilum of the ormed (Fig. 293, s), called the Secundine, and the other on fvale, h, while the foramen,/, is near the base. The connection between the the outside (Fig. 293, p), called the Primine. These two nection with the plabase of the ovule and the base of the nucleus at s is kept up bjT raeans of the coats or coverings of the ovule are sometimes incorporated centa is kept up by a cord, r, called the raphe, r,. so as to appear one. Paphe, consisting of cellular tissue and of spiral vessels.

v

BOTANY. 134 Botany. When the hilum is placed midway between the micropyle by which some parts of the carpel are rendered succu- Botany, and, then, in place of a dry fruit, there is produced a V ' and the chalaza, the ovule becomes Heterotropal (ercpos, lent, fleshy one. This is well seen in the case of the Peach, in diverse), and in such cases it frequently happens that the funiculus proceeds at right angles from the ovule, so that which the outer epidermal covering of the carpel forms is called the shin, the parenchymatous cells of the the latter becomes horizontal. Such ovules are considered what mesophyllum constitute the fiesh, and the inner epidermis by some as produced by a partial adhesion of the funiculus of the carpellary leaf is changed into the stone; the kernel to the upper part of one side of the ovule. Anatropous ovules are very common. They appear to being the ripe seed containing the embryo plant. In the Coco-nut, in place of fleshy cells, woody fibrous ones are be formed with the view of allowing the pollen tubes to produced; the outer layer of the husk representing the exreach the foramen easily. Campylotropous ovules are by epidermis of the ovarian carpel, the fibrous portion no means uncommon. They are met with in Cruciferous ternal the parenchyma of the carpel, and the hard shell and Caryophyllaceous plants, in Mignonette, and in the being the inner epidermis of the carpel inclosing the seed Bean. The orthotropous form is rare as a permanent con- being embryo. dition of the ovule ; it is met with in a few natural orders, andAsthe in the case of the pistil, so in the fruit, the carpels such as the Buckwheat and Rock-rose tribes. Many look composing may be distinct or united. When the fruit upon it as being the earliest state of all ovules, and refer the consists of ita single ripe carpel, or of several separate and other forms to changes produced during growth. Ovules vary in number. Sometimes there is a solitary distinct carpels, it is said to be Apocarpous or Dialycarpous, in the Pea (Fig. 276) where there is a single carpel, and ovule in each ovary, or in each loculament, at other times as there are several. W hen the number is not great, and is in the Ranunculus (Fig. 277), and Columbine (Fig. 298), uniform, the ovules are said to be definite, when very numerous they are indefinite. They are attached in various ways to the placenta, and their position in the ovary varies. When the placenta at the base of the ovary is the only part ovuliferous, then the ovule is erect, as in Polygonum. When the ovuliferous part is above the base, and the ovules proceed obliquely upwards, they are ascending, as in the Pellitory, and if they are developed equally on either side of the attachment, they are horizontal or peltate, as in Crassula. When the ovuliferous part of the placenta is at the apex of the ovary, the ovules are pendulous, as in Valerian, when below the apex, they are suspended, as in the Apricot (Fig. 275). In the Common Thrift, a funiculus extends from the placenta to the apex of the ovary, and curves downwards Fig. ?U0. so as to suspend the ovule. When an ovary is multi-ovular (contains many ovules), the ovules may be all attached in Fig. 298. the same way, and be placed either collaterally or one above Fig. 297. Fruit of a species of Dock (Rumex), cut vertically. It is a monospermous indehiscent dry fruit, called an Achene, or Achamium. the other (Fig. 279) ; or they may be attached in different The outer part, ov, is the pericarp or seed-vessel containing the ways, so that some are erect and others pendulous. These seed, with its coverings. The seed contains nourishing matter, called albumen or perisperm, alb, and the embryo plant, pi, with terms apply only to the position of the ovule as respects the its cotyledons pointing downwards, and its radicle upwards, the seed is orthotropakand the embryo is inverted. At the upper pait ovary, and they have reference alike to orthotropous, camof the pericarp two of the styles and stigmas are seen curving pylotropous, and anatropous ovules. Ihus, an anatropous downwards. At the base, part of the perianth is represented. Apocarpous fruit of Columbine (Aquilegia vulgaris), consisting ot ... 298. ovule may be either erect or pendulous as regards its posifive separate mature carpels, with styles and stigmas. , section of the Acorn (glans), showing the three carpi Is tion in the ovary. The same terms apply to the seed in its ... 299, Transverse with two ovules in each, of which it is originally composed. iw» relation to the seed-vessel. . . of theofcarpels themature ovules are during progress growth,andso five thatofthe fruitobliterated is unilocular andthemonoSome ovules are not contained in a true pistil, i.e., in a fpermal. Surrounding the ovary the mass of bracts is seen. consisting of the ... 300 Acorn, or fruit of the Oak carpel consisting of true ovary taining a single seed, and surrounded by a senes of bracts which and stigma. These ovules are form the cup or cupula. * Plate met with in the Cycas* and in which there are several separate mature carpels. When CXXXIV. cone-bearing orders. In the the mature carpels are combined, as in the Poppy, the fiuit former, the ovules are arranged is Syacarpous. Sometimes the mature pistils of several on the edges of metamorphosed flowers are incorporated into one hard or succulent mass, as leaves, and the pollen from the in the Cone, in the Mulberry, and in the Fig (Fig. 157), male flowers is applied directly and in these instances, what is commonly called the fruit, to them, without the intervenconsists, in reality, of a great number of fruits united totion of a stigma. In the latter FifT. 296. Pistillate flower of a Fir (Pithe ovules (Fig. 296, ov) are nus\ consisting of a scale, gether. Such fruits are called Collective or Multiple. The fruit may be formed not merely by the pistil, but which, is a hardened covered by scales, eca, which are eca, bract, and two ovules, w, also by other parts of the flower united to it, moie oi less hardened bracts or floral leaves attached to its base. The of the ovules is indicat- completely. Thus, in the Apple, Pear, Gooseberry, Curcovering the female flowers. In apex ed by the foramen ,mic. Some rant, and Melon, the calyx is combined with the pistil; in upon the scale as an exthis case also the pollen is applied look panded carpellary leaf. The the Hazel-nut, the Acorn (k ig. 300), and Chestnut, bracts to the micropyle, mic, of the ovules are called naked, bethey are not contained form the husk, the cup, and the burr; in the Rose the i eovules, without the intervention cause in a true ovary, with astigma ceptacle is enlarged, and covers the pistil. Occasionally the. attached to it. of a stigma. fruit seems to consist not merely of a number of lows of transformed leaves, but of a transformed branch in addition. tf Pistil after becoming the Fruit. By ascertaining the anatomy and structure of the pistil, The Fruit—is, properly speaking, the pistil arrived at we are led to a knowledge of the nature of the fruit, and maturity, containing the ripe seeds, in which the embryo plant is developed (Fig. 297, joZ). The simplest form ot fruit we are enabled to see the changes which take place during is that formed by a single carpel, inclosing one or more growth. These changes depend on increase of the parenseeds (Fig. 276). It often happens that changes take place chyma, adhesion of one part to another, obliteration of o-

B 0 T A N Y. 135 Botany, culaments or of ovules, and the development of additional three coverings are well seen in the Peach, in the Cherry, Botany. v-*-' processes or partitions from the placenta, and from other and in the Date. In their original structure these parts parts of the pistil. Thus, the Coco-nut in its young state, correspond with the leaf, but changes take place during is formed by three carpels, each containing a single ovule, ripening, by which some cells are hardened and others bewhile in its mature condition there is only one loculament come succulent, and thus the resemblance to the leaf is much and one seed. In this case the partitions between the car- obscured. That succulent fruits, such as the Peach, Apricot, pels are obliterated, and one ovule is developed at the ex- and Cherry, are to be regarded as altered carpellary leaves, pense of the other two. These changes may be traced on is shown in the case of the double Cherry, where true leaves careful examination; and even in the ripe fruit indications occupy the place of the fruit (Fig. 186). Dr Wyville Thomof them are seen in the markings on the shell. The Acorn son records instances of the common Sloe and Bird-cherry in its early condition (Fig. 299), is formed of three carpels, producing red-coloured follicular pods. In many fruits, as with two ovules in each, as seen in the Figure, but in the in the Nut, the different pericarpial layers are so blended progress of development changes are induced by which the that it is not easy to mark their separation. fruit (Fig. 300) becomes one-celled and one-seeded. In Some fruits fall without opening or dehiscing, the seeds these cases a trilocular sex-ovular pistil becomes a uni- being liberated during the process of decay ; such fruits are locular and monospermic fruit. In the Hazel, the Ash, Indehiscent (indehisco, not to open). Other fruits open or the Elm, the Beech, and the Horse-chestnut, similar dehisce in various ways, so as to scatter the seeds, and are changes are produced in the pistil by the abortion of ovules, called Dehiscent. The dehiscence takes place either in a and the obliteration of divisions. In the Thorn-apple the vertical or in a transverse direction ; the former is the usual pistil is formed of two carpels, separated by a septum, while mode. Vertical dehiscence takes place through the sutures, the fruit exhibits four loculaments, produced by prolonga- or by the separation of the parts of which a syncarpous fruit tions from the placentas, forming a spurious septum in each is composed. The separate parts are called Valves. In carpel. fruits formed by a single carpel, the dehiscence occurs either It sometimes happens that the receptacle or peduncle be- at the ventral or dorsal suture, or both. In the follicles of comes succulent, and is called the fruit in ordinary language the Paeony, the Columbine (Fig. 298), and the Marsh MariThus, in the Strawberry (Fig. 301), the true gold, the dehiscence is ventral; in Magnolia grandiflora the jSWJi fruit consists of small single-seeded (monodehiscence is sometimes dorsal; while in the pod of the Pea spermic) dry seed-vessels (commonly called mtk (Fig. 276) and of the Bean, it is both ventral and dorsal. seeds), scattered over a succulent convex When the fruit consists of several carpels united, or is receptacle ; in the Rose, the true fruit consyncarpous, the dehiscence takes place either by a separasists of similar seed-vessels arranged on a tion of the constituent carpels through the dissepiments fleshy concave receptacle (Fig. 185); and (h ig. 303), and in that case is Septicidal {septum, partition, in the Fig the true fruit consists of monospermic seed-vessels produced by separate Fig. 301. flowers, and scattered over the inner surface The fruit of the Strawberry of a concave succulent receptacle (Fig. 157). garia vesca)(Fraconof the enPl.CXVI. In the Cashew,* the nut or true fruit is sisting larged succulent borne on a coloured succulent stalk, which receptacle, or growing point, enlarges during ripening. bearing on its surface numerous si In the interior of some fruits a pulpy single-seeded carFig. 303. Eig. 304. Fig. 305. substance is produced, apparently as a se- pels or achenes. achene has Fig. 303. Diagram to illustrate the septicidal dehiscence in a pental ocular cretion from the inner lining of the ovary. aEach style and stigcapsule. The loculaments, l, correspond to the number of the and is thus at carpels, which separate by splitting through the septa, s. This kind of pulpy matter is met with in the ma, once distinguish- ... 304. Diagram to illustrate loculicidal dehiscence. The loculaments, l, Gooseberry, Currant, Grape, Orange, and ed from a seed. split at the back, and the valves separate, bearing the septa, s, in their centres. , pod of Cassia Fistula. Occasionally the organs adjacent ... 305. Diagram to illustrate septifragal dehiscence, in which the dehiscence takes place through the back of the loculaments, l, and the valves to the pistil become the succulent parts of the fruit. In separate from the septa, s, which are left attached to the placentas in the centre. Strawberry-Blite, the calyx surrounding the pistil, and separate from it, becomes red and juicy; in Gualtheria procum- and ceedo, to cut), as in Figwort and Gentian, where there bens, the free calyx, after flowering, becomes red and suc- are two valves, in Meadow-saffron, where there are three culent, surrounding the true fruit, which is dry. In the valves, and in the Fig-Marigold and the Rhododendron, Yew, the bracts enveloping the seed become succulent. where there are five or more valves ; or the dehiscence The fruit, generally speaking, con- me takes place by the dorsal suture of each carpel (Fig. 304), sists of the seed-vessel or Pericarp (-rrepl, and in that case is Loculicidal {loculus, a loculament, and around, and Kapiros, fruit), and the Seed. en ccedo, to cut), as in the Iris, the Pansy, the Lily, and the It cannot be said to be perfect unless the Horse-chestnut. seed and embryo are produced. In many There are modifications of these kinds of dehiscence. cultivated fruits, however, the seeds are Thus, in the septicidal form the valves, on separating, abortive. Thus, in the case of the sometimes carry the placentas with them, as in Gentian and Bread-fruit, Banana, and Pine-apple, the Colchicum (Fig. 287) ; at other times, the placentas or plabest fruit is seedless, and such is often Drn e Fig. 302. centaries are left attached to the central axis or columella, as true of the Orange and the Grape. The P of the cherry in Rhododendron. In the case of Hura, Euphorbia, and Pericarp, in its simplest state, represents cai™,Showing vethe Janipha,* each carpel, or coccus as it is called, separates 4tpi c XIir skin, or epicarp, ep, the carpellary leaf; and, like it, can be the flesh or mesocarp, from the columella, carrying w ith it an inclosed seed. In fig. 2. separated into three parts ; the outer epi- me, and the stone, the loculicidal dehiscence the dissepiments may remain putamen, or endocarp, dermal covering (Fig. 302, ep), called en, inclosing the seed, attached to the middle of each of the valves, and separate Epicarp, or Exocarp, (im, upon, e£io, g, with the embryo. along with them, or the septa may adhere to the axis, and outside Kapno'i, fruit); the middle parenchymatous portion, allow the valves to fall off without them (Fig. 305) as in me called Mesocarp (/^ecros middle), and when succulent, the Thorn-apple and Purple Convolvulus. The latter kind ^rcocarp (aap£ flesh), and the inner epidermal covering, of loculicidal dehiscence is called Septifragal {septum, a parsfn’nv Putamen P , hndoc{putamen, “rP and istition, and/m^o, to break). In somethe casescarpels the dehiscence stony the shell and of awhen nut).hardThese at first loculicidal, and afterwards separate

i.

BOTANY. 136 Botany, from each other in a septicidal manner. This union of the be founded on a consideration of their original formation, Botany, v '—two kinds of dehiscence is seen in some Spurges, in the and of their anatomical structure in the early state. This is often puzzling to the student, inasmuch as it requires that ♦PI. CXV. Castor-oil fruit, and in the Purging Flax.* fig-1In Orchis, the placentas, as represented in Figure 282, he should trace the fruit during its different stages of deare parietal, and the seed-vessel opens by three valves velopment. By so doing, however, he is enabled to observe (Fig. 306, v), which are placentiferous in their middle, but the various changes which take place by absorption, obliteration, adhesion, and division of parts, and he is in a condition to explain many apparent anomalies. Thus, in the Coco-nut, he sees that there are at first three loculaments and three ovules, but as the fruit ripens, two of each of them disappear, and finally only one remains. The three ridges, however, which remain on the endocarp, are at once explained by a reference to the early condition of the nut. Such is the case with many fruits, the structure of which Fig. 308. would be obscure without a knowledge of the morphological alterations which have taken place. The names applied to fruits have a reference chiefly to their fully developed condition. Without attempting to give a rigorous and minute definition of Carpological (^apTros, fruit, and Aoyos, discourse) terms which have been multiplied to a cumbrous extent, we shall merely explain some of those which are most frequently employed, arranging them according as they refer to fruits formed by a single separate flower, and which are called Simple or Monogyncecial (formed by one Gyncecium); or to fruits formed by a combination of numerous flowers, Fig. 309. and which are called Collective, Multiple, Anthocavpous Fig. 306. Seed-vessel Orchid {Orchis), three valves, v v v, ( These fruits are formed by the 1 Gyncecia of several flowers a fleshy covering and the Quassia plant. . , united, v j uand the of partly formed by A Berry or Bacca, is the name given to all indehiscent name anthocarpous is also applied, because the calyx, and five syncarpous fruits, the seeds of which are immersed in a pulpy they consist usually of the bracts and floral ^with seed’s! The or fleshy mass. Such fruits are collectively called baccate or envelopes combined with the ovaries. They fruity i^caUed^a berried. In the true berry, such as the Gooseberry and Currant, are either indehiscent or dehiscent, sue- iar the endocarp stony, the calyx adheres to the fruit, and the placentas are parietal culent or dry.

Botany.

BOTANY. 139 A Cone, Strobilus (aTpoftiXos, a fir-cone), is a form of hard. It presents various colours, being brown, white, red, Botany, collective fruit, composed of scales or bracts covering one or black, and mottled. Its surface sometimes presents ridges more naked seeds (Fig. 296). Some consider these scales and furrows, as in Larkspur, reticulations, as in the Water as carpels spread out, but from the absence of style and stigma, they seem more properly referable to floral leaves or bracts. The cone gives name to the natural order Coniferse, or Cone-bearers, such as the Fir and Larch. In the Juniper the scales of the cone are succulent, and the fruit has sometimes received the name of Galbulus. In the Yew the bracts enveloping the naked seed also become succulent. In the Fig (Fig. 157) a multiple fruit occurs, called Sr/conus (o-vkov, a fig), consisting of numerons flowers inclosed in a hollow receptale. What are called the seeds of the Fig, are in reality monospermous seed-vessels (achenes), with styles and stigmata. In the Mulberry, Bread-fruit (Fig. 326), and Pine-apple, the ovaries and floral envelopes of several flowers are all united into one fleshy mass, Fig. 328. Fig. 327. The seed of the Pea (Pisurri), deprived of one-half of its integument placed on a more or less convex or or spermoderm. The outer covering, called either epicarp, exocarp, elongated receptacle, and the fruit is or testa, is marked te,the inner, called endocarp, e. Within these integuments is the nucleus, consisting of cotyledons or seed-lobes, c, called a Sorosis (o-wpos, a congeries or containingnourishing matter,the gemmnle,or young leaf-bud,r>.-vTr vertically,with showing peripherical •*dl embryo, its_twothe cotyledons and or crown. The part interposed between the neck and the and its radicle. The embryo is curved cotyledons, which is often very short, is sometimes called the embryo is in the round the albumen, so that its cotyleaxis, but is curved or dons and radicle both come near the the Cauliculus or Tigellus. The dicotyledonous embryo hilum. The embryois sometimes called then is composed of two leaves or two unifoliar phytons, as arcuate, in Geranium amphitropal. 337. Transverse section of the seed of the they are called, united together so as to form one axis. The the cotyledons are \Vallflower (OAeirant/ms). The radicle, twisted and doubled, r, is folded on the edges of the cotyle- sheathing lower part of the cotyledons helps to form the dons, c, which are said to be accumin Convolvulus they bent. The radicle is lateral, hence caulicule ; and from the axil of the cotyledons, or from the the name Pleurorhizete. are corrugated, and in 338. Transverse section of the seed of the axis between them, is produced the plumular or gemmular Dames-Violet (Ilesperis). The radicle, bud (Fig. 59, g g), which forms the stem and leaves. This die Potato and in Bur, is folded on the back of the cotynias they are spiral. ledons, c, which are said to be incum- embryo may be represented by the ideal Figure 340, in bent. The radicle is dorsal; hence the which b is the axis or tigellus, a the radicular portion, conIn some Cruciferous name Notorhizese. plants the cotyledons nected with the soil and darkness, d the two cotyledons, are bent like a leaf folded laterally on its midrib, and united at their lower part so as to form the tigellus, and e they are then called conduplicate, and marked o$>; in the primary bud or plumule, connected with air and light. other Cruciferous plants, they are flat, and the radicle is The embryo may be called a bifoliar phyton. either bent along their edges, as in Wallflower (Fig. 337, r), Although this is the usual state of the embryo in Exoand marked o =; or lies on the back of one of them, as in gens, nevertheless there are a few exceptions. In some Pocket (Fig. 338, r), and marked o ||. In the former case, Exogens without leaves, as the Dodder* and Rafflesia, the the cotyledons c are accumbent, in the latter incumbent. cotyledons are also suppressed. The embryo of these plants Some authors speak of the position of the embryo not has a resemblance to the spore of Acrogens. In Cone-bearmerely in reference to the seed, but also in reference to ing plants, as the Pine, Spruce, Fir, and Cedar, the cotylethe fruit. This is apt to lead to confusion. A superior dons are split by collateral chorisis, so as to be divided into or ascending radicle is the name given by them when it several (Fig. 341), and this has given rise to the term polypoints to the apex of the fruit, while an inferior or descend- cotyledonous applied to them. The cotyledons of the Gering radicle points to the base of the fruit; a centripetal anium and Lime-tree are divided into lobes. Accidental radicle points to the centre or axis of the fruit, while a cen- divisions are also seen in the cotyledons of the Sycamore trifugal one points in the opposite way. and Rue. In Schizopetalon and some other Cruciferae, the In some plants, the embryo is entirely cellular and has no cotyledons are usually bipartite, so as to appear to be four. cotyledons. They are denominated Acotyledonous. They A monocotyledonous differs from a dicotyledonous emcorrespond to Cryptogamic or flowerless plants. The em- bryo in having only one cotyledon or seed-leaf (Fig. 63, c). bryo, in such cases, is called a Spore (Fig. 8). It gives off It is composed of an axis having a radicular portion, r, and roots and stems from different parts of its surface, and not a cotyledonary portion, c, and it may be represented by a

»

141 Botany, "•-v/*™*''

*-piate CXXV. fig. 8.

BOTANY. 142 Botany, single leaf or a unifoliar phyton. In Figure 342 is given nor leaves, and their nutritive and reproductive organs are Botany, an ideal representation of a monocotyledonous embryo, with frequently assimilated. These tribes, from having no foliits tigellus or axis, b, having a radicular portion, a, one coty- aceous axis, but simply a cellular expansion, have been called Thallogens or Thallophytes. While the nutritive organs of Cryptogamic plants bear a greater or less resemblance to those of Phanerogams, the case is very different with the reproductive organs. Cryptogams Fig. 343. Fig. 344. Fig. 345. Fig. 346. have no flowers and no Fig. Green-snow plants {Protococcus viFig. 340. ridis), consisting of single cells, true seeds ; they are which perform all the functions of Fig. 342. nutrition and reproduction. The propagated by cellular parent cells contain numerous celbodies denominated lules, which are discharged when Fig. 341. the outer general covering gives Spores (Fig. 344), way. Each of the cellules so separatFig. 340. Ideal representation of a dicotyledonous embryo or bifoliar pbyton, which are cells capable ed "gives rise to a distinct plant, and with its radicular extremity, its two cotyledons, a c, with their they may he considered either as sheathing bases embracing the axis, 2>, and the primary bud, 6. A of sprouting and formspores or as cellular buds. dicotyledonous plant may be considered as composed ot a series ot 344. Elliptical spore of the Brittle Bladsuch'bifoliar phytons. ^ . • * . der-fern (Cystopteris fragilis). The ... 341. Pol vcotyledono us embryo of the Pine (PiWws)begiT>ning to sprout. Ihe ing new plants, (Fig. outer covering is marked with 58), and which some axis, t\ shows its radicular portion, r, and cotyledonary portion, c. pointed projections. The cotyledons, c, appear to be numerous, but this is^considered as 345. Sporidiumofa Lichen,containingtwo being produced by chorisis or the division of two. Within the coty- have called cellular emcells within a common covering. It ledons the primordial leaves are seen, constituting the plumule or bryos without cotyleis sometimes called a bispore. first bud of the plant. , 346. Theca or ascus, t, of a Lichen, with ... 342. Ideal representation of a Monocotyledonous or unifoliarphvton. l he dons, or leafless phynucleated cells (Sporidia) in its inaxis, by has a radicular extremity, a, and a plumular bud, e. Ihe terior. Along with it are paraphycotyledon, d c, has a sheathing base embracing the axis, and giving tons. The plants are ses, p. oifthe plumular bud, e, from its axil. h. monocotyledonous plant consequently A cotylemay be considered as composed of a series of such phytons. ledon, d c, with a sheathing base, and a bud in its axil, e, donous. The term spore (o-tropa, seed) should be confined to the which rises as the stem. When this embryo is examined in the seed, it frequently exhibits no marked divisions—the ultimate germinating cell of Cryptogamics. It is frequently, cotyledon being coiled round the axis like a sheath, and however, applied to the cell in which the true spores are formed. embracing the plumule so as to conceal it. This is the case Hence spores have been called simple or compound, accordwith the embryo of the Coco-nut. Sometimes a monocoty- ing as they are formed by one or by several cells. The term ledonous embryo has more than one cotyledon. In that Sporidium is applied to the compound spore of Lichens case, the second cotyledon alternates with the first, being (Fig. 345). Spores are developed either in the interior of the cell produced at a second node, which is separated from the first which gives origin to them, or on the outside of it. In the by an internode. Transformations in Seeds.—Changes take place in seeds former case, they are called Endospores, in the latter, Exor Gymnospores. In Protococcus (Fig. 343), the by abortion, degeneration, and union. There are few plants ospores in which all the ovules become perfect seeds. Many are fructification consists of numerous spores in the interior of a suppressed during the progress of growth, so that frequently mother-sac, more or less spherical; in Palmella (Fig. 11), one seed is developed at the expense of several ovules. the mother-cell contains two or four spores; while in VauSometimes the seeds are converted into leaves. There is cheria, only one spore is produced. A cell containing one, usually a single embryo in each seed, but cases occur in four, six, eight, or numerous spores or sporidia, receives the which a plurality of embryos is produced. This is a very name of Theca (Fig. 346, f). The exospores or naked spores in certain Moulds consist common occurrence in the Orange, Cycas, and Cone-bearing orders. In the case of the two latter orders, the sus- of elongated filaments w’hich are formed by a series of cells pensor often ramifies so as to produce numerous separate placed end to end (Fig. 18, c). When ripe, the cellules separate. embryos on its branches. These embryos are frequently In Botrytis a single spore only constitutes the exospore, while abortive. In the seed of the Fir there are certain cellular in Cantharellus there are two, and bodies, called corpuscles by Brown, which give origin to in Agarics four (Fig. 347, sp). Leon the filaments by which the embryos are suspended. Accidental veille called the mother-cell, r exterior of which one, tw o, four, or union of embryos also take place. many spores are formed, a Basidium n. REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF FLOWERLESS PLANTS. (Fig. 347, b). In Agarics, the baIt has already been stated that Flowerless or Cryptoga- sidia bearing four spores at their exmic plants are composed either entirely of cells, as occurs tremity are in general united together Fig. 347. in Seaweeds and Mushrooms; or of cells and vessels united, so as to form a tissue called Hyme(Fig'. 0 347, If). In Lichens, Fig. 347. Portion of the iaas seen in Ferns, Mosses, and their allies. The vascular tis- nium - - - — ■ ’ mella or gill of the Mushcampestris), sue consists chiefly of pleurenchyma (Fig. 24) with closed Sphaerias, and Pezizas, the thecae Toom(Agaricus cut transversely, showing containing four, six, or eight spores spirals, annular (Fig. 32), and scalariform vessels (Fig. 34). one of the lateral surfaces. Hymenium, h, has a In the simplest plants, as Protococcus (Fig. 343), the cell or sporidia placed one above the other The layer of cells below it called" the sub-hyinenium, sh ; performs all the functions necessary for the nourishment and are often separated by filaments or the four spores, sp, are on reproduction of the plant. In the more complicated Flower- Paraphyses (Fig 346, p) ; and the the outside of a cell called b, and the spores less plants, there are some organs specially adapted for nu- united thecae and paraphyses con- basidium, are on stalks (sterigmata). trition or vegetation, and others for reproduction. In the stitute the hymenium, which is placed higher Cryptogams, there are roots, conspicuous stems, and on the tissue forming the cortical or medullary layers called leaves, for the purposes of nutrition, and certain special organs the subhymenium (Fig. 347, s/f). The spore-bearing tissue destined for reproduction. As these tribes produce a foli- is sometimes called generically the Excipulum ; it may be aceous axis or corm, they are denominated Cormogens or flat, as in Usnea, and is then called Apothecium, or hollow, Oormophytes, and when their stems are woody, they pre- as in Peziza, and then called Receptacle ; or it may form a sent the acrogenous structure already described. In the closed cavity with an opening (ostiolum) only at one part, lower Cryptogamics there are no true roots, nor stems, and then it is called a Conceptacle. In h erns and Mosses,

Botany, the hollow cavities containing the spores receive the name —of Sporangia (cnropa, seed, ayyos, a vessel) or spore-cases. Spores are generally regarded as being produced by the agency of certain organs equivalent to the stamens and pistils of Phanerogams. These organs have been demonstrated more or less completely in all the orders of Cryptogamic plants, and they have received the names of Antheridia (Fig. 348, a), and Pistillidia or Archegonia (Fig.

young state, they are rolled up in a circinate manner, so as Botany. to resemble a crosier (Fig. 100). They consist of veins and parenchyma, the former being usually of equal thickness throughout, and divided in a forked (furcate) or reticulated manner. The epidermis has stomata, but they are not very numerous. The fronds bear the fructification. In some instances they produce bulbils or gemmae, which, when separated from the plant, take root and give rise to new individuals ; such Ferns are called Bulbiferous or Gemmiparous. The fructification in its fully developed state appears as Sporangia, or Spore-cases, situated on the veins on the back, or on the margins of the leaves, containing spores. These spore-cases are arranged in clusters {sori) of a round (Fig. 352, s') or elongated form, and they are either naked s

Fig. 350.

Fig. 348. Antheridium, a, ofthe Hair-moss {Polytriclmm), consisting of cellules, c, containing phytozoa coiled up in their interior. Thephytozoa nave a thickened extremity, whence proceeds a tapering tail-like process. Along with the antheridium are two separate filaments hVSPS. r> which Whu'/h are a VO probably v-iv/vVio „ Vx i-t antheridia. x-L • J ■ yses,», abortive Cl > ci dll‘Kl-.r untrriuiit. 349, x istilliaiuin of Li'vrOT'"r/"'T’a;+ vjyjL , by its cellular surrounded covering, 6,: andxjiverwort by septate(Marchantia), filaments called paraphyses, c ,• and surmounted by a style-like calyptra, a. 350. Spore, s, of a Fern (Ffm's longifolia) sprouting, giving off a root-like process, r, and a fiat cellular expansion, p, called the pro-thallus or pro-embryo. On this expansion antheridia and pistillidia are said to occur. * 349 dpx*7> beginning, and yov^, offspring), the former representing the stamens or the male, the latter the pistil or the female. The antheridia were early noticed by Hedwig in the case of Mosses, and their presence has of late years been detected in nearly all the Cryptogamic tribes. In Mosses and in Liverworts antheridia and archegonia occur on the fully-developed plants. In Ferns and Horse-tails, they are seen on a cellular structure of a leafy character, called the Proembryo or Pro-thallus (Fig. 350), developed from the spores. In antheridia there have been detected cells containing moving filaments, Phytozoa, or Spermatozoids, or Antherozoids (£5ov, an animal—Fig. 348, c). Each phytozoon (, fruit cut vertically, ainn OI tne tLo Ttr>ran-o nv showing: two achenes attached to the sion mirage oraxis, whence the style appears to der, from which they proceed. differ in their terminal style, proceeding from a concrete 4-celled ovary, and their drupaceous fruit. Some of them, as the Peruvian Heliotrope, have a fragrant odour. They Fig. 511. Fig. 510. Diagram of the flower of Calystegia (Conyolvulus) sepium, Great are generally tropical trees or shrubs. Bindweed, showing two bracts, five divisions of the calyx,five lobes Nat. Ord. 158.—Nolanace^e, the Nolana order.—Herof the plaited campanulate coroila, five stamens, and a two-celled ovary, with two ovules in each cell. baceous or shrubby plants with alternate exstipulate leaves, ... 511. Convolvulus Scammonia, the Scammony plant, found in Greece and having characters in common both with Convolvulacese and the Levant. The concrete milky juice of the large root constitutes Scammony, which is imported from Smyrna. Boraginacese. Their distinguishing characters are their (Fig. 511), and lactescent, with alternate, exstipulate leaves straight inflorescence, valvate calyx, plaited corolla, ovary and regular flowers, having a unifloral or composed of 5 or more separate carpels, variously combined, multifloral cymose inflorescence. Calyx 5united styles, somewhat capitate stigma, and embryo curved divided, imbricated, persistent. Corolla in a small quantity of albumen. South American plants. plaited. Stamens 5, alternate with the coNat. Ord. 159.—Solaxace,e, the Potato order.*—Herbs *PJate rollinelobes. Ovary free, 2-4-celled; ovules or shrubs with alternate, often geminate leaves, cymose, L 1-2 in each cell, erect; styles united, often generally extra-axillary inflorescence, and isomerous flowers. divided at the apex. Capsule 2-4-celled, ge ^ Fig. 512. ^ Calyx and corolla, with 5, rarely 4, partitions. Corolline sometimes by absorption 1-celled, septiffa- ' sepium cut verti- lobes nearly equal, aestivation valvate or induplicato-valC l y sh gal. Seeds large, with mucilaginous al- c u “v e’d e ^try^and vate. Stamens 5, very rarely 1 sterile ; anthers opening by bumen; embryo curved (Fig. 512), with plaitedt cotyledons, slits or pores (Fig. 260). Ovary generally bilocular ; style crumpled cotyledons. Chiefly natives of the Jnous aibumen.la' simple ; stigma 2-lobed or clavate. Fruit capsular or bactropics. The order is characterized by purgative proper- cate (Fig. 207), with two cells, rarely more, from placental ties, and it contains some important medicinal plants. Con- septa. Seeds albuminous ; embryo curved (Curvembryeae) volvulus Scammonia (Fig. 511), is the source of the purga- or straight (Rectembryeae). Natives of various parts of the tive gum-resin, Scammony. Exogonium (Ipomoea) Purga world, and abundant within the tropics. The plants of this is the plant which yields Jalap. order do not display the marked narcotic properties of the *P1. CXXV Nat* Orc*- 1^4.—CuscuTAGEAi, the Dodder order* (Fig. next order, and their juice, according to Dr T. Anderson, 426).—Leafless parasitic twining herbs, generally reckoned does not cause dilatation of the pupil. Some of them yield a sub-order of Convolvulacem. They are marked by scales edible tubers and fruit, others are tonic, pungent, and stialternating with the corolline lobes, and a filiform spiral mulant. The species of Capsicum yield Cayenne-pepper acotyledonous embryo. The seeds gei'minate in the usual and Chillies, which are acrid and irritant. Lycopersicum esway, and afterwards the plants become true parasites. Some culentum produces the Tomato. Physalisperuviana yields of them destroy Flax, Clover, and other crops. Natives of an edible berried fruit called Peruvian Winter Cherry. Sotemperate regions. lanum tuberosum, the Potato, has starchy tubers. *S. DulcaNat. Ord. 155.—Cordiacea:, the Sebesten order.—Trees mara,* Bitter-sweet, or woody Nightshade, is used as a dia- opiate with alternate, exstipulate, rough leaves. Calyx 4-5-toothed. phoretic in cutaneous CXXVI. 2 Corolla 4-5-cleft, regular. Stamens alternate with the co- diseases. S. Melon* rolline segments ; anthers versatile. Ovary superior, 4-8- gena and S. ovigecelled ; stigma 4-8-cleft. Fruit drupaceous, 4-8-celled, with rum, produce edible a single exalbuminous seed in each cell, pendulous by a long fruits known by the cord. Embryo with plaited cotyledons. The plants of name of Egg-apples. this order are natives of the tropics. The drupes of Cordia Nat. Ord. 160.— Myxa and C. latifolia are called Sebesten plums, and are Atropace^e, the used as food. The bark is tonic. Deadly Nightshade Nat. Ord. 156.—Boraginaceje, the Borage order (Figs. order* (Figs. 515 JJ/ *Plate 513 and 514).—Herbs or shrubs with round stems, alternate, and 516).—This orFig. 515. Fig.sio. CXXVII. & rough leaves, and flowers in scorpioidal cymes (Fig. 170). der agrees in most Fig. 515. Diagram of the flower of Nicotiana Tafiacum, Tobacco, showing five divisions of Calyx 4-5-divided, persistent. Corolla usually regular respects with the the calyx, five imbricate corolline lobes, and 5-cleft (Fig. 513 and 225), imbricate, often with fau- last, of which it may five stamens, alternating with these lobes, and a dimerous ovary. cial scales (Fig. 236). Stamens alternate with the corolline be considered a sec- 516. Flower of Atropa Belladonna, Deadly Nightshade, showing a five-divided casegments. Ovary 4-lobed ; style basilar (Fig. 514). Fruit tion. Miers makes lyx and a five-lobed campanulate co2 or 4 distinct achenes. Seed exalbuminous. The plants it a separate order, rolla. were called Asperifbliae from their rough leaves. Natives distinguished from Solanaceae by its corolline aestivation of the northern temperate regions principally. Demulcent being more or less imbricate, never valvate. The lobes of mucilaginous qualities pervade the order. Some of the the corolla are somewhat unequal. Stamens 5, of which VOL. v. 2c

BOTANY. 202 Botany. sometimes 1, very rarely 3, are sterile; anthers dehisce leterious qualities. They are generally aromatic and fragrant. Botany. longitudinally. 1 he geographical distribution is similar to Some are tonics. Many of them, such as Lavender, Mint, St to that of Solanaceae. The plants of this order are in general narcotic poisons. Their juice has the property of causing dilatation of the pupil. Atropa Belladonna, Deadly Night* Plate shade,* has shining brownish-black berries. It contains an C .XXVII. alkaloid, Atropia, to which its narcotic properties are due. Datura Stramonium, Thorn-apple, is so called from its spiny capsule, which is spuriously four-celled. The leaves and seeds contain a narcotic alkaloid Daturia. Hyoscyamus ^Plate niger, Henbane,* is a narcotic plant, the juice of which CXXVIII. dilates the pupil. Its seed-vessel is a pyxidium. MandraFig. 520. gora officinalis, the Mandrake, stimulates the nervous system. Nicotiana Tabacum (Fig. 224) supplies American Fig. 522. Tobacco. Fig. 521. of the flower of Lamium album, White Dead-nettle, showing Nat. Ord. 161.—Orobanchacea;, the Broom-rape order. Fig. 520. Diagram five segments of the calyx, five segments of the bilabiate corolla, —Leafless, scaly herbs, parasitic on the roots of other plants. two of which form the upper lip and three the lower, tour stamens, didynamous, and a four-parted ovary. Calyx 4-5-toothed, persistent. Corolla with an irregular or ... 521. Irregular bilabiate corolla of Laminin', showing upper and under lip and didynamous stamens. bilabiate limb, imbricate. Stamens 4, didynamous. Ovary ... 522. Vertical section of flower of Salvia, showing two of the achenes, o, with the single style, st, the corolla, co, the calyx, c, and the discoid 1 -celled, with 2 or more parietal placentas; the 2 carpels receptacle, r. forming the ovary placed to the right and left of the axis. Fruit a capsule, covered by the withered corolla, 1-celled, Thyme, Sage, Rosemary, Marjoram, Basil, Savoury, and 2-valved. Seeds albuminous, minute. Natives of Europe, Hyssop, are used as carminatives and antispasmodics, and middle and northern Asia, North America, and the Cape of are cultivated in gardens for culinary purposes. Many conGood Hope. The properties of the order are bitter, astrin- tain a kind of stearoptine like camphor. Oils are procured trom the leaves of most of the species, and to these their gent, and escharotic. Nat. Ord. 162.—Scrophulariace-E, the Figwort order fragrance is due. Nat. Ord. 164.—Verbenacea, the Vervain order (Fig. (Figs. 517 to 519).—Herbs or undershrubs, with opposite, 523).—Herbs, shrubs, or trees, with exstipulate, usually opposite leaves, resembling much the Labiatae in their characters, and differing in their achenes being concrete, their style terminal, and their leaves usually not containing receptacles of oil. Corolla generally irregular. Stamens 4, didynamous, or 2; anthers 2-celled. Seeds erect or ascending; radicle inferior. Natives both of tropical and of temFig. 523. perate regions. In the order are included Diagram of the flower Fig. 517. the Myoporacece, which ditrer only in showing a bract5 segbeFig. 519. the flower, Fig. 518. their seeds being pendulous and in the low ments of the calyx, Fig. 517. Diagram of the unsymmetrical, slightly irregular, flower of Veronica, radicle of the embryo being superior. 5 divisions of the cowith four divisions of the calyx, four of the corolla, inihricato, rolla, 4 stamens ditwo stamens, and a bilocular ovary. dynamous, and a ... 518. Diagram of the flower of Antirrhinum majus, Frogsmouth, showing Bitter, tonic, as well as aromatic proper- 4-celled ovary, consingle bract below, five divisions of the irregular calyx, five seg- ties are found in the Vervains. Verbena sisting of 4 concrete ments of the irregular personate corolla, four perfect stamens, and was supposed to have many valuable qua- 1-ovuied carpels. a rudiment of a fifth above the ovary, a two-celled ovary composed of two carpels placed posteriorlv and anteriorly as regards the axis. ... 519. Irregular lipped flower of Scrophularia, Figwort, with a transverse lities, and was an object of superstitious regard among the staminodium or abortive fifth stamen. Druids. Aloysia {Lippid) citriodora, is commonly cultiwhorled, or alternate leaves, and anisomerous flowers. Ca- vated under the name of Sweet Verbena. Tectona grandis lyx of 5 or 4 parts. Corolla irregular (Figs. 227, 229, and is the Teak-tree of India. Nat. Ord. 165.—Selaginacea or Globulariacea, the 230), lobes unequal, imbricate in aestivation. Stamens 2 (Fig. 230) or 4, didynamous, rarely 5, or with a rudimentary Globularia order.—A small group of herbaceous or shrubby fifth (Fig. 519). Ovary bilocular, carpels anterior and pos- plants, with alternate exstipulate leaves and bracteated terior. Fruit capsular, rarely baccate, usually 2-celled. Seeds flowers resembling Verbenaceae, from which they differ in albuminous, with a straight or slightly curved embryo. Na- their 1-celled anthers, pendulous ovules, and superior radicle. tives of all parts of the world, cold as well as hot. Some are Globularia has a solitary carpel. Allied to this order and root-parasites, as Eyebright, Cow-wheat, and Yellow-rattle. Vervains is a small group, Stilbacece, of which the Cape The Figworts are more or less suspicious in their properties. genus Stilbe is the type ; they have slightly irregular flowers, Some are acrid, others sedative. There are many showy gar- with 4 or 5 stamens, one often abortive, anthers 2-celled, ♦P'ato plants in this order. Digitalis purpurea, Foxglove,* is ovary 2-celled, style terminal, fruit 1-seeded, seed erect, CXXIX. den used medicinally as a diuretic and sedative of the heart’s action. embryo inferior. Some of the species of Selaginaceae are Nat. Ord. 163.—Labiata. or Lamiacea, the Labiate or fragrant. They are natives of the Cape of Good Hope Dead-nettle order (Figs. 520 to 522).—Herbs or under- chiefly ; some are European. Nat. Ord. 166.—Acanthacea, the Acanthus order.— shrubs, with tetragonal stems, opposite, exstipulate, often aromatic leaves, and flowers in verticillasters (Fig. 173). Herbs or shrubs, with simple, opposite, exstipulate leaves Calyx tubular, persistent, 5 or 10-toothed (Fig. 204), or and bracteated showy flowers. Calyx of 5 sepals, distinct bilabiate. Corolla bilabiate (Fig. 521). Stamens 4, didyna- or combined, persistent. Corolla usually irregular, lipped. mous (Fig. 253), or by abortion 2 ; anthers 2-celled, or 1- Stamens 4, didynamous, often 2 by abortion. Ovary of 2 celled by abortion (Fig. 245). Ovary deeply 4-lobed, on a carpels, placed anterior and posterior; placentas parietal, disk, style basilar (Fig. 522); stigma bifid. Fruit 1-4 achenes, but extending to the axis ; style 1. Fruit a 2-celled capinclosed by the calyx. Seeds erect, with little or no albumen. sule, opening by elastic valves. Seeds 1, 2, or many in Natives of temperate climates. Labiate plants have no de- each cell, attached to hooked placental processes, exalbumi-

EOT Botany, nous. Chiefly tropical plants, some ot them, as Justicia ^ Rudlia, Aphelandra, and Hexacentris, remarkable for the beauty of their flowers. The lobed and sinuated leaves of Acanthus furnished the ornaments of the Corinthian capital. Nat. Ord. 167.—Lentibulariace^e, the Bladderwort order.—Herbs growing in water or in wet places, with radical leaves which are either undivided or cut into filiform root-like segments bearing little bladders, and irregular showy flowers. Calyx divided, persistent. Corolla bilabiate, irregular. Stamens 2, included; anthers I-celled. Ovary superior, 1-celled; placenta free, central; ovules go. Fruit a 1-celled capsule. Seeds exalbuminous. Found in various parts of the world, most abundant in the tropics. The name Butterwort, applied to Pinguicula, is said to indicate its property of giving consistence to milk. Nat. Ord. 168.—Primulace^e, the Primrose order (Figs. 524 and 525).—Herbs with opposite, or alternate, or whorled, exstipulate leaves, and flowers often on scapes. Calyx 5-cleft, rarely 4-cleft, regular, persistent. Corolla regular, 5 or 4-cleft, very rarely 0 (as in Glaux). Stamens opposite the corolline segments (Fig. 525). Ovary superior, 1-celled, with a free central placenta; style 1; stigma capitate (Fig. 274); ovules mostly indefinite, and amphitropal. Fruit a capsule opening by valves or a lid. Seeds peltate, albuminous; embryo straight, transverse. The plants abound in cold and in northern regions. Sedative, diaphoretic, and even drastic purgative plants are found in this order. Under the genus Primula are included the various species of Primrose, Cowslip, Oxlip, and Auricula.

Fig. 524. Diagram of the flower of Cyclamen europreum, Sowbread, showing 5 imbricate divisions of the calyx, 5 contorted divisions of the corolla, 5 stamens opposite the corolline segments, and a 1-celled pistil, with a free central placenta, and numerous ovules. ... 525, Vertical section of the flower of Primula, showing calyx, corolla, epicorolline stamens, pistil with unilocular ovary, single style and capitate stigma. ,.. 526. Ovary of Armeria maritima, Sea-pink, cut vertically ; showing the ovule, on, with its coverings, suspended by a cord or funiculus, cor, which rises from the bottom of the cell. The conducting tissue of the style, Use, passes for a certain extent into the ovary. Nat. Ord. 169.—Pdumbaginace^e, the Leadwort order (Fig. 526).—Herbs or undershrubs, with alternate or clustered, entire, exstipulate leaves, which are somewhat sheathing, and flowers in panicles or in heads. Calyx tubular, plaited, persistent. Corolla salver-shaped, with a 5-parted limb, or composed of 5 unguiculate petals. Stamens opposite the lobes of the gamopetalous corolla, and hypogynous or attached to the claws of the polypetalous corolla. Ovary superior, 1-celled, with a single ovule pendulous from a long funiculus which arises from the base of the cell (Fig. 526); styles 5, separate or partially united. Fruit a utricle, or opening by 5 valves. Seed inverted, albuminous. Found in salt marshes and on the sea-coasts of temperate regions; some are tropical. The species have tonic, astringent, and acrid properties; some cause blistering. Plumbago europcoa, Toothwort, is used for toothache.

A N Y.

203

Nat. Ord. 170.—Plantaginace^e, the Ribgrass order. (Fig. 164).—Herbs having usually ribbed and radical leaves, with spiked, occasionally unisexual flowers. Calyx 4parted, persistent. Corolla scarious and persistent, 4-parted. Stamens 4, alternate with the corolline segments ; filaments long and slender. Ovary of one carpel, 2 rarely 4-celled by placental prolongations; style 1. Fruit a membranous pyxis with a free placenta. Seeds 1, 2, or many, albuminous. The plants are generally distributed, but are chiefly natives of temperate climates. They have bitter and astringent properties. The seeds of some are demulcent. Note,—In the natural orders Oleacese and Primulaceae, apetalous and even achlamydeous species are met with, which therefore belong properly to the sub-class Monochlamydeae. Among Ericaceae, Pyrolaceae, Monotropaceae, Epacridaceae, Primulaceae, and Plumbaginaceae, there occur polypetalous species with hypogynous stamens, which consequently belong properly to the sub-class Thalamiflorae. SUB-CLASS IV. MONOCIILAMYDEJE OR APETALiE. 1. AnGIO SPERMJE. a. SpermogencE.—Having true Seeds ivilh a Dicotyledonous Embryo. Nat. Ord. 171.—Nyctaginace^e, the Marvel of Peru order.—Herbs or shrubs, with opposite leaves, and involucrate, often showy flowers. Perianth tubular and funnelshaped, the limb plaited, coloured, and separating from the hardened base, which incloses the one-celled utricular fruit, and appears to be incorporated with it. Stamens hypogynous, 1-20. Embryo coiled round mealy albumen. Natives of warm regions. Their roots are purgative, as seen in the case of Mirabilis Jalapo. Nat. Ord. 172.—Amaranthacea:, the Amaranth order. -—Herbs or shrubs, with opposite or alternate, exstipulate leaves, and capitate or spiked, bracteated coloured flowers, which are occasionally unisexual. Perianth of 3-5 scarious sepals. Stamens 5, hypogynous, distinct or monadelphous ; anthers often 1-celled. In other respects resembling Chenopodiacese. Most common within the tropics. They have mucilaginous properties, Some are used as pot-herbs, and many of them are cultivated on account of their dry, persistent, and finely coloured bracts and perianth. Amaranths are know n in gardens by the name of Princes Feather {Amaranihus hypochondriacus) and Love-lies-bleeding (A. caudatus). Celosia cristata, the Cockscomb, has astringent properties. Nat. Ord. 173.—Chenopodiaceje, the Goosefoot order (Fig. 178).—Herbs or undershrubs, with exstipulate, alternate, and occasionally opposite leaves, and small herbaceous, often unisexual flowers. Perianth divided deeply, sometimes tubular at the base, persistent. Stamens inserted into the base of the perianth, and opposite to its divisions. Ovary free, 1-celled, with a single ovule attached to its base. Fruit a utricle or achene, sometimes succulent. Embryo coiled round mealy albumen, or spiral without albumen. Inconspicuous plants, found in waste places in various parts of the world, chiefly in extra-tropical regions. Many ot the plants of this order are used as pot-herbs, for instance, Spinage, Garden Orach, and Beet. Soda is supplied by some of the species of Salicornia and Salsola growing on the sea-shore. Anthelmintic and antispasmodic properties are also met with in the order. Nat. Ord. 174.—Basellace^e, the Basella order.—A small order of climbing, herbaceous, and shrubby tropical plants, closely allied to Chenopodiaceae, and differing chiefly in their coloured double perianth, and in their stamens being attached to its sides. Some species of Basella are used as

Botan

y-

■*Plate cxxx.

^Plate CXXX.

B O T A N Y. Spinage. Melloca tuberosa has a tuberous root, which is their oblique leaves. Their succulent stalks are sometimes Botany, used like Rhubarb. used in Peru as a substitute for the Potato. Nat. Ord. 180.—Laurace/E, the Laurel oi’der (Figs. Nat. Ord. 175.—Scleranthace2E, the Scleranthus or Knawel order.—Inconspicuous weeds, often included among 529, 530).—Trees with exstipulate, usually alternate, dotted the Illecebraceae, but differing from that order in their ape- leaves. Perianth talous flowers, exstipulate leaves, hardened tube of the 4-cleft, or 6-cleft in perianth inclosing the 1-celled fruit, and perigynous stamens. 2 rows. Stamens They seem to be more nearly allied to Chenopodiacese. often 8-12, the 3 or 4 innermost They occur in barren places in various parts of the world. Nat Ord. 176.—Phytoeaccace^e, the Poke-weed order. being abortive sta—Herbs or undershrubs, with alternate, exstipulate, often minodia, and the dotted leaves, and racemose flowers. Perianth of 4-5 outer fertile ; filaleaves, often petaloid. Stamens hypogynous or nearly so, ments sometimes indefinite, or 4-5 and then alternate with the divisions of bearing glands, anFig. 530. # AAlctgI ctHI VI liUV 111_ _ the perianth. Ovary of 1 or many united one-seeded thers 2 - 4 - celled, flower of Laurus nobilis, Sweet Bay, carpels; styles and stigmas distinct. Fruit either succulent opening by reshowing four divisions of the perianth, twelve stamens in three rows, some valves. or dry. Embryo curved round mealy albumen. Many of curved fertile, some abortive, and the abortive pistil as a point in the centre. Ovary superior, fthe plants are American. They have acrid, emetic, and 530. Diagram of the female or pistilliferous purgative qualities. The berries of Phytolacca decandra, celled, with 1 or 2 flower of Laurus nobilis, showing a fourdivided perianth, and a one-celled Poke or Pocan, yield a deep purple juice. Its root is emetic, pendulous ovules. ovary in the centre, with two abortive stamens. and is used in rheumatic and syphilitic pains. The young Fruit a berry or shoots are eaten as Asparagus. Gyrostemon, a genus with drupe; pedicel often thickened; seed solitary, exalbumiunisexual flowers, is considered as a type of an allied order, nous; embryo with large cotyledons. Tropical aromatic and fragrant plants, yielding fixed as well as volatile oils Gyrostemonacece. Nat. Ord. 177.—Petiveriace^e, the Petiveria order. and camphor. Some have tonic and febrifugal barks; others —A small order of plants separated from Phytolaccaceae on supply edible fruits. The timber of some of the plants is account of their stipulate leaves, exalbuminous seeds, straight valuable. Camphora officinarum, a tree found in China embryo, and convolute cotyledons. Tropical American and Japan, supplies camphor. Cinnamomum zeyla?ricum, plants. They have acrid properties and an alliaceous odour. is the Cinnamon-tree, the bark of which constitutes the Nat. Ord. 178.—Porygonace.e, the Buckwheat order* Cinnamon of commerce. Laurus nobilis, Sweet-bay, yields (Figs. 527, 528).—Herbs, rarely shrubs, with alternate a concrete green oil, called Oil of Bays. Its branches were used to crown the victors in the ancient games. Nectandra Rodicei (N. leucantha, var. N. ab. E.), yields the Bebeerubark, which contains an antiperiodic alkaloid Bebeerine. Its wood is called Green-heart, and is used in ship-building. Nat. Ord. 181.—Atherospermace^:, the Plume-Nutmeg order.—Trees, with opposite exstipulate leaves, and bracteated unisexual flowers. Perianth tubular, divided at the top into segments, in 2 rows, the inner partly petaloid. Stamens numerous, inserted in the bottom of the perianth; filaments with scales at their base; anthers with valvular Fig. 527. Diagram of the flower of Itumex, Dock, showing a six-partite peri- dehiscence. In the female flow’ers, there are often abortive anth, in two alternating rows, six stamens in pairs, and aone-celled stamens in the form of scales. Carpels numerous, each ovary formed of 3 carpels. . ^ ... 528. Fruit of Rumex cut vertically, showing the triquetrous achene having a single erect ovule. Fruit achenes, inclosed in the closely invested by the inner segments of the perianth, two out of tube of the perianth, having persistent feathery styles. Seed the three styles, and the arcuate embryo on one side of tarinaceous albumen. solitary, erect; embryo minute in the base of fleshy albuleaves, ochreate stipules, and occasionally unisexual flowers. men. Fragrant plants from Australia and Chili. Nat. Ord. 182.—Myristicacea:, the Nutmeg order.*--opiate. Perianth often coloui’ed. Stamens definite, and inserted into the base of the Perianth. Ovary formed of 3 carpels, Tropical trees, with alternate, exstipulate leaves, and uni- CXXXI. 1-celled, containing a single orthotropal ovule. Fruit a sexual flowers. Perianth 3-4-cleft, valvate. Stamens 3-12, triangular nut, often covered by the perianth (Fig. 528). distinct or monadelphous; anthers extrorse, often united. Embryo usually on one side of mealy albumen. Generally In the female flowers, the perianth is deciduous. Carpels distributed both in cold and warm climates. Acid, astrin- 1 or many, each with a single erect anatropal ovule. Fruit gent, and purgative qualities are met with in the plants of succulent, 2-valved. Albumen ruminate. Some regard this order. Pagopyrum esculentum, and other species, are this order as an apetalous unisexual form of Anonaceae. cultivated as Buckwheat. Polygonum Bistorta* has a Natives ol the tropical parts of India and America. 1 he twisted rhizome, which is used as an astringent. Various plants of this order are acrid and aromatic. I heir bark species of Rheum yield the different kinds of Rhubarb. yields a red juice. Myristica moschata* is the Nutmeg-opiate R. paimatum is generally said to be the plant which supplies tree of the Moluccas. The fruit is drupaceous and dehisces, CXXXI. so as to display the scarlet mace, which consists ot a retiRussian or Turkey Rhubarb. Nat. Ord. 179.—Begoniaceae, the Begonia order.— culated arillode covering the shell in which the seed or Herbs or succulent undershrubs, with alternate oblique stipu- Nutmeg is inclosed. Nat. Ord. 183.—Monimiace^e, the Monimia order.— late leaves, and cymose, pink, unisexual flowers. Perianth superior, coloured, with 4 divisions in the male flower, and Trees or shrubs, with opposite, exstipulate leaves, and uni5-8 in the female. Stamens oo , distinct or united ; anthers sexual flowers, resembling Atherospermaceae, from which collected into a head. Ovary winged, 3-celled, with 3 pla- they differ chiefly in the anthers dehiscing longitudinally, centas meeting in the axis. Fruit capsular, winged, 3- in the ovule being pendulous, and in the want of featheiy celled. Seeds oo, exalbuminous, reticulated. Found in the styles to the fruit. The plants are chiefly South American, East and West Indies, and in South America. They are and possess aromatic qualities. Nat. Ord. 184.—Peoteaceas, the Protea order.—Shrubs said to have bitter and astringent qualities. Begonias receive the name of Elephant’s-ear from the appearance of or small trees, with hard, dry, exstipulate leaves. Penantl

BOTANY. 205 Botany. divided into 4, valvate. Stamens 4, placed on the segments instances fragrant, and the bark is tough and tenacious. Botany. of the perianth. Ovary of one superior carpel, containing Santalum album, a Malabar tree, from 25 to 30 feet high, 1 or more ovules; fruit dehiscent or closed. Seed exalbu- produces Sandal-wood, which is used as a perfume in China, minous; embryo straight. Natives of Australia and the and in India as an astringent. Cape of Good Hope chiefly. Leucadendron argenteum Nat. Ord. 191.—A histolociii ace a:, the Birthwort order is the Witteboom or Silver-tree of the Cape. Prolea grandi- (Fig. 531).—Herbs or climbing shrubby plants, with alterflora is called Wagenboom. nate leaves, solitary or clustered brown or greenish coloured Nat. Ord. 185.—El/eagxace^:, the Oleaster order.— 2 flowers, and wood arranged in separable wedges. Perianth Trees or shrubs, jusually lepidote, with exstipulate leaves, tubular (Fig. 383), adherent, valvate. Stamens 6-12, and unisexual, rarely hermaphrodite, flowers. Male flowers epigynous, distinct or adherent to the style and stigmas in the axil of scales; perianth of 2-4 leaves, sometimes (Fig. 248). Ovary 3-6-celled ; ovules oo ; stigmas radiatunited; stamens 3, 4, or 8. In the ? and 5 flowers, perianth ing. Fruit a 3-6-celled polyspermal capsule or berry. tubular, with a fleshy disk. Ovary free, 1-celled, with a Seeds albuminous; embryo minute. Found in various single ascending ovule. Fruit a crustaceous achene, in- parts of the world, but abundant in the tropical parts of closed in the succulent perianth. Found chiefly in the South America. Birthworts have pungent, aromatic, stimunorthern hemisphere. Many are cultivated for their silvery lant, and tonic properties. Some have been celebrated for scaly foliage. The scales are beautiful microscopic objects their effects on the uterus, others as antidotes for snake(Fig. 53). Hippophae rhamnoides, Sea Buckthorn, is a bites. The root of various species of Aristolochia have spiny plant which thrives on the sea-shore. Elaagnus been used as emmenagogues. The root of A. serpentaria, parvifolia, small-leaved Oleaster, bears clusters of red edible Virginian Snake-root, formerly of repute in typhus fever, berries, mottled with scales. and also in cases of snake-bite, is a valuable stomachic. Nat. Ord. 186.—Peseeaceas, the Pensea order.—-Shrubs, with opposite exstipulate leaves. Perianth inferior, bracteated, salver-shaped, limb 4-lobed. Stamens 4 or 8, inserted on the perianth. Ovary 4-celled, with 4 appendaged stigmas. Fruit a 4-celled capsule. Seed exalbuminous; embryo with minute cotyledons. Evergreens, found at the Cape of Good Hope. Some yield a gum-resin called Sarcocol. Nat. Ord. 187.—Thymel^eace^e, the Mezereon order. —Shrubby plants, with stipulate leaves, and $ rarely 6 2 flowers. Perianth coloured, tubular, with a 4-5-lobed imbricate limb. Stamens often twice as many as the lobes of the perianth, and inserted on its tube, Carpel solitary, superior, with a single pendulous ovule. Fruit nut-like or drupaceous. Seed with or without albumen; embryo straight. Natives both of cold and of warm climates in of the flower of Asarum europseum, Asarabacca, showing various parts of the world. The plants of this order possess Fig. 531. Diagram three divisions of the perianth, nine stamens in three rows, and a three-celled ovary. acrid, irritant, and occasionally narcotic qualities. The ... 532. Flowering branch of Nepenthes distillatoria, the Pitcher-plant. The bark of many of them is tough and tenacious, so as to be racemose flowers are seen with the operculate ascidia at the end of the leaves. used for cordage. Daphne cannabina has a fibrous inner bark, which is used for ropes and for the manufacture of Nat, Ord, 192.—Nepenthaceai, the Pitcher-plant order paper. Lagetta lintearia is called Face-bark tree, on ac- (Fig. 532).—Herbaceous or suffruticose plants, with altercount of the beautiful meshes of its inner bark. nate leaves, having calyptrimorphous ascidia at their exNat. Ord. 188.—Aquilariacea:, the Aquilaria order.— tremities (Fig. 140), wood in separable wedges, and raceTrees, with exstipulate leaves. Perianth tubular, with a 4- mose dioecious flowers. Perianth inferior, 4-leaved, imbri5-lobed imbricate limb. Stamens usually 8-10, inserted cate. Stamens columnar, with anthers collected into a into the throat of the perianth. Ovary superior, 2-celled, head. Ovary superior, tetragonal, 4-celled; ovules oo; with 2 suspended ovules. Fruit a 2-valved capsule, or ascending. Fruit a 4-celled, 4-valved capsule, loculicidal. succulent. Seeds exalbuipinous. Natives of the tropical Seeds with a loose testa, albuminous. Found in marshy parts of Asia, Some of the plants yield resinous matter, ground in the East Indies and China. which is used as a stimulant. Nat. Ord. 193.—Datiscace,e, the Datisca order.— Nat. Ord. 189.—Samydaceas, the Samyda order.—- Herbs or trees, with alternate exstipulate leaves, and £ 2 Trees or shrubs, with alternate, stipulate, usually dotted flowers. Perianth, 3-4 divided, adherent to the ovary. leaves. Perianth 4-5-parted; aestivation imbricate. Sta- Stamens 3-7, ovary unilocular, with 3-4 polyspermous mens inserted into the tube of the perianth, 2, 3, or 4 times parietal placentas. Fruit a 1-celled capsule opening at the as many as its divisions, some of them occasionally sterile; apex. Seeds strophiolate, exalbuminous. The plants are filaments united. Ovary superior, 1-celled, with nume- scattered over various parts of the world, chiefly in the rous ovules. Fruit, a leathery, 1-celled, 3-5-valved cap- northern hemisphere. Bitter and purgative properties are sule. Seeds albuminous, arillate, attached to parietal pla- met with in the order. Some yield fibres. centas. Tropical, chiefly American plants, with astringent Nat. Ord. 194.—Empetracea:, the Crowberry order.— bark and leaves. Shrubs, with heath-like, evergreen, exstipulate leaves, and Nat. Ord. 190.—Santalacea:, the Sandal-wood order. small axillary unisexual flowers. Perianth of 4-6 hypogy—Trees, shrubs, or herbs, with alternate, entire, exstipu- nous persistent scales, the innermost sometimes petaloid late leaves, and small flowers, sometimes $ 2. Perianth and united. Stamens 2-3, alternate with the inner row of adherent, 4-5-cleft, valvate. Stamens 4-5, inserted into scales. Ovary free, on a fleshy disk, 2-9-celled; ovules the throat of the perianth opposite its segments. Ovary 1- solitary. Fruit fleshy, with 2-9 nucules. Seed solitary, celled ; ovules 1-4; placenta central. Fruit monospermal, ascending; embryo with an inferior radicle. A small group, dry, or succulent. Seed albuminous. Found in Europe, allied to Euphorbiacese, and distinguished chiefly by its Asia, America, and Australia. Some of the species are ascending seeds and inferior radicle. Natives chiefly of astringent, others yield edible fruit. The wood is in some the northern parts of Europe and America. Their leaves

BOTANY. with asperities or stinging hairs (Fig. 48). Flowers uni- Botany, and fruit are often subacid. Empetrum nigrum, Crowsexual, rarely $, scattered or collected into heads or catberry, has black watery fruit. ^Plate Nat. Ord. 195.—Euphorbiaceje, the Spurgewort order* kins. Perianth divided ; stamens definite, opposite the lobes of the perianth, and inserted into its base; filaments CXXXII (Figs. 533, 534).— sometimes curved and elastic (Fig. 378); ovary superior, Trees, shrubs, or 1-celled, with a solitary ovule ; fruit indehiscent, with a herbs, with opposite single seed. Embryo straight, hooked, or spiral, with or or alternate, often without albumen ; radicle superior. Natives chiefly of stipidate leaves, and temperate regions. Some of the plants have caustic juice involucrate (Fig* connected with stinging hairs ; others yield valuable fibres. 533), unisexual, Occasionally narcotic qualities are present. Bohmeria Pig. 534. sometimes, achlanivea supplies the fibres whence Chinese grass-cloth is mydeous flowers made. Cannabis saliva, is the common Hemp plant. An (Fig. 209), PeriFie.'m Indian variety, C. indica, possesses powerful narcotic 1 anth, when present, Fig. 533, Involucre, *, of Euphorbia, containing - - - - , ... numerous naked male flowers, m, and qualities. Humulus Lupulus, the Hop, is cultivated on acinferior, lobed, with one female, />, supported on a stalk, and having three forked styles at the count of its bitter principle, Lupulin, which exists in the glandular, scaly, or summit of the three-celled ovary. petaloid append^ - - 534. Section of tricoccous fruit of Euphorbia. resinous scales (Fig, 54) surrounding the fruit. Nat. Ord. 200.—Artocarpaceas, the Bread-fruit* and *riate ages. Stamens definite or co , separate (Fig. 246), or united CX XXIII, in one or more bundles (Fig. 251). Ovary 1, 2, or 3 or more celled ; ovules 1 or 2, suspended. Fruit usually tricoccous (Fig. 534), the carpels separating with elasticity, sometimes fleshy and indehiscent. Seeds albuminous, often arillate. Embryo with a superior radicle. Lindley considers this a dichlamydeous order, and as becoming monochlamydeous or achlamydeous by abortion. The plants abound in equinoctial America. Some are found in North Fig. 537. Fig. 538. America, Africa, India, and Europe. The plants of the Fig. 537. Male flower of Morus nigra, Black Mulberry, showing four stamens order are generally acrid and poisonous, abounding in a milky opposite the four segments of the perianth, and the rudimentary pistil in the centre. juice. Starchy matter is procured from many of the spe- ... 538. Fruit of the Mulberry, consisting of numerous female flowers united cies, as well as oils and caoutchouc. Croton Eleuteria into a succulent mass. It is a polygynoecial or anthocarpous fruit. produces a tonic bark known by the name of Cascarilla. The seeds of C. Tiglium yield, by expression, Croton-oil, Mulberry order (Figs. 537, 538).—Trees or shrubs, with a which is a drastic purgative in doses of one or two drops. milky juice, and alternate lobed leaves, having large stipules. Euphorbia Lathyris, Caper-spurge, has been used as a pur- The flowers are 5 $, and are collected into dense heads or gative. E. ojfficinarum is the source of the purgative resin catkins. The plants are considered by many as a section of U rticacese, from which they differ chiefly in being lacteca e( *n CXIII F l Euphorbium. Janipha Manihot* is the Cassava or scent, in their fruit being a sorosis (Fig. 326), or syconus g ’ ’ Manioc plant, Oldfieldia africana is the tree which supplies the African Teak. The seeds of Ricinus communis yield (Fig. 157). Perianth divided (Fig. 537), often wanting; ovary 1-celled; ovules erect or pendulous. Fruit polyCastor-oil by expression. Nat. Ord. 196.—Scepace^e, the Scepa order.—Trees, gynoecial or anthocarpous, consisting of achenes immersed in with alternate stipulate leaves and unisexual flowers, resem- the persistent fleshy perianths (Fig. 538), or situated upon bling Euphorbiaceae, and differing chiefly in being amenti- (Fig. 156) or within large fleshy receptacles (Fig. 157), ferous. The perianth is 4, 5, or 6-leaved; stamens 2-5 ; Seeds albuminous or exalbuminous ; embryo straight or ovary 2-celled, ovules in pairs ; seeds arillate, often buried hooked. The plants of this order supply, in many instances, edible fruits ; their milky juice often abounds in caoutchouc, in hairs. Natives of India. Nat. Ord. 197.—C allitrt c h ace as, the Starwort order. and, in some instances, is bland and nutritious, while their —Aquatic herbs, with opposite leaves, and minute axillary inner bark supplies fibres. Bitter, tonic, as well as acrid unisexual achlamydeous flowers. Stamen 1, rarely 2 ; an- and poisonous properties, are found in the order, An* ther reniform, 1-celled. Ovary solitary, tetragonal, 4-celled; tiaris toxicaria is a large tree, whence the Javanese poison ovules solitary in each cell; styles 2, Fruit 4-celled, 4- called Upas-Antiar is obtained, and which owes its activity seeded, indehiscent. Seeds peltate, albuminous ; embryo to a peculiar principle Antiarin. Artocarpus incisa,* the *Plato Bread-fruit tree (Fig. 326), has large pinnatifid leaves, CXXXIH. with a superior radicle. Nawhile A. integrifolia, the Jack-fruit, has undivided leaves. tives of still waters in Europe Galactodendron utile, the Cow-tree of South America, and North America. has a nutritive milky juice. Dorstenia Contrayerva, and Nat. Ord. 198.— Ceraother species (Fig. 156), have a stimulant, tonic, and diatophyllacejE, the Hornphoretic rhizome. Ficus Carica, the common Fig (Fig. wort order.—Aquatic herbs, 157), is used as a laxative and as a cataplasm. Urostigma with verticillate leaves and (Eicus) elasticum, and other species, supply caoutchouc monoecious flowers. Perianth abundantly. U. indicum (benghalense) is the Banyan-tree inferior, 10-12-cleft; anthers Fig. 536. of India (Fig. 65). Fig. 535. sessile, 12-20; ovary 1-celled, Nat. Ord. 201.—Ulmace^e, the Elm order.—Trees or with 1 .rpendulous ovule. Fruit of the barrenshowing flower . Fig. 535. Diagram of Urtioa, Urtica, Nettle, an achene ; seed exalbumifour parts of the perianth, shrubs, with scabrous, alternate, stipuled leaves, and $ or four stamens opposite J 2 flow'ers in loose clusters. Perianth inferior, membranous, nous; embryo with an inferior them, and the abortive pistil. campanulate, irregular. Starhens definite, attached to the radicle. Found in ditches in 536. Diagram of the fertile flower base of the perianth. Ovary 1-2-celled; ovules solitary, various parts of the world. of Urtica, Nettle, showing four divisions of the periNat. Ord. 199.—Urticagone (perianth), two of pendulous; stigmas 2. Fruit 1 or 2-celled, indehiscent, which may be reckoned dry, or drupaceous. Seed solitary, without or with little CE.E, the Nettle and Hemp bracts, and a single-celled ovary in the centre, con- albumen. Bitter and astringent properties exist in the bark order (Figs. 535, 536). taining one ovule. and fruit of some of the plants of this order. Many are vaTrees, shrubs, or herbs, with watery juice and alternate stipulate leaves, often covered luable timber-trees. 206 Botany.

B 0 T A N Y. 207 Botany. Nat. Ord. 202.—Stilaoixacete, the Stilago order.—Trees 1-seeded. Seed erect; embryo in a vitellus or fleshy sac Botany, v—or shrubs, with alternate, stipuled leaves, and minute 5 ? outside the albumen, and at the apex of the seed. The flowers in scaly spikes. They are allied to Urticacea;, and stems of Pepper have a peculiar arrangement of the woody are chiefly distinguished by their large disk and vertical an- matter in wedges and not in concentric zones. Natives of therine cells, opening transversely, and having a fleshy con- tropical regions, especially in America and Asia. The nective. Their fruit is drupaceous, and seed suspended plants of this order are pungent and aromatic, owing to and albuminous. Natives of the East Indies and of Mada- the presence of an acrid resin, an oil, and a crystalline gascar. matter called Piperin. Some possess narcotic qualities, Nat. Ord. 203.—Lacistemaceas, the Lacistema order.— others are astringent. Chavica Roxburghii, and other Shrubs, with alternate, simple stipuled leaves, and $ or 5 2 species (Fig. 539), produce Long-pepper, which is the flowers in axillary catkins. Perianth free, divided, with a dried female spikes. Cuheha officinalis, and other spelarge bract. Stamen 1, hypogynous; connective separat- cies, produce the aromatic pungent fruit called Cubebs. ing antherine cells, which open transversely. Disk often Piper nigrum (Fig. 540) is a climbing East Indian plant, fleshy. Ovary 1-celled; placentas parietal. Fruit a 1-celled the dried unripe fruit of which constitutes Black Pepper. 23-valved capsule, loculicidal. Seeds arillate, Nat.suspended, Ord. 208.—Myricaceae, the Gale order (Fig. 541). albuminous. Natives of the tropical woods of America. —Amentiferous shrubs or small trees, with resinous glands, Nat. Ord. 204.—Podostemonacea:, the River-weed alternate leaves, and unisexual flowers. Perianth 0. Staorder.—Submersed aquatic herbs, with capillary or minute mens 2-8, usually in the axil of a bract; anthers 2-4-celled. leaves, which are often densely imbricated. They have the Ovary 1-celled, with hypogynous scales; ovule solitary, aspect of Mosses or Liverworts. Flowers usually Pe- orthotropal; stigmas 2. Fruit drupaceous, often covered rianth imperfect or 0, sometimes of 3 parts, with a spathe. with wax, and with adherent fleshy scales. Seed soliStamens 1, or many, hypogynous. Ovary 2-3-celled; pla- tary, erect, exalbuminous ; embryo with superior radicle. centa parietal or axile. Fruit a 2-3-valved capsule. Seeds Found both in temperate and in tropical countries. The numerous, exalbuminous; embryo orthotropal. Chiefly plants have aromatic, tonic, and astringent properties. Tannatives of South America. Some of the species are used nic and benzoic acids, as well as wax, resin, and oil, are profor food. cured from different species. The berries of Myrica ceriNat. Ord. 205.—Chloranthaceas, the Chloranthus fera, Wax Myrtle or Candleberry (Fig. 541), furnish a order.—Herbs or undershrubs, with jointed stems, opposite greenish-coloured wax when put into hot water. simple leaves, sheathing petioles, interpetiolar stipules, and spiked 5 or J ? flowers. Scaly bract, no perianth. Stamens definite, lateral, 1 or more; anthers 1-2-celled, with a fleshy connective. Ovary 1-celled; ovule orthotropal. h ruit drupaceous. Seed pendulous; embryo minute, at the apex of fleshy albumen ; no vitellus. Natives of the warm regions of India and America chiefly. They have aromatic and stimulant properties. The leaves of Chloranthus inconspicuus are sometimes used to perfume tea. Nat. Ord. 206.—Saururaceas, the Lizard’s-tail order.— Fig. 544. Marshy herbs, with alternate, stipuled leaves, $ spiked 9 flowers, each supported on a scale. Perianth 0. Stamens Fig. 543. 36, hypogynous, club-shaped, persistent. Ovaries 3-4, distinct or united. Ovules few, orthotropal. Fruit of 4 Fig. 541. achenes, or a 3-4-celled capsule. Embryo in a vitellus, outcerifera, Wax Myrtle, or Candleberry bush. Its succulent side mealy albumen, at the apex of the seed. Natives of Fig. 541. Myrica fruit is covered with a waxy secretion. ... 542. Single male flower of a Willow, showing the single bract, hr, bearing North America, China, and Northern India. 2 stamens, with a gland, g, at the base. The flower is called naked Nat* Ord. 207.—Piperaceas, the Pepper order (Figs. or achlamydeous. ... 543. Single female flower of a Willow, with bract, hr, bearing a stipitate 539 and 540).—Shrubs or herbs with jointed stems, usually or stalked ovary, with 2 stigmas, st, at the summit, and a giand, q, at the base. The flower is also naked. ... 544. Comose seed of the Willow, showing the hairs proceeding from its base. Nat. Ord. 209.—Salicaceae, the Willow order (Figs. 542 to 544).—Amentiferous trees or shrubs (Fig. 167), with alternate, simple, stipuled leaves, sometimes with petiolary glands, and 5 2 flowers. Perianth 0, or cup-like. Stamens 2-30. Ovary superior, 1-celled; ovules numerous, erect, attached to the bottom of the cell, or to the base of 2 parietal placentas ; stigmas 2. Fruit leathery, 1-celled, 2-valved, polyspermal. Seeds covered with basal silky hairs, exalbuminous ; embryo erect, with an inferior radicle. Chiefly found in northern regions; some grow on the high mountains of Eig. 539. Soutli America, others in antarctic regions. The plants of this order are useful timber trees, and they are employed for Fig. 540. Fig. 539. Branch of Piper longura, a species of Chavica, perhaps C. Rox- various economical purposes. Their bark is tonic and astrinburghii, showing its spiked female flowers, which, when dried con- gent. The downy matter surrounding the seeds is used for stitute Long Pepper. The leaves are cordate acute. Chavica' neepuloides and C. officinarum, also supply the officinal Lon?6 IVnrii.r stuffing cushions, and for making paper. The bark of Salix according to Miquel. ... 540. Piper nigrum, the plant which yields Black and White Pepper with alba, S. Helix, S. purpurea, S. fragilis, S. caprea, S. pentandra, and many other species, contains a bitter tonic prinits spiked flowers and cordate acuminate leaves. ciple called Salicin. opposite or verticillate leaves, stipules sometimes present, Nat. Ord. 210.—Altingiace-e or Balsamifluae, the flowers 2 in spikes, each supported on a bract, no perianth. Liquidambar order. Amentiferous unisexual trees, with Stamens 2 or more ; ovary free, 1-celled; ovule 1, erect, alternate, stipuled leaves, and involucrate catkins. Anthers orthotropal. Fruit somewhat fleshy, indehiscent, 1-celled’ go , nearly sessile, with a few minute scales. Ovaries 2-

208 BOTANY. Botany. celled, collected into a round mass, each with a few scales; the perianth in the form of a lid. Fertile flowers, capitate, Botany. styles 2 ; ovules oc, amphitropal. Fruit, consisting of 2- without a jointed rachis, and naked. Ovary 1-celled; ovules celled capsules, inclosed in scales, and forming a sort of 1 or 2, orthotropal; styles 2. Fruit, winged achenes, comcone. Seeds winged, peltate, albuminous; embryo inverted, bined into a bracteated cone. Seed exalbuminous; epiradicle superior. Natives of the warmer parts of India and sperm with spiral cells; radicle superior. Tropical or subAmerica; also found in the Levant. Fragrant and balsamic tropical plants, having the aspect of Equisetums. They properties are met M ith in this order. The bark of some abound in Australia. Their wood is hard and heavy, and of the plants is bitter. on account of its colour is called Beefwood. The bark of Nat. Ord. 211.—Betuxace^:, ihe Birch order (Fig. 545). some of the species of Casuarina is tonic and astringent. —Amentiferous trees or shrubs, with alternate, simple, stiNat. Ord. 214.—Pratanacea:, the Plane order (Fig. puled, often feather-veined leaves, and unisexual flowers, 547) which have small scales in place of a perianth. Stamens ous trees or shrubs, opposite the scales. Ovary 2-celled ; ovules 1 in each cell, with alternate, dependulous, anatropal; stigmas 2. Fruit dry, indehiscent, 1- ciduous, palmate, celled, 1-seeded. Seed exalburoinous; radicle superior. or toothed, stipuIn Alnus there is a 4-leaved membranous perianth. The late leaves, and uniplants of this order are usually timber trees, such as the sexual naked flowrBirch and Alder, with deciduous leaves, chiefly found in ers in globose catnorthern and cold regions. Their bark is tonic and astrin- kins (Fig. 547). gent. Barren flowers. Stamens single, mixed with scales. Fertile flowers. Ovary 1-celled; style thick and subulate. Ovules 12, orthotropal, suspended. Nuts clavate, with a persistent style. Seeds usually solitary and albuminous ; radicle inferior. Natives of the Levant and North America chiefly. The species of Platanus are fine trees, but their timber is not durable. Nat. Ord. 215.—Juglandacea:, the Walnut order (Fig. 548) pinnate, stipuled leaves, and unisexual flowers. J: Amentiferous. Perianth 2-3-6parted, with a scaly bract. Stamens 3 or more. 9: terminal clusters or in loose racemes, with distinct or united bracts. Perianth adherent, 3-5-divided. Ovary 2-4-celled at the base, uniFig. 546. Fig. 545. Betnla alba, the common Birch. Its male flowers, a, are produced in locular at the apex. Ovule scaly catkins, and they have no proper perianth ; its female flowers, solitary, orthotropal, and b, are in scaly spikes or catkins, and ate also naked. ... 546. Flowering branch of Corylns Avellana, the Hazel or Hasel, bearing erect; style 1 or 2. Fruit male flowers J in catkins (amentiferous), and female flowers J in a tryma, endocarp stony and rounded clusters. often 2-valved. Seed exalNat. Ord. 212.—Corylaceje or Cupelifera:, the Ha- buminous, 2-4-lobed at the zel and Oak order (Fig 546).—Amentiferous trees or shrubs, base, and partly divided by with simple, alternate, stipulate, often feather-veined leaves, partial dissepiments. Naand monoecious flowers (Fig. 546). Barren flowers in catkins. tives chiefly of North AmeStamens 5-20, inserted in the base of scales, or of a mem- rica. Some are found in the branous valvate perianth. Fertile flowers aggregate (Fig. East Indies, Persia, and the Fig. 548. 546, $ ), or on a spike. Ovary, with several cells, crowned Caucasus. The plants are fine Branch of Jnglans regia, the Walnutby the remains of an adherent perianth inclosed in an in- trees with edible oily seeds tree, with an impari-pinnate leaf and volucre or cupula (Fig. 299). Ovules in pairs or solitary, and an acrid bark. Purgative a cluster of drupaceous fruit. pendulous or peltate ; stigmas several. Fruit a glans (Fig. qualities are found in some of the species. Carya alba, the 300); seed solitary, exalbuminous. The plants abound common Hickory-tree, produces an eatable nut. Juglans in the forests of temperate regions in the form of Oaks, regia is the Walnut-tree (Fig. 548). Hazels, Beeches, and Chestnuts. The plants of this order Nat. Ord. 216.—Garryaceje, the Garrya order.— afford valuable timber and edible seeds. Astringency also Shrubs with opposite, exstipulate leaves, and amentiferous prevails in a marked degree in the bark. unisexual flowers, surrounded by united bracts. PeNat. Ord. 213.—Casuarinace2E, the Beefwood order.— rianth of 4 leaves, alternating with 4 stamens. 9: Perianth Leafless trees, with pendulous, jointed, striated, sheathed adherent, bidentate. Ovary 1-celled; styles 2; ovules 2, branches, and spikes or heads of unisexual flowers proceed- pendulous with long cords. Fruit a 2-seeded berry. Eming from bracts. Barren flowers in spikes, and whorled bryo minute in the base of fleshy albumen. The wood is round a jointed rachis. Perianth 2-leaved, with 2 alternat- not arranged in circles, and there is an absence ot dotted ing bracts. Stamen 1, carrying up the united 2 leaves of vessels. Natives chiefly of the temperate parts of America.

209 BOTANY. cotyledonous (Fig. 341); radicle having no definite boun- Botany. b. Sporogence or Rhizanthce.—Having Spore-like Seeds dary, but losing itself among the lax cells of the albumen near the apex of the seed. Conifers are found in various with an Acotyledonous Embryo. parts of the world, both in cold and in warm climates. They Nat. Ord. 217.—Rafflesiace^e, the liafflesia order (Fig- are most abundant in temperate regions, both in the north549).— S temless ern and southern hemispheres. In the former they occur in and leafless parasites, consisting only of ? or $ : J flowers growing on the branches of trees. Perianth superior, with a 5-parted limb, thickened processes or calli, either distinct or united into a ring, being J^afjjes;a Arnold!, parasit’C on a species of Cissus. attached The perianth has aring. 5-lobed limb.interior The throat , C Uto the l shows a projecting In the is the throat Ot the tube. column bearing the essential organs of reproductl0nThe essential organs are combined in a column (synema) which adheres to the tube of the perianth. Anthers 2-celled, either distinct and opening by vertical apertures, or combined together, so as to become a multicellular mass opening by a common pore. Ovary 1-celled, placentas parietal. Fruit indehiscent. Seeds cc ; embryo cellular, undivided. East Indian and South American plants, parasitic on species of Cissus and on some Leguminosse. Nat. Ord. 218.—Cytinacea;, the Cistus-rape order.— Fig 551. Root-parasites, having £ or S 2 flowers, which are either 550. Linear Punctated or disk-bearing woody a Conifer. a scaly sheath solitary and stemless, or proceed from bracts arising from a Fig. ... 55L leaves of PinusStrobus in atissue clusterof offive,with at the base. scaly stalk. Perianth has a tubular form, and a 3-6-lobed ... 552. Stamen of a Conifer, with longitudinal dehiscence, val, containing pollen,pot, and terminated by a crest at the apex. limb. Anthers sessile, 2-celled, opening longitudinally. ... 553. Scale of a mature cone, with two winged seeds at the base, the miOvary inferior, 1-celled; placentas parietal. Fruit containcropyle, m, and the chalaza, ch. ing pulp. Seeds oo, immersed in pulp, and with a leathery the form of Pines, Spruces, Larches, Cedars, and Junipers, covering; embryo undivided. Natives of the south ot while in the latter we meet with species of Araucaria, Europe and the Cape of Good Hope. Parasitical on the Eutassa, and Dammara. The two following divisions have roots of Cistus, and on those of some succulent plants. been adopted:—Sub-order 1. Abietineae, the Fir tribe; Nat. Ord. 219.—Balanophoracea, the Balanophora ovules inverted, pollen oval, or curved (Fig. 267). Suborder.—Leafless root-parasites, with tubers or rhizomes, order 2. Cupressineae, the Cypress tribe ; ovules erect, pollen whence proceed naked or scaly peduncles, bearing heads of spheroidal, cone occasionally succulent, forming a galbulus. unisexual bracteated flowers, mixed with filaments. J: Conifers supply valuable timber, and yield resin, oil, pitch, Flowers generally white. Perianth tubular, 3-5-lobed or and turpentine of various kinds. Abies balsamea, the Balm entire. Stamens 3-5, rarely 1 ; anthers free or united into of Gilead Fir, and A. canadensis. Hemlock Spruce, yield a multicellular mass. 2: Perianth having its tube closely Canada Balsam. Cedrus Libani, is the Cedar of Lebanon ; investing the ovary, and its limb 0 or bilabiate; rarely 6- C. Deodara, the Deodar, is a noble Himalayan Cedar, leaved. Ovary 1-celled; ovule a pendulous, cellular nu- which some have thought to be a variety of the Cedar ot cleus; styles 1-2. Fruit somewhat drupaceous. Seed soli- Lebanon. Dammara australis, is the Kaurie or Cowdie Pine tary, albuminous; embryo undivided. Parasitic on the of New Zealand, which attains a height of 200 feet, and suproots of various Dicotyledons, and abounding on the moun- plies valuable timber for masts, as well as a hard useful resin; tains of tropical countries, especially the Andes and Him- D. orientalis yields the Dammar resin of India. Eutassa alaya. excelsa is the famous Norfolk Island Pine, which grows to the height of 181-224 feet, and 2. GyMNOSPEHMJE Or GYifXOGENJE. the wood of which is very valuable. Nat. Ord. 220.— Conifera or Pixacea, the Coniferous The species of Juniperus have a or Pine order (Figs. 550 to 553).—Resinous trees or shrubs, succulent cone called galbulus. with disk-bearing woody tissue (Fig. 550), linear, acerose or Nat. Ord. 221.—Taxacea, the lanceolate, parallel-veined leaves, sometimes clustered and Yew order (Figs. 554 and 555). Fig. 555. having a membranous sheath at the base (Fig. 551) ; flowers Trees or shrubs, having narrow, Fig. 554. unisexual and achlamydeous. Male flowers in deciduous evergreen, alternate, or distichous catkins, each consisting of 1 stamen or of several united; leaves which are either veinless or Fig. 554. stammiferous of the Yew, withflower bracts anthers 2 or many-celled, dehiscing longitudinally, often have a forked v enation. Closely alat the base and numerous monadelcrested above (Fig. 552). Female flowers in cones; scales lied to Coniferae, and generally inphous stamens. Some consider this as one arising from the axil of membranous bracts supplying the cluded as a section of the order^ stamen divided into place of ovaries ; no style nor stigma; ovules naked, 1, 2, but differing in not producing true numerous antherine cells by the connecor several, at the base of each scale, with a large micropyle cones. They have monadelphous tive. 555. Fruit of the Yew, a at the apex (Fig. 296). Fruit a cone formed of hardened stamens (Fig.554); solitary, naked naked seed partially scales, sometimes with the addition of bracts also, which ovules, and their seed is supported inclosed in a succulent receptacle. either disappear, or become enlarged and lobed. Seed with on, or inclosed by, a succulent a hard crustaceous spermoderm, sometimes winged (Figs. 553 cup-shaped receptacle (Fig. 555) They are natives of and 328) ; embryo in fleshy oily albumen, sometimes poly- temperate regions, and abound in Asiatic countries. They vol v.

BOTANY. 210 Botany, are found also in Europe, New Zealand, and the Cape of alternate leaves, and small bracteated, unisexual flowers Botany, Good Hope. Like the Conifers they yield valuable and growing in spikes. Perianth 6-cleft, in 2 rows, herbaceous, durable timber, along with resinous and astringent matter. adherent. Stamens 6, inserted into the base of the perianth. Some are poisonous. The seeds of Taxus baccata, the Ovary inferior, 3-celled ; ovules 1-2, suspended ; style trifid. Fruit compressed, 3-celled, 2 cells often abortive, common Yew, are narcotico-acrid. Nat. Ord. 222.—Gnetace^e, the Jointed-Fir order.— sometimes fleshy. Seeds albuminous ; embryo in a cavity. Small trees or creeping shrubs, not resinous, with jointed Chiefly found in tropical countries. Tamm grows in temstems and branches, and opposite, reticulated, sometimes perate regions. Acridity prevails in the order, but is often scaly leaves. They are closely allied to Coniferaeand Tax- associated with a large amount of starch. Various species aceae, and are chiefly distinguished by the want of true of Dioscorea, such as I). saliva, D. alata, and D. aculeata, cones, by the male flowers having a 1-leaved perianth, by produces edible tubers, which are known by the name of the anthers being 1-celled and porose, by a third ovular Yams, and are used like potatoes. Tamm communis, Black covering next the nucleus being protruded through the Bryony, has an acrid purgative and emetic root. Nat. Ord. 225.— Smilace^e, the Sarsaparilla order foramen in a style-like manner, and by their long, twisted embryonic suspensor. The episperm is succulent. Natives (Fig.557).—Herbs or shrubby of temperate as well as warm regions in Europe, Asia, and plants, often climbing, with South America. The seeds of several of the species are petiolate leaves jointed to the eaten. Within the succulent episperm of Gnetum urens, stem, and hermaphrodite or unisexual flowers. Perianth stinging needle-like cells exist. Nat. Ord. 223.— Cycadacea£, the Cycas order (Fig. 6-parted. Stamens 6, perigynous or hypogynous. Ovary 556).—Small palm-like trees 3-celled ; stigmas 3 ; ovules or shrubs, with unbranched orthotropal. Fruit a few or stems, occasionally dichotomany-seeded berry. Seed almous, marked with leaf-scars, buminous. Natives of temand having large medulperate and tropical regions. lary rays, along with pitted The plants of the order have tissue. Leaves pinnate, and demulcent, mucilaginous, and usually circinate in vernation. diuretic properties. Smilax Flowers 5 2 and achlamydeembraces the various species ous. Males in cones, the scales 557. of Sarsaparilla, the roots of Smilax rudis, Eig. bearing clusters of 1-celled with cordate acute which are used medicinally as leaves which are jointed with the anthers on their lower surface. tonics and alteratives. S. offi- stem. Females consisting of ovules cinalis supplies Jamaica Sarsaparilla, and according to Seeon the edge of altered leaves, mann, Lisbon or Brazilian, Guatemala, and llio Paraguay or placed below or at the base Sarza. of scales. Seeds either hard, Nat. Ord. 226.—Trilliaceas, the Trillium order.—Herbs or having a soft, spongy spermoderm, sometimes polyem- Cycas rev0iuta!om5of the false Sago with tubers or rhizomes, verticillate leaves, and large terminal 5 flowers. Perianth of 6 or eight parts, in 2 rows, bryonous ; embryo hanging plants found in Japan, by a long suspensor in a cavity of fleshy or mealy albumen ; the inner sometimes coloured. Stamens 6, 8, or 10, with cotyledons unequal. Natives chiefly of the tropical and tem- apicilar processes. Ovary superior, 3-5 celled; placenta perate regions of America and Asia. Cycads have a muci- axile ; styles 3-5. Fruit succulent, 3-5-celled. Seeds cc, laginous juice, in which there is often much starch, which is albuminous. Natives of the temperate parts of Europe, used fbi food. Cycas revoluta (Fig. 556), a Japan species, Asia, and North America. The properties of the order are has starchy matter in its stem, which is collected and eaten acrid, narcotic, and emetic. Nat. Ord. 227. — RoxBURGHiACEiE, the Roxburghia * Plate like Sago. C. circinalis* in the Moluccas, yields a similar CXXXIV. kind of false Sago. Species of Encephalartos supply what order.—Twining shrubs, with large, solitary $ flowers, allied to Trilliaceae,and distinguished chiefly by their 1-celled, is called Caffre-bread. Note.—Among Thalamifloral Exogens, the following orders con- 2-valved fruit, with a basal placenta. Perianth 4-leaved, tain Monochlamydeous or Achlamydeous species: — Ranuncu- coloured. Stamens 4, hypogynous. Ovules anatropal. laceae 1, Menispermacese 6, Papaveraceae 13, Flacourtiaceae 18, Natives of the hot parts of India. Caryophyllaceae 28, Sterculiaceffi 31, Byttneriaceas 32, TiliNat. Ord. 228.—Philesiace^e, the Philesia order.—A aceas 33, Malpighiaceae 45, Geraniacese 54, Rutacese 63, Xan- small order, nearly allied to the last, from which it differs in thoxylaceae 64. Among Calycifloral Exogens, the following orders contain Monochlamydeous or Achlamydeous species : its trimerous symmetry, parietal placentas, and orthotropal —Celastraceae 68, Rhamnaceae 71, Amyridacese 73, Leguminosse ovules. The plants are found in Chili, and seem to have 75, Rosaceae sect. Sanguisorbeae 77, Lythraceae 79, Combre- properties like Smilax. taceae 82, Myrtaceae 86, Halorageaceae 91, Cucurbitaceaj 93, Passifloracea3 96, Portulacaceae 99, Illecebraceae 100, Tetragoniaceae 103, Saxifragaceae 107, Cunoniaceae 109, Loranthaceae SUB-CLASS II.—PETALOlDEAi OR FLORIDjE. 115. AmongCorollifloral Exogens, the following orders contain Monochlamydeous or Achlamydeous species:—Oleaceae 140, 1.—Epigynje.—Perianth adherent, Ovary inferior, Primulaceae 168. Floivers usually Hermaphrodite. Nat. Ord.229.—Hydrocharidacea:, the Frog-bit order. CLASS II.—MONOCOTYLEDONES, ENDOGEXJE, OR —Aquatic plants, with spathaceous, 5; or unisexual flowers. AMPHIBRYA, Perianth of 6 leaves, the three inner petaloid. Ovary 1SUB-CLASS I.—DICTYOGE1GE. celled, or spuriously 3-9-celled ; stigmas 3-9 ; placentas Endogens having Net-veined Leaves, which usually disar- parietal. Fruit dry or fleshy, indehiscent; seeds exalbuticulate with the Stem. Woody Matter of the Rhizome minous; embryo straight, orthotropal. This order ought disposed in a circular wedge-like manner. probably to be placed among the unisexual plants, and close _r Nat. Ord. 224.—Dioscoreace^e, the Yam order.— to Naiadaccae. Its perianth, however, differs from that of J wining shrubs, with epigeal or hypogeal tubers, usually the plants in the division Incompletae. Found chiefly in

BOTANY. 211 Botany. Europe, Asia, and North America. Movements in the cells seeds with a loose reticulated episperm, their parietal pla- Botany. are seen under the microscope (Fig. 23). Anacharis Al- centas, and their solid embryo ; and are chiefly distinguished sinastrum has become naturalized in many parts of Britain, by their regular tubular flowers, stamens 3 or 6, dehiscing and grows so rapidly as to fill up water-courses. Vallis- transversely, free, and inserted into the tube of the coloured neria (Fig. 22) is remarkable for its mode of impregnation. perianth. Natives chiefly of tropical regions in Asia, Africa, Nat. Ord. 230.—Orchidaceje, the Orchis order (Figs. and America. 558 and 559).—Terrestrial or epiphytic herbs or shrubs, Nat. Ord. 233.— Zingiberaceye or ScitamineyE, the Ginger order (Fig. 560).— Herbs, with a rhizome, simple sheathing leaves, the veins parallel and diverging from a midrib, and flowers arising from membranous spathes. Perianth tubular, irregular, and in 3 rows, the outer (calyx) 3-lobed, the middle (corolla) and inner (staminodes) each 3-parted, with a segment differing from the rest. j. Stamens 3, free, the two lateral abortive; anthers 2-celled. Fruit a 3-celled capsule or berry. Seeds numerous, albuminous; embryo in a vitellus. Nearly all tropical Fig. 559. plants ; abundant in the East Indies. The Fig. 560. Fig. 558. of this order have aromatic, stimu- Zingiber officinale, Fig. 558. Diagram of the flower of Orchis, 5, si, si, the three divisions of the plants Ginger plant, outer perianth, the first being inferior and the other two lateral ; lating properties, and are used as condi- the with its rhizome pi pi, the two lateral divisions of the inner perianth, ps, the su- ments, and as stomachic remedies. Their or rootstock and perior division or the labellum, which becomes inferior by the spathaceous twisting of the ovary; c, the fertile stamen, with its two pollen flowers are often very gaudy, and their bracts flowers. masses in the anther-lobes, the two lateral stamens are abortive ; c, the one-celled ovary cut transversely,having three parietal pla- are sometimes finely coloured. The capsules of Arr.omam centas. ... 559. Flower of an Orchid, consisting of three outer divisions of the peri- Cardamomum are called round Cardamoms ; those of A. anth, ss three inner pZ, the latter being the labellum, which is inferior in this figure by the twisting of the ovary ; e, the spur of dngustifolium are the Madagascar Cardamoms. Curcuma the labellum; o, the twisted ovary; s£, the stigma; a, the anther longa has a yellow coloured rhizome, the branches of which containing pollinia. constitute Turmeric. Zingiber officinale (Fig. 560) has with fibrous or tuberous roots (Fig. 69), a short stem or a an aromatic rhizome which constitutes Ginger. pseudo-bulb (Fig. 70), entire, often sheathing leaves, and Nat. Ord. 234.—Marantace^e or CannaceyE, the Arhermaphrodite showy flowers. Perianth of 6 segments, in row-root order.—Herbaceous plants closely allied to Zingitwo rows, mostly coloured, one, the lowest (so situated beraceae, from which they differ chiefly in the want of aroma, from the twisting of the ovary) generally differing in form in having one of the lateral stamens fertile (the other two from the rest, and often spurred ; it is called the labellum being abortive), in the single stamen having a petaloid filaor lip, and has sometimes 3 marked portions,—the lowest ment, which bears a 1-celled anther (the other antherine being the hypochilium, the middle the mesochilium, and lobe being sterile), in the style being petaloid, and in the the upper the epichilium. By adhesion or abortion, the embryo not being contained in a vitellus (Fig. 420). Naparts of the perianth are sometimes reduced to 5 or 3. Es- tives of the tropics of America, Africa, and Asia. Amysential organs united on a common column or gynoste- laceous qualities prevail in this order, and starch is prepared mium. Stamens 3, the 2 outer, sometimes the central one, from many of the species. The corms or rhizomes of Canna being abortive ; anthers 2-4-8-celled ; pollen powdery, or coccinea, C. edulis, and C. Achiras, all yield starch, some of adhering in masses called pollinia (Fig. 265), attached to which is known as 1 ous-les-mois. Maranta arundinacea the rostellum by a naked or saccate gland. Ovary 1-celled, yields Arrow-root. with 3 parietal placentas, stigma a viscid space in front of Nat. Ord. 235.—MusacEyE, the Banana order (Fig. 561). the column. Fruit usually a 3-valved capsule, which often —Plants with underground stems, their opens by 6 portions, owing to the midribs of the valves se- petioles forming a spurious aerial stem parating, Seeds go , exalbuminous, with a loose reticulated (Fig. 86), their leaves having parallel episperm ; embryo solid and fleshy. This order is well dis- veins diverging from a midrib, and their tinguished by its peculiar gynandrous flowers, labellum, and flowers being bracteated. Perianth irpollinia. Fragrant, aromatic, tonic, and mucilaginous pro- regular and petaloid, 6-parted in 2 rows. perties are met with among Orchids. The roots of some Stamens 6, inserted on the perianth. of the terrestrial species contain. much bassorin, and they Anthers linear, 2-celled, often crested. constitute the nutritious substance called Salep. Blue Fruit a 3-celled loculicidal capsule, or colouring matter, like indigo, is met with in the leaves and succulent and indehiscent (Fig. 561). flowers of some species. Orchis mascula, and other species, Seeds albuminous ; embryo orthotropal. such as O. Morio and O. papilionacea, yield Salep. Vanilla Tropical plants, which are valuable as reFig. 561. planifolia and aromatica yield the fragrant Vanilla, used gards food, clothing, and other domestic thfsanana* in confectionary and in the preparation of Chocolate. purposes. They yield much nutritive *apientum). Nat. Ord. 231.—Apostasiace^e, the Apostasia order. food, as well as useful fibres. Musaparadisiaca, the Plan*—A small order of herbaceous plants closely allied to Or- tain, and M. sapientum, the Banana, supply well-known chids, from which they differ chiefly in their regular flowers, fruits, which serve for the food of the inhabitants of many 3-celled loculicidal fruit, and in the style being free from tropical countries. M. textilis produces Manilla Hemp, the stamens throughout a considerable part of its length. which is used in manufacture. Ihe column is short, and is formed by the filaments along Nat. Ord. 236.—IridaceyE, the Iris order (Figs. 562 and with the lower part of the style. Natives of the hot forests 563).—Herbs with corms, rhizomes, or fibrous roots, and of India. mostly equitant leaves, and spathaceous flowers. Perianth* Nat. Ord. 232.—Burmanniace^e, the Burmannia order. 6-divided in 2 rows, sometimes irregular. Stamens 3, in—A small order of herbaceous plants, with tufted, radical, serted at the base of the outer row of the perianth ; anacute leaves, or none, and a slender stem bearing alternate thers innate, extrorse. Style dividing into 3 petaloid stigmabract-like leaflets. They resemble Orchids in their minute tiferous portions (Fig. 563). Capsule 3-celled, 3-valved,

0

BOTANY. 212 Botany, loculicidal. Seeds with hard albumen. Found in various in cartilaginous albumen, radicle remote from the hilum’ Botany. temperate and warm parts of the world. The order has its Natives of America, the Cape, and New Holland. Bitmaximum at the Cape of Good Hope. Acrid purgative, terness is found in some of the plants of the order (Aletris). Their roots are sometimes nutritious, and many and emetic properties are met with in some plants ol the of them are of a red colour, whence the name of the order. Nat. Ord. 240.—TACCACEiE, the Tacca order—Perennial herbs, with tuberous roots, radical curve-veined leaves, and flowers in scapes. Perianth tubular, 6-divided. Stamens 6, inserted in the base of the segments; filaments petaloid; anther below the points of the filaments. Styles 3. Fruit baccate, 1-celled, or half 3-celled. Albumen fleshy. Acrid plants found in the warmest parts of India and Africa, as well as in the South Sea Islands. The tubers of Tacca pinnatifida, and other species, yield starch. Nat. Ord. 241.—Bromeiaacea5, the Pine-apple order.— American and chiefly tropical plants, with rigid, channelled, often scurfy and spiny leaves, and showy flowers. Outer perianth 3-parted, persistent; inner of 3 withering leaves. Stamens 6, inserted in the tube of the perianth ; anthers introrse. Style single. Fruit capsular or succulent, 3celled, many-seeded. Embryo minute, in the base of mealy 563. albumen. Many of the plants grow in an epiphytic manner, Fig. 562. Diagram of the flower of Iris, showing a hract or spathe helow, three and are called air-plants. This is the case especially with outer divisions of the perianth with hairs, three inner, three sta- Tillandsias. Some of the species have anthelmintic promens, and three divisions of the ovary. 563. Power of Iris, with the limb of the perianth removed. The ovary perties. Some supply edible fruit, gum, colouring matter, o, tube of perianth, t, upper petaloid and divided part of the style, sty, stigma, stiff. and valuable fibres. The fibres of Ananassa saliva* the order. Some are fragrant and aromatic; others supply Pine-apple, are used in manufacture. starch and materials for dyeing. The dried stigmatic processes of Crocus sativus constitute Saifron. The rhizome 2. Hypogy^sm.—Perianth free, Ovary superior, Floivers of Iris florentina, the Florence Iris, is the aromatic Orrisusually Hermaphrodite. root, which has the odour of Violets. Nat. Ord. 242.—Liliace^e, the Lily order (Figs. 565 Nat. Ord. 237.—Amaeyllidace^i, the Amaryllis order and 566).—Herbs, shrubs, or trees, with bulbs (Fig. Ill), (Fig. 564).—Bulbous, sometimes fibrous-rooted plants, with ensiform leaves, and showy flowers, which are mostly spathaceous and on scapes (Fig. 149). Perianth coloured, limb 6-parted or 6-cleft, sometimes with a corona, as in Narcissus (Fig. 149). Stamens 6, inserted at the bottom of the segments, sometimes united by a membrane, as in Pancratium ; anthers introrse. Fig. sei. Fig. 565. Fig. 566 Stigma 3-lobed. Fruit a 3-Celled, Diagram of the flower of Leuco3-valved, loculicidal capsule, with Fie 565. Diagram the flowerof of6 parts, Fritillaria Imperial, showing of a perianth in twoimperialis, verticils, 6Crown stamens in two many seeds ; or a berry with 1-3 rows, and a 3-celled ovary. . ,, „ 566. Flower of Lilium album, White Lily, with a 6-leaved perianth, 6 seeds, spermoderm not crusta- ticils, and a three-celled ovary stamens, and 1 style. ceous; albumen fleshy; embryo with a central placenta. corms, rhizomes (Fig. 73), or fibrous roots, simple, sheathwith radicle next the hilum. Natives of various parts of the world, but attaining their maximum at the Cape of ing, or clasping leaves,, and regular flowers. Perianth Good Hope. Many Amaryllids display poisonous pro- coloured, of 6 leaves (Fig 566), or 6-cleft. Stamens 6, inperties. Some are emetic and purgative, and some yield serted in the perianth; anthers introrse. Ovary 3-celled useful fibres. The bulbs of the Snowdrop and Snowflake (Fig. 279); style 1 ; stigma simple or 3-lobed. Fruit triare said to be emetic. Agave americana, American Aloe, locular, capsular, or succulent. Seeds in 1 or 2^ rows, is used in America for the manufacture of an intoxicating sometimes in pairs or solitary ; albumen fleshy. Natives beverage. Its fibres constitute Pita F lax, and are some- both of temperate and tropical regions. In the latter we meet with arborescent species, such as the Dragon-trees, times made into paper. Nat. Ord. 238.—-Hypoxidaceas, the Hypoxis order.— and with succulent species, as Aloes. In temperate climes Herbs, with tuberous or fibrous roots, linear, dry, often we have species of Tulip, Lily, Hemerocallis, Convallana, hairy leaves, and trimerous flowers in scapes. Closely allied Fritillary, Hyacinth, and Star of Bethlehem. The proto Amaryllids, and differing chiefly in their strophiolate perties of the order are various. Some ot the plants are seeds, anil embryo with the radicle remote from the hilum. used as emetics and purgatives, while others are stimulant and diaphoretic. Some yield resinous and astringent matNatives of warm regions. Nat. Ord. 239.—H^emodoraceas, the Blood-root order. ter, while others supply valuable materials for manufac—Perennial plants, with fibrous roots, ensiform equitant tures. Aloe is the genus which supplies the drug called leaves, and woolly hairs or scurf on their stems and flowers. Aloes. It is the inspissated juice of various species, sue Perianth tubular, 6-divided. Stamens 3, opposite the seg- as A. spicata, vulgaris, socotrina, indica, andpurpurascens. ments, or 6 ; anthers introrse. Ovary 3-celled, sometimes Phormium tenax supplies New Zealand flax. 1-celled ; style and stigma simple. Fruit usually capsular Scilla, known as Scilla or Squilla maritima, a Mediterand valvular, covered by the withered perianth. Embryo ranean sand plant, has an acrid bulb which, when dried,

BOTANY. 213 Botany. Nat. Ord. 249.—Mayacaceae, the Mayaca order.—MossBotany, constitutes the common Squill of the shops. It is used as like plants, with narrow leaves, resembling Spider-worts, an emetic, expectorant, and diuretic. Nat. Ord. 243.—Melanthacea: or Colchicacea:, the but differing in their 1-celled anthers, carpels opposite the Colchicum order (Fig. 567).—Herbs, with bulbs, corms inner divisions of the perianth, 1-celled ovary and capsule, and parietal placentas. Natives of America. (Fig. 74), or fasciculated roots, and Nat. Ord. 250.—Juncacea:, the Rush order (Figs. 568 white, green, or purple flowers, which and 569).—Herbs, with fasciculate or fibrous roots, fistular or are sometimes polygamous. Perianth petaloid, of 6 leaves, which are either separate, or united below into a tube. Stamens 6, anthers extrorse. Ovary 3-celled ; style 3-parted; capsule 3valved, septicidal (Colchicum), sometimes loculicidal (Uvularid). Seeds Fig. 567. with a membranous episperm, and ^cSTcnm^auttZfaief dense, fleshy albumen. Generally dis- ^e^eavclf perianthWinnI tributed the World, but. most abunverticils, 6 stamensand i . in . Over . mi an ovary formed of 3 cardant northern countries. I he pels, Fig. 569. plants of this order have acrid, emetic, purgative, and Fig. 568. Diagram of the flower of Liwula, Wood-rush, showing 6 divisions of the perianth in 2 rows, 6 stamens, and a 3-celled ovary. sometimes narcotic properties. They are all more or less ... 569. Perianth of Lunula, with 6 divisions of its glumaceous perianth, 6 stamens, pistil with 1 style and 3 stigmas. poisonous, and nearly all seem to contain the alkaloid called Veratria. Asagrcca officinalis, is the chief source of the flat and grooved leaves, and glumaceous sometimes petaCevadilla or Sabadilla seeds, which contain veratria, and are loid flowers in clusters, cymes, or heads. Perianth dry, used in neuralgic and rheumatic affections. The corms greenish or brownish, 6-parted (Fig. 569). Stamens 6 or 3, and ripe seeds of Colchicum autumnale, the Meadow Saffron, perigynous ; anthers introrse. Ovary 1 or 3-celled ; ovules contain an alkaloid Colchicia, and are prescribed in gout 1, 3, or many in each cell; style 1 ; stigmas often 3. Fruit a 3-valved loculicidal capsule, or monospermal and indehisand rheumatism. Nat. Ord. 244.—Gilliesiace.e, the Gilliesiaorder.—Bul- cent. Seeds with a thin spermoderm, which often becomes bous herbs, with grass-like leaves, and umbellate, spathace- gelatinous when moistened; albumen fleshy; embryo mious flowers. Perianth of 2 portions,—outer petaloid and nute. Natives chiefly of cold and temperate regions. The herbaceous, of 6 leaves, called by Bindley bracts ; inner leaves are used to form matting and the bottoms of chairs, minute, either a single lobe or urceolate and 5-toothed. and the pith for the wicks of candles. Nat. Ord. 251.—Palma:, the Palm order (Fig. 570 to The latter is by some considered an abortive staminal row. Stamens 6, sometimes 3 sterile. Capsule 3-celled, 3-valved, 573).—Arborescent plants, with a simple (Fig. 570), someloculicidal, polyspermal. Episperm black and brittle ; embryo curved ; albumen fleshy. Chilian plants. Nat. Ord. 245.— P ontederi ace.e, the Pontederia order.— Aquatic plants, with leaves sheathing at the base, petioles occasionally dilated, and spathaceous flowers, either solitary or in spikes. Perianth coloured, tubular, 6-parted, irregular, persistent. Stamens 6 or 3, perigynous ; anthers introrse. Capsule sometimes slightly adherent, 3-celled, 3-valved, loculicidal. Seeds numerous ; placenta central ; albumen mealy. Natives of America, India, and Africa. Nat. Ord. 246.—Xyridaceae, the Xyris order.—Swampy rush-like plants, with ensiform or filiform radical leaves sheathing at the base. Flowers in scaly heads. Perianth of 6 parts, 3 outer glumaceous. Stamens 6, 3 fertile inserted on the inner perianth. Anthers extrorse. Ovary 1celled ; placentas parietal; ovules orthotropal. Capsule 1celled, 3-valved, polyspermal. Albumen fleshy; embryo remote from the hilum. Tropical plants. Some species of Xyris have been used in cutaneous affections. Nat. Ord. 247.—Philydracea:, the Water-wort order. —Plants allied closely to Xyrids, and differing chiefly in the Fig. 570. want of an outer perianth, in the inner perianth being 2- Fig. 570. Phoenix dactylifera, the Date Palm. leaved, in having 3 stamens, 2 of which are abortive, and in ... 571. Diagram of the j flower of Chamserops, Fan-palm, showing six divisions of the perianth and six stamens. the embryo being large in the axis of the albumen. The ’... 572. Diagram of the flower of Chamserops, showing six divisions of the flowers have spathaceous bracts ; the roots are fibrous, the perianth in two rows, and three cells of the ovary. stem simple, leafy, and often woolly, and the leaves sheath- times branched stem, marked by the bases of the leaves or ing at the base. Natives of New Holland and China. their scars, leaves in terminal Nat. Ord. 248 —Commelynacea:, the Spider-wort order. clusters, pinnate or fan-shaped —Herbs, with flat leaves, usually sheathing at the base. flowers 5 $ or $5 > 011 a simple or Outer perianth of 3 parts, herbaceous; inner also 3, coloured, branched spadix, inclosed in a 1 sometimes cohering. Stamens 6, or fewer, hypogynous. or many-valved spathe. Perianth Anthers introrse ; ovary 3-celled ; placenta central; style in two verticils, each of 3 parts 1. Capsule 2-3-celled, 2-3-valved, loculicidal. Seeds with (Figs. 571 and 572). Stamens a linear hilum ; embryo pulley-shaped, in a cavity of the al- usually 6, seldom 3, sometimes cc. bumen, remote from the hilum. In Tradescantia the fila- Ovary 1-3-celled, with a single Fig. 573. ments are provided with jointed hairs, which show rotation in ovule in each cell. Fruit a nut Section ofthe seed of the Coco-nut, , . showing the cavity in their cells. The rhizomes of some species of Commelyna or drupe, or berry. Albumen car- the albumen,central and the embryo are amylaceous and edible. tilaginous or hard, often ruminate, whilhif remote from the hfium.

BOTANY. 214 Botany, with a central cavity ; embryo in a particular cavity remote without a spathe. Perianth 3 or more scales, or a bundle Botany, • v ' from the hilum (Fig. 573), its cotyledon often becoming en- of hairs. Stamens 1-6, distinct or monadelphous ; anthers Ovary solitary, 1-celled ; ovule solitary, pendulous. larged during germination, and filling the cential cavity* innate. Chiefly tropical plants, requiring a mean temperature of 780,2 Fruit dry or spongy, indehiscent, 1-celled, angular by presSeed solitary, pendulous, with a membranous sperto 81°-5 F. Some, however, extend to temperate regions. sure. Charruerops humilis, the dwarf Fan-palm, is found native in moderm adhering to the pericarp. Embryo in the axis of the south of Europe, and C. Palmetto grows in the milder mealy albumen, straight with a lateral cleft; radicle next parts of North America. Some have slender, reed-like stems, the hilum. Most abundant in northern countries. Starch others attain a considerable diameter. Some have a low is a product of the rhizomes of many species of Typha, and caudex, or a subterranean stem, while others have an erect the pollen, which is very abundant, is inflammable, and is trunk 190 feet high. Palms yield numerous important pro- also used for food. Nat. Ord. 257.—Araceve, the Arum order.*—Herbs or ducts, and they are applied to a great many uses. They supply starch, sugar, oil, wax, and edible fruits ; their buds are shrubby plants, sometimes climbing, often with corms; leaves " eaten like vegetables ; their leaves form coverings for habi- sheathing at the base, convolute in aestivation, sometimes tations, and materials for manuscripts, the reticulum makes compound, and usually with branching veins ; flowers mocoarse cloth, and the saccharine juice is sometimes fermented, noecious, on a spadix (Fig. 166), mostly with a spathe. Peso as to form a spirit called arrack, or palm-wine called rianth 0. Stamens definite or oo; anthers extrorse, 1 or toddy. Areca Catechu furnishes the Betel-nut, used all 2-celled or more. Ovary with 1 or more cells. Fruit sucover the East as a masticatory. Cocos nucifera, the Coco- culent ; seeds pulpy; embryo in the axis of fleshy and mealy nut Palm is perhaps put to a greater number of uses than albumen, with a lateral cleft. Abundant in tropical climates; any other Palm, both as regards food, luxuries, clothing, rare in cold or temperate regions. Acridity prevails in the habitations, and utensils. Elais guineensis supplies the order, and many of the plants are irritant poisons. Tbe solid Palm-oil. Metroxylon lave, a native of Borneo and corms sometimes supply starch, which is separated from the Sumatra, is one of the sources of the starchy matter called acrid matter by washing. Arum maculatum, Cuckow-pint, Sago. Phytelphas macrocarpa, a Palm of the Magdalena or Wake-Robin, has an amylaceous acrid corm. The starch River district, is called the Vegetable Ivory-Palm, because used to be separated in large quantities at Weymouth and the hard horny albumen of its seed is used like ivory. Sagus in the island of Portland, and sold under the name of Portland Sago. Colocasia esculenta, and other species, have Rumphii is the Sago-Palm of Malacca. Nat. Ord. 252.—Alismaceas, the Water-plantain order. edible corms, which are called Cocoes and Eddoes in the —Floating or marsh plants, with a creeping rhizome, narrow West Indies. Nat. Ord. 258.— Orontiaceas or Acoraceas, the Oronor broad leaves, and flowers in umbels, racemes, or panicles. Perianth of 6 pieces ; outer 3 herbaceous ; inner 3 petaloid. tium or Sweet-flag order.—Herbs with broad, occasionally Ovaries several, 1-celled ; ovules solitary, or 2 superposed. ensiform leaves, and spadiceous flowers inclosed by a spathe. Fruit indehiscent. Seeds exalbuminous ; embryo like a They are usually associated with Araceae, from which they horse-shoe, undivided. Natives chiefly of northern coun- differ in their hermaphrodite flowers, and in having fretries. The fleshy rhizomes of Alisma and Sagittaria are quently a perianth consisting of 4-8 scales. Bindley, on account of their $ flowers, places them near Juncaceae. Naedible. Nat. Ord. 253.—Juncaginace^e, tbe Arrow-grass order. tives both of tropical and cold regions. Acridity is met with —Marsh plants, with narrow radical leaves, and $ flowers in this order, which also contains nutritious, bitter, and aroin spikes or racemes. Perianth greenish. Stamens 6 ; an- matic plants. Acorus Calamus, common Sweet-Sedge, has thers extrorse. Carpels 3-6, united, or distinct; ovules 1 an agreeable odour, and has been used as a stimulant, tonic, or 2, erect. Fruit dry, 1-2-seeded. Albumen 0 ; embryo and antispasmodic. Its starchy matter is associated with a straight, with a lateral cleft. A small order of plants found fragrant oil, and is used as hair-powder. Nat. Ord. 259.—Pistiacea: or Lemnacea:, the Duckin cold and temperate regions. Nat. Ord. 254.—Butomace^e, the Flowering-rush order. weed order (Fig. 574).—Floating —Aquatics, with very cellular leaves, often milky, and um- plants with lenticular or lobed leaves bellate handsome flowers. Perianth of 6 pieces, 3 inner pe- or fronds, bearing 1 or 2 monoecious taloid. Stamens definite or go. Ovaries 3-6 or more, dis- flowers inclosed in a spathe,^ but tinct or united ; ovules go. Fruit, follicles, distinct or united. with no perianth. Stamens definite, Seeds oo, attached to a reticulated placenta, spread over the often monadelphous. Ovary 1whole inner surface of the fruit ; albumen 0. Natives celled; ovules 1 or more, erect or horizontal. Fruit indehiscent or memchiefly of northern countries. branous, or bursting transversely, 3. Incomplete.—Flowers incomplete, generally Unisexual, or baccate, 1 or more-seeded. Seeds without a proper Perianth, or with a few Verticillate with a thick ribbed episperm and Scales. an indurated micropyle ; embryo in Nat. Ord. 255.—Pandanace^e, the Screw-pine order.— the axis of fleshy albumen, with a Trees or bushes, often branching dichotomously, or in a lateral cleft, or at the apex of the candelabra-like manner, having adventitious roots (big. 66), nucleus. Natives both of cool and leaves imbricated, linear-lanceolate or pinnate or fan-shaped, of w arm regions. Lemnas form a and spiny; and flowers unisexual or polygamous, spathaceous, green covering of pools in Britain. Eig. 574. covering a spadix completely. Perianth 0, or a few scales. Pistia Stratiotes, Water - lettuce, ReStamens numerous ; anthers 2-4-celled. Ovaries 1-celled, floats in the ponds of warm counfeet flowers produced on the collected into parcels ; stigmas sessile ; ovules solitary or tries. ■Nat. xt Ord. ./"v i 260.—Naiadaceje "xt frond a.Tid. tho distinct or or sheaths, r, piat numerous. Fruit either 1-seeded fibrous nuts, or manyseeded berries. Albumen fleshy ; embryo minute, without POTAMOGETONACEA:, the Naias or the extremities of the roots. a lateral slit. Natives of tropical regions, and abundant in Pondweed order.—Plants of fresh or salt water, with cellular leaves and stems, and inconspicuous spiked flowers insular situations. Nat. Ord. 256.—Typhacea:, the Bulrush order.—Herbs, which are sometimes hermaphrodite. Perianth of 1-4 sea f growing in marshes or ditches, having stems without nodes, pieces or 0. Stamens definite, hypogynous. Ovary free, rigid, ensiform leaves, and monoecious flowers on a spadix, of one or more carpels, 1-celled; ovule solitary, erect or

BOTANY. 215 Botany, pendulous, rarely 3 and erect. Style simple, or 2-3-cleft, a membranaceous covering called perigynium (Fig. 235). Botany. v—' Fruit indehiscent, dry, 1-celled, and usually 1-seeded; albu- Stamens hypogynous, definite, varying from 1 to 12, most men 0; embryo with a lateral cleft. What is called the commonly 3 ; anthers innate, 2-celled. Ovary superior, perianth in Potamogeton, and a few other allied genera, is often surrounded by hypogynous bristles called setae (Fig. considered by some as composed of bracts, bearing uni- 576); ovule 1, erect; style single, 2-3-cleft; stigmas 2-3. sexual flowers. If that is the true view, then this order will Fruit a crustaceous or bony achene. Embryo lenticular, in not include any plants. Natives of temperate and warm the base of fleshy or mealy albumen (Fig. 577). Generally climates. Some species are styptic, others yield edible roots, distribufed all over the wrorld, and growing abundantly in and a few, as Zoster a, are used for stuffing cushions and beds. moist situations. Some of the Sedges are diaphoretic and Nat. Ord. 261.— I riuridace.®, the Triuris order.—A demulcent, others are bitter, stomachic, and astringent. small tropical order of cellular, unisexual plants, allied to 1 he creeping stems of Carex arenaria are used as a subNaiadaceae, but distinguished in part by their peculiar seed, stitute for Sarsaparilla. which consists of a hard striated integument, containing an Nat. Ord. 266.—Gramineae, the Grass order (Figs. 578 embryo in the form of a multicellular nucleus. and 579).—Herbaceous plants, with round, usually hollow, Nat. Ord. 262.—Restiace^e, the Restio order.—Herbs or undershrubs, with narrow leaves or 0, naked or sheathed stalks, and flowers in bracteated heads or spikes, generally 5 ?; glumaceous bracts 2-6, sometimes 0. Stamens 2-3 ; anthers usually 1-celled. Ovary 1 or more-celled; ovules, one in each cell, pendulous. Fruit a capsule or nut. Embryo lenticular, outside the albumen. Natives chiefly of South America, Australia, and South Africa. Their wiry stems are used for baskets and brooms, and for thatching. Nat. Ord. 263.—Eriocaulonaceae, the Pipewort order. ' Marsh plants, with minute, unisexual flowers, allied to the last order, and differing principally in their capitate inflorescence, 2-celled anthers, ovary surrounded by a 2-3toothed membranous tube, and seeds with rows of hairs. The species abound in South America, and they are also found in Australia and North America. Eriocaulon sept578. angulare, jointed Pipewort, is the only species found in Fig. 578. Diagram of a spikeletFig. of Arena, Oat, showing two glumes, (77 (?£, inBritain. It is met with in Skye and Galway. closing three flowers, of which, a, is abortive; pales or glumelles, 6 6 6, theone inner apparently formed bythe thetwo union of Nat. Ord. 264.—Desyauxiace^®;, the Bristlewort order. two; two scales, lodicules, p p, the third being abortive and marked by a dotted curve; three stamens, e, ovary, c, with two Small herbs, like species of Scirpus, having setaceous feathery styles. leaves, flowers glumaceous in a spathe, distinguished from ... 279. Caryopsis, grain of Oat; pericarp, o, spermoderm, t, farinacoons albumen, a. Embryo plant lying at one side at the base, with radicle, Restiaceae principally in having separate ovaries attached to r, plumule, g^and cotyledon, c. a common axis, and fruit consisting of utricles opening lon- jointed stems; narrow, alternate leaves, having a split gitudinally. They inhabit the South Sea Islands and New sheath and often a ligule at its summit (Fig. 134); hermaHolland. phrodite or monoecious, or polygamous flowrers, either solitary or arranged in spiked or panicled locustee (Fig. 165). SUB-CLASS III. GLUMIFERAE. The flowers are considered as composed of a series of bracts ; Nat. Ord* 265.—Cyperaceas, the Sedge order (Figs. the outer, called glumes (Figs. 150 and 231), alternate, often 575 to 577).—Grass-like, caespitose plants, have solid, usu- unequal, usually 2, sometimes 1, rarely 0; the next, called ally unjointed, and frequently angular stems, leaves with en- pales or glumelles (paleae or glumellae), usually 2, alternate (Figs. 232 and 233), the lower or outer one being simple, the upper or inner having 2 dorsal or lateral ribs, and supposed to be formed by 2 pales united ; sometimes 1 or both are wanting. The glumes inclose either one flower, as in Fox-tail grass, or more flowers, as in Wheat (Fig. 165), and among the flowers there are frequently abortive florets (Fig. 150). Stamens hypogynous, 1-6, usually 3 (Fig. 234) ; anthers versatile. Ovary superior, 1-celled, with 2 (rarely 1 or 0) hypogynous scales called lodicules (Figs. 234, sq); ovule 1; styles 2 or 3, rarely united; stigmas often feathery (Fig. 234). Fruit a caryopsis. Embryo lenticular, external, lying on one side, at the base of farinaceous albumen (Fig. 579). Germination endorhizal (Fig. 419). Grasses are widely distributed, and are found in all quarters of the globe. Schouwr conjectures that they constitute l-22d of all known plants. They are usually social plants, forming herbage in temperate regions, and sometimes becoming arFig. 57o. Stamimferous flower of Carex, consisting of a scale or glume bearing borescent (50 or 60 feet high) in tropical countries. This long filaments innate anthers. TT° stamens withflower ... o76. Hermaphrodite of Scirpus,andClub-rush. The glume has been is perhaps the most important order in the vegetable kingremoved, and there are seen six hypogynous, retrorsely-toothed dom, as supplying food for man and animals. To it belong bristles, three stamens with innate anthers, and the pistil with a the cultivated grains, Wheat, Oats, Barley, Rye,* Rice, opiate ,77 The smgle three stigmas. - o/7. ripestyle pistiland of Carex cut vertically, showing the minute embrvo Maize, and Millet. Most of these have been so long under CXXXVIL 3 in the base of the albumen. cultivation that their native state is unknown. The tire sheaths, and $ or $ flowers, each with a solitary bract constant properties of the order are nutritive in a marked degree. or glume (Fig. 575), imbricated on a common axis, so as Some yield fragrant oils, others produce sugar. The frato form a spikelet. The lowermost glumes are often empty, grant odour given out by Anthoxanthum, and other grasses erianth 0, or existing in the female flowers in the form of used for hay, has been attributed to benzoic acid. Lolium

BOTANY. temulentum, Darnel-grass, has been said to be narcotic and poisonous, but this has not been fully proved. Andropogon Schcenanthus, Lemon-grass, and A. Calamus aromaticus, yield a fragrant oil. Bambusa arundinacea, the Bamboo, attains a great height, and in hothouses in Britain it has sometimes grown at the rate of a foot or more per day. Saccharum officinarum, is the Sugar-cane.

spike-like form, sessile on the margin of a contracted frond, without reticulation or a ring (exannulate), 2-valved; fronds with straight straight vernation.—Sub-order vernation.—Sub-order 4. 4. Danaeacese, Danteacese, the with Danaea tribe; Sporangia dorsal, combined in masses, exannulate, splitting irregularly by a central cleft. A moist insular climate is that best adapted for ferns in general. Ferns characterize the flora of New Zealand. Some Ferns are used medicinally as anthelmintics, while others are demulcent and astringent. The rhizomes of several IL- -CRYPTOGAMEiE, ACOTYLEDONEiE, OR species, are used as food in Australia, the Sandwich FLOWERLESS PLANTS. Islands, and India. Adiantum Capillus Veneris, true CLASS III.—ACOTYLEDONES OR ACRO-THALLOGENiE. Maiden-hair, has been used in the preparation of Syrup of SUB-CLASS I.—ACROGEXvE, ACROBRYA, OR CORMOGESLE.1 Capillaire. Lastrea Filix-mas is an effectual vermifuge in cases of Tape-wurm. Nat. Ord. 267.—Filices, the Fern order (Figs. 580 to Nat. Ord. 268.—Marsileace^: or Rhizocarpe^e, the 582).—Leafy plants, the leaves, or more properly fronds, being Pepperwortor Rhizocarp order.—Aquatic plants, with creepcircinate in vernation (Fig. 100), and arising from a rhizome ing stems, bearing leaves, which are usually divided into 3 (Fig. 580), or from a hollow arborescent trunk (Fig. 87), or more cuneate portions, and have a circinate vernation. having the acrogenous structure. The fronds bear on the The fructification is produced at the base of the leafstalks, veins of their lower surface (Figs 580 and 581), or along and consists of sporocarps or involucres inclosing clustered organs (Fig. 360), which consist of antheridian and pistillidian cells. The germinating body has an oval form, and occasionally a mammilla on one side, whence roots and leaves proceed. Found in ditches in various parts of the world, chiefly in temperate regions. Nat. Ord. 269.—LycopodiacejE, the Club-moss order.— Plants with creeping stems or corms, which produce leafy branches (Fig. 357), somewhat resembling Mosses. The \ leaves are small, sessile, and imbricated or verticillate. The fructification occurs in the axil of leaves, and often in a spike-like form (Fig. 357, f), and consists of kidney-shaped, 2-valved cases, which contain antheridian or spermatozoidal cells (Fig. 358), and roundish or four-sided bodies, called Fig. 581. Fig. 580. oophoridia, opening by 2 valves, and containing 4 large spores Fie. 580. Short-fruited Spleenwort or Lady-fern (Athynum Filix-fcemina). 1, The entire fern with its short rhizome, and its delicate trends, (Fig. 359). In the interior of the latter a pro-embryo is dewhich, in the young state, arc rolled up in a circinate manner; veloped, in which archegonia are produced (Fig. 400), and 2, one of the pinna;, with its pinnules, hearing the oblong slightlycurved sori (clusters of sporangia) on their back. The fern is dor- thereafter impregnation gives rise to the germinating body. 581. Portion of the frond of the male Shield-fern {Lastrea Felix-mas), Natives both of cold and warm climates, but abounding in the showing two sori, s s, or clusters of sporangia covered with a rem- tropics, and especially in insular situations. Some of the plants form involucre or indusium attached by the sinus. their margins, sporangia, which open in various ways in have emetic and purgative properties. The powdery matter in their fructification isc inflammable, and order to discharge minute spores. The supposedjwgans of contained —; anrl is ,« known known reproduction, called antheridia and archegonia (Figs. 396 as Lycopode powder or vegetable brimstone. Nat. Ord. 270.—Equisetaceai, the Horse-tail order (Fig. and 398) are seen on the young frond, when first developed 355).—Cryptogams having rhizomes or underground stems, from the spore in the form of a prothallus. The following divisions have been adopted: Sub- bearing hollow, striated, siliceous branches, which are jointed order 1. Polypodiacese, the Polypody tribe (Fig. 580); Spo- and have membranous sheaths at the articulations. The rangia, in variously-shaped clusters, called sori, on the back place of leaves is supplied by green-coloured branchlets, which are sometimes verticillate. The fructification conor margins of the fronds, each sists of cone-like bodies bearing peltate polygonal scales, sporangium having a vertical, inunder which are spore-cases opening inwards by a longitucomplete ring (annulus), or a dinal fissure, and inclosing spores with 2 hygrometric clubhorizontal complete one, which, shaped elaters (Fig. 9). The plants have a confervoid prowhen mature, straightens so as thallus, and on it antheridian and archegonial cells are deto open the spore-case transveloped. Found in ditches and rivers in all parts of the versely, or irregularly, and thus world, both warm and cold. A large amount of silica is discharge the spores (Fig. 354). found in the cuticle of the Horse-tails, associated also with The sori are covered by an influorine. The rhizomes contain starch. dusium or involucre (Fig. 581), Nat. Ord.271.—Musci,the Moss order (Fig.361).—Erect or by the reflexed margins of or creeping, terrestrial or aquatic plants, with cellular stems, the frond.—Sub-order 2. Osmunbearing minute cellular leaves. The organs ot fructification daceae, the Flowering-fern tribe consist of cylindrical, pear-shaped, or ellipsoidal stalked sacs, (Fig. 582); Sporangia dorsal, or containing antheridian cells with phytozoa (Fig. 348), and of clustered on the margin of a transformed frond, with a termi- Frond of tbAo'yaTrern (Osmun- spherical or obovate archegonia, from which, after impregnal ori dorsal ringr, more Jor less pinnae./. da regain), bearing divided nation, are developed urn-shaped sporangia (Fig. 393), sup. reticulated, .•1.1 The frond complete, and openthe extremity ofis bipinnate. the frond ported on stalks called setae, and containing germinating mo* vertirallv the pinnae so as to ing veruumy. Snb-ordpp ouu oruer 3o. bear of spores. The sporangia have a calyptra, an operculum, and fructjfiare catjaltered 0n, consisting frequently a peristome, consisting ot processes called teeth Ophioglossacese, the Adder’ssporangia, arranged in a spike1 , . -u o • in • a short like manner tongue tribe; Sporangia axes. on a number of (Fig. 20), which are either 4 or some multiple of that num1

For full details in regard to structure and reproduction in the different Cryptogamic natural orders, see pages 142 and 155.

Botany.

B O T A N Y. 217 Botany, ber. They aie found in all parts of the world, and abound and poisonous plants ; the genus Agaricus, to which the true Botany. ' in moist temperate regions. Species between 1100 and Mushroom belongs, contains both, and it is not easy to give V— 1200. There are two divisions of the order. Sub-order I. rules for distinguishing the two kinds. Their qualities seem to Andraeacese, Split-mosses; Sporangia calyptrate, splitting depend in part on the mode in which they are prepared for longitudinally into 4 etjual valves, which are kept together food, and this may account for species which are eaten in some at the summit by a persistent operculum. Sub-order 2. countiies having proved poisonous in others. Fungi conBryaceae, true Urn-mosses; Sporangia calvptrate, opening tain much nitrogen in their composition, and they do not at the summit, and not by valves. appear to give out oxygen gas. They are often developed Nat. Ord. 272.—Hepaticas, the Liverwort order (Fig. with great rapidity. I he spawn spreads under ground, 362 )-—Plants having a cellular axis of growth which bears or in the interior of living or dead organisms, and when leaves on a thallus (Fig. 362). Antheridia (Fig. 363, a) favourable circumstances occur, the fructification bursts and archegonia (Fig. 349) are placed either in the substance forth with astonishing quickness. Many of them are deof the thallus, or on sessile or stalked processes. The stalks veloped on living plants, and cause disease and death suppoi t sporangia or peltate sporangiferous receptacles. Spo- by their parasitic growth. Agaricus campestris is the rangia sometimes open by valves, and bear elaters. The plants common Mushroom of Britain ; it is distinguished in part are generally distributed both in cold and warm climates, and by its pink gills. A. Georgii is another edible British spemoi e especially inhabit damp places. Some of the species cies, which sometimes attains a large size. A. prunulus is of Marchantid) especially ]\I% hewtisphcericci, have been re- said to be the most delicious Mushroom. Amanita muscommended as poultices in cases of Anasarca. The follow- caria* is a poisonous species, which produces giddiness and *Plate ing are the divisions of the order:—Sub-order 1. Junger- narcotic symptoms. Morchella esculent a, Morel, is an edi- CXXXVJ. manniaceae, the Scale-moss tribe ; Sporangia openingt, by 4 ble Fungus. Penicillium glaucum is the common Mould fiS- T valves, the spores mixed with elaters. Sub-order 2. ]Vlar- developed wherever organic substances are in fitting condichantiaceae, the true Liverwort tribe ; Sporangia not open- tions of moisture and temperature. The Vinegar-plant ing by valves, bursting irregularly, spores mixed with ela- seems to be the abnormally developed mycelium oi' P. glauters. ^ub-order 3. Ricciaceae, the Crystalwort tribe ; Spo- cum, or perhaps P. crustaceum. Sphceria sinensis, is a rangia not opening by valves, and having no elaters. • f ungus parasitic on a caterpillar. It is a celebrated drug in China. Puber is the genus which embraces the various sub-class ii. thallogena:, thallopiiyta, or kinds of I ruffle (Fig. 366), an underground Fungus, which CELLULARES. Nat, Ord. 273.—Lichenes, the Lichen order (Fig. 364).— is scented out by dogs and pigs. Nat. Ord. 2 /5.—Characea;, the Chara order (Fig.21).'— Cellular plants, growing on stones, on the surface of the earth, or on trees, and taking up nourishment by all points of their Aquatic plants composed of parallel cellular tubes, which ive surface, liaving a foliaceous, crustaceous, or leprous thallus off whorled branches (Fig. 21), and which are often incrusted ( ig. 364). 1 heir fructification consists of thecae or asci, with carbonate of lime. In their tubes, rotation is observed. containing 4, 8, 12, or 16 sporidia (Fig. 346). The thecae Their reproductive organs consist of globules containing anare often mixed with paraphyses, aud by their union form thei idian cells with spirilla, and spiral nucules containing circular, cup-shaped, or linear masses, which are called geiminating cells or spores (Fig. 373). Cbaras are found shields. 1 here are also spermogones or conceptacles, con- submersed in stagnant fresh or salt water in various part of taining cells with antherozoa, which are motionless, and the world. They have a fetid odour. Nat. Ord. 276.—Alga:, the Seaweed order (Fig. 39).— have received the name of spermatia. The spermogones 1 Cellular plants, found in the sea, in rivers, lakes, marshes, and are either in the substance of the thallus, or superficial , and the spermatia are discharged through a pore. Between the hot springs, all over the world, consisting of a brown, red, or upper and lower thalloid layers, green cells, called gonidia green thallus, sometimes stalked, which bears the organs of (rig. 365), are found. Lichens are found in various parts fructification (Fig. 39). These consist of antheridian cells of the world. The pulverulent species are the first plants containing phytozoa, and of others containing germinatin'’' which cover the bare rocks of newly-formed islands. Many spores of different kinds(Figs. 370and37l). These organs of of the Lichens are used for dyeing, others are employed reproduction are often united in the same conceptacle (Fig. as articles of food and medicine. Some Lichens are aro- 369 b). In other cases, they are on different parts of the same matic, and a fragrant powder called Cyprio at Rome is in plant, or even on differentplants. The spores sometimes have pait made from them. Oxalate of lime exists largely in moving cilia, and are called zoospores (Fig. 8), at other times some species, more especially in Variolarias. Cetraria four are united so as to constitute tetraspores (Fig. 371). In islandica, Iceland-moss, contains starch, along with a bitter some of the filamentous Algae there is a conjugation of 2 principle; it has been used as a tonic and demulcent. cells, so as to produce a spore (Fig. 19), in others there is Uadoma rangiferina, is called Reindeer-moss, on ac- a fissiparous division of cells (Fig. 13). Species of Algae count of supplying food for that useful animal. Lecanora abound both in salt and fresh water, whether running or tartarea, called in commerce Rock-moss, supplies the dye stagnant, and in mineral springs. There are three colours denominated Cudbear. Roccella tinctoria is one of the in Algae, grass-green, olivaceous, and red. Some SeaLichens imported under the name of Orchella-weed The weeds are microscopic, others growing in the depths of the colouring matter is called Archil or Orchil; it is used for Pacific have trunks exceeding in length those of the tallest forest trees, and fronds rivalling the leaves of the Palm. dyeing purple and red. Many of the lower Algae approach nearly to some of the ayyi ^rC * lants —Fung!, XVL C lular with a the Mushroom order (Fig. 367) * lowest animal forms, and it is difficult to form a line of de~7 f P > . spawn, mycelium (Fig. 18, m) by which they are nourished, and which bears organs of fructi- marcation. Species of Navicula, Pleurosigma, and other fication of various kinds. Spores are produced, which are allied forms, are placed by some among Diatoms, by others among animals. Peculiar forms are met with in diseased either naked (Figs. 18 and 368), or inclosed in thecse and mixed with elaters. There appear to be antheridian cells con- states of the stomach and bladder, which are referred to Diatoms ; one of them is called Sarcinula ventriculi. Achlya taining spermatozoids, by the action of which on archegonial prolifera is sometimes produced on the gills of gold fishes, cells germinating sporesare developed. In Agarics (Fig. 367) and other animals in a state of disease. The order has been e m c > elium bears tubercles inclosed in avolva, which rupures so as to allow of the development of the stalked pileus, divided in the following manner:—Sub-order 1. Melanosperme® or Fucace®, brown-coloured Seaweeds (Fig. 39); vglS y 6 30 and hymenium* Tllis order contains esculent Marine plants of an olive-green or olive-brown colour, con2E

BOTANY. 218 Botany, sisting of multicellular fronds, which assume a thalloid or a valent to Rhodospermeae, and Zoospermeae corresponding Botany. —V—' filamentous form ; fructification consisting of conceptacles, to Chlorospermeae. The primary divisions into orders he containing archegonial and antheridian cells, the latter con- bases on the structure and development of the sporiferous taining phytozoa, the former being developed as germinating nucleus. Many of the Algae supply nutritious matter, and are used spores. Sub-order 2. Rhodospermese or Ceramiacese, rosecoloured Seaweeds (Fig. 371); Marine plants of a rose-red, as food. Among them may be noticed species of JRhodypurple, or red-brown colour, leafy, cylindrical or filamentous; menia (Dulse), Sphoerococcus, Alaria, Iridcea, Laminaria, fructification consisting of conceptacles containing spores, and Porphyra, Ulva, (Laver), and Gelidium. The edible nests clavate filaments considered as antheridia. The spores are formed by swallows in China have been supposed to be made arranged often in fours, and are called tetraspores. Sub- of portions of gelatinous Seaweeds. Chondrus {Sphceroorder 3. Chlorospermese, or Confervaceae, green-coloured coccus) crispus and C. mammillosus, receive the name of Seaweeds (Fig. 17); unicellular or multicellular (Figs. 11 Carrageen or Irish Moss. Their fronds consist in great and 19), marine or fresh-water plants; the cells contain a green part of a substance somewhat allied to starch, which is ex(rarely purple or red) endochrome; reproduction effected tracted by boiling in water. On cooling it forms a jelly. by conjugation of cells (Fig. 19); zoospores (Fig. 8) often Diatomacece occur in the form of extensive deposits in vaproduced. Sub-order 4. Diatomaceae, Brittleworts (Fig. rious parts of the world. It is said that the city of Richmond, 13); plant a frustule, consisting of a unilocular or a septate in Virginia, is built on a stratum of Diatomaceous remains cell; cells composed of 2 symmetrical valves ; gemmiparous 18 feet in thickness. Extensive tracts in arctic and antarcincrease by self-division; reproduction by conjugation and tic regions are covered with similar relics of a former vegethe formation of sporangia. There are 2 distinct sections: tation. Laminaria saccharina yields upwards of 12 per a. Diatomeae; invested with a siliceous epidermal covering, cent, of Mannite. Nostoc edule is employed in China as an and found both in salt and fresh water, b. Desmidieae; article of diet. Sargassum bacciferum constitutes the Gulfminute fresh-water plants of a green colour, without a sili- weed, which has been noticed by all who have crossed the ceous epidermis. Agardh divides Algae into Fucoideae, Atlantic. The Gulf-weed has never been found attached, corresponding to Melanospermeae of Harvey, Florideae equi- but always floating.

INDEX OF NATURAL ORDERS AND SUB-ORDERS. Order Abietineae 220 Acanthacese 166 Aceraceae 47 Acoraceas 258 Alangiaceae 84 Algae 276 Alismaceae 252 Altingiaceae 210 Amaranthaceae 172 Amaryllidaceae 237 Amentiferae, 209, 210, 211, 212 Ampelideae 53 Amygdaleae 77 Amyridaceae 73 Anacardiaceae 72 Andraeaceae 271 Anonaceae 4 Apiaceae 112 Apocynaceae 143 Apostasiaceae 231 Aquifoliaceae 136 Aquilariaceae 188 Araceae 257 Araliaceae 113 Aristolochiaceae 191 Artocarpaceae 200 Asclepiadaceae 142 Asteraceae 122 Atherospermaceae 181 Atropaceae 160 Aurantiaceae 40 Balanophoraceae Balsamifluae Balsaminaceae Barringtoniaceae Basellaceae Begoniaceae Belvisiaceae Berberidaceae Betulaceae Bignoniaceae Bixaceae Boraginaceae Brassicaceae Brexiaceae Bromeliaceae

219 210 57 89 174 179 95 8 211 146 18 156 15 61 241

Bruniaceae Brunoniaceae Bryaceae Burraanniaceae Butomaceae Byttneriaceae

Order 110 123 271 232 254 32

Cabombaceae 9 Cactaceae 104 Caesalpinieae 75 Callitrichaceas 197 Calycanthaceae 78 Calyceraceae 121 Campanulaceae 126 Cannabinaceae, see Urticaceae Cannaceae 234 Capparidaceae 16 Caprifoliaceae 116 Caryophyllaceae 28 Casuarinaceas j 213 Cedrelaceae 52 Celastraceae 68 Ceramiaceas 276 Ceratophyllaceae 198 Chailletiaceae 70 Chamaelauciaceae 87 Characeae 275 Chenopodiaceae 173 Chlaenaceae 35 Chloranthaceae 205 Chlorospermeae 276 Chrysobalaneae 77 Cichoraceae 122 Cinchonaceae 117 Cistaceae 19 Clusiaceae 42 Colchicaceae 243 Columelliaceae 129 Combretaceae 82 Commelynaceae 248 Compositae 122 Confervaceae 276 Coniferae 220 Connaraceae 74 Convolvulaceae 153 Cordiaceae 155 Cornaceae ; 114

Corylaceae Corymbiferae Crassulaceae Crescentiaceae Cruciferae Cucurbitaceae Cunoniaceae Cupressineae Cupuliferae Cuscutaceae Cycadaceae Cynarocephalae Cyperaceae Cyrillaceae Cyrtandraceae Cytinaceae Danaeaceae Datiscaceae Desmidieae Desvauxiaceas Diapensiaceae Diatomaceae Dilleniaceae Dioscoreaceae Dipsacaceae Dipteraceae Dipterocarpaceae Droseraceae Drupiferae Dryadeae Ebenaceae Ehretiaceae Elaeagnaceae Elatinaceae Empetraceae Epacridaceae Equisetaceae Ericaceae Eriocaulonaceae Erythroxylaceae Escalloniaceae Euphorbiaceae Fabaceae Ficoideae

Order 212 122 101 148 15 93 109 220 212 154 223 122 265 39 147 218

Filices Flacourtiaceae Frankeniaceae Fucaceae Fumariaceae Fungi Gialiaceae Garryaceae Gentianaceae Geraniaceae Gesneraceae Gillesiaceae Globulariaceae Gnetaceae Goodeniaceae Gramineae 267 Grossulariaceae 193 Guttiferae 276 Gyrostemonaceae 264 Haemodoraceae 152 276 Halorageaceae 2 Hamamelidaceae 224 Hederaceae 120 Hepaticae 34 Hippocastaneae 34 Hippocrateaceae 21 Homaliaceae 77 Humiriaceae 77 Hydrangeaceae Hydrochar id aceae 135 Hydrophyllaceae 157 Hypericaceae 185 Hypoxidaceae 27 194 Icacinaceae... Ilicaceae 134 Illecebraceae 270 Iridaceae 131 263 Jasminaceae 46 Juglandaceae 106 Juncaceae 195 Juncaginaceae J ungermanniaceae, 75 102 Krameriaceae.

Order 267 18 26 276 14 274 118 216 145 54 147 244 165 222 124 266 105 42 176 239 91 HI H3 272 48 44 97 51 108 229 151 41 238 38 136 100 236 139 215 250 253 272 23

Botany. Labiatas Labiatifloraa Lacistemacese Lamiaceas Lardizabalaceas Lauraceae Lecythidaceae Leguminosae Lemnaceae Lentibulariaceae Leptospermeae Lichenes Liguliflorae Liliaceae Limnanthaceae Linaceas Loasaceae Lobeliaceae Loganiaceae Loranthaceae Lycopodiaceae Lythraceae Magnoliaceae Malpighiaceaa Malvaceae Marantaceae Marcgraviaceae Marchantiaceae Marsileaceae Mayacaceae Melanospermeae Melanthaceae Melastomaceas Meliaceae Menispermaceae Mesembryanthemaceae Mimoseae Monimiaceae Monotropaceae Moraceae, see Artocarpaceas Moringaceae Musaceae Musci Myoporaceae Myricaceae Myristicaceae

Order 163 122 203 163 7 180 88 75 259 167 86 273 122 242 59 55 92 127 144 115 269 79 3 45 30 234 43 272 268 249 276 243 83 50 6 102 75 183 133 76 235 271 164 208 182

BOTANY. Order Myrsinaceae 138 Polypodiaceae Myrtaceae 86 Pomeae Pontederiaceae Naiadaceae 260 Portulacaceae Nelumbiaceae 11 Potamogetonaceae Nepenthaceae 192 Potentillidae1 Neuradeae 77 Primulaceae Nolanaceae 158 Proteaceae Nyctaginaceae 171 Pyrolaceae Nymphaeaceae 10 Quillaieae Ochnaceae 65 Olacaceae 37 Oleaceae 140 Rafflesiaceae Onagraceae 90 Ranunculaceae llesedaceae Ophioglossaceas 267 Restiaceae Orchidaceae 230 Rhamnaceae Orobanchaceae 161 Orontiaceae 258 Rhizobolaceae Rhizocarpeae Osmundaceae 267 Rhizophoraceae Oxalidaceas 56 Rhodospermeae Palmae 251 Ricciaceae Rosaceae Pandanaceae 255 Roseae Papaveraceae 13 Roxburghiaceae Papayaceae 94 Papilionaceae 75 Rutaceae Paronychiaceae 100 Passlfloraceae 96 Salicaceae Pedaliaceae 149 Salvadoraceae Penaeaceae 186 Samydaceae Petiveriaceae 177 Sanguisorbidae Philadelphaceae 85 Santalaceae Philesiaceae 228 Sapindaceae Philydraceae 247 Sapotaceae Phytolaccaceae 176 Sarraceniaceae Pinaceae 220 Saururaceae Piperaceae 207 Saxifragaceas Pistiaceae 259 Scepaceae Pittosporaceae 60 Schizandraceae Plantaginaceae 170 Scitamineae Platanaceae 214 Scleranthaceae Plumbaginaceae 169 Scrophulariaceae Podostemonaceae 204 Selaginaceae Polemoniaceae 150 Simarubaceae Polygalaceae 22 Smilaceae Polygonaceae 178 Solanaceae

Order 267 77 245 99 260 77 168 184 132

Spigeliaceae Spiraeidae Stackhousxaceae Staphyleaceae Stellatae Sterculiaceae Stilaginaceae Stilbaceas Stylidiaceae Styracaceae 77 Symplocaceae

219 Order Botany. 144 77 67 69 118 31 202 165 125 128 128

217 1 17 262 71 49 268 80 276 272 77 77 227 63

Taccaceae Tamaricaceae Taxaceae Terebinthaceae Ternstrbmiaceae Tetragoniaceae Thymelaeaceae TLliaceae Tremandraceae Trilliaceae Triuridaceae Tropaeolaceae Tubuliflorae Turneraceae Typhaceae

240 25 221 72 36 103 187 33 24 226 261 58 122 98 256

209 141 189 77 190 48 137 12 206 107 196 5 233 175 162 165 66 225 159

Ulraaceas Umbelliferas Urticaceae

201 112 199

Vacciniaceae Yalerianaceae Verbenaceae Violaceae Viscaceae Vitaceae Vivianiaceae Yochysiaceae

130 119 164 20 115 53 29 81

Xanthoxylaceae Xyridaceae

64 246

Zingiberaceae Zygophyllacese

233 62

PART III. GEOGRAPHICAL BOTANY, OR THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. This department of Botany is one of vast extent and importance, and the consideration of it would require much more space than can be allotted to it in the present article. All that we can attempt to do is to give some general facts regarding the distribution of plants over the globe, and to point out some of the causes which regulate this distribution. The nature of the vegetation covering the earth varies according to climate and locality. Plants are fitted for different kinds of soil, as well as for different amounts of temperature, light, and moisture. From the Poles to the Equator there is a constant variation in the nature of the Flora. Between the Lichens and Mosses of the Arctic and Antarctic regions, and the Palms, Bananas, and the Orchids of the Tropics, there is a series of regulated changes in the number and forms of the membei's of the vegetable kingdom. The same thing is observed in the vegetation of lofty mountains at the Equator, in descending fi'om their summit to their base. As we proceed from the Poles to the Equator, vegetation increases in amount and in variety. From a region characterized by the presence of Lichens, Mosses, Saxifrages, and Gentians, we come to that of Cruciferseand

Umbelliferae; we then reach the grassy pastures, and the Coniferous and Amentiferous trees of temperate regions ; and passing through the districts of the Vine, the Orange, and the dwarf Palm, to those of the Date, Coffee, Cotton, Sugar-cane, and Pine-apple, we arrive at the luxuriant vegetation of Equatorial regions. In this progress, as Humboldt remarks, we find organic life and vigour gradually augmenting with the increase of temperature. The number of species increases as we approach the Equator, and decreases as we retire from it. Each zone, however, has its own peculiar features. The Tropics have their variety and grandeur of vegetable forms, while the North has its meadows and green pastures, and the periodical awaking of natui'e in spring. I.-—INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE, MORE ESPECIALLY OF TEMPERATURE AND MOISTURE, ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. In determining the effects of climate on vegetation, our attention is chiefly directed to temperature and moisture,— to the daily, monthly, and annual distribution of heat, and

BOTANY. 220 Botany, to the amount of rain. We must also take into account but approach nearer the parallels of latitude in the interior Botany, 's—-v—' light, the nature of the plant, its exposure, and many other of continents. Some plants require a long period of winter causes, the effects of which are by no means easily estimated. repose and a few weeks only* of warm and continued sumThey operate, however, usually within narrow limits, heat mer ; others demand a dry season succeeded by a moist one. and moisture being the general agents. While in a given Some require a hot summer after an extremely cold winter place the quantity of heat received varies according to dif- of moderate duration ; others succeed in a climate where ferent circumstances, it is found that the mean is pretty uni- the temperature of both seasons is moderate. In determinform. The quantity of heat is modified by winds and mois- ing the limits of distribution in the vegetable kingdom, we ture. In China, for instance, the N.E. monsoon causes a must know the mean monthly and the mean daily temperagreat depression of temperature. The general preponder- ture during those periods when vegetation is active. We ance of moist warm winds over dry cold ones is the reason must ascertain the number of days which a plant requires to why mild winters are more frequent in Europe than severe produce successively its leaves, flowers, and fruit, and we ones. Mountain chains, by intercepting winds, often pro- must estimate the mean temperature during that period. The duce a marked effect on climate. The effect of the sea in conditions which define the limits of a plant require that we modifying the temperature is seen in insular climates, which should know at what degree of temperature its vegetation are more equable than those of vast continents. Marine begins and ends, and further, the sum of the mean temperacurrents have also a decided influence on temperature. Thus tures during that time. Light and heat are so intimately connected, and so genethe gulf-stream in the Northern Atlantic Ocean carries warm water towards the Arctic regions, and materially affects the rally accompany each other, that the laws of the one are temperature of the coasts around which it flows ; while the very nearly those of the other. Both of them are of the utPeruvian coast current, by bringing cold water from the most importance in vegetation. Light is concerned in the antarctic regions towards the Equator, also modifies tempera- various functions of plants. The physiological action of the ture. The temperature of the globe varies both as regards leaves cannot go on without it, and the activity of vegetable latitude and altitude, and vegetation at the same time un- life is in no small degree dependent on it. Some plants redergoes changes. Latitudinally the globe, as regards tem- quire full exposure to light, others luxuriate in the shade. perature, may in a general way be divided into a tropical re- The difference of the intensity of light in different countries gion extending from the Equator to 23° 28 ; a sub-tropi- influences the secretions of plants, and has a certain effect cal, as far as 40° ; a temperate from 40° to 60° ; and a cold on the nature of the vegetation. While the chemical conregion beyond 60°. In a hypsometrical or altitudinal point stitution of the atmosphere is nearly the same everywhere, of view, different zones of temperature are recognised, cor- its density varies much. This depends both on elevaresponding more or less with those of latitude. On an aver- tion and on the matters which may be suspended in it. age, it may be said, that there is a difference of 1° of Fahren- It is probable that the varying density of the atmosphere heit for every 300 or 400 feet of ascent, and a difference of at different elevations produces little or no effects in com1° of the thermometer in the boiling point of water for every parison with those which result from the modifications which the temperature, light, and humidity of the air undergo. 5o0 feet of ascent. Moisture is an agent which exerts a powerful influence Each species of plants can bear a definite range of temperature. A certain amount of heat is also required during on the distribution of plants. Vegetation develops itself a given period of time, in order that a plant may be enabled only when moisture is present. Very dry regions are defito perform all its functions properly. Although a plant may cient in vegetable productions, while the luxuriance of trocontinue to live in a certain climate, it may not thrive. The pical vegetation is connected with great heat and moisture. only true indication of climatal adaptation is, that the plant Plants differ in regard to the quantity of moisture they recan perfect its seed and produce its various secretions. The quire. Some are of a loose, spongy texture, with large, soft latitude of a place does not at once tell the range of tem- leaves, little or no pubescence, and many stomata, and deperature. Many places in the same parallel of latitude dif- mand a great deal of water. Others, growing in sandy, fer widely in this respect. Lines, called Isothermal, have dry situations, where little rain falls, are firm and succulent, been drawn through places in which the mean annual tem- and often have long hairs and few stomata. The hard dry perature is the same, and it is found that while at the Equa- texture of the leaves of Banksias and other Australian plants, tor these correspond nearly with the lines of latitude, as we seems to be connected with the small amount of moisture recede from the Equator the two are widely separated. in the atmosphere. Forests have a marked effect on the Yearly isotherms run in curves, rising in their course from humidity of climates, and the felling of them has often been the east of America towards the west of Europe, and sink- productive of very injurious consequences, by diminishing ing towards the south in the interior of the Continent. The the quantity of water. In warm climates, the dry season yearly isotherm of 50° passes through latitude 42° 30' in the may be said to correspond to our winter in its effects on veeast of America, 51° 30’ in England, 47° 30' in Hungary, and getation. In some parts of South America, where no rain 40° in Eastern Asia. The want of conformity between the falls for many months of the year, the leaves during the dry isothermal and latitudinal lines will be easily understood, season fall;7 buds are developed in their axils, and it is only when we consider that a place having a moderate summer when the w et season arrives that the trees become clothed and winter temperature may have the same annual mean as wuth verdure, and the herbage appears. Epirrheology or the influence of various physical agents one having a very cold winter and a very warm summer. The vegetation in such districts would, however, be very on plants, is well illustrated by the variations in the epochs different, and thus the annual isotherms are not sufficient of foliation, defoliation, flowering, and fruiting. The unfor the purposes of botanical geography. Plants which folding of the leaves takes place at different periods of the stand the winter of London will not withstand the cold of year in different countries. Thus the Elm (Ulmus camplaces in Hungary in the same annual isotherm. In esti- pestris) unfolds its leaves at Naples at the beginning of mating, therefore, the effect of different climates on vegeta- February, at Paris in the month of March, in England 15th tion, attention must be paid also to the summer and winter April, and at Upsal about the middle of March. Schubler heat. Lines passing through places with an’ equal mean found in general that in the middle latitudes of Europe and summer heat are called Isotheral, while those indicating an North America, the flowering of plants is delayed four days equal mean winter temperature are called Isocheimal or Iso- for each degree of latitude towards the north. Berghaus cheiminal. The latter in continents bend considerably to- remarks that in higher latitudes, in districts situated in the wards the south, while the former bend towards the north, north of Germany, the development of vegetation is less re-

BOTANY. Botany, tarded than in more southern positions. The delay in the period of flowering, between Hamburgh and Christiania, amounts to only 3 4 days for one degree of approach towards the north, while that between southern Germany and Smyrna, in Asia Minor, which is in the same parallel as the most southern portions of Europe, amounts for the same space to 7‘4 days. Wheat harvest begins at Naples in June, in central Germany in July, in the south of England and the middle districts of Sweden about the 4th of August. Barley harvest commences at Naples in June, in central Germany about the end of July or beginning of August, in the south of England about the 14th of August, and in the middle districts of Sweden about the 4th of August. Ripe Cherries may be had at Naples during the first days of May, at Paris and in central Germany about the end of June, and in the south of England about the 22d of July. From observations made during two years in Saxony, we find, as a mean result, that from the flowering to the ripening of the fruit, 56 days are required for Wheat, 59 for Rye, 31 for Barley, 45 for Oats. Thurmann states that in the Jura, generally speaking, a delay of 17 days in the harvest corresponds to a difference of altitude of 1000 feet. On the Alps, according to Schlagintweit, there is a delay of 11 days in the development of vegetation for every i000 feet. Quetelet finds that in the climate of Europe every 600 or 700 feet produces a delay of about 4 days, which is equal to about 1° of latitude. As regards the fall of the leaf, or defoliation, Berghaus remarks, that the Hazel-nut tree, the Ash, Lime, Poplar, and Maple, lose their leaves at Upsalaat the very beginning of autumn ; while in the neighbourhood of Naples they remain in full foliage during the whole month of November. The Apple-tree, the Fig-tree, the Elm, Birch, and different kinds of Oak, which in Paris are deprived of their leaves at the beginning of November, retain them at Naples till the end of December. In England, the Walnut is one of the first trees that loses its leaves ; and after it the Mulberry, the Ash (especially when it has had much blossom), and then the Horse-chestnut II.—INFLUENCE OF SOILS ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. Soils, or the media in which the roots of plants grow, regulate to a certain degree their distribution. In estimating this influence we must take into account the geognostic nature of the soil, its state of aggregation, its temperature, moisture, and exposure. Some plants are terrestrial, others are aquatic; some grow suspended in the air, others are parasitic. The effects produced by ordinary soils depend perhaps more on their mechanical nature than on their chemical composition. Hard, undecomposed felspar will bear a scanty vegetation, but when disintegrated and loose it affords abundant nourishment. The vegetation of limestone and trap rocks is more luxuriant than that of sandy soils. The moisture retained by aluminous soils is much greater than that by siliceous soils. Many plants seem to thrive best on chalky soils, others on siliceous, argillaceous, or peaty soils. Certain species grow only on soils impregnated with saline matters ; others require to be within the influence of the sea. Parasites are often confined to peculiar species of plants. Plants, in reference to the physical localities or stations in which they grow, have been divided into terrestrial, aquatic, marshy, epiphytic, and parasitic. Among terrestrial plants, the nature of the soil in which they grow gives rise to various groups. Arenaceous or sand plants have a peculiar character in all parts of the world, and the greater number are probably grasses. Some of them bind the loose sand by their creeping stems. Calcareous or chalk plants are found on limestone rocks. Many Orchids belong to this division, especially species of Ophrys and Cypripedium.

221 Saline plants are those found in maritime situations, or near Botany. salt lakes, and which seem to require much soda in their composition, and which have been called Halophytes. Among them are species of Salsola, Salicornia, and Statice. Rupestral and mural plants are those found on rocks and walls, such as species of Saxifrage, Sedum, Draba, Sisymbrium, Parietaria, Linaria Cymbalaria, Asplenium Rutamuraria, A. Trichomanes, Lichens, and Mosses. Some also grow on the ruins of old buildings, and on rubbish-heaps, &c., near the habitations of man and animals. Among these are included Nettles, Docks, Hyoscyamus, Xanthium, and Sempervivum tectorum. Plants which grow in cultivated grounds, as in fields and gardens, may be said to form a special division. Among them may be noticed Centaurea Cyanus, Lychnis Githago, Spergula arvensis, Sinapis arvensis, Lolium temulentum, Stellaria media, species of Lamium, Chenopodium and Euphorbia. Plants of uncultivated ground are:—Meadoiv and Pasture plants, such as Grasses, Trefoils, Clovers, species of Ranunculus, Veronica, Campanula, Galium, and Myosotis, Beilis perennis, Lotus corniculatus, Pimpinella Saxifraga, Gentiana campestris: Heath plants, such as Calluna vulgaris, the species of Erica, Juniperus communis, species of Ledum, Andromeda, and Polytrichum: Forest plants, growing in woods, such as the different kinds of trees ; and the plants which grow under their shade, as Oxalis Acetosella, Trientalis europaea, Linnaea borealis, Geum rivale, Hepatica triloba, Vaccinium Myrtillus, and species of Orchis: Bush-plants, or those growing in bushy places, as Origanum vulgare, Corydalis bulbosa, Vincetoxicum officinale: Mountain plants, which vary much according to elevation, and which include species of Saxifraga, Gentiana, Primula, Rhododendron, Salix, Cyperaceae, Juncaceae, Labiatae, &c.: Hedge plants, such as Hawthorn and Sweet-briar, and the plants which twine among their branches, as Lonicera, Humulus, Bryonia, Tamus, Clematis, Lathyrus, as well the species of Viola and Adoxa, which grow at their roots. Aquatic plants may either grow in salt or in fresh water. Among the former are marine species, such as the common species of Fucus, and other Seaweeds which grow buried in the ocean, and the Sargassum, or Gulf-weed, which floats on its surface; with them may be included such Phanerogamous plants as Zostera. Among the latter are some which root in the mud, and flower above the water, as species of Nymphaea, Nuphar, Potamogeton, Ranunculus, Utricularia, and Sagittaria; others flower under water, as Subularia aquatica; while others float in the water, as species of Lemna, Pistia, Stratiotes, and various green fresh-water Algae. Some aquatics are fluviatile, as Ranunculus fluviatilis and CEnanthe fluviatilis; others grow in fresh clear water springs, or near them, as Montia fbntana. Marshy plants are those which grow in different kinds of wet soil. Some of them, as Comarum, Menyanthes, species of Bidens, (Enanthe, Cicuta., and Carex, grow in very wet places, which are not always easily accessible; others, as Primula farinosa, and Pinguicula alpina, grow in firmer, peaty soil. To this class may be referred certain amphibious plants, which generally grow submerged, but which can live in dry soil. Among them are included various forms of Ranunculus, Polygonum amphibium, Nasturtium amphibium, Limosella aquatica, as well as species of Rhizophora and Avicennia, which are found in warm countries at the muddy mouths of rivers. Epiphytic plants are those which send their roots into the air, and grow attached to other plants. Among them are enumerated numerous species of tropical orchids (Fig. 70), and other air-plants, such as species of Tillandsia and Pothos. Parasitic plants are those which derive nourishment from other plants. Among them are included those growing on living vegetables, such as species of Loranthus, Viscum *piate (Fig. 488), Lathreea, Orobanche, Cusouta* (Fig. 426), Raf- CXXV.

BOTANY. 222 Botany, flesia (Fig. 549), and many Fungi; those growing on dead Certain plants belonging to the natural order Polemoniaceae Botany. vegetable or animal tissues, as the various Mould-plants are peculiar to California; an Orchid, called Disa grandiflora, is confined to Table Mountain ; Codon Royeni and (Figs. 422 to 425). Protea acaulis are restricted to a few localities at the Cape HI —DISTRIBUTION OF CLASSES, ORDERS, GENERA, of Good Hope. Numerous instances of a similar kind may AND SPECIES OF PLANTS OVER THE GLOBE. be given, more particularly in the case of islands. The flora Some plants are generally distributed over the globe, oc- of islands near continents partakes of the character of that curring in both hemispheres, and having an extensive lati- of the mainland. Those remote from continents, however, tudinal range ; others are restricted and endemic in their have often a more or less endemic flora. St Helena had a distribution. There are numerous interesting facts in re- peculiar flora, which has been strangely altered by foreign gard to geographical distribution in Hooker’s Antarctic introductions. Pringlea antiscorbutica, Kerguelen’s Land Flora, a work from which many of the following examples Cabbage, is an interesting plant growing on an island, the are taken. Trisetum subspicatum is a Grass having a very remotest of any from a continent, and which, according to wide range. It extends from Tierra del Fuego over the Hooker, yields, besides this esculent, only 17 other flowerwhole of the Peruvian Cordilleras, and over the Rocky Moun- ing plants. We sometimes meet with marked centres, where the tains to Melville Island, Greenland, and Iceland; it is found in the Swiss and Tyrolese Alps, on the Altai, in Kamtschatka, maxima of the genus of an order, or of the species of a and in Campbell’s Island. The range is from 54° S. Lat. to genus, occur, the number of the genera or species diminish74^° N. Lat., through 128J degrees of latitude. Drimys ing as we recede from these centres, and ending perhaps in *P1. CXI. Winter!* extends over no less than 86 degrees of latitude, or a solitary representative in some distant country. Gentians 5160 geographical miles, forming at the southern limit of its and Saxifrages have their maxima in the European Alps; growth one of the trees which advance nearest to the ant- Eriocaulons have their great centre in Brazil, but a few arctic circle, and reaching as high a latitude as any flower- species are found in other countries. Epacridaceae are reing plant, save the solitary Grass of the South Shetland stricted to Australia. The genus Viola has two marked Islands. Gentiana prostrata has a great range, both in lon- centres, one in Europe and another in America. The form gitude and latitude. In southern Europe it inhabits the of the European and American species are quite distinct. Carinthian Alps between 6000 and 9000 feet high ; in Asia, The maximum of the genus Erica is at the Cape of Good it occurs on the Altai Mountains about N. Lat. 52°; in Ame- Hope ; hut members of the Heath family extend to northern rica, on the tops of the Rocky Mountains, in Lat. 52° N., regions in the form of Erica Tetralix, E. cinerea, and Calat an elevation of 15,000 to 16,000 feet; and on the east luna vulgaris. The tropical Myrtaceae have Myrtus comside of the Andes of South America, in 35° S. It descends munis to represent them in Europe, Leptosperraeae in Austo the level of the sea at Cape Negro, in the Straits of Ma- tralia, and Metrosideros lucida in Lord Auckland’s group, galhaens, in* Lat. 53° S.; and at Cape Good Hope, in Beh- Lat. 50^° S. An order, or a genus, or a species, in one country is occaring’s Straits, Lat. 68£° N. Potentilla anserina is widely distributed both in the northern and southern hemispheres. sionally represented in another by forms which are either It grows throughout Europe, from the shores of the Medi- allied, or have a physiognomic resemblance. There is thus terranean to the Arctic Sea; over all Asia to the north of sometimes a repetition of resembling or almost similar forms the Altai range; in North America, from Lat. 40° to Whale- in countries separated by seas or extensive tracts of land. fish Island in 70° N. Lat.; and from the Oregon River to The Ericaceae of the Cape have in Australia a representaKotzebue’s Sound on the west coast. Epilobium tetrago- tive in the nearly allied Epacridaceae; the Cactaceae of num, a British plant, extends from Canada to Fuegia. Cal- America are represented by certain succulent forms of Melitriche verna is universally diffused through the temperate sembryanthemaceae and Euphorbiaceae in Africa; and by regions of both hemispheres. Many species in the Falk- some Crassulaceae in Europe. Trientalis europaea has a reland Islands are identical with those found in Iceland. Ga- presentative form in America, T. americana; Cornus suelium Aparine is a British plant, found at the Cape of Good cica occurs in Europe, C. canadensis in Canada. EmpeHope, at the Straits of Magalhaens, in the island of Chiloe; trum nigrum, in arctic regions, has E. rubrum to take its and in North America it ranges between the latitude of Fort place in the antarctic; Pinguicula lusitanica, in the northern Vancouver and the Mississippi River. Cryptogamic cellu- hemisphere, has P. antarctica closely resembling it in the lar plants have generally a very wide range ; many of them southern ; Hydnora africana and H. triceps in South Africa are represented in South America by H. americana. are universally distributed. The mode in which the globe has been clothed with Some plants which have a great latitudinal range are restricted to a narrow space as regards longitude. This is the vegetation, has given rise to much discussion. We know case with the species of Erica, which extend from the Cape from the Sacred Record, that on the third day of the of Good Hope to northern regions. Certain species of Rho- Creation the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding dodendron, Magnolia, Azalea, Actaea, and Andromeda, occur seed after his kind, and the tree yielding fruit after his on the east of the Rocky Mountains, and are not found on kind; but whether the whole earth was at once clothed the western side. In the western part of Ireland we meet with vegetation, or certain great centres were formed, with Daboecia polifolia, Erica mediterranea, and Arbutus whence plants were gradually to spread, we have no means Unedo, which are not met with in other parts of Britain, of knowing. The endemic limitation of certain orders, and which again appear on the mountains of Asturias. On genera, and species, would certainly lead to the opinion, the western side of the Cordilleras of Chili, Calceolarias grow, that, in many instances, there have been definite centres, which are not found on the eastern side. Lobelia Dort- whence the plants have spread only to a certain extent. manna seems to be confined to the western European coun- But the general distribution of other tribes of plants, and tries. the occurrence of identical species in distant parts of the While some plants are generally and widely distributed, world, would favour the view, that countries with similar others are limited to particular countries, and sometimes climates had originally many species of plants in common. confined within very narrow limits. The floras of the dif- In the case of Grasses, we would naturally suppose that they ferent quarters of the world contain certain plants, which must have been produced in their social state, forming pasare restricted to them, and some which are only found in ture for the nourishment of animals; and such we might a few localities. One region in the Andes is marked by the conjecture to be the case with social plants in general. occurrence of species of Bejaria, and another by Cinchonas. Edward Forbes advocates strongly the view of specific

EOT Botany, centres, and endeavours to account for the isolation of certain species or assemblages of plants from their centres, by supposing that these outposts were formerly connected, and have been separated, by geological changes, accompanied with the elevation and depression of land. Schouw opposes this. He thinks that the existence of the same species in far distant countries is not to be accounted for on the supposition of a single centre for each species. The usual means of transport, and even the changes which have taken place by volcanic and other causes, are inadequate, he thinks, to explain why many species are common to the Alps and the Pyrenees on the one hand, and to the Scandinavian and Scotch mountains on the other, without being found on the intermediate plains and hills ; why the flora of Iceland is nearly identical with that of the Scandinavian mountains ; why Europe and North America, especially the northern parts, have various plants in common, which have not been communicated by human aids. Still greater objections to this mode of explanation, he thinks, are founded on the fact that there are plants at the Straits of Magalhaens, and in the Falkland and other antarctic islands, which belong to the flora of the arctic pole ; and that several European plants appear in New Holland, Van Diemen’s Land, and New Zealand, and which are not found in intermediate countries. Schouw, therefore, supposes that there were originally not one, but many primary individuals of a species. Provision has been made for the extension of plants over the globe. The usual modes of transport are man, tides of the sea, rivers, winds, and birds. The Coco-nut wafted on the ocean is able to resist the action of the salt water by means of its fibrous covering, and lands on islands and shores in a state fit for germination. In this way recently produced coral islands are covered with vegetation. The hairy fruits and seeds of many plants are wafted to a distance by the winds, and rivers carry down the seeds of plants which have grown at their source. Birds which feed on pulpy fruits, often deposit the hard seeds at distant parts. Man, in his migrations, has distributed many plants, including common weeds, as well as plants useful for food or clothing. Great changes have taken place in the distribution of many useful plants, chiefly by the agency of the Caucasian races, who have transplanted to their own countries the characteristic plants of other nations. Thus Schouw remarks— they have brought the Apricot, the Peach, and the Almond, from Asia Minor and Persia, and the Orange from China; they have transplanted Rice and Cotton to the Mediterranean coasts ; they have brought the Maize and Potato from America to Europe. They have also carried their own characteristic plants to their colonies, and have transported into various climates useful and ornamental vegetable productions. European Corn plants have been widely spread through North America, in Mexico, the elevated countries of South America, Chili, Buenos Ayres, in South Africa, in the temperate parts of Australia and Van Diemen’s Land. The Vine has been spread to Madeira, the Canary Islands, South Africa, and the high lands of South America. The Coffee-tree and Sugar-cane have been transplanted by man into the West Indies and Brazil; the Nutmeg and Clove into the Mauritius and Bourbon, and various West India islands; plantations of Tea have been formed in Brazil, Java, and India; Rice and Cotton have been cultivated in the warmer parts of North America and Brazil, and New Zealand Flax in New Holland. The consideration of the distribution of the Cereal grains and of the Potato is a subject of much interest. The former have been so long cultivated, and so extensively spread, that it is difficult to discover their native country. They are not seen in a wild state, unless it be true, as Esprit Fabre says, that ACgilops ovata is the wdld condition of M/heat, and they have a wide geographical range, so as to

A N Y. 223 be fitted for various climates. Rice is the grain which fur- Botany, nishes food to the greatest number of the human race ; it is extensively used in warm countries, and more especially in China. Maize bears the greatest range of temperature, and succeeds in the hottest climates. Millet also is associated with it in hot countries. Wheat succeeds best on the limits of the sub-tropical region, and, as we proceed north, is succeeded by Rye, and then by Barley and Oats, which extend farthest north in Europe. IV.—PHYSIOGNOMY OF VEGETATION IN DIFFERENT QUARTERS OF THE GLOBE. In this department of botanical geography we consider plants according to the distribution of forms, marking the predominance of this or that form of plants by the absolute mass of its individuals or by the impression it makes from the character given to the flora. The prevalence of a single form will often produce a much greater physiognomic effect than the number and variety of the floral productions. Hinds says that a general physiognomic impression is sometimes conveyed by the prevalence of colour. Social plants in an especial manner, affect the landscape from growing in masses. There are certain marked vegetable forms which are concerned in determining the aspect or physiognomy of nature in different countries. Some of these leading forms coincide with natural orders ; at other times, several distinct botanical groups require to be united. The Palm Form (Fig. 82)—gives a marked character to the warmest regions of the globe, between 10 deg. north and 10 deg. south Eat. The true Palm climate has a mean annual temperature of 78‘2 deg. to 8P5 deg. F. South America is conspicuous for the beauty and number of its Palms. With the Palm form has been associated the Cycadaceous order (Fig. 556),* which resembles it somewhat in the ap- *p]ate pearance of its naked stems and tufts of pinnated leaves. CXXXIV. The Banana and Plantain Form (Fig. 86)—is usually associated with the Palms in the torrid zone. In this form the physiognomist includes the natural orders Musaceae, Zingiberaceas, and Marantaceae. The plants representing this form have succulent herbaceous stems and long delicately-veined verdant leaves. The Malvaceous Form*—represented in warm climates *piate by trees with thick trunks, large soft cordate or lobed leaves, CXIV. and gorgeous flowers. It includes the orders Malvaceae, Byttneriaceae, Sterculiaceae, and Tiliaceae. The Mimosa Form—is represented by Leguminosae, with delicately pinnate leaves (Fig. 132), and is met with both in warm and in temperate regions. It is not seen in the temperate zone of Europe, though found in the United States. The Heath Form—belongs especially to the African continent and islands, as well as to Australia. Under it are included the species of Erica (Fig. 503) and Calluna, the Epacridaceae of Australia, the sub-order Diosmeae of the order Rutaceae, and some Proteaceae. The Cactus Form (Figs. 142 and 483)—with its peculiar jointed or spherical or polygonal stems without true leaves, is exclusively American. Some of the stems become hard and ligneous, and are very indestructible. Certain Euphorbias may be said to represent this form in Africa. The Orchideous Form (Fig. 70)—is represented by the epiphytes which enliven the rocks and the trunks of trees in tropical climates, and which are distinguished by the animal shapes and colouring of their flowers. The Casuarina Form—consists of leafless trees, with branches resembling those of Equisetums, found chiefly in the islands of the Pacific Ocean and in India. Alono-with phyllodiferous Acacias and some Myrtacese, Casuarinas give a uniform character to the Tasmanian flora. The Coniferous Form—\s represented by the needleleaved trees of northern regions, the Pines, Cypresses, and Thujas; and by the broader-leaved Dammara and Sails-

BOTANY. 224 Botany, buria of more southern regions. In the Himalaya and imperfect state of our knowledge of the floras of different Botany, ' ' the Mexican mountains Coniferous and Palm forms are as- countries, it is impossible to tell the exact number of spe- v cies of plants in the globe. Those known at the present sociated. The Pothos Form—prevails chiefly in the tropics, and is day, described and undescribed, amount probably to nearly *Plate represented by Pothos, Dracontium, Caladium, and Arum.* 120,000, and from this estimates have been made of the CXXXV. They have succulent stalks, large thick-veined leaves, and total vegetation, the numbers varying from 150,000 to 200,000. The following is the estimated number of known flowers more or less spathaceous. The Liane Form—\s represented by the twining rope- and described plants :— Genera. Species. plants, the Paullinias, Banisterias, Bauhinias, Bignonias, Acotyledonous plants 1,400 15,000 Passifloras, and Aristolochias, of the hottest parts of South Monocotyledonous plants 1,450 14,000 America, and the Hop and Vine of temperate climes. Dicotyledonous plants 6,300 67,000 The Aloe Form—consists of plants with succulent tufted leaves, found in arid regions, often growing singly, and im9,150 96,000 parting, according to Humboldt, a peculiar melancholy The relative numerical proportion of these great classes character to the tropical regions in which they are found. The Gramineous or Grassy Form—illustrated in tropical of plants varies in different quarters of the world. It is estiregions by arborescent Bamboos, and in temperate regions mated that Cryptogamic plants are to Phanerogamous by meadows and pastures. Along with true Grasses are plants as 1 to 7. In northern and alpine regions the proassociated Cyperaceae, Juncaceae, Restiaceae, and Eriocau- portion of the former increases. In equatorial regions, Molonaceae. The genus Carex, is one of the Grassy forms of nocotyledons are to Dicotyledons in the proportion of 1 to 5 or 6 ; in temperate regions as 1 to 4 ; and arctic regions cold regions. The Fern Form—gives a character to the landscape of as 1 to 3. In temperate and cool climates there is an inwarm and tropical regions. Like Grasses, Ferns have a crease of Monocotyledonous plants, particularly of Gramigigantic appearance in the hotter parts of the globe. On neous forms. Tropical islands in general possess proporthe Andes they are associated with the Cinchona trees. In tionally more Monocotyledons than do the continents ; the temperate insular climates, such as that of New Zealand, usual proportion in these islands is said to be 1 to 4. An equable temperature, and a rather humid climate, are Ferns predominate. The Liliaceous Form—includes the orders Liliaceae, favourable to Monocotyledons. They diminish both under Amaryllidaceae, and Iridaceae. In Southern Africa the spe- the extreme cold of the arctic zone and the great heat of cies of Amaryllis, Ixia, and Gladiolus, with their ensiform the tropics. They increase towards the southern temperate leaves and gorgeous blossoms, represent this form. In and antarctic zones. Llooker remarks, that in St Helena America the Liliaceous form is represented by Alstrceme- Monocotyledons are to Dicotyledons nearly as 1 to 5, in rias and species of Pancratium, Haemanthus, and Crinum, the Society Islands as 1 to 4’2, in the Sandwich Islands 1 which, however, are less social than the European Iri- to 4, in the Cape de Verd Islands 1 to 5, in the Canaries 1 to 6, in Madeira 1 to 5A, in the Azores 1 to 4'1, in Great daceae. The Willotv Form—is represented by the species of Britain I to 4, in Shetland 1 to 3’3, in the Faroe Islands 1 Salix which spread over the northern hemisphere from the to 2^. There is thus an increase in the proportion of Moequator to Lapland. They increase in northern countries. nocotyledons in passing from the Canaries, Lat. 28°, to MaThe Myrtle Form—gives a peculiar character to the deira, Lat. 32°, the Azores, Lat. 38°, Great Britain, Lat. south of Europe, especially the Mediteranean islands; to 50° 57’, Shetland, Lat. 60°, and Faroe, Lat. 62°. In the New Holland, in species of Eucalyptus, Melaleuca, Metro- arctic regions, on the other hand, Hooker remarks, the prosideros, and Leptospermum ; and to the district of the Pa- portion seems to be inverted. In central and southern Euramos in the Andes, where certain species of Escallonia, rope, the proportion of Monocotyledons to Dicotyledons, which is 1 to 4 in the plains, decreases with the elevation Symplocos, Myrica, and Myrtus, are found. The Melastoma Form—is represented by the species of on dry mountain slopes, till, at the height of 8526 feet, it is Melastoma and Rhexia, with their ribbed and beautifully 1 to 7. Moist mountain slopes favour Monocotyledons, the veined leaves, which abound in tropical America, and some proportion on them being as 1 to 3. In South Australia, of which ascend to 10,000 and 11,000 feet on the Andes. Monocotyledons are to Dicotyledons as 1 to 4, varying, The Laurel Form—is represented in South America by however, according to latitude, the mean being between species of Laurus and Persea, as well as by some of the the vegetation of New South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land. In Western Australia, the proportion is 2 to 9, Guttiferae. The Form of Dicotyledonous Trees—is represented in while the Acotyledons are to Dicotyledons as 1 to 6. In the low plains of the great continents within the northern climates by the Oak, Beech, Elm, Horse-chestnut, Poplar, Alder, and Birch ; in warmer climates by the tropics, Ferns are to Phanerogamous plants as 1 to 20 ; on Olive, and in the hottest regions by the large-leaved Bread- the mountainous parts of the great continents, in the same latitudes, as 1 to 8 or 1 to 6 ; in Congo as 1 to 27 ; in New fruit trees and Cecropias. The Moss Form—is characteristic of cold regions. Hooker Holland as 1 to 26. In small islands, dispersed over a wide mentions, that in New South Shetland there are specks of ocean, the proportion of Ferns increases ; thus, while in Mosses struggling for existence. In Cockburn Island five Jamaica the proportion is 1 to 8, in Otaheite it is 1 to 4, and in St Helena and Ascension nearly 1 to 2. In the Mosses are found. The Lichen Form—is associated with Mosses, and may temperate zone, Humboldt gives the proportion of Ferns to be said to extend still farther. It forms the limit of terres- Phanerogamous plants as 1 to 70. In colder regions the trial vegetation. On Deception Island Lichens only exist. proportion increases, that is to say, Ferns decrease more slowly in number than Phanerogamous plants. The proportion is least in the middle temperate zone, and it inV.—THE STATISTICS OF VEGETATION OVER THE creases both towards the equator and towards the poles ; at GLOBE. the same time, it must be remarked, that Ferns reach their This subject involves the consideration of the number of absolute maximum in the torrid zone, and their absolute known vegetable species in the world, their numerical dis- minimum in the arctic zone. tribution, and the relative proportion of classes, orders, Taking other natural orders, we find that Juncaceae, Cygenera, and species in different countries. In the present peraceae, and Gramineae increase in proportion to all the

B 0 T any. 225 Botany. Phanerogamous species as the latitude becomes higher; colder temperate zone, between the parallels of 45° and 58°, Botany, ■—thus, in the torrid zone, the proportion is 1 to 11, in the the temperature of the year 420,8 to 53°*6; the minimum temperate zone 1 to 8, and in the arctic zone 1 to 4. Cin- summer temperature on the west coast 56°-31, in the intechonaceae, Leguminosge, Euphorbiacese, and Malvaceae, in- rior of the continent 68° ; the minimum winter temperacrease in theii pioportion to Phanerogamse as we approach ture in the interior of Europe 14°. 4. The sub-arctic zone, the equator.. The natural orders Cruciferae, Umbelliferae, from Lat. 58 to the polar circle in Lat. 66°‘32, mean annual and Compositae, have their highest quotients in the tempe- temperature 39°-2 to 42°-8; temperature of summer in rate zone. Piperaceae are plants of the hottest regions ; America 66°-2, in the Old World 6Q°-8 to 68°; winter Papaveraceae aie chiefly European ; Chinchonaceae, within temperature of America 14°, of western Europe 24°-8, and the tropics, form l-29th of the flowering plants ; Scrophu- of the interior of Russia 10 ’4 to 143. The Frigid zone is lai iaceae, in the middle of Europe, are to Phanerogams as 1 divided into—1. The arctic, from the polar circle to Lat 72°, to 26, in North America as 1 to 36. Labiate have their mean annual temperature being 28°-4 to 32°, and towards maximum between 40 and 50 N. Eat. Boraginaceae are the eastern continental regions much lower. 2. The polar, chiefly confined to the temperate regions, while Primulaceae beyond 72° of latitude ; mean annual temperature in the Old and Gentianaceas abound in colder zones. World ]60*7, in the New World l°-4; the summer of the The proportion of species as well as of genera, belonging former 38°-3, of the latter 37°-4; winter of the former to the same natural order, varies in different countries. Of -- 20,2, of the latter -»28°. Ranunculaceae l-5th of the species are European, l-7th Equatorial Zone.—This embraces central Africa, inNorth American, l-17th South American, and l-25th cluding the Guinea coast and Abyssinia, &c., Ceylon, the Indian ; of Papaveraceae nearly 2-3ds are European ; of southernmost part of Hindustan, Malaya, Cochin-China, Cruciferae 205 species, according to De Candolle, are found Sumatra, Borneo, Java, New Guinea, islands in tire eastern in the frigid zone of the northern hemisphere, 30 in the seas, the northernmost part of Australia, the northern part tropics (chiefly on mountains), 548 in the northern tempe- of South America, including Columbia, Peru, the Guianas, rate zone, and 86 in the southern temperate zone. De and part of Brazil. The vegetable forms characteristic of Candolle states that about 1600 species ol Leguminosae are this zone are Palmae, Musaceae, arborescent Grasses, Zingifound in the equinoctial zone, about 1300 to the north of beraceae, Marantaceae, Orchidaceae, and Lianas. Species of the tropics, and about 500 to the south. Of 9030 Com- Bombax and Ficus occur here, with gigantic trees such as positae mentioned by authors, 3590 are found in America, the Baobab, species of Swietenia, Hymenaea, and Caesal224 in Africa, 1827 in Asia, 1042 in Europe, in Malpighiaceae, Anonaceae, Anacardiaceae, pinia. and The 347 orders the South Sea Islands. Of 2500 species of Euphorbiaceae Lecythidaceae, Sapindaceae, Artoearpaceae, Sterculiaceae, 38ths aie found in equinoctial America, Ebenaceae, l-8th in tropical Meliaceae, Lauraceae, and Rafflesiaceae, are also Africa, l-6th in India, 50 species in America, and 120 in well represented in this zone. Europe. Lomler calculates that 165 Coniferae exist in the Tropical Zone.—This includes parts of Bolivia, Brazil, northern and 51 in the southern hemispheres. There are, and Paraguay in South America, the majority of the West according to him, 22 in Europe, 87 in Asia, 16 in Africa, India Islands, Y ucatan, Guatemala, and part of Mexico, 83 in America, and 35 in Australia. Nubia and Senegambia in Africa, Madagascar, Mauritius, and North Australia, part of China and India, Burmah, and VI.—ZONES OF VEGETATION AS REGARDS LATITUDE. the south of Arabia. As Palms and Bananas may be said to characterize the equatorial zone, so may arborescent Ferns We have already seen that the vegetation varies accordspecies of Ficus be said to predominate in the tropical ing to latitude, and that we may trace a series of changes in and zone. Besides many equatorial forms, we meet here with the flora from the equator to the poles. Meyen proposes to plants belonging to the orders Piperaceae, Melastornaceae, mark out round the world a number of climacteric zones or and Convolvulaceae. belts, and to connect with the fact of these zones of climate Sub-tropical Zone.—This embraces the north of Africa, the peculiarities of the vegetation of the belts. Meyen’s the Great Desert, Morocco, Barbary, Algiers, plan is not quite correct, because he has made his belts to including Tunis, Tripoli, and Egypt; in Asia, Palestine, Syria, north correspond with the parallels of latitude, and has asserted of Arabia, Persia, Cabul, Beloochistan, Thibet, the north of that between such and such parallels a certain form of ve- India, and China; the southern part of Australia; south getation would be found all over the world. The boundary Africa; Paraguay, La Plata, Chili, and Banda, in South lines of the zones, in order to be accurate, should be undu- America; the Bahamas, Bermuda, Mexico, Texas, the latory j they should correspond with the isotherm of the Southern States, and California, in North America. In this particulai month in which there is the greatest development zone vegetation is green throughout all the year, like the of vegetable life. Such undulatory zones, in which the plants forests of the damp regions of the torrid zone. It is called present a certain resemblance to each other by sea and land, the region of Myrtaceae and Lauraceae. Certain Palm forms are denominated by Forbes Homoizoic. are seen, such as Phoenix dactylifera in Egypt (represented As regards vegetation, Meyen divides the Torrid zone in India by Phoenix sylvestris and P, humilis), Hyphaene theinto—1. The equatorial, extending 15° on both sides of the baica, Chamaerops Palmetto. In this zone we meet with sucequator, having a mean annual temperature of 78°'8 to 82°-4 culent Crassulaceae, Mesembryanthemaceae, Cactaceae, and F. 2. The tropical, reaching from the 15th degree on each Euphorbiaceae, plants belonging to the orders side of the equator to Eat. 23°, having a mean annual tem- arborescent Ternstromiaceae and Magnoliaceae; and in the southern perature of 730-4 to 780,8, a summer heat of 80°'6 to 86°, and hemisphere Proteaceae, Epacridaceae, and Eria winter temperature in the eastern coast countries of 59°. caceae, along especially with species of Zamia and Diosma. The Temperate zone is divided by Meyen into—1. The Warmer Temperate Zone.—lw Europe this includes the sub-tropical, from the tropics to 34° Eat., with a mean an- southern flora as far as the Pyrenees, the mountains in the nual temperature of 62°’6 to 7l°‘6, and a summer tempera- south of France, and those in the north of Greece. Asia ture of 730,4 to 82°-4. 2. The warmer temperate zone, from Minor, the country between the Black Sea and the Caspian, Eat. 3^4° to 45°, having a mean annual temperature of 53°-6 to 62°-6, the summer temperature, in North America 77° 5 the north of C hina, and Japan he in this zone. It has been in Europe 68° to 75°-2, and in eastern Asia 82°*4; the called the region of evergreen trees. Chamaerops humilis represents the Palms, Erica arborea the Heaths, Laurus mnter temperature in America being 32°-54 to 44°-6, in nobilis the Laurels, and Myrtus communis the Myrtles, in 0, Europe 34°*7 to 50°, and in eastern Asia 26 6. 3. The this zone, in which there are many sub-tropical forms. Spevol. y. 2F

ANY. sides of the valleys in the Andes, arborescent Ferns ; next Botanji in succession, bedewed by cool misty clouds, Cinchonas appear. When lofty trees cease, we come to Aralias, Thibaudias, and Myrtle-leaved Andromedas; these are succeeded by Bejarias abounding in resin, and forming a purple belt around the mountains. In the stormy region of the Paramos, the more lofty plants and showy flowering herbs disappear, and are succeeded by large meadows covered with Grasses on which the Llama feeds. We now reach the bare trachytic rocks, on which the lowest tribes of plants flourish. Parmelias, Lecideas, and Leprarias, with their many-coloured thalli and fructification, form the flora of this inhospitable zone. Patches of recently fallen snow now begin to cover the last efforts of vegetable life, and then the line of eternal snow begins.” Madden and Strachey give the following account of the Himalayan vegetation, proceeding from the plains of India through Kemaon to Thibet:—“ Ascending, we find forms of temperate climates gradually introduced above 3000 feet, as seen in species of Pinus, Rosa, Rubus, Quercus, Berberis, Primula, &c. At 5000 feet the arboreous vegetation of the plains is altogether superseded by such trees as Oaks, Rhododendron, Andromeda, Cypress, and Pine. The first ridge crossed ascends to a height of 8700 feet in a distance of not more than 10 or 12 miles from the termination of the plains. The European character of the vegetation is here thoroughly established, and although specific identities are comparatively rare, the representative forms are most abundant. From 7000 to 11,000 feet, the region of the alpine forest, the trees most common are Oak, Horse-chestnut, Elm, Maple, Pine, Yew, Hazel growing to a large tree, and many others. At about 11,500 feet the forest ends, Picea Webbiana and Betula Bhojpatra being usually the last trees. Shrubs continue in abundance for about 1000 feet more; and about 12,000 feet the vegetation becomes almost entirely herbaceous. On this southern face of the mountains the snow-line is probably at about an elevation of 15,500 feet. The highest dicotyledonous plant noticed was at about 17,500 feet, probably a species of Echinospermum. An Urtica also is common at these heights. The snow-line here recedes to 18,500 or 19,000 feet. In Thibet itself the vegetation is scanty in the extreme, consisting chiefly of Caragana, species of Artemisia, Astragalus, Potentilla, a few Gramineae, &c. The cultivation of Barley extends to 14,000 feet. Turnips and radishes on rare occasions are cultivated at nearly 16,000 feet. Vegetation ends at about 17,500 feet, scanty pasturage being found in favoured localities at this elevation ; and the highest flowering plants are Corydalis, Cruciferae, Nepeta, VII.—ZONES OF VEGETATION AS REGARDS ALTITUDE. Sedum, and a few others.” If we examine the vegetation of the mountains of Europe The vertical range of vegetation has been divided into zones similar to those of the horizontal range. The rela- we shall find a series of similar changes. In the regions of tion of plants to such zones of elevation is called Hypsome- the plains and lower hills of the Alps, extending to 1700 trical. As we ascend from the plain to the top of a moun- feet, the Vine grows; to this succeeds the zone of Chesttain we pass through different belts of vegetation, the extent nuts, which extends to 2500 feet; the zone of the Beech, and variety of which differ in different countries. When and of the higher dicotyledonous trees, reaches from 2500 Tournefort ascended Mount Ararat he was struck with the to 4000 feet; we then come to the sub-alpine region, the circumstance, that, as he left the low ground at the base of zone of Coniferae, extending to about 6000 feet, in which the mountain, he passed through a series of belts, w'hich re- are found the Scotch Fir, the Spruce, the Larch, and the minded him of the countries he had passed through in tra- Siberian Pine, along with certain sub-alpine forms of herbavelling from the south to the north of Europe. At the base ceous plants; next comes the alpine region, or the zone of the flora was that of the west of Asia ; as he ascended higher shrubs, extending to 7000 feet, characterized by Rhododenhe reached the flora of the countries on the north of the Medi- dron hirsutum, and R. ferrugineum, which represent the terranean, then that of northern Europe, and when he reached Bejarias of the Andes ; finally, we reach the subnival region, the summit he found the Lapland plants. Humboldt found extending to 8500 feet, and comprehending the part between that on all mountains there occurs such a representation of the limits of shrubs and the snow-line, where we meet with different floras, and that particular alpine forms are found numerous species of Ranunculus, Draba, Saxifraga, Genalmost over the whole world at a particular elevation. In tiana, Primula, and Poa, besides other genera belonging to describing the South American alpine flora, he says— Ranunculaceae, Cruciferae, Caryophyllaceae, Leguminosae,^ “In the burning plains scarce raised above the level of the Compositae, Gramineae, Lichenes, and Musci. On some of Southern Ocean, we find Musaceae, Cycadaceae, and Palmae, the Alps we find flowering plants reaching to the height of in the greatest luxuriance; after them, shaded by the lofty between 10,000 and 11,000 feet or more. SchlagintweT

226 B 0 T Botany, cies of Cistus, Vaccinium, Smilax, Eucalyptus, and Mela leuca are met with, as well as many forms of Composite, also Figs, Oranges, Pomegranates, and the Vine. Colder Temperate Zone.—In the northern hemisphere the characteristic forms of the vegetation of this zone are seen in England, the north of France, and Germany. The forests consist of Dicotyledonhus trees and especially Coniferae ; the successful cultivation of Wheat scarcely extends beyond the limits of this zone. Heaths, covered with Calluna vulgaris, add a feature in the physiognomy of this zone. The floras of Tierra del Fuego, the Straits of Magalhaens, the Falkland Islands, and Kerguelen’s Land, are also included in this zone. We meet with Drymis Winter!, Fagus antarctica, and F. Forsteri, Dactylis caespitosa, Pringlea antiscorbutica, and many other interesting forms described by Dr Hooker in his Flora Antarctica. Sub-arctic Zone.—This zone is of less extent than the preceding, and in the interior of Asia it is perhaps not so easily distinguishable from it as it is in Europe. In the northern hemisphere it is the zone of Firs and Willows. In the southern hemisphere it embraces a few barren islands. The northern parts of Siberia and Norway, the Faroe Islands, and Iceland, belong to this zone. In the Faroe Islands Barley does nut always ripen, but the Turnip and Potato succeed. The Amentiferae in them, as well as in Iceland, do not become trees. Grasses, Calluna vulgaris, and Juniperus communis, form features in the physiognomy of Iceland, and Alpine species come down nearly to the sea level. In Siberia, forests of Pinus Cembra, Larch, Spruce, Poplar, and Birch occur. Arctic Zone.—In this zone the Birch predominates, and along with it are seen Pinus sylvestris and Abies excelsa. The Birch reaches nearly to North Cape, and Firs extend to 69° or 70°. Grasses are also found, and numerous Lichens and Mosses. At Hammerfest, in Lat. 71°, Potatoes, Turnips, Carrots, and Cabbage succeed. Species of Rhododendron, Andromeda, and Azalea occur in the American arctic zone. Polar Zone.—In this zone there are no trees nor bushes, and no cultivation of plants for food. Species of Saxifrage, Dryas, Papaver, Ranunculus, Cardamine, Cochlearia. Pedicularis, Silene, Potentilla, Salix, Juncus, Eriophorum, Parrya, Platypetalum, Phippsia, Dupontia, and a few others, are found in this inhospitable belt. In Melville Island there are 67 species of flowering plants, in Spitzbergen 45. In cold zones we find more genera and fewer species than in warmer regions.

BOTANY. 227 Botany. found, on the central and southern Alps, at from 10,650 to they may produce on the physiognomy of the country. In 11,700 feet, Androsace glacialis, A. helvetica, Cerastium constituting a botanical region, he lays down the principle latifolium, Cherleria seloides, Chrysanthemum alpinum, that at least one-half of the species and one-fourth of the Gentiana bavarica, Ranunculus glacialis, Saxifraga bryoides, genera should be peculiar to it, and that individual orders S. oppositifolia, and Silene acaulis. The extreme limit of should either be peculiar to it or reach their maximum in Mosses in the Alps is in general little above that of Phane- it. He constitutes 25 Regions :—1. Region of Saxifrages rogamous plants. The last Lichens are to be found on the and Mosses. 2. Region of Umbelliferae and Cruciform. highest summits of the Alps, attached to projecting rocks, 3. Region of Labiatm and Caryophyllaceae. 4. Region of without any limitation of height. Asters and Solidagos. 5. Region of Magnolias. 6. Region On the Pyrenees the following zones are observed:— of Camellias and Teas. 7. Region of Zingiberacem. 8. I. The zone of Vine and Maize cultivation, and of the Himalayan Alps. 9. Asiatic Islands. 10. Mountains of Chestnut woods. 2. A zone extending from the limit of the Java. 11. Islands of the Pacific. 12. Region of Balsam Vine to about 4200 feet, at which limit the cultivation of trees. 13. The Desert Region. 14. Region of Tropical Rye ceases ; here we meet with Buxus sempervirens, Saxi- Africa. 15. Region of Cactuses and Peppers. 16. Mounfraga Geum, Erinus alpinus, Arnica montana, &c. 3. From tains of Mexico. 17. Region of the Medicinal Barks. 18. the limit of the cultivation of esculent vegetables at 4200 Region of Calceolarias and Escallonias. 19. West Indian feet, to the zone of the Spruce Fir. 4. From the limit of Region. 20. Region of Palms and Melastomas. 21. Region the Spruce Fir zone at 6000 to 7200 feet, characterized by of Tree Compositae. 22. Antarctic Region. 23. Region of the presence of the Scotch Fir. 5. From 7200 to 8400 Mesembryanthemums and Stapelias. 24. Region of Epafeet, is an alpine zone, characterized by the dwarf Juniper, cridacem and Eucalypti. 25. Region of New Zealand. Draba aizoides, Saxifraga bryoides, Soldanella alpina, Juncus Region I.—The region of Saxifragaceae and Musci or trifidus, &c. 6. A zone above 8400 feet, exhibits a few al- the Alpine Arctic Flora.—This embraces the north polar pine species, as Ranunculus glacialis, Draba nivalis, Stel- lands from the limits of ice to the zone of trees, or what is laria cerastoides, Androsace alpina, and Saxifraga groen- called the Arctic flora, in which Mosses, Lichens, and Calandica. rices abound ; and the upper parts of the mountains of There are thus in lofty mountain districts evident belts Europe and northern Asia from the snow-line down to the of vegetation. At the lower part is the region of Lowland arborescent belt, or the Alpine flora, in which Primulaceae Cultivation, where the ordinary cultivated plants of the and Saxifragaceaa are prevalent. The mean temperature of country thrive. In cold regions this is very limited, while the arctic division is 41° to 66°, that of the Alpine districts in warm regions it is extended. To this region succeeds is 36° to 47°. In this region there is no cultivation. that of Trees. In high northern latitudes, as at 70°, it Region II.—The region of Umbelliferae and Cruciferae.— reaches to between 700 and 800 feet; on iEtna to 6200 ; Thisextends over northern Europe and Asia from the southon the Andes to 10,800, and it is marked by Escallonia ern limit of the last region to the Pyrenees, the Alps the myrtilloides, Aralia avicennifolia, and Drymis Winteri; on Balkan mountains, the Caucasus, and the Altai; the mean temthe mountains of Mexico to 12,000 feet, and is marked by perature being 36° to 57°. It is distinguished by the presence Pinus Montezumae ; on the south side of the Himalaya to of Umbelliferous and Cruciferous plants. Coniferae, AmenII, 500, and on the north side to 14,000. the Pyrenees tiferae, On Ranunculacae, Rosaceae, and Fungi are abundant. its limits are marked at about 7000 feet by Pinus uncinata, Region III.—The region of Labiatae and Caryophyllaceae on the Alps at about 6000 feet by Pinus Picea, on the Cau- or the Mediterrannean Flora.—This comprises the countries casian mountains at 6700 feet, and in Lapland at about of the Mediterranean Sea, Spain, the south of France, Italy, 1500 feet by the Birch. Next in order comes the Shrubby Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt, the whole of northern Africa region, the limits of which in Europe are marked by Rho- to the Sahara and the great Atlas chain, the Canaries, and dodendrons, which cease on the Alps of 7400 feet, and on Madeira. The upper mountain regions belong to Schouw’s the Pyrenees at 8332 feet; on the Andes it is limited by first region, and the middle to his second. The mean temBejarias and shrubby Composite, at a height of 13,420 perature is 54° to 72°. The region is characterized by the feet; on the south side of the Himalaya, by species of prevalence of plants belonging to the Labiate and CloveJuniper, Willow, and Ribes, at an elevation of 11,500 feet. wort orders. Species of Compositae, Galiacese, and BoraIn Lapland, species of Willow and Vaccinium, with the ginaceae also abound, and there is an increase in the plants dwarf Birch, reach 3300 feet. The next region is that of belonging to the orders Leguminosae, Malvaceae, SolanGrasses, which on the Andes and the Himalaya extends aceae, Urticaceae, and Euphorbiaceae. to between 14,000 and 15,000 feet. Finally, we come to Region IV.—The region of Asters and Solidagos.— the region of Cryptogamic plants, which extend to the This extends over the northern part of North America from snow-line, Lichens being the last plants met with. the limits of the first region to the parallel of 36° north. In contrasting the zones of altitude with those of latitude, Besides the number of species of Aster and Solidago (beMeyen gives the following regions of alpine vegetation :— longing to Compositae), this region is marked by a great The region of Palms and Bananas (equatorial) extending variety of Oaks and Firs, by numerous species of Vaccifrom the sea level to 1900 feet; the region of Tree-ferns nium, by the smallness of the number of Cruciferae, Umand of Figs (tropical) 1900 to 3800 feet; the region of belliferae, Cinchonaceae, Cynarocephalae, and by the absence Myrtles and Laurels (sub-tropical) 3800 to 5700 feet; re- of the genus Erica. The mean temperature is 54° to 72°. gion of evergreen dicotyledonous trees (warm temperate) The Californian and Oregon districts, to the west of North 5700 to 7600 feet; region of deciduous dicotyledonous America, constitute a region not yet fully explored. Many trees (cold temperate) 7600 to 9500 feet; region of Abie- showy Polemoniaceae and interesting Coniferae are found tineae (sub-arctic) 9500 to 11,400 feet; region of Rhodo- here ; also Eschscholtzia californica. dendrons (arctic) 11,400 to 13,300 feet; region of alpine Region V.—The region of Magnolias.—This embraces plants (polar) 13,300 to 15,200. the southern part of North America between the parallels of 30° and 36°. Here we meet with numerous tropical forms, as Zingiberacese, Cycadaceac, A nonaceae, Sapindaceae, MelasVIII.—SCHOUW’S PHYTO-GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS. tomaceae, and Cactaceae. Mean temperature 59° to 72°. In dividing the globe into Phyto-geographic regions, Region VI.—The region of Ternstrbmiaceae and CelasSchouw takes into account the nature of the flora in regard traceae, or the Japanese region.—This extends between the to species, genera, and orders, irrespective of the effects parallels of 30° and 40° N. Lat., and embraces Japan, the

B O T A N Y. 228 Region XV.—The region of Cactaceae and Piperaceae.— Botany. Botany. north of China, and Chinese Tartary, constituting the eastThis embraces Mexico, Guatemala, the Isthmus of Panama, ern temperate parts of the Old World. The flora seems to and South America as far as the river Amazon, and to an be intermediate between that of the Old and the rsew elevation of5500 feet above the level of the sea, between Lat. World. The vegetation is more tropical than European, N. and the equator. Guiana, New Grenada, and cerfor we meet with Zingiberaeeae, Musaceae, Palmae, Cyca- 30° parts of Peru are included. Cactuses and Peppers dacese, Anonaceae. The mean temperature is 54 to 68 . tain abound in this region. Region VIE—The region of Zingiberaceae, or the InRegion XVI.—The region of the Mexican Highlands. dian Flora.—This embraces India, the island of Ceylon^ and This embraces the districts of Mexico which have an elethe south-eastern peninsula, to the height of 4500 to 5500 vation of more than 5500 feet above the level of the sea. feet above the level of the sea. There are here numerous specimens belonging to the Ginger order as well as to Le- Some important Coniferse are met with here, such as Pinus P. apulcensis, P. Hartwegii, P. Montezumse, and guminosas, Cucurbitaceae, and Tiliaceae. The Coco-nut, religiosa, Taxodium distichum. The mean temperature is 64 to 78 . Mangosteen, Turmeric, Cinnamon, Cotton, Indigo, Clove, Region XVII.—The region of Cinchonas or medicinal and Pepper, are abundant. Mean temperature 65 '75 to Bark-trees. This comprehends the Cordilleras of South 81 °-50. The south of China and Cochin-China may be conAmerica, between the parallels of 5° N. Lat. and 20° S. sidered as a distinct region. It partly resembles that ot India, Lat., at an elevation of 5000 to 9600 feet. The mean tembut contains many peculiar plants. Region VIII.—The Emodic region—This embraces perature is 59° to 68°. In the lower part of the region Coffee and Maize are cultivated, and in the higher regions the Alpine region of India south ot the ridge of the Hima- the European grains and fruits, along with the Potato and laya, including Sirmore, Gurwal, Kemaon, Nepal, and Bhothe Chenopodium Quinoa. Ceroxylon Andicola is also tan, to a height of from 4500 to 10,700 feet above the level found in this region of the Andes. of the sea. Some European species are met with in these Region XVIII.—The region of Escallonias and Calceohigh districts. Cedrus Decdara, Pinus excelsa, P. longifolia, Picea Webbiana, and other Coniferae, along with larias.—This comprises the highest districts in South AmeChamaerops Khasyana, species of Oak, Dammar, Rhodo- rica above the upper limit of Cinchonas. J he mean temdendron, Berberis, Primula, &c., also occur. In the lower perature varies from 59° to 84 . Besides Escallonias and parts of the region tropical plants grow. The mean tem- Calceolarias, we meet with many alpine plants. Region XIX.—The West Indian Region—This region perature is 37° to 66°. Region IX..—The region of the Asiatic Islands.— ihis comprehends the West India Islands, the flora of which may comprises the mountainous districts of the islands between be said to be intermediate between that of Mexico and the the south-eastern peninsula and Australia, to a height of 5500 northern parts of South America. Ferns and Orchids preMean temperature 59° to 78°. feet above the level of the sea. Myristica moschata, Di\a- vail. Region XX.—Region of Palms and Melastomas.- This balanops Camphora, and Dammara orientalis, grow in this region. Much of it is still unexplored. The mean tem- comprises that part of South America to the east of. the Andes which lies between the equator and the tropic of perature is 66° to 84°. Region X.—The region of Upper Java.—This compre- Capricorn. Mean temperature 59 to 82°. Here we have hends the districts of the island of Java, and probably also of the luxuriant Brazilian flora. Palms, Melastomaceae, MyrTree-ferns, and Crotons, form the thick underwood, the numerous islands of the Asiatic archipelago, ha\ ing an tacese, absolute elevation of 5500 feet above the level of the sea. and beneath these, delicate herbaceous Ferns ; Dorstenias, Heliconias, with a few tall Grasses, are found in the open Little is known in regard to the vegetation. parts. Region XI.—The Polynesian region.—This comprises Region XXL—The region of arborescent Composites. allthe islands of the Pacific Ocean within the tropics. Among This embraces South America on both sides of the Andes the plants of this region may be mentioned Artocarpus in- from the tropic of Capricorn to Lat. 40, S. In it are incisa, Tacca pinnatifida, Cocos nucifera, Lodoicea seychellarum, Jambosa malaccensis, and many species of Arum, cluded the southern part of Brazil, La Plata, and Chili. Dioscorea, Musa, and Ficus. Ihe genera Dissochaeta, Mean temperature 59° to 75°. In Chili there are many Orophea, Pterisanthes, Arthrophyllum, and Visenia, occur genera which also are represented in Australia and at the Cape of Good Hope. Araucaria imbricata, the Banksian or in this region. The mean temperature is 72° to 82°. Region XII.—Theregion of Amyridaceae.—This includes Chili pine, is a hardy Conifer of this district, extending on Chilian Andes from 37° to 40° S. Lat. the south-western part of the highlands of Arabia. In the theRegion XXII.—The Antarctic region.—This embraces flora are many trees yielding gum and balsamic resins, such the southern part of America, the Straits of Magalhaens, as species of Mimosa, Acacia, Balsamodendron, and Amyris. Tierra del Fuego or Fuegia,the Falkland Islands, and others Coffee and the Sensitive-plant occur here. more to the south. Mean temperature 41° to 46°. Many Region XIII.—The Desert region.—This comprehends northern Africa, to the south of the Atlas Mountains, be- mountainous plants are found in this region. The vegetween Lat. 15° and 30° N., and the northern part of Arabia. table forms of the north temperate and arctic zones prevail Phoenix dactylifera and Hyphaene thebaica are character- Species of Saxifraga, Gentiana, Arbutus, and Primula, w ith istic plan tsof theregion. The mean temperature is 12 to86 . many other European genera, abound. In Fuegia the EverRegion XIV,—The region of tropical Africa—1 his green Beech, Fagus Forsteri, which never sheds its coricomprises that part ot Africa which lies between lo . aceous foliage, is a very prevalent tree, also the Deciduous Lat. and the tropic of Capricorn, or, more correctly, be- Beech, Fagus antarctica, the leaves of which change colour tween the northern and southern limits of periodical rains, and fall, and Drymis Winteri. In the Falkland Islands with the exception of Abyssinia and the unknown countries there are about 120 flowering plants, consisting chiefly of of the interior. On the western part of this region, Elais those found on the mountains of Fuegia, and on the arid guineensis the Palm-oil plant, and Adansonia digitata the coast and plains of Patagonia. Region XXIIL—The region of Mesembryanthemums Baobab, grow. On the coast of Guinea and Congo, the flora is intermediate between that of America and Asia, but and Stapelias.—This embraces southern Africa from the chiefly resembling the latter. Species ot Sorghum, Ster- the tropic of Capricorn to the Cape Coast. Mean temperaculia acuminata the Kola-nut, and the Poison-bean of Ca- ture 55° to 73°. Besides species of Mesembryanthemurn labar, belong to this region. The mean temperature of the and Stapelia there are a prodigious number of species ot Erica. The latter genus attains its maximum here. W e region is 72° to 86°.

229 B O T A N Y. Botany, also meet with plants belonging to the orders Iridaceas, waves, are very important in the distribution of Algae. The Botany. intervention of great depths of the ocean has a similar in>■ r v—Bruniaceae, and Selaginaceae. Region XXIV.—The region of Epacridaceae and Eu- fluence on sea-plants as high mountains have on landcalypti.—This comprehends Australia beyond the tropics plants. Laminarise are confined to the colder regions of with the island of Tasmania or Van Diemen’s Land. Mean the sea; Sargassa only vegetate where the mean temperatemperature 52° to 72°. The number of known Australian ture is considerable. Under the influence of the Gulfplants amounts to about 7000 or 8000. The flora of Aus- stream, Sargassum is found along the east coast of America, tralia approaches in its tropical portion to the plants of India, as far as Lat. 44° ; and the cold south polar current influand in its extra-tropical portion to those of South Africa. ences the marine vegetation of the coasts of Chili and Peru, The flora may be divided into a western, southern, eastern, where we meet with species of Lessonia, Macrocystis, D’Urand Tasmanian flora. In the western districts Leguminosae villaea, and Iridaea, which are characteristic of the antarctic and Proteaceae predominate, forming one-fourth of the en- flora. Melanospermeae, according to Harvey, increase as tire vegetation ; Ferns and Grasses are rare. In the south- we approach the tropics, where the maximum of the species, ern flora, Compositae and Leguminosae abound along with though, perhaps, not of individuals, is found; RhodosperSalsolas, Myoporaceav, Halorageaceae, Caryophyllaceae, and meae chiefly abound in the temperate zone ; while ChloroCruciferae. The genus Mesembryanthemum is here seen spermeae form the majority of the vegetation of the polar as a connecting link with the South African flora; Nitraria seas, and are particularly abundant in the colder temperate with the Siberian, and Crantzia with the North American zone. The green colour is characteristic of those Algae flora. In the eastern flora Proteaceae and Epacridaceae are which grow either in fresh water or in the shallower parts found, with fewer Compositae than in the south, and a larger of the sea; the olive-coloured Algae are most abundant benumber of Ferns and Grasses than in the western district. tween the tide-marks; while the red-coloured species occur In South Australia Compositae form l-8th of the whole chiefly in the deeper and darker parts of the sea. As regards perpendicular direction, Forbes remarks, that vegetation ; Compositae and Leguminosae form together one great marine zone lies between high and low waterone-third of the whole of the Dicotyledons. Region XXV.—The region of New Zealand.—This in- marks, and varies in species according to the kind of coast, cludes the islands of New Zealand and those which are ad- but exhibits similar phenomena throughout the northern jacent. Between Lat. 34° and 36° S. the mean tempera- hemisphere. A second zone begins at low water-mark, and ture is 61° to 63°. Here we meet with Phormium tenax extends to a depth of 7 to 15 fathoms. This is the region the New Zealand Flax-plant, Corypha australis the of the larger Laminarias and other Fuci. Marine vegetasouthern Palm, abundance of Ferns, many of them arbo- tion, including the lower forms, extends to about 50 fathoms rescent, species of Dracaena, many Myrtacese, and some pe- in the British seas, to 70, 80, or 100, in the Mediterranean culiar Coniferae. The known flora of New Zealand amounts and theAigean Sea. Ordinary Algae, however, seem scarcely to about 1900 or 2000 species, of which 730 are flowering to exist below 50 fathoms. Diatomaceae exist in the deep plants, thus making Phanerogams to Cryptogams nearly as abysses of the ocean, and Nullipora and Corallines increase 2 to 3. Among the orders to which the endemic species as other Algae diminish, until they characterize a zone of belong may be noticed Coniferae, Scrophulariaceae, Epacri- depth where they form the whole obvious vegetation. The distribution varies also in a latitudinal or horizontal daceae, Compositae, Araliaceae, Umbelliferae, Myrtaceae, and Ranunculaceae. The flora of the Auckland group and direction. Chorda Filum lies in beds of 15 to 20 miles in of Campbell’s Island may be considered as a continuation length, and only about 600 feet in breadth, in the North of that of New Zealand, differing only in being more typi- Sea and the British Channel. Sargassum bacciferum constitutes the Gulf-weed, which has been noticed by all who cal of the antarctic regions. have crossed the Atlantic. The Sargasso Sea occupies the IX.—ZONES OF MARINE VEGETATION. eddy or whirl caused by the revolution of the current in the The ocean, as well as the land, possesses its vegetable Atlantic, and occupies a space of 260,000 square miles. The forms, which are of a peculiar kind, and exist under dif- most remarkable of marine plants, both for their size and ferent conditions of pressure, of surrounding medium, and the extent of their range, are the Macrocystis pyrifera and of light. Some seaweeds, Harvey remarks, are cosmopo- the Laminaria radiata. Immense masses of the Macrocystis, litan or pelagic, as species of Ulva and Enteromorpha, which like green meadows, are found in every latitude. It ranges are equally abundant in high northern and southern lati- from the antarctic to the arctic circle through 120 degrees tudes, as they are under the equator, and in temperate of latitude. The tribe Fucoideae abounds towards the poles, regions. Codium tomentosum, Ceramium rubrum, C. dia- and there the plants attain their greatest bulk, diminishing phanum, species of Ectocarpus, and several Confervae, have rapidly towards the equator and ceasing some degrees from a range nearly as wide. Plocamium coccineum and Geli- the Line itself. Cystoseireae represent the Fucoideae in the dium corneum are common to the Atlantic and Pacific higher latitudes of the southern hemisphere. Laminarias oceans ; Rhodymenia palmata, the common Dulse of Bri- abound in the antarctic ocean and northwards to the Cape tain, is found at the Falkland Islands and Tasmania. Fu- of Good Hope. The red, green, and purple Lavers of the cus tuberculatus extends from Ireland to the Cape of Good British seas are found at the Falkland Islands. Lessonia, Hope; Fucus vesiculosus occurs on the north-west coasts with astern 10 feet long and 12 inches in circumference, and of America, and on the shores of Europe ; while Desma- its frond 2-3 feet long and about 3 inches broad, is found • restia ligulata is found in the north Atlantic and Pacific in immense masses off the Patagonian regions. D’Urviloceans, as well as at the Cape of Good Hope and Cape laea utilis is another large antarctic Seaweed, which, along Horn. with Lessonias, is often found at the Falkland Islands, In general, however, Sea-weeds are more or less limited formed by the surf into enormous vegetable cables, several in their distribution, so that different marine floras exist in hundred feet long, and thicker than the human body. various parts of the ocean. The northern ocean, from the X.—DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN BRITAIN. pole to the 40th degree, the sea of the Antilles, the eastern coasts of South America, those of New Holland, the Indian The climate of Britain is warmer than that of other places Archipelago, the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, the Chinese in the same parallel of latitude. Its most striking feature and Japanese Seas, all present so many large marine regions, is the absence of extremes, either as regards cold or heat. each of which possesses a peculiar vegetation. The degree It is, generally speaking, mild and damp. While the winters of exposure to light, and the greater or less motion of the are mild, the heat of the three summer months, June, July,

B O T A N Y. 230 Botany. and August, in which the growth and ripening of crops take mus, Sedum anglicum, Cotyledon Umbilicus, Eufragia vis- Botany, place, is by no means great, being very little above that due cosa, Pinguicula lusitanica, Euphorbia Peplis and E. Portto the latitude. The eastern coasts of Britain partake more landica, Scirpus Savii; also more limited species, as Sibof the continental climate, while on the western the climate thorpia europaja, Erica vagans, E. ciliaris, Physospermum is of an insular and equable character. The mean tempera- cornubiense, Polycarpum tetraphyllum, Adiantum Capillusture varies from 46° to 52° F. Some of the mountains rise Veneris, Cynodon Dactylon. 7. Local or doubtful type— to the height of 4400 feet, and there is a fall of 1° of the species which cannot be referred to any of the preceding thermometer of every 240 or 250 feet of ascent. The num- types, as Potentilla rupestris, Lloydia serotina, confined to ber of Phanerogamous species of plants amounts to about peculiar mountains in Wales, Draba aizoides and Cotoneaster vulgaris, found on the rocky coasts of Wales very 1600, while the Cryptogamous are about 2800. Taking a general view' of the distribution of British locally, Draba muralis and Hutchinsia petraea; also ErioFlowering Plants and Ferns (excluding the Hibernian and caulon septangulare, found in the Isle of Skye, and formerly Sarnian species), Watson recognises the following types: included under Watson’s Hebridean type. If Ireland and —1. British type—species widely and generally spread the Channel Islands are also taken into account, Hibernian over Britain, and forming probably 2-5ths of the British and Sarnian types would be added. On ascending lofty mountains in Britain, there is a marked species, such as Alnus glutinosa, Betvda alba, Corylus Avellana, Salix caprsea, Rosa canina, Lonicera Pericly- variation in the nature of the vegetation. On Ben-muichmenum, Hedera Helix, Sarothamnus scoparius, Calluna Dhui, which attains an elevation of upwards of 4000 feet, vulgaris, Ranunculus acris, Cerastium triviale, Potentilla Watson gives a full list of the species observed in succesTormentilla, Trifolium repens, Stellaria media, Lotus cor- sion. On leaving the plants of the low country we find niculatus, Beilis perennis, Senecio vulgaris, Carduus palus- Myrica Gale, extending on this mountain to 1400 feet, and tris, Leontodon Taraxacum, Myosotis arvensis, Prunella in succession we came to the upper limits of the following vulgaris, Plantago lanceolata, Polygonum aviculare, Urtica species :—Erica cinerea, Pinus sylvestris, Carex pauciflora, dioica, Potamogeton natans, Lemna minor, Juncus effusus, Pedicularis sylvatica at 1838 feet, Tofieldia palustris, Erica Carex panicea, Poa annua, Festuca ovina, Anthoxanthum Tetralix, at 2370 feet, Arctostaphylos Uva-Ursi, Thalicodoratum, Pteris aquilina, Polypodium vulgare, Lastrea trum alpinum, Vaccinium Vitis-Idaea, Hieracium alpinum, Filix-mas. 2. English type—species chiefly or exclusively Juniperus communis var. nana, at 2660 feet, Potentilla I orfound in England, and decreasing in frequency north- mentilla, Calluna vulgaris, 2690 feet, Azalea procumbens, wards, constituting about l-5th of the whole flora, as Armeria maritima, Cochlearia groenlandica, Arabis petraea, Rhamnus catharticus, Ulex nanus, Tamus communis, Bry- Rubus Chamaemorus, Epilobium alpinum, E. angustifolium, onia dioica, Hottonia palustris, Chlora perfoliata, Sison Vaccinium uliginosum, Sibbaldia procumbens, Saxifraga Amomum, Moenchia erecta, Linaria Elatine, Ranunculus stellaris, Alchemilla alpina, Empetrum nigrum, Juncus triparviflorus, Lamium Galeobdolon, Hordeum pratense, Alo- fidus, Gnaphalium supinum, and on the summit Silene pecurus agrestis, Ceterach officinarum, besides very local acaulis, Carex rigida, Luzula arcuata and L. spicata, Salix plants such as Cyperus longus and Cicendia filiformis. 3. herbacea. Considering British plants in climatic or ascending zones, Scottish type—species chiefly prevalent in Scotland or the north of England, forming about l-20th of the flora, as Em- they are divided by Watson into— petrum nigrum, Rubus saxatilis, T rollius europaeus, GeraI. Agrarian Region.— limited generally by the Pteris nium sylvaticum, Trientalis europaea, Habenaria albida, aquilina, and indicating the region of Corn cultivation. Haloscias scoticum, Mertensia maritima; also Primula faIn the Highlands it may be said to extend as high at least as 1200 feet. It is subdivided into three zones:— rinosa, Goodyera repens, Corallorhiza innata, and Saxifraga Hirculus, which are comparatively limited in their distribu1. Infir-agrarian Zone—embracing all the country southward from the Dee and Humber, except the mountion and partial in their localities; besides some very local tainous parts of Wales, and the higher hills and plants such as Arenaria norvegica, Primula scotica, and moors in the provinces of the Severn and Peninsula Ajuga pyramidalis. 4. Highland type—species either li(including Gloucester, Worcester, Warwick, Stafford, mited to the Scottish Highlands or extending to the mounHereford, Monmouth, Cornwall, Devon, and Somertains of the north of England and Wales; a more boreal set). Some of the peculiar species are Clematis Vitalba, Rubia peregrina, Cyperus longus, Erica flora than the last, the species being especially limited to the ciliaris, Sibthorpia europasa, and Scilla autumnalis. mountains or their immediate vicinity, and forming proba2. Mid-agrarian Zone—all the low grounds, clear from bly about 1-15th of the flora, as Azalea procumbens, Verothe mountains, situate between the entrance of the nica alpina, Alopecurus alpinus, Phleum alpinum, Juncus Clyde and Tay on the north, and those of the Humtrifidus, Sibbaldia procumbens, Erigeron alpinus, Gentiana ber and Dee on the south, also probably a narrow nivalis; to these may be added the following, which, howcoast-line of the East Highlands, extending from Perth to Aberdeen, and possibly even to Inverness. ever, descend also lower, Salix herbacea, Silene acaulis, Also a narrow belt extending round the hills of Saxifraga stellaris, Oxyria reniformis, Thalictrum alpinum, Wales. Rhamnus catharticus and Frangula, Tamus Luzula spicata, Juncus triglumis, Rubus Chamaemorus, Epicommunis, Bryonia dioica, Acer campestre, Ulex lobium alsinifolium, Draba incana, Dryas octopetala, Alchenanus, Viburnum Lantana, Euonymus europseus, and milla alpina; likewise some very local species, as Lychnis Cornus sanguinea, occur in this zone, but are not realpina and Oxytropis campestris. 5. Germanic type— stricted to it. There is no Clematis. 3. Super-agrarian Zone—coast-line and low plains and species chiefly seen in the east and south-east of England moors in the north and nort-west of Scotland, where (bounded by the German ocean eastward)—forming about alpine plants descend to the sea shore; such as Thal-15th or l-20th of the flora, as Frankenia laevis, Anemone lictrum alpinum, Draba incana, Saxifraga oppositiPulsatilla, Reseda lutea, Silene noctiflora, Silene conica, folia, Arctostaphylos alpina, and Dryas octopetala. Bupleurum tenuissimum, Pimpinella magna, Pulicaria vulAlso other parts where the elevation of the ground garis, Lactuca Scariola, Halimus pedunculatus, Aceras Anleads to the production of the same species, or of such plants as Arctostaphylos Uva-Ursi, Saxifraga stelthropophora, Ophrys aranifera, Spartina stricta; also very laris, Alchemilla alpina, Tofieldia palustris, Juncus local plants such as Veronica verna. 6. Atlantic type— triglumis. Also tracts of slight elevation in the species found in the west and south-west of England and proximity of high mountains, upon which a correWales, having a tendency to the western or Atlantic parts sponding flora prevails. At its lower limits appear of the island—forming about 1-15th or l-20th of the flora, Ilex, Corylus, Quercus, Fraxinus, Lonicera, Crataegus, and fruticose Rubi. as Sinapis monensis, Matthiola sinuata, Raphanus mariti-

B 0 T A N Y. 231 existence of this union no geologist doubts. The distribu- Botany, tion of the fourth, or alpine flora of Scotland and Wales, was effected during the glacial period, when the mountain summits of Britain were low islands, or members of chains of islands, extending to the area of Norway through a glacial sea, and clothed with an arctic vegetation, which in the gradual upheaval ol those islands and consequent change of climate, became limited to the summits of the new-formed and still existing mountains. The distribution of the fifth or Germanic flora, depended on the upheaval of the bed of the glacial sea, and the consequent connection of Ireland with England, and of England with Germany, by great plains, the fragments of which still exist, and upon which lived the great elk, and other quadrupeds now extinct. The breaking up or submergence of the first barrier led to the destruction of the second ; that of the second to that of the third; but the well-marked epoch of migration of the Germanic flora indicates the subsequent formation of the straits of Dover, and of the Irish Sea, as now existing.” While there are evident and distinct features in the plants which constitute the floras of different parts of Britain, there are many difficulties to be overcome before we can adopt the speculative views of Forbes. The connection between the Tertiary and the present epoch is not made out as far as the species of plants are concerned, and we are disposed to look upon the existing flora of the globe as a distinct and independent one. Schouw differs from Forbes in his explanation of the flora of the British islands. He does not believe in the migration and geological changes to which Forbes alludes. He thinks that the west and south-west coast of Britain and Ireland had at first a mild climate, especially in winter, and that in consequence plants were produced there common to the analogous climates of Spain and the south of France; while the Scotch and English mountains were distinguished throughout by a polar climate, and produced nearly the same vegetation as the Lapland and Scandinavian mountains. D’Archiac says, that in a botanical point of view, it would, perhaps, be desirable to determine whether the external circumstances under which the five floras of Great Britain now live, such as latitude, altitude, temperature, winds, humidity or dryness, exposure, nature of the soil, greater or less distance from the coast, &c., are altogether insufficient to explain their different characters. We know that plants have very different geographical limits. Thus there are some which we meet with over an extent of 25° in latitude, and much more in longitude, while others occupy only zones extremely restricted in both senses; it would, therefore, be useful to study the five British floras in this point of view. I he radiation of plants from a centre is by no means satisfactorily proved ; and it may be asked, for example, what is the original centre from which the species common to North America and southern Europe could have radiated ? D’Archiac thinks that inconvenience arises from an attempt to give an account of facts hitherto inexplicable in one science, by drawing from another science suppositions made, as it appears, with the sole view of these explanations, and for which there is no sufficient authority. Proofs drawn from geology must rest on more certain data, he thinks, than those which have been adduced by Professor Forbes. British marine vegetation presents two well-marked types according to Forbes, a southern and a northern. The genera Padina and Halyseris have their northern limit on the south coast of England, where they are rare. The genera Cystoseira, Sporochnus, Cutleria, and certain species of Sphacelaria, Mesogloia, Rhodymenia, Gigartina, and Dictyota, mark out a southern region, including the British Channel and part of the east coast, the Bristol Channel, and the south and west oflreland ; while the presence of Odonthalia dentata, Rhodomela cristata, R. lycopodioides, and Fucus Mackaii, characterize a northern flora, on the coasts of Scotland,

II. Arctic Region—characterized by the absence of Corn cultivation. 1. Infer-arctic Zone—this has its terminal line at the limit of Erica Tetralix. 2. Mid-arctic Zone—space above the limit of Erica Tetralix, and within or below that of Calluna vulgaris. In this zone most of the rare alpine plants are found, such as Saxifraga nivalis, Gentiana nivalis, Erigeron aljjinns, Astragalus alpinus, Veronica alpina, Alopecurus alpinus, &c. 3. Super-arctic Zone—above the limit of Calluna, characterized by Saxifraga cernua and rivularis, and Luzula arcuata. Professor Edward Forbes has followed Watson in his views of distribution, and has promulgated a theory in regard to the origin of the flora of Britain. ~ He considers the vegetation of Great Britain and Ireland as composed of several floras, which are to be reckoned outposts separated by geological changes from more extended areas. The following five floras, according to him, make up the vegetation of Britain and Ireland: 1. A west Pyrenean flora (Iberian or Asturian type), confined to the mountainous districts of the west and south-west of Ireland, characterized by botanical peculiarities, which depend on the presence of a few prolific species belonging to the families Saxifragaceae, Ericaceae, Lentibulariaceae, and Cruciferae. 2. A flora in the southwest of England and south-east of Ireland (Armorican type), which is intimately related to that of the Channel Isles and the neighbouring coast of France (Brittany and Normandy). 1 his is Watson’s Atlantic type. 3. The flora of the south east of England, where the rocks of the Cretaceous system are chiefly developed, and in which many species occur common to this district and the opposite coast of France. This corresponds nearly to Watson’s Germanic type. 4. An alpine flora (Boreal or Scandinavian type), developed chiefly on the mountains of Scotland, and also partially on those of Cumberland and Wales. The species found on the latter are all, with the exception of Lloydia serotina, inhabitants also of the Scotch Highlands. The Scotch alpines all occur in Scandinavia, where they are associated with numerous additional species. This flora corresponds nearly to Watson’s Highland type. This flora is represented in Shetland by Arenaria norvegica, and in Orkney by Primula scotica. It is largely developed on the Scottish Alps. 5. The general flora of the British islands, identical with that of central and western Europe, and which is called a Germanic flora. It corresponds to Watson’s British, English, and Scottish types. It is a flora which overspreads many local floras throughout Europe, and gives a general character to the vegetation. Forbes endeavours to prove that the specific identity, to any extent, of the plants of one area with those of another, depends on both areas forming, or having formed, part of the same specific centre, or on their having derived their vegetable population by transmission, through migration, over continuous or closely contiguous land, aided, in the case of alpine floras, by transportation on floating masses of ice. According to him, “ the oldest of the floras now composing the vegetation of the British isles, is that of the mountains of the west of Ireland. Though an alpine flora, it is southernmost in character, and is quite distinct as a system from the floras of the Scottish and Welsh Alps. Its very southern character, its limitation, and its extreme isolation, are evidences of its antiquity, pointing to a period when a great mountain barrier extended across the Atlantic from Ireland to Spain. The distribution of the second f ora, next in point of probable date, depended on the extension of a barrier, the traces of which still remain, from the west of France to the south-east of Britain, and thence to Ireland. The distribution of the third flora depended on the connexion of the coast of France and England towards the eastern part of the channel. Of the former

BOTANY. 232 Botany. the north of England and of Ireland. The proportion of toral zone is succeeded by narrow belts of such Seaweeds Botany. the different marine plants on the shores of Britain are as as Himanthalia lorea, Conferva rupestris, Laurencia pinnaf0]]0VVs:—Melanospermeae I-5th, Rhodospermese 3-8ths, tifida, Chondrus crispus, and C. mammillosus. The second or Laminarian zone commences at low water-mark, and and Chlorospermeae l-4th of the whole. The British marine plants, according to Forbes, are dis- extends to a depth of from 7 to 15 fathoms. Here w e tributed in depth or bathymetrically in a series of zones or meet with the great Tangle Seaweeds and deep-water Fuci. regions which extend from high water mark down to the Species of Laminaria, Rhodymenia, and Delesseria, are greatest explored depths. The first or littoral zone is that found in an upper sub-region of this zone. In the lower tract which lies between high and low water marks, and sub-region they are rare, and are succeeded by the ccraltherefore is very variable in extent according to the amount like Nullipore. The zones below them are entitled the Coof rise and fall of the tides. It has been divided into sub- ralline zone, extending from 15 to 50 fathoms, and the regions characterized by the prevalence of certain marine region of the deep-sea corals from 50 to beyond 100 fathoms. species. 1. The sub-region of Fucus canaliculatus, 2. The These zones do not exhibit any conspicuous vegetable forms; sub-region of Lichina. 3. The sub-region of Fucus articu- they are characterized by the presence of certain animals. latus (Chylocladia articulata), F. nodosus, and Corallina of- At the depth of 50 fathoms in the British seas, there seems, ficinalis. ' 4. The sub-region of Fucus serratus. The Lit- to be a total absence of vegetable life.

PART IV. PALEONTOLOGICAL BOTANY, OR THE STUDY OF FOSSIL PLANTS. The changes which have taken place in the nature of living beings since their first appearance on the globe till the period when the surface of the earth having assumed its present form, has been covered by the creation which now occupies it, constitutes one of the most important departments in geology. It is, as Brongniart remarks, the history of life and its metamorphoses. The researches of geologists show clearly that the globe has undergone various alterations since that “ beginning” when “ God created the heavens and the earth.” At various periods of the world’s history, new mineral beds have covered the surface of the earth, and elevations of different portions of its crust have taken place, while at the same time the living beings inhabiting it have been buried in sedimentary deposits, to be replaced by a creation more or less different from the preceding. Some of these epochs have been marked apparently by great changes in the physical state of our planet, and they have been accompanied with equally great modifications in the nature of the living beings which inhabited it. The study of the fossil remains of animals is called Palaeozoology,"while the consideration of those of vegetables is denominated Palaeophytology. Both are departments of the science of Palseontology, which has been the means of bringing geology to its present state of advancement. The study of these extinct forms has afforded valuable indications as to the physical state of the earth and as to its climate at different epochs. The vegetation of the globe, during the different stages of its formation, has undergone very evident changes. At the same time there seems to be no reason to doubt that the plants may all be referred to the great classes distinguished at the present day, namely, Thallogens, Acrogens, Gymnosperms, Endogens, and Exogens. The relative proportion of these classes, however, has been different, and the predominance of certain forms has given a character to the vegetation of different epochs. The farther we recede in geological history from the present day the greater is the difference between the fossil plants and those which now occupy the surface. At the time when the coal-beds were formed, the plants covering the earth belonged to genera and species not recognised at the present day. As we ascend higher, the similarity between the ancient and the modern flora increases, and in the latest stratified rocks we have in certain instances an apparent identity, at least as regards genera. At early epochs the flora appears to have

been uniform, to have presented less diversity of forms than at present, and to have been similar in the different quarters of the globe. The vegetation also seems to indicate that the nature of the climate was different from that which characterizes the countries in which these early fossil plants are now found. Fossil plants are by no means so easily examined as recent species. They are seldom found in a complete state. Fragments of stems, leaves, and fruits, are the data by which the plant is to be determined. It is very rare to find any traces of reproductive organs. The parts of fossil plants are usually separated from each other, and it is very difficult to ascertain what are the portions which should be associated together so as to complete a specimen. The anatomical structure of some of the organs, especially of the stem, can sometimes be detected by thin microscopic slices being placed under the microscope; and in the case of Coniferous wood, the punctated woody tissue has proved of great service as regards fossil Botany. Brongniart says that the mode in which plants are preserved in a fossil state may be referred to two principal classes:—1. The impression or cast of the plants, accompanied with the complete destruction of the vegetable tissue, and the preservation of few of its constituent parts. 2. Petrifaction and Carbonization, which preserve more or less completely the structure of the tissues of vegetable organs, by changing them completely or only modifying them. The first state is rather rare, but it is the usual condition of fossil vegetables in the variegated sandstone and tertiary limestones. The place of the vegetable is either empty or replaced by a substance of a ferruginous, calcareous, or earthy nature, having no organization. The second state or the impression with some preserved portion of vegetable tissue, is very frequent in the case of stems foun in the carboniferous system. This is their ordinary mode o preservation. In such stems we must carefully distinguish the different zones of tissue, and their external and internal surfaces, which produce so many different appearances. The silicified stems of trees have been observed in various parts of the world, with their structure well preserved, so that their Endogenous and Exogenous character can e easily determined. In order to study fossil plants well, there must be an acquaintance with systematic botany, a knowledge of the microscopical structure of all the organs of plants, such as

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Botany

BOTANY. 233 their roots, stems, barks, leaves, fronds, and fruit; of the 1. Lower Secondary.—The Upper New Red Sandstone of Botany. markings which they exhibit on their different surfaces, and Britain, or the Triassic system of Germany. Here of the scars which some of them leave when they fall. It we meet with Red Sandstone and conglomerates, saliferous red and variegated marls. is only thus we can expect to determine accurately the 2. Middle Secondary.—The Liassic system, with its limeliving affinities of the fossil. Brongniart says, that before stones and marls; the Oolitic divided into Lower comparing a fossil vegetable with living plants, it is necesOolite (Calcareous sand, Stonesfield slate, Bradford sary to reconstruct as completely as possible the portion of clay, &c.). Middle Oolite (Oxford clay, Coral clay. the plant under examination, to determine the relations of Calc grit, &c.), and Upper Oolite (Kimmeridge clay, these portions to the other organs of the same plant, and to ortland stone); the Wealden, as illustrated in Purbeck beds and Hastings sand. complete the plant if practicable, by seeing whether, in the 3. Upper Secondary.—The Cretaceous system, with its fossils of the same locality, there may not be some which lower and upper greensand and chalks, and the Gault. belong to the same plant. The connection of the different or Cainozoic Rocks, constituting the third parts of the same plant is one of the most important pro- III. Tertiary grand fossUiferous epoch. These are well developed in blems in I alaeophytology, and the neglect of it has perhaps Asia, America, and in the south of Europe, and only led to a needless multiplication of fossil species; portions partially in Britain. of the same plant having been described as separate species 1. Lower Tertiary or Eocene.—This is seen in the London 01 geneia. In some instances the data have been sufficient clay, the Paris basin, the Basin of Brussels, &c. 2. Middle Tertiary or Miocene.—This is shown in the Coto enable botanists to refer a fossil plant to a genus of the ralline and Red Crag of Britain, the Basin of the present day, so that we have fossil species of the genera Rhine, of the Loire, and Garonne, &c. Ulmus, Alnus, Pinus, &c. Sometimes the plant is shown 3. Upper Tertiary or Pliocene.—is illustrated by the to be allied to a living genus, but differing in some essenNorwich crag, the Till of the Clyde, the Brown coal tial point, or wanting something to complete the identity, of Germany, &c. ar )d it is then marked by the addition of the term ites, as These are succeeded by Superficial or Pleistocene Deposits, which consist of diluvium or diluvial drift, formed of Pinites, Thuites, Zamites, &c. gravel, with boulders, which indicate the violent Before drawing conclusions as to the climate or physical action of water; and alluvium or deposits of fine mud, condition of the globe at different geological epochs, the resembling those caused by ordinary fluviatile action. botanist must be well informed as to the vegetation of difThe tertiary formations and those of the present day ferent countries, as to the soils and localities in which cerappear to pass into each other. tain plants grow, whether on land or in the sea, or in lakes, The plants found in different strata are either terrestrial in dry or marshy ground, in valleys or on mountains, or in oi aquatic, and the latter exhibit species allied to the salt estuaries, in hot, temperate, or cold regions. It is only by a and fresh-water vegetables of the present day. Their state careful consideration of all these particulars that any correct of preservation depends much on their structure. Cellular inferences can be drawn as to the condition of the globe. p ants have probably in a great measure been destroyed or The rocks of which the globe is composed are divided into changed in their aspect, and hence their rarity; while those two great classes, those which contain fossil remains, and W00d and vascular have been which are called fossiliferous, and those having no such re- I he following yis the number structure of fossil genera and preserved. species, as mains, and which are designated non-fossiliferous or azoic. compiled from Unger’s work on Palaeophytology:— The igneous unstratified rocks, included under the names „ of Granitic and Trappean, show no appearance of animal Dicotyledones. mu i -n Genera. Species. Thalamifloras 24 84 or vegetable remains. Trap rocks, however, have in some Calyciflorae 56 182 cases covered or inclosed vegetable sti’uctures, and these Corolliflorae 23 60 are found in an altered condition. Fossil remains have not Monochlamydeae Angiospermas 48 221 been found in certain rocks having a stratified appearance, Gymnospermae 56 363 and which, from the changes they have undergone, were Monocotyledones. Dictyogenae 2 5 denominated by Hutton Metamorphic. These include Petaloideae 36 125 Gneiss and Mica-slate, which are looked upon as stratified Glumiferae g 12 rocks, which have probably been formed at a high tempe- Acotyledones. rature, and have been subsequently altered by the effects of Thallogenae 31 203 heat. The absence of organic remains in rocks, however, Acrogenae 121 969 35 is not always sufficient to enable us to state that these rocks Doubtful 197 were formed before animals or vegetables existed. Forbes 437 2421 has shown that, even at the present day, there are depths in the ocean which are destitute of organic life. Hence rocks These plants are arranged in the different strata as foldeposited at such depths might contain no organic remains. lows :— The stratified rocks which contain fossils have been divided into three great groups, the Palaeozoic, the Secon- Lower and Middle f Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian, and 1 Palaeozoic j Old Red Sandstone j '^ dary, and the Tertiary. The formations included under 683 these are exhibited in the following table, as condensed Upper Palaeozoic Carboniferous Lower New Red Sandstone (Permian) ... 76 from Ansted’s geology:— Magnesian Limestone (Do-) ... 21 Upper New Red Sandstone (Triassic) 38 1. Palaeozoic Rocks, containing the earliest fossil remains. Lower Secondary -j Shell Limestone (Do.) 7 They include the transition, Primary fossiliferous and Variegated Marls (Do.) 70 Grauwacke rocks. Lias !.126 1. Lower Paleozoic.—These comprehend the Silurian and Middle Secondary Upper, Middle, and Lower Oolite 168 Cambrian rocks. Wealden gp 2. Middle Palceozoic.—The Devonian system, or Old Red Upper and Lower Greensand | Upper Secondary j Upper Sandstone, so well developed in Scotland. and Lower Chalk J 1^2 3. Upper Palaozoic.—The Carboniferous system, or the Eocene .414 Coal Measures, with millstone grit, carboniferous Tertiary Miocene ’^gg limestone and shales ; and the Permian system, or the Pliocene 35 magnesian limestone. Pleistocene 31 II. Secondary or Mezozoic Rocks, constituting a second great epoch in the history of fossils. Fossil Species 2421 VOL. Y. 2G

234 Botany.

BOTANY. On taking a general survey of the known fossil plants, shales and sandstones above and below it. In a coal-seam Botany, Brongniart thinks that he can trace three periods of vege- there is the Under-clay, containing roots only; then the tation, characterized by the predominance of certain marked Coal composed of plants, whose roots are in the clay, with forms of plants. In the most ancient period there is a pre- others which have grown along with them, or have been dominance of Acrogenous Cryptogamic plants; this is suc- drifted; while above the coal is the Shale bearing evidences ceeded by a period in which there is a preponderance of of vigorous vegetation, and which appears like a great deGymnospermous Dicotyledons; while a third period is posit from water charged with mineral matter, into which marked by the predominance of Angiospermous Dicotyle- broken pieces of plants have fallen. There is frequently no dons. There is thus—1. The reign of Acrogens, which clear division between coal and shale. Unger enumerates 683 plants of the coal measures, while includes the plants of the Carboniferous and Permian periods. During these periods, there seems to be a pre- Brongniart notices 500. Of the last number there are 6 dominance of Ferns, a great development of Lycopodiaceae, Thallogens, 346 Acrogens, 135 Gymnosperms, and 13 arborescent forms of Lepidodendron and Sigillaria, Gymno- doubtful plants. This appears to be a very scanty vegetasperms allied to Araucaria, and anomalous Gymnosperms, tion, as far as regards the number of species. It is only as Ndggerathia. 2. The reign of Gymnosperms, compre- equal to about 1 -20th of the number of species now growhending the lower and middle secondary periods. Here ing on the surface of the soil of Europe. Although, howwe meet with numerous Coniferae and Cycadaceae, while ever, the number of species was small, yet it is probable Ferns are less abundant. 3. The reign of Angiosperms, that the individuals of a species were numerous. The proembracing the Cretaceous and the T. ertiary periods. This portion of Ferns was very large. There are between 200 is characterized by the appearance of Angiospermous Dico- and 300 enumerated. Ferns are the only carboniferous fossil group which pretyledons, a class of plants which constitute more than threefourths of the present vegetable productions of the globe, sent an obvious and recognisable relationship to an order and which appear to have acquired a predominance from of the present day. While cellular plants and those with lax the commencement of the Tertiary formations. These tissues often lose their characters by fossilization, Ferns are plants appear even at the beginning of the Chalk forma- more durable, and retain their structure. It is rare, however, to find the stalk of the frond completely preserved tion. I. Reign of Acrogens.—In the lower Palaeozoic strata the down to its base. It is also rare to find fructification preplants which have been detected are few. In the Silurian, sent. In this respect, fossil Ferns resemble Tree-ferns of Cambrian, and Old Red Sandstone systems, we meet with the present day, the fronds of which rarely exhibit fructifithe remains of ancient marine plants, as well as a few ter- cation. Only one surface of the Fern-frond is exposed to restrial species. In the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland, view, and that generally the least important in a botanical Miller has detected Fucoids, Ferns, a Lepidodendron, and point of view. Fructification is sometimes evidently see», Lignite with a distinct Coniferous structure resembling that as figured by Corda in Senttenbergia. The absence ot of Araucaria, besides a remarkable pinnate frond. In the fructification presents a great obstacle to the determination Old Red Sandstone rocks at Oporto, Bunbury detected of fossil Ferns. The Acrogenous flora of the coal epoch Pecopteris Cyathea, P. muricata, and Neuropteris tenuifolia seems to favour the idea or a humid as well mild and equable climate at the period of the coal formation—the vegetation —ferns allied to those of the Coal Measures. The Carboniferous period is one of the most important being that of islands in the midst of a vast ocean. Among the Ferns found in the clays, ironstones, and as regards fossil plants. The vegetable forms are numerous and uniform throughout the whole system, whether sandstones of the Carboniferous period, we may give the exhibited in the Old or the New World. The important characters of some by way of illustration. Fecopteris seems substance called Coal owes its origin to the plants of this to be the fossil epoch. It has been formed under great pressure, and representative, hence the appearance of the plants has been much altered. if not congener, On examining thin sections of coal under the microscope, ofPteris. Pewe can detect vegetable tissues both of a cellular and vascu- copteris hetero(Fig. lar nature. In Wigan cannel coal, vegetable structure is phylla seen throughout the whole mass. Such is likewise the 583) has a case with other cannel, parrot, and gas coals. In common marked resemhousehold coal, also, evident traces of organic tissue have blance toPteris of been observed. In some kinds of coal punctated woody esculenta fibre has been detected, in others dotted and scalariform New Zealand. tissue, as well as cells of different kinds. Sporangia are also The frond of occasionally found in the substance of coal, as shown by Mr Pecopteris is Daw in that from Fordel. The structure of coal in different pinnatifid or bibeds, and in different parts of the same bed, seems to vary ac- tri-pinnatifid— cording to the nature of the plants by which it has been the leaflets adformed. Hence the different varieties of coal which are hering to the worked. The occurrence of scalariform and dotted vessels rachis by the in coal indicates the presence of Ferns, and their allied forms, whole ength of such as Sigillaria, Stigmaria, and Lepidodendron ; while their base, true punctated wood (which is rarely seen except in brown sometimes concoal) implies the presence of Coniferae. The anatomical fluent ; the midFig. 5S1. Fig. 585. Fig. 586. structure of the stems of these plants will undoubtedly have rib of the leafFig. 583. Pecopteris (Aletlxopteris) heterophylla. some effect on the microscopic characters of the coal produced lets runs to the ... 584. Neuropteris Loshii. ... 585. Neuropteris gigantea. from them. The proportion of carbon varies in different point, and the ... 586. Neuropteris acuminata or smilacitolia. ... 587 Sphenopteris affinis. kinds of coal. Along with it there is always more or less veins come off ... 588. Cyclopteris dilatata. of earthy matter, which constitutes the ashes. When the from it nearly earthy substances are in such quantity that the coaly de- perpendicularly, and the fructification when present is at posit will not burn as fuel, then we have what is called a the ends of the veins. Neuropteris (Figs. 584 to 586), has shale. The coal contains plants similar to those of the a pinnate or bipinnate frond, with pinnae somewhat cordate

BOTANY. 235 Botany, at the base—the midrib of the pinnae vanishing towards oblong, or lanceolate cavities in the centre of slight tu- Botany, the apex, and the veins coming off obliquely, and in an bercles, arranged irrearched manner. Neuropteris gigantea (Fig. 585) has a gularly, but sometimes thick bare rachis, according to Miller, and seems to resemble in a quincuncial manmuch Osmunda regalis. Sphenopteris (Fig. 587) has a twice ner. The cavities occaor thrice-pinnatifid frond, the leaflets being narrowed at the sionally present a radibase, often wedge-shaped, and the veins generally arranged ating appearance. The as if they radiated from the base. Sphenopteris elegans axis of the fragments is resembled Pteris aquilina in having a stout leafless rachis, often hollow, and difwhich divided at a height of seven or eight inches from its ferent in texture from club-like base into two equal parts, each of which continued the parts around. This to undergo two or three successive bifurcations. A little axis consists of a vasbelow the first forking two divided pinnae were sent off A cular cylinder or woody very complete specimen, with the stipe, was collected in the system, divided into Fig. 591. coal-field near Edinburgh, by Flugh Miller, who has de- Wedge-shaped masses Stigmaria fieoides (S. Anabatbra of Corda), rave OT rrf ofaSigillaria. which is considered as tlie root scribed it as above. Cyclopteris (Fig. 588) has simple or- 1-iv D> mprlnllarvmeauuarj, rajs The markings areortherhizome points bicular leaves, undivided or lobed at the margin, the veins various breadths. In whence rootlets proceed. radiating from the base, with no midrib. Caulopteris is the these rays there is another system of smaller tubes, which name given to the stems of Tree-ferns found in the coal originate probably from the outer cellular axis, and not from fields. They are marked externally by oblong scars similar the central woody cylinder. From the scars and tubercles to those of Tree-ferns of the present day. These stems arise long ribbon-shaped processes, which appear to have probably belong to some of the fronds to which other names been hollow roots compressed. Stigmaria ficoides (Fig. are given, but as they have not been found attached, it is 591), is often found creeping in the under-clay of a coal impossible to determine the point. seam, sending out numerous roots from its tubercles, and Sigillaria is perhaps the most important plant in the coal pushing up its aerial stem, in the form of a fluted Sigillaria. formation. It is found in all coal shales over the world. While the rhizomes, stem, and roots have thus been deterThere are upwards of 60 species. It occurs in the form ot mined, we have no means of ascertaining the foliage. It lofty stems, 40-50 feet high, and 5 feet broad (Figs. 589 is probable that Sigillaria was an acrogenous plant allied and 590), standing erect at right angles to the planes of al- to Lycopodiaceae, and probably intermediate between that order and Cycadacese. In coal from Fordel Mr Daw has detected numerous seed-like organisms, which may be the fructification either of a Sigillaria or of some plant allied to Lycopodium. The same bodies have been seen by Dr Fleming in roany specimens of Cherry, Splint, and Cannel Coals from various quarters. Lepidodendron (Fig. 592), is another genus of the coal measures which differs from those of the present day. It seems to occupy an intermediate place between Lycopodiacese and Coniferse. The stem is from 20 to 45 feet high, marked outside by peculiar scaly-like scars (Fig. 592, a), hence the name of the plant. The linear or lanceolate leaves are arranged in the same way as those of Lycopodiums or of Coniferse, and the branches fork like the former. Fig. 589. Stems of Sigillaria pacliyderma in an erect position, covered by successive deposits of sandstone and sbale; one is bifurcated. ... 590. Sigillaria stem with markings, and Stigmaria roots. ternating strata of shale and sandstone. The stem of Sigillaria is fluted in a longitudinal manner, and has a succession of single and double scars, which indicate the points of insertion of the leaves. When the outer part of the stem separates like bark, it is found that the markings presented by the inner surface differ from those seen externally. This has sometimes given rise to the erroneous supposition that they belong to different genera. In Sigillaria elegans there is a woody system which is broken up into cuneiform plates, separated by medullary rays, and there are two vascular systems, one forming a series of bundles in the medullary axis of the stem, and another external to the woody system. The vessels are dotted, scalariform, and more or less referrible to the spiral type. The external bundles which go directly to the leaves are placed opposite to the woody wedges (not, as in Stigmaria, opposite to the medullary rays), and such is also the case with the inner vascular system. It has been recently ascertained by Mr Binney of Manchester, that the plant called Stigmaria (Fig. 591) is not a separate genus, but the root, or rather the rhizome of Sigillaria. It is one of the most common productions of the coal measures, and consists of long rounded or compressed fragments, marked externally by shallow circular,

Fig. 593. Fig. 592. Fig. 592. Lepidodendron obovatum (elegans); a, bifurcating stem; 6, Lepidostrobus ; c, the same cut vertically ; d, Lepidophyllum. ... 593. Calamites Lindleyi (C. Mongeotii L. and H.), a jointed reed-like stem, with furrows on the surface. Stem a, with branches according to some, roots according to Binney ; 6, partition of one of the joints. There is a double vascular system in the trunk, one in the centre, and another placed externally to the woody mass. The latter vascular system forms a continuous zone outside the wood; its inner edge is well defined, and its outer, whence bundles are given off to the leaves, is sinuous. Although the scars on Lepidodendron are usually flattened, yet in some species they occupy the faces of diamond-shaped

BOTANY. 236 Botany. projections, elevated one-sixth of an inch or more above the of generic forms. Cycadaceae occupied a more important Botany. surface of the stem, and separated from each other by deep place in the ancient than in the present vegetable world. ' furrows :—the surface bearing the leaf being perforated by They extend more or less from the coal formation, up to a tubular cavity, through which the bundle of vessels that the Tertiary. They are rare in the Gres-bigarre, or lower diverged from the vascular axis of the stem to the leaf strata of the Triassic system (Upper New Red Sandstone) passed out. The fruit of Lepidodendron is seen in Lepido- and in the Chalk. They attain their maximum in the Lias strobus (Fig. 592, b and c), which appears to consist of scales and Oolite, in each of which upwards of 40 species have been covering sporangia, in the interior of which are spores, con- enumerated, and they disappear in the Tertiary formations. In Brongniart’s Vosgesian period, the Gres-bigarre, or sisting of three or four angular sporules, which have been seen in a separate state. It is probable that many other fossil the Red Sandstones and Conglomerates of the Friassic forms are connected with or allied to Lepidodendrons. Thus system, there is a change in the flora. Sigillarias and LeLepidophyllum (Fig. 592, d) is probably the leaf of some pidodendrons disappear, and in their place we meet with species of the genus, while Strobilites is a form of the fruit. Gymnosperms, belonging to the genera Voltzia, HaidinCalamites (Fig. 593) is a reed-like fossil, having a sub- gera, Zamites, Ctenis, JEthophyllum, and Schizoneura. cylindrical, furrowed, and jointed stem, the furrows of the Species of Neuropteris, Pecopteris, and other acrogenous joints alternating and often converging. The stem is often coal genera are still found, along with species of Anomopcrushed and flattened, and may probably have been originally teris and Crematopteris—peculiar Fern-forms, which are hollow. At the joints there are toothed sheaths or tuber- not found in later formations. In the saliferous red and cles, which are disposed symmetrically between the furrows. variegated marls of the Triassic system, the Acrogens are The fructification is unknown. There appears to have been changed as regards species, and frequently in the genera. a bark which could be separated from the woody tissue be- Thus we have the genera Camptopteris, Sagenopteris, and low. The plants have been seen erect by Mr Binney, and Equisetum. Among Gymnosperms, the genera PterophylTaxodites occur. he has determined that what were called leaves or branches lumT—and T * j-l-v ^ 4-^1 rvt f n Q -H/avq QVO t n by some, are in reality roots. There are 51 species recorded. predominance of Cycadaceae, in the form of species of CyThey have been compared to Equisetaceae. True Exogenous trees exist in the carboniferous system cadites, Otozamites, Zamites, Ctenis, Pterophyllum, and both of England and Scotland. These Exogenous trees are Nilsonia, and the existence among the Ferns of many genera Gymnosperms, having woody tissue like that of Coniferae. with reticulated venation, such as Camptopteris and fhauWe see under the microscope punctated woody tissue, the matopteris. Coniferous genera, as Brachyphyllum, Taxorows of disks being usually two, three, or more, and alter- dites, Palissya, and Peuce, are found. In the Oolitic epoch, the flora consists of numerous Cynating. They seem to be allied in these respects to Araucaria and Eutassa of the present flora. Stems of Dadoxylon cadaceae and Conif erae, some of them having peculiar forms. or Pinites Withami, D. medullare, and Peuce Withamihave Its distinctive characters are, the rarity of Ferns with retibeen found in the sandstone of Craigleith quarry, near culated venation, which are so numerous in the Lias, the Edinburgh. Sternbergia is considered by Williamson as frequency of the Cycadaceous genera Otozamites and a Dadoxylon, with a discoid pith like that seen now-a-days Zamites, which are most analogous to those now existing ; and the greater frequency of the Coniferous genera, Brachyin the Walnut and Jessamine. The plants of the coal measures seem to be evidently ter- phyllum and Thuites. There is an absence of true coal fields in the secondary restrial plants, and fresh-water aquatics. Brongniart agrees with Lyell in thinking that the layers of coal have in gene- formations generally ; but in some of the Oolitic series, as ral accumulated in the situation where the plants forming in the lower Oolite at Brora, in Sutherlandshire, and the them grew. The remains of these plants covered the soil Kimmeridge clay of the upper Oolite, near M eymouth, in the same way as layers of peat, or the vegetable mould there are considerable deposits of carbonaceous matter. The of great forests. In a few instances, however, the plants upper Oolite at Portland contains an interesting bed about appear to have been transported from a distance, and drifted a foot in thickness, of a dark brown substance, containing into basins. Phillips is disposed to think that this was the much earthy lignite. This is the dirt-bed, made up of black general mode of formation of coal basins. He is led to this loam, which, at some far distant period, nourished the roots conclusion by observing the fragmentary state of the stems of trees, fragments of whose stems are now found fossilized and branches, the general absence of roots, and the scat- around it. These consist of an assemblage of silicified tered condition of all the separable organs. Those who stumps or stools of large trees, standing from 1-3 feet from support the drift theory, look on the coal plants as having been swept from the land on which they grew by watery currents at different times, and deposited in basins and large sea-estuaries, and sometimes in lakes. The snags in the Mississippi, the St Lawrence, and other large rivers, are given as instances of a similar drifting process. The nature of the vegetation during the Permian Period, which is associated with the Carboniferous, under the reign of Acrogens, has not been positively determined. The genera of Ferns here met with are also found in the Carboniferous epoch ; the Gymnosperms are chiefly species of Walchia and Noggerathia. Lepidodendron elongatum, Calamites gigas, and Annularia floribunda, are also species of this period. Fig. 595. II. Reign of Gymnosperms.—In this reign the A ero- ■ig. 594. Cycadoidea megaloptiylla (Mantellia mdiformis of Brongniart), a sub-globose depressed trunk, with a concave apex, and «itb tbe regenous species are less numerous, the Gymnosperms almost mains of tbe petioles disposed in a spiral manner the markings being transversely elliptical. equal them in number, and ordinarily surpass them in freof Portland, in a silicified state.It is found in tbe Oolite of tbeinIsland . i.) BOYD, Mark Alexander, a remarkable scholar and soldier, son of Robert Boyd of Pinkell in Ayrshire, and grandson of Robert Boyd, great chamberlain of Scotland, was born 13th January 1562. He lost his father in early life, and was educated by his uncle the learned James Boyd of Trochrig, “ Tulchan,” archbishop of Glasgow. His temper, however, was so violent that he soon quarrelled with his teachers, and abandoning his studies altogether, sought preferment at the court. Among the wildest spirits of that stormy period, the intolerable fierceness of his temper made it convenient for him to retire from Scotland and seek his fortune in France. He reached Paris with a small stock of money, which he soon lost in gaming. From Paris he went to Orleans, where he studied civil law under Robertus. The fame of Cujas next attracted him to Bourges. From Bourges he was driven by the plague to Lyons, and thence to Italy. On returning to France he was engaged to instruct a young nobleman, with whom, when the wars of the League broke out, he joined the Catholic party, though himself a Protestant. When the campaign terminated in 1588, he went to Toulouse and resumed his legal studies, which were speedily interrupted by an outbreak of bigotry on the part of the inhabitants, who, taking him fora Protestant, seized and threw him into prison. On his release he withdrew to Bordeaux. I ill 1595 he led an unsettled life, sometimes studying, more frequently engaged in war. He found time, however, in 1592 to publish at Antwerp a volume of Latin poems, which he dedicated in a fulsome preface to James VI. He ultimately retired to his birthplace, where he died April 10.1601. J he best of his writings are the Epistolce Heroidum, and the Hymni, which are to be found in the I)choice Eoetarum Scotorum, Amsterdam, 1637, tom. i. p. 142. The diction of his poems, though copious, is far from being classical, and his sentiments, sometimes lofty and noble, are more frequently coarse and impure. I he finest of his poetical pieces is that entitled The Tears of Venus on the Death of Adonis. The MSS. of his unpublished works are preserved in the Advocates’ Library at Edinburgh.3 Boyd, Zachary, a learned and pious clergyman of the Scottish Church, was born towards the end of the sixteenth century, and died in 1653 or 1654. He was for many years regent in the college of Saumur in France, but returned to his native country in 1621, to escape the persecution of the Protestants. In 1623 he was appointed minister of the Barony church in Glasgow, and held the office of rector of the university in the years 1634, 1635, and 1645. To his munificence the university is mainly indebted for the erection of its present buildings. Besides his library and MSS., he bequeathed to it the half of his fortune, a sum amounting to L.20,000 Scots. His bust over the gateway within the

This line, which is scarcely intelligible, ought perhaps to have stood thus:— All hail and fyne in fassoun and effect. Kennedy’s Annals of Aberdeen, vol. ii. p. 367. Hailes s Sketch of the Life of Mark Alexander Boyd, 4to. M'Crie’s Life of Melville, vol. i. p. 85.

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BOY court commemorates his important benefactions. 1 he numher of his published works was considerable, and 86 of his MSS. are said to be preserved in the library of Glasgow College. His best known works are The Last Battel of the Soule in Death, 1629, of which anew edition, with a biography by Mr Neil, was published at Glasgow in 1831 ; Zion's Flowers, 1644. the English Academic, and Songs of Zion. His poetical compositions are not without some merit, though the remarkable eccentricity of some of them has generally made them a source of amusement rather than of edification. The common statement that he made the printing of his metrical version of the Bible a condition of the reception of his grant to the university, is a mistake. BOYER, a kind of Flemish sloop. Boyer, Abel, a well-known lexicographer and historiographer, born at Castres in France in 1664. Upon the revocation of the edict of Nantes, he went first to Geneva, and then to Franeker, where he finished his studies. Finally he came to England, where he soon acquired such a proficiency in the English language, that he became an author of considerable note, and was employed in writing several periodical and political works. He had for many years the principal management of a newspaper called the Postbog ; and he likewise published a monthly work entitled the Political State of Great Britain. He wrote a Life of Queen Anne in folio ; a History of William LIT. in 3 vols. 8vo ; and Annals of the Reign of Queen Anne, in 11 vols. 8vo. But he is best known by his Dictionary and Grammar of the French Language, which are still reckoned good in their kind. He died at Chelsea in 1729. Boyer, Alexis, a distinguished French surgeon, was born on the 1st of March 1757, at Uzerches in the Limousin. His father was in the humble station of a tailor; and the son received the elements of a medical education in the shop of a barber-surgeon in a provincial town. His early talents induced his friends to procure his removal to Paris, where he had the good fortune to attract the notice of his two distinguished masters Louis and Desault; and his unwearied perseverance, his anatomical skill, and finally his dexterity as an operator, became so conspicuous, that at the age of thirty-seven he obtained the appointment of second surgeon to the Hotel Dieu of Paris, and was elected professor of operatic surgery in L’Ecole de Sante. This latter appointment he soon exchanged for the chair of clinical surgery ; a department in which his manual dexterity and his admirable lectures on surgical diseases gained him the highest reputation, and introduced him to extensive practice. Perhaps no French surgeon of his time thought or wrote with greater clearness and good sense than Boyer; and while his natural modesty made him distrustful of innovation, and somewhat tenacious of established modes of treatment, he was as judicious in his diagnosis, as cool and skilful in manipulating, as he was cautious in forming his judgment on individual cases. In 1805 Napoleon nominated him imperial family surgeon ; and, after the brilliant campaigns of 1806-7, made him a member of the legion of honour, and conferred on him the title of Baron of the Empire, with a salary of 25,000 francs (L.1042). On the fall of Napoleon, the modest merits of Boyer secured him the favour of the succeeding sovereigns of France, and he was consulting-surgeon to Louis XVIII., to Charles X., and to Louis Philippe. In 1835 he succeeded Deschamps as surgeon-in-chief to the Hopital de la Charite, and was chosen a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences of the Institute of France ; while various scientific, national, and foreign societies enrolled him in their lists. But honours and emoluments could not console Boyer for the loss of a beloved wife. From the period of her death his health began visibly to decline ; and he terminated his mortal career on November 23. 1833, at the age of seventy-six.

B O Y Boyer was of a cheerful temper, unassuming and simple Boyle, in his manners, and studied a genteel economy which enabled him to exhibit many traits of generosity to others. His two great works are, Traite complet de VAnatomie, in 4 vols. 8vo, published in 1797-99 ; of which a fourth edition appeared in 1815; and Traite des Maladies Chirurgicales, et des operations qui leur conviennent, in 11 vols. 8vo, 1814-26. Of this work a new edition called the 5th, with additions by M. Ph. Boyer, in 7 vols., was published in 1844-53. (x. s. x.) Boyer, Jean Baptiste, an eminent French physician, born at Marseilles in 1693. He devoted a long life to the special investigation and treatment of contagious epidemics with a courage and success which have rarely been surpassed. On the last appearance of the plague in western Europe in 1720, he was one of the physicians sent from Paris by the government to succour the inhabitants of his native city, then visited by this great calamity. The fearless zeal and ability which he displayed on that occasion, procured him a pension and the title of physician in ordinary to the king. Much of his subsequent life was spent in similar expeditions, devoted to philanthropy, wherever pestilential epidemics prevailed: and the value of the services of Boyer were fully acknowledged at Paris, Treves, Beauvais, Montague, Brest, and at several places in the Spanish peninsula. Fie died in 1768. His writings are not numerous : the best known are his good Account of the Plague at Marseilles in 1720, and his Observations on the Epidemic that prevailed, at Beauvais, published at Paris in 1750. (x. s. x.) BOYLE, Charles, Earl of Orrery in Ireland, and Baron of Marston, in the county of Somerset, second son of Roger second Earl of Orrery, was born at Chelsea in 1676. He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, and soon distinguished himself by his learning and abilities. Like the first Earl of Orrery, he was an author, a soldier, and a statesman. He translated Plutarch’s life of Lysander ; and published an edition of the epistles of Phalaris, which engaged him in the famous controversy with Bentley. See Axxerbury. He was three times member for the town of Fluntingdon ; and on the death of his brother, Lionel Earl of Orrery, in 1703, he succeeded to that title. He entered the army, and in 1709 was raised to the rank of major-general, and sworn one of her Majesty’s privy-council. At the battle of the Wood he acted with distinguished bravery. He was appointed the queen’s envoy to the states of Brabant and Flanders ; and having discharged this trust with ability, he was created an English peer, as Baron of Marston, in Somersetshire. Fie received several additional honours in the reign of king George I.; but having had the misfortune to fall under the suspicion of the government he was committed to the Tower, where he remained six months, and was then admitted to bail. On a subsequent inquiry, it was found impossible to criminate him, and he was discharged. He died, after a slight illness, on the 28th of August 1731. I o his tutor, Atterbury, he probably owed in some degree his relish for the writings of the ancients. Medicine likewise was one of his favourite studies. This peer also wrote a comedy, entitled As you find it; and after him was named the orrery, an astronomical instrument invented by Graham. Boyle, John, Earl of Cork and Orrery, a nobleman distinguished for his literary attainments, was the only son of Charles Earl of Orrery, and was born January 2. 1707. He was educated at Christ Church College, Oxford; and was led by indifferent health, and many untoward accidents, to cultivate in retirement his talents for literature and poetry. Of these he has left several favourable specimens. He translated the Letters of Pliny the Younger, with various notes, for the use of his eldest son, published in 1/51,2 vols. 4to. He also published a Life of Swift, in several letters addressed to his second son ; and Memoirs of Robert Carv, Earl of Monmouth, from a manuscript presented to him by

BOY BOY Boyle, a relation. He died November 16. 1762. His letters trom with Mrs Elizabeth Killigrew; and immediately afterwards, ^ Italy did not appear until 1774, when they were edited, with the two brothers proceeded to the Continent, accompanied his life prefixed, by the Rev. J. Buncombe. by M. Marcomb, a Frenchman, who was tutor to Mr Boyle. Boyle, Richard, one of the greatest statesmen of the Landing at Dieppe, they passed by Rouen to Paris, and seventeenth century, generally styled the Great Earl of thence to Lyons ; and then continued their journey to GeCork, was the youngest son of Mr Roger Boyle, and was neva, where the family of their travelling companion resided. born at Canterbury, October 3.1566. He studied at Benet Here young Boyle resumed his studies in the mathematics, College, Cambridge, and afterwards became a student in of which he had previously acquired some knowledge. the Middle 1 emple. Having lost his parents, and being After residing a year at Geneva, in September 1641 he unable to support himself in the prosecution of his studies, travelled through Switzerland and the country of the Grihe became clerk to Sir Richard Manwood, chief baron of the sons ; then passing by Bergamo, Brescia, and Verona, he exchequer ; but finding this employment little likely to im- arrived at Venice, where he made a short stay. He spent prove his fortune, he went to Ireland. He was then about the winter at Florence, employing his spare hours in readtwenty-two years of age, graceful in person, and possessing ing the modern history of Italy, and in studying the works many accomplishments, which enabled him to render him- of Galileo, who died near Florence during Mr Boyle’s resiself useful to some of the principal persons employed in the dence there. He also acquired the Italian language, though government. In 1595 he married one of the daughters and he never spoke it so fluently as French, of which he was a co-heiresses of William Apsley. This lady died four years perfect master. afterwards, leaving him a landed estate of L.500 a-year. About the end of March 1642 he went to Rome; and In consequence of various services, and the great ability he after visiting several of the principal cities of Italy, he ardisplayed, he gradually rose to the highest offices; and in rived at Marseilles. Here he received intelligence of the 1616 he was created by King James I. Lord Boyle, Baron Irish rebellion; and after experiencing considerable pecuniary of Youghall in the county of Cork. Four years later he difficulties through the loss of a remittance, in consequence was created Viscount Dungarvan and Earl of Cork; and of which the party were obliged to retrace their way to Gein 1631 he was appointed lord-treasurer of Ireland, an honour neva, he at length reached England in 1644. His father that was made hereditary in his family. He particularly was then dead, but he had left him the manor of Stalbridge, distinguished himself by the noble stand he made when the as well as considerable property in Ireland ; though during great rebellion broke out in Ireland in the reign of Charles that period of public agitation he derived little benefit from I., acting with as much bravery and military skill as if he them. He procured, however, from the powers in being, had been trained from his infancy to the profession of arms. protection for his estates in the two kingdoms. Having turned the castle of Lismore, his principal seat, into In March 1646 he retired to his manor at Stalbridge, a fortress, he immediately armed and disciplined his servants where he chiefly resided till May 1650. He made occaand Protestant tenants; and, with their assistance, and a sional excursions to London and to Oxford ; and in February small army, raised and maintained at his own expense, which 1647 he paid a short visit to Holland. During his retirehe put under the command of his four sons, he defended ment at Stalbridge he engaged diligently in study, devoting the province of Munster, and took several strong castles. his attention more particularly to natural philosophy and During this time he paid his forces regularly ; and when all chemistry. He omitted no opportunity of making the achis money was exhausted, he converted his plate into coin. quaintance of persons distinguished by their talents and He died on the 15th of September 1644. learning, and to such he was always a ready and generous Boyle, Richard, Earl of Burlington and Cork, son of assistant, and maintained with them a constant corresponthe former, was born at Youghall in October 1612. He dence. Boyle was also one of the first members of that greatly distinguished himself by his loyalty to Charles L, small society of learned men, who, in consequence of the whom during his troubles he supplied both with money and unsettled state of the times, held their meetings with great troops ; but at last he was obliged to compound for his estate. privacy, first at London, and afterwards at Oxford, for the He contributed all in his power to the Restoration ; and by purpose of discussing and investigating experimental philoCharles II. he was created Earl of Burlington or Bridlington sophy, and other subjects of liberal inquiry, exclusive of rein 1663. He died in January 1697-8, aged eighty-six. ligion and politics. They styled themselves the Philosophic Boyle, Robert, one of the greatest and best of modern College ; and after the Restoration, they were incorporated philosophers, was the seventh son and fourteenth child of under the name of the Royal Society. Richard Earl of Cork, and was born at Lismore castle in the In the summer of 1654 Boyle took up his residence at province of Munster, Ireland, January 25. 1626-7. He Oxford, in order that he might pursue his studies to greater acquired the first rudiments of learning in his father’s house, advantage ; and here he found himself surrounded by many being taught to speak Latin by one of the earl’s chaplains, learned friends, such as Wilkins, Wallis, Ward, Willis, and French by a native of the country residing in the Wren, and others, who had resorted thither for the same house. In 1635 his father sent him to be educated at reasons as himself. It was here that he made his improveEton school, where Sir Henry Wotton, the earl’s friend, ments on the air-pump, and by numerous experiments with was then provost. Whilst at Eton several extraordinary this instrument he was enabled to discover several qualities accidents befel him, of which he has given us an account. of air, and to lay the foundation of a satisfactory theory of One was the fall of his chamber while he was in bed; its nature. He declared against the philosophy of Aristotle, when he must infallibly have been suffocated by the dust as as being conversant more with words than with things, and he lay beneath the rubbish, but for his presence of mind in as giving the inventions of men for indubitable proofs, instead covering his head with the sheet, which enabled him to of building upon observation and experiment. He was so breath without difficulty. Soon afterwards, when he was zealous for the experimental method of investigation, that riding, his horse suddenly reared and fell backwards, when although the Cartesian philosophy was become the subject of he would certainly have been crushed but for his timely general attention, he could not for many years be persuaded dexterity in disengaging himself from the animal. to read the works of Descartes, lest he should be diverted He remained at Eton between three and four years; and then by ingenious theories from carrying out the Baconian syswas placed as a private pupil with Mr Douch, rector of Stal- tem of experimental inquires to which he had devoted himbridge in Dorsetshire, a property recently purchased by the self. But philosophy, and inquiries into nature, though they earl. In 1638 he attended his father to London, and remained engaged his attention deeply, did not occupy it entirely. with him at the Savoy, till the marriage of his brother Francis He still continued his critical and theological studies; and VOL. v. 2k

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BOYLE. ;n these he had the assistance of several eminent scholars, Regions, and the Bottom of the Sea; to which is prefixed, such as Pococke, Hyde, and Clarke, all distinguished orien- an Introduction to the History of Particular Qualities. talists. He was also intimate with Dr Thomas Barlow, the 1 his book occasioned much speculation, as it contained a Bodleian librarian, and subsequently Bishop of Lincoln, a vast treasure of knowledge, founded upon actual experiman of various and extensive learning. In 1659 Boyle ments, or arguments justly drawn from them, instead of came to know the distressed circumstances of Sanderson, that conjectural philosophy which in the beginning of the afterwards bishop of Lincoln, who lost all his preferments seventeenth century had been so much in fashion. In 1671 on account of his attachment to the royal party, and he con- he published Considerations on the Usefulness of Experiferred upon him a pension of L.50 a-year, to encourage him mental and Natural Philosophy, (part second), 4to; and, in writing his “ Cases of Conscience.” A Collection of Tracts upon several useful and important On the Restoration, Boyle was very favourably received at points of Practical Philosophy, 4to; which were received court. He was solicited by the Lord Chancellor Claren- as new and valuable gifts to the learned world. An essay don to enter into holy orders, but shrunk from the re- concerning the Origin and Virtues of Gems, 8vo, appeared sponsibility; believing, moreover, that whatever he wrote in 1672; also, A collection of tracts upon the relation bein the service of religion would have greater weight as tween flame and air, and several other useful and curious coming from a layman. He chose, therefore, to pursue subjects; besides which he furnished, in this and the former his philosophical studies in such a manner as might conduce year, a great number of short dissertations upon a variety of to the support of religion, and began to communicate to the topics, addressed to the Royal Society, and inserted in their world the fruits of these studies. The first of these were Transactions. Essays on the Subtility and determinate Naprinted at Oxford in 1660, in 8vo, under the title of New ture of Effluvia, to which were added a variety of ExperiExperiments, Physico-mechanical, touching the Spring of ments on other Subjects, came out in 1673, 8vo. A collecAir and its Effects; and Seraphic Love, or some Motives tion of tracts upon the Saltness of the Sea, the Moisture of and Incentives to the Love of God. Certain physiological the Air, the Natural and Preternatural State of Bodies, to essays and other tracts, in 4to, appeared in 1661 ; and in which is prefixed a dialogue concerning Cold, was published 1662, the Sceptical Chemist, which was reprinted about in 1674, 8vo. The Excellency of Theology, compared with T679, in 8vo, with additional experiments and notes. Philosophy, appeared in 1673. This discourse was written In 1663 the Royal Society was incorporated by letters in 1665, when the Great Plague which then raged in Lonpatent, and Boyle was appointed one of the council. He don obliged the author to wander from place to place in the had been principally concerned in the foundation of that country, where he had little opportunity of consulting books. learned society, and through life he continued one of the A Collection of Tracts, containing Suspicions respecting Hidmost useful and industrious of its members. In 1663 he den Qualities of the Air, with an appendix, touching Celestial published Considerations touching the usefulness of Expe- Magnets, Animadversions upon Hobbes’s Problem about a rimental Natural Philosophy, 4to, and Experiments and Vacuum, and a Discourse of the Cause of Attraction and SucConsiderations upon Colours; wdth Observations on a tion, was published in 1674. Some Considerations about Diamond that shines in the Dark, 8vo. This treatise, the Reconcileableness of Reason and Religion, by a Layman, which is full of curious and useful remarks on the hitherto to which is annexed a discourse about the Possibility of the unexplained doctrine of light and colours, may be said to Resurrection, appeared in 1655. Amongst the papers which have led the way to that more full and ample development he communicated to the Royal Society this year, one was of the subject which was reserved for the genius of Newton. entitled An Experimental Discourse of Quicksilver growing In the same year appeared his Considerations on the Style hot with Gold; and another relating to the same subject; of the Holy Scriptures, 8vo, being an extract from a larger each of which contained important discoveries. work, entitled An Essay on Scripture, afterwards published In 1676 he published Experiments and Notes about the by his friend Sir Peter Pett. In 1664 he was elected into mechanical origin or production of Particular Qualities, in the company of the royal mines, and all this year he w as several discourses on a great variety of subjects, and among engaged in the prosecution of various good designs, which the rest on electricity. In 1678 he communicated to Dr prevented his publishing anything. The year following ap- Hooke a short memorial of some observations made upon peared Occasional Reflections upon several Subjects, 8vo, an artificial substance that shines without any preceding addressed to Sophronia (his sister the Viscountess Rane- illustration ; which that philosopher published in \\\§ Lectiones lagh). In ridicule of these discourses, Dean Swift wrote Cutleriance. His historical account of a degradation of A Pious Meditation upon a Broomstick, in the style of the gold produced by an anti-elixir, is looked upon as one of the Honourable Mr Boyle. “ To what a height,” said Lord most remarkable pieces that ever fell from his pen. The Orrery, “ must the spirit of sarcasm arise in an author, who regard which Sir Isaac Newton entertained for Boyle may could prevail on himself to ridicule so good a man as Mr be seen in a letter which he wrote to him, towards the close Boyle ?” The same year he published an important work, of this year, stating his sentiments of that ethereal medium entitled New Experiments and Observations upon Cold, which he afterwards considered in his Optics as the cause 1665,8vo ; and in 1666, Hydrostatical Paradoxes made out of gravitation. This letter is given in the Life of Boyle by by new Experiments, 8vo; and also the Origin of Forms Dr Birch. and Qualities, according to the Corpuscular Philosophy. In 1680 he published the Aerial Noctiluca, or some Besides these, both in this and the former year, he commu- new phenomena, and a process of a factitious self-shining nicated to the Royal Society several curious and excellent substance, 8vo. This year the Royal Society, as a proof of short treatises, which are preserved in the Philosophical their sense of his great worth, and of the services which he Transactions. had rendered the society, elected him their president; but In 1668 Boyle settled in London, in the house of his being extremely sensitive in regard to oaths, he declined sister, Lady Ranelagh, in Pall-Mall. In the following year the honour. He published a discourse of Things above he published A Continuation of New Experiments, touch- Reason, inquiring, whether a philosopher should admit any ing the Weight and Spring of the Air; to which is added, such, 1681, 8vo ; New Experiments and Observations upon A Discourse of the Atmospheres of Consistent Bodies. He the icy Noctiluca, to which jis added a chemical paradox, also revised and made additions to several of his former grounded upon new Experiments, 1682, 8vo; and a conworks, some of which were now translated into Latin. About tinuation of New Experiments, Physico-mechanical, touchthe same time he published his Tracts about the Cosmical ing the Spring and Weight of the Air, 1682, 8vo. In 1683 he Qualities of Things, the Temperature of the Subterraneous published nothing except a short letter to Dr Beale, in rela-

BOY B 0 Y 259 Boyle, tion to the making of fresh water out of salt; but in 1684 marks, that “ Boyle, the ornament of his age and country, —be published Memoirs for the natural history of Human succeeded to the genius and inquiries of the great Chan- Boyle. Blood, especially the spirit of that liquor, 8vo; and Experi- cellor Verulam;’ to which he adds—“ To him we owe the ments and Considerations about the Porosity of Bodies. In secrets of fire, air, water, animals, vegetables, fossils; so 1685 he published Short Memoirs for the natural experi- that fiom his works may be deduced the whole system of mental history of Mineral Waters, with directions as to the natural knowledge. Ihis may now appear extravagant; several methods of trying them; an Essay on the great Effects but at the time it was considered a just tribute to his extraof even languid and unheeded motion, which was received ordinary merit and indefatigable perseverance. with great and general applause; a Treatise of the ReconIn his person Robert Boyle was tall, slender, and of cileableness of specific Medicines to the Corpuscular Philo- a pale countenance. His constitution was extremely delisophy, to which is annexed a Discourse about the Advan- cate; and he was so apprehensive of the effects of cold, that he tages of the use of Simple Medicines, 8vo ; and a theologi- was guided by the thermometer in fixing upon one of his cal tract of the high veneration Man’s intellect owes to God, numerous cloaks to wear abroad. Though labouring for peculiarly for his wisdom and power, 8vo. In the begin- nearly forty years of his life under every disadvantage of ning of the succeeding year came out his Free Inquiry into bodily weakness and depression of spirits, his ardour in the the vulgarly received notion of Nature; and in 1687 he cause of science suffered no abatement, as amply testified published the martyrdom of 1 heodora and Didymia, a juve- by extent and importance of his various productions. He nile pei formance. His Disquisition about the final causes hadthe likewise a weakness in his eyes, which rendered him of natural things, in 8vo, appeared in 1688. apprehensive of such distempers as might afHe novy began to find that his health and strength, not- extremely ect them. As to life itself, he set that just value on it withstanding every care, gradually declined. He no longer which became a philosopher and a Christian. He was never communicated particular discourses or new discoveries to married, although he had at least one opportunity of making the Royal Society, because it could not be done without an advantageous connection, since we find from a letter of withdrawing his thoughts from occupations which he thought Dr John Wallis to him, dated Oxford, 17th July 1669 of still greater importance. In order the more steadily to that an overture had been made to him in regard to the attend to these, he resigned his post of governor of the cor- Lady Mary Hastings, sister to the Earl of Huntingdon. poration for propagating the gospel in New England; and follownng is a list of his posthumous works:—1. The Geneeven went so far as to signify to the world, by public adver- ra!The History of the Air designed and begun ; 2. General Heads for tisement, that he could no longer receive visits as usual. the Natural History of a Country, for the use of Travellers and Among the other works which by this means he gained avigators ; 3. A paper of the Hon. Robert Boyle’s, deposited with time to finish, was a collection of elaborate processes in the secretaries of the Royal Society, being an account of his makchemistry, which, as he stated in a letter to a friend, he ing the Phosphorus, September 30, 1680 ; 4. An account of a wav of left “as a kind of hermetic legacy to the studious disciples examining A\ aters as to Freshness or Saltness ; 5. A free Discourse customary Swearing, and a Dissuasive from Cursing, 1695 of that art. Besides these papers, he left behind him many against 8vo; and 6. Medicinal Experiments, or a Collection of choice Rerelating to chemistry. medies &c., 1698, 12mo. Editions of all his works have been He published some other works, as Medicina Hydrosia- printed at London, in five volumes folio, and six volumes 4to. tica, or, Hydrostatics applied to the Materia Medica, 1690, Boyle, Roger, Earl of Orrery, fifth son of the great 8yo ; The Christian Virtuoso, to which is subjoined, A Earl of Cork, was born in April 1621. He distinguished Discourse about the Distinction that represents some Things while a student at Dublin College, and afterwards as above Reason, but not contrary to Reason ; and the first himself made the tour of France and Italy. On his return he was chapters of a discourse entitled Greatness of mind promoted created Lord Broghill, through the interest of the Earl of b V Christianity. Lastly, he published in the spring of Strafford. Shortly afterwards he married Margaret Howard 1691, Experimenta et Observationes Physicce, treating of sister to the Earl of Suffolk; and passing over to Ireland several subjects relating to natural philosophy, in an experi- with his bride, he found the country in a state of rebellion mental way, 8vo. and assisted his father in opposing the insurgents. Upon About the beginning of summer he began to feel such an the execution of the king, he retired to his seat at Marston alteration in his health as induced him to think of settling in Somersetshire; but his spirit could ill brook this state of his affairs; and on the 30th December 1691 he departed this life, in the sixty-fifth year of his age. He was buried inactivity, and he therefore resolved to cross the seas, and in St Martin’s in the Fields, Westminster; and his funeral apply to Charles II. for a commission to raise forces to restore the monarchy and recover his own estate. Under the sermon was preached by Dr Gilbert Burnet, bishop of Salis- pretence of visiting Spa for his health, he proceeded as far as bury. London, he received a message from Cromwell, then The edition of the New Testament in the Malayan tongue general ofwhen the parliamentary forces and a member of the was undertaken at Boyle’s expense, and sent over all the of state, intimating his intention to wait upon East. He munificently rewarded the person who translated committee him. Presently Cromwell himself entered the room, and Grotius’s book De Veritatc into Arabic; and he was at the after the exchange of a few civilities, told Lord Broghill that charge of a whole impression, which he took care to have the committee were apprised of his design; and when his distributed in all the countries where that language was un- lordship assured him that the intelligence was false, Cromderstood. It was his intention to have printed an impression of the New Testament in Turkish ; but the design well produced copies of several of his confidential letters which reduced him to the necessity of asking Cromwell’s was carried out by the Levant Company. Boyle, however, pardon, and requesting his advice in such a conjuncture. contributed largely towards it. He expended* L.TOO on an Ciomw ell told him, that though he had hitherto been a edition of the Scriptures in Irish, and contributed liberally stranger to his person, he was not so to his merit and chato the impression of the Welsh Bible. He gave, during his racter ; that he had heard how gallantly his lordship had .e, L.300 to advance the design of propagating the Christian religion in America; and as soon as he heard that the behaved in the Irish wars; and he concluded by offerinothe command of a general officer, exempt from all oaths East India Company were entertaining propositions for a him and engagements; adding that he should not be obliged to similar design in the East, he sent a donation of L.100. His draw his sword against any but the Irish rebels. ^Lord various charities amounted altogether to upwards of L.1000 Broghill, greatly surprised at so unexpected an offer rea-year. Of his merits as an inquirer into nature, Boerhaave re- quested some time for deliberation. But Cromwell briskly told him that he must determine instantly; that he himself

260 BOY Boyle’s was about to return to the committee, who were still sitting; Lectures. anti that if his lordship rejected their offer, they had determined to send him to the Tower. Broghill, finding that his liberty and life were in the utmost danger, pledged his honour that he would faithfully serve against the Irish rebels ; and accordingly, by Cromwell’s instructions, he passed over into Ireland, where by many important services he fully justified the opinion which Cromwell had conceived of him. Having raised a troop of horse, it was soon increased to a regiment of 1500 men, and these he led into the field against the rebels. He was speedily joined by Cromwell, who placed the highest confidence in his new ally, and found him of the greatest value to the interest of the commonwealth. When Cromwell became Protector, Lord Broghill was made one of his privy council, and admitted to great intimacy and confidence. It is said that the latter formed a project for engaging Cromwell to restore the old constitution, by a match between Charles II. and the Protector’s daughter. Cromwell, who at first seemed to think it not unfeasible, soon perceived the difficulties which it involved, and told Broghill that he thought his project impracticable : “ For,” said he, “ Charles can never forgive me the death of his father.” On the death of Cromwell, Lord Broghill continued attached to his son Richard, till, seeing that the weak nature of that amiable man would infallibly bring on his fall, he deemed it imprudent still to cling to one whom he could not save, and accordingly retired to his command in Ireland, where affairs shortly after took a turn extremely favourable to the design of the king’s restoration. Lord Broghill was not a little instrumental in bringing about that event; and, in consideration of his eminent services, Charles created him Earl of Orrery, September 5. 1660. He was soon after made one of the lords justices of Ireland ; and his conduct, whilst at the head of affairs in that kingdom, was such as to add greatly to the general esteem in which his character was previously held. His active and toilsome course of life at length brought on disease and infirmity; but, notwithstanding, he went over to England in 1665, at the king’s desire, and mediated with success in a serious misunderstanding which existed between the king and the Duke of York. On his return to Ireland, Lord Orrery, by his prudent and skilful measures, rendered abortive the scheme of a descent upon Ireland by the Dutch and French, planned by the Duke de Beaufort, admiral of France. About this time a quarrel with his old friend the Duke of Ormond, arising from mutual jealousies, became so serious that the disputants resorted to England to defend their respective interests. This quarrel, though of a private beginning, became at last of a public nature. Lord Orrery was impeached, but defended himself so well that the prosecution failed. He lost, however, his public employments ; but, retaining the king’s favour, still came frequently to court, and was often consulted on affairs of importance. His last voyage to England was for the purpose of obtaining medical advice ; but his disease, which was gout, proved mortal, and he expired on the 16th of October 1679, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. Lord Orrery was the author of several works, chiefly dramas and poems, now forgotten. Walpole remarks “ that he never made a bad figure but as a poet.” As a soldier, his valour was distinguished, his stratagems and tact were remarkable ; as a statesman, it is sufficient to say that he possessed the confidence of Cromwell; and his credit ever stood high for integrity, and for generous fidelity as a friend. Boyle’s Lectures, a course of eight sermons or lectures preached annually, and founded by the Honourable Robert Boyle, whose design, as expressed in a codicil annexed to his will in 1691, was to prove the truth of the Christian religion against infidels, without descending to any controversies among Christians, and to answer new difficulties or

BOY scruples that might from time to time arise. For the sup- Boyle port of this lecture, he assigned the rent of his house in Bo IIse Crooked Lane to some learned divine within the bills of y > mortality, to be elected for a time not exceeding three years, by Archbishop Tennison and others. But the fund proving precarious, the salary was ill paid ; and to remedy this inconvenience, the archbishop procured a yearly stipend of L.50 for ever, to be paid quarterly, charged on a farm in the parish of Brill in the county of Bucks. To this appointment we are indebted for many elaborate defences both of natural and revealed religion. Boyle, or Abbey Boyle, a town and parish of Ireland, in the county of Roscommon and barony of the same name, on the river Boyle, an affluent of the Shannon, 94 miles W.N.W. of Dublin. It has a church, four chapels, barracks, market-house, bridewell, union-poorhouse, dispensary, and savings-bank. Previous to the Union it returned two members to the Irish parliament. It has some trade in grain, butter, and flax. Considerable remains of the abbey, an edifice of the latter part of the twelfth century, are still to be seen. Pop. (1851) 3463. BOYNE, a river of Ireland, rising in the Bog of Allen, near Carbery in Kildare, and flowing in a N.E. direction, passes Trim, Navan, and Drogheda, and enters the Irish Sea about four miles below the last-mentioned town. It is navigable for barges of 70 tons to Navan, 19 miles from its mouth. About three miles west of Drogheda, an obelisk, 150 feet in height, marks the spot where the forces of William III. gained the celebrated victory over those of James II. on 1st July 1690, known as the “battle of the Boyne.” BOYSE, Boys, or Bois, John, one of the translators of the English Bible, was born at Nettlestead in Suffolk, January 3. 1560. He received the rudiments of learning from his father ; and so precocious were his talents, that it is said he could read Hebrew at the age of five. At fourteen he was admitted of" St John’s College, Cambridge, where he was during ten years principal Greek lectui'er. He also delivered a Greek lecture for some years at four in the morning, in his own chamber, which was frequented by many of the fellows. On the death of his father, he succeeded to the rectory of West Stowe. At the age of thirty-six he married the daughter of Mr Holt, whom he succeeded as rector of Boxworth, in Cambridgeshire, in 1596. On his quitting the university, the college gave him L.100; but his wife being a bad economist, he soon became so much involved in debt that he was obliged to sell his choice collection of books, consisting of every Greek author then extant. When James I. directed a new translation to be made of the Bible, Bois was chosen as one of the translators; and he not only executed his own portion, which was the Apocrypha, but also the part assigned to another. He was also one of the six who had met at Stationers’ Hall to revise the whole ; which task they performed in nine months, having each, from the company of stationers during that time, thirty shillings a-week. He afterwards assisted Sir Henry Savile in publishing the works of St Chrysostom. In 1615 Dr Lancelot Andrews, bishop of Ely, bestowed on him unasked a prebendal stall in his cathedral. He died 14th January 1643, and left a great mass of manuscripts behind him. A work of his on the text of the Evangelists and Acts was published in 1655. When a student, Boyse received from the learned Dr Whitaker three rules for avoiding those diseases which are often engendered by sedentary pursuits, viz., to read standing, not to study at a window, and never to go to bed with cold feet. By attention to these simple precepts he is said to have preserved to the last an unwrinkled brow, with a freshness of complexion and vigour of constitution very rarely to be found in advanced age. Boyse, Samuel, an English writer of considerable ability, but scandalous character, was born in 1708, and died in great wretchedness in 1749. His poetical compositions

B Pv A BRA 261 Bozrah were numerous, and one of them, entitled The Deity, re- the celebrated Manuel Chrysoloras, is proved by a letter Braccioceived the praises of Hervey and Fielding; but none of of his, in which he states that he commenced his Greek hni. them have survived the test of time. studies at Rome in 1424, i.e., some years after the death of BOZRAH, a chief city of the Edomites, 80 miles N.E. Chrysoloras. of Jerusalem, and known to the Greeks and Romans under Poggio set out for Rome in 1403, and was soon received the name of Bostra. It was 24 miles to the south of Edrei, by Pope Boniface IX. as apostolical secretary, an office of one of the capitals of Bashan. Under Alexander Severus it high trust; in which his talents and integrity must have became the seat of a Roman colony. Till the seventeenth been conspicuous, as he held the same situation under eight century it was much frequented by caravans of pilgrims on successive pontiffs. In the following year, under Innocent their way to Mecca, who found in it abundant supplies of VII., he was able to introduce his excellent friend Leonardo water. In the town itself, which is now little more than a Bruni of Arezzo into the office of apostolic scribe. On the heap of ruins, there is still in good preservation a reservoir, death of Innocent, Italy was convulsed by the claims of rival 190 paces in length, 153 in breadth, and 20 feet in depth, popes ; and Poggio embraced that opportunity of visiting his with walls 7 feet in thickness. Immediately beyond the walls native country, where he received the patronage of Niccolo of the city is a strong castle, built by the Saracens, which is Niccoli of Florence, a munificent encourager of learned still found of use to defend the few remaining inhabitants men, and where he remained until recalled to the apostofrom the incursions of Bedouin marauders. lic secretaryship on the election of John XXII. In that BRA, a town of Sardinia, province of Alba, on the river capacity he accompanied the pope to the council of ConStura, 25 miles N.E. of Cuneo. It has three parish churches, stance in October 1414; and saw his master first suspended a gymnasium, hospital, manufactures of silk and linen goods, and finally deposed by the general council of the church, and a considerable trade in corn, cattle, and wine. Pop. after they had brought to trial and executed—in defiance 1 11,500. of the safe-conduct granted him by the emperor—the celeBRABANCIONES, in historians of the middle age, a brated Bohemian reformer, John Huss. The deposition kind of soldiery or commissioned banditti, who would fight of the pope caused the dispersion of his officers ; and though for any one who could pay them. Brabant was the chief the affairs of Poggio were not in a very prosperous condinursery of these troops—whence the name. They are fre- tion, he remained at Constance and its vicinity for a consiquently confounded with the Routiers, Roturiers, Rupta- derable time. He was a witness to the trials and execution rh, Ruterarii, Corteraux, and others. of another martyr to the cause of reformation, Jerome of BRABANT, North and South, two provinces, the Prague; who, undeterred by the fate of Huss, presented former in Holland and the latter in Belgium, which see. himself before the council, and was twice tried by that body. BRABEUTES (fipafiew-rp). See Agoxotheta. Poggio has left us a vivid narrative of the genius and intreBRACCIOLINI, Francesco, an Italian poet, bom at pidity of the martyr in his eloquent defence and terrible Pistoja, of a noble family, a.d. 1566. Removing to Florence, punishment. His admiration of the man has evidently conhe was admitted into the academy there, and devoted him- verted the apostolical secretary into a powerful panegyrist self to literature. At Rome he entered into the service of of a condemned heretic. In a letter to his friend, Leonardo Cardinal Maffeo Barberini, with whom he afterwards went Aretino, he says :—“ His voice was sweet, clear, and sonoto France. After the death of Clement VIII. he returned rous ; his action dignified, and well adapted to express indigto his own country; and when his patron Barberini was nation, or to excite compassion—which, however, he neither elected pope under the name of Urban VIII., Bracciolini asked nor wished for. He stood undaunted and intrepid; repaired to Rome, and was made secretary to the pope’s not merely contemning, but, like another Cato, longing for brother, Cardinal Antonio. He had also the honour con- death. He was a man worthy to be had in everlasting ferred on him of taking a surname from the arms of the remembrance.” Barberini family, which were bees; whence he wasafterwards Phis part of the life of Poggio is that on which his chief known by the name of Bracciolini dell’ Api. During Ur- claim to the gratitude of posterity rests. He now devoted bane’s pontificate the poet lived at Rome in considerable his leisure and his resources to rescuing from the destruction reputation, though, at the same time, he was censured for his with which the barbarism of Europe had well nigh consigned sordid avarice. On the death of this pontiff he returned to them, the precious remains of classic authors; and his diliPistoja, where he died in 1645. There is scarcely any gent search for ancient MSS. in the mouldering archives of species of poetry, epic, dramatic, pastoral, lyric, or burlesque, religious houses in several parts of Germany, Italy, and which Bracciolini did not attempt; but he is principally h ranee, which he visited for this purpose, are creditable to noted for his mock-heroic poem entitled Lo Schema degli his industry and his taste. A great number of MSS. were Dei, which was published in 1618, four years before Tassoni’s collected by his own hands, sometimes transcribed by him, Secchia Rapita; yet, though the author wished to claim or were procured by his means, and deposited in the librathe merit of priority, it should be observed that Tassoni’s ries of Italy, then the only part of Europe where their value poem was completed in 1615, and freely circulated in MS. was truly estimated. To Poggio’s zeal we owe the recovery Ihe inferiority of Bracciolini’s performance, indeed, is ac- of seven orations of Cicero, which we shall indicate in the knowledged, yet it obtained considerable applause. Of order in which they appear in the Barbou edition of his his serious heroic poems, the most celebrated is La Croce works. 1. Pro Roscio Comcedo ; 2. De Lege Agraria, ad Racquistata, which by some is placed next to the works of Senatum; 3. De Lege Agr., ad Populum ; 4. De Lege Agr., Ariosto and Tasso, sed magno intervallo. ad Populum ; 5. Pro C. Rabirio Perduellonis Reo ; 6. In Bracciolini, Poggio. This eminent scholar and con- Lucium Pisonem ; 7. Pro C. Rabirio Postumo. He also tributor to the restoration of classical learning, was born at recovered the poem of Silius Italicus on the second Punic Terra-Nuova, a small town near Arezzo, Feb. 11.1380. His War; Vegetius de Re Militari ; Lactantius de Ira Dei et father (a notary) had once been possessed of considerable Opificio Hominum ; Tertullian; Nonius Marcellus ; Ammiproperty, but was ruined by circumstances which have not ani Marcellini Historia; Lucretius; Columella ; Julius been recorded; and Poggio, after receiving a capital edu- Frontinus de Aquceductis ; the eight books of Firmicus on cation in the usual branches then taught at the university Mathematics ; Calpurnii Bucolica ; Petronius Arbiter; and of Florence (where he studied Latin under Gio. Malpaghino, to the same indefatigable explorer we are indebted for commonly called John of Ravenna), was at an early age bringing to light the astronomical poem of Manilius, the thrown on his own resources. The inaccuracy of the lyrics of Lucius Septimius, with the treatises of Caper, commonly received opinion that he studied Greek under Eutychius, and Probus. It was also through Poggio that

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Braccio- Nicolas of Treves recovered twelve of the comedies of Jini. Plautus, and a fragment of Aulus Gellius. These discoveries appear from a letter of F. Barbaro to have taken place before June 14. 1417; and it may easily be conceived that these researches were a heavy drawback upon the finances of Poggio. His difficulties were increased by the unexpected death of his friend and patron Zarabella, the Cardinal of Florence, which occurred in 1417. In this dilemma he accepted an invitation to come to England from Cardinal Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester; but on arriving in London the magnificent promises of the cardinal vanished in air ; and Poggio experienced the mortification of neglect among a people rude and illiterate, and utterly untinctured with the spirit of refinement that had been kindled in Italy. After spending four years in vain in England, in which a very paltry piece of preferment was all he could obtain, he returned to Italy in 1421, and again became apostolical secretary to Martin V.; and, on the death of that pontiff in 1431, to his successor Eugenius IV., who was obliged to retire to Florence, whither he was willingly followed by Poggio; but on the election of the able and excellent Nicolas V. in 1447, Poggio resumed his office of secretary at Rome. The cruelties of Pope Eugenius drew down on him the vengeance of his subjects, and he was ignominiously driven from his capital in 1433, and narrowly escaped with his life. His friends were arrested; and Poggio had the misfortune to fall into the hands of a noted condottiero, Piccinino, who compelled him to pay a large ransom for his freedom, which the narrowness of his finances rendered it very difficult for him to pay. In 1436, Poggio, who had always steadily refused to enter into holy orders as a means of obtaining promotion, married Vaggia de Bondelmonti, daughter of a wealthy and honourable Tuscan family, with whom he lived very happily. Soon after his marriage he gave vent to his satisfaction in an elegant Latin dialogue, An seni sit uxor ducenda, in which he maintains the wisdom of the step which he had taken. By this lady he had five sons—Pietro Paulo, Giovanni Battista, Jacopo, Giovanni Francesco, and Filippo—and a daughter, Lucretia, who married into the family of the Bondelmonti. On the appearance of the plague at Rome in 1450, the court left the city, and Poggio withdrew to Florence, at which time he wrote his Facetice; a collection of stories, in the taste of that age, more remarkable for their humour than their delicacy. In 1453 he was chosen chancellor of Florence, which finally fixed his residence in his native country. He now turned his attention to the history of Florence, and composed his history of that republic; an elaborate and very eloquent work, in which he imitated Livy and other ancient historians, by explaining the secret springs of action in the characters he delineates, by speeches which he puts into their mouths. His statements are clear and well defined; and he is particularly happy in his delineation of character. It was translated into Italian by his unfortunate son Jacopo. The works of Poggio Bracciolini have never yet been wholly published. This is to be regretted, especially with respect to his letters, which give interesting details of what he saw and heard. Many of these, from which much light might be expected on the contemporaneous state of Italy, Germany, France, and England, exist in the Ricardi Library at Florence, and other Continental collections, as we are informed by Tonelli, in the preface to his excellent translation of the life of Bracciolini by the Rev. William Shepherd, LL.D., an elegant English work, which has gone through two editions in Britain, and has been also well translated into French and German. Poggio Bracciolini died at Florence on the 30th of October 1459, and was buried with public honours in the church of Sta Croce, next his accomplished friend Leonardo Aretino. A fine statue of him, by Donatello, exists in the cathedral of Florence.

BRA The following is a list of his published works:—1. Dialogue on Brace Avarice, 1431-32; 2. An Seni Sit Uxor Ducenda, 1436; 3. Oration on the Death of Piccolo Niccoli, 1437; 4. Dialogue on Nobility, Bracton, 1440 ; 5. Oration on the Death of Lorenzo de Medici, 1440; 6. Dia- v logue on the Unhappiness of Princes, 1440; 7. Oration on the Death of Cardinal di Sta Croce, 1443; 8. Eulogy of Leonardo Aretino, 1444 ; 9. Eulogy of Cardinal Julian di Sn Angelo, 1444; 10. Inaugural Address to Pope Nicolas V., 1447; 11. On the Vicissitudes of Fortune, 1447; 12. On Hypocrisy (in which he lashes the clergy), 1447; 13. Latin Translation of Xenophon’s Cyropsedia (which he declared a romance, not a history), 1445; 14. Latin Translation of Diodorus Siculus, 1448 ; 15. Liber Facetiarum, 1451; 16. Historia Deceptiva Convivialis, 1451 ; 17. De Miseria Humanve Conditionis, 1452 ; 18. Translation of the Golden Ass of Apuleius (which he shows to be derived from Lucian), 1452 ; 19. Historia Florentina, 1456-57. (T. s. T.) BRACE, that which holds anything firm, as a bandage, or a cross timber in building. In printing, it denotes a crooked line connecting two or more lines. It is also used by sportsmen for a couple or pair ; as a brace of bucks, of hares, of grouse, &c. Braces, in sea language, are ropes reeved through blocks at the ends of the yard-arms, for the purpose of squaring or traversing the yards. BRACELET, an ornament worn on the wrist. It was much used among the ancients, and was made of different materials, according to the fashion of the age and the rank of the wearer. The word is French, bracelet; which Menage derives from braceletum, a diminutive of bracile, all formed from the Latin brachium, an arm. This kind of ornament was called by the Romans armilla, brachiale occabus; and in the middle ages boga, bauga, armispatha. Bracelets have at all times been much in use among Eastern nations ; and the women frequently wear many on the same arm. Among the higher classes these are of mother of pearl, fine gold, or silver ; while poorer persons use plated steel, horn, brass, copper, beads, &c. BRACHIOPODA, Cuvier’s fifth class of Mollusca. See Mollusca. BRACHMINS, or Brachmans. See Brahmins. BRACHYGNATHUS, a genus of fossil fishes—the only known species of which, B. Tenuiceps, occurs in the London clay of Sheppy. BRACHYGRAPHY (flpaxys and ypa^rj), the art of short-hand writing. See Stenography. BRACKET, a kind of stay against a wall to support a shelf or the like. Brackets, in a ship, are small crooked timbers resembling knees, fixed in the frame of the ship’s head, to support the gratings. They also serve to support the gallery. Brackets, in Gunnery, the cheeks of the carriage of a mortar. See Gunnery. Brackets, in Printing. See Crotchets. BRACK LEY, a market-town of Northamptonshire, sixty-three miles from London. It is situated on a slope on the north bank of the Ouse. The houses are mostly built of stone, ranged in one street, extending from the bridge up the hill. It has two churches, a handsome markethouse, an endowed free school, a hospital, and manufactures shoes and laces. Previous to the Reform Act it returned two members to parliament. Pop. in 1851, 2147. BRACTON, Henry, lord chief justice of England in the reign of Henry III., was probably a native of Devonshire. He was educated at Oxford, where he took the degree of doctor of laws; and about the year 1244 was made one of the itinerant judges. Ten years later he became chief justice, and had the Earl of Derby’s house in London assigned him for his town residence during the minority of that nobleman. He is said to have filled this important office with singular reputation during twenty years. The time of his death is not known; but it probably occurred about the year 1273. Pie wrote De Le~

BRA BRA 263 Bradford, gibus et Consuetudinibus Anglice, which is one of the most arts, and soon after made fellow of Pembroke-hall. Bishop Brading 'w^ ancient and most methodical treatises on the laws of Eng- Ridley, who in 1550 was translated to the see of London, II land. This work is after the model of Justinian. It was now sent for him to the metropolis, and appointed him his Bra that they encountered a kindred tribe, the followers of Buddah, who appear to have then possessed Southern India for a long P the banks of the Kistna and Godavery. The Buddists were gradually overpowered, hut were dominant in Ceylon, and s i po at Bombay, in the fourteenth century.—Ed.

BRAHMINS. 267 Brahmins, three divine hypostases of the Hindu mythology, the in number, for each of which there is a separate class or Brahmins, creator of the world under Brahm, and the author of the branch of the Brahmins. This prerogative they guard sacred books called Vedas. with the most jealous care, affirming, that if a Sudra or other The Brahmins constitute the first or highest of the four profane person were to attempt to read even the title of tchadi or castes into which the Hindu nation continues to these books, his head would instantly cleave asunder; and be divided, as it has been from a very remote antiquity. a Brahmin bold enough to exhibit the sacred volumes to The origin of this singular division or classification, which profane eyes would incur the penalty of irretrievable exprevailed in ancient Egypt as it still does in the penin- pulsion from his caste. Yet, with much judgment, they sula of India, and which was based upon nearly the same make an exception as to the miracle in favour of Euprinciples in both, is hid in the obscurity of ages. Each ropeans; nor has it been found expedient to enforce the caste has its peculiar privileges, duties, and laws, all of law of caste against such Brahmins as may have indulged which are incommunicable and unalienable. The more them with a perusal or even with copies of the Vedas. honourable the caste is, the more numerous are the reThe great body of the Brahmins profess to pay equal strictions to which its members are subjected, and the veneration to the three hypostases of the godhead, Brahhigher the prerogatives they enjoy. The fourth caste has ma, Vishnu, and Siva. But some attach themselves exthe fewest observances to follow, but it has also the least clusively to one of these impersonations; while others, portion of respect, and is the most limited in its rights admitting the divine emanation of three, exhibit only a and privileges. Every individual remains invariably in preference in their homage, founded on certain fanciful the caste in which he is born; practises its duties as pre- distinctions. Thus Vishnu and Siva, though nominally scribed in the laws relative thereto ; and is precluded from co-ordinate with Brahma, have long been objects of parever aspiring to a higher, whatever may be his genius, his tiality with individuals who, in virtue of such preference, virtue, his patriotism, or his courage. The law which de- are formed into sects, distinguished by the name of the termines every man’s position in society is immutable; hypostasis to which their chief homage is paid. The worand dreadful are the penalties which await him who ven- shippers of Vishnu are denominatedNamadhari, from beartures to dispense with even the most absurd rules laid ing in their foreheads the mark called Nama, consisting down in it. To this point of honour the Hindu patiently of three perpendicular lines, crossed at the lower extresacrifices not only health, but life itself; degradation and mity by a horizontal one, so as to form a sort of trident; infamy await him who transgresses its dictates; yet, al- and their dress is of a deep orange colour. The devothough the code of which this constitutes part has been tees of Siva are denominated Lingamhari, from wearing in force for a long series of ages, the people have never the Lingam stuck in their hair, or attached to the arm in (perhaps for this very reason) thought of moderating its a tube of gold or silver. The former are notorious for inrigour or mitigating its oppression. temperance, and on that account disliked by the people; The leading castes among the Hindus are, as we have the latter, for the most part, observe great moderation both already observed, four. These are, first, the Brahmins; in eating and drinking. The devotees of Vishnu account as secondly, the Kshatriyas, or soldiers, including the princes sacred the monkey, the garuda, and the cobra capella; and and sovereigns, and hence sometimes called the caste of any of their number who inadvertently kills one of these Rajahs or Rajeputras; thirdly, the Vaisyas, consisting of animals is obliged to expiate his supposed crime by a faragriculturists and shepherds"; and, fourthly, the Sudras cical sacrifice, in which it is pretended that a human vicor labourers. It is with the first of these, however, namely tim is immolated and brought to life again. The mumthe Brahmins, that we are at present exclusively concern- mery of this mock expiation is abundantly ridiculous. A ed. This is the sacred or sacerdotal caste, the members little blood is drawn from a superficial wound in the thigh, of which have maintained an authority more exalted, com- inflicted with a knife; the victim is then supposed to be prehensive, and absolute, than the priests of any other slain, and remains motionless until the farce of resuscitapeople, excepting perhaps those of ancient Egypt before tion is performed, when he of course comes to life again. the Persian invasion under Cambyses. According to the This is performed with immense ceremony, in the presence received Brahminical tradition, that priesthood originally of a great concourse of spectators, who are commonly proceeded from the mouth of Brahma, which is the seat feasted on the fine levied from the culprit; and a similar of wisdom, and thus, by the mere fact of their genesis, punishment is sometimes inflicted for other offences. The became invested with an undoubted superiority over the worshippers of Vishnu and Siva, though separated by a other castes, which sprung from inferior organs or mem- very thin wall of partition, are continually at variance, bers of the hypostatical creator; as the Kshatriyas from each sect not only striving to exalt their own divinity, but his heart, the Vaisyas from his belly, and the Sudras from to revile that of their adversaries. The former consider his feet. Of the Brahmins there are seven subdivisions, the wearing of the Lingam as the most heinous of all sins; which derive their origin from the seven Rishis or Peni- the latter, on the other hand, maintain that all who bear tents, the most sacred personages acknowledged by the Hin- the Nama will, after death, be tormented in hell with a dus. The Rishis are of high antiquity, being mentioned three-pronged fork, resembling that tridental mark. But in the Vedas; and they are believed to have occasionally these sectarian notions are less prevalent among the Brahexercised a salutary superintendence over the gods them- mins than the other castes. Brahmins of the Vishnu faith selves, visiting with their holy displeasure such of the divine are only to be found in the provinces situated to the south impersonations as had been guilty ofany irregularity. Their of the Krishna, and they are regarded with contempt by residence was fixed in the remote and elevated regions of their more tolerant brethren, who, in consequence, refuse the north; and hence the Brahmins of the north are es- to admit them to their tables or to their ceremonies, and teemed as the noblest, from their proximity to the great anxiously exclude them from any public employments fountain. The Gymnosophists, or Brahmins of antiquity, which happen to be at their disposal. The sects of the lived much more secluded than those of modern times, Nama and the Lingam are further split into subdivisions, who mingle to a considerable extent in secular concerns. which dispute warmly on the subjects of their differences, But the latter have made almost no change in their rules but are ever ready to unite when the general interests of of abstinence, their ablutions, and multiplied ceremonies. the order are concerned. Their great prerogative consists in being the sole deposiThere are four stages in the life of a Brahmin. The taries and expounders of the Vedas or sacred books, four first commences at the age of from seven to nine, when

268 BRA H Brahmins, he is invested with the triple cord, which is suspended from the left shoulder, and forms the badge of his order. The youth thus initiated is denominated Brahmachari. At this stage he is occupied in learning to read and write; in committing to memory portions of the Vedas, and the efficacious forms of prayer called the Mantras; and in acquiring other knowledge. It is his duty to abstain from the use of betel, to put no ornaments in his hair, to bathe daily, and to offer the sacrifice called Homam twice a day; but subjects so young seldom observe the rules strictly. A certain proficiency, indeed, is enjoined in committing to memory the sacred books; but neither in this nor in the acquisitions which are deemed scientific is there much emulation. They are not slack, however, in learning to understand the privileges belonging to their caste, which are great and various. One of these is a right to ask alms, which they do not in the style of mendicants, but in that of confident yet not insolent claimants ; another is, an exemption from taxes of all kinds, whether general or local; and a third consists in an immunity from capital, and generally from corporal punishment, however heinous the crimes they may commit, imprisonment being the only penaltj" to which they are liable. At this stage also they learn the different points of bodily purity which, as good Brahmins, it is necessary for them to observe through life. These are so numerous as to be excessively burdensome, and to impose on them the duty of constant and jealous vigilance. Not only are they defiled by touching a dead body, but even by attending a funeral. Childbirth and constitutional changes render females impure ; and certain ablutions and forms of prayer are necessary to remove the stain. An earthen vessel, if it has been used by a profane person, or applied to certain specified purposes, becomes so polluted that it cannot be used again, and must be broken ; but metallic vessels may be purified by washing. Leather and all kinds of skins, except those of the tiger and antelope, are held to be excessively impure ; and the boots and gloves of Europeans are to them the most disagreeable of all articles of dress. Brahmins, in walking or sitting, must take care they do not touch a bone, a broken pot, a rag, or a leaf from which any one has eaten ; in drinking, they must pour the liquid from above, without touching the vessel with their lips; and they are forbidden to touch the greater part of animals, particularly the dog, which is accounted the most polluting. The water which they drink must be carefully drawn, though never by a Sudra; and if two Brahmins draw water together, their pitchers must not come in contact, otherwise one or both must be broken. Animal food of all kinds is strictly prohibited ; and among the Lingam branch of the order the prohibition is most rigidly observed, notwithstanding which this class or sect has always been remarkable for great slovenliness in their external habits. The Brahmins are also taught to entertain a horror of spiritual defilement, resulting from perversity of will, or the actual commission of sin; and although the different modes in which it is contracted are but obscurely indicated, the rules for purification by means of ablutions, penances, and ceremonies, are very fully and distinctly laid down. The second stage of a Brahmin’s life is the state of Grihastha, which takes place when he is married, and has children ; both these circumstances being essential to its constitution. Marriage is an important object to a Brahmin, inasmuch as it insures him consideration and respectability in society. Hence, when he becomes a widower, he falls from his station, and is consequently under a moral necessity of re-entering the married state. But the case is quite different with widowed females, who are not permitted to marry a second time. The Sunnyassis, how-

M I N S. ever, probably in imitation of the ancient Rishis, lead lives Brahmins, of celibacy ; and the acting priests, called Gurus, also live in a state of single blessedness, although their morality in this particular is sufficiently relaxed. When a Brahmin, therefore, takes his wife home and has children by her, he enters his second state, or that of Grihastha. His daily duties and ceremonies now become more multiplied and imperative ; and every act of his life must be performed according to certain rules, some of them sufficiently repugnant to European notions of propriety. These observances, which from their number and incessant recurrence would seem burdensome and oppressive, become so habitual from daily practice that they are not felt as galling or irksome. On the contrary, the Brahmins perform all of them cheerfully, and no innovation is ever proposed. Some Hindu writers, indeed, have turned them into ridicule, and joked at the expense of a ritual which they nevertheless continued in practice to observe. But, from all that we can learn, the authors who have indulged in this license were never Brahmins, but generally Sudras, or men of the lowest caste, who had been contaminated by association with Europeans. Vemana, Agastya, Patanatupulai, and Tiruvaluven, a Pariah, the principal scoffers, answer to this description ; they are all modern, and either Sudras or men of no caste whatever. If any ancient authors wrote in the same strain, their names and their works have equally perished. At the same time, although speculative scepticism be but rarely avowed, practical transgressions are secretly indulged in, especially in large towns, where concealment is easy and temptation strong. Nor is this all. Many Brahmins habitually engage in transactions and employments which appear altogether at variance with their professions and pretensions. They are commonly the political functionaries or agents of the native princes, and of the Mahommedan governments, which find it convenient to employ these hereditary ministers of religion, from the influence they possess over the minds of the people. Some of them, particularly in Gujerat, embark in commercial speculations, and become merchants, bankers, or general agents. Others, again, carry messages between distant places, or are sent as vakeels on difficult and important missions ; the veneration in which they are universally held securing them from molestation in the discharge of such tasks. A third class act as coolies or porters, in which character they alone are exempt from the demands of the tax-gatherer. Many of them enter the Company’s native army, and often rise to the rank of subadhar. In a word, they are as much alive to selfish considerations and interests as any other tribe or caste, and ready, on all occasions, to avail themselves to the uttermost of the privileges and immunities belonging to their order. Their rapacity, in fact, is only exceeded by their cunning; nor is there to be found in any country a set of more artful impostors. The Hindus are all expert in disguising the truth; but the Brahmins, in this respect, possess an unquestioned superiority. They are supple, insinuating, false; acute in discerning, and skilful in taking advantage of the foibles of others; naturally vindictive and proud, yet, from habit and cunning, patient and submissive ; evincing on all occasions the most perfect self-command, and ever ready to profit by the indiscretion, weakness, or simplicity of those with whom they may have to do. One of their prime resources is flattery, which they lavish with unbounded profusion on any person whom they wish to cozen or hope to conciliate ; experience having convinced them, that even those who pretend to repudiate their adulation nevertheless lay a portion, at least, of the grateful unction to their souls. In matters of religious opinion they are upon the whole tolerant; they almost never anathematize Moslemins, Christians, and others of different creeds; nor

BRAHMINS. 269 Brahmins, do they seem to be at all actuated by the fierce spirit of for the severe discipline of the order; but in the end theBrahmias. -v"*' proselytism and persecution. But this forbearance may Penitents always prevailed, and sometimes took the gods perhaps be the consequence, not of any virtue in the roundly to task for their misdeeds. They were the depoBrahmins, but of the low estimation in which they hold sitaries of the more sublime doctrines of theology, and the objects of their own worship ; for, undoubtedly, they practised magical incantations. sometimes treat the latter with an indifference bordering Ihe fourth state of a Brahmin is called Sunnyassi, and on contempt, and in their adorations are influenced by is reckoned so pre-eminently holy that, in a single genetheir secular interests rather than by the spirit of devo- ration, it imparts a greater stock of merit than could be tion, flattering those divinities whose functions they con- accumulated during ten thousand in any other sphere of nect with their worldly affairs, and giving themselves no life. As a natural consequence, when a Sunnyassi dies, concern about the others. he is believed to pass at once into the region of Brahma The distance at which they keep themselves from Eu- or Vishnu, exempt from the penalty of being re-born on ropeans, and the unwillingness they evince to admit the earth, or animating in succession different bodies, conformlatter to their temples or their ceremonies, may seem in- ably to the metempsychosis of the Hindu mythology. In consistent with what has just been advanced. But their preparation for this state, a Brahmin performs all the rites conduct in this respect arises solely from the unclean- of the Vanaprastha, and in addition renounces every ness which they attach to our habits; and were Euro- worldly connection, takes up the profession of mendicity, peans to conform a little more to their manners and prac- and lives solely by alms. He must previously, however, tical prejudices, there can be no doubt that the conse- have devoted several years to the married and paternal quence would be a closer intimacy and unbounded to- state, and thus discharged the debt which he owed to his leration. This was fully experienced by the Abbe Du- forefathers. When duly qualified and disposed for enterbois, who having carefully studied the manners of the ing the holy state of Sunnyassi, he is installed as such Hindus, and uniformly treated their habits with respect with many Mantras and other ceremonies. His duties and tenderness, was often invited by the Brahmins of now increase in number and severity. He must every his acquaintance to enter their temples and join in their morning rub his whole body over with ashes, restrict himceremonies. Among the sacerdotal order of India it is self to one meal a day, give up the use of betel, avoid a prevalent sentiment that different religions are formed looking at women, shave his beard and head every month, for different nations, and that each serves every neces- and wear wooden clogs on his feet; in travelling, he must sary purpose to the souls of its believers and professors. carry his seven-knotted bamboo staff in the one hand, his But in their attachment to their civil institutions the gourd in the other, and the antelope skin under his arm, Brahmins are less liberal and conciliating, considering in other words, display the three badges of his order; and every thing different from these or opposed to them as the he must erect a hermitage on the bank of a river or a lake. product of absolute barbarism. The Moors they hate for Contemplation, and a supposed communion with the Deity, their arrogance, and despise for their ignorance of some amounting in its highest form to a participation of the dibranches of mathematical science known to themselves, vine essence, constitute the ulterior duties of this class of such as those connected with the construction and ex- devotees. Need we wonder that, being thus privileged planation of the almanack. In the European masters of to indulge in all manner of extravagances, and to give full India, they admire their humanity in war, the moderation swing to an excited imagination, their practices should be and impartiality of their government, the general upright- in the highest degree preposterous, and their fantasies ness of their conduct in the intercourse of life, and the equally wild and ridiculous? In fact, the tricks which benevolent generosity of their dispositions ; but these fa- they perform are endless. The highest act of merit among vourable impressions are apt to be forgotten when they them is “ to subdue all sensation, and retain the breath with think of the grossness and hatefulness of their prevailing such determined perseverance, that the soul, quitting the habits, such as eating animal food, and admitting the de- body, bursts through the crown of the head, and flies to tested Pariahs into their domestic service. Such things re-unite itself with the Great Being, or Para-Brahma.” are pre-eminently odious to Hindus, and both, we think, Accordingly, one of their fantastical exercises consists in might have easily been avoided. No extraordinary effort suppressing their breath as long as possible, till they alof self-denial would have been necessary to enable Euro- most swoon away, and bring on most profuse perspiration. peans to abstain from the use of beef, which is an insipid Another consists in putting themselves in the most irkfood in India; and, with regard to the Pariahs, although some and ridiculous postures, and remaining so for a conit would undoubtedly be wrong to countenance the Brah- siderable length of time, indeed till exhaustion or decremins in their barbarous treatment of the inferior castes, pitude ensue. To stand on one leg till it swells and uland of those who are considered as of no caste, yet regu- cerates ; to stand on the head till the brain becomes dislations might have been adopted by which men of high ordered, and delirium ensues; to keep one arm extended caste would have been spared the gross insults they are aloft in the air till the muscles become rigid, and the at present exposed to, and every humane purpose at the power of withdrawing it is lost for ever; such are among same time attained. the most approved practices of the Sunnyassis. But still The third state of a Brahmin is denominated Vanapras- the most extravagant and fatal efforts of these extraorditha, or that of inhabitants of the desert. The order of nary devotees seem to have been confined to former times. Brahminical anchorites prevailed at a former period, but We may add, that the Sunnyassis are not, like the Yanait is now scarcely to be found, and appears to be very prasthas, burned when they die, but interred. This is nearly, if not altogether, extinct. The members of it the case with the Lingamhari, or worshippers of Siva; but were usually styled Rishis, or Penitents. They were a Sunnyassi, even although he had, during life, attached honoured by kings, and respected by the gods, who, on himself to the worship of Vishnu, is interred when dead, account of the odour of their sanctity, seem to have con- and the ceremony is both pompous and expensive. sidered them as in some degree their superiors. They From the classes of Vanaprastha and Sunnyassi have practised self-denial according to certain rigid rules, and sprung numerous sects of fanatics, such as the Djogis, who performed peculiar sacrifices and religious observances. seek to propitiate the Deity by mutilating their bodies, Iheir pious acts and intentions were often thwarted by or braving the force of fire and the inclemency of the seagiants, and even by gods, who seem to have had no relish sons ; the Panduris, who carry about small figures of the

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270 BRAHMINS. Brahmins, most indecent description, as provocatives to devotion; tible in themselves, as indeed seems to be the case, itBrahminii and the Vairagis, who form a kind of mixed order of matters but little to inquire whether they be genuine monks and nuns, consecrated to the god Krishna and his or spurious, of ancient or comparatively modern origin. mistress Rada, whose history they celebrate in songs, ac- And, on this subject, we prefer citing authorities to decompanied with the tinkling of cymbals. It is also said livering any opinion of our own. “ The sacred writthat some of the Brahmins, under the denominations of Pa- ings of the Brahmins,” says an able writer in the Quarshandia and Sarwagina, maintain libertine and atheistical terly Review, “ have been long mentioned with those opinions ; and it is probable that the number of those who phrases of solemn wonder, which would still have misled secretly cherish such sentiments is much greater than that the public, if the translations and extracts of them which of the class or sect which openly avows them. Supersti- have successively appeared had not discovered their puetion, when sustained neither by fanaticism nor enthusiasm, rility and imposture. It is therefore important that the is the natural parent of that infidelity by which it is ulti- Sanscrit books, which have been held up as so sacred and mately undermined. so ancient, and which some of our learned Orientalists obFrom what has been stated in the course of this expo- viously prefer to the Jewish historian, should be given to sition, some idea may be formed of the general character Europe in the languages familiar to every one; that we of the sacerdotal caste in India. According to the best may not be blinded by the erroneous admiration of creauthorities on the subject, the number of Brahmins who dulous and misjudging enthusiasts, but be enabled to critiare respectable for their knowledge and their virtue is ex- cise fairly, and judge impartially for ourselves.” (Vol. ii. p. ceedingly small; whilst the great majority of these here- 68.) Mr Mill, speaking of Sanscrit poetry generally, proditary priests is completely devoted to ambition, intrigue, nounces a judgment still stronger than that delivered by and voluptuousness, and disgraced by an avarice, a mean- the Reviewer. “ These fictions,” says he, “ are not only ness, and a cruelty, which inspire strangers with no senti- more extravagant and unnatural, less correspondent with ments towards them but those of contempt and aversion. the physical and moral laws of the universe, but are less inThe charity which they place so high in the scale of du- genious, more monstrous, and have less of any thing that ties and virtues, being equally confined by the law of caste, can engage the affection, awaken sympathy, or excite adand the operation of that intense selfishness by which the miration, reverence, or terror, than the poems of any other, whole tribe is characterised, has no human beings except even the rudest people, with whom our knowledge of the Brahmins for its objects. Towards the other castes they globe has yet brought us acquainted. They are excessively cherish no feeling of humanity, and cautiously abstain prolix and insipid. They are often, through long passages, from any reciprocation of kindness; they exact every trifling and childish to a degree which those acquainted thing in virtue of their rank, functions, and pretended with only European poetry can hardly conceive. Of the sanctity, but take care to give nothing in return. Instead style in which they are composed, it is far from too much of the retired and contemplative life which appears to to say, that all the vices which characterise the style of rude have been observed by the order in ancient times, and to nations, and particularly those of Asia, they exhibit in perwhich they still profess to devote themselves, they are fection. Inflation, metaphors perpetual, and those the most immersed, as we have already seen, in pursuits the most violent and strained, often the most unnatural and ridicuforeign to and inconsistent with the duties and character lous, obscurity, tautology, repetition, verbosity, confusion, of a priesthood ; and, accordingly, they have declined alike incoherence, distinguish the Mahabharat and Ramayan.” in dignity, in reputation, and in knowledge. Yet their (History of British India, vol. ii. p. 46.) The following influence as a body still remains unshaken; neither the passage, extracted from a most masterly article which apviolence of conquest, nor the shock of revolution, nor even peared in the Edinburgh Review (vol. xv. p. 175), is, if the power of time itself, appears to have sensibly impaired possible, still more to our present purpose. “ It may be their dominion over the minds of the other castes. The said,” the Reviewer observes, “ that in a country of which institutions to which they owe their ascendancy, and by the actual condition is so imperfectly known, investigation which it will in all probability be maintained for ages yet should first be directed to the existing state of society, to come, have struck their roots so deeply, and become which admits of being accurately ascertained, and may so intimately identified with the genius, character, habits, lead to practical conclusions highly beneficial to the comsentiments, feelings, prejudices, and daily usages of the munity, before we attempt to explore the obscure paths people, as to resist the operation of all those natural, mo- of remote antiquity, by the feeble lights afforded by a few ral, and political causes which bring about changes in mutilated or suspicious documents. The Indian nations, other countries, and, amidst all the evils incident to con- it may be contended, have no claim to any extraordinary vulsions and innovations, ultimately contribute to the ge- attention, either from the philosopher or the historian: neral advancement. In India, society appears to have been their boasted civilization has rather been asserted than arrested at a particular stage of its natural progress, and proved; neither their literature nor their arts indicate any re-constituted so as never to exceed the limit which it had considerable progress in the pursuits which refine and attained before its onward tendencies were paralyzed, adorn mankind ; and some of their customs betray a feroand the characteristic of immutability fiimly established. city scarcely to be found amongst the most savage nations. Hence it may be considered as forming what the school- But, even admitting that it would be desirable to trace men would probably have denominated a political nunc the remote revolutions which this people have undergone, stans ; as standing to other communities of men in nearly the little probability of attaining any deductions which the same relation that eternity bears to time: and hence, may be relied on with confidence ought to induce us to also, the permanency of an influence which the possessors relinquish so hopeless a task. The Puranas appear to be of it take no means to extend or improve, in the convic- extravagant romances, which, however amusing as poetition that it can never be materially abridged. cal compositions, can furnish no additions to authentic hisThe authenticity as well as the antiquity of the sa- tory, whatever portion of it they may be supposed incicred books of the Brahmins has been alternately assert- dentally to contain. When we find gods and heroes minged and denied, with equal zeal and pertinacity. With- ling in doubtful fight; events natural and supernatural out entering into this question, however, it may be sa- succeeding each other indifferently; a fact probably histisfactory to show of what materials these writings really torical, followed by another evidently allegorical; the only consist; for if they are utterly worthless and contemp- rational conclusion is to consider the whole of these poems

BRAHMINS. 271 Brahmins, as works of imagination, and to appreciate their merits by portion of but few of their number. They have indeed fal- Brahmins, the rules applicable to similar compositions amongst other len from the proud eminence which was occupied by their nations. But if such be the judgment we must pass on order when the sages of Greece travelled into India to the Puranas, the Hindu eompositions of a later date are learn wisdom in that great storehouse of knowledge, and not better entitled to attention, unless with respect to afterwards to carry it back to their own country, in order poetical excellence : and it probably may be affirmed that to plant there the first seeds of civilization. But there is the Hindus cannot produce a single historical composition; one species of learning for which they have always evinced whilst the Mahommedans of the same country have am- a singular aptitude and inclination ; we mean metaphysical ply, and even ably, illustrated all the events subsequent speculation, which possesses many attractions to men reto their entrance into Hindustan.” markable alike for the indolence of their habits and the Such are the judgments which have been pronounced extreme subtilty of their genius. In this department of by some of the ablest writers of our time, respecting the research they had accordingly explored the whole cycle sacred writings of the Brahmins, and the impossibility of of systems, distinctions, classifications, refinements, and deducing any sound or rational conclusions from these doubts, long before the western world had emerged from fanciful and extravagant compositions. But, on the other primeval barbarism; and in India the human mind had hand, it has been contended, with much plausibility and exhausted itself in endeavouring to detect the laws which some degree of justice, that an indiscriminate accumula- regulate its own operations, when the philosophers of tion of facts is no object with the philosopher, and only a Greece were only beginning to enter within the precincts subordinate one with the historian ; that in proportion to of metaphysical inquiry. Nor is it by any means certain the peculiarity and reputed antiquity of the religious and that the latter are entitled to the credit they have receivcivil institutions subsisting amongst any people, it is na- ed on the score of originality ; that the^ did not borrow tural to feel curiosity as to their origin ; that the minute rather then invent; and that to the Gymnosophists of India peculiarities which discriminate the nations of Europe belongs the honour of framing those systems which have scarcely produce any sensible modification of character, been, perhaps too hastily, attributed to their disciples. It or exhibit to our observation any beings whose manner of is even doubtful whether Aristotle himself did not derive thinking and acting is materially different from our own; both the materials and the arrangement of his system of that, in order accurately to appreciate the efficacy of re- logic from the same source. In a Mahommedan history, ligious dogmas and civil institutions in modifying the cha- quoted by Sir William Jones, it is expressly mentioned racter of a people, our observation should be particular- that Callisthenes, having procured a regular treatise on ly directed to those nations which, in these respects, dif- logic, somewhere in the Punjab, transmitted it to Aristotle ; fer most widely from ourselves; that to this source may and although this does not certainly prove that the Greek be traced much of the instruction as well as amusement philosopher adopted as his own the system which had been derived from a perusal of the classic compositions of anti- sent him by his pupil, it at least warrants a conjecture that quity ; that, from the same cause, the manners of savage he might have done so; more especially as the syllogistic tribes have attracted and deserved the attention of the method was undoubtedly known in India long before his philosopher, although these are in general extremely uni- time, and as the fact must have been discovered by the form, and little modified by any other circumstance than numerous learned and accomplished men who accompanied the greater or less facility of obtaining food ; that, never- Alexander’s expedition. But be this as it may, one thing theless, it is not amidst a people in such a stage of society is pretty certain, that there is scarcely a hypothesis adthat the influence of moral impressions can be accurately vanced by metaphysicians in ancient or modern times, ascertained; that a nation must have advanced some steps which may not be found in some of the Brahminical writin civilization, must have cultivated the arts, and been ings. In these we meet with materialism, atomism, pantinged with science, before it becomes susceptible of that theism, Pyrrhonism, idealism, and every other fanciful vaindelible stamp which defies the efforts of time; and that riety of opinion which has yet been imagined or promulgatif, upon these grounds, the peculiarities of the Hindu in- ed respecting God, the world, and the human soul. The stitutions, opinions, and manners, deservedly render them Brahmins could boast of their Spinozas, their Berkeleys, the object of philosophic research, the gradations by which and their Humes, long before Alexander dreamt of passing such a state of society was attained must be highly inte- the Indus, and erecting a throne on the banks of the sacred resting, and can only be discovered through the medium of stream. That Pythagoras borrowed from them the greater such literary monuments as are still extant among them. part of his mystical philosophy, his notions respecting the Their sacred books, therefore, must ever possess a value, properties of numbers as expressive of physical laws, his independent of all that may be said of their contents, or doctrine of the transmigration of souls, and the arguments objected to the antiquity claimed for them. They em- by which he inculcated the unlawfulness of eating animal body evidence of the existence of peculiar modes of think- food, seems to admit of no doubt whatever; for all these ing, and forms of belief, as well as of the effects produced thingsareof the very essence of Brahminism, and are to this by peculiar institutions, civil and religious; and, as such, hour taught and enforced by the sacred order in India. they can never cease to be regarded with interest, both Egypt and India, as we have already observed, are the by the philosopher and the historian. only two countries in which the institution of castes has Of ancient Brahminical science the principal remains obtained in its most rigid form. This identity is of itself are their astronomical tables and trigonometrical methods, sufficiently remarkable; but there are other points of reboth of which have given occasion to frequent and learn- semblance which we think even more striking. In ancient ed discussion in this and other countries of Europe. At Egypt the cow was a principal object of religious adorapresent, however, we can only refer the reader to the tion, and as such accounted peculiarly sacred; and we works of Bailly, Playfair, and Delambre, in which he will need scarcely add that, in India, the same superstition has find the subject treated with equal learning, ingenuity, prevailed to an equal, if not greater extent, ever since the and scientific precision, though in opposite views, and with introduction of the Brahminical religion. The Egyptians very different aims. As to the science of the modern worshipped Apis or the sacred bull, and the figure of this Brahmins, it seems, as we have already remarked, to be animal forms part of every hieroglyphical inscription, either confined to the construction and explanation of the alma- as a symbol or a phonetical character. In some of their nack ; and even this scanty amount of knowledge is the festivals the Brahmins exhibit the same species of idolatry,

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272 B R A BRA Brahooick with rites and observances exactly similar to those anBRAINTREE, a market-town of Essex, in the hundred Brainti Mountains ciently practised in the country of the Pharaohs; and, of Hinckford, eleven miles N. by E. of Chelmsford. It is II uc in le nscr t ns 011 one of the polling places for North Essex, and is the seat of v •Bramah Brainerd j *£ & ^ ^ ‘ ip i° their monuments, this type v. j of animal worship must have prevailed in India from the the Braintree Poor Law Union. Besides the parish church, '— earliest times. The astronomical character of the Egyp- which is a fine gothic edifice, the Independents, Baptists, tian mythology is well known to those who have studied and Quakers, have places of worship in the town. The market its details ; it seems to have been merely a reflex image of is held on Wednesday, and is well supplied with cattle, poulTsabaism, or the worship of the host of heaven, the form try, and corn. Two annual fairs, of three days each, are of idolatry which first obtained among “ the world’s gray held here, commencing May 7 and October 2. The town fathers” in the regions of the East. But the same thing, is governed by a select vestry of 24 parishioners ; but the in the same sense, may be predicated of the Hindu my- drainage and sewerage are so defective as to cause a very thology, in its purest form, before it was overlaid with high annual average of mortality. The manufactures of silk the monstrous and fantastical inventions of a juggling and crape, which employ about 1000 persons, have quite priesthood. What inference, then, ought we to deduce superseded that of woollen cloth, which was introduced by from these and numerous other facts of a similar descrip- the Flemings who fled to England to escape the persecution which might be mentioned? Did Egypt derive its tion of the Duke of Alva. Straw-plaiting has been introsuperstitions from India, or has India borrowed its my- duced of late years. There is a free school in the town, thology from Egypt, or have both drawn from a common besides several charities, distributed over fourteen different source ? Which is the original and which the copy, or places. Pop. (1851) 2836. are both merely copies from an original no longer extant ? BRAIT, among jewellers, denotes a rough diamond. These are questions to which, in the present state of our BRAKEL, Jan DE,abrave officer oftheDutch navy,born knowledge, it is difficult, if not impossible, to give a satis- in 1618. He greatly distinguished himself on many ocfactory answer; although speculation has been busy on casions, but chiefly by his gallant struggle in 1672 against the subject, some contending in favour of Egypt, others the combined fleets of Britain and France. He fell in an in favour of India, and others, again, seeking a common action against the French in 1690. source in that intermediate region, which formed as it were BRAKENBERG, Reinier, a Dutch painter, born at the cradle of the human race. We have no intention Haerlem in 1649, was a pupil of Mommers, and according whatever to enter into these disputations, or to hazard to some accounts, of Bernard Schendel. His pictures disconjectures respecting a subject in regard to which no play considerable skill and freedom in composition, but are safe or certain data have as yet been obtained. We may bad in design, and often licentious in subject. nevertheless be permitted to observe, that the question BRAMA, the Bream, a fish of the family of Squamois chiefly one of pure chronology; that on this subject pinnce of the acanthopterygious order. The only known much still remains to be done before we can arrive at any species is Ray’s Bream, a native of the Mediterranean, but well-founded conclusion respecting the comparative anti- often caught on our coasts (Yarrell’s British Fishes). See quity of these ancient nations ; but that, in as far as we are Ichthyology, and Angling. at present able to see our way, the balance of probability BRAMAH, Joseph, a practical engineer and machiappears to incline pretty decidedly in favour of the coun- nist, was born at Stainborough, in Yorkshire, on the 13th try of the Pharaohs. of April 1749. His father rented a farm on the estate of See Abbe Dubois, Description of the Character and Cus- Lord Strafford; and, being the eldest of five children, he toms of the People of India, English translation; Malte- was intended for the same employment. He exhibited at Brun’s Universal Geography, vol. iii. English translation; a very early age an unusual talent for the mechanical Maurice’s Indian Antiquities ; Asiatic Researches ; Colonel arts, and succeeded, when he was quite a boy, in making Kennedy’s Researches into the Nature and Affinity of An- two violoncellos, which were found to be very tolerable cient and Hindu Mythology ; Religion of the Brahmins ; instruments; as well as in cutting a single block of wood Ayeen Akberry; Dow’s Hindustan, preliminary disserta- into a violin, chiefly by means of tools which were forged tion ; Institutes of Menu, translated by Sir William Jones ; for him by a neighbouring smith, whom, at a subsequent Quarterly Review, vol. i.; Edinburgh Review, vols. x. and period of his life, he induced to assist him in London xv.; Klaproth’s Asia Polyglotta; Kennedy’s Origin and as one of his principal workmen. Notwithstanding the Affinity of Languages. (j. b—e.) ingenuity which he had thus displayed, his destination BRAHOOICK Mountains. See Beloochistan. in life might have precluded its further cultivation, had BRAIDING-MACHINE, a piece of mechanism by he not, fortunately for himself and for the public, been which staylaces, braid, and similar articles are manufactured. incapacitated, when he was about sixteen, by an acciBRAILS, ropes passing through pulleys to haul up the dental lameness in his ancle, for the pursuit of agriculbottoms, corners, and skirts of the sails of a ship for the con- tural labour. He was then apprenticed to a carpenter venience of furling them. and joiner, who seems, however, to have contributed but BRAIN. See Anatomy; Mental Diseases; Phreno- little towards his improvement in mechanical knowledge. logy ; Physiology ; and the Index. When the term of his engagement had expired, he obBRAINERD, David, one of the most zealous and suc- tained employment for some time in the workshop of a cessful of modern Christian missionaries, was born at Had- cabinet-maker in London, and soon after established himdam, in the state of Connecticut in 1718, and died October self as a principal in that business. Another accidental 9.1747, in the house of his friend President Edwards. His confinement left his mind at liberty for a time to occupy heroic and self-denying labours among the American In- itself with reflection and invention; and he employed his dians, wore out in the course of a few years a naturally involuntary leisure in the improvement of some of the feeble constitution, but left behind them important fruits. most humble, but not the least useful, of domestic con.The. narrative of his mission is contained in his journal, veniences. He obtained a patent for his inventions, and published in 1746. His life, compiled chiefly from his own established a manufacture of these and other similar ardiary, was written by President Edwards, and has gone ticles in Denmark Street, Soho, where he continued to through many editions. Brainerd was a man of strong men- simplify and improve the arrangement of the pumps and tal powers, extensive knowledge, and great sagacity ; and as pipes subservient to his principal purpose. He procured a preacher he was forcible and pathetic. in 1783 a patent for a water-cock, intended to allow the

B E A M A H. 273 Bramah, fluid a more uninterrupted passage through it than was as part of an apparatus for retaining, drawing, and clari- Bramah. practicable in the ordinary construction. He afterwards fying liquors (Repertory, \o\. ix. p. 361). He prefaces removed to Piccadilly, and established the various branches his specification with some general observations on the of his manufactory in some extensive premises at Pimlico, right of an inventor to a property, both in the objects In 1/84 Mr Bramah took out a patent for his improve- which he selects for his improvements, and in the means ment m locks, which certainly appear to be of very mate- which he employs for the attainment of them; and derial importance. 1 heir peculiar character depends on the mands of the public justice an ample security for both arrangement of a number of levers or sliders, in such a these rights, grounding this claim on his resolution to manner as to preserve, when at rest, a uniform situation, make a clear and unreserved disclosure of all his invenand to be only pressed down by the key to certain un- tions. Besides the method of pumping up the liquors equal depths, which nothing but the key can ascertain; from the various casks through flexible pipes, without the the levers not having any stop to retain them in their re- necessity of entering the cellar, he describes a mode of quired situation, except that which forms a part of the converting every cask into a forcing pump, excluding the key. The construction is more particularly detailed in air, and raising the liquor to any part of the house, by a the specification of the patent (Repertory of Arts, vol. v. load on its head, which is to be converted into a piston, p. 217), as well as in the \n\er\tor s Dissertation on Loeks, He mentions also a filtering machine, a vent peg, a me8vo; and some additional modifications, allowing the key thod of making pipes, and a new form of stop-cocks, to be varied at pleasure, are described in a patent, dated In 1801 he obtained a patent for some improvements in in 1798. It is not easy to say why the application for an act the construction of steam-engines, particularly relating to of parliament to prolong the privilege proved unsuccess- the boilers ; and in 1802, one for a very elaborate and acful, unless it was supposed that the inventor had been al- curate machine for producing smooth and parallel surfaces ready sufficiently remunerated for the share of ingenuity on wood and other materials. The tools of different kinds which his contiivance exhibited; but the report, that one employed in this machine, such as gouges, spokeshaves, of theselocks had been readily opened, before a committee and planes, are carried with a considerable velocity bv a of the House of Commons, by means of a common quill, rotatory motion, and come successively in contact with was a gross misiepresentation of the fact; the quill having the wood, which is placed on a movable carriage grain reality been pieviously cut into the required shape from dually advancing. The centre or gudgeon of the axis or the true key. The experiment, in fact, only served to show shaft, instead of a common step, is supported by a barrel the perfection of the workmanship, so little force being re- of oil, to which it is fitted by a collar ;* and this arrangequired to overcome the resistance when properly applied, ment not only diminishes the friction very considerably, For different modifications of pumps and fire-engines but allows the height of the shaft also to be very easily Mr Bramah took out three successive patents, the two and accurately regulated by means of a small forcing last being dated in 1790 and 1798. (Repertory, vols. ii. pump. The inventor thinks this liquid support likely to iii.) His rotative principle consists in making the part be as permanent as it is advantageous; but it may be which acts immediately on the water in the form of a apprehended, that the constant friction of such a collar slider, sweeping round a cylindrical cavity, and kept in would cause it to require frequent repairs, in order to its place by means of an eccentric groove; a construction prevent the escape of the oil so powerfully compressed, which was very possibly suggested by his own inventive Ihe machine has been erected on a large scale in the mind, but which had been before described, in a form arsenal at Woolwich, and is employed with perfect sucnearly similar, by Ramelli, Cavalleri, Amontons, Prince cess. The specification includes the description of a Rupert, and Hr Hooke. The third patent related chiefly mode of turning spherical surfaces, either convex or conto the attachment of a considerable reservoir of water to cave, by the simple contrivance of a tool, movable on an the fire-engine in a cylindrical form, and to the furnishing axis precisely perpendicular to that of the lathe; and of of it with wheels of its own, of a proper size and strength cutting out concentric shells, by fixing, in the same manto allow it to be con veniently worked. ner, a curved tool, nearly of the same form as that which is i here was somewhat more of originality in the idea of employed by the common turners for making woodenbowls. applying practically, to the purpose of a press, the wellAn improvement in the processes for making paper, known principle of the hydrostatic paradox, by which, with the assistance of new machinery, in large sheets, as by a fever with arms capable of infinite variation, the was secured to the inventor by a patent in 1805 (Repersmallest imaginable weight is made capable of holding in tory, second series, vol. viii. p. 1). The description is equilibrium a force incomparably greater. Mr Bramah’s accompanied by that of a mode of drying the paper on patent for the invention is dated in the year 1796 (Reper- sliding frames, hung on lines like sashes, and of keeptory, vol. vi. p. 289), and it has been one of the most sue- ing it in a state of compression by retainers adapted to cessf ul of his numerous speculations. He added to it, in the hydrostatic press; but Mr Bramah had not leisure a subsequent patent, the contrivance of a “ retainer,’ for to introduce these arrangements into actual practice, alceping goods in a constant state of pressure for an un- though he had been at a considerable expense in prelimited time cirter their removed from the press, ^he pciring1 the cippcircitus. appaiatus has certainly a considerable advantage in the His next invention was, however, very effectually cargreat steadiness with which the force can be applied, in ried into execution in a particular department, notwiththe facility with which it can be regulated, and the con- standing its unpromising appearance, as generally stated vemence with which it can be continued without altera- in the specification of the patent, which he obtained in tion; and it has been extensively applied, both on a small 1806 (Repertory, second series, vol. x. p. 329). He proand on a large scale, for copying writings, for pressing poses to facilitate the process of printing by means of a gunpowder, for proving cables and chains, for raising roller, composed of a number of circular plates, closely weights of various kinds, and for drawing piles, and pull- fitted together, and turning on the same axis, each bearing up trees by the roots. ing twenty-six letters, with figures, spaces, and various A simple but a very convenient arrangement of little marks, either engraved or projecting, and capable of being pumps and pipes has been very generally employed in shifted at pleasure, so as to express any single line by a public-houses under the name of the beer-machine: for proper combination of the plates. This is described as a ms Mr Bramah took out a patent in 1797, describing it substitute for common printing, copperplate engraving, 2m

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274 BRA Bramah. ancl calico printing; and the ink is intended to be supv- v ^’ ~^-/plied by a trough fixed above, and in contact with the cylinder. Now it is obvious that such a machine would be insufferably tedious and inconvenient for every purpose of common printing, which it would be scarcely possible to perform by its means; but when we discover that the inventor had probably in view the apparatus which he constructed the next year for the Bank of England, for numbering and dating their notes, we shall be aware that the means were admirably adapted to the end; a single line only being here wanted at once, in which a single figure was to be changed at each step, and that in a regular order. In fact, during the immense temporary circulation of one and two pound notes, the Bank has been able, by this machinery, under the management of about twenty clerks, to perform the labour of 120, who were before required for the purpose. Mr Bramah procured a patent in 1809 for a mode of making and holding pens for writing, calculated to save the substance of the quill, by cutting a number of pens out of it, instead of a single one; and those who are not in the habit of making their own pens may often find a convenience in the portable form in which this and other similar “ pterophori” are arranged. In 1812 he brought forward his patent for the construction of main pipes, to be carried through the principal streets of a metropolis, of sufficient thickness to withstand a great force, to which the water within them is intended to be subjected, by proper pumps, furnished with air-vessels ; so that the water may not only be ready for the immediate extinction of fires, without the necessity of bringing an engine to the spot, but may also furnish a convenient moving power for various mechanical purposes, such as raising weights, by means of tubes sliding out of each other, like those of a telescope. He observes that he has frequently had occasion to employ a hydrostatic pressure, in many of his operations, equivalent to that of a column of water 20,000 feet high, which is about four tons for every square inch. He also asserts that he can form 500 tubes, each five feet long, capable of sliding within each other, and of being extended, in a few seconds, by the pressure of air forced into them, to a length of 2500 feet; and, with a power of this kind, he seems to have imagined that he could raise wrecks, and regulate the descent of weights of various descriptions. His improvements in wheel-carriages, for which he obtained a patent in 1814, consisted in fixing each wheel to a separate movable axis, having its bearings at two distinct points of its length, but loosely inclosed between these points in a cylinder filled with oil; and, in some cases, he proposes to fix the opposite wheels to the same axis, though with a power of turning very stiffly round it, in order to lessen the lateral motion of the shafts in very rough roads. He also suggests the use of pneumatic springs, formed by pistons, sliding in cylinders, as a substitute for common springs of metal. The purpose of Mr Bramah’s last patent was the prevention of the dry rot, by laying- on the timber meant to be preserved from it, a thin coat of Parker’s Roman cement, much diluted with water; but he does not appear to have pursued this experiment, having transferred his right in the invention to other hands. In addition to the seventeen patents which have been mentioned, he took out two or three others of less importance, at different times; besides a variety of contrivances, which he did not think it necessary to appropiiate to himself by a legal privilege. Mr Nicholson has mentioned a double plunger for a forcing pump, as described to him by Mr Bramah (Nich. Jour. vol. vii. p. 50), which, in the form he has delineated, is certainly possessed of no particular advantage, producing only with a large ap-

B R A paratus the effect of a much smaller. Mr Bramah had Bramah erected, in the latter years of his life, some large ma- Pres« chines at the Thames bank for sawing stones and timber; Bramant ® R he had begun to devise some improvements in bridges *and in locks for canals; and he had at one time been actually employed in the execution of some water-works belonging to the department of the civil engineer, which he completed with ability and with success. His great and various exertions appear in some measure to have exhausted the strength of his constitution; and his last illness was immediately occasioned by a severe cold, taken in the prosecution of his experiments on the tearing up of trees, made in Holt Forest. He died in his sixty-sixth year, on the 9th of December 1814. Mr Bramah was a sincere believer in the doctrines of the Christian religion; and, notwithstanding his diversified avocations, he left several manuscript essays on religious subjects. In his moral character he was cheerful, benevolent, and affectionate; in his habits he was neat and methodical; and he knew well how to temper liberality with economy. He often kept his workmen employed more for their sake than his own, when the stagnation of trade deprived him of the means of disposing of the products of their labour. It is surely on the characters of such individuals that the wealth and prosperity of the British empire most essentially depend; an inventive * imagination controlled by a sound judgment, an incessant activity of mind and body, a head that can direct, and a heart that can feel, are the genuine sources of that practical superiority which is well known to distinguish the productions of our national industry. (Life of Mr Bramah, by Dr Brown, in the New Monthly Magazine for April 1815.) (t. t.) Bramah’s Press. See Hydrodvxamics. BRAMANTE, Donato-Lazzari, a celebrated architect, whose family was of Castel Durante, now Urbania, in the state of Urbino, where he is generally said to have been born, though others assert that he was a native of Monte Asdrualdo, a villa fcur miles from Urbino. Collucce assigns 1450 as the year of his birth, but Vasari states it as 1444. Cardinal Oliviero Caraffa brought him to Rome, and introduced him to Alexander VI., for whom he designed and erected the Chancery, a somewhat heavy pile, yet grand from its spacious tiers of arched galleries around a court, sustained by granite columns. Julius IT, with whom he became a favourite, first employed him to connect into one vast whole the Belvedere with the older portions of the pontifical palace, which he accomplished so as to produce an imposing mass out of very heterogeneous materials. When the imperious and impatient pontiff determined in 1513 to rebuild St Peter’s, he employed Bramante on the design ; and such was Bramante’s zeal and industry, that not only was the design completed, but the architect had erected the four great piers and their connecting arches before his death, which took place in the following year. The designs of Bramante wrere lost sight of by those who succeeded him in this vast work ; and notwithstanding the boldness of the majestic dome of Michael Angelo, many Italians have regretted that the designs of Bramante were departed from, more especially in the present bald and tasteless western fafade, which has nothing but its magnitude to deserve commendation. One of Bramante’s best designs now remaining is the fine oratory in the cloister of San Pietro Montorio, a little circular temple with a colonnade of great elegance on three circular gradini. Bramante was not merely an architect and a painter, but also a poet, as appears from the volume of his works published at Milan in 1756. He was the uncle of Raphael, whom he instructed in architecture, and introduced to the notice of Julius II. The painter has gratefully commemorated his

BRA BRA 275 Braman master by placing him in his School of Athens. Bramante number of the Bulletin de la Societe Industrielle de Mul- Branchid® tino died at Rome in 1514. (T> g_T ^ hausen. See Dyeing. || y BRAM ANTING, the name of several Milanese artists, BRAN CHIDiE, the hereditary priests of the temple of ^ran denBran. ^ of whom Bartolomeo Bramantino, or more properly Suardi' Apollo, at Didyma, in Ionia. They delivered up the trea- turSr w as the most eminent. He flourished about 1450, and sures of the temple to Darius or Xerxes ; and then, fearing distinguished himself as an architect and a painter. From the vengeance of the Greeks, they fled to Bactria or Soghim Lazzari Bramante is said to have derived much instruc- diana, upon the frontiers of Persia, where they built a city tion relative to his art. He erected many churches in the called by their own name. The punishment of their crime, Milanese territory, among wdiich may be mentioned that of however, fell upon their descendants, who were massacred St Satyrus. (See Lanzi.) by the army of Alexander the Great, and their city was BRAMBANAN, a village of Java, near its eastern destroyed. extremity, in the region of Mataram, eight miles from BRAND Sunday, Dimanche des Brandons, in French Saracarta. It is noted for, the remains of Hindu images, ecclesiastical writers, denotes the first Sunday in Lent, temples, and inscriptions, w hich are spread over an extent which is thus called on account of an ancient practice in of ten miles. The most remarkable of those ruins are the Lyonnois, where the peasants walked by night about known under the name of the T.housand Temples, which their orchards and gardens with lighted torches or fireconstitute a square group of buildings, each side measuring brands in their hands; visiting every tree, addressing each 250 paces. One large temple stood in the centre of the one in turn, and threatening that if it did not bear well the square, which was surrounded at equal distances by three ensuing season it should be cut down and burnt. This rows of smaller ones, the rows being but a few feet custom prevailed in many places till the middle of the sedistant from each other. At each of the four cardinal venteenth century. It was evidently a relic of paganism, points, where there appear to have been gates, were two akin to the ancient Lupercalia, or shepherd-festival, which gigantic statues, each ot them with a mace in its hand, and was celebrated on the 15th of February, Februarius, i. e. a snake twisted round its body. The inside walls of the the month of purification. large temple were adorned with figures of the conch shell, BRANDENBURG, one of the larger provinces into of water-vases, and of the sacred lotus, all denoting a Hindu which the kingdom of Prussia is divided, and the division origin. There is no reliable evidence to show at what pe- from which that powerful monarchy originally sprung. See riod those immense buildings were constructed. A Javanese Prussia. It is situated WPtween Lat. 57. 0. and 53.°34. N. manuscript asserts that it was in the Javanese year 1188, and Long. 11. 25. and 16. 10. E., and is bounded on the north which corresponds to the year of the Christian era 1261. by Mecklenburg and Pomerania, east by West Prussia and BRAMHALL, John, D.D., archbishop of Armagh, was Posen, south by Silesia and the kingdom of Saxony, and on born of an ancient family*at Pontefract in Yorkshire, a.d. the west by the province of Saxony and Hanover. It has 1o93. He was invited to Ireland by the lord deputy Went- an area of 15,538 square miles, and is divided into the two worth, and soon afterwards obtained the archdeaconry of Potsdam and Frankfort, having 30 circles, Meath, the best in that kingdom. In 1634 he was made governments^of 138 cities, 27 market-towns, and 3073 villages. The entire bishop of Londonderry. He rendered great service to the province is nearly a sandy plain, but interspersed with a few church of Ireland by procuring the passing of several acts fertile spots; and a considerable portion of it is covered for abolishing fee-farms and recovering impropriations, by with woods. It is generally well watered by streams, most which, as well as by other means, he regained to the church of which empty themselves into the Elbe or the Oder. in the space of four years about L.40,000 a-year. In the The chief agricultural product is rye, with some wheat, Convocation he was instrumental in persuading the church oats, and buckwheat. Fruit of all kinds is abunof Ireland to adopt the Thirty-nine Articles ; and he exerted barley, dant, as well as culinary vegetables; and considerable himself, though ineffectually, to get the English canons es- quantities of hemp, flax, and hops are raised. The climate tablished in Ireland. Articles of treason were exhibited is cold and raw in winter, and excessively hot in summer. against him in the Irish parliament; and at the treaty of The manufactures are chiefly confined to Berlin and the Uxbridge in 1644, the English parliament made it a preli- other cities ; but the rural inhabitants are employed in spinminary article, that Bishop Bramhall, with Archbishop ning or weaving, and produce much linen cloth. In 1849 Laud, and others, should be excepted from the general r pardon. Upon this he went abroad ; but on the Restora- it had 2,129,022 inhabitants, of w hom 1,069,043 were tion, he was appointed archbishop of Armagh, primate and males, and 1,059,9/9 females; 968,717 lived in towns and metropolitan of Ireland, and was chosen speaker of fhe 1,160,305 in the country; 2,076,608 Protestants, 32,514 House of Lords. He died in 1663. His works w'ere pub- Catholics, 19,761 Jews, 23 Mennonites, 115 belonging to the Greek church, and 1 Mohammedan. There were lished m 1677, in folio. 2880 primary schools with 289,869 scholars, 79 middle BRAMPTON, a town of England, in the county of schools for boys, with 17,465 scholars, 224 similar instituCumberland, Eskdale ward, 10 miles N.E. of Carlisle erroneously supposed by Camden to be the Bremetenacum of tions for girls, with 20,795 scholars, 34 higher schools and the Romans, lies in a narrow valley at the confluence of gymnasia with 8924 scholars, and 4 normal schools with the Irthing and Gelt. The houses are for the most part 2/6 scholars, being in all 337,329 scholars, or nearly oneold and meanly built. It contains four dissenting chapels a sixth of the entire population. Brandenburg, a town of Prussia, capital of the circle town-hall, built by the Earl of Carlisle in 1817, a grammarschool, and a market-house, in which very large quantities of West Havelland, in the government of Potsdam, and ot corn are annually sold. Gingham and check-making are province of Brandenburg. It is situated on the river Havel, and also on the Magdeburg and Berlin railway, 37 miles the only manufactures of the town. Pop. (1851) 3074. BRAN, the outer skins or husks of ground wheat, rye W.S.W. of Berlin. It was founded about the seventh cenor other farinaceous grain, separated by the boulter from tury by some Slavonian tribes, who were afterwards driven the Hour. W heat bran is employed in the manufacture of out by Albert the Bear, and Brandenburg became the starch, and by dyers in making the “sour water’’used in capital of the mark of the same name. The towm is inclosed by walls, and is divided into three parts by the river, the preparing the dyes. By the process of boiling in bran- old town on the right and the new town on the left bank, water, calico-printers remove colour from those parts of while on an island between them is the “ cathedral town,” maddered goods which are not mordanted. Some valuable Nervations on this subject will be found in the ninth also called from its position “ Venice.” The cathedral, an ancient structure of the fourteenth centurv, the old church

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276 BRA Brandeum 0f St Katharine, erected in 1410, and the council-house, I , deserve notice for their antiquity and works of art. There are . ian^y-^ also a castle, gymnasium, riding academy, public library, theatre, and several hospitals. In the market-place stands the Rolandsaille, a column 18 feet in height, hewn out of a single block of stone. The town has a very considerable trade, and manufactures of woollens, linens, hosiery, and paper, with breweries, tanneries, and boat-building. Pop. (1849) 18,309. BRANDEUM, in ecclesiastical writers, a linen cloth or veil put over the tombs of the apostles Peter and Paul, and left there some time that it might acquire a degree of sanctity, entitling it to be worshipped as a relic ; and as such it was frequently sent by the pope as a present to some prince. It was otherwise called sanctuarium, sudarium, orarium, and velum. The use of brandea was introduced as a means of diffusing the virtues and influences of relics, their translation in early times being prohibited. BRANDING, a punishment inflicted by impressing a mark with a hot iron on the face or the hand. BRANDON, a town in England, in the county of Suffolk, hundred of Lackford, on the Little Ouse or Brandon river, 88 miles from London by rail. In the neighbourhood of the town are numerous flint-quarries, which during the last war supplied the army with gun-flints. Its trade in this article has been wholly destroyed since the introduction of the percussion cap. Brandon anciently gave its name to the Dukes of Suffolk, and the title of baron to the Earls of Macclesfield. It now gives his English title to the Duke of Hamilton, Pop. (1851) 2022. BRANDRITH, an iron trevet or stand for supporting a vessel over the fire. Brandrith, or Brandrette, among builders, denotes a fence or rail around the mouth of a well. BRANDT, an alchemist of Hamburg, in the end of the seventeenth century, who in his researches after the “ philosopher’s stone” is said to have accidentally discovered phosphorus. (F. Hoefer, Hist, dela Chimie,He concealed the process ; but it was discovered soon after by Kunckel, and hence it has been called Kunckel’s phosphorus. Brandt, Gerard, a learned divine of the Refo-med religion, was born at Amsterdam in 1626, and was successively minister in several places of the Netherlands. His works were numerous and popular, especially a History of the Reformation in the Low Countries, Amsterdam, 1671-74, in 4 vols. 4to, which was translated into English, and published at London in 1719, 8vo ; The Life of Admiral de Ruyter ; An Account of the Trial of Barneveld, Hoogerbeets, and Grotius, in 1618, Rotterdam 1619, 4to; and Oratio Funebris Cornelii Hooftii, Satrapce Mudani, Amsterdam 1648 ; all, except the last, in the Flemish language. Brandt died at Rotterdam in 1685. Brandt, Sebastian, a man of letters of the fifteenth century, author of a rare treatise entitled Stultifera Navis, illustrated with curious woodcuts, printed in 1490. Several authors have erroneously represented him as the artist of the engravings, but they seem to be the work of Jan Bergmann. BRANDY, a spirituous or alcoholic liquor, extracted from wine by distillation. When pure it is perfectly colourless, but it soon acquires a yellow tinge from the cask. The deep colour of common brandy is generally given by the addition of burnt sugar, caramel. The wine-brandy of France is esteemed the best in Europe. The chief brandies for foreign trade, and those accounted best, are those of Cognac, Bordeaux, Rochelle, Charenton, the Isle of Rhe, Orleans, the county of Blasois, Poictou, Touraine, Anjou, Nantes, Burgundy, and Champagne. The best brandy is distilled from wine of any kind, but is generally made from wine that has become too acid for the market, or what is technically called pricked wine. An inferior sort is made from the husks of the pressed grapes ; but this contains an acrid oil, which exists in the skin of the fruit and injures its fla-

B R A vour. {Annales de Chimie, tom. 64.) The flavour of brandy Brant is said to be sometimes imitated by adding to grain spirit a II small proportion of nitrous ether. v Brasn The import of brandy to the United Kingdom in 1853 v'"V’' was 1,870,567 gallons. The amount of duty paid was L.1,402,932, the rate being 15s. per gallon. BRANK, or scolding-bridle, an instrument formerly used in Scotland, and some parts of England, for correcting scolding women. It consisted of a head piece, which opened and inclosed the head of the shrew, and was furnished with a sharp iron, which entered the mouth and restrained the tongue. Thus harnessed, the offender was led in triumph through the streets. Dr Plott, in his History of Staffordshire, has given a description and figure of this instrument. BRANTOME, Pierre de Bourdeilles, Lord Abbot of, a French courtier of the reign of Charles IX., and his mother Catherine de’ Medici, was born about 1527, and died at his chateau of Richemont in 1614. He is best known by his posthumous Memoires, which first appeared in 1666; but the most complete edition is that of 1740, in 15 duodecimo volumes. They contain a very lively account of the manners of that age, and an unblushing chronicle of the profligacy of the writer, and of the courts and times in which he lived. BRASIDAS, son of Tellis, a celebrated Lacedaemonian general, in the early part of the Peloponnesian war. He defeated the Athenians by land and sea, took many places, and rendered his native country formidable to all the neighbouring states. He repulsed the Athenians in their attempted surprise of Amphipolis, but died of the wounds he received in that battle, b.c. 422. See Attica. In honour of him an annual festival, called Brasideia, was celebrated at Sparta. None but natives were permitted to attend ; and whoever absented himself was fined. Brasideia were also celebrated at Amphipolis. BRASS, an alloy of copper and zinc. This name, however, has not been exclusively applied to the alloy of these metals ; for the gun-metal, which has been also called brass, is an alloy of copper with tin. The same alloy, with more tin, is used in machinery, and is preferred to the alloy of copper and zinc, on account of its greater hardness. It appears from the analysis of the brass of the ancients Different that it was an alloy of copper and tin. A small portion ofkindstin gives to copper great hardness, and renders it capable of bearing much greater resistance. A larger portion of tin gives increased hardness, but is less fitted to bear a straining resistance, on account of its brittleness. Its elasticity is very great, which fits it for bells. In this state it is called bell-metal; and with a still greater proportion of tin it forms an alloy employed for the mirrors of reflecting telescopes. The alloy of copper with tin is easily distinguished from that with zinc, from the agreeable colour of the latter, which varies with the proportions of the metals. Pinchbeck has the least proportion of zinc. Common brass has more zinc, and the gold-coloured alloy called prince’s metal contains a still greater proportion of zinc. An alloy of copper with a very large proportion of zinc is used for the common white metal buttons. The various alloys of copper with tin and zinc forming Proportion the different kinds of brass, are to be considered as chemical of alloys, compounds, and, of course, governed by the same laws of definite proportions which obtain in the more conspicuous compounds. On these principles, which cannot be doubted, we have an unerring rule for uniting these and other metals in the best proportions, the weights of their atoms being previously known. The weight of the atom of copper being 8, tin 7’35, and zinc 4, the following tables exhibit the proportions of the various alloys, expressed in atoms, and their proportions by weight, the third column pointing out the colour and character of the resulting compound. C, Z, and T are to represent the atoms of the metals respectively.

Brass.

Lss akin!,

BRASS. 277 This mixture, intimately blended, is compressed into a crucible Brass, of the form of fig. 3, Plate CXXXVIII. One of these crucibles Proportions Character and Colour of the Compounds. holds about 100 lb. of brass when the process is finished; but as by Weight. this consists of the pure copper and zinc, the pot, when charged, will contain of copper 66’3 lb., of calamine 63 lb., and of charcoal The best proportions for common powder 13 lb. When the crucible is filled, the contents should be brass. covered with a mixture of clay, sand, and horse-dung, in order to The alloy called prince’s metal, of a defend the metals and charcoal from the action of the air. When beautiful gold colour. this covering is strictly attended to, less charcoal powder may be Of a paler yellow, very little malleemployed, and a larger dose of the other ingredients may be put in able. its place ; but it is generally the most defective part of the process. Still lighter in colour, and not mal■fio- 1; Plate CXXXVIII., is a plan of the furnace. The part AB leable. is taken at the level EP, showing the opening into the furnace on 0 + 5 Z 2 to 5 Yellowish-white, and brittle. the ground floor at a and b ; while c and d are horizontal flues 0 + 6 Z 1 to 3 Very brittle, nearly white. leading to the chimney/, which may be cut off from the same by 2 C+Z 4 to 1 A very malleable brass, used in watchthe dampers seen in the dark part of the flue. CD, in the same work. figure, is a plan on the level GH, where the pots rest upon the cast3 C+Z 6 to 1 An alloy much harder than copper, iron plate on the bottom x, y. and inclining to its colour. Fig. 2 is an elevation and section of the same furnace. AB shows a front view of the pyramidal chimney, and the archway opening into it. CD is a section of the same, through the middle COMPOUNDS OF TIN WITH COPPER. of the fire-place 11. R,P,Q, is a vaulted passage going across the Proportions building, and open at both ends for the admission of air, which Atoms. by Weight. Character and Colour of the Compounds. passes through the openings in the arch into the fires. The bottom of the furnace is not a common grate, but a thick plate of cast11 to 12 A very brittle and rather white alloy. T+C metal, perforated with holes for the air to pass through; one hole 2 T+C 11 to 6 Still more brittle and more white. being between each pot, as they are seen arranged in fig. 1, at I, I, 3 T+C 11 to 4 Very white, used for speculums. and also in the section at x, y. When the pots are put upon the 4 T+C 11 to 3 Coarse-grained, and too brittle for plate, the fire is not placed immediately upon them, as it would not any purpose. only injure them, but displace the covering. To prevent this, the T + 2C 11 to 24 A yellowish alloy, very hard and sopots are first covered by some dried heath or common brambles, norous. which defend them for a time, when the fuel is thrown in. By the T + 3C 11 to 36 Bell-metal. time the brambles are consumed the coal will have coked upon the T + 4C 11 to 48 A very hard alloy, used for some culipots, and thus act as a defence for the rest of the process. The fire nary vessels. is kept up from twelve to twenty hours at the Cheudle brass-works T + 5 C 11 to 60 Softer, but not malleable. in Staffordshire, from which these drawings were taken. They T + 6C 11 to 72 Still increased in softness, and of a cast twice in the twenty-four hours. yellower colour. After the refuse is skimmed off, the melted brass is cast into inT + 7 C 11 to 84 Used for some purposes in machinery. gots if sold for melting over again, and into plates if intended to T + 8 C 11 to 96 An alloy used for cannon. be rolled into sheets or made into wire. The plates are cast beT + 9C 11 to 108 More common for cannon and matween large blocks of Cornwall stone. The lower stone is fixed, chinery, and used for bronze staand the face made even and smooth, by filling up the recesses of tues. the rough stone with fine sand. The upper stone is similarly prepared, and is suspended over the fixed one. The height and breadth Hitherto the proportions of these alloys have depended of the place to receive the metal is limited by iron bars laid on the upon the practice of workmen, guided by numerous trials ; lower stone. The upper stone is then let down upon the bars. but what confirms the law of definite proportions, is the ne- The lower stone is a little longer than the upper one, and projects cessity of adhering to fixed proportions, ascertained by trial. to the front. Being a little higher in that part, it forms a lip or for receiving the metal. The flat sides of the cast plate By attending to the proportions pointed out above, the most mouthpiece are therefore bounded by the surface of the stones, and the edges striking and proper compounds will be produced, without of these by the bars above mentioned. The ingot moulds are rethe trouble of trial. Any intermediate proportions will, cesses in blocks of cast iron, open on one side. doubtless, be marked by defective colour, irregular crystalliThe most certain and correct method of forming brass and the other compounds expressed in the table above given, is by immezation, or imperfect malleability. Although the most direct way of forming these different diately uniting the metals in given weights. It should, however, observed, that it will be found difficult to introduce zinc into kinds of brass is by immediately combining the metals to- be melted copper. The best way of uniting it with copper, in the gether, one of them, which is most properly called brass, first instance, is to introduce the copper in thin slips into the was manufactured long before zinc, one of its component melted zinc, till the alloy requires a considerable heat to fuse it, parts, was known in its metallic form. The ore of the latter and then to unite this alloy with the melted copper. Thrice-calcined brass is a preparation employed by glassmen to Rrasg jn metal was cemented with sheets of copper, charcoal being present; and the zinc was united with the copper, without give many very beautiful colours to their work. The manner of rria33 preparing it is this: Having placed thin plates of brass on tiles ontra(^ becoming visible in a distinct form. The same method is the leet of the furnace, near the occhis, let it stand to be calcined still practised for making brass. there for four days, and it will become a black powder sticking Tlie materials used in making brass are copper in small round together in lumps. Pulverize this, sift it fine, and recalcine it masses, produced by passing the melted metal through an appro- during four or five days more; at the end of which time it will not priate vessel into water, in which state it is called shot copper; stick together, but remain a loose powder of a russet colour. This and calamine, an ore of zinc. This latter substance is a carbonate is to be calcined a third time in the same manner; but great care of zinc, often containing some oxide of iron, which gives it a reddish must be taken in the third calcination that it be neither overdone appearance. As it is chiefly found in combination with lead, the nor underdone. The way to be certain when it is right, is to try lumps frequently contain more or less galena, which requires to be it several times in glass while melting. If it causes the glass, when separated by the same means as those employed for purifying lead well purified, to swell, boil, and rise, it is properly calcined; if not, ore. The calamine is first reduced to powder, and the lead is then it requires longer time. This, according to the different proporseparated by washing. When the calamine is separated, reduced tions in which it is used, produces a sea-green, an emerald-green, to powder, and sifted, it is heated upon the hearth of a reverbera- or a turquoise colour. tory furnace. This expels the volatile matter, which is principally Brass, by long calcination alone, and without any mixture, water and carbonic acid. What remains is principally oxide of affords a fine blue or green colour for glass; but there is a method zinc, abounding with some earthy matter, and probably much car- of calcining it also with powdered brimstone, so as to make it afford bonic acid, -which is not all expelled by the heat. The calamine a red, a yellow, or a chalcedony colour, according to the quantity thus prepared, charcoal powder and copper are the materials to be and other variations in the use of it. This method of calcination operated upon. The proportions in which they are mixed together is the following: Cut thin plates of brass into small pieces with are equal weights of copper and prepared calamine, and ^th their shears, and lay them stratum upon stratum, with alternate beds of weight of powdered charcoal. powdered sulphur, in a crucible; calcine this for twenty-four hours COMPOUNDS OF ZINC WITH COPPER.

BRA in a strong fire, then powder and sift the whole, and finally expose the powder upon tiles for twelve days to a reverberating furnace, at the end of which time powder it fine and keep it for use. The glass-makers have also a method of procuring a red powder from brass by a more simple calcination, which serves for many colours. The method of preparing it is this: They put small and thin plates of brass into the arches of the glass furnaces, and leave them there till they are sufficiently calcined, which the heat in that place, not being sufficient to melt them, does in great perfection. The calcined matter, powdered, is of a dusky red, and requires no further preparation. Corinthian Brass, famous in antiquity, was a mixture of gold, silver, and copper. It is said that when Lucius Mummius sacked and burnt the city of Corinth, b.c. 146, this metal was formed from the immense quantities of gold, silver, and copper, which were melted and run together by the violence of the conflagration. But this is a fable. It was an artificial alloy long before known in Corinth. Brass-CoIout is prepared by braziers and colourmen to imitate brass. There are two kinds, the red brass or bronze, and the yellow or gilt brass. The latter is made only of copper-filings, the smallest and brightest that can be found; with the former it is usual to mix some red ochre, finely pulverized; and both are used with varnish. In order to make a fine brass that will not take any rust or verdigris, it must be dried with a chafing-dish of coals as soon as it is applied. The finest brass-colour is made of powdered brass imported from Germany, diluted into a varnish, which is prepared and used thus :—The varnish is composed of one pound four ounces of spirits of wine, two ounces of gum-lac, and two ounces of sandarac; these two last drugs being pulverized separately, and afterwards put to dissolve in spirit of wine, and care being taken to fill the bottle but half full. The varnish being made, mix a quantity of it with the pulverized brass, and lay it on with a small brush. Too much must not be mixed at once, as the varnish dries very quickly. In this manner are brassed over figures of plaster, which look almost as well as if they were of cast brass. Brass Leaf is made of copper, beaten into very thin plates, and afterwards rendered yellow. The German artists, particularly those of Nuremberg and Augsburg, are said to possess the best method of giving to these thin plates of copper a fine yellow colour like gold, by simply exposing them to the fumes of zinc, without any real mixture of it with the metal. These plates are cut into little pieces, and then beaten out fine like leaves of gold; after which they are put into books of coarse paper and sold at a low price for the inferior kinds of gilding. The parings or shreds of these leaves, being well ground on a marble plate, are reduced to a powder similar to gold, which serves to cover, by means of gum-water or some other glutinous fluid, the surface of various mouldings or pieces of curious workmanship, giving them the appearance of real bronze, and even of fine gold, at a very trifling expense, as the colour of the powder may be easily heightened by stirring it in a wide earthen basin over a slow fire. BRAUER, Adrian, a Dutch painter, was born at Haarlem in 1608, of very humble parents, who bound him apprentice to the painter F. Hals. Brauer had an admirable eye for colour, and much spirit in design; which his master appears to have turned to his own profit, while his pupil was half starved. This ungenerous treatment led Brauer into low company and dissipated scenes, which he delineated with great spirit and vivid colouring in his pictures. Though his pictures now bring high prices, the unfortunate artist died in an hospital, at the early age of 32. BRAULS, Indian cloths with blue and white stripes; otherwise called turbans, \>ecwL$e they are applied to that use. BRAUNSBERG, the capital of a circle of the same name in the government of Konigsberg, on the Passarge, about three miles from its mouth in the Frische Hoff. It

BRA is the seat of the bishop of Ermeland, and has a seminary Brauronb for the education of Catholic clergymen, manufactures of || leather and cloth, and some trade in corn and timber. Brazen Sen Small vessels can come up to the town. Pop. (1849) 8954. BRAURONIA, in Grecian Antiquity, a festival celebrated every fifth year at the Attic town of Brauron, in honour of Artemis Brauronia (Diana). The ceremonies were conducted by ten superintendents called UpoiroioL. The chief solemnity was a procession of girls between five and ten years of age, who went in crocus-coloured garments to the temple, where they were consecrated to the goddess. During this ceremony the hieropoioi sacrificed a goat, and the girls imitated bears. The origin of this custom is given by Suidas. There was another quinquennial festival of this name held at Brauron in honour of Dionysus (Bacchus). BRAWN, the flesh of a boar soused or pickled. BRAY, Sir Reginald, was the second son of Sir Richard Bray, one of the privy council of Henry VI. Sir Reginald was instrumental in the advancement of Henry VII. to the throne of England, and was greatly in favour with that prince, who bestowed upon him honours and wealth. His taste and skill in architecture are attested by those two exquisite structures, Henry VII.’s chapel at Westminster, and the chapel of St George at Windsor. He principally directed the building of the former, and the finishing and decoration of the latter, to which, moreover, he was a liberal contributor. He died in 1503, and was interred in St George’s chapel. On opening a vault there in 1740, to admit the body of Dr Waterland, a leaden coffin of ancient form was found, which, by other appearances, was judged to be that of Sir Reginald. By order of the dean it was immediately arched over. Bray, Dr Thomas, a learned and pious divine, was born at Marton, in Shropshire, in 1656, and educated at Oxford. He at length obtained the vicarage of Over-Whitacre, and the rectory of Sheldon. Here he composed his Catechetical Lectures, which procured him such reputation, that Dr Compton, bishop of London, was induced to select him as his commissary to settle the affairs of the infant church of Maryland. He now engaged in several important undertakings. He caused sums to be raised for purchasing small libraries for the use of missionaries in the colonies; and to promote this design, he published his Bibliotheca Parochialis, and a discourse on Apostolical Charity. Dr Bray was anxious to get a fund established for the propagation of the gospel, especially among the Indians; and to his exertions The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel owes its existence. By his industry he also procured relief for prisoners, and formed the plan of the society for the reformation of manners, and some other charitable institutions. He was the author of Martyrology, or Papal Usurpation, folio; Directorium Missionarium ; and other works. This excellent man died in 1730, aged seventy-three. Bray, a parish of Berkshire, on the Thames, 23 miles from London. It obtains its chief notoriety from its vicar in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth, whose accommodating conscience suited itself to every change of circumstances. He became twice Papist and twice Protestant, in order that he might adhere to “ his one principle,” which was “to live and die Vicar of Bray.” Bray, a small seaport town, and a fashionable watering place of Ireland, in the counties of Wicklow and Dublin, at the mouth of the Bray, 12 miles S.S.E. of Dublin. The town is situated on both sides of the river which separates the two counties, is neatly built, and has a parish church, an elegant Roman Catholic chapel, and several other places of worship, an old castle now used as a barrack, two schools, an hospital, dispensary, and savings-bank. The harbour is accessible only to small vessels. Pop. (1851) 3156. BRAZEN Sea, or Molten Sea, in Jewish Antiquity,

BRA Brazil, one of the sacred utensils in the temple of Solomon. This immense reservoir stood in the inner court of the temple, and rested or appeared to rest on the backs of twelve oxen, three of which looked towards each quarter of the world! It was ten cubits in width, five in depth, thirty in circumference, and had a capacity of 3000 baths. The brim of it was perfectly round, and so it continued in the two upper cubits ; but in the three lower cubits it was square. It was a handbreadth in thickness, and the brim was wrought like the brim of a cup, with figures of lilies in bloom. About the body of this huge vessel were two bor-

BRA 279 ders of engravings, representing the heads of oxen in demi- Brazier relief; and out of these some suppose the water to have II issued. This brazen or molten sea was designed for the Brazil, priests to wash themselves in before they performed the service of the temple. Water was supplied by a pipe out of the well Etam. The description of this great work gives a very favourable idea of the state of metallurgic art in the time of Solomon. BRAZIER, an artificer who works in brass. It also denotes a chaffing-dish or pan for holding live coals; sometimes spelt brasier.

BRAZIL. In presenting an account of this extensive and important country, the only American monarchy, we shall, first, give a brief historical sketch of the progressive discovery of its coasts and interior, of its gradual settlement, and of the auspices under which its social institutions have developed themselves ; secondly, a condensed view of its physical geography, meteorology, and natural products; and, thirdly, a similar view of its inhabitants, their form of government, moral and intellectual culture, and agricultural, manufacturing, and commercial industry. istory. 1. History.—Brazil was discovered in 1499, by Vincent Yanez Pinion, a companion of Columbus. He descried the land near Cape St Augustine, and sailed along the coast as far as the river Amazon, whence he proceeded to the mouth of the Orinoco. He made no settlement, but took possession of the country in the name of the Spanish government, and carried home, as specimens of its natural productions, some drugs, gems, and Brazil wood. Next year the Portuguese commander Pedro Alvarez Cabral, appointed by his monarch to follow the course of Vasco de Gama in the east, was driven, by adverse winds, so far from his track, that he reached the Brazilian coast, April 24. and anchored in Porto Seguro (Eat. 16° S.) on Good Friday. On Easterday an altar was erected, mass celebrated in presence of the natives, the country declared an appanage of Portugal, and a stone cross erected in commemoration of the event. Cabral despatched a small vessel to Lisbon, to announce his discovery, and, without forming any settlement, proceeded to India on the 3d of May. On the arrival of the news in Portugal, Emanuel invited Amerigo Vespucci to enter his service, and despatched him with three vessels to explore the country. This navigator’s first voyage was unsiaccessful; but in a second he discovered a safe port, the site of which is not accurately known, to which he gave the name of All-Saints. He remained there five months, and maintained a friendly intercourse w ith the natives. Some of the party travelled forty leagues into the interior. Vespucci erected a small fort, and leaving twelve men, with guns and provisions, to garrison it, embarked for Portugal; having loaded his two ships with Brazil wood, monkeys, and parrots. The poor and barbarous tribes of Brazil, and their country, the mineral riches of which were not immediately discovered, offered but few attractions to a government into the coffers of which the wealth of India and Africa was flowing. Vespucci’s settlement was neglected. For nearly thirty years the kings of Portugal paid no further attention to their newly-acquired territory, than what consisted in combating the attempts of the Spaniards to occupy it, and dispersing the private adventurers from France, who sought its shores for the purposes of commerce. The colonization of Brazil was prosecuted, however, by subjects of the Portuguese monarchy, who traded thither chiefly for Brazil wood. It was convenient for these traders to have agents living among the natives; and adventurers were found who were willing

to take up their abode with them. The government also sought to make criminals of some use to the state, by placing them in a situation where they could do little harm to society, and might help to uphold the dominion of their nation. I he utter want of any legal check upon these earliest European settlers, combined with the ferocious characters of many of them, and the hardening influence of their feuds with the native cannibals, were anything but favourable to the morals of the infant empire. The first attempt on the part of a Portuguese monarch to introduce an organized government into his dominions, was made by Joao III. He adopted a plan which had been found to succeed well in Madeira and the Azores; dividing the country into hereditary captaincies, and granting them to such persons as were willing to undertake their settlement, with unlimited powers of jurisdiction, both civil and criminal. Each captaincy extended along fifty leagues of coast. The boundaries in the interior were undefined. The first settlement made under this new system was that of S. Vincente. Martim Affonso de Sousa, having obtained a grant, fitted out a considerable armament, and proceeded to explore the country in person. He began to survey the coast about Rio Janeiro, to which he gave that name because he discovered it on the first of January 1531. He proceeded south as far as La Plata, naming the places he surveyed on the way from the days on which the respective discoveries were made. He fixed upon an island, in latitude 241° south, called by the natives Guaibe, for his settlement. The Goagnazes, or prevailing tribe of Indians in that neighbourhood, as soon as they discovered the intentions of the new comers to fix themselves permanently there, collected for the purpose of expelling them. Fortunately, however, a shipwrecked Portuguese, who had lived many years under the protection of the principal chief, was successful in concluding a treaty of perpetual alliance between his countrymen and the natives. The good understanding thus happily established was long preserved. Finding the spot chosen for the new town inconvenient, the colonists removed to the adjoining island of S. Vincente, from which the captaincy derived its name. An unsuccessful expedition was made into the interior in search of mines. Nevertheless the colony prospered. Cattle and the sugarcane were at an early period introduced from Madeira, and here the other captaincies supplied themselves with both. The founder of the colony was soon removed from the active superintendence of its progress, by being appointed governor-general of India; but on his return to Portugal he watched over its welfare, sending out supplies and settlers, and leaving it at his death in a flourishing condition to his son. Pero Lopes de Sousa received the grant of a captaincy, and set sail from Portugal at the same time as his brother, the founder of S. Vincente. He chose to have his fifty leagues in two allotments. That to which he gave the name of S. Amaro adjoined S. Vincente, the two towns

BRA Z I L. A factory had, some time before the period at which these Histoi being only three leagues asunder. The other division lay v" much nearer to the line between Paraiba and Pernambuco. captaincies were established, been planted at Pernambuco. He experienced considerable difficulty in founding this A ship from Marseilles took it, and left seventy men in it second colony, from the strenuous opposition of a neigh- as a garrison ; but being captured on her return, and carbouring tribe, the Petiguares ; but at length he succeeded ried into Lisbon, immediate measures were taken for rein clearing his lands of them ; and not long afterwards he occupying the place. The captaincy of Pernambuco was perished by shipwreck. The extreme proximity of his first granted to Don Duarte Coelho Pereira as the reward of his settlement at S. Amaro to his brother’s at S. Vincente was services in India. It extended along the coast from the at first advantageous to both ; but the former coming after Rio S. Francisco, northward to the Rio de Juraza. Duarte his death into the hands of strangers, their interfering and sailed with his wife and children, and many of his kinsmen, contested boundaries gave rise to much trouble and litigation. to take possession of his new colony, and landed in the port Rio Janeiro was not settled till a later period; and for a of Pernambuco. To the town which was there founded he considerable time the nearest captaincy to S. Amaro, sail- gave the name of Olinda. The Cabetes, who possessed ing along the coast northwards, was that of Espirito Santo. the soil, were fierce and pertinacious ; and, assisted by the It was founded by Vasco Fernandes Coutinho, who having French, who traded to that coast, Coelho had to gain by acquired a large fortune in India, sunk it in this scheme of inches what was granted him by leagues. The Portuguese colonization. He carried with him no less than sixty fidal- managed, however, to beat off their enemies; and, having gos. They named their town by anticipation, Our Lady of entered into an alliance with the Tobayanes, followed up the Victory ; but it cost them some hard fighting with the their success. After this triumph the colony continued, Goagnazes to justify the title. Having defeated these with the exception of a brief interval, to enjoy peace, and savages, the colonists carried on the building with spirit, to prosper during the life of its founder. Attempts were made about this time to establish two planted canes, and established four sugar-works ; and Coutinho seeing everything prosperous, returned to Lisbon to other captaincies, but without success. Pedro de Goes obenlist more colonists, and to make preparations for an expe- tained a grant of the captaincy of Paraiba between those of S. Vincente and Espirito Santo ; but his means were too dition into the interior in search of mines. Pedro de Campo Tourinho, a nobleman and excellent feeble to enable him to make head against the aborigines, navigator, received a grant of the adjoining captaincy of and the colony was broken up after a painful struggle of Porto Seguro. This, it will be remembered, is the spot seven years. Joao de Barros, the historian, obtained the where Cabral first took possession of Brazil. Tourinho and captaincy of Maranhao. For the sake of increasing his his associates fortified themselves on the place where the capital, he divided his grant with Fernan Alvares de Ancapital of the presidency still stands. The Tupinoquins at drada and Aires da Cunha. They projected a scheme of first offered some opposition ; but having made peace, they conquest and colonization upon a large scale. Nine hunobserved it faithfully, notwithstanding that the oppression dred men, of whom one hundred and thirteen were horseof the Portuguese obliged them to forsake the country. In men, embarked in ten ships under the command of Aires this guilt Tourinho is not implicated. That he had influ- da Cunha. But the vessels were wrecked upon some shoals ence enough with the natives to induce many of them to about one hundred leagues to the south of Maranhao; and collect and settle in villages, is a proof that he dealt justly the few survivors, after suffering immense hardships, esby them. Sugar-works were established, and considerable caped to the nearest settlements, and the undertaking was quantities of the produce exported to the mother country. abandoned. By these adventurers, the whole line of Brazilian coast, It was found impossible, by reason of an endemic disorder, to rear kine in the province; but horses, asses, and goats, from the mouth of La Plata to the mouth of the Amazons, had become studded at intervals with Portuguese settlesucceeded. Jorge de Figueiredo, Escrivam da Fazenda, was the ments, in all of which law and justice were administered, first donatory of the captaincy of Ilheos. His office pre- however inadequately. It is worthy of observation, that venting him from taking possession in person, he deputed Brazil was the first colony founded in America upon an the task to Francisco Romeiro, a Castilian. The Tupino- agricultural principle, for until then the precious metals quins, the most tractable of the Brazilian tribes, made peace were the exclusive attraction. Sufficient capital was atwith the settlers, and the colony was founded without a tracted between the year 1531, in which De Sousa founded struggle. The son of the original proprietor sold the the first captaincy, and the year 1548, to render these colocaptaincy to Lucas Geraldes, who expended considerable nies an object of importance to the mother country. Their wealth in improving it; and, in a short time, eight or nine organization, however, both in regard to their means of defence against external aggression and internal violence, was sugar-works were established. The coast from the Rio S. Francisco to Bahia was granted extremely defective. Portugal was distant, and the inhato Francisco Pereira Coutinho : the bay itself, with all bited portions of each captaincy were too far asunder to be its creeks, was afterwards added to the grant. When Cou- able to afford reciprocal assistance. They were surrounded tinho formed his establishment, where Villa Velha now by, and intermingled with, large tribes of savages. Behind stands, he found a noble Portuguese living in the neigh- them the Spaniards, who had an establishment at Assumpbourhood, who, having been shipwrecked, had, by means, tion, had penetrated almost to the sources of the waters of of his fire-arms, raised himself to the rank of chief among Paraguay, and had succeeded in establishing a communicathe natives. He was surrounded by a patriarchal establish- tion with Peru. Orellana, on the other hand, setting out ment of wives and children ; and to him most of the dis- from Peru, had crossed the mountains and sailed down the tinguished families of Bahia still trace their lineage. The Amazons. Nor had the French abandoned their hopes of regard entertained by the natives for Caramaru (signifying effecting an establishment on the coast. But the want or man of fire) induced them to extend a hospitable welcome internal organization in the Portuguese settlements was to his countrymen ; and for a time every thing went on well. even worse than the inadequacy of their defensive force* Coutinho had, however, learned in India to be an oppressor, The governor of every captaincy exercised uncontrolled and the Tupinambas were the fiercest and most powerful authority; the property, honour, and lives of the colonists, of the native tribes. The Portuguese were obliged to were at the mercy of these feudal chieftains; and the peop e abandon their settlement; but several of them returned at groaned under many oppressions. a later period, along with Caramaru, and thus a European The obvious remedy for these evils was to concentrate community was established in the district. the executive power, to render the petty chiefs amenab e

BRA Z I L. 281 History, to one tribunal, and to confide the management of the de- bending better than his predecessor the system of these History, fensive force to one hand. In order to this the powers of missionaries, went hand in hand with the ecclesiastics dur^ the several captains were revoked, whilst their property in ing the whole of his government. their grants was reserved to them. A governor-general It has been observed above that Rio Janeiro was not was appointed, with full powers, civil and criminal. The colonized at the time when the rest of the coast was porjudicial and financial functions in each province were vested tioned out into captaincies. It was first occupied by French in the Ouvidor, whose authority in the college of finance settlers. Nicholas Durand de Villegagnon, a bold and skilwas second only to that of the governor. In levying the ful seaman, having visited Brazil, saw at once the advandues of the crown, he was assisted by the Juiz de Fora. tages which might accrue to his country from a settlement Every colonist was enrolled either in the Milicias or Or- there. In order to secure the interest of Coligny, he gave denanzas. The former were obliged to serve beyond the out that his projected colony was intended to serve as a boundaries of the province, the latter only at home. The place of refuge for the persecuted Huguenots. Under the Milicias were commanded by Coroneis, the Ordenanzas patronage of that admiral, he arrived at Rio Janeiro in 1558, by Capitaes Mores. Both were immediately under the with a train of numerous and respectable colonists. As governor. The chief cities received municipal constitutions, soon, however, as he thought his power secure, he threw as in Portugal. Thome de Sousa was the first person no- off the mask, and began to harass and oppress the Hugueminated to the important post of governor-general. He nots by every means he could devise. Many of them was instructed to build a strong city in Bahia and to esta- were forced by his tyranny to return to France; and ten blish there the seat of his government. In pursuance of thousand Protestants, ready to embark for the new colony, his commission, he arrived at Bahia in April 1549, with a were deterred by their representations. Villegagnon, findfleet of six vessels, on board of which were three hundred ing his force much diminished in consequence of his and twenty persons in the king’s pay, four hundred con- treachery, sailed for France, in quest of recruits ; and durvicts, and as many free colonists as swelled the number of ing his absence the Portuguese governor, by order of his adventurers to one thousand. Care had been taken for the court, attacked and dispersed the settlement. For some spiritual wants of the provinces, by associating six Jesuits years the French kept up a kind of bush warfare ; but in to the expedition. 1567 the Portuguese succeeded in establishing a settlement Old Caramaru, who still survived, rendered the governor at Rio. essential service, by gaining for his countrymen the good Mem de Sa continued to hold the reins of government in will of the natives. The new city was established where Brazil upon terms of the best understanding with the clergy, Bahia still stands. Within four months one hundred houses and to the great advantage of the colonies, for fourteen were built, and surrounded by a mud wall. Sugar planta- years. On the expiration of his power, which was nearly tions were laid out in the vicinity. During the four years contemporary with that of his life, an attempt was made to of Sousa’s government, there were sent out at different times divide Brazil into two governments ; but, this having failed, supplies of all kinds ; female orphans of noble families, who the territory was re-united in 1578, the year in which were given in marriage to the officers, and portioned from Diego Lauren^o da Veiga was appointed governor. At the royal estates; and orphan boys to be educated by the this time the colonies, although not yet independent of supJesuits. The capital rose rapidly in importance, and the plies from the mother country, were in a flourishing condicaptaincies learned to regard it as a common head and centre tion ; but the usurpation of the crown of Portugal by of wealth. The governor visited them, inspected their for- Philip II. changed the aspect of affairs. Brazil, believed tifications, and regulated the administration of justice. to be inferior to the Spanish possessions in mines, was conMeanwhile the Jesuits undertook the moral and religious sidered of importance merely as an outpost to prevent the culture of the natives, and of the scarcely less savage colo- intrusion of foreign nations. It was consequently abandoned nists. Strong opposition was at first experienced from the to comparative neglect for the period intervening between gross ignorance of the Indians, and the depravity of the 1578 and 1640, during which it continued an appanage of Portuguese, fostered by the licentious encouragement of Spain. The population increased ; and domestic entersome abandoned priests who had found their way to Brazil. prise and foreign invasion called forth the energies of the Over these persons the Jesuits had no authority; and it people; but, as far as legislation was concerned, nothing was was not until the arrival of the first bishop of Brazil in done. 1552, that anything like an efficient check was imposed No sooner had Brazil passed under the Spanish crown, upon them. Next year Sousa was succeeded by Duarte da than English adventurers directed their hostile enterprises Costa, who brought with him a reinforcement of Jesuits, against its shores. In 1586 Witherington plundered Bahia; at the head of whom was Luis de Gran, appointed, with in 1591 Cavendish burned S. Vincente ; in 1595 Lancaster Nobrega the chief of the first mission, joint provincial of took Olinda. These exploits, however, were transient in Brazil. their effects. In 1612 the French attempted to found a Nobrega’s first act was one which has exercised the permanent colony in the island of Marajo, where they sucmost beneficial influence over the social system of Brazil, ceeded in maintaining themselves till 1618. This attempt namely, the establishment of a college on* the then unre- led to the erection of Maranhao and Para into a separate claimed plains of Piratininga. The spot selected by him Estado. But it was on the part of the Dutch that the most for the site of this establishment is on the ridge of the Serra skilful and pertinacious efforts were made for securing a do Mar, ten leagues from the sea, and thirteen from S. Vin- footing in Brazil; and they alone of all the rivals of the cente. It was named S. Paulo, and has been at once the Portuguese have left traces of their presence in the national source whence knowledge and civilization have been diffused spirit and institutions of Brazil. through Brazil, and the nucleus of a colony of its manliest The very imperfect constitution of the United Provinces and hardiest citizens, which has sent out successive swarms was the cause why many of the executive functions were of hardy adventurers to people the interior. The mode of delegated to companies of mercantile adventurers. Among education pursued by the Jesuits at S. Paulo was the same the offices properly appertaining to the government, the as that observed in all their other missions. Their good in- maintenance and defence of the Spice Islands had been intentions were in part frusti’ated by the opposition of Duarte trusted to the East India Company. The success of that the governor; and it was not until 1558, when Mem de Sa body suggested the establishment of a West India Comwas sent out to supersede him, that their enlightened pro- pany. Its charter secured to it a monopoly of the trade to jects were allowed free scope. This great man, compre- Amei’ica and the opposite coast of Africa, between the vol. v. 2N

282 BRA History, tropic of Cancer and the Cape of Good Hope. The comV-'"''' pany was taken bound to render an account of its proceedings every sixth year. This body despatched in 1624 a fleet against Bahia. The town yielded almost without a struggle. The Dutch governor fortified his new acquisition; and his proclamation offering toleration and protection to all, collected around him a multitude of Indians, Negroes, and Jews. The fleet soon after sailed; a squadron being detached against Angola, with the intention of taking possession of that colony, in order to secure a supply of slaves. The Portuguese, in the meanwhile, who had fled at first in the hope of eluding what they conceived to be merely an incursion of pirates, began to collect for the purpose of expelling the permanent intruders ; and the weakening of the Dutch force by the departure of the fleet inspired them with fresh courage. The descendants of Caramaru formed a link between the aborigines and the Portuguese which existed in no other part of Brazil. The consequence was, the hearty co-operation of all the natives against the invaders. The Dutch were obliged to capitulate in May 1625. The honours bestowed upon the Indian chiefs for their assistance in this war broke down in a great measure the barrier between the two tribes; and there is at this day a greater admixture of their blood among the better classes in Bahia than is to be found elsewhere in Brazil. For some years the Dutch confined themselves to depredations upon the marine of Spain and Portugal. In 1630 they attempted again to effect a settlement; and Olinda yielded after a feeble resistance. They were unable, however, to extend their power beyond the limits of the town, until the arrival of Count Maurice of Nassau in 1630. His first step was to introduce a regular government among his countrymen; his second, to send to the African coast one of his officers, who took possession of a Portuguese settlement, and thus secured a supply of slaves. Nassau suffered repulses in several of his expeditions, and particularly in that which lie undertook against Bahia. Nevertheless, in the course of four years, the limited period of his government, he succeeded in confirming the Dutch supremacy along the coast of Brazil from the mouth of the S. Francisco to Maranhao. He expended the revenues of the country, the booty obtained from the Portuguese, and a great part of his private fortune, in fortifying the mouths of rivers, building bridges to facilitate mercantile intercourse, and beautifying and repairing towns. He strictly observed the Dutch policy of tolerating all religions. He promoted the amalgamation of the different races, and sought to conciliate the Portuguese by the confidence he reposed in them. His object was to found a great empire; but this was a project at variance with the washes of his employers—an association of merchants, who were dissatisfied because the wealth which they expected to see flowing into their coffers was expended in promoting the permanent interests of a distant country. Count Maurice was recalled in 1644. His successors possessed neither his political nor his military talents, and had to contend with more energetic enemies. In 1640, the revolution which placed the house of Braganza on the throne of Portugal restored Brazil to masters more inclined to promote its interests, and assert its possession, than the Spaniards. It was indeed high time that some exertion should be made. The northern provinces had fallen into the power of Holland; the southern, peopled in a great measure by the hardy descendants of the successive colonists, who had issued on all sides from the central establishment of S. Paulo, had learned, from their habits of unaided and successful enterprise, to court independence. Adventurers had penetrated into those central mountains where the diamond is found. They had ascended the waters of the Paraguay to their sources. They had extended their limits southwards till they reached the Spanish settlements

Z I L, on La Plata. They had reduced to slavery numerous tribes History, of the natives. They were rich in cattle, and had commenced the discovery of the mines. While yet nominally subject to the crown of Spain, they had not scrupled on more than one occasion to wage war on their own account against the settlements of that country. When, therefore, the inhabitants of S. Paulo saw themselves about to be transferred, as a dependency of Portugal, from one master to another, they conceived the idea of erecting their country into an independent state. Their attempt, however, was frustrated by Amador Bueno, the person whom they had selected for their king. When the people shouted “ Long live King Amador,” he cried out “ Long live Joao IV.,” and took refuge in a convent. The multitude, left without a leader, acquiesced, and this important province was secured to the house of Braganza. Rio and Santos, although both evinced a desire of independence, followed the example of the Paulistas. Bahia, as capital of the Brazilian states, felt that its ascendency depended upon the union with Portugal. The government, thus left in quiet possession of the rest of Brazil, had time to concentrate its attention upon the Dutch conquests. The crown of Portugal was, however, much too weak to adopt energetic measures. The tyranny of the successors of Nassau, by alienating the minds of the Portuguese and natives, drove them to revolt, before any steps were taken in the mother country for the re-conquest of its colonies. Joao Fernandes Vieyra, a native of Madeira, organized the insurrection which broke out in 1645. This insurrection gave birth to one of those wars in which a whole nation, destitute of pecuniary resources, military organization, and skilful leaders, is opposed to a handful of soldiers advantageously posted and well officered. But brute force is unable to contend with scientific valour, whilst the want of numbers prevents the intruders from reaching the enemy they always repulse. The struggle degenerates into unceasing skirmishes and massacres, conducting to no result. Vieyra, who had the sense to see this, repaired to the court of Portugal, and discovering the weakness and poverty of the executive, suggested the establishment of a company similar to that which in Holland had proved so successful. His plan, notwithstanding the opposition of the priests, was approved of, and in 1649 the Brazil Company of Portugal sent out its first fleet. The additional impetus communicated by this new engine to the exertions of the Portuguese colonists and their Indian allies, turned the scale against the Dutch. After a most sanguinary war, Vieyra was enabled in 1654 to present the keys of Olinda to the royal commander, and to restore to his monarch the undivided empire of Brazil; and in 1661, a treaty of peace was signed with them, and they renounced their pretensions to a portion of Brazil. After this, except some inroads on the frontiers, the only foreign invasion which Brazil had to suffer was from France. In 1710 a squadron commanded by Duclerc disembarked 1000 men, and attacked Rio de Janeiro. After having lost half of his men in a battle, Duclerc and all his surviving companions were made prisoners. The governor treated them cruelly. A new squadron with 6000 troops was intrusted to the famous admiral Duguay Trouin to revenge this injury. They arrived at Rio on the 12th September 1711. After four days of hard fighting, the town was taken. The governor retreated to a position out of it, and was only awaiting reinforcements from Minas to retake it; but Duguay Trouin threatening to burn it, he was obliged on the 10th October to sign a capitulation, and pay to the French admiral 610,000 crusados, 500 cases of sugar, and provisions for the return of the fleet to Europe. The same day Albuquerque, the governor of Minas, arrived with the expected reinforcement of 15,000 men. The conditions of the capitulation were, however, fulfilled. Duguay Trouin departed to Bahia to obtain fresh spoils; but having

B R A Z I L. 283 History, lost in a storm two of his best ships, with an important part the purchase of another person’s allotment within that dis- History of the money received, he renounced this plan and returned tance was allowed. Mines might be sought for and worked ^ directly to France. upon private property, because they belonged to the king, After this the Portuguese governed undisturbed their but the owner of the land had a right to indemnificacolony. The approach of foreign traders was prohibited, tion. Mining adventurers were entitled to turn their catwhile the regalities reserved by the crown drained the coun- tle into the lands of the municipality (concelho), and even try of a great proportion of its wealth. The authority of the into private property, without the owner’s permission, upon governors was despotic in its abuse, but limited in its correc- pa.ying the value of the pasturage. No man engaged in tive powei; the administration of justice was slovenly in the mining could be arrested for debt, or have a distress levied extreme ; the pay of all functionaries, civil, ecclesiastic, and upon such capital as he had employed in the work. Mines military, was so parsimonious as to render peculation ine- might only be granted to such persons as possessed the vitable ; and yet, in spite of all these disadvantages, the means of peopling and working them. A grant was forwealth and happiness of the people continued silently and feited if not taken possession of within sixty days. The steadily to increase. Fhe reason was, that they were left executive and judicial functions within the mining districts in a great measure to themselves, and had an ample field were vested in a provedor and his secretary, those of the within their own land for the exertion of their industry. fiscal in a treasurer. None of these officials could hold a We have already adverted to the important part which share in a mine, or trade in its produce, under penalty of the inhabitants of the captaincy of S. Paulo have played in loss of office and confiscation of property. The provedor the history of Brazil. The establishment of the Jesuit col- or his secretary measured out the allotments; received and lege had attracted to its neighbourhood a number of settlers inspected the samples of metal from new mines; registered from S. Vincente. The Indians of the district were of mild the grants, with the holder’s oath to pay his fifths regularly dispositions, and frequent intermarriages took place between and faithfully; and decided finally in all disputes to the them and the Europeans. A race of men sprung from this amount of fifty milrees, with the reservation only of the mixture, native to the soil, hardy and enterprising, wearing right of appeal to the Provedor M6r da Real Fazenda to hut lightly the bonds which attached them to the mother any amount. '1 he treasurer received the royal fifths, and country. The first object of inquiry with the colonists was, superintended the weighing, registering, refining, and stampwhether the land of which they had taken possession were ing of all the gold. The king’s share was deposited in a lich in metals. Gold was found, but not in sufficient quan- chest under three locks, the keys of which were kept by the tities to reward the labour bestowed in search of it. The provedor, secretary, and treasurer. A yearly account was Portuguese next devoted their energies to excursions against returned of all the discoveries and produce. the more i emote Indian tribes, with a view to obtaining For many years these laws were little more than a dead slaves. Traces of gold having been observed in the moun- letter. The Paulistas were wholly engrossed with their tain ranges north of S. Paulo, successive bands of adven- expeditions in quest of slaves ; the government and the coturers attempted to penetrate the wilderness. The spirit lonists of the other captaincies, with the Dutch and other of enterprise was thus nourished and confirmed. From the wars. Some few gipsy-like establishments were scattered year 1629 the Paulistas repeatedly attacked the settlements thinly throughout the gold country. By degrees the desire of the Jesuits in Paraguay, although both provinces were of gain induced the more powerful and wealthy colonists nominally subject to the crown of Spain, and carried away to solicit large grants. No attention was paid to the renumbers of the natives into captivity. Other bands pene- striction of the number that might be conferred on each trated into Minas, and, still farther northward and westward, individual; and the consequence was, that men of influence into Goyaz and Cuiaba, in search of gold. monopolized the mines, and were obliged either to sublet At first the gold-searchers, like the slave-hunters, under- them to those they had forestalled, or to leave them untook temporary expeditions, with the view, doubtless, of re- opened. It was found necessary in 1702 to alter the exturning laden with booty, and settling in their native homes. isting laws. By degrees, however, as the distance of the newly-disThe whole ordinary civil and military authority was covered mines increased, and establishments for working vested in the superintendent (Guarda Mor). The apthem became necessary, new colonies were founded. Dif- pointment of the treasurer belonged to this officer. Both ferent associations of adventurers penetrated, in the years were allowed a limited number of deputies. At first the 1693, 1694, and 1695, into the district of Minas Geraes, salaries of all these officers were levied upon the miners, which had been explored by the Paulistas at least twenty but subsequently the privilege of mining was conceded to years before. In the beginning of the eighteenth century them in lieu of a salary. No second grant was made to five of its principal settlements were elevated by royal charter any person until he had worked the first. The allotments to the privileges of towns. In 1720 the district was sepa- were regulated by the number of slaves which the miner rated from S. Paulo, of which it had previously been esteemed employed. Besides its fifths, the crown reserved an allota dependency, and placed under the control of a governor- ment, selected after the adventurer had taken his first general. In 1670 the gold-searchers penetrated into Goyaz; grant and before he had chosen his second. If an adbut it was not till the commencement of the next century venturer did not begin to work his ground within forty that, encouraged by the discovery of the mines of Cuiaba, days, a third part of it, upon information of the lapse, was in the province of Matto Grosso, a permanent colony was assigned to the informer, and the other two-thirds reverted settled there. to the crown. were allowed to be imported into the The first attempt to regulate by legislative enactments mining districtsCattle from Bahia, but no persons were allowed the industry of the miners of Brazil was made as early as to enter except the drovers. They were required to notify 1618 by Philip III. According to his code of regulations, their arrival, the number of their cattle, and the prices they the privileges of the discoverer were that he should have obtained. Any person might carry gold-dust from the one mine of eighty Portuguese varas by forty, and a second mines to Bahia to purchase cattle, but not till he had paid allotment of sixty by thirty upon the same vein. A hundred his fifths and provided himself with a certificate. These and twenty varas were to intervene between the portions. Any adventurer might claim a mine, but he could only have regulations were enforced by strong penalties, in order to one of the same extent as the discoverer’s first portion. No prevent frauds upon the revenue. Slaves, and all other one except the discoverer might have more than one origi- goods except cattle, were only allowed to be introduced nal grant within the distance of a league and a half; but fi om Ilio, and that either by the way of S. Faulo or Taboate. No idle persons were allowed to remain about the

1

284 BRA History, mines; no goldsmith was tolerated there, nor any settler possessed of’ a slave capable of exercising this craft. The same infatuated passion for mining speculations which had characterized the Spanish settlers in South America, now began to actuate the Portuguese. Adventurers crowded to the scene of action from all the captaincies ; not mere “ landless resolutes” alone, but men of substance also. Labourers and capital were drained off to the mining districts. The sugar-mills (Engenhos) were either abandoned or left half-cultivated, from the inability of the proprietors to offer for slaves the ruinous prices paid by the adventurers of the mines. Brazil, which had hitherto in a great measure supplied Europe with sugar, sank before the competition of the French and English, who had no mines to distract their attention. Commerce of every kind declined along with this staple commodity. 1 he court endeavoured for a time to counteract this course of enterprise, but in vain. A new source of wealth for Brazil, had it been properly managed, but, as matters have turned out, merely a new source of injudicious restriction, was now about to be opened up. Some adventurers who had prosecuted the business of gold-washing northwards from Villa de Principe in the captaincy of Minas, made a discovery of diamonds about the year 1710. The value of these minerals was not known till several years after, when an Ouvidor of the Comarca of Serro Frio, in which they were found, who had - seen unpolished diamonds at Goa, ascertained what they were. In 1730 the discovery was announced for the first time to that government, which immediately declared the diamonds regalia. A further search showed that the district was equally rich in other gems. In 1741 its limits were described with greater precision, and the liberty to collect diamonds farmed upon a lease of four years to two influential inhabitants, at the rate of 230,000 reis for every negro, with permission to employ six hundred. At every renewal of the lease a high rent was exacted, and the tenants indemnified themselves by conducting their operations in the most wasteful manner. While the population of Brazil, and the cultivation of its natural products, continued thus to increase, the moral and intellectual culture of its inhabitants was left in a great measure to chance. There was a hierarchical establishment, but one altogether inadequate to the extent of the territory. There were schools, but “ few and far between.” The colonists, thinly spread over what appeared an illimitable region, were most of them alike beyond the reach of instruction and of the arm of the law. The restrictions upon the free exercise of industry, introduced with a view to benefit the royal treasury, were little calculated to reconcile men to legal restraints which they scarcely knew in any other form. They grew up, therefore, with those robust and healthy sentiments engendered by the absence of false teachers ; but at the same time they became habituated to a repugnance to legal ordinances, accustomed to give full scope to all their passions, and encouraged by their sense of ascendency over the Indians to habits of violence and oppression. From the first moment of their landing in Brazil, the Jesuits had constituted themselves the protectors of the oppressed natives. But they were strenuously opposed by the interested colonists, and by the ordinary clergy. The Jesuits were not however easily dismayed, and, by dint of the most persevering exertions, they procured from government an explicit confirmation of the freedom of the natives. The next step of these venerable fathers was to collect their red children, as in all their other missions, into aldeas, over which officials of their order exercised both spiritual and temporal authority. Their intentions were pious and noble, but their plan was erroneous. They attempted to teach the most recondite dogmas of the Christian faith, before either

Z I L. the hearts or heads of their pupils were sufficiently awaken- History, ed to comprehend them. They taught observance to the rules of external decorum, without inculcating those more essential principles which are independent of all form. By depriving the Indians of the power of managing their own affairs, they effectually stifled within them the germs of human thought and action. The Indian of the aldeas was little better than a puppet, and, when separated from his tutors, he soon sunk back into hopeless and irreclaimable barbarism. The persecution of the Indians was yet more efficaciously put a stop to by the sacrifice of an equally innocent and yet more injured race. The Portuguese establishments on the coast of Africa have ever been more extensive, and their slave dealings better organized, than those of any other nation. By this means a large number of negroes was annually imported into Brazil, and being found more active and serviceable as labourers than the native tribes, the latter were in a great measure left to enjoy their savage independence. The Portuguese government, under the administration of Carvalho afterwards Marquis of Pombal, attempted to extend to Brazil the effects of that bold spirit of innovation which directed all his actions. Carvalho had experienced great resistance to his plans of reform at home from the Jesuits; and his brother, when appointed governor of Maranhao, experienced a resistance no less strenuous on their part to some measures of his government. This was enough to determine the proud minister to lessen the power of the order. With his sanction, the Jesuits and other regulars were deprived of all temporal authority over their aldeas in the state of Maranhao and Para. These, twenty-eight in number, were converted by the edict of the governor into nine townlets, eighteen towns, and one city. The towns were to be governed by juizes ordinaries, to fill which offices a preference was given to Indians. The aldeas independent of towns were to be governed by their respective chiefs. The lands adjacent to the towns and hamlets were divided among the Indians, and declared heritable property. To these regulations of his brother, the minister superadded some enactments intended to supply the loss of the Jesuits as teachers. The task of religious instruction was delegated to the bishop. Till such time as the Indians should be sufficiently advanced in civilization to manage their own affairs, a director was appointed to reside in each settlement; a man of integrity and zeal, and conversant with the native tongues. He possessed no coercive jurisdiction, but, when he observed remissness on the part of the native authorities in the administration of the laws, might complain to the governor. He was expected to explain to the Indians the advantages of industry and sobriety, to instruct them in the simpler arts and manufactures, and to recommend the adoption of the amenities of civilized life. Above all, these functionaries were directed to combat the prejudice, that there existed a natural inferiority in the Indian character, and to promote, as far as in them lay, intermarriages between the white and red races. As a reward for the directors, they were to have a sixth part of all that the Indians reared, excepting what was specially appropriated for their own consumption. These ordinances, originally promulgated for Maranhao and Para, were ratified in Lisbon, and extended to the whole of Brazil. But the good which they might have done was neutralized in a great measure by some compulsory services still left binding upon the Indians, and by listlessness on the part of the white inhabitants in carrying them into effect. No good understanding could subsist between an ambitious order and the minister who had so openly braved them. Carvalho felt his new arrangements insecure as long as a Jesuit remained in Brazil. First of all, e

BRAZIL. 285 sought to render the order suspected of being accessary to shalled their way. And yet when, upon the death of his History, some partial revolts among the Indian troops on the Rio king and patron in 1777, court intrigue forced him from his Negro. But it was the confession of one of the leaders of high station, his successor was lauded to the skies for conthe conspiracy against the life of the king of Portugal, when cluding a treaty of limits, in which Pombafs chivalrous put to the torture, that some Jesuits were implicated in the bravery had rendered Spain glad to acquiesce, whilst he undertaking, that finally delivered them into his hands. In who had done so much for his country’s institutions was re1760 they were expelled from Brazil, under circumstances viled on all hands. of considerable severity. During the first thirty years after the retirement of Pombal Pombal’s next measure attracted more attention that his plans for the improvement of the Indians. The Brazilian from active life, the most important feature in the history of Company, founded by Yieyra, which so materially contri- Brazil was the conspiracy of Minas in 1789. In this rich disthe population was increasing rapidly. Some young men buted to preserve its South American possessions to Por- trict began to be remarked for their literary talents, chiefly as poets. tugal, had been abolished, in 1721, by Joao V. Such in- The successful issue of the recent revolution of the English struments, however, were calculated to win the confidence colonies in North America, filled their minds with such enthuof a bold spirit like that of Pombal. In 1755 he established siasm, that they fancied it would be very easy to imitate them. a chartered company, with a capital of 1,200,000 crusados, A cavalry officer, Silva Xavier, nicknamed Tira-dentes (toothin 1200 shares, to trade exclusively with Maranhao and drawer), formed a project to throw off the Portuguese yoke and Para. In 1759 a similar company was chartered for Pa- to proclaim an independent republic. He associated in his raiba and Pernambuco. Remonstrances were made on the plan Colonel Freire de Andrade, commander of the military part of the Board of Public Good, and the British factory forces of Rio de Janeiro, some wealthy merchants of that town, at Lisbon; but the members of the former body were and some influential persons of Minas, such as Colonels Alvarenga and Abreu Yieyra, the fathers Oliveira, Rolim, and Topunished, and those of the latter were disregarded. En- ledo vicar of the town of S. Jos causes of incorrectness. Fearing the conscription, they zilians. The emperor rewards services according to their conceal from the authorities the number of their sons ; and difficulty or importance with the titles of marquis, count, to avoid payment of taxes and the contribution of labour for baron, or knight (moqos fidalgos). In 1853 there were in the benefit of roads and other municipal works, they like- Brazil 6 marquises, 5 counts, 17 viscounts, 66 barons, and wise conceal the number of their slaves; a more difficult 120 knights. Titles are not hereditary, but if a son prove matter, however, as slaves are essentially a stationary po- himself worthy of his father, he inherits his title. There are pulation. The following are official data in round numbers in the empire three orders of chivalry adopted from Portuextracted from the reports of the presidents of the different gal, those namely of Christ, Aviz, and Santiago, and two creprovinces presented to their legislative chambers:— ated since the declaration of independence, those namely of Cruzeiro and Rose. Great numbers of crosses of the first Names of the and last of these orders have been distributed. That of Aviz Date of Number of Chief towns. Provinces. the report. inhabitants. is reserved for military services, and that of Cruzeiro for very important and extraordinary services exclusively. The Rio Grande do Sul Portalegre 260,000 1848 Santa Catharina senate represents the only element of aristocracy recognised Desterno 81,000 1849 Parana Coritiba 1853 67,000 by the constitution. San Paulo San Paulo 1853 546,000 The democratic element preponderates in the constituRio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro 1851 823,000 tion of Brazil, but its action is greatly modified by the comEspirito Santo Victoria 60,000 1853 plicated system of election. Bahia Bahia 900,000 1848 Sergipe The constitution established four powers, the moderator Sergipe 135,000 1843 Alagoas Maceio 208,000 (what is called in England the royal prerogative), the legisla1849 Pernambuco Recife 1852 900,000 tive, the executive, and the judicial. The moderator is vested Paraiba Paraiba 200,000 1853 in the emperor, whom it empowers to select senators and Rio Grande do Norte Natal 1847 160,000 ministers, to sanction laws, to convoke extraordinary assemCeara Fortaleza 210,000 1853 blies, prorogue parliament, dissolve the chamber of deputies, Piauhy Oeyras 1848 120,000 Maranbao grant amnesties and pardons, and suspend judges to be afterSan Luiz 1848 213,000 Para Belem 1848 165,000 wards tried. Amazonas Villa da Barra 1853 35,000 The legislative power is vested, for the affairs of the emMatto Grosso Cuyaba 1849 48,000 ph'e, in the general legislative assembly with the sanction of Goyaz Villa Boa 1849 100,000 the emperor, and for the provincial affairs in the provincial Minas Geraes Ouro Preto 1852 1,300,000 assemblies with the sanction of the president (governor) of Total for the 20 provinces, the province. The general legislative assembly consists of 6,521,000 To compensate omissions and increase in some two chambers, that of deputies, and that of senators. The provinces since 1847, 479,000 deputies are nominated by indirect election. Citizens, and even manumitted slaves, born in the empire, who possess The most approximative total. 7,000,000 an income of L.22, 10s., choose the electors in parochial assemblies, and these electors nominate the deputies. The The classification of the different races in some of the qualification for an elector is an annual income of L.45 ; provinces is entirely wanting; the following is subjoined as that of a deputy an income of L.90. Minors, monks, and an approximation, drawn up from the data existing for servants, are incapable of voting ; naturalized foreigners, and several provinces:— persons not professing the religion of the state, are incapable of being elected deputies, but they can be senators. White population 2,000,000 Free mixed population, mulattoes, cafuses, and The deputies are elected for four years, and must hold an other varieties 1,000,000 annual session of four months, opening on the 3d of May. Civilized aborigines 800,000 The senators are elected for life. Every province has a Mixed slave population 600,000 number of senators, equal to half its number of deputies ; African, or black slaves 2,600,000 but they are nominated in triple lists, from which the emolonies of There are 6 in Rio Grande do Sul, 6 in Santa Catha- peror selects one-third. A senator must be forty years of ■uropean rina, 4 in San Paulo, 3 in Rio de Janeiro, and 1 in Espirito migrants. Santo, numbering altogether in 1852, 20,833 inhabitants. age, and possess a clear annual income of L.180. The allowance of a senator is one-half more than that of a deputy. I he most flourishing is that of San Leopoldo in Rio Grande, Each house nominates its own officers. When the two which contains 10,576 inhabitants, and whose exports in houses sit in general assembly, as at the opening and close 1852 were valued at L.120,000. The chief traffic is in of the session, to hear the emperor’s speech, &c., the presiarticles of leather, such as saddlery, portmanteaus, &c. dent of the senate presides, and the senators and deputies There is no means of ascertaining the average number sit promiscuously. They sit apart, and proceed by way of emigrants from Europe who annually settled in the pro- of bill, when they make laws, interpret and suspend them ; vinces or quitted them, but in 1853, 9610 foreigners esta- they determine the public charges, and assess the contribublished themselves in Rio, of whom more than 8000 were tions, &c. The chamber of deputies has the initiative in Portuguese, while 1976 left it, of whom likewise the great taxes, in recruiting, and in the choice of a new dynasty. proportion were Portuguese. The senate has the exclusive privilege of taking cognizance The number of emigrants landed at the provincial ports of offences committed by members of the imperial family, may be calculated at a little less than that of those who councillors of state, senators, and deputies, during the landed at Rio. session ; of enforcing the responsibility of secretaries and 1 he Brazilian monarchy derives from the ancient mon>Htical of state ; of convoking the assembly in case the | nstitu- archy of Portugal the principle of hereditary succession to councillors emperor fail to do so within two months after the period I m. the crown. The laws of succession are defined with great fixed by law; and also of calling it together on the death of distinctness in the constitution, and are the same as in Eng- the emperor. land. ° The executive power is vested in the emperor assisted by In Brazil there is no privileged aristocracy, but descent his ministers and secretaries of state, who are responsible from the noble families of Portugal, length of time in the for treason, corruption, abuse of power, acts contrary to the

IL

29G BRAZIL. Statistics, liberty, security, or property of the citizens, and waste of Portuguese agents in settlement of this claim. The debt contracted Statist)! assumed by Brazil between 1823 and 1843, therefore, amounted v _, public property. From this responsibility they cannot es- and to L.7,099,200 nominal; and throughout all its difficulties and emcape upon the plea of orders from the emperor. The exe- barrassments the imperial government punctually and honourably cutive functions are the convocation of the general ordinary provided for the dividends as they became due. Their disorder, so assembly ; the nomination of bishops, presidents, governors long as it existed, was wholly borne by the Brazilian people, on of provinces; commanders by sea and land, and ambassadors; whom, for a season, it fell with great severity. By the renewal in 1844 of the sinking fund, the operations of the formation of alliances, and all foreign negotiations ; the declaration of peace and war; the granting letters of na- which had been suspended in 1828, the Portuguese loan of was reduced to L.954,250; and on its expiration in turalization, &c. The ministers are six: one for each of L.1,500,000 July 1852, it was paid off by a new 4J per cent, loan of that the departments of home, justice, war, marine, finances, and amount, contracted for at 95. In the same way, reductions of the foreign affairs. One of these is president or premier. To other loans have been made, and now the foreign debt of Brazil these is superadded a council of state, composed of ten or- stands only at L.4,900,000, 5 per cent, stock, and L. 1,000,000, 4J dinary and ten extraordinary members nominated by the per cent.: total, L.5,900,000. Gradually, it is in process of farther and if the operation of the sinking fund be, as is inemperor, and the imperial prince, if of age, is by right a reduction, tended, persevered in, at no very distant period, the foreign debt councillor of state. This council is divided into as many of Brazil will be extinguished. sections as there are ministerial departments. The deficiencies of former years have been funded and form the Every town and village, with the surrounding district, has greater part of the internal debt of Brazil. The total funded debt a municipal council composed of seven or twelve members, of the empire now stands thus:— Foreign Debt. elected directly by the citizens who possess an annual income of L.22, 10s. This council is charged with all that concerns Balance of 5 per cent, loan of 1824 L.3,197,800 1829 597,500 the good of the district, meets four times a-year, besides ex1839 391.200 traordinary sessions, and every meeting may last as many 1843 673.200 days as may be found necessary for the expedition of busi... 4J per cent, loan of 1852 1,035,100 ness. They impose fines to a certain amount, and even L.5,894,800 Internal Debt enforce their decrees by a penalty of thirty days’ imprison6,467,490 ment. They annually draw up a municipal budget, which Total Debt of Brazil. L.12,362,290 is submitted to the provincial legislative assembly for apthus appears that with a revenue of nearly L.4,000,000 a-year, proval. If their revenue and the produce of fines be not theItBrazilian debt, foreign and domestic, does not much exceed sufficient to defray expenses, an allowance from the provin- three years’ revenue. This is a proportion such as few states can cial treasury is granted. Their decrees are called posturas, exhibit. and the penalties imposed by them are applied to the inFor a few years previously to the declaration of the emperor’s fractors by the justices of peace. Their enactments can be majority, the imperial expenditure had not been very largely in excess of the revenue. In 1836-7, the deficit was reis 476,825,000; annulled by the provincial legislative assembly. in 1837-8, reis 885,100,000; in 1838—9, there was even a surplus Judicial Each parish has four justices of peace elected for four years, of reis 40,591,000; in 1839-40, the deficiency was increased to system. hut only one is actively engaged for the year. They are nominated reis 1,033,946,000 ; in 1840-1, the year of the emperor’s majority, by the citizens in the same manner as the municipal councils. No it rose to reis 3,639,608,000. In consequence of the greater vigour one can bring a case into court without having previously at- then resorted to in reducing a rebellion which had been raging tempted a conciliation with his adversary before a justice of peace. since 1835 in the province of Rio Grande do Sul, the deficit went Trial by jury is authorised for civil as well as for criminal cases. on augmenting until after 1844, when these efforts were crowned Each province is divided into comarcas, and then into municipali- with success. In 1841-2, the deficit was reis 6,212,609,000; in ties. In each comarca there is a judge called Juiz de Direito, who 1842-3 reis 5,724,843,000; in 1843-4 reis 6,620,866,000; in presides at the sessions of the jury, in every municipality, twice or 1844-5 reis 9,484,520,000. Nor was it for three or four years after thrice a-year. In each municipality there is a municipal judge, the pacification, that the deficit entirely disappeared. In 1849-50, who decides in civil cases, and prepares the process for the crimi- however, there was a large surplus after payment of all expenses, nal. The decisions of this judge may be amended by the Juiz de of reis 3,035,006,000 or L.341,438; in 1850-1, the surplus was Direito. Both must be doctors of law. The empire is divided into reis 3,552,404,000 or L.399,645 ; in 1851-2, reis 4,010,220,000, or four appeal districts, in each of which there is a Relaqao (court of L.451,149; in 1852-3, reis 3,970,202,000 or L.446,647; in 1853-4, appeal), composed of fourteen members. There is, besides, in Rio reis 3,528,934,000 or L.397,005. To sum up, while in the eleven a supreme court of justice, composed of seventeen members, whose years, 1836-1848, the deficiencies in the Brazilian finances altoduties are to permit or refuse the revision of causes, to try its own gether amounted to reis 40,550,675,000, in the last five years there members, or those of the court of appeal, the members of the diplo- has been an aggregate surplus of reis 18,096,766,000, or L.2,035,885. matic body, and the presidents of provinces, and to decide on disThe revenues of Brazil have risen in that period (from 1836 to puted cases between the other courts. Promotion by election is 1854), from reis 12,265,262,000, their lowest point in 1837-8, to made from municipal judge to Juiz de Direito, and from this grade reis 35,646,407,000, or L.4,010,220, the highest in 1851-2, about to that immediately above it. Admittance into the supreme court which sum it seems reasonable to estimate them for succeeding can only be obtained by seniority. All judges are responsible for years. The following table gives the revenue and expenditure for abuses of power, and for corruption. They may be removed from the last five years. one district to another, but cannot lose office except by sentence. Expenditure. Years. Receipts. Reis. Reis. The civil laws, originally the same with those of Portugal, have 23,942,830,000 1849 50 26,977,836,000 been greatly modified by a number of new ones. A criminal code 27,864,404,000 185031,576,930,000 was organized in 1830 on the principles of Jeremy Bentham, and 31,636,187,000 185135,646,407,000 is considered very perfect and clear. The new form of procedure, 31,320,489,000 35,290,691,000 1852and the new organization of justices, is embodied in a code decreed 30,471,066,000 34,000,000,000 1853in 1832. Finally, a new code of commerce, nearly copied from that of Prance, was decreed in 1850. Under the influence of the new tariff of customs’-duties, issued r Finances. ^° carry on the war of the independence, and to crush a subse- 12th August 1844, combined with growing prosperity at home, quent revolution in the northern provinces, the government con- greater liberality of treatment of its produce in foreign markets, tracted two loans in 1824-5, of the nominal amount of L.3,686,200; and with an improved collection of the customs’ revenue, a state of and on the recognition of its independence by Portugal in 1825, it chronic deficit has been changed into one of large surplus. The undertook the liability of a loan of L.1,500,000. The war with government of Brazil has availed itself of financial prosperity to Buenos Ayres, and the assistance rendered by Don Pedro to the establish naval and to extend and perfect judicial means for the constitutional party of Portugal, led to two farther loans in 1829, of effectual suppression of the slave trade, has reduced the tonnage the nominal amount of L.769,200. Internal difficulties in 1839 duties on shipping by two-thirds, has lowered some oppressive incompelled the regency to contract another loan of the nominal ternal taxes, and abolished others, has already made some partial amount of L.411,200. The dissensions in Portugal caused a tem- modifications of her customs’ tariff, and is now engaged in preparporal suspension in the payment of the dividends on the Portu- ing a measure for a general diminution of import, and the entire guese loan, and in 1842, L.732,600 stock were delivered to the repeal of export duties.

BRAZIL. 29/ ministers of the two departments. The army is organized on the Statistics, Statistics. Estimates for the fiscal year, ending the 30th June 1854: principles established by Marshal Beresford when in the service Revenue. of Portugal. It is principally from the northern provinces that Custom-houses Reis, 22,515,800,000 the infantry is recruited, and from the southern that the best Taxes upon shipping., 246,600,000 cavalry is obtained. Export duties 4,634,500,000 The actual army is thus composed:—Post-office 146,000,000 Men. Mint and other establishments, ... 258,300,000 Staff and engineers 355 Taxes upon transfer of realproperty, 1,097,900,000 Infantry 12,785 Stamps 803,300,000 Cavalry 2,350 Tax on slave-labour 279,050,000 Artillery 3,517 Miscellaneous ,...., 5,929,550,000 Sappers and miners 1,091 Total Reis, 34,000,000,000 or L.3,825,000 20,098 Expenditure. Besides the regular army there is the national guard, organized Home department, Reis, 3,760,318,000 since 1831, on the same plan as that of France ; the subaltern officers Justice.. 2,278,291,188 being elected by the soldiers, the superior officers by the subalterns, Foreign 654,546,000 the generals, instructors, majors, adjutants, serjeants, named by the Marine 3.869,434,990 government. These appointments are for four years. The national War 7^25,448,027 guard is divided into three classes, the first of which may, in the Financial....... 12,583,027,765 event of war, be called upon to serve on the same terms as soldiers the line. The total effective strength of the national guards is Total Reis, 30,471,065,970 or L.3,427,995 of as follows:— Men. Surplus L.397,005 Infantry 97,543 In addition to the above imperial revenues of Brazil, each of the Cavalry 6,593 twenty provinces has a separate revenue, raised by the authority Artillery 2,194 of its provincial assembly, and spent on its own local objects, amounting altogether for the twenty provinces to about one-third Total 106,330 of the imperial revenue. navy is principally manned by civilized aborigines, organized The The Roman Catholic religion is the established religion of the inThe bodies called imperial sailors, with a certain military discipline, Church. empire. All other forms of worship are tolerated, but may only which of late proved exceedingly beneficial. The aborigines be practised privately. Dissenters enjoy all political and civil have a has peculiar aptitude for a maritime life. Officers destined for rights, with the sole exception of being elected into the chamber of the Brazilian navy receive a suitable education in the naval school deputies. There is one archbishopric in Bahia, with suffragan of Rio, and for some years the government introduced the practice bishops in Rio de Janeiro, Pernambuco, Maranhao, Para, San of sending the more apt scholars to serve in the British, French, Paulo, Minas, and Goyaz. Every bishopric is divided into a conAmerican navies. In this way a body of efficient naval officers venient number of parishes, according to the population; a vicar is and gradually being formed. attached to each parish, and assisted by other priests if necessary. is The naval forces for the present year 1854 are fixed thus:— The peculiarity of the ecclesiastical organization of the Brazilian 1st class frigates, of which 2 are steamers 5 church is, that the clergy do not receive the tithes. As a conquest Corvettes, of which 7 are steamers 17 of the military and religious order of Christ, all the churches of Brigs 8 Brazil belonged from the beginning to that order, whose grand Schooners and brig-schooners 19 master appointed the bishops, and submitted them directly to the Small steamers 6 approbation of the Pope. The order became so powerful that the Small vessels armed, or gun-boats 5 king obtained the union of the grand mastership to the crown, and Transports 6 so disposed of all the livings and other benefices of the order, and paid from his treasury the salaries of the clergy, receiving the 66 tithes from the people, as a civil tax. The tithes were afterwards abolished as oppressive. This organization is still recognised by These 66 ships are manned by 6000 sailors, including gunners the Holy See, and in the capacity of grand-master of the order of and marines. Christ, the emperor appoints all the bishops and other ecclesiastical It is obvious, from the insufficient establishments for general 0jiaractcr functionaries. There are convents of Franciscans, Carmelites, and education, that the intellectual development of individuals must0f tjje jjraBenedictines. These are very rich, and generally very learned men, have been for a long period achieved in a great measure by unaided zjiiians who are usefully employed in teaching the sciences. They pay exertions. Now things are better, but in the more thinly inhabited double annual taxes as a compensation to the treasury for not pay- districts devotion to such pursuits must not be expected in men exing taxes upon transfers of property, as theirs is not transferable, clusively occupied in procuring subsistence and securing selfjiterary In every parish there is a schoolmaster for boys, and a school- defence. Even where the population is more dense, a lazy feeling istablish- mistress for girls. As education is free, they receive no fees from of animal comfort represses the exertions of the majority. It is uents, and their pupils, but a salary from the provincial treasury. In every among the more aspiring class, who aim at the learned professions bublic in- large town there is a Lyceum, maintained also by the provincial or state employment, and who are consequently obliged to cultivate traction, treasury. From the scholars of these establishments a small annual their minds, that we must look for that attachment to intellectual fee is exacted. In those lyceums, the Latin, French, and English pursuits which is rarely acquired except from habit. In the theolanguages, rhetoric, philosophy, geography, mathematics, natural logical seminaries, established at the seat of each bishop, little philosophy, and chemistry, are taught. In the less important more was inculcated than a knowledge of the classics, an outworn towns and large villages the course of instruction at the lyceums is scholastic system of logic, and a knowledge of the routine duties of a limited to Latin, French, and philosophy or rhetoric. In every priest. The schools of medicine in Rio Janeiro and in Bahia, from bishopric there is a theological seminary supported by the property the attention bestowed upon practical surgery and anatomy, have belonging to the see. The advanced sciences are taught by the done more to awaken the mind. The number of situations under respective faculties, forming together the university, and distributed government requiring a certain knowledge of practical mathematics in the following manner. The civil and common law, political and natural history, has been made more efficient in diffusing a economy, and other social sciences are taught in San Paulo, and knowledge of and a taste for these kindred pursuits. The number Olinda; mathematics, and their application to engineering, in Rio of foreign engineers and naturalists encouraged to settle in Brazil de Janeiro; medicine, surgery, zoology, mineralogy, botany, che- has rendered the natives in some measure acquainted with all that mistry, and physics, in Bahia and Rio de Janeiro. All the salaries has been of late achieved in Europe in the mathematical and exof the professors, as well as all the expenses for the higher sciences, perimental sciences. Late events have forced upon the inhabitants are defrayed from the imperial treasury. a number of political questions, which, coming home to every man’s Besides the public establishments of education, there are many business and bosom, have excited the whole community. private ones. The public library of Rio de Janeiro is a very rich In parliament and by the press the most delicate political quesone, and contains more than 100,000 volumes; in the other im- tions have been discussed with success, and the progress of the goportant towns there are also good libraries, museums of zoology vernment and of legislation evinces a certain administrative foreand mineralogy, open to the public. rj and prudence rarely displayed by other new states. ay and The effective strength of the army and navy is every year fixed sight av The Brazilians who frequent the university of Coimbra in Pory. by the general legislative assembly, upon the data furnished by the tugal often distinguish themselves among their fellow-students; VOL. V. 2p I

298 brazil. Statistics, and notwithstanding the difficulties they have to contend against, little is known, are confined to the diamond district in Minas Geraes, o ; tat 'Si—not unfrequently rise to the highest offices of the state. ° are still conducted on the ill-judged system of a government y vB10 The most remarkable writers in the Portuguese language on po- and monopoly. The cascalhao, mentioned above, is dug up and removed litical economy and commercial law were Couttinho, bishop of Per- to a convenient place for washing. As much is raised during the ” ^“ nambuco, and Silva Lisboa, afterwards Viscount de Cayron, a sena- rainy months as is expected to give employment to the slaves for tor of the empire, both Brazilians. Among historians the Brazilian the other six. It is deposited in heaps of from five to fifteen tons. Rocha Pita is distinguished. Portugal is poor in dramatic literashed is erected in the form of a parallelogram twenty-five or ture, but one of her most distinguished comic poets was the Bra- A thirty yards long and about fifteen wide, composed of upright posts zilian Silva, who afterwards fell a victim to the inquisition oP supporting a thatched roof. A stream of water is conveyed down Lisbon. In epic poetry, on the other hand, Portuguese literature the middle of the area of this shed, covered with strong planks, on is rich. Brazil claims the authorship of two of its most beautiful which the cascalhao laid two or three feet thick. On one side of poems of this class, the Caramuru of Durao, and the Uruguay of the canal is a flooringis of from four to five yards long, imGama. The best of the minor poets is Gonzaga, whose collection of bedded in clay, extendingplanks the whole length of the shed, and having lyrics is well known under the title of Marilia de Dirceo. Little a slope from the canal of three or four inches to a yard. This floorinferior to him is Souza Caldas, whose translation of the Psalms de- ing is divided into twenty compartments each of about notes a talent of the first order. Claudio, Avarenga, Gregorio de three feet in width, by means of planks setoron troughs, The upper end Mattos, Euzebio de Mattos, G usmao, in former times; and in modern, of each trough communicates with the canal. edge. Three overseers take Odorico, Mendes, Borges de Barros, Domingos Magalhaes, Mar- their seats at equal distances on high chairs placed on the heaps of quis of Paranagoa, A. de Macedo, Porto-Alegre, Barbosa, and others cascalhao, on the side of the canal opposite to the troughs. As soon are well worthy of notice as lyric poets. they are seated a negro enters into each compartment, provided Religious eloquence was formerly much cultivated in Brazil, and as a short handled rake, with which he draws to him fifty or Vieira is one of the most original and eloquent preachers known. ewith igh^y lb. of cascalhao. He then lets in water upon this, and keeps In more recent times S. Carlos and Montalverne deserve particular stirring it with his rake until the earthy particles are washed off; notice. In the natural sciences Frei Leandro, Arruda, Camara, and which, throwing out the largest stones, he carefully examines Jose Bonifacio de Andrada, are known for their works and discoveries. upon rest for diamonds. As soon as he finds one he rises and holds In sacred music Jose Mauricio, a mulatto, left compositions of ittheout between his finger and thumb ; an overseer receives it from merit that were executed in the chapel of D. John VI. him, and deposits it in a bowl half full of water, suspended from the The Brazilians have a natural taste for music, and an Italian centre of the structure. At the close of the day’s labour, the diatheatre maintained with but little interruption in Rio de Janeiro obtained are taken from this deposit and delivered to the has assisted in improving and refining this taste. The old fashioned monds overseer, who weighs and registers them. On an average Brazilian instrument, which was a particular kind of guitar, has principal mines yield 20,000 carats annually. The establishment is buralmost disappeared from the large cities, but is still frequently em- the dened with a load of debt incurred to foreigners for advances of ployed in the provinces to accompany the modinhas (romances) money at the time that government first took it in hand. It is calwhich are peculiar to Brazil, and which have a particular style. that the diamonds cost government 33s. 9d. per carat. The The school of the fine arts of Rio de Janeiro has produced some culated give employment and support to a population of about good but no remarkable painters. Of late, however, the most pro- washings 6000. The trade in gems which have not been deemed of sufficient mising artists have been annually sent to Italy at the public expense importance to be claimed as regalia, centres in Minas Novas. The to prosecute their studies in that country. in precious stones have their residences for the most part in Ihere is in the Brazilian national character, with great mild- dealers Chapada. The greater part are sent in a state of nature to Bahia ness and generosity, a certain tendency to vindictiveness. Homi- and Rio Janeiro; some, however, are polished, rudely enough, in cides for the sake of vengeance alone are proportionally as nume- the neighbourhood. rous in Brazil as in certain countries of Europe ; while the crimes ^ The gold country extends over Minas Geraes, Goyaz, Matto against property are much fewer. The greatest number of homi- Grosso, and part of S. Paulo. In all these districts the winning of r ° |fl cides, however, takes place in the most backward provinces of the this metal is pursued in a manner exactly similar. It is found either mines’ centre and north. of rivers, or in veins, at times twenty feet under the The Roman Catholic religion predominates in Brazil, and although in the beds at times close under the roots of the grass. Like diamonds, there are enlightened men among the clergy, a great number of the itsurface, is found intermingled with cascalhao. This mass, with the auripriests are ill educated, and the institution of celibacy keeps the ferous particles, is removed from its site to a convenient place for members of the principal families from entering the profession. washing. -water of a sufficiently high level can be obtained, Such is the want of priests that the government finds itself obliged the ground Where is cut into slips twenty or thirty feet wide, two or three to send to Italy for them. Among educated classes the spirit of broad, and one Near the bottom is a trench two or three feet materialism of the French writers of the eighteenth century made deep. On thesedeep. steps the cascalhao is deposited, and on each stand great progress, but a considerable reaction has lately taken place. six eight negroes, keeping it in motion with shovels as the water The lower classes, above all in the interior, are still deplorablyJ flowsorgently upon it from above, until the whole is reduced to liquid superstitious. mud and washed down. In the trench the particles of gold, from The Brazilians are in general hospitable, generous, and charit- their quickly precipitate. Other negroes are busy clearing able, endowed with great pride and vanity, and susceptibility of away weight, the stones and removing the surface mud. After five days’ character, and are easily led away by flattery. The unlimited power washing the precipitate is carried to some convenient stream. Here thej exercise over the African slaves, and the colonial system from each negro provided with a bowl of a funnel shape, about two which they have but a short time been freed, the imperfect religious feet wide atisthe mouth, and five or six inches deep. Standing in education, the facility with which they can live in abundance at the stream, he takes about six lb. of the sediment into his bowl, small cost, while the climate enables them to dispense with many admits regulated portions and keeps moving the sediment things necessary in other countries, the enervating effects of the until the gold deposit itselfofatwater, the sides and bottom of the vessel. hot atmosphere, all combine to indicate the qualities and vices which He then rinses the bowl in a larger vessel of clean water, and bewe must expect in this people. gins again. This operation occupies about five minutes. When the Manufao Except a few rude manufactures for family use, this branch of particles of gold in the sediment are very minute, troughs similar tures. national industry is in Brazil confined to mining operations, the to those employed in diamond washing, but longer and narrower, smelting of metals, the polishing of precious stones, the manufac- are constructed. On bottoms are stretched'hides, tanned with ture of salt, ship-building, tanning and dressing hides, and the mak- the hair on, or pieces their of rough baize. The water containing the ing of oil. In the town of Rio, the number of gold and silver smiths sediment is conveyed down these, and the gold precipitating in the appears to a stranger astonishing. Like the other tradesmen they course is entangled in the rough surface. Every half hour the hides Lye m a street by themselves. Though they cannot yet compete are carried to a neighbouring tank, stretched over it, dipped, and with European artizans in the matter of taste and elegance, their beaten repeatedly. The gold is found at the bottom of these reserwares are far from being destitute of either. So great is the dearth o mechanics, that when, in 1844, some French workmen arrived, the voirs mingled with esmeril, from which it is separated by the aid of proyincia government “ induced three of them, a carpenter, a mercury. The whole business is carried on in a most cumbrous, ca ine ma cr, and a blacksmith, to establish themselves in the inartistic, and wasteful manner. The gold thus procured is brought country ; and this event was deemed so important as to be officially to the nearest mint, where the crown’s fifths are deducted, and the oticed in the President’s message to the next provincial assembly.” rest refined and melted. The deliverer may either have his gold in the form of an ingot, with the public stamp, or he may have a receipt 1{ bour i of every kind is very scarce and expensive. Ma- for it, which entitles him to receive the amount from any mint in 0 ever e . ryive oim, yan »cription thus kept inofits and Brazil. This business gives employment to the great bulk of the jrimi he generalisdevelopment thepresent interal rude resources population in Minas Geraes, in Matto Grosso, and in Goyaz. The total Diamond ot the country retarded. The diamond washings, with the exception of a few of which but amount of gold obtained from the Brazilian mines, from their discomines. very till 1803, according to the registers, amounted to L.155,000,000

BRA Brazil sterling. Of unregistered gold, it is estimated that the value was nearly L.40,000,000. From 1811 to 1825, the annual average of Brazil registered and contraband gold was 1971 lb., representing a value Wood. of L.127,144. The Congosoco mines, as wrought by the AngloBrazilian Mining Company, are very productive. In 1829, the value of gold from these mines was L.258,876 sterling. Its profits are not now so great as they were in that year, but are still considerable. ron-foun The iron of Brazil has hitherto been almost entirely neglected, [ries. although no country is richer in this invaluable metal. In 1817-20 there were, as far as we have been able to learn, only the following iron-works in the empire: 1. That of Ypanema, in the province of S. Paulo. The immense deposit of magnetic iron ore in this neighbourhood was long worked in an unsatisfactory manner. In 1810 a company of Swedish miners and founders settled there, and erected two small refining furnaces. In 1817 they produced yearly 4000 arrobas of iron, which was manufactured on the spot into horses’ shoes, nails, locks, and other articles. A larger establishment, with two smelting and several refining furnaces, and bellows moved by water, had been built at that time, but was waiting for workmen from Germany. Nothing more has been learned of its fate. 2. To the N.W. of Antonio Pereira, near the centre of Minas, Bschwege erected a small iron foundry in 1816, and intrusted the management of it to a German overseer. The daily produce was in 1818 two arrobas. It was worked up on the spot into hatchets, knives, billhooks, horse-shoes, and nails. 3. At Gaspar Soares, in the same province, a foundry on a large scale was erected in 1812 at the king’s expense. It consisted of one smelting and two refining furnaces. The first mentioned had never been used, and the other two were lying idle when visited by Spix and Martius. The ore is excellent, and a canal might be dug at comparatively little expense, to the navigable portion of the Rio Doce. There were several furnaces in the province belonging to private individuals, and a considerable quantity of iron was brought from Rio, but still the supply was deficient. Salt mines. The most important salt country in Brazil commences at the Rio de Salitre, a tributary of the Rio de S. Francisco, about six leagues from Joazeiro. At this place an artificial hollow extends along the river for the space of 60,000 square feet, and a fine, soft, ochrecoloured earth forms the bottom of the trough. The annual floods melt the saline particles contained in this mould; and when the river falls, a salt pool is left. The heat of the sun then evaporates the water, and the surface is left covered with hollow quadrangular pyramids of the salt. The soil is of a similar conformation along the bed of the S. Francisco for an extent of nearly two degrees of longitude, and everywhere nearly thirty leagues in breadth. Hollows, such as we have described, natural or artificial, are scattered over the whole extent. These are the salt mines of the country. The greater number belong to the wealthy landholders on the Rio de S. Francisco; but many, especially on the western side, are yet unappropriated, and may be worked by any one. At certain seasons this district is visited by immense multitudes, some coming from very great distances. The earth is dug up to the depth of an inch, and deposited in wooden troughs; then water is poured upon it, which absorbs the salt. The earth is allowed to subside, upon which the water impregnated with salt is drawn off into another trough, and left to crystallize in the heat of the sun. The salt is packed in four-cornered bags of cow-hide, each containing from 30 to 40 lb. A plate of salt is valued at from 20 to 40 reis; a sack at from 300 to 400. The annual produce of the salines exceeds 35,000 sacks. Salines nearly as productive are found at the sources of the Paraguay, in Matto Grosso; and considerable quantities of salt are manufactured on the shores of the northern provinces. Between the salt district and the hills saltpetre occurs in great quantities. Fifteen leagues above the Rio de Salitre, large caves are found in the limestone-rock, filled with black earth, which sometimes contains three-fourths of its weight in saltpetre. This is washed out, and the water heated to a certain degree, in order that it may deposit the culinary salt; the saltpetre is then left to crystallize. A similar process is followed at Formigas, near the source of the S. Francisco.

BRAZIL Nut, the fruit of the Juvia {Bertholletia excelsa), a tree that abounds on the shores of the Orinoco, and in the northern parts of Brazil. This majestic tree rises to the height of 120 feet or more. The nuts, which are of a triangular shape, are inclosed in a large pericarp, which is divided into several compartments. The kernel has a rich flavour, and contains much oil. See Bertholletia. Brazil Wood. See Dyeing.

BRA 299 Ship-building is diligently pursued at more than one station along Brazil the coast. The port of S. Francisco is the most southerly point at || which the construction of vessels is carried on to any extent. Ves- Brazing,J sels of large size, and a number of small craft for coasters, are built - - v — here. The demand for ship-carpenters is always brisk. To the , north of Bahia, on account of the reef, the ships built are generally ln . ^ U1 of a small tonnage. Laranjeiras, Itapicuru, and Villa do Conde, ^‘ build vessels capable of holding from 4000 to 8000 arrobas of lading. Pernambuco fits out a great number of small craft. The royal docks at Bahia are small, and few ships of war are built there j but such as are have the character of surpassing even the East Indian vessels in durability. Merchant ships are for the most part built at Tapagipe, about a league and a half to the north-east of the city. The whale-fishing stations are S. Catharina, Itaparica, and Bahia. WhaleIt is only pursued in small boats near the shore. The pans in which fishery, the blubber is boiled are small, and heated by common stoves. The receivers are extremely apt to collect dust and dirt of all kinds. Throughout Brazil, not above 100 fish, great and small, are taken in the course of a year. Each yields, on an average, from fourteen to eighteen pipas (150 gallons English each) of train oil; and the value of this oil, together with the whalebone, may amount to L.150. On the islands of the Solimoes (Upper Amazons), a considerable quantity of oil is yearly collected from the eggs of the turtle, which are dug up, broken in the boats, and left till the light oil separates and swims on the top. It is boiled and separated from the impurities, when it assumes the colour and consistence of lard. This product is deposited in earthen pots containing fifty or sixty pounds each. Of these more than 8000 are yearly prepared on the Amazons. The Madeira yields 1000. The drying and salting of fish is carried on to a considerable extent along the sea-coast, on the Amazons, and upon a large lake near the salines on the Rio de Francisco. A coarse kind of woollen cloth for home consumption is manufactured at S. Paulo. Hats are made at S. Joao d’el Rey. There is an establishment for the manufacture of arms in the town of S. Paulo; a powder-mill in the neighbourhood of Rio, and one of less importance in Minas. A coarse cotton cloth is woven in Goyaz. Maranhao, and Sergipe d’el Rey, used to clothe the slaves, or form bags for packing cotton. In S. Paulo, Goyaz, and Para, tanning is carried on to a small extent. The commerce of Brazil, despite the disadvantages against -which Commerce, it has had at various times to contend, has been on the whole uniformly progressive. These disadvantages consisted chiefly in the restrictions originally imposed on the young colony by the jealousy of the mother country, which refused to admit the Brazilian products, except at certain stated seasons of the year. The exportation of native productions to the old world was limited to the ports of Rio, Bahia, Olinda, and Paraiba. These restrictions continued in force long after analogous measures had been exploded in the commercial systems of other countries, and were not repealed till the beginning of the present century. In 1810, all the ports of Brazil were thrown open to British goods on the payment of duty at the rate of 15 per cent.; and though this rate has been greatly increased by the tariff of 1844, the average annual value of manufactured goods imported into Brazil from Great Britain alone, during the last ten years has been nearly L.2,500,000. The official value of imports to the United Kingdom in 1852, was L.2,053,160, and the declared value of British produce exported L.3,46 4,394. The rapidity with which the trade of Brazil is annually increasing may be inferred by a comparison of the shipping returns for 1846 and 1852. In the former year, there entered the various harbours of Brazil 931 vessels of all countries, with a tonnage of 218,819 ; cleared out 1034 vessels of 321,722 tons. In 1852, there entered and left the harbour of Rio Janeiro alone 7284 vessels (including coasters) of 1,576,974 tons ; and as this harbour monopolizes about one-half of traffic of the whole empire, the total number of ships engaged in the Brazilian trade may be estimated in round numbers at about 15,000 ships, of 3,000,000 tons. For further information concerning the present aspect of Brazilian commerce, see Rio Janeiro, St Salvador, Pernambuco, c & - &c. (w.w—r.) BRAZING, the soldering together of edges of iron, copper, brass, &c., with an alloy composed of brass and zinc, and sometimes with the addition of a little tin or silver. The surfaces being filed perfectly bright, and cleansed, the alloy in a nearly pulverulent form is to be wetted with borax made into a paste with water ; after which it is suffered to dry, and is then carefully exposed to bright ignition in a clear fire. {lire’s Diet, of Arts and Manufactures^)

300 Brazos de v

B E. E BRAZOS de Dios, one of the largest rivers in the state Dios of Texas, North America. It rises in numerous head t. N . streams among the mountains in the N.W. part of the state, Bread. pursujng a generally S.S.E. course of about 900 miles, empties itself into the Gulf of Mexico. BRAZZA, an island in the Adriatic, off the coast of Dalmatia, in the circle of, and 8 miles from, the town of Spalatro. Area 170 square miles. Pop. 16,000. The surface is rugged and mountainous, but is industriously cultivated, and its wine is accounted the best in Dalmatia. It produces also oil, figs, almonds, and saffron, but the corn crop scarcely supplies the wants of the inhabitants for three months. Its kids are celebrated; as are also its milk, cheese, and honey. BREACH, a break or rupture in a fence or embankment. Inundations of lands are frequently owing to breaches in dikes or sea-banks. Dagenham breach is well known : it occurred in 1707, by a failure of the Thames wall during a very high tide. The force with which the water burst in upon the neighbouring level tore a channel of a hundred yards wide, and in some places twenty feet deep, by which a multitude of trees that had been buried for ages were laid bare. Breach, in Fortification, is a gap made in any part of the works of a town or fortress by the cannon or mines of the besiegers, with a view to an assault upon the place. To render the attack more difficult, the besieged sow the breach with crow-feet, stop it up with chevaux de frise, or retrench it by cutting traverses within. The besiegers sometimes protect themselves with gabions, earth-bags, and the like ; but in our army the practice has always been for storming parties to advance to the breach without any such protection, and to trust for success to their own daring. BREAD, See Baking. Bread, Assize of, the ordinances which regulate the weight, measure, or price of bread. Bread, Sacramental, in the Protestant churches, is common leavened bread, in conformity to the ancient practice. In the Roman Catholic mass, azymous or unleavened bread is used, particularly in the Gallican church, where there is provided for this purpose what is called pain d chanter, made of the purest wheaten flour pressed between two iron plates graven like wafer-moulds, and rubbed with white wax to prevent the paste from sticking. The Greeks observe various ceremonies in making the eucharistic bread. In the Abyssinian churches there is a kind of sacristy allotted for this service. Sirmond, in his disquisition on azymous bread, shows, that there were as many ceremonies used in the ancient Latin church in the preparation of the unleavened bread as are still retained in the Eastern churches. Ecclesiastical writers enumerate other species of bread allotted for purposes of religion ; as, Kalendarius, that anciently offered to the priest at the kalends ; Prehendarius, the same with capitularis, that distributed daily to each prebendary or canon ; Benedictns, that usually given to catechumens before baptism, instead of the eucharist bread, which they were incapable of partaking of. The panis benedictus was called also panagium and eulogium, being a sort of bread blessed and consecrated by the priest, by which the catechumens were prepared for the reception of the body of Christ. The same was used afterwards, not only by catechumens, but by believers themselves, as a token of their mutual communion and friendship. Its origin is dated from the council of Nantes in the seventh century. In the Galiican church we still find panis benedictus, pain benit, used for that offered for benediction, and afterwards distributed to pious persons who attend divine service in chapels. Consecrated bread is a piece of wax, paste, or even earth, over which several ceremonies have been performed with benedictions and other rites, to be sent in an Agnus Dei or relic-book, and presented for veneration. The use of Unleavened bread alone during the Jewish passover is commanded by the Mosaic law. The usage was introduced

BEE in memory of the hasty departure of Israel from Egypt, Breadwhen they had not leisure to bake leavened bread. Show- v —fruit. bread was that offered to God every sabbath-day on the ' golden table in the holy of holies. Bread-ZAiwV. Among the more valuable products of the warmer climates is to be ranked the bread-fruit, or Artocarpus. The best varieties of this esculent are found in the Ladrone Islands, and in many of the groups of islands scattered throughout the Southern Pacific Ocean ; but are not confined exclusively to these regions. The natives of the South Sea Islands distinguish eight Different different varieties. European observers do not seem in species, general disposed to recognise these as essential distinctions, although they admit other species. The genus yielding this valuable fruit is Artocarpus; of which Sprengel admits five distinct species, integrifolia, Champeden, Philippensis, pubescens, and incisa. The bread-fruit is a large tree, growing to the height of forty feet or more. It has a thick stem, and luxuriant foliage. The trunk is upright, the wood soft, smooth, and yellowish ; and wherever the tree is wounded, a glutinous fluid exudes. The branches form an ample head, almost globular ; the leaves are eighteen inches long and eleven broad, resembling those of the oak or the fig-tree, from their deep sinuosities. The younger leaves, like all the more tender parts of the tree, are glutinous to the touch. The male flowers are among the upper leaves, and the female flowers at the ends of the twigs. The fruit is a very large berry, according to botanists, with a reticulated surface, resembling a cocoa-nut or melon in size and form, nine inches in length. It is filled with a white farinaceous fibrous pulp, which becomes juicy and yellow when the fruit is ripe ; and the edible portion lies between the skin, which is green, and a core in the centre, which is about an inch in diameter. During a considerable portion of the year the bread-fruit Use as food, affords the chief sustenance of the Society Islanders, and is prepared after different fashions. It is slightly sweet, and has been compared to a cake made of flour, egg, sugar, and butter. In general it is cut in several pieces, and roasted or baked in a hole made in the ground, which is paved round with large smooth stones; it then resembles a boiled potato, but is not quite so farinaceous. The stones are previously heated by a fire kindled in the excavation, and the breadfruit, wrapped in a banana leaf, is laid upon them, and covered with leaves and hot stones. When thus baked it is considered to equal or surpass any kind of bread. Sometimes water or cocoa-nut milk is added; sometimes it is boiled or formed into a paste. This last is accomplished by taking the fruit before it attains maturity, and laying it in heaps covered up with leaves, when it undergoes fermentation, and becomes disagreeably sweet. The core being then drawn out, the fruit or pulp is thrown into a paved excavation, and the whole covered up with leaves, whereon heavy stones are laid: it thus undergoes a second fermentation, and becomes sour, after which it will suffer no change for a long time. In the island of Nukahiwa, an agreeable beverage is obtained from it; and in the West Indies it is baked like biscuit. The fruit is in the greatest perfection about a week before beginning to ripen, which is easily recognised by the skin changing to a brownish cast, and by small granulations formed of the juice. In the West Indies it is soft and yellow when ripe, and is in taste and smell like a very ripe melon. Hogs, dogs, and poultry then feed on it readily. There is another species of the bread-fruit tree that has been long known in India and the eastern islands, the fruit of which contains from forty to a hundred farinaceous seeds, in appearance resembling chestnuts. These when roasted or boiled are found to be very palatable. I he external characters of the tree are scarcely to be distinguished from those of the other, and the chief distinction lies in the fruit, which attains nearly the size of the bread-fruit proper, and

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is covered with long prickles. It grows rapidly from the seed, and attains larger dimensions than the proper breadfruit tree. )ther uses. Besides its value as a fruit-tree, the bark of the breadfruit furnishes the material for a species of cloth ; the leaves are substituted for towels ; and the wood is employed in the construction of boats and houses. A kind of cement and bird-lime is also prepared by boiling the juice exuding from the bark in cocoa-nut oil. [ts cultiva- The bread-fruit tree is of easy cultivation in its native soil. It flourishes with the greatest luxuriance on rising tion. grounds ; and is particularly abundant in the steep declivities of the Sandwich Islands, though it is very generally found throughout the Great Pacific Ocean. It grows in Amboyna, the Banda Islands, Timor, and the Ladrones; but it is more especially the object of care and cultivation in the Marquesas, and the Friendly and Society Islands. Attempts The great utility of the bread-fruit as an article of food has, afr to trans- different times, led to speculations on the possibility of naturalizing plant it to it in places where it is not of spontaneous growth. M. de Poive, the West the philosophic governor of the Mauritius, succeeded in introducing Indies. it there, and in the Isle of Bourbon, whither it was conveyed by M. de Sonnerat, from Lufjon, in the Philippine Islands. Being found in the greatest luxuriance under the same latitudes as the British West India Islands, and in a elimate not dissimilar, the British government decided on the importance of transplanting it to these colonies. An expedition was therefore fitted out with particular care, under the command of Captain (then Lieutenant) Bligh, who sailed in the Bounty store-ship for the South Seas in December 1787. The Bounty arrived in safety at Otaheite, and took on board 1015 breadfruit plants, besides a great variety of different species of other plants; and after remaining twenty-three weeks, set sail on the 4th of April 1789. This expedition, as is well known, was rendered totally abortive by the mutiny which ensued three weeks subsequently to its departure. On his arrival in England, Bligh was appointed to the command of two vessels specially fitted out as before for the same purpose. They sailed in August 1791, and anchored at Otaheite in February 1792. Here they remained above three months, and obtained even a greater store of plants than formerly. Bligh, in returning, made a dangerous voyage through Endeavour Straits, and anchored at Coupang in the island of Timor, where he substituted many other plants for those that had died. He then sailed for the West Indies, touching at St Helena, and reached the island of St Vincents in January 1793, where he committed 544 plants, of which 333 were bread-fruit, to the care of Dr Anderson, superintendent, of the Botanic Garden, and substituted for them 467 of different species, designed for the Royal Garden at Kew. He next landed 623 plants, of which 347 were bread-fruit, at Port Royal in Jamaica, and replaced them with a further collection for the king, with which he arrived in England on the 2d of August 1793. Five years and eight months had thus been occupied in accomplishing the desirable purpose of these two expeditions. The gold medal offered in 1777 by the Society for the Encouragement of Arts and Manufactures, to any one who should bring the bread-fruit plant from the South Sea Islands in a state of vegetation to the West Indies, was awarded, in 1793, to Captain Bligh. That society, with the laudable design of promoting its culture, continued to offer further premiums for the greatest number of plants raised in the British settlements. A silver medal was awarded to Dr Anderson, superintendent of the Botanic Garden at St Vincents in 1798 ; and, in 1802, the gold medal to the Honourable Joseph Robley, governor of Tobago. From the course adopted by these two cultivators, the history of the bread-fruit has received much elucidation. Mr Robley received from Dr Anderson in June 1793, three plants Result of these which he planted in very deep rich soil. They flourished exceedproduced fruit in 1795, and continued to do so until autumn attempts. ingly, 1801. Being disappointed of obtaining suckers, Mr Robley applied to Dr Anderson, who advised him to lay bare some of the uppermost roots, and to wound them very deeply; and w'hen this was done they almost immediately began to put forth shoots in abundance. Mr Robley thus obtained 120 fine plants, which were deposited in baskets with rich loose soil, and placed in the shade in the vicinity of water. Baskets were preferred to pots, because when deposited in the place where the plants were ultimately to remain, the baskets would speedily rot, and not repress the growth of the roots. Encouraged by the success of these experiments, Mr Robley prepared a point of land of loose sandy soil, bounded by a salt lagoon and the sea. When the tide filled, brackish water was to be Breadfruit.

B R E 301 found everywhere at the depth of two feet and a half from the sur- Breakers face. It had been observed in some of the South Sea Islands, that || bread-fruit trees grew in full vigour though brackish water bathed Breaktheir roots. The land being ploughed and harrowed twice, was water, divided into beds twenty-seven feet in breadth, and the plants were V ^ put into the earth in the middle of each. In August 1801, Mr Robley had 153 plants in a flourishing condition ; and, in the course of the subsequent year, 319, some of them productive. He transmitted to England specimens of the fruit preserved in vinegar, as it will not keep above two days after being taken from the tree. Other correspondents sent excellent specimens of cakes made from bread-fruit flour; and communicated the fact that a dry nutritious food, resembling tapioca in appearance and quality, might be prepared from it. The vegetation of this plant is very rapid. Ten of those committed to the care of Dr Anderson in 1793 were about two feet iaheight and half an inch in diameter; while in 1798, most of the trees were above thirty feet in height, and the stem two feet above the ground was from three feet to three and a half in circumference. They bore fruit during the greater part of the year, but were less productive between November and March. A single tree would often bear clusters of five and six, so as to bend the lower branches to the ground. According to the variety, the fruit was of various shapes and sizes, weighing from four to ten pounds, some smooth, others rough and tuberculated. When taken from the tree before maturity, the juice appeared of the consistence and colour of milk, and in taste somewhat similar. It issued for above ten minutes in an uninterrupted stream, and thickened into a glutinous substance. Three months were required to bring the fruit to perfection. A species of fruit bearing considerable analogy to those above described is found on the Nicobar Islands, and is not less useful to the natives. The tree vegetates promiscuously with others in the woods, but prefers a humid soil. Its trunk is straight, thirty or thirty-five feet in height, and from ten inches to two feet in circumference. The roots spring from it above the surface, and do not penetrate deep into the earth. The leaves are disposed like the large calyx of a flower; they are three feet long and four inches broad, of a dark green hue and tenacious substance. A long time elapses before the tree produces fruit, not less than about the period, of human life. It then forms at the bottom of the leaves, from which it proceeds as it is enlarged, and, when nearly ripe, its colour changes from green to yellowish. This is the proper period for gathering it, when its weight is between thirty and forty pounds. The exterior surface is cut off, and the fruit is boiled in earthen pots during several hours, over a slow fire ; it is then exposed to the air, and is next formed into a mass which, in taste, is not unlike maize. (Jt Gf D") BREAKER'S, a name given to those billows that break violently over rocks lying below the surface of the sea. BREAKWATER is any obstruction of wood, stone, or other material, as a boom or raft of wood, sunken vessels, &c., placed before the entrance of a port or harbour, or any projection from the land into the sea, as a pier, mole, or jetty, so placed as to break the force of the waves, and prevent tlieir action on ships and vessels lying, at anchor within them. Thus the piers of the ancient Piraeus and of Rhodes; the moles of Naples, Genoa, and Castellamare; the piers of Ramsgate, Margate, Folkstone, Howth, and the wooden dike de Richelieu, thrown across the port of Rochelle, may all be denominated Breakwaters. In French it is sometimes called Battre d’Eau,; a name which appears to have been applied to the mole at Tangier, a work commenced in 1663, under the direction of Lord Tiviot, Sir J. Lawson, and Sir Hugh Cholmley, and finished, or rather discontinued in 1676, after having cost this nation the sum of L.243,897, 5s. 4|d. The term Breakwater, however, has of late years been considered as more peculiarly appropriate to large insulated dikes of stone, whether of regular masonry or sunk promiscuously in rough masses, so placed as to form an artificial island across the mouth of an open roadstead, and thereby, from obstructing and breaking the waves of the sea, to convert a dangerous anchorage into a safe and commodious harbour for the reception of ships of war or merchantmen. Of this description of dike for creating an artificial harbour on a grand scale, fit for the reception of ships of war of the largest class, there are remarkable examples in the breakwater of Cherbourg, of Plymouth, Portland, &c.

302 BREAK BreakBreakwater of Cherbourg. In M. de Cessart’s water. Description des Travaux Hydrauliques, will be found a very minute and laborious detail of all the preparatory water"f Cher- ° hourg.

0 era ons P ti > t e

the progress, and the expense of constructing ^ breakwater of Cherbourg, up to the period of the Revolution. But the history of this great undertaking is summarily stated in a report made to the National Assembly in 1791, by M. de Curt, in the name of its Committee of Marine, concerning the marine establishment of Cherbourg. Us history. It had always been a source of considerable annoyance to the French (and more particularly since the demolition of the works and basin of Dunkirk, which cost them more regret than the useless and expensive projects for that port ever could be worth), that while the whole line of their coast bordering on the English channel presented only sandy shores with shallow water, or an iron-bound coast bristled with rocks, nature had lavished on their “ eternal rival” of the opposite coast, the incalculable advantages of a succession of deep and commodious harbours, or of safe and extensive roadsteads, inviting their possessors to commerce and navigation, and placing in their grasp “ the sceptre and the sovereignty of the seas.” M. Curt observes, that “ the misfortunes of La Hogue, which all the talents of Tourville could not prevent, taught Louis XIV. that, in completing the defence of his frontiers by land, he had too much neglected his frontiers on the sea; that this great prince, however, profiting by experience, soon discovered that England owed the superiority of her marine to the military establishments which she possessed in the Channel.” With a view of securing to France similar advantages, the Marechal de Vauban was directed to visit the coasts of Normandy, for the purpose of adopting measures for placing in security against hostile attacks all such bays, harbours, and inlets, as were favourable for the disembarkation of troops; and to furnish plans of such works as he might judge to be necessary, not only for military, but for naval purposes. Among other projects, he reported that the roadstead of Cherbourg possessed the means of attack, of defence, and of protection ; that it was very capable of exerting an influence on maritime war, and in their commercial relations with the northern powers ; that it was the spot on which the head-quarters should be established on the coast of the Channel; and, in short, that it was a central advanced post with regard to England. He moreover reported, that it might be made a port for the safe retreat of a squadron crippled by stormy weather, or beaten by an enemy, or even for the reception of a victorious fleet with its prizes. By thus converting the present exposed roadstead of Cherbourg into a safe and protected anchorage for a fleet of men of war, France, he said, would be able to watch the motions of England, to oblige her at all times to keep a corresponding fleet in the Channel, and to menace her shores with invasion, of which she at all times stood so much in dread. Opinions, however, being divided between the advantages of La Hogue and Cherbourg, Louis XVI., immediately after the conclusion of the American war, issued his directions to M. de Castries, secretary of state for the marine, to appoint a special commission to consider and report which of these two roadsteads combined the most advantages, and was in all respects preferable for constructing a port and naval arsenal capable of receiving and equipping from eighty to one hundred vessels of war of different descriptions. The commissioners had little hesitation in deciding upon Cherbourg, because, by means of a breakwater, it would be capable not only of admitting a fleet to ride securely at anchor when thus sheltered from the sea, but also of affording them protection against any

WATER. attempt of an enemy. It was added, that Cherbourg was Breakan admirable place for watching Portsmouth; without ap- water, pearing to have once recollected what an excellent anchorage Spithead was for watching Cherbourg. Directions were accordingly given to M. de Caux, commanding officer of engineers at Cherbourg, to commence, as a preparatory measure, with the construction of a fort on the island of Pelee, and another on Du Hornet, according to plans given in by Vauban in 1679. By these works the roadstead would be flanked on the right and left. The interval, however, being found too great to afford sufficient protection to all the ships that might require to be anchored in the roadstead, M. de Caux presented a plan to the minister at war for constructing an intermediate fort in the sea, which should be casemated, and sufficiently large to contain all the buildings necessary for a garrison. . I he surrounding walls were proposed to be sunk in caissons of6000 feet square at the base, and fiftytwo feet in height. The top of the platform was to be e *ghty feet above the bottom of the sea, and the area of its surface 1000 square toises. This plan, however, was not considered as calculated to afford sufficient shelter to a fleet from the winds and waves, and new projects were called for by the government. In 1777 M. de la Bretonniere, capitaine de vaisseau, one of the commissioners who had been named to report on the comparative merits of the two roadsteads of Cherbourg and La Hogue, had addressed a memorial to the minister of marine, in which he expatiated at great length on the numerous advantages held out by the former, and particularly with regard to the security of the anchorage. He proposed to construct, at the distance of a league in the sea, a stone dike of 2000 toises in length, leaving three open passages into the roadstead it was intending to cover, one in the middle, and one at each extremity. This dike, like that which was sunk before Rochelle, was proposed to have as its nucleus a number of ships filled with masonry, floated off and sunk in proper situations, and afterwards to be cased with large sunken stones to the height of fifty feet above the bottom of the sea. The reason "assigned for sinking the stone vessels was the supposition, that an under current might cause so much motion at the bottom of the sea as would derange the level, and work away the loose stones; so little appears at that time to have been known of the increasing tranquillity of the waves of the sea in proportion to the increasing depth of water. On this plan the commissioners observed, 1. That in order to construct a dike of 2000 toises in length, with sloping sides proportioned to its height, there would be required so great a number of old ships as could hardly be collected in all France in less than ten years; and if purchased from foreigners, the expense would be enormous. 2. I hat the assemblingand employing the necessary number of seamen would be next to impossible, but, if possible, highly impolitic, when, just at the close of a maritime war, commerce felt a pressing want of their services ; whereas it might be practicable, and would be advantageous, to employ the military for some time before disbanding them. 3. I hat no comparison would hold good between the roadstead of Cherbourg, with an opening to the sea of 3600 toises, and a depth of forty to forty-two feet of water at the lowest ebb, and the closing up of the entrance of the port of Rochelle, which is only 740 toises in length, and the depth of water only five or six toises. 4. That the upper part of the projected dike, being exposed to the violent action of the sea, the stability of that part could not be depended on ; and besides, a dike covered at high springtides with eighteen feet water would not fulfil the two indispensable conditions,—smooth water, and protection against an enemy. These arguments were deemed con-

BREAK Break, cluske, and the plan of M. de la Bretonniere was abanwater. doned. In 1781 M. de Cessart, inspector-general of bridges and embankments, received directions to prepare a plan that should cover a fleet of from 80 to 100 ships of war in the roadstead of Cherbourg from the attack of an enemy, and protect them against the elements. M. de Cessart was fully aware, that to raise a barrier in front of this roadstead, and in the middle of the sea, capable of resisting the impetuosity of the waves, and repelling the enterprises of the enemy, was no easy task. “ Nothing,” says he, “ that I had ever performed, or that I had ever read of in ancient or modern history, appeared to me to be worthy of being placed in comparison with the grandeur of this project.” He suggested, as the preferable and only mode of answering the purpose of producing smooth water in the roadstead, that, instead of one continued dike or mole, a number of large masses, separated from each other, of a circular form, with an elevation greatly inclined, should be substituted; in short, a series of truncated cones, which, touching each other at their bases, might present to the sea at the surface alternate obstacles and openings, and thus interrupt and break down the waves previous to their entering the harbour. He also considered that, as these openings at the surface would not exceed seventytwo feet, a sufficient barrier would be formed against the passage of an enemy’s vessel; and that, if necessary, in time of war it might be rendered still more secure by placing strong chains of iron across the intervals. It was proposed to construct these conical caissons of wood, the number of which, to cover a front of 2000 toises, would amount to ninety, which, at 360,000 livres for each cone, would cause a total expense of 32,400,000 for the whole. The number, however, was afterwards reduced to sixtyfour, and the time estimated for completing the work thirteen j^ears. Each cone was to be 150 feet in diameter at the base, and sixty feet in diameter at the top, and from sixty to seventy feet in height, the depth of water at spring tides in the line in which they were intended to be sunk varying from about fifty-six to seventy feet. They wei'e proposed to be sunk without any bottoms in them, by which the upward resistance of the water, acting on a base whose surface was equal to 17,678 square feet, would be avoided. The caissons, floated off by casks attached to their inner and outer circumference, being towed to the spot where they were destined to be sunk, were then to be filled with stones to the tops, and left for a while to settle; after which the upper part, commencing with the line of low water, was to be built with masonry laid in pozzolana, and encased with stones of granite. This plan of a stone dike or breakwater being laid in detail before the minister of marine, it was deemed proper, on a subject so entirely novel, and of such great national importance, to consult the ablest men in France before any steps should be taken for carrying it into execution. The details were accordingly submitted to the four commissioners, M. de Borda, a naval officer and member of the Academy of Sciences; M. de Fleurieu, capitaine de vaisseau, and director of ports and naval arsenals, afterwards minister of marine ; M. Peronnet, member of the Academy of Sciences, chief engineer of bridges and embankments ; and M. de Chezy, inspector and director of the school of engineers. They recommended that, in the first instance, an experimental cone should be constructed and floated off. Instead, however, of sixty feet in height, the cone made at Havre was only thirty-six feet; the circumference of its base 472 feet, and having a slope of sixty degrees; the upper circumference was 339 feet. Within the exterior cone, at the distance of five feet ten inches from it, was an interior and concentric cone, bound

WATER. 303 together by beams of wood pointing to the common cen- Breaktre, each being the section of the radius. The frame of water, each cone was composed of eighty large upright beams, twenty-four feet long and one foot square. On these were erected eighty more, of fourteen feet in length, making in the whole 320 of these large uprights; the machine was then planked, hooped, and firmly fixed together with iron bolts. The cone at Havre being completed, the next operation was to tow it off to the particular spot where it was to be sunk. Being open at the bottom, it was found necessary to attach to the lower circumference 284 large casks, part to the exterior and part to the interior cone; besides fifty casks, attached by lines of equal lengths, from the bottom of the inner circle, to float towards the centre, and thus assist in keeping it upright and steady. It was easy enough, by these means, to float off a vessel of this kind. M. de Cessart observes, that the force of 7200 pounds produced by a capstan, was found sufficient to draw it on the water to a distance equal to the length of its own diameter, or about twenty-five toises, in two minutes. “ The success of the experiment made at Havre,” says M. Curt, “ had inspired such veneration for the conical caissons, that those persons who had been most disposed to object to the plan were now obliged to be silent.” The result of the experiment at once decided the government to commence operations at Cherbourg. M. de Cessart was appointed director of the works, with four engineers to assist him. A permanent council, consisting of commanders in chief, directors, engineers, &c. was ordered to reside for six summer months at Cherbourg, and the other six in Paris ; and a considerable body of troops were marched down to the neighbourhood, to furnish a competent number of artificers and labourers, to be employed on this great national undertaking. In 1783 the buildings were commenced for lodging the principal officers of the civil and military departments, and their respective establishments; a naval yard was marked out and inclosed; roads of communication were opened with the forts ; and at Becquet, about a league to the eastward of Cherbourg, a small harbour was dug out for the reception of about eighty vessels, which were to be employed in transporting the stones from thence by sea. On the 6th June 1784 the first cone was floated off and sunk, and the second on the 7th July following, in presence of 10,000 spectators, assembled on the shores and quays of Cherbourg; but before the cavity of the latter could be filled with stones, a storm, in the month of August, which continued five days, entirely demolished the upper part of this cone. In the course of this summer the quantity of stones sunk within the cavities of the two cones, outside their bases, and in the intermediate space, amounted to 4600 cubic toises, or about 65,000 tons. In 1785 three more cones were completed and sunk at irregular intervals; and, at the end of that year, the quantity sunk amounted to 17,767 cubic toises, or about 250,000 tons. In 1786 five additional cones were completed and sunk, one of them in presence of the king; and the quantity of stones thrown within them, and deposited on the dike connecting the cones, amounted, at the end of this year, to 42,862 cubic toises, or 600,000 tons. In 1787 five more cones were sunk and filled with stones, making, in the whole, fifteen ; and the distance between the first and fifteenth cone was 1203 toises, and the quantity of stones deposited within these cones and the connecting dike, at the end of this year, amounted to 71,585 cubic toises, or more than 1,000,000 tons. The violent gales of wind that are frequent in November and December carried away all the upper parts of the five

304 BREAKWATER. Break- cones which were sunk this year. In 1788 three more The failure of the cones, and the breaking out of the Breakwater. were sunk, but the upper parts of the first two were car- Revolution, put an entire stop, for some time, to all opera- water, ried away as the others had been ; the height of the third tions at Cherbourg. The attention, however, of the nawas, therefore, reduced, so as to be, when sunk, on a level tional assembly wtis speedily called to what they consiwith low water; but this cone was upset and soon went to dered to be an obiect of great national importance. In pieces. 179 L they directed their committee for the marine to The enormous expense, and the delay that had been make out a detailed report of the operations that had aloccasioned, in completing and sinking these eighteen cones, ready been carried on. On this report being given in by exhausted the patience of the government, so that in the M. de Curt, in the name of the committee, it was read following year, 1789, it caused the three cones, then on the and approved by the assembly, and funds to a certain exbuilding slips, to be sold for whatever they would fetch. tent decreed, to complete the undertaking on a new plan, The total quantity of stone that was sunk within the proposed by M. de Cessart. The principal feature of this cones, and on the intermediate dike, from the year 1784 plan was that of casing over the surface of the dike as it to the end of December 1790, being seven years, amount- then stood with large blocks of stone, and of carrying the ed to 373,359 cubic toises, or about 5,300,000 tons. height of the breakwater along the whole of its extent, so These eighteen cones being sunk at irregular distances far above the high-water mark of spring tides as to renfrom each other, some being 25 toises, and others 300 der it capable of receiving batteries on the summit, at the toises from centre to centre, occupied aline of 1950 toises middle, and at the two extremities. in length. The distance of the first cone from the island The slope of the side next to the roadstead was found Pelee, on the east, was 510, and of the eighteenth, to Fort on examination to snstain itself unaltered at an angle of Querqueville, on the west, 1200 toises ; so that the whole forty-five degrees, but the slope on the side next to the entrance or opening of the roadstead of Cherbourg was sea, whose base was three for one of height, had given originally 3660 toises, more than one-half of which was way to the depth of fourteen feet below the low-water now imperfectly covered by the breakwater. mark ; and the materials being composed of small stones, The expense of this great undertaking was not, we were washed away, and had formed themselves into a promspect, accurately known, and could not, probably, be longed slope of one foot only in height for ten feet of base, ascertained. M. de Cessart estimates the eighteen cones which was therefore concluded to be the natural slope ■done at 6,231,407 livres, or about L.260,000; and the made by the sea when acting upon a shingly shore; a iotal expense incurred between the 1st of April 1783 and conclusion, however, too vague to be correct, as the slope the 1st January 1791, he states as under : occasioned by the action of the sea must depend on the Livres. nature of the materials against which it acts, and the The value of the materials of the cones..2,462,369 9 6 force and direction of the acting power. A sandy beach, The value of the workmanship 1,560,560 9 9 for instance, has invariably the most gradual slope, gravel The conveyance and sinking of stones ..14,880,074 2 5 the next, shingles the next, and large masses of rock or Incidental expenses for buildings, mastone the most precipitous. At the present time the gazines, &c 2,359,489 5 0 stones of the breakwater, by constant friction, have worn Contingent expenses * 395,926 13 4 away the sharp angles, and it has been found that the base on the side next to the sea is on the average fully eleven Making the general total...... 21,658,420 0 0 for one of perpendicular height. or L.90O,OOO sterling. In this estimate the extra pay to It was proposed, therefore, to cover the side with a the troops and seamen employed would not appear to be coating of stone twelve feet thick, to consist of blocks of included; for M. de Curt, in his report to the national twelve, fifteen, twenty, and thirty cubic feet, or from one assembly, states the total expense to have amounted to to two tons each, which casing was to be carried to the 32,000,000 livres, or L.1,300,000 sterling ; and that a far- height of twelve feet above the high-water mark of the ther sum would be required of 879,648 livres, to bring the highest spring-tides; the size of the stones to increase totop of the dike to an uniform height, namely, a little above wards the summit, so as to be capable of resisting the the level of the surface at low water of ordinary tides. percussion of the waves, which is there the strongest. It The number of people employed was prodigious. To was calculated that this covering of twelve feet thick on enable M. de Cessart to complete and sink five cones both sides would require for each toise in length seventy a year, he found it necessary to employ 250 carpenters, cubic toises of stone, and that the whole length of the dike 30 blacksmiths, 200 stone-hewers, and 200 masons ; in would consequently require 136,500 cubic toises, which, by all 680 artificers. The number of quarrymen and others deducting for the vacant spaces between the stones, would employed in transporting 174,720 cubic toises of stone for be reduced to 113,750 cubic toises of stone, or about one the 64 cones originally intended, or 13,650 yearly, was million and a half of tons. It wras further calculated, that estimated at 400 workmen, 100 horses, 30 drivers, 24 the expense of quarrying, the transport to the quays, the chasses-marees, each carrying seven cubic toises, or about loading, conveyance, and discharging machinery, together 98 tons, with 100 seamen ; making an aggregate for this with the commissioners, clerks, &c. would cost for each service of 526 men, and for the whole operation from 1200 cubic toise deposited on the dike the sum of fifty-five livres, to 1500 artificers and labourers, to which were actually su- which for 113,750 cubic toises would amount to 6,256,250 peradded about 3000 soldiers. livres, and, adding for contingencies 600,000 livres, the A very considerable part of the expense might have total estimate amounted to 6,856,250 livres. been saved by dispensing altogether with the cones, all of The machinery employed for thus casing the breakwhich burst, as might have been expected, from the su- water may be seen in Plate CXXXIX., in which fig. 4 perincumbent weight of a deep column of water pressing represents a section of a lighter on which it is erected. the stones within against their sides. The ninth cone, AZX is an elevated deck or platform. which was sunk in 1786, went to pieces in 1800, after Y, three rollers of six inches diameter. standing fourteen years; another reached the duration of TK, two beams or sheers, moving on trunnions in five years ; six remained on an average about four years ; grooves at T. and all the rest went in pieces within a year from the S, hooks to hold the sheers at the proper angle of intime of their being sunk. clination.

BREAKWATER. BreakL, the axle of the windlass or wheels B, round which dent; but it had no dock-yard, nor means of giving to a water. the rope of the pulleys passes. The wheels are 12 feet in ship a large refit or repair. He might have thought too, ^ diameter. as we believe most of our naval officers do, that a fleet of Fig. 5, a chasse-maree laden with blocks of stone. ships riding at anchor behind the breakwater are easily E, the block and its hook laying hold of an iron chain attackable by fire-ships, as the same wind which carries a round a stone. vessel in at one entrance will carry her out at the other, F, the stone hoisted to the platform AZ (fig. 4), when and the course would lie directly through the centre of the brace is unhooked at S; the hoisting continued until the fleet at anchor. Besides, it might be possible, in certhe summit K of the sheers is brought to V, when they tain winds, under the lee of the centre part of the breakrest against the frame which supports the windlass; the water, to bombard a fleet at anchor in the roadstead withstone F is then lowered upon the rollers as at M, from in it. whence it is pushed forward by men to the inclined plane, He determined, therefore, to establish a large dockoff which it is rolled into the “water upon the side of the yard at Cherbourg, not merely for repairing, but also for dike. the construction of the largest class of ships of war; to It was calculated that, by employing a certain number dig a basin that should contain fifty or sixty sail of the of these machines, 34,090 toises might be deposited in line; to construct dry-docks and slips for building and reone year, reckoning only six working months, or 5682 pairing ; and to make it a naval port of the first rank. In toises per month, or that 487 superficial toises of the 1813 this basin was completed at an expense, as Bonadike might be covered in one season, and the whole com- parte is said to have asserted when on board the Norpleted in four years. Very little progress, however, had thumberland, and which has since been confirmed, of been made at the commencement of the war in 1803. At L.3,000,000 sterling. A wet-dock of the same magnitude that period the centre of the dike only had been brought communicating with it was then begun. above the high-water mark, in which was placed a battery The only description that we have been able to find in and a small garrison of soldiers, the whole of which were print of this great work, which took ten years in carrying swept away by a heavy sea, occasioned by a tremendous into execution, is contained in a short letter from M. gale of wind in the year 1809, when all the buildings Fierre-Aime Lair, secretary to the Society of Agriculture which had been erected on this part of the breakwater, and Commerce of Caen, who was present at the ceremony the men, women, and children which composed the gar- of opening and consecrating the great basin, in presence rison, together with several workmen, were washed away; of the Empress Maria Louisa, on the 27th August 1813. at the same time two sloops of war in the roadstead were He describes this basin as excavated out of a rock of gradriven on shore and dashed in pieces. This disaster was nite schist, or gneiss, the density and hardness of which such as might have been expected. The effect of sinking increased as the workmen descended from the surface. large stones upon the small ones, already rounded by con- He compares it to an immense trough dug out of a single stant attrition, could not be otherwise; the latter acting stone, and capable of containing many millions of cubic as so many rollers, carried out the former even beyond feet of water. We now know, however, that M. Lair is the extremity of the base, to which the breakwater had mistaken; that it is not one mass of rock, but rock and naturally been brought by the action of the sea. gravel mixed; that the whole of the sides are cased with At present small spots only are visible above the sur- a well-constructed wall of red granite, and that a noble face of the sea at low water of spring-tides, and nowhere quay, built of the same material, and extending between such spots exceed three feet in height; the intermediate the two forts of Galet and Hornet, separates the basin and spaces are from three to fifteen feet below the surface; wet-dock from the sea. and, taking the average, the whole dike from one end to The dimensions of the new basin he states to be about the other may be about four feet below the surface of low 900 feet in length by 720 in width, and the average depth water at the spring-tides. Near the middle, however, there fifty-five feet from the edge of the quay; and as this edge is about 100 yards where the height rises to eighteen or is five feet above the high water mark of the equinoctial twenty feet above high water, but it exhibits only a shape- spring-tides, the depth of water in the basin is then fifty less mass of ruins. In one spot a large heap of stones has feet, and the mass of water, after making allowance for a been accumulated, as if to try how much weight might slope of the solid sides inward in an angle of forty-five desafely be trusted upon it, before the attempt be made to grees bom the height of about twenty-five feet, amounts rebuild the fort. The largest of the stones in this mass to about thirty millions of cubic feet; and that it is calcumay be about four tons, and they descend to the size of lated to contain about thirty sail of the line. We have 200 or 300 pounds. reason to think that it is considerably larger, about 1000 Of the remainder of the dike very few parts are visible feet by 770 feet, and consequently contains a surface of at low water ; and at this moment the greater part is four about eighteen acres, which, at three per acre, will confeet below the surface of low water. It is sufficiently high, tain fifty-four sail of the line, and the adjoining wet-dock, however, to break the force of the wares, and to make the when finished, an equal number. The dike or breakwater port of Cherbourg a safe anchorage in some winds for seems to be abandoned, the works having long been stopped, about forty sail of the line. and the stone vessels going rapidly to decay. The French On the renewal of the war after the rupture of the officers say indeed that it has occasioned the roadstead to treaty of Amiens, Bonaparte began to bestow a greater become shallower, by the deposition of sand that has taken share of attention on the navy of France; and though for place. a time the unparalleled victory of Trafalgar checked his The entrance canal leading from the outer harbour into efforts, it did not induce him to abandon them. His plans the basin is at right angles to the latter, and its direction were vast, and at the period of his fall were in rapid pro- east-north-east. Its dimensions are as under: gress towards their completion. He had determined on a fleet of 200 sail of the line, and the noble port of Ant- Width between the two moles in the direction 0f werp gave him every facility for ship-building. For the their axis jgg g better security in forming a junction of his two great Width at its opening into the basin 308 8 fleets of Brest and Antwerp, Cherbourg now became more Length from the axis of the moles or piers to the valuable as a convenient port of retreat in case of acciline of wall forming the side of the basin 274 0 vol. v. - Q

305

BREAKWATEK. 306 BreakThe basin, having no gates, is said to have been excavat- bourg is entirely surrounded by detached forts, redoubts, Break_ , water. water. ed to the depth of nine feet below the bottom of the canal; &c. The principal channel from the road to the sea is at the the former having, as before mentioned, fifty feet water, and the latter only forty-one at high spring-tides, which, western end of the breakwater, which, for large ships, is not as they ebb twenty feet, would leave only twenty-one feet more than half a mile in width ; and this want of space will alin the passage or canal at low water. This inequality, we ways make it difficult for ships of the line to workout : but, on presume, is intended to keep the ships afloat in the basin the other hand, a fleet may push out to the westward in southat low water, when the depth in the canal is not sufficient erly winds, which lock up the English ports in the Channel. The eastern channel is a very indifferent one, and, from for that purpose; but after so much expense incurred in digging the basin, one would suppose a little more might the position of the isle of Pelee and the main, it is likely to have been expended in digging the canal to the same become worse, from the accumulation of sand, which the depth, so as to let ships pass into and out of the basin in French officers say is actually the case. Such, then, were the mighty preparations of the extraorall states of the tide; an advantage of the utmost importdinary man who ruled France, for the destruction of the ance for speedily securing the ships in the basin, when in danger of an attack from the enemy in the roadstead, naval power of Great Britain, and with it of our national or for speedily putting to sea and escaping the vigilance glory, pride, and prosperity, which, whether elated with sucof a blockading squadron. No reason is assigned for cess or depressed by reverses, he never ceased to devise leaving the basin without gates; but we suspect that M. schemes for humbling. To give the greater eclat to this grand undertaking, he Lair is again mistaken, and that the passage has depth of water sufficient for ships of the largest class to run into sent the Empress Maria Louisa to be present at the openthe basin at all times of the tide. But even here they do ing of the basin. When the time arrived for the water to not lie in safety; for the wide entrance facing the north- be let in, and the dam broken down, her approach was aneast is covered only in that direction by the isle of Pelee, nounced by flourishes of warlike music and numerous disso that the water in the basin partakes of the swell in the charges of artillery. “ Cries of joy,” says M. Lair, “ were road, which is sometimes so great as to make it necessary mingled for a long time with the thunder of the batteries. to apply ten or twelve cables to hold ships steady in the Her"Majesty took her place in the pavilion which had been prepared for her, when the Bishop of Contances, sui rounded basin. Another serious inconvenience likely to arise from this by his clergy, advancing towards her, pronounced an address particular construction of the basin is, that whatever silt suitable to the occasion. After the ceremonies and customor mud is carried in by the tides must be deposited there, ary prayers, he turned round towards the basin, and blessed and cannot possibly escape. The quantity is probably this work of man. It is delightful to see a nation consenot very great in the water of the Channel opposite to crating by religious rites an event so memorable, and causCherbourg, but higher up towards Ostend it is very con- ing the Divinity to intervene in all its grand undertakings. siderable. When we took possession of that port, it was He speaks with rapture of the gratification he derived from found that, in the course of the revolutionary war, the har- seeing men born on the shores of the Tiber, and on the. bour, by neglect, had been filled up with six or seven feet banks of the Guadalquiver, working under the direction of French engineers, at the establishment of a port in the of mud. Several pieces of cannon are intended to be mounted Channel, formidable to the English navy; and he suffers no on the two piers, to protect the entrance into the basin. expression of regret to escape him at the idea of these poor On one of them is likewise placed a light-house, and on Italian and Spanish prisoners of war being compelled to the other a Semaphoric telegraph. Four slips of granite, labour in chains at a work for which they were not paid, for building large ships, were at this time constructed on and in which they could not take the least possible interest. The Breakwater in Plymouth Sound is a work of a Breakthe southern side of the basin, and on each of them was a ship of the line in progress ; LInflexible of 118 guns, Le similar nature to that of Cherbourg, but constiucted on water in Centaure of eighty, Le Jupiter and Le Genereux of se- sounder principles, with less machinery and fewer people. Plymouth venty-four guns each. Two other ships of the line were Compared in extent and dimensions with that of Cheibourg, on the stocks without the dock-yard, nearly ready for it is only in the ratio of about one to four. The gross sum. launching, Le Zelandais of eighty, the first line-of-battle expended upon it is L.1,528,639, and a fuither vote of ship laid down at Cherbourg, and the Duguay-Trouin of L.l 3,000 has been taken for the year 1854-55. There is no port and harbour on the S.W. coast of Engseventy-four guns: and in the roadstead were Le Polonais and Le Courageux. In the centre of the same side of the land possessing so many advantages as Plymouth; none so basin, with two slips on each side of it, a noble dry-dock well situated for assembling and equipping a fleet to watch was cut out, or rather built, of solid granite, in which the movements of the enemy in the harbour of Brest. Its ships of the largest class might be built or repaired. Its dockyard may be considered as the second in the kingdom in point of size, convenience, and effective strength, and dimensions were, to it a steam factory has recently been added at Keyham, Feet. In. situated on the left bank of the Tamar, with extensive workLength 230 0 shops, smithery, docks, caissons and basins capable of a Width 74 0 mitting the largest ships of the line. These two yards will Depth 26 6 Cherbourg is unquestionably one of the first naval arsenals be connected by means of a tunnel. The estimated cost o in Europe. The fortifications for the protection of the these great works at Keyham is as follows, viz. for conanchorage in the roadstead, and the new naval arsenal, are— structing the south basin and two docks, cofferdam in fiont 1. Fort de Querqueville, mounts 46 guns; 2. Fort de la of the basins, and clearing the ground for buildingsJ and ' .’ Roche Chavaignac; 3. Fort St Anne; 4. Fort du Hornet, purchase of ground for magazines, &c ^ooo mounts 52 guns; 5.Fort du Galet; 6. Fort des Flamands; Constructing the north basin 7. Fort Royal, He Pelee, mounts 90 guns. Three forts are Remainder'ofuorks 'to coinpiete the establishment, 170,000 also in course of construction on the breakwater. The roadstead is chiefly protected by the forts on the island of Total L.l,225,000 Pelee, du Hornet, and Querqueville. Many of the forts have circular faces towards the sea, with each two tiers To which must be added L.35,000, the estimated cost of of guns and turrets above them. On the landside Cher- the tunnel.

307 BREAKWATER. BreakBreakOf this sum there has been already expended the sum of however, was done or attempted, notwithstanding the inwater. L.900,389 up to the end of the year 1853, and a further creased and mighty preparations of the enemy, till Mr Yorke water. presided at the Board of Admiralty, when one of his first vote of L.60,000 was taken for the year 1854-55. The south basin and greater part of the north basin, measures was to carry into execution this grand and imwith their docks and various other works are completed; and portant national object; the most important that perhaps on the 7th October 1853, H.M. ship Queen, of 116 guns, was ever undertaken for the glory and the safety of the was safely docked and undocked the following day. The British navy. The delay that took place can only be exmagnificent harbour of Hamoaze is nearly land-locked, and plained by the frequent changes of the Board of Admiralty, of a capacity sufficient for mooring safely a hundred sail of which, we believe, have been fatal to many important meathe line in excellent anchorage, and in water that carries its sures for the benefit and advantage of this great bulwark of depth to the very quays of the yard. On the opposite or the nation. eastern side of the Sound, and at the distance of about three Of the plans proposed for sheltering the Sound, one was miles from Hamoaze and the dockyard, is another sheet of to throw a pier from Staddon Point to the Panther Rock, a water at the mouth of the river Plym, called Catwater, not distance of 2650 yards; another, to construct a pier from quite so deep, nor so well sheltered, as Hamoaze, but, since Andurn Point to the Panther, a distance of 2900 yards; the progress made in the breakwater, forming a safe and and a third, to carry a pier from the same Point to the commodious harbour for merchant vessels of every descrip- Shovel Rock, being only 900 yards. tion. These two harbours open into Plymouth Sound and The objection urged against throwing out piers from Cawsand Bay, in which ships employed in the blockade of either of these Points, and abutting against the shore, was Brest, or those refitted in Hamoaze, were accustomed to principally grounded on the certain effect they would have assemble and prepare for putting to sea. But the very ex- of changing the current of the flux and reflux of the tide to posed situation of Plymouth Sound, and the heavy swell the opposite side of the Sound, and of increasing its strength that almost constantly rolled in, especially when the wind and velocity on that side, while it left all calm on the other; blew fresh from the S.W. to the S.E., made it so inconve- the inevitable consequence of which would be a deposition nient and so unsafe an anchorage for ships of the line, that, of mud or silt in the calm part or eddy, which, in process of during the late war, the fleet employed in blockading Brest time, would shallow the water, already not too deep, to such had been in the practice of bearing up, when driven from a degree as to unfit it for the reception of large ships of war. Besides, of the three passages for large ships into Plyits station, for the more distant anchorage of Torbay, though little better with regard to security, and worse in every mouth Sound from the sea, the two best are those on the other respect, than Plymouth Sound. It was, for instance, two sides, while the worst was that in the middle. Either a more ineligible rendezvous for the western squadron, from of the plans, therefore, which proposed piers to be thrown the chance of the fleet being caught there by an easterly from the mainland, must have destroyed one of the best wind, and unable to get out, when it was the most favour- passages, and left the worst open, which was nearest to the anable wind for the enemy to put to sea; from the danger to chorage behind the proposed pier. The middle passage might, which the ships were liable when so caught in an anchorage in fact, be almost considered as shut up against very large thus open and exposed; and from the inconvenience, delay, ships by the St Carlos and the Shovel Rocks; whereas, if and expense of obtaining the necessary supply of stores and this middle passage should be shut up altogether, it would provisions from the other ports, there being none at Torbay. rather serve to deepen, by giving an increased velocity to In short, this open and exposed bay bore so bad a charac- the tide, which would scour out the bottom, than to shallow ter among naval officers, that Lord Howe used to say it the two side passages. On these considerations, Messrs Rennie and Whidby would one day be the grave of the British fleet. It was, besides, an object of the first importance then, as proposed that an insulated pier or breakwater should be it is now, to the efficiency of every naval arsenal, to have a thrown across the middle of the entrance into the Sound, safe and commodious roadstead in its neighbourhood, like having its eastern extremity about sixty fathoms to the that of Spithead to the harbour and dockyard of Ports- eastward of St Carlos Rock, and its western end about 300 mouth. Here those ships which might have gone through fathoms west of the Shovel, the whole length being about a course of repair or refitment, or those new from the 1700 yards, or close upon a mile. They stated with confistocks, might assemble and complete their final equipment dence, that such a breakwater might, with every chance for sea; and here, also, ships returning from sea might of success in its favour, be constructed; and that it would safely lie at anchor till the wind and tide might serve them give shelter to ships in the Sound, without any danger of to go into harbour. But in Plymouth Sound, ships coming lessening the depth of water. The middle part of the breakwater was proposed to be out of Hamoaze, or ships going into that harbour, had no such security. By the rolling sea that set in, they were carried in a straight line for the length of 1000 yards ; but exposed to the double danger of parting their cables, or they recommended that the length of 350 yards at each end striking against the hard and rocky bottom, either of which should incline towards the straight part at an angle of 120°. would be almost certain destruction. The introduction of See the figure, Plate CXL. These inclined ends would not steam has, however, in a great measure lessened these de- only give shelter to a greater extent of the Sound, but would, in a greater degree, prevent the rushing in of the tide from lays as well as the dangers. Its history It was most important, therefore, to render Plymouth agitating the water at the anchorage, than if the two extre’ Sound, if possible by any means, and almost at any expense, mities were left in the same straight line, and at right angles a safe roadstead for ships of war. To ascertain the practi- with the direction of the current into the Sound. It was also proposed, in order to cover the Sound more cability of this measure, Mr Rennie the civil engineer, and Mr Whidby the master-attendant of Woolwich dockyard, effectually, that a pier should be thrown from Andurn Point were sent down to Lord Howick, now Earl Grey, at the towards the principal breakwater, of about 800 yards in suggestion, we believe, of Lord St Vincent, in the year 1806, length, with the same inclined point of 120° as the head of with directions to examine and report, whether by any and the breakwater. This pier, however, does not appear to have by what means a sufficient shelter might be given to insure been thought necessary, and might have been in some a safe anchorage for a fleet of ships of the line. The report respects injurious to the Sound. It might, however, have was favourable ; and several plans were offered for shelter- made Bouvisand Bay a good anchorage for frigates and ing this sound, so as to render it capable of containing in smaller vessels, and given them the advantage of a fine safety above fifty sail of the line at their anchors. Nothing, stream of fresh water, which falls into that bay.

308 Breakwater.

B R E A K W A T E R. as the most practicable and best and deductions in the quantity of stone for the shallow parts Breakgreat work, to heap together pro- over which the line of the breakwater was carried, the com- water, miscuously large blocks of stone, which were to be sunk in pletion of the work might safely be calculated within the the line of the intended breakwater, leaving them to find period of six years. Nor would the building of the pier from Andurn Point, their own base, and take their own position; and it was conceived that stones of the weight of from one and a half if so determined, protract the time of completion. If carto twro tons each would be sufficiently large to keep their ried from the shelving rocks within the Point, leaving a pasplaces, without being rolled about by the tremendous swell sage between them, the pier would require about 360,000 which, in stormy weather, is thrown into Plymouth Sound ; tons of stone, which, by employing about thirty vessels, and thus avoid the inconvenience as well as loss of time and might be deposited in three years. labour which the French had experienced at Cherbourg by It was recommended by the gentlemen above mentioned, throwing down small rubble stones. It was thought, that, that the great breakwater should be begun on the Shovel in those places where the water was five fathoms or thirty and extended on both sides of it, as, by so doing, the effect feet deep, the base of the breakwater should not be less than produced on the Sound would be observed as the work proseventy yards broad, and the summit ten yards, at the height ceeded ; and that buoys should be placed along the line, so of ten feet above the low water of an ordinary spring-tide ; that the whole of the vessels employed might, if necessary, in other words, that the dimensions of the breakwater in deposit their cargoes at the same time without interrupting those places should be forty feet high, thirty feet across the each other. The original rough estimate for completing this great top, and 210 feet wide at the foundation. The surrounding shores of Plymouth Sound and Cat- national work, made on the grounds above stated, was as water were next examined, with a view to determine from follows what quarter materials for this great undertaking could most Estimate of the Probable Expense of a Breakwater and conveniently be obtained, as to quality, cheapness, and Pier for the Sheltering of Plymouth Sound and Boucelerity of conveyance. On the west or Cornish side of the visand Bay, Sound, nothing appears but hard granite; at the head of the Sound, and in Catwater, on the Devonshire side, all is mar- 2,000,000 tons of limestone, in blocks from 1^- to 2 tons weight each, for ble and limestone. In Catwater alone, it was estimated, on the great breakwater, at 7s. 6d. per a rough calculation, that 20,000,000 of tons might be proton L.750,000 0 0 cured in blocks fit for the work, which was about ten times the quantity that would probably be wanted. The time 360,000 tons in the pier proposed to be built from Andurn Point, at 7s 126,000 0 0 required for the completion of the work depended on a variety of circumstances. It is obvious that, if the two sides Contingencies, say at 20 per cent, on the whole 175,200 0 0 of the Sound had furnished proper materials for the purpose, the time would have been considerably abridged, as, L.1,051,200 0 0 in that case, when the wind was easterly vessels might de- Total for the great breakwater posit stones on the eastern end of the breakwater, and in Estimate of the Probable Expense of a Cut-Stone Pier and westerly winds on the western extremity, and the work Two Lighthouses to be built on the top of the Great would thus be proceeding with an uninterrupted progress ; Breakwater. whereas, if the stones were to be brought from one point, and that point was on the shore of Catwater, a strong south- 42,000 cubic yards of masonry, in the out and inside walls of the pier, at erly and south-westerly wind, those most prevalent in this L.44,700 0 0 27s country in the winter months, would generally impede and frequently render it impossible for vessels to go off with their 62,000 cubic yards of rubble filling be18,600 0 0 tween the out and inside walls, at 6s. cargoes. Catwater, however, having many advantages, especially Paving the top of the pier with large 22,90 0 0 blocks of stone, 8500 square yards... for the convenience of loading the vessels, and the facility of procuring blocks of any size from the quarries, was con- Two lighthouses, with reflectors and 5,000 0 0 argand lamps sidered, on the whole, as entitled to the preference over any 28,650 0 0 other place. Besides, the quarries here being in the neigh- Contingencies 20 per cent bourhood of villages, lodgings and conveniences would be L.119,900 0 0 afforded for the workmen ; and, on the whole, it was calcuBreakwater, 1,528,639 0 0 lated that the work might be completed from hence at a cheaper rate, and perhaps in less time, than from situations much nearer to it, but much more exposed to the wind and Total estimate of completing the works..L.l,171,100 0 0 wavesThe estimate for the works of Plymouth Breakwater now An estimate of the expense could not be made with any stands thus (1854):—degree of accuracy, as no correct section of the bottom had Total estimate for the work........... L.1,524,000 0 0 been taken. Supposing, however, the great breakwater to be Gross sum already expended...., 1,528,639 0 0 1700 yards in length, thirty feet in width at the top when Sum voted for the years 1854-5 13,000 0 0 carried ten feet above low water of spring-tides, with a slope Further estimate for completing the work 21,000 0 0 on the southern or sea side of three feet horizontal to one foot perpendicular, and on the Sovmd or land side of one It was not until the opinions of the best engineers, men foot and a half horizontal to one perpendicular, it was cal- of science, and naval officers eminent in their profession, culated that the whole mass of stone required would be had been collected, compared, and seriously considered, about 2,000,000 of tons. If then a hundred sail of vessels that Mr Yorke determined to carry into execution this great of fifty tons burden each were employed in carrying stone, undertaking; one of the chief supporters of which was and each vessel carried only 100 tons a-week, the quantity Sir John Barrow, then secretary of the Admiralty. The deposited in one week would amount to 10,000 tons, or principal objection started against it was, that it might 500,000 tons a-year, and at this rate the breakwater would cause the anchorage in the Sound to be destroyed in the be completed in four years; but making allowance for time course of time by the deposition of mud and silt along the lost in preparations, contingent delays, unfavourable weather, whole eddy within it. But there does not appear to be any was recommended, mo(je 0f constructing this

BREAKWATER. 309 Break- solid ground for this objection. The water brought by the till the whole sixteen were discharged ; and the light trucks Breakwafer, tides from the sea is at all times perfectly clear and trans- ran upon the deck of the vessel, ready to be run out at water, v -—parent, and that which proceeds from Hamoaze, and is sup- the quay, and thence to the quarries, to take in fresh loads plied by the Tamar and the Tavy, is almost wholly free of stone. In this manner a cargo of eighty tons was disfrom any alluvial matter, these rivers holding their course charged in the space of forty or fifty minutes. The vessels through a fine granite soil. The fact is sufficiently proved were placed in the proper places for depositing the stones by the circumstance of no deposit being made in the re- by means of buoys, and the exact line of the breakwater cesses of Hamoaze along the dockyard wall leading into was preserved by observing lights or staves placed at a disthe docks, nor in the numerous eddies that are caused by tance on the shore. the projecting jetties and salient angles of that wall. AnThe following description, referring to Plate CXXXIX., other objection started against the undertaking was, that will convey an accurate idea of these excellent vessels for by the diminished quantity of water thrown by the tide the purpose for which they were constructed. into Hamoaze and Catwater, the Sound would gradually Fig. 1 shows the stern of the vessel in the act of depofill up, and these harbours be destroyed. But no percep- siting the stones. The runner R being hooked to the foretible alteration has as yet taken place in the height of the part of the truck, raises it up, and by that means tips the water in Hamoaze, or in the strength or set of the tides. stone overboard. When the stone is in the act of being Commence- A rock of limestone, or rather gray marble, situated at drawn up out of the hold on the inclined plane B (fig. 3), mentofthe Oreston, on the eastern shore of Catwater, consisting of a the runner is hooked to the fore-part of the truck, and work. surface of twenty-five acres, was purchased from the Duke lashed down to the after-end over the stone, which prevents of Bedford for the sum of L.10,000. Quays for shipping the latter fi’om sliding off the truck in its progress up the the stone were erected in front of it; iron railways leading inclined plane. The empty trucks are for the most part from the quarries to the quays were laid dowrn; ships were lodged on the fore-part of the deck, and some placed on hired by contract to carry oft’ the stone, and others built at edge against the side of the vessel. the dockyard. Mr Whidby was appointed to superintend Fig. 2 shows the stern of the vessel when loaded, with the work. The quarries were opened on the 7th August the ports up or closed. 1812; the first stone was deposited on the 12th of the same Fig. 3 is a longitudinal or sheer-section of the vessel when month ; and, on the 31st March 1813, the breakwater made loaded, with the trucks on one side of the hold and deck, its first appearance above the surface of the Sound at low showing the number which the vessel usually stows on each water of the spring-tide. The system of quarrying the side. The stones being frequently longer than the trucks, stone was conducted with admirable skill, and stones of the the number carried in the hold must be proportioned acproper size were obtained with less waste of small rubble cordingly. In bad weather it is unsafe to send many trucks than might have been expected. In working these quar- on deck; and, in general, not more than four are sent into ries an extraordinary phenomenon was discovered in the the Sound in that way at one time ; the amount of the carvery body of the great mass of this old marble rock. At goes, therefore, vary, according to circumstances, from forty the depth of sixty-five feet from the summit of the rock, to sixty-five tons ; the largest stone hitherto deposited beand twenty-five from the margin of the sea, a cavity, or ing about eight tons. rather a nodule of clay, was discovered, of twenty-five feet The after-part of the deck under the tiller is divided into long and twelve square, or thereabouts, in the midst of which two parts lengthways, and made to move up and down ; were found several bones of the rhinoceros, in a more per- the fore-parts are secured to a beam by hinges. This movfect state, and containing less animal matter in them than able deck, when raised as at X, allows the stones to come any fossil bones that have yet been dug out of rock or out of the hold, and when down, as at Y, serves to convey earth. the empty truck from the port to the deck, in order to make Machinery The vessels employed for conveying the large blocks of room for another stone. employed. st0ne were of a peculiar construction, adapted to carry D is a common windlass for heaving the trucks out of the with ease masses of marble weighing from three to five hold up the inclined plane B. tons each. These great blocks of marble were placed on C, the hinges of the typing-frame. trucks at the quarries, and run down thence on iron railways Ten vessels of this construction, for carrying large masses to the quays, against which the vessels lay with their sterns. of stone, built in the King’s Yards, and forty-three hired by The two stern ports were made sufficiently large to receive contract, averaging about fifty tons each, were employed in the trucks with the stones upon them. Each truck was conveying stones from the quarries. The contractors’ vespassed separately through the port-hole on an inclined plane, sels were not of the same construction as those in the imand run to the fore-part of the vessel in the hold on an iron mediate employ of government; they carried stones of less railway. The two sides of the hold of the vessel were cal- weight, which were hoisted out of the hold by a chain and culated each to contain eight of these loaded trucks, which, windlass, and thrown overboard. A load of fifty tons was at five tons on each truck, gave eighty tons of stone for one discharged from one of these vessels in about three hours. cargo. The stones thus placed on the trucks remained till By all these vessels the quantity of stone deposited in 1812 the vessel arrived at the point in the line of the breakwater was 16,045 tons; in 1813, 7l,i98 tons; in 1814, 239,480 where they were to be deposited. By means of a crane on tons; in 1815, 264,207 tons; and in 181.6, up to 12th the deck of the vessel, the two trucks nearest to the two August, 206,033 tons, at which time the total quantity of stern ports were then drawn up the inclined plane, and run stone sunk amounted to 896,963 tons ; and at the concluupon a frame on movable hinges, called the typing-frame; sion of the year to upwards of 1,000,000 tons. by the falling of this frame in the manner of a trap-door the Of this quantity the proportions of the different sizes of stone or stones were discharged from the trucks on the the blocks deposited were nearly as follow : slope of the breakwater; but the typing-frame remained, by Tons. means of a catch, in the position in which it was left at the Of one ton each stone, and under 423,904 moment of discharging the stones, until the empty truck Of one to three tons each 309,706 was pulled up by the crane to the after-part of the deck, Of three to five tons each 150,593 whence it was run forward to make room for the second Of five tons and upwards 12,760 pair of loaded trucks in the hold. The catch being now disThe original contract price for quarrying the stone was engaged, the typing-frame returned to its former position, 2s. 9d. per ton, and the original contract price for conveying ready to receive the next pair of loaded trucks, and so on it to the breakwater 2s. lOd. per ton ; but the former was

i

310 B 11 E Break- reduced to 2s. 5d., and the latter to Is. lOd. per ton. The water. cost 0f ton 0f' stone sunk in the breakwater, including the building of quays, purchase of land, salaries, and every other expense, according to the nearest calculation that can be made, amounted to about 8s. l^d., which, upon the whole quantity deposited, gave a total sum expended up to 12th August 1816 equal to L.364,000. And as the work might be considered as more than half completed, it would have been finished considerably within the original estimate, and, if parliament had thought fit to grant the money, within the time. The greatest quantity of stone sunk in any one week wTas 15,379 tons; and the part of the breakwater at the date just mentioned, above the level of low-water springtides, was in length 1100 yards. The length completely finished to the height of three feet above the level of the highest spring-tides, and thirty feet wide at top, was at the same time 360 feet. The large stones of the upper part of the breakwater were deposited to any nicety by means of a vessel constructed for the purpose, having the same sheer or slope at the bow with the side of the work, so that by a projecting beam or mast the largest stones could he taken out of the vessel, and placed on the opposite side, or middle, or any other part of the breakwater. The whole establishment for carrying on the Plymouth breakwater was as follows : Persons. A superintendent, with proper officers and clerks, to keep and control the accounts 10 Warrant officers and masters of the ten stone vessels in the immediate employ of the public 21 Seamen and boys to navigate these vessels 90 Seamen employed in the superintendents’ vessels ; the light vessel, boats’ crews, &c 45 Masons, blacksmiths, carpenters, sail-makers, and labourers, employed at Oreston 39 In the immediate pay of government 205 Seamen employed in the contractors’ vessels 170 Quarrymen, labourers, &c. employed at Oreston by the contractors 300 Total establishment 675 Beneficial The result of this great work has completely answered results of the expectation of its warmest advocates. The good efthis great fects of it were, indeed, very sensibly felt at the end of work. the gecond year, when about 800 yards of the central part, where the water was shallowest, were visible at low-water spring-tides. The swell was then so much broken down and destroyed at the head of the Sound, that the fishermen were no longer able as heretofore to judge of the weather outside the Sound; and ships of all sizes, and among others a French three-decker, ran in with confidence, and anchored behind the breakwater. Since that time near two hundred sail of vessels of all descriptions, driven in by tempestuous weather, have, at one time, found safe shelter within this insulated mole, where a fleet of twenty-five to thirty sail of the line may at all times find a secure and convenient anchorage, with the additional advantage of having a stream of excellent water from a reservoir constructed above Bouvisand Bay, capable of containing from ten to twelve thousand tons, or a quantity sufficient to water fifty sail of the line. This water is brought down in iron pipes to Staddon Point, opposite to the anchorage, where a jetty has been completed, from which the water descends through the pipes into the ships’ boats. The whole expense of this most useful appendage to the breakwater was calculated at about L.16,000. During the winter of 1816-17 the gales of wind were more frequent and tremendous than had been knowm for many years; and, on the night of the 19th January, such a hurricane came on as had not been remembered by the

ERE oldest inhabitants. The tide rose six feet higher than the Bream usual height of spring-tides. The Jasper sloop of war, and || the Telegraph schooner, being anchored without the cover Breast, of the breakwater, were driven to the head of the Sound, and both lost; but a collier deeply laden, and under its cover, rode out the gale. No damage was sustained by any of the shipping in Catwater; but it was the general opinion, from former experience, that, if no breakwater had existed, the whole of the ships there must have been wrecked, and the storehouses and magazines on the victualling premises, and most of the buildings on the margin of the sea, must have been entirely swept away. Till this tremendous gale the breakwater had not sustained the slightest damage from the heavy seas that, through the winter, had broken against it with unusual violence, not a single stone having moved from the place in which it was originally deposited; but after the hurricane above-mentioned, and the high tide which accompanied it, it was found that the upper stratum of the finished part, extending about 200 yards, and thirty yards in width, had been displaced, and the whole of the huge stones, from two to five tons in weight each, had been carried over and deposited on the northern slope of the breakwater. In no other part could it be discovered that a single stone had been displaced. Since that time a considerable portion of the sea-front has been cased with masonry of immense masses of stone, but smoothly and beautifully laid; and the better to protect this, the foot of the slope has been extended seaward, in order to protect the foot of the masonry, by throwing in a great quantity of large and rubble stones. The want of a harbour, or any place of safety to which pr0pr;ety. ships can resort in bad weather, or in distress, between the 0f a breakports of Plymouth and Portsmouth, led to the suggestion of water in Portland Hoads being converted into a secure harbour by Portland means of a breakwater. It w'as estimated that the construe- Roadstion of such a stone dike, extending from the north-east part of Portland Island, about two miles and a quarter in length, covering an anchorage of about four square miles, and completely sheltering the pier, harbour, and bathing place of Weymouth, would require about four millions of tons of stone, five years to complete it, and an expense of about six hundred thousand pounds sterling. The capstone alone, which covers the Portland stone, and which, being unmarketable, is not only useless, but a great incumbrance, would be sufficient to complete this great undertaking. Such a secure anchorage in this situation, in which the largest fleets, either naval or mercantile, might ride at anchor in all w inds and the most stormy weather in perfect security, was not unworthy the consideration ot the public ; and, perhaps, in the present increased state of our population, there can be no truer policy than that of carrying on great national works of public utility. Many years have elapsed since the propriety of a breakwater in Portland Hoads was first under discussion; but it is only recently that this magnificent work has been taken in hand, together with other noble breakwaters or harbours of refuge, such as those at Harwich, Dover, Holyhead, the Channel Islands, &c. The estimated cost of these magnificent harbours of refuge, formed by the construction of breakwaters, is as follows, viz:—Dover (estimate for a pier 800 feet long at Cheeseman’s Head), L.245,000 ; Harwich, L.l 10,000; Alderney, L.620,000; Jersey, L.700,000; Portland (harbour and breakwater), L.588,959. (J* B w*) BHEAM. See Brama, and Ichthyology. BREAMING, or Brooming, the cleansing of a ship’s bottom by applying lighted straw or the like, in order to loosen the pitch and adhering sea-weeds, shells, &c., which are then removed with scrapers. BREAST, in Anatomy, the fore-part of the thorax. Smiting the breast is an expression of penitence. In the

BEE Breast- Romish church the priest beats his breast in rehearsing hooks the general confession at the beginning of the mass. II . BREAsr-Hooks, in Ship-Building, are thick pieces of Brechin. incurvated into the form of knees, and used to strengthen the fore-part of the ship, where they are placed at different heights directly across the stem, so as to unite it with the bows on each side. BREAST-Plate, a piece of armour for the breast, originally formed of hides, horn, linen, or hemp twisted into small cords; but afterwards made of brass, iron, silver, or other metals, which were sometimes hardened so as to be bulletproof. BREAST-Plate, in Jewish Antiquity, a part of the vestment of the high priest. It was ten inches square, and consisted of a doubled piece of the same rich stuff of which the ephod was made; and it was set with twelve precious stones, on which were engraved the names of the twelve tribes. They were divided from one another by little golden squares or partitions, in which they were set. The names of these stones, and those of the tribes engraven on them, as also of their disposition on the breast-plate, were as follows : Sardius Reuben.

Emerald Judah.

Topaz Simeon.

Sapphire Dan.

Carbuncle Levi.

Diamond Naphthalt.

The breast-plate was fastened at the four corners ; above, to each shoulder by a golden hook or ring at the end of a wreathed chain ; and below, to the girdle of the phod, by two strings or ribbons, which had likewise two rings and hooks. This ornament was never to be severed from the priestly garment; and it was called the Memorial, to remind the high priest how dear those tribes ought to be to him, whose names he wore on his breast. It is also called the Breast-plate of Judgment, because it had the divine oracle of Urim and Thummim annexed to it. Breast-P/om^A, a kind of spade with a cross-piece at the extremity of the handle, which the operator holds against his breast. It is used for cutting thin slices of turf, chiefly for the purpose of thatching. Breast-fT/iee/. See Hydrodynamics. BRECCIA, a rock composed of angular fragments of various pre-existing rocks or fossils imbedded in some matrix—as marble breccia, ossiferous breccia. BRECHIN, a parliamentary burgh and parish of Scotland, in the county of Forfar, on the South Esk, 7-J miles west of Montrose, with which, and with Forfar, Perth, and Aberdeen, it is connected by railway. It is situated on an abrupt declivity on the north bank of the river, which is here crossed by two bridges. Some of the streets are well built; and among the principal public buildings and institutions are several churches and chapels, the town-house, academy, mechanics’ institute, hospitals, and dispensary. Besides the academy, there are four public and several private schools. Brechin unites with Montrose, Arbroath, Forfar, and Bervie, in returning one member to parliament. Electors 172. It is governed by a provost, two bailies, a dean of guild, a treasurer, and eight councillors. The principal manufacture is linen. There are also two distilleries and a paper-work. Market-day Tuesday. Pop. (1851) of parliamentary burgh 6637, of municipality, 4515. This town is said to have been the capital of the Pictish kings; and the hill of Caterthun (about four miles north of the town), surrounded with an immense coronal of loose stones, is supposed to have been a fortification belonging to that people. The Ouldees

311 BEE Brecon. had a convent here ; and their abbot Leod was witness to the grant made by King David to his new abbey of Dunfermline. Brechin was erected into a bishopric by David I. about 1150. In 1572 James VI., with consent of the Regent Morton, gave a grant for founding an hospital in the burgh. “ Mr George Buchanan, pensioner of Corsragwell,” is one of the witnesses to the grant, which was ratified in 1587. The magistrates and council are patrons of this charity, from which they give a small weekly allowance to poor burgesses, no hospital apparently having ever been erected. William de Brechin, in 1256, founded a chapel called Maison Dieu. Parts of the walls of the chapel still remain in the Maison Dieu Vennel, and prove that the chapel had originally been an elegant little building. Its funds are now appropriated to salary the rector of the academy, who hence takes the title of preceptor of Maison Dieu. The cathedral, which is now used as the parish church, was originally a handsome Gothic building; but its appearance has been much injured by modern “ improvements.” The steeple attached is a noble-looking square tower, with an octagon spire, rising to the height of 128 feet. Close to the church stands the round tower, one of those singular structures, the real use of which has so long baffled the research of antiquaries. These towers are peculiar to North Britain and Ireland : in the latter they are frequent; in the former only two at this time exist, one at Brechin and another at Abernethy. There is no stair in the Brechin tower, and the only access to the top is by means of ladders placed on wooden semicircular floors, which rest on circular projections within the tower. The height from the ground to the roof is 85 feet, the inner diameter within a few feet of the bottom is 8 feet, and the thickness of the wall at that part about 4 feet; the circumference is very near 50 feet; the inner diameter at top is 6 feet 7 inches, the thickness of the wall 2 feet 10 inches, and the circumference 38 feet 8 inches. These proportions give the building a high degree of elegance. The top is roofed with an octagonal spire 18 feet high, which makes the whole height of the building 103 feet. During strong winds this tower has often been observed to vibrate. A stone built into the wall of the churchyard, evidently modernized, but most probably copied from an older stone, records, in not inelegant Latin, that during 1647 six hundred persons died of the plague in Brechin in the course of four months. Brechin was burnt by the Danes in 1012, and by the Marquis of Montrose in 1645. Within the burgh there is a house said to have been a Hospitium of the knights templars, till recently appropriately used as an inn. These knights seem to have had some lands in the neighbourhood, as there is a piece of ground near Brechin bearing the title of Temple Hill of Bothers. In the vicinity is Huntly Hill, where a battle was fought between the Earls of Huntly and Crawford in 1452. Brechin Castle, the seat of Lord Panmure, stands on the brink of a perpendicular rock overhanging the South Esk, a little to the south of the town. This castle was besieged by the English under Edward I. in 1303, and was for twenty days gallantly defended by Sir Thomas Maule, ancestor of the family of Panmure, who wras slain by a stone thrown from an engine placed on the opposite rising ground, when the castle was instantly surrendered. Gavin Douglas, Maitland the topographer, Gillies the historian of Greece, and James Tytler, a contributor to the early editions of this work, were natives of Brechin. See Black’s History of Brechin. BRECON, or Brecknockshire, an inland county in South Wales, is bounded on the north by Radnor; on the east by Hereford and Monmouth; on the south by Glamorgan, and on the west by Caermarthen and Cardigan shires. Its greatest length from south to north is about 53 miles, and its greatest breadth from east to west about 46 miles. It possesses an area of 719 square miles, or 460,158 acres, and is thus the fourth largest county in Wales. It is supposed to have derived its name from Brychan, a Welsh prince, who flourished in the fifth century. The old red sandstone is the principal geological formation in this county, and occupies the whole of the central portion from east to west. Along the southern boundary there extends a narrow belt of carboniferous limestone, millstone grit (“ farewell rock” of the miners), and the outcrop of the coal beds; together forming the northern rim of the coal measures in the great South Wales coalfield; but no part of the county is sufficiently within the measures to yield valuable mines. Brecon therefore does not occupy an important position as a mining county. The narrow projecting part of the county to the north, lying between Radnor and Cardigan, is occupied by the Upper and Lower Silurian beds ; and there is a somewhat singular narrow pen

312 B R E Brecon, insula of the former projecting into the red sandstone for a distance of ten miles, in a S.W. direction, and terminating at about five miles north of the town of Brecon. A belt of limestone extends from the town of Hay on the east, and passing in a S.W. direction through the town of Brecon, terminates on the west at the Brecknockshire Van. Another and more prominent band extends along the border of the old red sandstone on the N.W., where it joins the Silurian beds. The general aspect of the county is mountainous, and the scenery is marked by great beauty and wild grandeur. A chain of the loftiest mountains in South Wales completely encircles the south, composed in the east of the Black mountains, 2545 feet in height, and the curious Sugar Loaf rising to the height of 1760 feet. On the west of Brecknockshire are the Van and Talsarn mountains 2596 feet, and Mount Capellante 2394 feet in height; while the centre of the crescent is occupied by the masses of the Brecknockshire Beacons, towering with their lofty summits to a height of 2862 feet. In the north, a range of barren hills, called Mynydd Bwlch Groes, at the most westerly end, and Mynydd Epynt towards the east, enters the boundary of the county at a short distance from Llandovery in Caermarthenshire, and extending in a N.E. direction, terminates near the town of Builth. Some of the valleys are distinguished by great beauty. The vale of the Usk, stretching from east to west, and dividing the county into two nearly equal portions, is hardly surpassed as a piece of romantic woodland scenery by any part of the British islands. I here is a considerable number of rivers in this county. The Wye, which is the chief, forms the boundary on the N. and N.E. from Rhayader to Hay, a distance of upwards of twenty miles; while the Towy, the Afon Claerwen and Elan separate the county from Cardigan and Radnor on the N.W. and N. The Usk rises in the Caermarthenshire Van on the west, and flowing in a direction nearly due east through the centre of the county, collects the waters from the range of the Beacons in the south, and from Mynydd Bwlch Groes and Mynydd Epynt in the north, by means of numerous smaller streams (of which the Tarell and the Honddu are the most important), and enters the county of Monmouth near Abergaveny. The Taff, the Hepste, and the Tawre, all rise on the south of the Beacon range, and passing through Glamorganshire, flow into the British Channel. Of its several lakes, that of Llyn Safaddu is one of the largest in South Wales. The more important of the others are Llyn Fa Fawr, Pwll Bivery, and Llyn Carw. The climate is moist, but temperate and salubrious ; and the soil of the valleys, consisting as it does in many of them of rich alluvial deposits, is very fertile. The cultivated crops consist of wheat, oats, barley, rye, turnips, pease, potatoes, and vetches ; of these the greater part is consumed within the county. The uplands are chiefly in pasture, and are stocked with sheep, cattle, and ponies, which, with wool, butter, and oak-bark, form the staple of a considerable trade with the adjoining English counties, and with the iron districts lying to the south. The farms are generally small, but are well cultivated in the lower parts of the county. The highland occupiers are a very humble hard-working class of men. It is calculated that about two-thirds only of the lands in the county are inclosed. There are several tramways in the county, one of which extends from Brecon to Hay and Kington, and another from Devynock, between Brecon and Trecastle, to join the Swansea canal at Ystradgynlais. There is also an excellent canal rom Brecon by Crickhowel and Abergavenny to Newport, recknockshire does not possess a railway ; but the Hereord, Abergavenny, and Newport line skirts the east side of the county ; while the Vale of Neath and Taff Vale railways

B R E pass for a considerable distance along the county boundary Brecon, on the south. i ‘ I he principal towns are Brecon, Builth, Crickhowel, and Hay. The county returns one member to parliament, and has done so since 1536. The political influence is chiefly in the hands of the Marquis of Camden, and Sir Charles Morgan of Tredegar. Constituency in 1852, 2779. The average gross rental of the county is estimated at 5s. 9d. per acre. 1 he annual value of real property paying incometax is L.198,472. The population of the county by the last census was 61,474, giving an average of 188 persons to a square mile, or 7'5 acres to each person. Of the total number, 31,314 were males, and 30,160 females. The number of inhabited houses was 12,221, uninhabited 731, and building 74, giving an average of 17 inhabited houses to a square mile, and 5 persons to each house. The following table gives the census returns for the last 50 years. Years. Increase of population per cent, 1801. 1811. 1821. 1831. 1841. 1851. in fifty years. 32,325 37,735 43,826 47,763 55,603 61,474 90 It is calculated that about one-fburth of the whole popu lation are in the condition of labourers, servants, &c. About ten per cent, live by agriculture, and an equal number by trade ; while upwards of thirteen hundred persons possess independent means, and about four hundred follow professions. In 184 / the total number of children of the working-classes at day schools within the county was 3985. The total number of schools was 96, of which 38 were church or national, with 1873 scholars; 33 adventure or private, with 1249 scholars ; 5 British and foreign, with 443 scholars; 2 dissenting, with 79 scholars; and 18 dame schools, with 341 scholars. It appears that the average annual income of each school was only L.24, 8s. lj|d., and the average annual incomes of the teachers from all sources only L.23, 15s. 2£d. The total number of scholars attending Sunday schools was 13,654. The total number of Sunday schools was 181, of which 40 were Church of England, with 2409 scholars; 30 Baptist, with 2132 scholars; 45 Calvinistic Methodist, with 3742 scholars; 51 Independent, with 4080 scholars ; 10 Wesleyan, with 523 scholars; other denominations 5, with 768 scholars. In 69 of these schools instruction was given in the Welsh language only ; in 46 in the English language only; and in 66 in both tongues. From the foregoing statistics it will be seen that dissenting sects are in a great majority in this county ; and also that the Welsh language is still much employed. It is calculated that one-half of the population use Welsh habitually. Brecon, or Brecknock, the capital of the county of the same name, a market and borough town, 145 miles N. by W. from London, picturesquely situated in a fine open valley, at the confluence of the Honddu the Tarell and the Usk, and nearly in the centre of the country. There are three main streets, with several smaller ones. The houses are for the most part constructed of stone, and are generally well built. Brecon has a fine old church, partly of the Norman period. There are two other churches, and two Independent, two Baptist, and one Calvinistic Methodist chapel. 1 he corporation consists of a mayor, recorder, four aidermen, and twelve councillors. The borough has returned one member to parliament since 1536. Constituency in 1832, 336. The assessed taxes yield annually L.1259, and the annual value of real property paying income-tax is L.24,941. There are weekly markets, and several fairs in the course of the year. The quarter-sessions and assizes are held here. Brecon has a foundation called the College of Christ Church, of which the Bishop of St David’s is ex officio dean. This has hitherto been entirely inefficient, but there is now

ERE Breda (1854) some prospect of reformation in the management. It II is proposed also to transfer the college of St David’s at Breenberg. Lampeter to this town. The ruins of the ancient castle are unimportant: they are inclosed in the beautiful grounds of the Castle Hotel. There are some fine Koman and other remains in the immediate vicinity. Pop. of municipality (1851) 5673. Inhabited houses, 1147. (j. g-w-d.) BREDA, a town of Holland, in the province of North Brabant, and capital of a circle of the same name, is situated in a marshy plain on the Mark, 24 miles S.W. of Bois le Due, and 30 N.N.E. of Antwerp. It is strongly fortified, and defended by a citadel (rebuilt by William III. of England), and the surrounding district may be laid under water when required. The town is well built, with wide and well paved streets, is intersected by several canals, and has a fine quay, town hall, arsenal, observatory, orphan asylum, and several Roman Catholic and Protestant churches, one of the latter having a spire 362 feet in height. It has also a Latin school, military academy, and manufactures of linen and woollen goods, hats, beer, and musical instruments. Pop. (1850) 14,689. Breda was taken by prince Maurice in 1590, retaken by the Spaniards under Spinola in 1625, and finally ceded to Holland by the treaty of Westphalia in 1648. Breda, Jan Van, an eminent Dutch painter, was the son of Alexander Van Breda, an artist of considerable merit, and was born at Antwerp in 1683. He imitated the style of Wouvermans and other great masters with such dexterity, that even connoisseurs are often unable to distinguish between his copies and the originals. He visited England, where he was so well employed, that in a few years he was able to retire to his native country with a competency. He died at Antwerp in 1750. BREDQW, Gabriel Gottfried, an eminent Prussian professor in the university of Breslau, was born at Berlin in 1773. He is well known in England by his Manual of Ancient History, which was translated into English in 1827 ; Researches on History, Geography, and Chronology ; and his valuable Historical Tables, which come down to 1811. This last work was translated into English by Major J. Bell, who has continued the tables down to 1820, and produced a very useful and popular work. Bredow died in 1814. BREECHES, or Trowsers, a garment which extends from the waist to the knee or to the ankle, encircling the limbs. The Romans, during the times of the republic, had nothing corresponding to the modern trowsers, but sometimes bound their thighs and legs with fasciae or bands of cloth. This article of dress appears to have been peculiar to barbarous nations ; and hence Tacitus calls it bavbarwn tegmen. It was, in fact, in general use among all the nations which encircled the Greek and Roman people, from the Indian Ocean to the Atlantic. We are told, in particular, that trowsers were used by the following nations—the Medes and Persians, the Parthians, the Phrygians, the Sacae, the Sarmatae, the Dacians and Getae, the Teutones, the Belgse, the Britains, and the Gauls. Braccce or trowsers were eventually introduced into Italy, some say as early as the time of Augustus ; but the breeches of that emperor, mentioned by Suetonius, were apparently only swathes tied round his thighs. Later, however, braccae became so much in fashion, that it was judged necessary, under Honorius, to prohibit their use, and the bracarii or breeches-makers were expelled from the city, it being considered unworthy of a nation that commanded the world to wear the apparel of barbarians. BREECHING, or Breeciirand, that part of a horse’s harness passing over his hinder quarters and attached to the shafts, so as to enable him to push back the vehicle to which he is harnessed. BREENBERG, Bartholomew, a painter, born at Utrecht in 1620. In early life he went to Rome, where he VOL. v.

BEE

313

was distinguished by the name of Bartolomeo, an appella- Breeze tion bestowed upon him by the society of Flemish painters J1 called Bentvogels. He particularly excelled in landscapes, y, ^eis which he enriched with figures and animals drawn in a very spirited and masterly manner. His best works are views of Albano, Frescati, and Tivoli. He generally painted on a small scale; and his smaller pictures are most esteemed. He died in 1660. Breenberg also etched from his own designs a set of twenty-four views and landscapes with ruins. BREEZE, a gentle gale. It is applied in a more restricted sense to a shifting wind that blows from sea or land during certain hours of the day or night. It is common in Africa and some parts of the East and West Indies. Breezes differ from etesice or trade-winds, inasmuch as the former are diurnal, or have their periods each day, whilst the latter are annual, and blow at a distance from land. The seabreezes prevail by day, and the land breezes by night, so that they remain as constant as the seasons of the year, or the course of the sun, on which they seem to depend, although they come on sooner or later, stronger or weaker, in some places than in others, and vary according to latitude and other circumstances. B REGENTZ, the capital of the circle of Vorarlberg, in the Tyrol, stands on a hill at the S.E. end of the Lake of Constance. Pop. about 4000, occupied in silk and cotton manufactures, and in an active transit trade. BREHAR, Bryher, or Bryer, one of the Scilly isles, 30 miles west of Land’s End, Cornwall. It is about 1^- mile in length, with an average breadth of half-a-mile, and a considerable portion of it is under cultivation. There are several barrows and Druidical remains in the island. On the east is New Grinsey harbour. Pop. (1851) 118. BREHONS, the hereditary provincial judges among the ancient Irish. The nature of their laws, which continued in force till the introduction of the English system of law in the reign of Edward III., has not yet been satisfactorily determined. There are, it is said, in Ireland ancient MSS., the publication of which would throw light on this curious and interesting subject. Till such elucidation be afforded, of which some prospect is held out, it were useless to hazard opinions on the character and value of the Brehon laws as a system of jurisprudence. BREISGAU, a fertile district of Baden, on the eastern side of the Rhine, and now reckoned in the circles of the Upper and Middle Rhine. It extends over 1260 square miles, contains 17 towns and 440 villages. Pop. 150,000. BREISLAK, Scipione, an eminent geologist, was born at Rome in 1748. He early distinguished himself as professor of mathematical and mechanical philosophy in the college of Ragusa; but after residing there for several years he returned to his native city, where he soon became a professor in the Collegia Nazareno, and began to form the fine mineralogical cabinet in that institution. His leisure was dedicated to geological researches in the papal states, which he prosecuted with an industry and zeal then rare in Italy, and pointed out how his researches were applicable to local improvements. His examination of the aluminous district of Tolfa and adjacent hills appeared in 1786, under the title Saggio d’ Osservazioni sulla Tolfa, Oriuolo e Latera, and gave him such reputation, that he was invited by the king of Naples to inspect the mines and similar works in that kingdom, and appointed professor of mineralogy to the Royal Artillery. The vast works for the refining of sulphur in the volcanic district of Solfatara were erected under his direction. Lie afterwards made many journeys through the ancient Campania, to illustrate its geology, and published his remarks in his Toyogrcxfia Fisica della Campania (Florence, 1798), which contains much accurate observation, with some hypothetical speculation on the cause of volcanic action, that will now scarcely be generally received as satisfactory. The French translatiop

314 Breislakite 0f

BEE B R E rk by General Pommereuil in 1801, is rendered menades. Among the public buildings are the cathedral, Brennage WO II Hrem*n comparatively useless by the conversion of the somewhat built in 1160; the church of St Ansgarius, with a handsome v r -^ 1 'y indefinite measures and weights of Breislak into metres and spire 325 feet high; the town hall, a fine old Gothic build- Brentford, '- v ® - centimetres, grammes and centigrammes, while the dates ing, formerly the archiepiscopal palace, and which has reare reduced to the republican nomenclature of France, and cently been restored; the exchange, with a library of25,000 the reader is unable to distinguish what additions have been volumes; museum, theatre, the observatory of Dr Gibers, made to the original. a public library of 20,000 volumes, gymnasium, navigation Breislak also published an essay on the physical condi- school, and a deaf-mute institution. The manufactures are tion of the seven hills of Rome, which he decides to be considerable, particularly tobacco, snuff, and cigars. There the remains of a local volcano. The more recent investi- are also sugar refineries, breweries, distilleries, tanneries, gations of Brocchi and Daubeny have proved that the soil paper works, and manufactures of woollen, linen, and cotton of Rome consists of alternate beds of sandy and calcareous goods. Ship-building is extensively carried on. Bremen is matter, with volcanic tuffa, which, however, does not seem to the principal emporium of Brunswick, Llesse, and Hanover, have been produced by any volcano on that site, but by one and carries on an" active trade with North and South Amethat evidently orfce existed in Monte Albano, 12 miles south rica, the West Indies, Russia (particularly Archangel), of Rome, or by Monte Cimini to the north of the city, the France, England, &c. Its chief imports are tobacco, sugar, tuffas of which are continuous with those of Rome. coffee, and other colonial products, iron, timber, wines, &c.; The political convulsions ofltalyin 1799 brought Breislak exports, linen and woollen goods, snuff, cigars, sugar, soap, to Paris, where he remained until 1802; when he received leather, vitriol, &c. In 1827 it had only 74 merchant vesthe appointment of inspector of the salpetriere and powder sels ; it 1850 it had 236 vessels, of the aggregate burden of manufactory near Milan ; and in that place he took up his 92,870 tons. In 1851 the arrivals were 2518 vessels, of future abode; His valuable labours Were appreciated by the 171,603 tons, the departures 2934 vessels, of 181,124 tons; successive governments that ruled over that part of Italy the imports in that year by sea amounted to L.2,904,593, by till his death, which happened on the 18th of February 1826. land, L.3,196,650; exports by sea, L.2,743,095, by land, During this latter part of his career he published the fol- L.2,598,108. Vessels drawing more than seven feet cannot lowing works :—Del Stilnitro e dell' Arte del Salnitraio ; come up to the town, and, accordingly, an excellent harbour Memoria sulla Fabbricazione e Rajfinazione dei' Nilri; with a magnificent dock and floodgate, capable of admitting Instruzione pratica per le piccole Fabbricazione di Nitro, at high water vessels of 25 feet draught, has been formed da farsi dalle persone di Campagna. His valuable Intro- at Bremerhaven on the Weser, 30 miles below the city, a duzione alia Geologia appeared in 1811; of Which a French small territory obtained by Bremen from Hanover in 1827. edition with additions was published in 1819. Finally, the Vessels drawing from 13 to 14 feet can ascend the river as Austrian government, in 1822, took on itself the expense far as Vegesack, 13 miles below Bremen. of publishing his Descrizione Geologica della Provincia di The entire territory of Bremen has an area of 74 square Milano. (t. s. t.) miles. Pop. in 1849, 79,047, of whom 53,478 Were inhabiBREISLAKITE, reddish-brown acicular crystals, a sili- tants of Bremen, 3538 of Vegesack, and 3618 of Bremercate of alumine and iron, discovered by Breislak in the crater haven. With the exception of about 2000 Catholics, the inof Solfatara, and afterwards at Capo di Bove near Rome. habitants are Lutherans or Calvinists. No Jews are alloWed BREMEN, one of the four free cities of Germany, is to live in the city. According to the new constitution, adopted situated upon both sides of the Weser, 46 miles from the March 5, and published April 8, 1849, the senate, which sea and 60 miles S.W. of Hamburg. Lat. of observatory has the executive power, is composed of 16 members, no53. 4. 36. N. Long. 8. 48. 54. E. As early as 788, Bremen minated for life by the senators and the bourgeoisie in comwas made the seat of a bishopric by Charlemagne ; and about mon. Of these, eight, of whom five must be lawyers, are chosen 60 years afterwards, Hamburg having been attacked and by the liberal professions, five from the commercial, and taken by the Normans, the archbishop removed his seat three from the working classes. Two of the senators are nothence to Bremen. This city became edrly of considerable minated by their colleagues as burgomasters, who preside in mercantile importance, and in 1283 joined the Hanseatic succession, and hold office for four years, one retiring every league. About the middle of the sixteenth century the two years. The assembly of the bourgeoisie consists of 300 archbishop of Bremen and most of the inhabitants declared representatives, holding office for four years, one-half going for the Protestant religion, which occasioned the separation out every two years. In the budget of 1852, the revenue of the city from the rest of the diocese. The former be- is given at L.160,827, and the expenditure at L.158,970; came independent: the latter was secularized ; and by the BRENNAGE, Brennagium, in the Middle Ages, a tripeace of Westphalia, in 1648, was ceded to Sw-eden as a bute or composition which tenants paid to their lord in lieu duchy. In a war between Denmark and Sweden in 1712, of bran, which they were obliged to furnish for his hounds. it was conquered by the former, and along with the duchy It is also written btenage, brenagium, and brenaige, brenaof Verden sold to Hanover. After much negotiation the gium, brenaticum, and brennaticum. purchase was confirmed by the imperial diet of 1732. It now BRENNUS, a'famous general of the Senonian Gauls, forms part of the Hanoverian province of Stade. In 1640, Who, in b.c. 390, overran Italy with a powerful army, deBremen was made an irriperial city. It was .taken by the feated the Romans at the river Allia, and sacked Rome; French in 1806; and from 1810 to 1813, was the capital of After blockading the capitol for six months, Brennus was the department of the Mouths of the Weser. In 1815 it bribed by a thousand pounds weight of gold to depart from was restored to independence by the Congress of Vienna. the city. In the popular legends it was related, that while It subsequently became a member of the German confe- the gold was weighing, Camillus suddenly appeared with an deration, and now furnishes 485 men to the federal army. army, and slew Brennus and his followers to a man. See The old town is situated on the right, and the new town on Roman History. the left, bank of the river. In the former, which is the larger There was another Gallic leader of this name who invaded and more populous portion, the streets are generally narrow Macedonia and Greece about b.c. 280. After sustaining a and crooked ; but the streets of the new town are more re- severe defeat near Delphi, he put an end to his own life. gular and the houses more elegant. The river is lined on BRENTFORD, a town of England, in the county of both sides by extensive and commodious quays, and crossed Middlesex, eight miles west from London, in Lat. 51. 28. N. by two bridges, the larger of which was opened in 1842. Long. 0. 20. W. It is divided by the river Brent into Old A he old ramparts have been converted into beautiful pro- and New Brentford, the former in the parish of Ealing and

ERE Brerewood hundred of Ossulston; the latter an independent parish. It II is the seat of a poor-law union, comprising ten parishes and Brescia, townships. Brentford, being on the great western highway to London, has a considerable trade. In the town and neighbourhood there are several distilleries and breweries, a soapfactory, brick and tile-works, and the West London waterworks. There are numerous market gardens in the vicinity, which employ many of the inhabitants. Brentford is famed for its pig-markets, held every Tuesday. The town consists principally of one long narrow street. It has a small parish church, and Baptist, Independent, and Methodist chapels; three national schools in New Brentford, and one British, one national, and one infant school in Old Brentford. Sion House, the seat of the Duke of Northumberland, and Osterley Park, that of the Earl of Jersey, are in the immediate vicinity of the town. Pop. (1851) 8870. BREREWOOD, Edward, a learned mathematician and antiquary, was born at Chester in 1565, and at the free school there he received the rudiments of his education. In 1581 he was admitted of Brazen-nose College, Oxford; and in 1596 was elected the first professor of astronomy at Gresham College, London, an office which he held till his death in 1613. His works, of which the following is a list, were all posthumous publications.—1. l)e Ponderibus et Preliis veterum Nummorum eorumque cum recenhonbus Collatione, 1614, 4to; 2. Inquiries touching the Diversities of languages and Religion through the chief parts of the world, London, 1614, 4to; 3. Elementa Logicce in graiiam studiosce juventutis in Academia Oxon. London, 1614, 8vo, and Oxford, 1628, 8vo; 4. Tractatus qnidam Logici de prcedicabilibus et preedicamentis, 1628, 8vo; 5. rI wo Treatises on the Sabbath, 1630 and 1632 ; 6. Tractatus duo, quorum primus est de Meteor is, secundus de Oculo, 1631 ; 7. Commentarii in Ethicam Aristotelis, Oxford, 1640, 4to ; and, 8. The Patriarchal Government of the Ancient Church, Oxford, 1641, 4to. BRESCIA (Bresciano), a delegation of Venetian Lombardy, bounded on the N.W. by Bergamo, on the N.E. by the Tyrol, on the E. by the Lake of Garda, on the S.E. by Mantua, on the S. by Cremona, and on the S.W. by Lodi. Area 1306 sq. miles. Pop. (1850) 356,225. The northern part, or one-third of the delegation, consists of a chain of mountains, which belong to the Rhsetian Alps; the remainder is part of the great plain of Lombardy. The latter division is highly productive in corn and in mulberry trees, as well as in flax, hemp, and oil. The wine is considered good, but is not sufficient for the domestic consumption. The mountain districts yield iron, lead, copper, marble, granite, and charcoal. The manufactures consist principally of silk, woollen, linen, and cotton goods, iron, steel, glass, and paper wares. Brescia (the ancient Brixid), the capital of the above delegation, is situated on the Garza, 60 miles E.N.E. of Milan, at the foot of a hill, on the summit of which is a fine old castle, once so strong as to be called the Falcon of Lombardy. The town is well built and flourishing, containing many magnificent buildings, among which are the new cathedral of white marble, begun in 1604 and finished only in 1825, the episcopal palace, palace of justice, many churches richly adorned with works of art, a large theatre, and numerous public fountains. It has also a fine museum of antiquities, public library, college, high-school, athenaeum, and numerous charitable institutions. In the vicinity are extensive iron works; and the arms and cutlery made here have long been celebrated as the best in Italy, whence the epithet armata. It has also manufactures of silk, woollen, and linen goods, paper, &c. with numerous oil mills and tanneries. In 1822, a beautiful Roman temple of marble was excavated here. Pop. 35,000. Brescia is supposed to have been founded by the Etruscans. It was afterwards a town of the Libni, then of the Cenotnani, and, finally, a Roman free town. After the fall of the empire it was

B It E 315 several times pillaged by the Goths. From the Lombards it passed Breslau to the Franks. It was made a free imperial city by Otho the Great, || and shared and suffered in the contests between the Guelfs and Brest. Ghibellines. It then fell into the power of the Signiorsof Verona, and in 1378 into the hands of the Milanese. It was taken in 1426 by Carmagnola; besieged by the Milanese general Picininoin 1438; surrendered by the inhabitants to the French after the battle of Agnano (1509); taken in 1512 by the Venetian general, Andrea Gritti; delivered by Gaston de Foix ; besieged again in 1573, 1575, and 1576. From that time it remained under the Venetian dominion till the dissolution of the republic. It was the capital of the department of Mella during the existence of the Cisalpine republic and the Napoleonic kingdom of Italy, and fell in 1814 under the yoke of Austria. In the revolution of 1849, the inhabitants rcse in arms, but tvere overpowered, after a destructive siege, by the troops of Haynau. Brescia has at various times suffered severely from pestilence and epidemics. It was the birthplace of Tartaglia the mathematician, and the writer Mazzuchelli. BRESLAU, a government in the Prussian province of Silesia, between the governments of Liegnitz and Oppeln. It is divided into 22 circles, having 56 cities, 7 markettowns, and 2224 villages. Area 5252 square miles. Pop. in 1849, 1,174,679, of whom 693,436 were Protestants, 464,178 Roman Catholics, and 12,059 Jews. Breslau, the capital of the above government, as well as of the government of Silesia, is situated on the Oder, at the influx "of the Ohlau, and on the railway from Berlin to Vienna, 190 miles S.E. of the former. Lat. of observatory 51. 6. 57. N. Long. 17.2. 33. E. With the exception of Berlin, it is the most populous city of Prussia. Pop. in 1849, 110,702, of whom 68,514 were Protestants, 34,801 Roman Catholics, and 7384 Jews. It consists of the old and new towns, with several suburbs and islands in the Oder connected together by numerous bridges. The old fortifications have been converted into beautiful promenades. The streets in the old town are mostly narrow, but otherwise generally good, with numerous handsome public buildings and magnificent squares. Among the principal buildings are the old cathedral, founded in the twelfth century, the collegiate church, St Elizabeth’s church, built in the thirteenth century, with a spire 364 feet in height, and one of the finest organs in Silesia, several other churches richly ornamented, the palace, now the government house, built by Frederick the Great, the episcopal palace, townhouse, mint, exchange, university buildings, barracks, new theatre, and market. In one of the squares is a colossal bronze statue of Bliicher. Breslau is celebrated for its educational and literary institutions. The university, founded in 1702, had, in 1849, 819 students, of whom 21 were foreigners. It has faculties of arts, law, medicine, and Protestant and Roman Catholic theology. The library contains upwards of 200,000 volumes. In 1849 Breslau had 40 elementary schools, with 8512 scholars ; a higher girls’ school with 344 scholars; 2 higher burgh schools with 1099 scholars; 4 gymnasia with 2028 scholars; ancf a normal school with 202 scholars. It has also a deafmute and blind institution, 4 public libraries, botanic garden, school of arts and manufactures, and numerous literary and scientific societies, observatory, 5 orphan asylums, 10 hospitals, and numerous other charitable institutions. It is the seat of various provincial courts, a council of the mines, a Roman Catholic bishopric, and a Protestant consistory. It has numerous and extensive manufactures, among which are linen, cotton, woollen, and silk goods, soap, plate, jewellery, earthenware, &c., with numerous breweries and distilleries. It forms the principal mart for the linen and cotton products of Silesia, and for wool; and has four great annual fairs of eight days each; one of these, that for wool, is the greatest of its kind in Germany. The produce of the mines, timber, flax, hemp, corn, wines, are brought here in large quantities from other parts. BREST, a strongly-fortified maritime town of France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Finisterre, in Lat. 48. 22. N. Long. 4. 32. W. It is believed by some authors that Brest is the ancient Brivates Portus ; by others that it is Gesocribates. Nothing definite, however, is known concerning the town till the year 1240, when it was ceded by the Comte de Leon to the first Duke of Bretagne. In

310 B R E Bret 1372 Jean IV., Duke of Brittany, gave up the town and I castle to the English, on condition that they should keep it Brethren. for during the war, and restore it when peace was proclaimed. On the death of Edward III. of England, Brest was made over to its original owner. When war was once more declared between France and England, an English garrison took possession of Brest, and repelled every attempt to dislodge it; but in 1397, Richard II. gave it up to the Duke of Bretagne, in consideration of a heavy ransom. In the following century it was again captured by the English, and once more retaken by the French. Finally, by the marriage of Louis XII. with Anne of Bretagne, Brest became an appanage of the French crown. The advantages of its situation as a sea-port were first recognised by Richelieu, who in 1631 constructed a harbour, which soon became the station of the French navy. The entrance to the roadstead, called the Goulet, is about a mile in width ; but the Mingan rock in the middle compels vessels to pass close under the formidable batteries which command it on either side. The roadstead itself is formed by the promontory of Finisterre on the north, and that of Quelern on the south. It is in some places three miles broad, and has an area of about 15 square leagues, so that all the fleets of France might ride in it in safety. It is defended on every side by batteries and forts erected under the personal superintendence of Yauban, and is believed to be utterly impregnable. The roadstead itself consists of numerous bays, formed by the embouchures of streams, one of which, the Chdteaulin, is navigated by a steamer. Of these bays, the most interesting is that of Camaret, where the English squadron sent out in 1694 under Berkeley was miserably defeated, owing, it was said, to the treachery of some Englishman who gave timely warning to the French king of the intended expedition. Running up from the roadstead is a deep creek formed by the mouth of a small stream called the Penfeld, w'hich serves as a basin to the dockyard, and separates Brest from its suburb La Recouvrance. The creek, though deep, is very narrow, and ships of war can only lie in it in single file. The dockyard is very extensive, and contains a sailwork, a slop shop, a ropery, a foundry, and seamen’s barracks. The value of the stores in the dockyard and arsenal was estimated in 1839 at nearly L.6,000,000 sterling. The victualling office is also very extensive. The Bagnes of Brest are the largest in France, and contain about 3000 convicts. Beyond the bagnes is the Hopital de la Marine, an institution like Greenwich Hospital, containing 26 rooms, each with 53 beds. Brest itself is built on the top and sloping sides of a hill, in some places so steep that the ascent from the lower to the upper town is performed by flights of stairs. Despite its great advantages, Brest has little trade, and no manufacture worth specifying except that of glazed hats for seamen. There are a few fishermen engaged in the cod, pilchard, and mackerel fishing. There is also a little trade in grain. Pop. (1851) 36,500. BRET, or Britt, a local name for the turbot, Rhombus vulgaris. BRETAGNE, one of the ancient provinces of France, bounded on the north by the English Channel and Normandy ; west and south by the Atlantic, S.E. by Poitou, and east by Maine and Anjou. Its greatest length was 60 leagues, its greatest breadth 35 ; and its area nearly 1000 square leagues. It had a sea-board of nearly 150 leagues. It is now represented by the five departments of Cotes-duNord, Finisterre, llle-et-Vilaine, Loire Inferieure, and Morbihan. It was formerly divided into Haute-Bretagne, of which the capital was Rennes, and Basse-Bretagne, of which the capital wras Vannes. The language of the inhabitants is the ancient Armoric, which bears so strong an affinity to M elsh, that the natives of the one country understand the dialect of the other. BRETHREN, The (or Ply mouth Brethren). Those to

B R E whom this appellation is applied, receive it only as descrip- Brethren, tive of their individual state as Christians—not as a name by which they might be known collectively as a distinct religious sect. It is not from any doctrinal peculiarity or definite ecclesiastical organization, that they have the appearance of a separate community ; but rather from the fact that while all other Christians are identified with some peculiar section of the church of God, the persons known as Brethren refuse to be identified with any. Their existence is a protest against all sectarianism. They see no reason why the church, which is really one, should not be also visibly united, having as its only bond of fellowship and barrier of exclusion, the reception or rejection of those vital truths by which the Christian is distinguished from the unbeliever. The Brethren, therefore, may be represented as consisting of all such as, practically holding all the truths necessary to salvation, recognise each other as on that account alone true members of the only church. In their assemblies they have no pre-appointed person to conductor share in the proceedings ; all is open to the guidance of the Holy Spirit at the time, so that he who believes himself so led of the Spirit may address the meeting. When, however, gifted men are found among the Brethren, they are in general actively engaged in preaching and expounding on their individual responsibility to the Lord, and quite distinct from the assembly. The number of places of worship returned in the government census as frequented by the Brethren in England and Wales is 132. This number, however, is believed to be below the truth. Brethren of the Christian Schools (Freres des Ecoles Chretiennes), a religious order founded at Rheims in 1679, by the Abbe de la Salle, approved in 1725 by Pope Benedict XIII., and legally recognised by the French government in 1808. In 1840, the number of their houses in France was upwards of 300, the number of members 1600. Their course of education comprehends religious instruction, reading, waiting, arithmetic, grammar, and geography. At the date above mentioned they had 584 schools in Paris, attended by 141,550 scholars, young and old. The costume of the Brothers is peculiar, consisting of a coarse cassock, a hooded cloak with hanging sleeves, and a very wide hat. The rules of the founder restrict their diet to the simplest necessaries of life. They are also sometimes improperly called Freres Ignorantins, as their teaching is confined to the poor, and one of their rules forbids them to learn or teach Latin ; Freres de St Yon, from the name of their principal house (in Rouen) Freres d Quatre Bras, &c. Brethren and Clerks of the Common Life, a religious fraternity towards the close of the fifteenth century. They lived under the rule of St Augustin, and were eminently useful in promoting the cause of religion and learning. Their society was formed in the preceding century, by Gerhard de Groot, a native of Deventer ; but it did not flourish till about the period above mentioned, when it obtained the approbation of the council of Con stance, after which it became very influential in Holland, Lower Germany, and the adjacent provinces. It was divided into two classes ; the lettered Brethren or clerks, and the illiterate. They lived in separate habitations, but maintained the closest fraternal union. The former applied to the study of polite literature, and the education of youth ; whilst the latter were employed in manual labour and the mechanical arts. The Sisters engaged in similar pursuits. They were frequently called Beghards and Lollards, by way of reproach. Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit, a religious sect which sprung up towards the close of the thirteenth century, and gained many adherents in Italy, France, and Germany. They derived their name from the words of St Paul, Rom. viii. 2, 14, and maintained that the true children of God were invested with the privilege of perfect freedom

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Brethren from the law. Some of their professed principles resembled tion, i.e., a patent; also a license to trade, as a booksellers Bievet , Brewer. il those of the Pantheists ; they held that all things emanated or printer’s brevet. Brevet. from q0(j ; that rational souls were portions of the Deity ; Brevet is applied in the British service to a species of , * that the universe was God ; that, by the power of contem- commission which entitles an officer to a rank in the army plation, they were united to the Deity, and thereby acquired above that for which he receives pay. Thus a brevet maa glorious and sublime liberty, both from the sinful lusts and jor serves as a captain, and receives pay as such. The term the common instincts of nature ; and that the person who brevet is also used sometimes to express general promotion, was thus absorbed in the abyss of the Deity, became a part by which a given number of officers obtain a grade of rank of the Godhead, and was the son of God in the same sense without additional pay. Brevet rank does not exist in the and manner as Christ was, being freed from the obligation navy ; and in the army it is restricted, descending no lower of all laws human and divine. Many edicts were published than that of captain, nor ascending above that of lieutenantagainst this sect; but, notwithstanding the hardships which colonel. Brevet rank gives precedence in the army genethey suffered, they continued till about the middle of the rally, but not in the particular regiment to which the officer fifteenth century. They were called by several other names, belongs, except in the case of its being temporarily united such as Schwestriones (i. e. sisterers), Adamites, Beghards, with some other corps. (See Grose’s Military Antiquities?) BREVIARY (Lat. breviarium), an abridgment, a comTurlupins, See. (Mosheim, Cent. xiii. ch. 5, &c.) Brethren of the Holy Trinity, an order of monks founded pend, an epitome ; the daily office or book of divine service in France near the close of the twelfth century. They were in the Roman church. It is divided into seven parts or also called Mathurins and Brethren of the Redemption of hours, on account of the saying in Psalm cxix. 164, “ Seven Captives—the redemption of Christian captives from Ma- times a day do I praise thee.” These are matins, prime, hommedan slavery being one of the principal objects of their third, sixth, and none lauds, vespers, and the compline or post communio. institution. (Mosheim, Ch. Hist?) The breviary of Rome is general, and may be used in Brethren of the Observation, or Observantines, the more strict of the two parties into which the Franciscan order all places; but various others, appropriated to each diocese was divided at the close of the fourteenth century. The and each order of religious persons, have been formed on the model of this. others are called the Conventual Brethren. The institution of the breviary is not very ancient; and Brethren, Moravian. See Bohemian Brethren. Brethren, White {Fratres Albati sen Candidi), were the there have been inserted in it the lives of the saints, full followers of a leader about the beginning of the fifteenth of stories more remarkable for their strangeness than their century, who arrayed himself in a white garment; and as authenticity. This gave occasion to several reformations they also clothed themselves in white linen, they were dis- by different councils, especially those of Trent and Cotinguished by this title. Their leader was a priest from the logne ; by several popes, particularly Pius V., Clement Alps, who carried about a cross, like a standard, and whose VIII., and Urban VIII.; and also by several cardinals and apparent sanctity and devotion drew together a number of bishops, each lopping off some extravagance, and bringing followers. This deluded enthusiast practised many acts of it nearer to the simplicity of the primitive offices. Origimortification and penance ; endeavouring to persuade the nally, all were obliged to recite the breviary every day ; European nations to renew the holy war, and pretending but by degrees the obligation was restricted to the clergy that he was favoured with divine visions. Boniface IX. or- only, who are enjoined, under penalty of mortal sin and dered him to be apprehended and burnt at the stake, upon ecclesiastical censures, to recite it at home when they cannot attend in public. In the fourteenth century a particuwhich his followers dispersed. lar reservation was granted in favour of bishops, who were BRETON, or Cape Breton. See Cape Breton. BREUGHEL, the name of six painters, of whom the allowed, on extraordinary occasions, to pass three days without rehearsing the breviary. two following were the most remarkable. This office was originally called cursus, and afterwards Breughel, Peeler, a Flemish painter, was the son of a peasant residing in the village of Breughel near Breda. breviarium, denoting that the old office was abridged, or After receiving instruction in painting from Koek, whose rather, that this collection is a kind of abridgment of all the daughter he married, he spent some time in France and prayers. The breviaries now in use are innumerable : the Italy, and then went to Antwerp, where he was elected into difterence between them consists principally in the number the academy in 1551. He finally settled at Brussels, and and order of the psalms, hymns, paternosters, ave-Marias, died there. The subjects of his pictures are chiefly humorous creeds, magnificats, misereres, hallelujahs, &c. &c. The Greek breviary {taxis, euehologion), consists in genefigures, like those of D. Teniers; and if he wants the delicate touch and silvery clearness of that master, he has ral of two parts; the one containing the office for the evenabundant spirit and comic power. He is said to have died ing ; the other that of the morning, divided into seven hours. The psalter is divided into twenty parts. The Armenians, about the year 1570, at the age of 60. Breughel, Jan, son of the preceding, was born at Brus- and other Eastern churches, have also their own breviaries. BREVIATOR, an officer under the Eastern empire, sels about the year 1565. He first applied himself to painting flowers and fruit, in which he excelled; and he after- whose business it was to write and translate briefs. Those wards acquired considerable reputation by his landscapes also who dictate and draw up the pope’s briefs are styled breand sea-pieces. After residing long at Cologne he travelled viators, or abbreviators. BREVIARIUM ALARICIANUM, or Breyiarium into Italy, where his landscapes, adorned with small figures, were greatly admired. He left a large number of pictures ; Aniani. See Civil Law. BREWER, Anthony, a dramatic poet, in the reign of nor w'as he satisfied with embellishing his own works, but rendered himself useful in this respect to others. Even James I. He appears to have been in high estimation among Rubens made use of Breughel’s hand in the landscape the wits of that time, as may be gathered from a compliment part of several of his small pictures; such as his Vertum- paid to him in a poem called Steps to Parnassus, in which nus and Pomona, the satyr viewing the sleeping nymph, he is supposed to have a magic power of calling the muses to and the terrestrial paradise, which by some is regarded as his assistance, and is even set on an equality with Shakthe masterpiece of that great artist. Breughel died in speare himself. He wrote six plays ; in one of which, called Linguce, or the Five Senses, Oliver Cromwell (according 1642. BREVET, in France, signifies a royal act in writing, to Winstanley) acted, when a youth at Cambridge, the part conferring some privilege or distinction, as brevet d'inven- of Tactus or Touch.

L

B R E B R E Brewer, one who professes the art of brewing, There The following table shows the number of licensed brewers Brewing, are companies of brewers in most capital cities: that of in the United Kingdom during the year 1850, and the sums London was incorporated in 1427 by Henry VI. paid for the license. ENGLAND. Number. Brewers of Strong Beer not exceeding 20 barrels Exceeding 20, under 50 », 50, „ 100 „ 100, ,, 1000 ,, 1000, and upwards, Brewers of Table Beer

SCOTLAND.

Amount of Duty.

8,579 L.4,503 19 6 8,364 8,782 4 0 9,234 14,543 11 0 15,806 33,192 12 0 1,517 15,200 6 6 400 272 9 6

Number. 47 23 29 125 77 22

IRELAND.

Amount of Duty. L.24 24 45 262 893 28

13 3 13 10 16 7

6 0 6 0 3 0

Number. 10 2 1 20 62 2

Amount of Duty. L.5 2 1 42 937 2

5 2 11 0 2 12

0 0 6 0 6 6

BREWING. Brewing is the art of preparing an exhilarating or intoxicating bev erage by means of a process of fermentation ; but at the present day the term is usually limited to the manufacture of different kinds of beer, from infusions of malt or of grains. In all countries, savage and civilized, one kind or other of exhilarating or intoxicating drink is prepared. In the warmer regions of the globe the juice of various palm trees is extracted, and, when fermented, forms the favourite beverage. Over all the warmer regions of South America, and in Mexico, the universal drink is Pulque, the fermented juice of the American aloe {Agave americana). Guarapo, a favourite drink with the negro races, is the fermented juice of the sugar-cane ; and when the sugar-cane is not in season, these races prepare fermented drinks from honey and from rice. In many northern countries, and even occasionally in the highlands of Scotland, the juices of the birch, maple, or ash, are fermented and form a palatable drink. Koumis, the intoxicating beverage of the Mongols and the Tartars, is the fermented milk of the mare. In countries favourable to the growth of the vine, wine is the usual beverage. The Peruvians and many other Indians prepare their favourite intoxicating drink, chicha, from maize. The Arabians, Abyssinians, and several tribes in Africa, prepare their fermented drink, bousa, from the flour or bread made from teff {Poa abyssiaica); but the durrha or millet {Sorghum vulgare),mv,\ even barley itself, are occasionally substituted for the teff to prepare the muddy sour bousa. The universal Russian beverage kvass or quass, a sharp, acid, muddy liquid, almost the same in taste and appearance as “ bousa,” is made by mixing rye-bread or ryeflour, or sometimes barley flour, with water, and fermenting it. The well -known national German drink, the iceiss-bier, is prepared from a fermented infusion of wheat malt with only a sixth part of barley malt. But over almost all the civilized world, the fermented infusion of barley malt, seasoned or not with hops or other bitters, when it takes the name of beer, is the favourite beverage. All ancient Greek writers agree in assigning'the honour of the discovery of beer to the Egyptians; but from the circumstance of no notice being taken of beer in the books of Moses, it has been rather rashly concluded that such a drink was unknown to them till after his death. This, however, is unlikelv. The vine was alone cultivated in Egypt in those districts which were beyond the reach of the inundations ; and the quantity of wine raised being limited was reserved for the rich, while the poorer classes had to content themselves with a cheaper drink prepared from barley. Herodotus, who wrote about 450 years b.c., is perhaps the earliest writer who gives any particulars regarding Egypt, and he describes beer prepared from barley as the ordinary drink

of the Egyptians in his day. Pliny, Aristotle, Strabo, and others, who mention that this beer was known by the name of Zythos, give full descriptions of its qualities and intoxicating properties; and Diodorus even affirms that some kinds were so palatable as to be scarcely inferior to wine. The researches of Sir J. G. Wilkinson relative to the ancient Egyptians have thrown much light on this subject, and render it probable that beer was used as a drink by the ancient Egyptians nearly as early as wine itself, Xenophon, in his account of the retreat of the ten thousand Greeks 400 years B.c„ mentions that the inhabitants of Armenia used a fermented drink made from barley, Diodorus Siculus states, that the nation of Galatia prepared a fermented drink from barley, styling it zythus, like the Egyptians. Beer was distinguished among the Greeks by a variety of names. It was called oivos KplOivos (barley wine), from its vinous properties, and from the material employed in its formation. In Sophocles, and probably in other Greek writers, it is distinguished by the name of fipvroy. Dioscorides describes two kinds of beer, to one of which he gives the name £v#os, and to the other Kovpp.L; but he gives no description of either sufficient to enable us to distinguish them from each other. Both, he informs us, were made from barley, and similar liquors were manufactured in Spain and Britain from wheat. Tacitus informs us that in his time beer was the common drink of the Germans, and from his imperfect description of the process which they followed, it is not unlikely, or rather there can be no doubt, that they were acquainted with the method of converting barley into malt. Pliny gives us some details respecting beer. He distinguishes it by the name of cerevisia or cervisia, the appellation by which it is known in modern Latin works. This beverage does not appear to have come into general use in Greece or Italy; but in Germany and Britain, and some other countries, it appears to have been the common drink of the inhabitants in the time of Tacitus, and probably long before. It has continued in these countries ever since ; and great quantities of beer are still manufactured in Germany, the Low Countries, and Britain. We might quote numerous passages from the narratives of recent travellers to show that the use of a drink prepared from barley is nearly universal over the northern and temperate parts of Europe and Asia. One of the latest of these travellers, M. Hue, the French missionary, remarks that the drink of the farmers in Tibet is “a sort of sharp drink made with fermented barley, which, with the addition of hops, would be very like our beer.” The first treatise published on the subject, so far as we know, was by Basil Valentine. This treatise, according to Boerhaave, is both accurate and elegant. In the year 1585,

BREWING. 319 Brewing. Thaddeus Hagecius ab Hayck, a Bohemian writer, pub- ence in weight between a barrel of pure water, and the same vbrewing, lished a treatise entitled l)e Cerevisia ejusque conficiendi water converted into wort, but making allowance for the ' '*— ratione, natura, viribus et facultatibus. This treatise, con- water displaced—such are the saccharometers of Dring and sisting only of fifty pages, is written with great simplicity Fage, and of Long. 2. Those constructed on the principle of and perspicuity, and gives a wonderfully accurate descrip- indicating the specific gravity of the wort, that of pure water tion of the process of brewing. In the earlier part of the being reckoned 1000—such are the saccharometers of Allan eighteenth century, Mr Combrune, a practical London in Scotland, and of Bate in England. There cannot be a brewer, published a work entitled The Theory and Practice doubt that the latter are the more correct in principle ; and, of Brewing. Mr Combrune appears to have the merit of accordingly. Allan’s and Bate’s instruments are the legal sachaving first showed the value of the thermometer in brew- charometers for excise purposes in Great Britain. It is easy ing. Before his day it never appears to have been used, and in practice to reduce, in a general way, the indications of the it was not till towards the end of the century that brewers one saccharometer to that of the other. If we wish to recould be persuaded to make use of what they deemeda scien- duce the specific gravity, as indicated by Allan’s or Bate’s intific toy. As might be expected, Mr Combrune’s theory struments, to Dring’s or Long’s scale, we have only to divide of brewing appears to us, with our modern knowledge, very the specific gravity by 2‘77; and, on the other hand, if we unsatisfactory; and, from the same cause, his experiments on wish to convert the indications of Long’s scale into the specific the heats at which malts are coloured are of no value at the gravities of Allan, we multiply the indicated pounds by 2’77. present day. He did not attend to the fact, that when the The first step in the application of science to brewing water is properly expelled from the malt before the heat is having been thus made by the use of the thermometer to raised, it can endure, without being coloured, a much higher regulate the temperature, and of the saccharometer to reguheat than if the heat be raised upon it while it is yet full of late the strength of the wort, the next step was to have the moisture. His work, however, did much to advance the various processes of malting the barley, mashing or infusing it, and fermenting the infusion, or “wort,” as it is termed, invesart, and ran through several editions. In the year 1784, Mr Richardson of Hull published his tigated by scientific mien, in order that the scientific principles Theoretic Hints on Brewing Malt Liquors, and also Sta- on which the whole operations of brewing were dependent tistical Estimates of the Materials of Brewing, shoiving the might be discovered, and made known to the brewer for his use of the Saccharometer. These works are reprehensible guidance. The able report on malting and brewing by Drs on account of the air of mystery with which the subject is Hope, Coventry, and Thomson, to the Board of Excise in invested, and the avowal of the author that he conceals cer- Scotland, ordered by the House of Commons to be printed tain parts of the processes. Mr Richardson, however, de- 6th June 1806, was the first great step taken in this country serves praise for the invention of the saccharometer, which to get science to bear on the operations of the brewer. Inhe appears to have been the first to have brought publicly dependent researches, meanwhile, were carried on by scienbefore the notice of the brewer. It is, however, disputed tific men into various points which bore on that trade, and whether the merit of suggesting the use of the hydrometer the researches of Gay-Lussac and Thenard, of EinhofF, to ascertain the strength of the wort is due to him or to Vogel, Saussure, Proust, Brande, Ure, Payen and Persoz, Mr Baverstock. Mr Baverstock first endeavoured to regu- Edwards, T. Thomson and R. D. Thomson, Johnston, late the strength of his worts by the hydrometer in 1768, and Liebig, &c., have combined to explain every chemical change had arrived at such satisfactory results by the year 1770, which takes place in barley during its conversion into malt, that in February of that year Mr Thrale, the celebrated and the various changes which occur in its infusion during brewer at Southwark, and friend of Dr Samuel Johnson, the mashing, boiling, cooling, and fermenting. Scientific gave Mr Baverstock a certificate of its value in ascertaining research has thus been brought to bear on every process the strength of worts in brewing, from experiments con- of malting and brewing, and has thus been enabled to exducted by Mr Baverstock in his (Mr T.’s) brewery. It was plain most of the causes of failures in any part of these pronot, however, till Nov. 1785, that Mr Baverstock published cesses, and lay down rides for their regulation. Among the host of practical writers who during the prehis Hydrometrical Observations and Experiments in the Breweries; so that Mr Richardson has the merit of first serit century have published treatises on malting and brewing, bringing his altered hydrometer, which he termed saccha- only two seem to require special notice. Mr William Black rometet, before the notice of the public. has the merit of having directed the attention of brewers to The saccharometer is an instrument essential to every the influence of electricity and electro-chemical action in brewer, to enable him to ascertain the strength of his wort, preventing the fermenting process going on regularly, and and the proportion of saccharine or fermentable matter which has convincingly shown that in many cases the irregularity it contains. Mr Richardson’s saccharometer was constructed in the process of fermentation, and the consequent more or on the principle that a barrel of water of 36 gallons wreighed less complete destruction of the beer, was caused by elec360 lb., and that if that quantity of water were converted trical currents being induced from faulty isolation of the into wort, and again weighed, the difference would show the fermenting tun, from chains of pipes of different metals weight of extractive matter which had been dissolved out of communicating with the tun acting on its contents like a the mah. His saccharometer, therefore, was graduated so galvanic circle, from the tubes or stopcocks used being of as to exhibit one degree for every pound weight which a different metals, &c. In his treatise he gives instances where barrel of wort weighed more than a barrel of pure water. this occurred, and was remedied by removal of the cause. His indications, however, were not quite correct, because he Mr Tizard, endeavouring still further to carry the sugdid not advert to the fact, that if a certain number of pounds gestions of science into the practical department of brewweight of saccharine matter be dissolved in water, they will ing, has left the beaten track altogether, and has employed displace a certain bulk of water, so that the barrel of water his talents in inventing and in patenting many new pieces when converted into wort, will fall short of the anticipated of machinery for the purpose of carrying out his peculiar weight by the weight of water displaced, and for which there views. So long as he keeps strictly to the results to which is no room in the barrel. scientific research has led he goes right, but the moment Various saccharometers have therefore been constructed he leaves these he blunders, and recommends visionary and with the view of correcting this error, and the different ones impracticable plans which could only end in disappointnow in use may be classed under two heads, according to ment. His suggestion, that in every case there should be the modes in which their scales are calculated. 1. Those but one mash, but that mash be continued for six hours at constructed on Richardson’s principle of showing the differ- a regulated temperature, is quite borne out by scientific re-

1

320 BREWING. Brewing, searches, and cannot fail to reward the brewer who follows vegetable albumen, and 2*5 of phosphate of lime. Pro- Brewing , it out. As to his patent machine for regulating the heat, fessor Johnston found barley-flour to contain in addition a &c., we think in most cases it could be dispensed with. quantity of fatty matter which has somewhat the flavour of His second valuable suggestion, of which we quite approve, spirits prepared from raw grain. His analysis gave in the is the boiling or rather infusing at a boiling temperature 100 parts of barley-flour, starch 68, water 14, gluten, albuthe hops by themselves, and when their strength is ex- men, &c., 14; fatty matter 2, saline matter or ash 2. It is customary to convert barley into malt previous to hausted running the wort through them in the hop-back. Here we think his coil of steam tubes could be adopted with using it in the manufacture of beer ; and in order to underadvantage. And the only other of his suggestions and stand the reason of this, it is necessary to explain the changes practices which seems worthy the attention of the practical which malting effects on the substances which enter into brewer, is to give up boiling the wort altogether, and run the the composition of barley. It may be shortly stated that wort from the mash-tun through the hop-back at once to malting consists in exciting the grains of barley to germithe coolers or through refrigerators. All these practical sug- nate, stopping this germination at a certain stage, and then gestions conform strictly with the latest scientific investiga- drying them in a kiln so as to enable the malt to be stored tions as to the action of the different ingredients found in the up till it is wanted. When germination or sprouting has been excited in a infusion of malt on one another; and if Mr Tizard did nothing more than reduce these successfully to practice, he would grain or corn of barley, besides other, three important deserve the warmest thanks of the trade. We would caution changes occur. First, there is formed at the base of the brewers, however, against adopting or following his plans re- sprout a new substance not previously existing in the grain, lative to underground chambers for his fermenting tuns, &c. to which the name diastase has been given. The exact Such would but increase the evils relative to electrical composition of this has not yet been accurately ascertained, but it is generally considered to be a form of transformed agency, &c., indicated by Mr Black as so injurious. Barley is the seed of various species of Hordeum, which gluten. Secondly, acetic acid (vinegar), not previously have been cultivated from time immemorial. Two species existing, is also found in the grain. And, thirdly, the inof hordeum are cultivated in Britain. The first is the Hor- soluble starch is found more or less completely changed deum distichon, or barley in which the seeds are disposed into soluble gum, to which the name dextrine has been on the spike in two rows. This is the species usually cul- given. This change of the insoluble starch into the soluble tivated in England, and in the southern parts of Scotland. dextrine is mainly produced through the agency of the The second is the Hordeum hexastichon, variously styled diastase, aided no doubt by the acetic acid. But this is not over Scotland here and big. In this species the grains are all. The combined action of the diastase and acetic acid really disposed in two rows, but as three seeds spring from on the dextrine causes it gradually to become sweet, and the same point, the head appears to have the seeds disposed assume the form of sugar; and because its chemical proin six rows. It is often misnamed, “ four-rowed” barley. perties then resemble the sugar which naturally exists in Big is a much more hardy plant than barley, and ripens grapes, the name grape sugar has been given to it. This more rapidly. Hence it thrives better than barley in cold then is the function of the diastase and acetic acid in the high situations. It is on this account that in the higher process of germination, and of course in malting, to convert districts of Scotland it is sown in preference to barley. A the starch into sugar, and thus prepare it for undergoing third species of barley, the Hordeum gymnohexastichon, the brewer’s fermenting process, which changes it into although apparently little known in Britain, is the prevailing cohol. In all these changes the diastase is the most imkind in the north of Europe, and is said to be the hardiest portant agent, and experiment has shown that one part of all. There are many varieties of the two-rowed barley, of diastase can convert 2000 parts of starch into grape but those most in repute at present are the Chevalier and sugar. Now all these conversions of starch into dextrine and the Annat barleys. The late Dr Thomson of Glasgow published elaborate grape sugar may be imitated by several simple chemical tables of the weight, specific gravity, length, breadth, &c., processes. Thus, exposing starch gradually to a heat of of the grains of different kinds of barley. The general re- 300°, changes it into dextrine (starch-gum, and Britishsult of his experiments was, that the average weight of the gum, as it is called by the calico-dyers, who use it largely), Winchester bushel was 507 lb. {i.e. 52 lb. the imperial and the gum thus prepared has often a sweet taste, from bushel) ; and the average weight of a Winchester bushel some of it having passed into the form of grape sugar. of big, 46‘3 lb. (i. e. 47f lb. the imperial bushel). The spe- When starch and water are boiled together, the boiling cific gravity of English barley was T280; of Scotch bar- converts the starch into dextrine (it is this with which linens ley, T310; and of big, T247. The average length of the are stiffened), but if the boiling be continued for some time, corn of the best English barley was 0343 of an inch ; of the fluid will be observed to get thin and watery, and acthe best Scotch 0‘346 of an inch ; and of big 0324 of an quire a sweet taste from the dextrine assuming the form of inch ; so that the average of all his measurements gave as grape sugar. By boiling starch in dilute sulphuric acid the nearly as might be the exact third of an inch, which it same change is effected, and the solution may be obtained ought to be, according to the origin of our measures, as pure by adding chalk or lime, which combines with and commonly stated. In consequence of the improvements in carries down the acid. This transformation is very rapidly agriculture, and the introduction of new varieties of grain, effected if the agency of the acid be increased by elevation the average weight of the barleys is now considerably higher of temperature. Thus, 1 lb. of commercial sulphuric acid than that ascertained by Dr Thomson. The average mixed with 600 lb. of water, will convert 100 lb. of starch weight of the best barley in the Haddington and Edinburgh into grape sugar in three hours if the temperature be raised corn markets is now 54 lb. per imperial bushel; the top by pressure to 250°. This process is actually extensively barleys being up to 57 and 58 lb. The cuticle or skin of followed in France with potato starch, for the purpose of the grain forms very nearly a sixth of the weight of the subsequently fermenting it and converting it into brandy. grain both in English and Scotch barleys. In big, however, Starch and dextrine have exactly the same chemical conit constitutes between a fourth and a fifth of the entire stitution, being composed of 12 atoms carbon, 10 atoms weight of the corn. hydrogen, and 10 atoms oxygen. Grape sugar, again, is According to Einhoff, 1000 parts of barley-flour contain composed of 12 atoms carbon, 11 atoms hydrogen, and 11 720 of starch, 100 of water, 68 of fibrous or ligneous mat- atoms oxygen ; so that the difference between grape sugar ters, 56 of sugar, 50 of mucilage, 36'6 of gluten, 12-3 of and starch is simply the addition of one atom of water.

321 BREWING. Brewing. English malt L.O 4 4 or 100 Brewing. We shall have occasion afterwards to notice the change Malt of Scotch barley 0 3 8^ or 84-856 which grape sugar undergoes when changed by the process Malt of Scotch big 0 3 0 or 69-472 of fermentation into alcohol. It is thus apparent that the object to be accomplished by But two shillings^ of this tax was to continue only till the the malting of barley, is to convert the insoluble starch into end of the war, and for six months after its conclusion. In the soluble dextrine and grape sugar. But in the process of consequence of this very heavy tax several regulations were malting, as we shall immediately see, barley loses a con- imposed upon the maltster, with a view of facilitating the siderable portion of its solid ingredients, viz., from 8 to 12 per levying of the duty, and to prevent him from defrauding the cent. As, however, it has been ascertained that one part revenue. The most important of these were, That the barof diastase is capable of converting into grape sugar 2000 ley should remain in the cistern in which it was steeped with parts of starch, it might be worth the brewer’s consideration water for a period of not less than 40 hours ; and that when whether it would not be advantageous, and a saving to him, the malt was spread on the floor the maltster should not be to use only a fourth or fifth part of malt, and the rest of un- permitted to sprinkle any water upon it, or sprinkle the malted grain. We should not propose to use raw grain as floor. This last was found to be a restriction which interis done by the distiller, for this would impart a disagreeable fered materially with the malting, and on the repeated reflavour to the beer, but barley, which had been exposed on monstrances of the maltsters in different parts of the kingthe kiln to a temperature of about 300°, which would insure dom a parliamentary inquiry was instituted ; but liberty to the whole starch being converted into dextrine. That even sprinkle the malt on the floors was not granted till 1838, raw grain may be used advantageously in brewing, the prac- when the Act 1st Viet. cap. 49, sect. 7, declared “ Maltsters tice of the Edinburgh brewers at one time abundantly testi- may sprinkle any floor of grain which has been kept in the fied ; for they brewed better small-beer from raw grain than cistern covered with water the full space of fifty hours, at from malt, till they were stopped by the Court of Exchequer the end of six days, or 144 hours, on giving 24 hours notice on arbitrary grounds, with which we could not coincide. to the officer of excise.” Since 1840 the malt duties have been as follows: For Dr Thomson, however, showed that raw grain could not be malt from barley in any part of the United Kingdom 2s. 7d. used for the finer ales, as it imparted a peculiar and disagreeable flavour to them. This disagreeable flavour, however, per bushel, and 5 per cent, additional, making in all 2s. S^d. we have no doubt would be quite got the better of by using per bushel. For malt made from big or here in Scotland or barley, kiln-dried at 300°, and prove a considerable saving Ireland 2s. per bushel, and 5 per cent, additional, equal altogether to 2s. l^d., per bushel. The 5 per cent, was imposed to the brewer. A duty was first charged upon malt during the troubles of in 1840 on all custom and excisable articles, except spirits. The following table shows the quantity of malt prepared Charles I.’s reign. But it continued moderate till the war with France in 1803. It was then raised to the following in England, Scotland, and Ireland, during the years 1847 to 1850, and the amount of duty levied thereon. sums per bushel:— Year. From Barley.

From Barley. From Big.

1847 1848 1849 1850 1847 1848 1849 1850 1847 1848 1849 1850

ENGLAND. No. of Bushels.

IRELAND. No. of Bushels.

Duty Levied.

30,269,963 L.4,105,363 4,319,446 31,848,455 4,497,472 33,161,088 4,668,685 34,423,489 SCOTLAND. L.452,755 3,338,285 494,738 3,647,835 521,174 3,842,762 582,513 4,295,032 32,776 312,158 39,805 379,099 37,292 354,164 36,133 344,127

12 13 9 9

8 10 8 1

2 0 15 10 14 11 7 10

Of 0 7 6 li 1 11 1

The quantities of malt made in Great Britain and Ireland during the years ending 5th January 1853 and 1854 were respectively 5,134,061, and 5,254,968 quarters. From the revenue returns we learn that in Great Britain in 1850, the malt license was taken out by 8362 persons ; besides 18 roasters of malt, and 25 dealers in roasted malt. Malting consists of four processes, which follow each other in regular order : steeping, couching, flooring, and kiln-drying. Steeping takes place in a large square cistern made of wood or stone, which is filled with water to a certain height, when the quantity of barley to be malted is shot into it in successive portions, each portion being well stirred about with rakes, for the double purpose of levelling the surface of the malt and getting rid of the lighter grains which float. Within the last fifteen years the improved cultivation of the soil, and the new varieties of barleys have done away with the necessity of skimming off the light grains. When the whole quantity of barley is introduced the grains should still be covered with four or five inches of water. Some maltsters introduce the grain first into the steep cistern, VOL. v.

From Barley. From Big.

1847 1848 1849 1850 1847 1848 1849 1850

1,277,359 1,529,581 1,458,211 1,550,616 110,046 140,936 118,189 131,486

Duty Levied. L.173,241 207,449 197,770 210,302 11,555 14,798 12,410 13,806

19 10i 13 0 1 8 0 0

51 0 5 11

and then run on the water; with the heavier barley it is of little consequence which plan is adopted. Here the barley is allowed to remain from 40 to 72 hours, according to the temperature and the kind of barley—big requiring least steeping, new barley the most. To prevent the water becoming acescent or putrid, it is advantageous to renew it once or twice during the steeping, particularly if the weather be warm. The temperature of the water should always be from 50° to 55° Fahr. During the steeping the barley imbibes about half its weight of water, and increases about a fifth in bulk, that is to say, 100 lb. of barley after steeping would weigh 147 lb., and 100 bushels of barley would then measure about 122 bushels. The water in which the barley has been steeped acquires an odour resembling that of damp straw, and a yellowish colour from colouring matter dissolved out of the barley skin, which thereby acquires a paler hue. Some carbonic acid is at the same time evolved, which remains dissolved in the steep-water. The object of steeping the barley in the water is to furnish moisture to the farina of the grain, and prepare it for germination in the same way as the moisture of the earth would, were the grain 2s

322 BEE W I N G. Brewing, sown in it. Cai*e must therefore be taken not to continue three or four inches. The number and frequency of the Brewing v-fc. the barley too long in the steep. Maltsters judge of this in turnings is regulated by the temperature of the malt, being a very simple way. If a barley-corn pressed between the more frequent the higher its temperature. In England the finger and thumb continues entire in the husk, it is not suf- malt heap is generally kept at the temperature of 62° ; and ficiently steeped, but if the flour can be easily squeezed out fourteen days is the usual period required for the grain passit is ready for removal. If, however, the farina exudes in ing through the germinating stage. In Scotland, on the the form of a milky juice, it has been oversteeped, and the other hand, the temperature of the malt heap is kept at about 55°, and the consequence is, that the grain takes from barley is spoiled for malting purposes. While the barley is in the steep-cistern it is repeatedly 16 to 20 days to pass through the same stages. gauged by the excise-officer for the purpose of preventing About a day after the rootlets appear, the rudiment of fraud, and of calculating the quantity of malt which will the stem, or the plumula, becomes perceptible. This is probably be yielded by it. As 100 bushels of good barley called by maltsters the “ acrospire.” It issues from the same usually swell to 122 bushels, or very nearly in the propor- end of the seed as the radicles, but, instead of piercing the tion of 9 to 11, this is allowed for in the excise measure- husk, turns round, and proceeds within the husk to the other end of the grain. As soon as the acrospire approaches the ments. The steeping being completed, the water is drawn off other end of the grain, or its point has passed four-fifths of from the cistern, and the barley drained, when it is trans- the grain, its further growth must be arrested, else it would push through the husk and appear externally as a green ferred to the couching-frame. Formerly the couch-frame was allowed to be constructed leaf, when the interior of the grain would become milky, of moveable boards, but since the 2d July 1827 it is by and be quite destroyed for the purposes of the brewer. In law inquired to be made with “ the sides and bottoms well-made malt then the acrospire has only advanced fourthereof straight and at right angles to each other, having fifths up the side of the grain under the skin, and the radithree of such sides permanently fixed, and the other side cles have not been allowed to get more than one and a half formed of moveable planks at least two inches in thickness,” times longer than the grain ; and at this period the texture and must not exceed 28 inches in depth. In this couch- of the grain is so loose that it crumbles to powder under the frame the barley is carefully levelled, and is not allowed to pressure of the finger and thumb. This crumbling under be touched for a period of 24 hours from May to August, the pressure of the finger and thumb is styled “ the free.” and 26 hours from August to May, to enable the excise- It is not commonly known, however, that the same condiofficer to gauge it accurately. The malt duty is usually tion of grain occurs on the ninth or tenth day from its being levied on the couch-gauge, because it is there the malt usu- turned out of the steep, and this is styled the “ first free,” ally acquires its greatest bulk. The sole object of placing the and if the malting be stopped at this stage it will make tolebarley in the couch-frame is to enable the excise-officer to rable beer ; but if it be allowed to pass this stage, the grain gauge it; it is otherwise no essential stage of the malting again becomes tough, and is quite unfit for brewing till the process. “ second free” occurs. There can be no doubt that it is of At the end of 24 hours during the summer, or 26 hours importance to the maltster that the law now allows him to during the winter months, from the period of its removal sprinkle water over the malt when on the floor. This is from the steep-cistern, the barley, which has begun to ac- usually done on the sixth or seventh day if the germination quire increase of temperature, is removed from the couch- should appear to be languid. This practice is getting more frame, and spread on the floor in square heaps about 16 and more into repute,—indeed there are seasons when it inches in depth. For several hours after the grain is in the would be difficult to make good malt unless moisture were couch-frame no perceptible increase of temperature occurs, thus supplied to the grains. During the whole period of but the moisture on the surface of the grains gradually germination the light should be excluded as much as posexhales or is absorbed, so that the grains cease to moisten sible. the hand. After this the heat gradually rises, and it is to It was formerly the practice before removing the malt prevent the heat increasing too rapidly, and to heat the from the floor to gather it once more into a considerable whole grains equally, that the barley is turned out upon the heap, in order to allow its heat to increase to 75° or 80°, floor. under the idea of “ mellowing” the malt. Even some late On the floor the temperature of the heap gradually rises writers—practical men too—recommended this to be done. till it is about 10° above that of the surrounding air, which It is a practice which is more honoured in the breach than usually happens about 96 hours after it has been thrown out the observance, as it causes a useless waste, without forwardof the steep. An agreeable odour, somewhat resembling that ing any of the subsequent processes. By thus heating the of apples, is now exhaled, and if‘the hand be thrust into the grain, after it is ready for the kiln, the malt becomes excesheap the grains are found to have become so moist as to wet sively sweet, much of the dextrine is resolved into sugar, and the hand. The appearance of this stage is called “ sweat- the dry heat to which it is afterwards exposed in the kiln reing” by the maltsters, and it is at this stage that germina- acting on it, seems to convert some of it into alcohol, which tion begins. Up to this period the heaps of grain had been is carried off and lost. There is thereby caused a sensible daily turned, in order to bring all the grains equally forward, diminution in the weight of the malt, while there is no and also to moderate the heat. counterbalancing advantage gained. If the barley is now examined, it will be' found that the As previously explained, during the malting the starch is radicles or roots are sprouting from the tip of every grain. converted into dextrine and grape sugar; and by examining At first these have the appearance of a white prominence, barley in its different stages of germination, it has been aswhich soon, however, increases in length, and divides itself certained that this conversion keeps pace with the growth into three or more fibrils.. Unless the growth were now of the acrospire, and advances through the grain along with checked, these rootlets would increase in length with great it, so that all the portions of the grain to which the acrorapidity ; the great aim of the maltster, therefore, is to keep spire has not yet reached, are still in their starchy state, these as short as possible till the grain be sufficiently malted, whilst all those parts opposite to the acrospire have their h or this purpose the heaps of grain are turned over at least starch converted into dextrine and grape sugar. The glutwice every day, the grains lying at the bottom and interior tinous constituents of the grain have also disappeared, being of the heap being at each turning thrown to the surface. generally supposed to be taken up by the radicles. While With the same view the depth of the bed of grain is also re- the grain is on the floor, it has been ascertained that it abduced at each successive turning, till at last it is reduced to sorbs oxygen, and gives out carbonic acid gas, but probably

323 B R E W I N G. A very objectionable practice used to prevail among many B rewing, Brewing, to no great extent, seeing that the loss which the grain sustains on the floor is trifling, probably not exceeding per provincial maltsters who manufactured for the London market. cent., and a considerable proportion of this must be attributed When the malt was still hot they sprinkled it wuth water, for to grains bruised and roots broken off during the frequent the double purpose, as they imagined, of making it mellow, turnings. and causing it to stand out to its measure when it arrived The last operation of malting consists in drying the malt at its destination. Such malt, if kept, invariably gets “ slack,” on the malt-kiln, by which the germination is arrested, and as it is termed, or damp ; and the worts brewed from it the brewer is enabled to store up the malt until it is required. have a strong tendency to run to acidity. It is not profitThe kiln is a chamber, the floor of which usually consists of able for any brewer to employ such malt. perforated iron plates of wire-cloth, and in the roof of which There are several kinds of malt met with in commerce— is a vent to permit the escape of the heated air and vapour. pale malt, amber malt, brown malt, blown malt, and black Under this chamber is a space in which a fire of charcoal or or porter malt. The preparation of pale malt has been coke is lighted ; or this part is fitted up with a proper hot-air already described. That of amber malt consists in raising stove in which coals may be burned, the smoke being car- the finishing heat a little higher. Brown malt is made and ried away into a chimney by means of iron tubes or flues. prepared exactly as pale malt, excepting that before it is Damper plates are in this latter case provided so as to regu- perfectly dried a little water is sprinkled over it when upon late the draught through the flues, and the admission of hot the kiln, and the drying is finished by rapidly raising a air to the kiln. The malt is then spread regularly over the brisk heat under the malt, which is spread thinly on the perforated iron floor to the depth of three or four inches, and floor and constantly stirred. the heated air passing through the perforated plates makes its Blown malt is just a variety of brown malt, and its maway through the malt, and carries off its moisture, escaping nufacture used to be largely followed by maltsters in and at the vent in the roof. The heat to which the malt is ex- around London. The malt, when ready for the kiln, is laid posed should be about 90°, and should not exceed 100° un- thinly on a kiln floor made of wire-cloth, and is immediately til its whole moisture is exhaled. It is a remarkable fact, dried off with blazing wood, straw, or furze, the grain being that if the heat be raised when the malt is still damp, even constantly turned all the time by men with wooden shovels. a low temperature, such as 135° or 140°, wall cause it to as- Malt thus rapidly dried has a swollen or “ blown ” appearsume a brown colour; whereas if the malt be freed from ance from the swelling of the damp farina in the grain. Its moisture at a low temperature, it may be exposed even to a colour is also more or less brown. heat of 170° without colouring it, and without depriving it Black or porter malt, called also patent malt, is the legal of its vegetative power. The late Dr Thomson demon- colouring matter used in porter-brewing. It is simply malt strated this fact by first thoroughly drying malt at a tempera- roasted in a cylinder of perforated iron over a fire (like ture under 100° and then exposing it to a heat of 175°, coffee), till the required colour be given. Any kind of after which he sowed it, and found it vegetated as rapidly as malt may be used for this purpose, so that it is usually prefresh barley. Till the moisture is thoroughly expelled by pared from malt which has been injured in its preparation. the low heat, the malt requires to be repeatedly turned ; such This kind of malt, being so often made of spoiled materials, at least is the common practice. Mr Black, however, ob- is frequently of bad quality. Good black malt should retain jects to this, and asserts that if the current of heated air be its original size and shape, each grain should be separate, sufficient, no turning is requisite till the malt be dried and not adhering in clusters to each other, and its interior the heat raised, when he turns to prevent burning. As Mr should have a uniform dark chocolate colour. The whole Black speaks from some experience, we quote his words. of the starchy and saccharine matters being converted into “ We know that the portion of the malt nearest the cover- a kind of earomel, this malt does not add to the strength ing of the kiln sometimes feels quite dry, while that on the of the worts, but simply supplies colour and flavour. Brown top is quite damp ; if, therefore, by turning, we throw this and blown malts some supposed to be deficient in extractive part of the malt upon the top and the wet to the bottom, the matter to the extent of from 20 to 30 per cent., but the steam of the wet malt from below must pass through the recent direct experiments of Professors Graham, Hoffmann, drier malt on the top, thus creating double work. The steam and Redwood, prove that they yield as much extractive also, by again passing through the drier malt on the top, tends matter as pale and amber malts. to render it tough. If the kilns be properly constructed, One hundred pounds weight of good barley converted turning is not only unnecessary but injurious, until the malt into pale malt in the above described manner, after being be nearly ready for removal from the kiln, when several turns, kiln-dried and sifted, are found on an average to weigh with a brisk fire, may be necessary to render the dryness of only 80 lb. But as raw grain, if dried at the same tempethe malt uniform.”—(P. 22.) rature, would, according to Dr Thomas Thomson’s experiAccording to the common practice, when the moisture ments, lose 12 per cent, of moisture, the actual loss of solid has been nearly expelled, the temperature is raised to from matter which the barley has sustained by malting is only 8 145° to 165°, and it should be kept at this temperature till per cent. This loss is thus accounted for by Dr Thomson:— it has acquired the desired shade of colour, which is comCarried off by the steep water, per cent. monly a pale yellowish-brown. If the heat be raised when Dissipated on the floor and kiln, ....3 the malt is moist, its colour is rendered brown, or dark Roots, 3 brown, and the quantity of soluble matter is supposed to be Waste (bruised and lost grains), ... diminished. In a properly regulated kiln the drying should not occupy 8 more than two days. But if the supply of heated air be Dr R. Dundas Thomson, who made numerous experigreat, the whole process of kiln-drying may be finished in twenty-four hours. After this the fire is withdrawn, to ments on malt for the purpose of ascertaining its feeding allow the malt to cool, or it is removed to the floor of an ad- and fattening properties, states the loss which barley susjoining apartment and allowed to cool there. Often before tains in malting to be— removing it, it is well trodden for the purpose of breaking Water, 6'00 off the rootlets, or “ comings,” as they are called. At this Saline matter, 0‘48 period they are very brittle and easily broken off, and they Organic matter, 12-52 are afterwards separated from the malt by a sieve or winnowing machine. Total, 19-00

1

324 BREWING. Brewing. 0r a loss of solid matter one-half greater than that stated ter of malt; and if we consider that by the present modes of Brewing, mashing the whole extract is not obtained, we shall see that the by Dr T. Thomson. Big sustains a considerably greater loss of weight than correspondence of the results could scarcely have been closer. barley when malted, its average loss of weight, according to I he following table shows the quantities of malt brewed Dr Thomas Thomson, amounting to 15 per cent., that of by the undermentioned London houses during each year, from 1849 to 1853 inclusive. barley, as above explained, being 8. The bulk or volume, however, of the malt generally ex1849. 1850. 185f. 1852. 1853, ceeds that of the barley used. Thus 100 bushels of EngQrs. Qrs. Qrs. Qrs. Qrs. lish barley yield on the average 109 bushels of malt. Big, however, only yields on the average 100^ bushels of malt Trueman, Hanbury, & Co. 105,022 106,462 118,366 112,494 140,090 Perkins, & Co.... 115,542 113,420 126,932 124,416 129,382 for every 100 of raw grain. In our last edition numerous Barclay, Meux & Co,..., 59,617 60,302 65,117 66,296 66,509 tables were given of the actual results obtained by malting Reid & Co 56,640 56,530 59,550 60,100 63,450 barleys of different qualities. To these the reader is re- Whitbread & Co, 51,800 51,400 52,213 53,236 Combe & Co 43,282 45,008 48,692 47,304 ferred who wishes further particulars on this point. Hoare & Co 31,831 33,769 39,617 We still want a good analysis of malt. Proust, indeed, Elliot, Watney, & Co 29,558 30,660 32,728 36,222 39,131 Calvert & Co. 28,630 33,874 35,420 32,310 gives the following comparative analysis of barley and malt, Mann, Crossman, & Co.... 24,030 25,265 28,690 30,881 34,730 but the substance he denominates hordein is evidently Charrington, Head, & Co. 22,023 22,022 25,350 26 366 starch with fibrous or other insoluble matters. Taylor, Walker, & Co. 15,870 15,925 16,250 17,660 22,110 Goding & Co 13,064 15,143 16,821 16,959 17,515 Malt. Barley. Courage & Co 14,469 14,950 15,753 16,014 16,481 Resin, 1.... ,. 1 Wood & Co 9,973 9,989 9,920 10,500 12,484 Tubb, Wilks, & Cowell Gum, 4.... .15 8,015 8,296 8,605 9,701 9,615 Amsinck & Matthews. Sugar, 5.... .15 665 2,568 Gluten, 3.... , 1 Starch 32.... Besides malt, the only other solid ingredient used in .56 Hordein,..,....,., 55.... .12 brewing is the hop. This is the female catkin of the Humulus Lupulus, a plant belonging to the natural order Urticece, 100 100 and the Linnaean order Dicecia pentandria. The hop was Dr R. Dundas Thomson, in his interesting work, Expe- introduced into England from Flanders about the year rimental Researches on the Food of Animals, gives the ] 524, and its cultivation rapidly increased in the southern ultimate analysis of barley and of malt, but such facts are of counties. The most extensive plantations are in Kent, Sussex, and Herefordshire, but they are also cultivated suclittle interest to the brewer. cessfully in several other counties. The female flowers, Dr Ure’s analysis of barley was a purely practical one, viz., to determine the quantity of solid extract contained in placed on different plants from the males, grow in ovoid malt available for the brewer’s purpose ; and as that is the cones, and consist of scales which have at their base the best malt for the brewer which yields the largest quantity germ of the future seed. The fruit of the hop is a small of extract, he recommends all malts to be tested for this rounded seed enveloped in a scaly calix, which contains at before being purchased. His procedure is simple. 100 its base a granular yellow substance which appears to the grains by weight of malt are taken, powdered, and dried for eye like fine dust. This secretion is the valuable part of half-an-hour by the heat from boiling water. They are the hop on which its peculiar properties depend, and then weighed, and the loss in weight shows the quantity of amounts to about one-eighth of the weight of the hop. moisture in the malt. Cold water is then poured over the When distilled with water, this substance yields 2 per cent, powder, and the vessel containing it is heated in the steam of a volatile colourless oil, to which the plant owes its aroma, bath, with occasional stirring, for half-an-hour. The husks 52 per cent, of the powder consists of a resin soluble in aland insoluble matters are then drained off and washed with cohol ; and the watery solution from which the resin has boiling water; they are then thoroughly dried and weighed. been separated consists of a peculiar bitter principle termed Their weight gives the insoluble matter in the malt. The lupuline, mixed with tannin and malic acid. The lupuline residue of the weight, therefore, is the weight of the soluble when purified, amounts to from 8 to 12 per cent., and posextract available for the brewer. As the result of several sesses the characteristic taste and bitterness of the hop. The catkins of the hop ripen in September, when they experiments on good malt, he found the average to be in are picked from the bines, and are carefully dried on kilns. 100 parts by weight-— They are then laid in heaps on the floor until they slightly Moisture, 6'5 heat, immediately on which being observed they are “ bagInsoluble matter, , 26'7 ged.” This is the most important operation for the preserSoluble extract ...........GG’S vation of their virtues. The hops are thrown into the bags in successive layers, each layer being well trampled down ; 100-0 and to render access of air to the fine resinous dust of the According to these practical experiments, if we assume catkins still more difficult, it is usual to compress them still that a quarter of malt weighs 324 lb., then the total further by means of a screw or hydraulic press. The valusoluble extract would amount to 213-84‘lb. avoirdupois; able yellow powder with its essential oil is thus preserved but as the gum and sugar, in assuming the fluid form, com- for years. The best hops have a golden-yellow colour and bine with the elements of water, if the extract were dried an agreeable aroma. When rubbed between the hands it would weigh 231 lb., and, reduced to the basis of the they leave a yellow odoriferous powder on them without barrel of 36 gallons, becomes in the language of the brewer any broken parts of the plant, and they yield to boiling al87 lb. per barrel of 36 gallons, which merely means that cohol from nine to twelve per cent, of soluble yellow matter. the wort from a quarter of malt, if evaporated down to the This last is the best test of their good quality, and should bulk of a barrel of 36 gallons, would weigh 87 lb. more always be made before purchasing them. than a barrel of pure water. These experiments of Dr The hop is a very precarious crop, the produce of some Ure correspond very closely with the actual yield of extract years failing to the extent of fully two-thirds, as even the at two of the greatest London breweries. He was informed following short table will show. In 1840 the failure of the by a gentleman connected with these breweries, that the actual hop crop was so great, that only 7,114,917 lb. weight paid average yield was 84 lb. of saccharine extract for every quar- duty in England. The duty on hops is 2d. per pound, and

325 BREWING. Brewing. 5 per cent, additional. The duty however does not extend ing whether this was or was not in favour of the malt, re- ^Brewing, i^ ^ / to Ireland. The following table, from the latest revenue commends the practice. The mash-tun is a large wooden tub with a double botreturns, shows the number of pounds weight of hops which paid duty in England during the years 1848 to 1853 in- tom, the uppermost of which is moveable, and is pierced with clusive, the amount of duty levied thereon, and the number holes, and is fixed a few inches above the other. Into the space between the two bottoms are fixed the ends of the of acres of land under crop during each of these years:— tubes and stopcocks for letting in water or drawing off the Acres. Pounds of Hops. Amount of Duty. Year. wort. The mash-tun ought always to be at least one-third 44,343,984 L.388,007 3 8 49,232 1848 larger than the bulk of the malt to be used. 9 16,650,914 145,693 1849 42,798 The temperature of the water which is let into the mash424,702 0 48,537,669 1850 43,125 10 27,042,919 236,623 tun is of no small importance. The researches of Payen 43,244 1851 J 1^ 447,144 51,102,494 1852 and Persoz have demonstrated that the action of the diastase 46,157 -4 277,824 16 9 31,751,693 1853 49,367 in the conversion of starch and dextrine into sugar is most During the past year foreign hops have been largely used perfect when the temperature is not lower than 158°, and by some brewers, even in the manufacture of the finest de- not higher than 167°. If raised much higher, the change scriptions of ales. In consequence, however, of not possess- of the dextrine into sugar does not take place, the starch ing the rich flavour of the English hops, they have not as remaining in the state of dextrine. The water in the boiler yet been used alone for the finer liquors, but mixed in is therefore usually heated to about 170’ or 180°, and run various proportions, from a third to a sixth, with all the best into the mash-tun generally in the proportion of a barrel kinds of English hops. Were more attention paid to the and a half of water (liquor, as the brewers term it) for each drying and packing of these hops they would be much more quarter of malt. The malt, as it is slowly poured in, is largely used than at present. The prejudice, however, which thoroughly mixed with the water by means of oars and formerly existed against their use is gradually dying out; rakes, to prevent it forming clots, which it is apt to do if the and when a strong bitter is required, as in India ale, with temperature of the water be high. In many breweries now only a certain amount of flavour, it is found that the fla- a machine is fixed in the mash-tun, provided with oars and vour may be given by one kind of hop, and the bitter by rakes which are moved by steam-power, and is found to another, without in the least deteriorating the quality of the answer well. After the malt has been thoroughly mixed, liquor. During the year 1852 there were only 34,622 lb. an additional quantity of warm water is thrown in from beweight of foreign hops imported into Britain ; but during the low, when the tun is covered over and allowed to remain year 1853 the imports of foreign hops had increased to from to 3 hours. In many of the great London breweries the practice followed is to run into the mash-tun a certain 4,739,307 lb. weight. The water used in brewing should in every case be the proportion of water at the temperature of 145° in summer, purest spring water which can be had. Recent chemical or 167° in winter, and gradually throw in the malt, and mix researches have established that many of the old notions it by proper agitation so that it may be properly moistened with regard to the water are fallacious. River water when and no lumps may remain. The quantity of water is usually pure possesses no superiority over pure spring water; in the proportion of 1 ^ barrel to the quarter of malt. This whereas if impute, or loaded with animal and vegetable takes up from half an hour to three-quarters of an hour, after matters in decomposition, as is the I hames water, it is a which about two-thirds more water (or a barrel per quarter decided loss to the brewer, as the vegetable and animal re- of malt) is run into the mash at the temperature of 200°, mains are decomposed during the process of brewing, and and the agitation is renewed till the whole is thoroughly carry with them some portion of the strength of the mixed. The mean temperature of the mash may be reckoned wort, besides rendering the wort and the beer more liable about 145°. The tun is then covered and allowed to reto go wrong. \Vaters which possess a certain amount of main at rest for an hour or an hour and a half. After this hardness are even not objectionable, as the earthy salts, to period the infusion of malt, or “ wort” as it is called, is run which the hardness is owing, are precipitated during the off into a large vessel called the underback. By this plan, if the additional water at 200° be thrown process of brewing; in fact, some of the finest ales are made of waters decidedly hard, but free from vegetable and too suddenly into the mash-tun, there is danger of its destroying to some extent the chemical agency of the diastase animal impurity. Brewing properly consists of five successive processes, viz., in the conversion of the starch and dextrine into sugar. 1. Mashing ; 2. Boiling ; 3. Cooling ; 4. Fermenting ; 5. And it is a known fact that the higher the temperature of Cleansing; and to these might perhaps be added Storing the water used for mashing, the greater is the quantity of unchanged starch in the wort. and Racking. Mr Tizard has lately endeavoured to introduce a new Mashing consists in infusing the malt in water of a certain temperature ; and the infusion when run off is termed plan of mashing, which seems to possess considerable adthe “ wort.” Previous to the malt being introduced into vantages over that in common use. He mashes the malt the mash-tun it must be bruised or coarsely ground, but it in water at the temperature of 160°, no matter what the is now generally admitted that bruising the malt in the temperature of the malt may be, thoroughly stirring and crushing-mill, where it is passed between two iron cylinders, mixing it; the water being in the proportion of If to 1£ answers best for the brewer’s purpose. If the malt were barrel per quarter of malt. The tun is then covered for an ground it would be apt to form a cohesive paste with the hour and a half, to allow full time for every grain to be fully hot water when it is mashed (called “setting” by the brewer), saturated. After this period, in order to raise the mash to when it would be difficult to drain. In the crushed malt, that temperature which the researches of Payen and Persoz however, the husk remains entire, and thus helps to keep showed was best fitted for extracting the soluble matters, the farinaceous particles accessible to the solvent action of and allowing the diastase its full action in the conversion of the water. Crushed malt is about a fifth part greater in the starch and dextrine into sugar, he heats the mash by bulk than whole malt, or four bushels of malt after being means of steam to the temperature of from 160° to 170°. crushed would measure five bushels. Some brewers recom- This he effects through the agency of what he calls his mend that the malt after it is crushed should be kept in a “ mashing attemperator,” which he has patented. This cool place for a day or two, in order that, by attracting mois- machine is merely the fixed rakes and oars made of hollow ture from the air, it may be more easily mashed; and Dr tubing, which he sets in circular motion by means of the Ure, from experiments made for the purpose of ascertain- steam-engine, and throws steam into them. The heat thus

326 BREWING. Brewing, communicated to the mash, through the hollow rakes and a single row of holes perforated on their reverse sides. Each Brewing. oars, raises the temperature from 130° or 140° to 160° or arm of the tube communicates, by means of the tubes E E, 170° in about 20 minutes, at which temperature he main- with a copper cup C, which is fixed over the centre; and tains the mash for 4 or 6 hours according to the colour and from the centre of this cup rises a hollow tube terminating quality of the malt, and the discretion of the brewer. Mr in the handle D. When about to be used, the wooden bar Tizard holds that this plan possesses several advantages G G is fixed across the mash-tun, and the upright pin P in over that usually followed. It converts more effectually its centre runs through the circular opening of the transthe whole starch and dextrine into sugar, allowing the dia- verse tube, and up the hollow tube in the centre of the cup, stase to exert its full chemical power. It extracts a larger and works on a pivot at the handle. A stream of hot water proportion of saccharine matter from the malt. And by re- of the temperature of 180° is then allowed to pour into the quiring a lesser quantity of water to exhaust the malt, saves copper cup, and as it escapes by the single row of horizontal ■waste in the subsequent processes by requiring no boiling. holes on the opposite sides of each limb, these are turned Viewed in a purely chemical light, we should say that Mr round by the resistance which the air opposes to the horizonTizard’s plan seems best adapted to attain the end in view ; tal jets of water, and the whole surface of the mash is conbut extended practice can alone decide. It appears to us tinuously and regularly sprinkled. that the essential part of his plan is the continuing the When the malt is first mashed the infusion has a milkymashing for six hours, and maintaining the temperature at white appearance; but as the mashing goes on, and the that height which experiment has shown will most effec- diastase reacts on the dextrine, a fine frothy head appears tually convert the whole starch into sugar. all over the mash ; and if it be run off it is found to have We understand that a patent has just been taken out for become quite transparent, to have a fine amber colour, a a machine which will effect a great saving of labour in peculiar smell, and a sweet, luscious taste. When the mash mashing, besides making a superior mash. The hot water is made by first wetting the malt and then running in addiand the crushed malt are poured into it in a continuous tional water, this change is observed to occur when the temstream, and as it revolves rapidly on the principle of the barrel perature is raised by the addition of the hotter water. If, churn, these are thoroughly mixed together and discharged however, the heat be raised too high—as, for instance, to into the mash-tun without any loss either of heat or of time. 190° or 200°—the wort invariably runs cloudy from the By the ordinary plan of mashing, when the first wort is mash-tun, and is found to contain much unchanged starch drawn off into the underback, a second quantity of water is and dextrine. The high heat has in this case destroyed the introduced into the mash-tun from below the malt, usually action of the diastase. at the temperature of 200°, when the whole is agitated and When the mashing is performed according to the Scottish stirred as before. The quantity of water is usually 3-4ths ale-brewers’ plan, as the wort is run off the colour is observed of that first used. It is then covered over, and allowed to to diminish, the smell to become less agreeable, and the taste stand for an hour. Many brewers now approve of making less sweet. At last the colour becomes nearly opal, and the their second mash with water not exceeding 150° in tem- smell sour. The whole soluble portion of the malt has not, perature, and think they have improved the quality of their however, been profitably extracted, either by this method beer thereby. or by the ordinary English plan of three several mashings, While the second mash is making, the first drawn wort is as is proved by the last wort in the English method, and usually pumped into the boiler, and brought to the boil as the last portion of the wort by the Scottish plan, containing speedily as possible. When the wort from the second mash undecomposed starch. We have not had an opportunity of is drawn off it is pumped at once into the boiler, and mixes examining the worts prepared according to Mr Tizard’s without stopping the boiling. plan; but, from the single circumstance of his infusing his Usually a third mash is made with a still smaller quantity malt for six hours, and keeping it during the last five of of water, also about 200° in temperature, and, after being these at the temperature most favourable for the diastase covered up for half an hour is drawn off, and is either converting the whole starch into sugar, we should conclude pumped into the boiler, reserved for table beer, or kept to that the whole starch was converted into sugar, and that no form the first mash with fresh malt. portion would pass off undecomposed. Mr Tizard indeed When three mashes are made, it is usually found that the gives a table, the result of numerous experiments, in demonsecond contains just half as much extract as the first mash, stration of the superiority of his plan over those usually foland the third mash just half as much as the second. In lowed. By examining the mash at the end of every hour, fact, the first mash seems to have extracted nearly the whole he found that the quantity of saccharine matter was increassoluble matters, and the subsequent mashes merely dilute, ing up to the end of the sixth hour. Instead, therefore, of and allow to be carried off, the portion of the extract which getting at the rate of only 84 lb. per barrel for every quarter had been retained by the grains. of malt, he got 90 lb.; which extra quantity, in a large The Scottish-ale brewers, acting on this belief, instead of brewery, must be a very large saving annually. Whatever, making several mashes, usually make but one, of the strength therefore, may be thought of his “ Mashing Attemperator,” of about If or 2 barrels to the quarter of malt; and, in order there seems to be no doubt that his continuing the mashing to procure all the extract retained by the grains, after the for five or six hours is a decided improvement, and one taps are opened below, sprinkle hot water in a continuous strictly in accordance with the latest chemical researches. shower (“ sparge,” as they call it) over the surface of the By Mr Tizard’s plan the diastase is left in contact with the mash. As this water percolates through the mass of grains starch and dextrine so long as to convert the whole into and runs out at the tap below, it carries with it all the soluble sugar; whereas if the diastase be drawn off with the first matters of the malt. It is essential for the success of this mash before it has had time to effect this change, the cheprocess that the surface of the malt should never be allowed mical powers of what is left in the mash are greatly weakened to get dry, otherwise the wet mass of grains falls into cracks, in the second mash by the running in of water at a temperaand the water escapes through them, without exhausting the ture of 200°, which is known to destroy its chemical action. malt. The sparger is a very simple inD If, then, the plan of lengthened infusion be adopted, the strument. It is a copper tube A B, oneScottish method of “ sparging” is the proper mode of removand-a-halfor two inches in diameter, and ing the whole of the infusion from the grains. Mr Tizard of sufficient length to stretch across the has invented and patented a machine to sparge the mash mash-tun. It is closed at its extremities; and also empty the grains out of the mash tun. It appears is divided into two equal parts A E and B E, and these have to us, however, to possess no advantages over the simple and

BREWING. 327 Brewing, cheap Scottish sparger, besides being too complicated and quite puts an end to any further conversion of starch or dex- Brewing, ^ too easily put out of order for any ordinary brewery. trine into sugar, by destroying the diastase, the essential v"»,/ The next part of the process is to boil the wort, and it is principle which effects this conversion. By boiling, therewhen in the boiler that the wort receives the quantity of fore, all the unconverted starch or dextrine remains in the wort hops which gives the beer bitterness and flavour, and renders and subsequent beer in the state of gum, and hence the tenit capable of being kept. Brewers in different parts of the dency to ropiness which such beer exhibits. In support of country add their hops in different ways and at different his practice of not boiling the wort, Mr Tizard refers to the times. Some add the hops as soon as the wort begins to fermentation of cider and wine, in neither of which is the boil; others wait for half an hour, when they throw in half wort boiled before being fermented, yet these liquors are as the quantity they purpose to add, and in another half hour clear as beer ever requires to be. throw in the rest. Some brewers, after adding the hops in As it is requisite, however, to extract the bitter of the hop masses, allow them to swim on the surface that the steam by means of heat, Mr Tizard has patented an apparatus for may penetrate them and open their pores before they beat the purpose. As he does not boil the wort, the underback them down into the wort; others sink them into the wort is fitted with a false perforated bottom like that in the mashinclosed in nets, and when they think their virtues are suf- tun, or the old hop-back plates may be used for the same ficiently extracted, draw the nets up, and allow them to drip purpose. Beneath this perforated false bottom, or these into the boiler. As the aroma of the hop depends on the plates, a coil or two of metal tubing is fixed, provided with yellow powder, care should be taken not to lose it by break- a stop-cock, and made to communicate with the steaming up the masses too much before adding them to the wort. boiler. The hops are spread evenly over this perforated The quantity of hops added to the wort varies according to bottom, and four hours before setting tap, boiling water is the strength of the beer, the length of time it is intended to poured over them sufficient to cover them. The vessel is be kept, or the heat of the climate to which it is to be sent. then covered up and left for an hour. Steam is then passed For the strongest kinds of ale or porter, the usual propor- through the coil of tubes below the perforated bottom till tion is 1 lb. of hops for every bushel of malt, or 8 lb. to the temperature of the water rises to 200°, and it is mainthe quarter of malt. Strong beer has about 4^ lb. per. tained at this heat for three hours. The wort is then conquarter, and table beer rarely more than 2 lb.; Indian ales, veyed directly from the mash-tun to the underback, (now and beers for exportation, again, require from 12 to 22 lb. the hop-back), till it stands 6 inches in depth above the perof hops to the quarter of malt. forated floor. The wort is then pumped or run off into the We have said that the main object in boiling the wort is coolers ; and as the wort is running in from the mash-tun to increase its strength by driving off* the superfluous water above the hops, and is draining or being pumped away from which had been added in mashing. Brewers, however, below them, all their virtues are thoroughly extracted and believe that other important ends are served, viz., that any incorporated with the wort. In this way none of the aroma residuary starch should by the boiling be converted into of the hop is lost; there is no destruction of saccharine matdextrine; that the albuminous and gelatinous particles in ter or of the principles so necessary to a successful fermensolution may be coagulated and precipitated, partly by the tation ; and as the wort is drawn off at once, nearly at the heat, partly by combining with the tannin of the hops, and strength it is wanted, there is no need of prolonged evapoby this deposit tend to clarify the liquor; and that thereby ration to bring it down to the proper density. the keeping qualities of the beer are improved. We shall Lengthened experience can alone determine in which of immediately see whether any of these supposed purposes these plans true economy consists. That Mr Tizard’s plan are answered. The boiling is very generally continued for is the most scientific, and promises to yield the best results, three hours; but many practical brewers condemn this can scarcely be questioned. And as the essential parts of lengthened boiling, as thereby the finer and more aromatic his plan could be carried out with scarcely any alteration on principles of the hops are thrown off, and a nauseous bitter the present machinery, it is to be hoped brewers will give extracted. They therefore limit the boiling to an hour and it a fair trial, and make known the result. What we cona half. It seems to be an ascertained fact, that a certain sider the essentials of his plan, are the six hours’ mashing, portion of the saccharine extract is lost during the boiling. the sparging to remove the remains of the saccharine extract Whether this is carried off by the vapour, or whether the from the grains, the separate infusion of the hops, and the boiling converts a portion of it into alcohol which flies oft* transfer of the wort direct from the mash-tun to the coolers. along with the steam, has not with certainty been deter- We are quite aware that Mr Tizard would object to this mined. The amount of condensation in boiling is usually being called his plan, unless his expensive patented main the proportion of 1 in 10 per hour. That is to say that chinery were adopted. But we have attempted to separate wort of the strength of 50 lb. saccharine extract per barrel the essential from the non-essential, and feel satisfied that would strengthen 5 lb. per barrel by one hour’s boiling. the above fulfils all the indications which science has pointed When the boiling is finished the boiled wort is drawn off out. The hops cause a considerable loss of wort, as every into a large vessel called the “hop-back,” or “jack-back,” 60 lb. weight of hops is calculated to retain about a barrel which is furnished with a double bottom, the uppermost of of wort. Brewers seem not to attend sufficiently to this which is of cast iron perforated with small holes, through circumstance. By the use of a screw or hydraulic press, which the wort drains and leaves the hops. this quantity could be recovered ; but most brewers prefer Mr Tizard objects to boiling the wort at all, condemning using these hops for the brewing of weak table beer, to it as a useless and wasteful process ; and, with great reason, which, besides imparting some bitter, they impart considerhe attributes much of the irregularities which occur during able strength of saccharine matter. A preferable plan seems the fermenting process to injury which the wort receives in to be to prepare the infusion of hops separately, as recomboiling. Chemical experiments have clearly demonstrated, mended by Mr Tizard, but instead of mixing the wort with that to undergo the fermentive stage in perfection, there the exhausted hops, the infusion should be drained from the should be as much gluten and albuminous matter in the hops and added to the wort in the underback. No loss of wort as possible. But the boiling, and especially the boil- wort would thereby be sustained, and by putting the wet ing with the hops, is the very surest way to destroy these mat- mass of hops in bags and subjecting them to pressure in a ters, seeing that the heat coagulates and precipitates them, screw or hydraulic press, every particle of soluble bitter they while the astringent matters in the hop unite with what the could yield would be recovered. heat might have spared, and throw them down as inert matWhether the plan of boiling or not boiling be followed, ter. But boiling has another hurtful effect on the wort; it the wort is next transferred to the coolers, that its tempera-

328 B R E W I N G. Brewing. ture jnay brought down sufficiently low to admit of its on the coolers, and then pass it through refrigerators in Brewing's—being fermented. The coolers are large flat cisterns or which it is brought in close contact with cold spring water, troughs, not in general more than six inches deep, extend- thus effecting a rapid reduction of temperature. Several ino- the whole breadth of the building, and freely exposed to patents have been taken out for different forms of these, the air. These coolers are generally made of wood, but but it does not appear that any of them have given such iron is very generally superseding wood, being found to pos- satisfaction as to lead to their general adoption; so that the sess many advantages. Slate, zinc, and latterly tiles, par- coolers are still indispensable parts of the brewer’s appaticularly Prosser’sfelspathic tiles, have been also used. When ratus. It is an acknowledged fact that on the coolers a the wort has been subjected to boiling, it generally reaches considerable loss of saccharine extract occurs, for if the the coolers at a temperature of from 200° to 208°, and here strength of the wort be accurately gauged by the saccharoit must cool down to the temperature of 54° or 60°. The meter before being passed to the coolers, and after it is run more rapidly this can be effected the better, and hence the from them into the fermenting vat, it will be found that advantage of the coolers being in a free exposed situation, there is a considerable loss of saccharine matter not acand hence also the use of fanners (or blowers), which many counted for. This loss cannot be by evaporation. It seems employ. When the wort is transferred at once to the mash- to be simply loss of fluid on the surface of the coolers tun through the underback to the coolers, as by Tizard’s themselves; nor need this be wondered at, when we con plan, the temperature of the wort is only about 150°, so that sider that even to wet the coolers it would require several the time occupied in cooling is greatly shortened. In sum- barrels of water. The very fact of such a loss occurring mer brewing, the worts should always be ready to let into should be an additional reason for the brewer adopting the coolers in the evening, to take advantage of the depres- some simple refrigerator to cool down his whole wort, and sion of temperature which occurs during the night. The not pass it into the coolers at all. When the wort is sufficiently cooled down, it is run off coolers, if of wood, are recommended by some to be always kept covered with pure w'ater till required, when this should into the fermenting vats, or “ gyle tuns” as they are termed, be run off, and the worts run in. In this way, it is said, not where it is converted from the luscious sweet wort, into the only is the temperature of the coolers lower than it would intoxicating beer. The gyle tuns are large square or cylinotherwise be, but no waste of wort occurs as the pores of the drical vessels of w^ood, varying in size according to the exwood are full of water ; whereas, when this is not attended tent of the brewery. These vessels are never filled to the to, considerable loss of wort is experienced, not merely in top, because a considerable head of yeast rises during the watery parts which can be spared, but in saccharine ex- fermenting process, for which allowance must be made. It tract. This practice, however, is condemned by many prac- is of no small importance that the gyle tun should be placed tical brew'ers who have tried the practice. They find they in a chamber defended as much as may be from atmospheric cannot have the coolers too dry when the wort is run on to vicissitudes, and the temperature ought to be maintained as them ; dampness and wetness in the coolers tending much uniformly as possible between 50° and 55°. The temperato produce that peculiar kind of disagreeable bitterness called ture to which the wort is cooled down depends on the rapidity with which the fermentation is to be conducted, and “ foxiness.” Many brewers condemn the use of fanners ; others again on the season of the year. The warmer the temperature of consider them the most valuable aids. Those who object the air, the cooler should be the wort, lest the fermentation to them, do so on the principle that the current of air caused should rise too high. In England the wort is generally by the fanners keeps the wort in agitation, and prevents the cooled down to 60° when the temperature is cold, but to 55° deposition of those flocks or insoluble particles which fall if the temperature is warm. In Scotland, again, the worts from the wort as it cools. Those who use the fanners, again, are if possible cooled down to from 50° to 53 , and the whole assert that the gentle agitation of the surface does good to fermenting process is conducted more slowly. As a genethe wort, while it does not in the least interfere with the ral rule, the cooler the worts are, when set to ferment, the deposit of the sediment, which, indeed, may deposit in the slower but more regular will be the fermentation, and the coolers, but when the wort is run off, is almost all carried more under our power to regulate. When the wort is poured into the gyle tun, it is mixed along with it into the fermenting tun. It must be apparent to any impartial observer, that as the sediment or flocks with a certain quantity of yeast in order to set it into fermenwhich fall are afterwards carried into the fermenting vat, it tation. In the large porter breweries, this yeast is in genecannot be of the slightest importance to the eventual clearing ral previously mixed with a certain quantity of the wort a of the beer, whether the wrort on the coolers be agitated or be short while previous, and placed in a warm place to allow left still; consequently, if it be desirable to cool down the fermentation to commence in it. It is then styled “ lobb.” wort rapidly, the fanners can scarcely be dispensed with— In the Scottish breweries the yeast is generally first mixed more especially in close foggy weather, when stagnation of in the fermenting vat itself, with about six times its measure of wort, and then the whole wort is run from the coolers the air over the wort is a most fruitful cause of acidity. During the process of cooling, the volume of the wort in full flow upon it. In England one gallon of yeast is gediminishes from one-eighth to one-fifth, owing to the evapo- nerally sufficient to set in full fermentation 100 gallons of ration, the effect of which is a concentration of the beer. As wort; but more is required in winter, and less in summer. the cooling is effected almost entirely by. evaporation from In Scotland, where the fermenting process is conducted the surface, it takes place most rapidly during spring and more slowly, and at a lower temperature, the proportion of autumn when the air is dry, and also when a current of air yeast is one gallon to every four barrels during winter, and plays over the surface. In such circumstances, six or seven one gallon to every five barrels during spring or summer. Yeast is the thick pasty fluid which separates from an inhours usually suffice to cool down the wort to the fermenting temperature, but if the air be moist, and there be no breeze, fusion of malt when in a state of fermentation. When this the cooling is sometimes so slow as to occupy twelve or is examined by the microscope, it is found to consist of fifteen hours. In such circumstances, the fanners, or blowers, globules of a grayish colour from the 3000th to the 4000th are of inestimable value, as from the great extent of surface of an inch in diameter. When fermentation begins, these exposed the oxygen is absorbed, and the wort is apt to pass small corpuscular bodies move about in all directions, become larger, and small projections are seen to appear on their surinto the acetous fermentation. Many refrigerators have been invented for the purpose of face, which enlarge, drop off, and become independent coraiding the brewer to cool down his wort rapidly. In many puscles, and in their turn give birth to new ones. It is breweries it is customary to cool down the wort only to 100° thus that during fermentation, a quantity of yeast is pro-

BREWING. 329 judge of the health of the gyle. As above stated, it should have the Brewing, Brewing, duced seven times as great as the yeast used. These gloof a fine cauliflower. If, however, it should assume the v ,r ^ — ■/ bules may be drained from the fluid in which they float appearance appearance of a well curled wig (we have no better phrase), having when the yeast forms a mass like soft cheese ; and in this broad flaky curls, it denotes unsoundness. The aroma now should state yeast used to be exported from Holland to France for he very perceptible. “ 3. The curly head should then rise to a light yeasty or rocky the use of bakers, and is still so transmitted from one part of Germany to another, and has even been sent to India from head, little more than perhaps from two to three feet high, of a fine Britain. From the experiments of Payen and Persoz, it brownish white colour if sound. If unsound, it assumes in some an ugly bluish-white appearance, which often extends over appears that the essential operative constituent of yeast is a parts the tun. This almost invariably happens where there is any galpeculiar azotized matter, closely resembling albumen, gluten, vanic action from chains of pipes or a mixture of metals ; and cancaseine, &c., and is not sugar in a state of decomposition as not be cured or prevented but by doing away with the cause; that was imagined by Dr Thomson. Hence they found that is by insulating the tuns. “ 4. After a time the light yeasty head should drop a little, perbrain, white of egg, and many other nitrogenous substances, 3 or 4 inches. This we call the fourth change. The aroma if mixed with a solution of sugar, caused it to ferment, and haps should now be very vinous and pungent. furnished a supply of yeast. These researches of Payen “ 5. The light yeasty head which had dropped should now rise and Persoz strongly point out to the brewer the advantage to what we call a close yeasty head, having the appearance of of not destroying the albumen and gluten in the wort by yeast all over, with many little air bubbles on the top, not, however, boiling. Boiling, as already explained, destroys the greater larger than a nut or walnut; these constantly breaking and others supplying their place. If the fermentation has beenhealthy throughportion of these principles, and throws them down in an in- out, the close yeasty head will continue rising and puffing out gas soluble state. But if the plan were adopted of running the from the air-bells, until the beer is thought ready for cleansing. wort from the mash-tun into the coolers, these valuable parts . . Should all these changes, as before stated, take of the wort would be preserved, and would tend to render place regularly, and be accompanied through the process by a sound healthy aroma (generally termed “ stomach”), we may rest assured the process of fermentation surer and steadier. The act of fermentation converts the sugar of the wort that all is right, and that the beer, if afterwards properly treated into carbonic acid gas (fixed air), which flies off, and alcohol in storing, will turn out sound and good. ’ The time during which the fermentation is continued in (spirit of wine), which remains in the beer. This transformation or decomposition, “ attenuation” as the brewers term the gyle tun varies according as the rapid or slow process it, is easily understood. Alcohol consists of 4 atoms of car- of fermentation has been followed, also according to the bon, 6 of hydrogen, and 2 of oxygen, represented by C4, He, state of the weather, the temperature of the wort, and other O2. Carbonic acid consists of 1 atom carbon, and 2 of causes. When the quick processs of fermentation is foloxygen ; and as an atom of water is at the same time de- lowed, as is usual in England, the wort is only kept fercomposed, we have 1 atom of grape sugar and 1 atom of menting in the gyle tun from 24 to 36 hours; and usually water converted into 2 atoms of alcohol and 4 atoms of car- by the time the half of the saccharine extract is decomposed, and when the fermentation is still at its height, the bonic acid. Thus— 1 Grape sugar = Ci2 On 1 form- f 2 Alcohol = Cs H12 Oi yeasty head is beat down and mixed with the wort, when 1 Water = H 1 0 j J mg. ( 4 Carbonic acid = C* 08 the whole is run off into fixed hogsheads, large barrels or “ rounds,” in order to be further fermented and “ cleansed.” — C12 Hl2 Ol2 H^2 Oj2 In Scotland, again, where the slow process of fermentaSix or eight hours after adding the yeast, the fermentation tion is commonly followed, the wort remains in the ferment•becomes active. When this process is regular, a white ing tun from six to twelve days, undergoing, during that creamy froth appears in the middle and round the edges of period, a slower and more manageable fermentation than acthe fermenting vat, and gradually extends over the whole cording to the English plan; and during this period the surface of the fluid. This frothy head increases more and head of yeast is usually twice daily beat down, or mixed more, being highest in the middle, and rises two or three with the upper portion of the wort, till the proper degree of feet above the surface of the fluid, gradually assuming a attenuation is attained. This is done with the view ot rebrown hue. During all this time there is a copious disen- exciting the activity of the fermentation. gagement of carbonic acid gas, produced by the conversion The gyle tuns, or fermenting vats, are usually fitted with of the sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid gas. At the same a coil of metal tubing for the purpose of regulating the heat time, and keeping exact pace with this conversion,or “atten- of the wort, which may be raised or depressed by passing uation” as the brewers style it, the temperature of the fer- hot or cold water through them, as each may be required. menting fluid rises till it is 12° or 15° above that at which Mr Black objects to the use of fixed metal tubing in the it was originally set; and an agreeable aroma or vinous smell gyle tuns, as being liable to engender electrical currents, (technically termed “ stomach”) is perceived. As this is which interfere with the regularity of the fermentation. He the most important of all the stages, and it is very necessary therefore recommends a moveable regulator which can be the brewer should know whether all is going on regularly, let down into the fermenting vat by means of ropes and we quote Mr William Black’s excellent description of “ a pulleys when wanted, fitted with pliable tubes attached to sound and regularly good fermentation.” the metal regulator tubes, so that the flow of hot or cold wa“ In such a fermentation five distinct changes occur, followed, ter through them may be discharged over the side of the after a certain stage, by a highly pungent aroma, which rises with fermenting vat. , the carbonic acid gas. If this aroma throughout the process be sound Mr Black has endeavoured to prove that electricity and and vinous to the smell, we may feel assured that the worts are sound, and will go on regularly; if, on the contrary, a faintish, electro-chemical agencies have much to do with many of the disagreeable, suh-acid flavour arise at any time during the process, irregularities which are observed in wort during fermentawe know that acidity or unsoundness has taken place, which should tion, and he has certainly pointed out a few marked inhe corrected. stances where such a connection seemed to be established. “ 1. The first stage of fermentation commences with a fine white substance, like cream, appearing all round the edges of the gyle Fie particularly objects to sinking fermenting vats in the tun; this creamy appearance gradually extends over the surface earth, and relates an instructive instance relative to one so of the fluid in the tun. This we call creamed over, or the first fixed, in which, on a day when a thunder-storm threatened, stage. the fermentation became stationary, and all the usual means “ 2. The next should he a curly appearance, like the head of a failed to forward the process ; but on the wort being pumped fine cauliflower, which should also extend all over the tun. This, out into casks supported on wooden rests, the fermentation the second change, we denominate the curling or cauliflower head. This cauliflower head should be examined very narrowly, as from its spontaneously resumed, and was finished successfully. He strong and healthy appearance or otherwise we may pretty nearly therefore recommends all fermenting tuns to be supported YOL. Y.

330 Brewing.

BREWING. on WOoden pillars or beams, so as to isolate them as com- gallons each barrel, and weighing, when full, above five Brewing pletely as possible. From this it is apparent that Mr Tizard’s hundred tons. In these it was customary to keep immense plan of having fermenting vats sunk in caves and under- stocks/or eighteen months or two years until the beer ground excavations, and surrounded with water, whatever “ ripened,” that is, lost most of its sweetness and mildness, effect such might have in maintaining a uniformity of tem- and acquired a slightly acid taste, technically called “hardness.” Good hard beer was then the favourite drink ; but perature, would be a sure means of making bad beer. The next process in brewing is termed “ cleansing.” Pro- it appears that the taste of the consumers has changed now, perly speaking, this process is only required in the quick and that mild beers are much more universally used. Hence plan of fermentation : seeing that when the slow fermenta- in the great porter and ale establishments, it often happens tion is followed no proper “ cleansing” process is required. that these liquors are consumed within six weeks of their It was mentioned above, that when the slow process was manufacture. In storing beer it is of great consequence that the temfollowed, as it is in Scotland, the fermentation was kept going on in the fermenting vat from six to twelve days. At the end pei’ature of the store room or cellar should be as uniform of this period, the required degree of attenuation being at- and as low as possible, seeing that increase of heat promotes tained, the head of yeast is no longer mixed with the wort, and fermentation, and is apt to cause the alcohol to become cona stream of cold water being passed through the refrigerators verted into vinegar. Underground cellars, where procurable, of the fermenting tun, the fermentation ceases, the tempe- seem to fulfil these conditions better than others, and have perature declines, the turbid particles separate, and by two therefore been strongly recommended. In consequence of or three days’ rest, the beer becomes quite transparent. It electricity having such a marked effect on beer, particularly has “ cleansed” itself, and is now ready to be run off' into when kept in casks or store vats which communicate with the cask or store vat. When the beer or ale is run off from or rest on the ground, it is desirable to have all these isolated the gyle tun, all the yeast is left behind, both that which as much as possible by resting them on wooden supports, at floated on the surface, and that which remained at the bot- least eighteen inches above the surface of the ground, and tom. This retention of the yeast is accomplished by the not leaning on one another. All beers, when well brewed and sound, after a certain recrane in the bottom of the gyle tun being screwed up threeeights of an inch above the level of the bottom. At one pose become transparent, or “ bright” as it is termed. When, time it was the custom to allow the beer to settle in the fer- however, beer is sent out very new, as is getting the cusmenting tun for twenty-four or thirty-six hours, then run it tom, it is sometimes necessary to “ fine” it, or impart to it oft’ into a square of equal size with the fermenting vat, leav- that brilliant transparency which is so pleasing to the eye. ing behind in the vat the whole of the yeast. Here it was This is done by means of “ finings.” The best finings for allowed to rest for a couple of days, after which it was found beer, indeed the only ones which should be used, are made bright and ready for the cask. The Scottish brewers have of isinglass. This should be cut into shreds, put into a cask, very generally given up this plan, allowing their beer or and covered to the depth of 5 or 6 inches with vinegar ale to settle in the gyle tun itself, and run it off from it or acid beer. When the isinglass has swelled up and abdirect into the casks in which it is to be sent out. The beer sorbed all the vinegar or beer, it is covered to a like depth undergoes no proper “ cleansing” in these casks, that is to with a fresh quantity, and the whole vigorously stirred tosay, no further fermentation goes on in them, throwing up a gether. The same process of adding and stirring is repeated quantity of yeast, but a couple of days is generally allowed until the whole becomes of the consistence of a thick pulp or jelly. This jelly is then mixed with thin bright beer till to elapse before they are “ shived” or bunged down. In England, again, where the rapid plan of fermentation it is brought to the proper consistence for use, when it is is adopted, “ cleansing” is an essential part of the brewing strained through a hair sieve which retains any undissolved The specific gravity of the finings process. As above mentioned, the wort is fermented to a portions of isinglass. , certain extent only in the gyle tun, and as that fermenta- should be about 1 025. From a pint to a quart of finings tion is carried on at a higher temperature than in Scotland, are used to clear a barrel of beer. The finings are first it progresses more rapidly, attaining its maximum in from mixed up with some of the beer to be fined, then poured twenty-four to thirty-six hours. When it is thus at its into the barrel and briskly stirred about. The cask is then height, the yeasty head is beaten down and mixed with the bunged down for twenty-four hours, after which the beer wort, and the whole is run off into large fixed barrels termed should be found limpid. The action of the finings is to “ cleansing rounds,” whence it undergoes a farther stage of envelope all the floating feculencies, and carry them down fermentation. In some breweries, before the wort is passed to the bottom of the fluid. Various explanations have been from the fermenting vat into these rounds, it is mixed with attempted to account for this action, but Dr lire’s seems to a certain quantity of wheat or bean flower, but this is a prac- be the most satisfactory. The fluid gelatine combines with tice not generally approved of. In these vessels the yeast the tannin of the hops, and thus forms a flocculent mass, which works over and escapes by a large aperture in the top of the envelopes the muddy particles of the beer, and carries them barrel, to which a sloping wooden tray is fixed to convey with it to the bottom, where it forms a sediment. If a prothe yeast into a trough. These rounds are usually placed per sediment does not fall, it may be made to appear by addin a double line, with the yeast trough between them, and ing a little of the decoction of hops. If there be the slightby all communicating by means of pipes with a store vat at est disengagment of carbonic acid gas, the flocculent particles, a higher level, are kept constantly full, fresh wort flowing in being thereby kept moving about, will not be enveloped in below in proportion as the yeast works over at the top. It the finings, and the beer will not clear. This state is called is this process to which brewers have applied the term “ stubborn” by the brewers. The above details will enable the reader to acquire a tole“ cleansing,” from the idea that the yeast working over and rably correct notion of the art of brewing, but as special being removed from the beer “ cleanses” it. When the fermentation is ended in these rounds, the beer drinks require somewhat special manipulations, we shall is run off into immense cylindrical vats or tuns, called “ store shortly notice these specialties under the heads Porter, vats,” where an obscure sort of fermentation still goes on, in- English Ale, Pale Indian Ale, Home-brewed Ale, Scottish creasing the strength of the beer, and keeping up a con- Ale, and Bavarian Beer. Porter is a strong beer of a dark colour and peculiar flastant impregnation of carbonic acid gas, which renders the beer lively and agreeable to the taste when run off into casks vour, and is said to be so named, either from its having been for sale. These store vats are of immense size, usually the common drink of the porters, or from Harwood, the oricapable of containing three thousand barrels of beer of 36 ginal brewer of the drink, sending it round to his customers,

331 BREWING. Brewing, by men, who when they knocked at the doors called out may be made from mixtures of the different kinds of malt Brewing, “ porter,” meaning thereby not the drink, but themselves, in the following proportions, the last being the best:— its porters or carriers. Porter was originally brewed to take Brown Malt. A.ml>er Malt.! Pale Malt. Total. the place of two or three kinds of beer which used to be mixed by the retailers in the mug as they drew them from 100 57 15 25 No. 1 100 the taps ; and as this new drink had the taste of all three, 48 24 24 2 100 0 0 95 but was brewed at once, and run out of one tap, it saved 3 the publican trouble, and was denominated “ entire.” Hence, When the colour is given with caromel or essentia bina, the sign so often noticed in London, such a brewer’s the black malt is not used, and the colouring matter is added “entire.” As provincial brewers have found it almost impossible to imi- to the wort in the boiler. It is unnecessary to repeat here the particulars relative to tate the flavour and excellencies of the London Porter, various drugs have been used, or have been recommended to be the mashing, boiling, cooling, fermenting, and cleansing of \ised, in brewing this drink. Even some recent publications porter, seeing that these have been already fully detailed by practical men recommend burnt sugar and liquorice to when describing the English plan of brewing. It may give it colour, and copperas to give it a good head. Aloes, merely be mentioned that it is usual to cool down the wort quassia, gentian, and even such poisonous ingredients as St to about 100° on the coolers, and then run it through reIgnatius’ bean and nux vomica, have at various times been frigerators, or coils of pipes in contact with cold water, till recommended to be substituted for hops; and it is well the temperature is reduced to 60 in winter, or 55 in sumknown that paradise grains, notwithstanding the heavy mer. It is then transferred to the gyle or fermenting tuns, penalty attached to their use, are still largely used surrepti- which are in general fitted with a coil of metal tubing to tiously in many parts of England to give greater sharpness give the power of regulating the temperature. The “lobb” to the porter and ale brewed there. It need scarcely be being added excites active fermentation, and in proportion added, however, that such ingredients are never used by the as the saccharine matter becomes converted into alcohol, respectable brewers, who use nothing but malt and hops, the temperature rises till it attains about 70 Fahr., beyond though some aid the colour by making use of burnt sugar which it should never be permitted to get. If it threatens to rise beyond this, cold water should be passed through or caromel. As the dark colour of porter is that which more especially the refrigerators of the gyle tun, or the whole should be run serves to distinguish it from other beers, we may describe off into the cleansing vats. This temperature is generally atthe three colouring ingredients used for the purpose, pre- tained in from 30 to 36 hours ; and as soon as the half of the mising that in general only one is used in the same brew- saccharine extract has been converted into alcohol, which is ing. 1. Black malt, or roasted malt, when used, is added generally within the 48 hours, it is run off into the rounds or in the proportion of from 3 to 5 bushels for every hundred cleansing vats. In the great London breweries these are of bushels of malt; and is either mashed in the mash-tun along such a size as to contain from 10 to 20 barrels each ; and as, with the other malt, or is mashed separately, or is thrown during the process of “ cleansing” from the yeast, the ferinto the wort when it is boiling. This malt, as before men- mentation is still going on, the attenuation of the porter is tioned, yields no saccharine extract convertible into alcohol, wrought down to 5 or 7 lb. of saccharine extract per barrel. but simply a dark-coloured mucilage, and is solely used for After this the porter is transferred to store vats, where in forthe purpose of giving colour and flavour. If this malt be mer days it used to be kept for 18 or 24 months in order added in too large proportion, especially if used with pale to “ ripen” or get “ hard and as the brewer had thus to malt alone, it communicates a taste to porter which would keep a two years’ stock of porter on hand, the number and be mistaken for that of liquorice, and this is probably the size of these in the larger establishments may be conceived. reason why liquorice is recommended to be used by the pro- These store vats were usually made so large as to contain vincial brewTer, and is often used by him for the purpose of three thousand barrels of beer, each barrel being of the caimitating the London stout. 2. The second colouring in- pacity of 36 gallons ; and such a vat when full weighs about gredient is “ essentia bina.” This consists of some of the five hundred tons. In some of the largest breweries a few first-drawn wort boiled down in an iron pan to the consis- store vats existed of the enormous capacity of ten thousand tence of an extract, when it must be carefully and constantly barrels, and one monster vat was built in Whitehead’s, which stirred, and the heat continued till it has acquired a dark was said to be capable of containing twenty thousand barrels, colour and peculiar flavour, in fact been converted into a or 720,000 gallons. It is not wonderful, therefore, that the caromel. Fifteen gallons of wort so boiled down usually bursting of one of these vats in Meux’s brewery should have suffice for from 20 to 30 barrels of wort, according to the swept away a street, carrying the houses and all their inhadepth of colour which is wished to be given. 3. The third bitants into the river. The changed taste of the public for colouring ingredient is “ caromel” or burnt sugar. The mild malt liquors will soon probably make these immense process of preparing it is thus described. “ Thirty pounds store vats matters of history, as most of the malt liquor now of raw sugar are put into an iron boiler which has a cir- used in London is reckoned old if kept in the brewery cular bottom, and dissolved in one gallon of boiling water more than six weeks. When porter is in the store vats, a low species of ferover a moderate fire. It must be kept stirred, and attended with care. After boiling a few minutes, and being stirred mentation still goes on sufficient to reduce still further the with an iron scraper, it thickens, becomes dark coloured, proportion of saccharine extract, and furnish sufficient carand acquires a bitter taste. Care must be taken that it does bonic acid gas to impart to it an agreeable briskness. When not get scorched. It must be constantly stirred, and a small porter is bottled the same changes go on—indeed it is quesquantity of water added to keep it from setting to the bot- tionable whether malt liquor is ever entirely quiescent. tom of the boiler. As soon as it approaches to inflame, it The common draft London porter is made from a wort is ready to be removed, which is done by thinning it with which is usually about the strength of 20 lb. of saccharine boiling water, and delivering it to the boiling wort.” extract per barrel; the ordinary stout from wort of 25 or 26 Porter is usually brewed from all the different kinds of lb. per barrel; and the strongest bottled stout, and porter malt, which are mixed in such proportions as shall suit the for exportation from wort of 30 to 35 lb. per barrel. These taste of the consumers. These proportions are different in different qualities are often stamped with the letters X, XX, different breweries. When black or patent malt is used as and XXX ; but this is a mere matter of convenience to the the sole colouring agent, Mr Tizard says that good porter brewer; and porters from different breweries having the same

332 BREWING. Brewing, stamp may be of very different strength. When porter is ex- where it undergoes a further fermentation, and is “ cleansed” Brewing ported or sent to a distance, additional hops are added to it, of its yeast, a hogshead of the ale being reserved for filling varying in quantity in proportion to the distance it has to go. up the barrels as the yeast works over. In two days or so Export porter has usually about 4^ lb. of hops to each barrel. this process is over, when the ale is racked into barrels and Strongest bottled porter has usually 8 lb. weight of hops to removed into stock. the quarter of malt; and common stout from 4^ to 6 lb. of Since the public taste, relative to “ hard beers,” has hops per quarter of malt. changed, several of the great London brewers have turned Porter has been analyzed for the purpose of ascertaining their attention to the brewing of ale. They genei'ally folthe proportion of alcohol contained in it. Mr Brande found low much the same plan as they did for porter brewing, fol100 measures of brown stout to contain 6'80 measures of lowing the quick process of fermentation, and finishing the rectified spirit of wine of the density of 825, equal to about attenuation in the rounds where the cleansing goes on. 10’5 per cent, of proof spirit, while common London porter 1 his mild ale has quite met the taste of the public, and yielded 4‘20 per cent, by measure of rectified spirit. Dr seems to be gradually displacing porter. Ale is not, in Christison, in 1838, found in bottled London porter 5‘36 general, attenuated so much as porter, or as the bitter ales per cent, by weight of absolute alcohol, which is about 1 L91 intended for exportation; the attenuation of the ale is usually per cent, by measure of proof spirit. From these experi- earned only to the decomposition of two-thirds of the sacments it appears, that London porter contains considerably charine extract. less alcohol than the sour light wines of France or Germany, Pale, Indian, or Burton Ale, oi'iginally intended for exwhich yield from 15 to 19 per cent, of proof spirit. portation, and now so deservedly in high repute as one of Porter is an exceedingly wholesome and nutritious drink. our most esteemed and wholesome beverages, requires more Indeed, as a beverage, it cannot be denied that it is prefer- particular treatment in its manufacture. This ale can only able to wine, however much some may vaunt the advantages be prepared from the best pale malt and the best hops; and which woidd result to this country from the duties on light the chief peculiarities attending its manufacture are, that it wines being taken off, in order that they might come into requires more than double the usual px-oportion of hops, that more general use. As a beverage for the working classes, the attenuation is generally carried to a much greater extent, there can be no comparison between the sound, wholesome, and that the temperature during the fermentation should and tonic beer of England, and the sour light wines drunk never be allowed to exceed 65° Fahr. That a considerable on the Continent. There is not a working man in England amount of sweetness should exist in common ale is allowable, who would not despise and reject the acid wines used by and indeed, it is the presence of a lai’ge quantity of undethe common people in the grape districts, even though they composed saccharine extract which gives to common strong contain from 4 to 10 per cent, more proof spirit in them ale its luscious mildness. It is, however, the presence of this than his favourite beer; and, as to the finer qualities of light large quantity of undecomposed saccharine extract which wines, they are produced in such small quantities that they prevents common ale from being used as a diet drink by cannot even now satisfy the wants of the upper classes, and the invalid, or being relished in a warm country; and it is the no lowering of the duty would bring down their px-ice to the circumstance of the Indian or pale ale having its fermentation working man’s level. carried so much further, and its saccharine matter reduced Ale appears to be the most ancient drink of this country, in quantity, together with its larger proportion of bittei’, and the name is usually given to strong beer of a pale colour, that commends it so much as a grateful and stimulant stoas porter is to that of a dark colour. The varieties of ale machic to the European resident in a warm climate, and to are infinite, but we purpose only to notice the peculiarity in the invalid. the manufacture of English ale, Indian ale, English homeThe manufacture of this beverage has been endeavoured brewed ale, and Scottish ale. to be shrouded in much mystery; but we have ascertained In all high-priced English ales of the present day, bril- that pale bitter ale of first rate quality may be brewed by liancy and paleness of coloui', with as little excess of sweet- following with care any of the ordinary plans of fermentaness as possible, are the objects to be attained by the bx’ewer. tion, either the ordinary quick English system, or the slower To accomplish these ends, nothing but the finest pale malt Scotch process. It has appeared to us, however, that the must be used, and to secure sound-keeping ale, it is of first best keeping, the highest flavoured, and the least acid ale, importance that the malt shall have been thoroughly dried was always prepared by the slower process, in which the on the kiln. If prepared from what is technically known as temperature is never raised so high as in the quick process “ slack-di’ied malt,” that is malt not thoroughly dried for of fermentation. The quantity of hops found necessary for fear of colouring it, or which has had water sprinkled over Indian ale is from 18 to 22 lb. per quarter of malt; and the it while still warm fx-om the kiln, the wort as run fi'om the ordinary strength of the wort, when passed into the gyle mash-tun will be found acid, and will tinge litmus paper of tun, is 24 lb. per barrel, or 1066 of specific gi'avity. This a much deeper red than ordinary wort from well dried gives, with good malt, about four barrels of pale ale for malt, and the ale prepared from it will not keep beyond a every quarter of malt. few months. It is necessary also to be careful in the selecWhen the slow plan of fermentation is followed in Engtion of the hops for ale. Good sound hops should alone be land, it is recommended that the pitching tempei'ature used; many brewers now use a propoxtion of foreign hops should not exceed 56°, and the gyle tun, in every case, along with the English hop. must be fitted with refrigerator tubes to regulate the temIn the brewing of common ale in England, it is customary perature of the wort. Some brewers consider it of essento make three mashes, the first and second being fermented tial importance to keep down the heat of the wort during for ale, the last being reserved for beer. The heat of the the eai'ly stage of the fermentation, and so to x-egulate the water let on the first mash is usually 170°, that of the second tempei'ature by a stream of cold water through the refrige185 . The wort from these two mashes is mixed, and boiled rator tubes of the fermenting tun, that at the expiration of for two and a half or three hours with hops, in the propor- forty-eight hours the tempei'atui'e shall not have increased 3° tion of 8 lb. of hops to every quarter of malt. When the above the pitching heat, by which time the sacchai'ometer wort has cooled down to 60° or 65°, it is run off into the indicates an attenuation of 7 or 8 lb. It is, of coui'se, necesgyle tuns, and quick fermentation is excited by adding about sary to visit the fermenting vat every fourth or fifth hour one gallon of yeast for evei’y two bai'rels of wort. The fer- day and night. By the time the temperature has risen to mentation in the gyle tun comes to maturity in about thirty- 62°, the half of the original strength of the wort should be six hours, when the ale is nm off into fixed bai’rels or rounds, found to be attenuated. In this plan of fermentation the 4

temperature is allowed slowly to rise to 64°, by which time three-fourths of the saccharine extract should be attenuated, and at this stage half of the yeasty head is recommended to be skimmed off. When 2 lb. more of the saccharine extract have been decomposed, one-half of the yeasty head is again skimmed off. The density, by this time, should be reduced to 6 lb. per barrel, but the attenuation has still to be carried on till 4 lb. of saccharine extract remain un decomposed. If the fermentation therefore gets languid, the yeasty head should be beaten in. When the desired attenuation is attained, that is when the wort, or ale rather, is reduced to about 4 lb. of extract per barrel, or to the specific gravity of 1011 or 1012, the whole head of yeast is carefully skimmed off, and cold water is passed through the refrigerator tubes, so as to cool down the ale as quickly as possible, and arrest further fermentation. As the fluid comes to rest, by the cooling arresting further fermentation, all impurities subside, and in a few days the ale is pure and transparent, its temperature has fallen to 50°, and it is fit to be drawn off into the store vat. By this process the wort is kept in a state of unnecesarily slow fermentation for twelve or thirteen days. Other brewers, therefore, who also follow the slow plan of fermentation, instead of retarding the rise of heat during the early stage of the fermentation, allow and encourage it to rise as rapidly as possible to 62°, and maintain it steadily at that temperature, and never allow it to exceed that heat till the required degree of attenuation is attained. Instead of skimming off the yeasty head, these brewers twice daily lightly beat in the head, which hastens the attenuation, so that in general, by the sixth or seventh, and never exceeding the eighth day, the required attenuation is attained. A full stream of cold water is then sent through the refrigeratory tubes of the fermenting vat. The yeasty head is left untouched, and the ale is either allowed to rest in the fermenting tun for two or three days, by which time it becomes pure and transparent, and its temperature falls to 50°, when it is drawn off into casks or into the store vat; or, after a rest of twenty-four hours, it is transferred to a vessel of similar size with the fermenting tun, leaving behind it all the yeast, where it is allowed to rest for a couple of days before being stored or drawn off into casks. After being drawn off into casks it is generally allowed to stand for a couple of days before being shived down, and a handful of fresh hops is added to each cask. When the water used for brewing pale ale is hard, some brewers assert, and act on the principle, that the pitching heat must be higher, and that the fermentation must be conducted on the quick plan. Some of the largest Burton brewers accordingly manufacture their pale Indian ale by the rapid fermentation process, and boast that they “ have brewed and shipped their ales to India in the course of a few days? Whatever may be thought of the practice, the reasoning is bad, seeing that it has been found that the hard water used by the Burton and other brewers loses all its hardness in the mash-tun, and by the time it reaches the fermenting vat is as soft as if the softest river water had been used. When the rapid plan of fermentation is followed, the pitching heat is set at 60° Fahr.; and the quantity of yeast employed, though varying according to the season, is about 1 gallon for every 2 barrels of wort. Vigorous fermentation is thus excited, and in from 24 to 30 hours the wort should be found to be attenuated one-half, while, by means of the refrigerator tubes of the fermenting vat, the heat should not be allowed to rise higher than 7° above the pitching heat. It is often, however, extremely difficult to keep down the temperature within these limits even with a full flow of cold water through the refrigerators ; and if it be allowed to rise to 70° the ale is extremely liable to get acid within a few months, even in this country, and is almost

sure to do so if exported to an Indian climate. As soon, therefore, as the above attenuation is obtained, or the heat threatens to rise higher than 7° above the pitching heat, the whole is run off into fixed hogsheads or rounds, where the attenuation is carried to the desired extent, and the ale is “ cleansed.” Several brewers who manufacture largely for the foreign market assert that no pale ale can be trusted for exportation whose heat in the gyle tun has exceeded 65°, and in practice they never allow it to exceed 63°. They attribute the large losses which some houses have sustained from ale spoiling in India to this cause; and in their own experience they have never found one cask of ale go wrong whose heat during fermentation was kept below 63° Fahr. When the ale is racked off into casks a handful of hops is added to each to insure its keeping qualities. Pale Indian ale, if properly brewed, never requires fining, —it clears of itself; and if not clear, it is very rarely indeed that finings will restore to it its crystalline transparency. The small quantity of undecomposed or unattenuated saccharine extract left in this kind of ale is sufficient, by its slow and gradual fermentation, to supply enough of carbonic acid gas to induce a pleasant liveliness without inducing the slightest turbidity; and the large quantity of bitter in it enables it to bear the heats of India, where it constitutes one of the most refreshing and invigorating of beverages. The reputation which this bitter ale has acquired, and the demand for it in India, our colonies, and in this country, have induced many brewers over the kingdom to direct their attention to its manufacture ; and the consequence has been that numerous brewers now manufacture a pale bitter ale quite equal to the best of either Bass or of Allsopp. Many, however, who now manufacture an excellent paleale for the foreign market, do not carry the attenuation so far as above described, but arrest the fermentation when the specific gravity of the wort or ale arrives at 1018; in other words, they only carry the attenuation to the decomposition of nearly three-fourths of the saccharine extract,— the original gravity of the worts of these ales ranging from 1066 to 1068. These pale ales are brewed by the slow fermentation process, the fermentation lasting six or seven days. It would appear that ale with even this considerable amount of undecomposed saccharine extract bears well the heat of a warm climate ; these brewers having never yet lost a single cask by their ale souring or otherwise going wrong. From these statements it will be apparent that pale bitter ale, as at present manufactured, is not brewed according to one fixed plan ; but may be brought to perfection either by the quick or the slow process of fermentation, and either by carrying the attenuation to the decomposition of nine-tenths of the saccharine extract, or only to the decomposition of three-fourths. We believe that good and sound ale may be brewed by any of these processes; but it cannot be denied that when the rapid fermentation is followed the tendency to acidity must be much greater than in slowly fermented ale. This difference may not be so strongly manifested if the ale be used in this country, but, if sent to India or other warm climate, such rapidly fermented ale runs a much greater chance of becoming sour. This is entirely attributable to the higher temperature which the rapidly fermented ale attains in the fermenting vat, and which every now and then it is found almost impossible to check. It is very questionable, indeed, whether any ale, or other malt liquor, whose heat has been raised in the fermenting vat to 70°, will bear unchanged the heat of an Indian climate. The reason of this is very apparent. At the temperature of 70° there is a much stronger tendency in the liquor to undergo the acetous (vinegar) than the alcoholic fermentation. Indeed, the surest way to induce the acetous fermentation is to raise the temperature of the fermenting liquor above 70°, and acetic

334 B R E W I N G. Brewing. aci({ is rapidly produced, as is well known to and is acted on wort from 1110 to 1120; and L.7 ale wort from 1120 to v— ' by the vinegar manufacturers. Any near approach to this 1130. temperature should therefore be carefully avoided in the By the Scottish plan only one mash is made, using for manufacture of malt liquors. the stronger ales about 1| barrels of water to each quarter Mr Roberts has published a table of analysis of 40 of malt. I he whole water is run in at once into the mashspecimens of pale Indian ale. He found the average specific tun at the temperature of 180°, and the crushed malt, as it gravity of these, taken from cask and bottle, to be 1007'26. is poured into the water, is thoroughly mixed with it by If we take only the 15 samples taken from the cask, the means of oars and rakes, and all the lumps carefully broken. average specific gravity was 1008-25, or, in brewers’ lan- The mash-tun is then covered over and allowed to stand guage, nearly 3 lb. of saccharine extract per barrel. This, for three hours. The heat of the mash-tun at the surface then, shows the average attenuation of the Indian ale at is usually about 140°, but the heat in the interior of the present in the market, but does not with any certainty show mash is higher, seeing the wort when run off has usually a the extent to which the attenuation of the wort was carried temperature of about 155°. At the end of this period the by the brewer. It was before remarked that the attenua- sparger, formerly described, is fixed to the mash-tun, and tion of malt liquors goes on both in the cask and in the the taps being opened the wort is permitted to flow out, at bottle; so that, unless we know the date at which the ale first slowly till it runs clear, afterwards at full tap. The was brewed, and allowed for this, we might make sad mis- sparger is then set in motion, and sprinkles the surface of takes as to the extent to which the attenuation had been the °mash with as much hot water, at the temperature of carried by the brewer. Thus we lately examined an ale 180 or 185 , as flows out from the tap below. The surface which was attenuated by the brewer only to 1018 of specific of the mash is thus kept from becoming dry, else the whole gravity, but after having stood six months in bottle the spe- mash would fall into cracks, and also separate from the sides cific gravity was found reduced to 1012. of the mash tun, and allow the water to escape without carMr Roberts’ tables show also the quantity of proof-spirit rying with it the saccharine extract. contained in these pale bitter ales. The 40 ales he exaSupposing that a L.4 ale were wished, and a small brewmined yielded on an average 1T59 per cent, of proof-spirit; ing were made of 8 quarters of malt, 30 barrels of wort the highest examined yielding 13-65 per cent., and the would be run off at the specific gravity of 1072. The wort lowest 8-82 per cent, of proof-spirit. Pale Indian ale, there- being pumped into the boiler, after boiling half an hour fore, contains a third less of spirit than the sour vin du pays would have 40 lb. of hops added to it, and in another half and other light and acid Continental wines; while its free- hour other 40 lb., making in all 80 lb. of hops. For the dom from acidity, its gently stimulant action, and its tonic higher priced ales 10 lbs. of hops per quarter of malt are qualities, constitute it a beverage as superior to these wines occasionally used. The boiling of the wort is continued as one drink can be to another. from an hour to an hour and half longer, until the gravity Home-bretved Ale, as brewed by the middle classes in of the wort is increased to 1084, when it is passed to the England, is usually made in quantities of 2 barrels, i. e., 72 coolers, where it is still further strengthened by evaporation, gallons. For this purpose a quarter of malt, or if wished to so that when pitched in the gyle tun its gravity is about be extra strong, 9 bushels of malt are taken, with 12 lb. of 1092, and its bulk reduced to 23 or 24 barrels. The wort hops. The malt being crushed or ground, is mashed with being cooled down to 50° or 52°, six gallons of yeast, or 72 gallons of water, at the temperature of 160°, and covered more or less according to the season, are mixed in the gyle up for three hours, when 40 gallons are drawn off; and into tun with a barrel of the wort, when the rest of the wort is this the 12 lb. of hops are put and left to infuse. Sixty gallons let run into the gyle tun from the coolers in full stream, of water at the temperature of 170° are then added to the and the whole is well mixed. The process of fermentation malt in the mash-tub and well mixed, and after standing two occupies from ten to twelve days, and the heat during the hours 60 gallons are drawn off. The wort from these two fermentation is never allowed to rise higher than 62°, or 10° mashes is boiled along with the hops for two hours, and after above that at which it was pitched, and the yeasty head is being cooled down to 65°, it is strained through a flannel repeatedly beat down, usually twice daily, during that period. bag into the fermenting tub, where it is mixed with one-and- When the brewer finds that the attenuation has been carried a-quarter gallons of yeast, and left to work for twenty-four so far as to reduce the specific gravity to 1031, in other or thirty-six hours. It is then run into barrels to cleanse, a words, that two-thirds of the saccharine extract have been few gallons being reserved for filling up the casks as the yeast converted into alcohol, the ale is left undisturbed in the works over. Eighteen or twenty gallons of beer are obtained fermenting vat for 2 or 3 days, by which time it has befrom the used malt by making a third mash with twenty-five come clear and transparent, all fermentation has ceased, and or thirty gallons of water, and boiling the wort thus procured its temperature has fallen to 50° or 52°. It is then run off with the used hops. into the casks in which it is to be sent out, which are alScottish Ale, but especially the Edinburgh ale, has been lowed to stand a couple of days before being bunged down. long celebrated, but as an ordinary beverage, it is much more Finings are scarcely ever required for these ales. luscious and heady than London porter, English ale, or pale These heavy ales are being gradually displaced by the Indian ale. It is a much stronger drink than any of these, more wholesome, lighter, and more thoroughly fermented the home-brewed English ale approaching nearest to it in bitter ales of which the Indian ale is the type. this respect; and as the attenuation of tire saccharine ex1 hese Scotch ales contain a large per-centage of alcohol. tract is only carried the length of the decomposition of two- Mr Roberts has published a table containing the analysis thirds of its original strength, the large quantity of unde- of 11 samples of different Scotch ales, and found they concomposed saccharine extract renders it much more luscious tained on an average of the 71 ales 14*59 per cent, of proof to the taste, and milder than the English ales. The Scot- spirit. The higher priced ales, as those at L.6 and L.7, contish ales are brewed of various strengths, and are known in tained 16 and 17 per cent, of proof spirit, the highest sample the market by their price per hogshead, and are hence com- containing 18*5 per cent. The low priced ales, as those of monly mentioned as L.7 ale, L.6 ale, &c. According to L.3 and L.4, contained on the average 11 and 12 percent, the kind of ale required the worts are prepared of various of proof spirit; the lowest sample of L.2 ale contained 9"8 degrees of gravity as indicated by Allan’s saccharometer. per cent, of spirit. Speaking in a general way, L.3 ale has a wort of the The following table shows the quantity of beer or ale exspecific gravity of from 1070 to 1080; L.4 ale wort from ported from Great Britain and Ireland during the years end1080 to 1095 ; L.5 ale wort from 1095 to 1110; L.6 ale ing 5th January:—

Brewing.

BREWING. 335 1851, —182,480 valued at L.558,794 tween thebarrels, two kinds of fermentation, it may perhaps be sufficient to Brewing. recall to mind 1852, -190,077 ... the fact that the transformation of gluten or other 577,142 azotized matters 1853, -244,115 ... is a process consisting of several stages. The first 754,627 stage is the...conversion of the gluten into insoluble ferment in the 1854, -416,030 1,289,382 of the liquid, and as the transformation of the sugar goes Bavarian Beer is the only other malt liquor which, from interior on at the same time, carbonic acid and yeast are simultaneously the peculiarities attending its fermentation, requires a special disengaged. It is known with certainty that this formation of notice. The Germans, from the earliest historical periods, yeast depends upon oxygen being appropriated by the gluten in have been a beer-drinking nation, and some excellent malt the act of decomposition ; but it has not been sufficiently shown liquors are made in that country. The “ weiss bier,” the whether this oxygen is derived from the water, sugar, or from the itself; whether it combines directly with the gluten, or truly patriotic beverage of Prussia, is not made from barley gluten merely with its hydrogen, so as to form water. For the purpose of alone, but from 1 part barley malt and 5 parts wheat malt; obtaining a definite idea of the process, we may designate the first but the excessive tendency of wheat beers to sour has change as the stage of oxidation. This oxidation of the gluten, caused potato starch to be substituted for the wheat, and then, and the transposition of the atoms of the sugar into alcohol tartaric acid to give the admired tartness. The other beers, and carbonic acid are necessarily attendant on each other, so that one is arrested the other must also cease. however, more especially the ones now to be noticed, the if the “ Now, the yeast which rises to the surface of the liquid is not Bavarian beers, both the common pot beer (schank-bier) the product of a complete decomposition, but is oxidized gluten and the intoxicating luscious bock-beer, are brewed from still capable of undergoing a new transformation by the transposibarley malt alone. tion of its constituent elements. By virtue of this condition it has The peculiarities attending the manufacture of these beers the power to excite fermentation in a solution of sugar; and if the attracted little notice in this country till the publication of gluten be also present, the decomposing sugar induces its converinto fresh yeast, so that in a certain sense the yeast appears to Liebig’s Chemistry in its application to Agriculture and sion reproduce itself. Physiology in 1840 directed attention to the subject by “ Yeast of this kind is oxidized gluten in a state of putrefaction, contrasting the keeping qualities of the Bavarian beer with and by virtue of this state it induces a similar transformation in that of the English and French beers. Dr Ure has since the elements of the sugar. “ The yeast formed during the fermentation of the Bavarian then personally examined these beers and their mode of is oxidized gluten in a state of decay. The process of decommanufacture, but did not find the vaunted qualities of the beer position which its constituents are suffering gives rise to a very German bier so uniform as Liebig would have us believe. protracted putrefaction {fermentation) in the sugar. The intensity “ This perfection (says he) is, however, in my opinion, rarely of the action is diminished in so great a degree, that the gluten attained. In my several journeys into Germany I have met which the fluid still holds in solution takes no part fn it; the sugar with much spurious or ill-made Bavarian beer. The best in fermentation does not excite a similar state m the gluten. “ But the contact of the already decaying and precipitated gluten contains, when brought to England, a little acid.”—Dictionor yeast causes the eremacausis (decay) of the gluten dissolved in ary of Arts, fyc., vol. i. p. 156. the wort; oxygen gas is absorbed from the air, and all the gluten Liebig’s being still the best description of the chemical in solution is deposited as yeast. changes which accompany the peculiar mode of fermenta“ The ordinary frothy yeast may be removed from fermenting tion adopted for Bavarian beer, we give it entire from the work beer by filtration without the fermentation being thereby arrested; above quoted, without, however, subscribing to his views, but precipitated yeast of Bavarian beer cannot be removed without whole process of its fermentation being interrupted. The beer which are fanciful in some points, and in others scarcely in the ceases to ferment altogether, or if the temperature be raised underaccordance with known facts. goes the ordinary fermentation. The precipitated yeast does not “ English, French, and most of the Gferman beers, says Liebig, excite ordinary fermentation, and consequently is quite unfitted for are converted into vinegar when exposed to the action of air. But the purpose of baking; but the common frothy yeast can cause the this property is not possessed by Bavarian beer, which may be kept kind of fermentation by which the former kind of yeast is produced. in vessels only half filled without acidifying or experiencing any “ When common yeast is added to wort at a temperature of bechange. This valuable quality is obtained for it by a peculiar tween 40° and 50° Fahrenheit, a slow tranquil fermentation takes management of the fermentation of the wort. The perfection of place, and a matter is deposited on the bottom of the vessel which experimental knowledge may have led to the solution of one of the may be employed to excite new fermentation; and when the same most beautiful problems of the theory of fermentation. operation is repeated several times in succession, the ordinary fer“ Wort is proportionally richer in gluten than in sugar, so that mentation changes into that process by which only precipitated yeast during its fermentation in the common way a great quantity of is formed. The yeast now deposited has lost the property of exyeast is formed as a thick scum. The carbonic acid evolved during citing ordinary fermentation, but it produces the other process even the process attaches itself to the particles of the yeast, by which at a temperature of 50° Fahrenheit. In wort subjected to fermenthey become specifically lighter than the liquid in which they are tation at a low temperature, with this kind of yeast, the condition formed, and rise to the surface. Gluten, in the act of oxidation, necessary for the transformation of the sugar is the presence of comes in contact with the particles of the decomposing sugar in the that yeast; but for the conversion of gluten into ferment by a prointerior of the liquid. The carbonic acid from the sugar and in- cess of oxidation, something more is required. soluble ferment from the gluten are disengaged simultaneously, “ When the power of gluten to attract oxygen is increased by and adhere together. contact with precipitated yeast in a state of decay, the unrestrained “ A great quantity of gluten remains dissolved in the fermented action of air is the only other condition necessary for its own conliquid, even after the transformation of the sugar is completed, and version into the same state of decay, that is, for its oxidation. We this gluten causes the conversion of the alcohol into acetic acid, on have already seen that the presence of free oxygen and gluten are account of its strong disposition to attract oxygen and to undergo conditions which determine the eremacausis of alcohol, and its condecay. Now it is plain, that with its separation, and that of all version into acetic acid ; but they are incapable of exerting this insubstances capable of attracting oxygen, the beer would lose the fluence at low temperatures. A low temperature retards the slow property of becoming acid. This end is completely attained in the combustion of alcohol, while the gluten combines spontaneously with process of fermentation adopted in Bavaria. the oxygen of the air, just as sulphurous acid does when dissolved “ The wort, after having been treated with hops in the usual in water. Alcohol undergoes no such changes at low temperatures, manner, is thrown into very wide flat vessels, in which a large but during the oxidation of the gluten in contact with it, is placed surface of the liquid is exposed to the air. The fermentation is in the same condition as the gluten itself when sulphurous acid is then allowed to proceed, while the temperature of the chambers in added to the wine in which it is contained. The oxygen of the which the vessels are placed is never allowed to rise above from air unites both with the gluten and alcohol of wine, not with sul45° to 50° Fahrenheit. The fermentation lasts from three to six phurous acid ; but when the acid is present it combines with neither weeks, and the carbonic acid evolved during its continuance is not of them, being altogether absorbed by the acid. The same thing in large bubbles which burst upon the surface of the liquid, but in happens in the peculiar process of fermentation adopted in Bava” Small bubbles like those which escape from a liquid saturated by ria. The oxygen of the air unites only with the gluten and not high pressure. The surface of the wort is scarcely covered with a with the alcohol, although it would have combined with both at scum, and all the yeast is deposited on the bottom of the vessel in higher temperatures, so as to form acetic acid. the form of a viscous sediment. “Thus, then, this remarkable process of fermentation with the “ In order to obtain a clear conception of the great difference be- precipitation of a mucous-like ferment, consists of a simultaneous

336 BREWING. Brewing, putrefaction and decay in the same liquid. The sugar is in the malt. He examined 10 samples of Muscovado sugar, and Brewing, state of putrefaction, and the gluten in that of decay. In the fei- found the average yield was 12 gallons of proof spirit for mentation of beer after this manner, all the substances capable of every 112 lb. of sugar; whereas an equal quantity of proof decay are separated from it by means of an unrestrained access of bushels of malt. One air, while the temperature is kept sufficiently low to prevent the spirit could be obtained from alcohol from combining with oxygen. The removal of these sub- pound of malt he found yielded ^ lb. of extract, capable of stances diminishes the tendency of the beer to become acescent, or, making as much spirit as that weight of sugar. By contrastin other words, to suffer a further transformation.” ing the price of sugar and malt, any one can see that sugar Notwithstanding Liebig’s praise of the Bavarian beer, cannot be used economically in the brewery. Several exmuch of it, as commonly brewed, is an inferior drink. tensive brewers however, were induced to try the experiEven its keeping qualities have been greatly over-rated. ment on the large scale, as for instance the Messrs W hitIn the Grand Duchy of Hesse a considerable premium bread & Co., who in 1847 used no less than 627,188 was offered for the preparation of beer according to the pounds weight of sugar in their brewery; but almost all Bavarian method; and the premium was to be adjudged seem now convinced, not only that it is not economical, but to any one who could prove that the beer brewed by him that it makes an inferior beer to malt. But, though unprofitable to use sugar alone in brewing had lain for six months in the store vats without becoming acid; but we are informed that hundreds of casks of beer beers, some brewers have found it highly advantageous to use it as an auxiliary to the malt. The proportion of sugar were lost in the endeavour to fulfil the conditions. It would appear that, as in the case of the Indian ales, which it has been found profitable thus to employ varies Bavarian beer can be well brewed by a much more rapid from a sixth to a fourth of the estimated quantity of sacchaprocess of fermentation than one extending over “ three to rine extract of malt in the wort; and the sugar is added to six weeks.’’ Dr Ure, in describing the process followed the wort either when it is boiling in the copper, or when it in Bavaria, mentions that the pitching heat of the wort for is passed into the fermenting vat. In the latter case it the ordinary schank-bier is from 54° to 59°, and, as might must be previously dissolved in water, so as to reduce it to be expected at these heats, the wort undergoes a nearly the state of a syrup. It has also been recommended to add ordinary fermentation, even though the deposit-yeast be sugar in the form of a syrup to export beers, especially to used, yeast rising to the surface and forming a tolerable those which have become thin in body from the fermentahead ; and in five or six days the beer is ready to be tion having been carried too far, as is sometimes the case in transferred to the store tun. For the best keeping beer, spite of all efforts to prevent it when the quick English however, the wort is pitched at the temperature of 41° to plan of fermentation is adopted. The addition of a small 43°, and the fermenting process is consequently much quantity of strong syrup, highly hopped, is said to improve slower: no head of yeast is formed, all is deposited. From such beer, not only restoring to it that fulness of body this it would appear that the low pitching heat has more to which it had lost, but enabling it to stand exportation much do with the production of deposit-yeast and the non-pro- better than it would otherwise do. Before concluding this article, we must notice a simple duction of head-yeast than any other requisite. This statement also enables us to understand how so much of the mode of analysis for beers, by means of which three useful Bavarian beer should be of bad quality, much of it being facts may be arrived at, viz., the original gravity of the wort, the degree of attenuation of the saccharine matter, and the virtually ill-brewed ordinary beer. Excellent Bavarian beer has been brewed in Edinburgh. proportion of proof spirit in the beer. The instruments reMessrs James Muir and Sons, more than twenty years ago quired for this purpose are ; 1st, A saceharometer or hydro(1832), procured from Bavaria a supply of the deposit-yeast, meter. 2d, A glass sample tube large enough to hold 4 and with it made several brewings of beer. It was found ounces of fluid, and deep enough to allow the hydrometer to that good beers could only be brewed with this yeast if the be used. 3d, A four-ounce glass bottle furnished with a wort was of low specific gravity. The worts were pitched at glass stopper, having a hole drilled through its centre. 4th, the temperature of 45°, in the ordinary gyle tun, and were A thin glass flask of twice the capacity of the measure bottle; never allowed to rise above 48°. A slight cream or scum at or a retort with its condenser. The mode of analysis now to be described, appears to first appeared on the surface ; the whole yeast was deposited at the bottom, and the brewing was completed in 10 or 12 have been first suggested in this country by Mr Stevenson days. Better beer was never turned out of any brewery, of Edinburgh, to have been further investigated by Messrs and they could not supply the demand for it. The supply Dobson and Phillips of the Inland Revenue Department; of deposit-yeast was kept up for many months, when on and, lastly, by a commission appointed by the Board of Inusing a stronger wort, and the weather not permitting the land Revenue, consisting of Professors Graham, Hofmann, wort to be cooled sufficiently, ordinary fermentation took and Redwood. The object of these investigations was to place, and the supply of deposit-yeast was destroyed. The enable the excise to estimate more correctly the original manufacture of this beer, interfering with their ordinary trade, gravity of the wort of export ales, for the sake of paying the was not resumed; but their opinion is, that the process is drawback which is allowed on beers of a certain strength. excellently adapted for the manufacture of all the light beers, By the act of 10th Victoria, cap. 5, a drawback is granted and as it requires no change in the ordinary apparatus, it is of “ five shillings per barrel of 36 gallons upon beer exworthy the attention of the table beer brewers. In Bavaria, ported, of which the worts used before fermentation are of when the ordinary deposit-yeast cannot be procured, the not less specific gravity than 1054, and not greater than common yeast which is deposited in every fermentation— 1081 ; and a drawback of seven shillings and sixpence upon which indeed seems to be identically the same,—is carefully beer exported, of which the worts used before fermentation separated from the head-yeast, and used; and after one or are of not less specific gravity than 1081.” There are two two brewings is found to be of sufficient purity for the finest modes of making this analysis, the first that suggested by beers. The sole inconvenience attending the Bavarian pro- Mr Stevenson, the second that improved upon by the above cess is, that it can only be carried on during the six coldest professor's and adopted by the excise. The first may be months of the year. styled the “ evaporation process,” the second the “ distillaA few years ago the legislature permitted the Board of tion process.” Excise to grant leave to use sugar in place of barley malt in 1. The Evaporation Process.—The beer to be examined breweries. Dr Ure was employed by an extensive sugar is to be poured into the sample tube, and allowed to stand merchant to make experiments for the purpose of ascertain- till all the carbonic acid gas has escaped. It is then brought ing whether sugar could be economically substituted for to the temperature of 60°, and its specific gravity is taken

BREWING. 337 Brewing, by means of the saccharometer and marked down. Let us 2. The Distillation Process. The accurately measured Brewing, suppose we find it 1024. The four-ounce measure bottle is four ounces of beer are poured into the retort, along with then filled with the beer, and the stopper inserted; the sur- the rinsings of the measure bottle ; the condenser is fitted plus beer escapes through the drilled hole, leaving the on, and the measure bottle used as the receiver. Rather more bottle quite full. This measured quantity of beer is then than half the quantity of the beer is distilled over, by which poured into the glass flask, the bottle carefully washed out time the whole alcohol is expelled and is collected in the with water, and the rinsings added to the flask. The flask measure bottle. Water is then added to the spirit in the is then placed over an argand or gas burner, and boiled till measure bottle till the bottle is exactly full, when the specific rather more than half of the beer is evaporated. The heat gravity of the mixture is taken. Let us suppose we take drives off all the alcohol. The inspissated beer or extract the same beer as in the former process. The specific grais then poured back into the measure bottle, the flask washed vity of the mixed spirit and water is 987*5 or 12*5 degrees out with pure water and the wrashings also added to the less than the specific gravity of water, which is 1000. This bottle, and the bottle then filled up to its original measure number 12*5 then is the “ spirit indication of the beer.” By with pure water. The specific gravity of this mixed fluid is a reference to the new excise table of spirit indications, we then taken in the test tube, and as water has now taken the find that 12*5 degrees of spirit indicates a wort of the graplace of spirit, its gravity is found to have increased to 1036, vity of 56*9. To this we must add the gravity of the exor n increase of gravity of 12 degrees. These 12 degrees tract filled up with water, and measured as before, viz., 36, are styled the “ spirit indication,” from indicating the per- which gives 1092*9 as the original gravity of the wort from centage of proof spirit in the beer. This then gives an which the beer was fermented. By comparing these two answer to one of our queries, viz., the proportion of proof results, the difference in the indications will be seen ; and spirit in the beer. none can doubt that the distillation process is the most acWe wish, however, to find out the original gravity of the curate: thus, wort. To get at this we must refer to the excise tables of By Distillation. By Evaporation. spirit indications. By these we learn that the 12 degrees, Spirit indication 56*9 54*3 the “ spirit indication” of this beer, requires a wort of the Extract gravity 36 36 specific gravity of 54 3 to produce it. To get the original Original gravity of wort 92*9 90*3 gravity of the wort, however, we must add the ascertained gravity of the extract, ascertained as above to be 36, which added to the 54’3 gives 1090*3 as the original specific gra- We subjoin the table constructed by Professors Graham, Hofmann, and Redwood, by which in future the Inland Revity of the wort before the beer was manufactured. The researches of Professors Graham, Hofmann, and Red- venue will be guided in giving back the drawback on all wood, show that this mode under-estimates the proportion of export beers ; the numbers in the body of the table indispirit in the beer, and, of course, the strength of the wort. cate the strength of wort corresponding to the spirit indicaThey therefore recommend, and the excise have adopted,— tions marked on the margin. Degrees of Spirit Indication. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 H 12 13 14 15

0* 3*0 6*6 10*7 15*1 19*5 24*1 28*8 33*7 39T 44*2 49*0 54*3 59*4 64*8 70*5

0*3 3*3 7*0 111 15*5 19*9 24*6 29*2 34*3 39*7 44*7 49*6 54*9 60*0 65*4

0*6 3*7 7*4 11*5 160 20*4 25*0 29*7 34*8 40*2 45*1 50*1 55*4 60*5 65*9

0-9 4*1 7*8 12*0 16*4 20*9 25*5 30*2 35*4 40*7 45*6 50*6 55*9 61*1 66*5

1*2 4*4 8*2 12*4 16*8 21*3 26*0 30*7 35*9 41 *2 46*0 51*2 56*4 61*6 67*1

1*5 4*8 8*6 12*9 17*3 21*8 26*4 31*2 36*5 41*7 46*5 51*7 56*9 62*2 67*6

1*8 5*1 9*0 13*3 17*7 22*2 26*9 31*7 37*0 42*2 47*0 52*2 57*4 62*7 68*2

2*1 5*5 9*4 13*8 18*2 22*7 27*4 32*2 37*5 42*7 47*5 52*7 57*9 63*3 68*7

2*4 5*9 9*8 14*2 18*6 23T 27*8 32*7 38*0 43*2 48*0 53*3 58*4 63*8 69*3

2*7 6*2 10*2 14*7 19*1 23*6 28*3 33*2 38*6 43*7 48*5 53*8 58*9 64*3 69*9 J. s—K.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. Figs. 1 and 2, Plate CX LI., explain the arrangement of the utensils and machinery in a porter brewery on the largest scale; in which, however, it must be observed that the elevation, fig. 1, is in a great degree imaginary as to the plane upon which it is taken; but the different vessels are arranged so as to explain their uses most readily, and at the same time to preserve, as nearly as possible, the relative positions which are usually assigned to each in works of this nature. The malt for the service of the brewery is stored in vast granaries or malt-lofts, usually situated in the upper part of the buildings. Of these, we have only been able to represent one at A, fig. 1; the others, which are supposed VOL. v.

to be on each side of it, cannot be seen in this view. Immediately beneath the granary A is the mill, in the upper floor of which are two pair of rollers for bruising or crushing the grains of the malt. (An enlarged representation of the rollers is given at figs. 3 and 4.) In the floor beneath the rollers are the mill-stones b b, where the malt is sometimes ground, instead of the simple bruising which it receives by passing between the rollers. The malt, when prepared, is conveyed by a trough into a chest d, from which it can be elevated by the action of a spiral screw e (see also figs. 5 and 6) into the large chest or binn B, for ground malt, situated immediately over the mashing-tun D. The malt is reserved in the binn 2u

BREWING. 338 Brewing, till wanted, and it is then let down into the mashing-tun, with different pipes and cocks of communication, to serve Brewing, wwhere the extract is obtained by hot water supplied from all the purposes of the brewery except that of raising the cold water from the well. The coolers L are very shallow the copper G. The water for the service of the brewery is obtained vessels, built over one another in several stages; and that from the well E, by a lifting pump worked by the steam- part of the building in which they are contained is built engine; and the forcing-pipe /of this pump conveys the with open lattice-work on all sides, to admit the free curwater up to the large reservoir or water-back F, placed at rent of air. W'hen the wort is sufficiently cooled to be put the top of the engine-house. From this cistern iron pipes to the first fermentation, it is conducted in pipes from all the are laid to the copper G, and also every part of the esta- different coolers to the large fermenting vessel or gyle-tun blishment where cold water can be wanted for cleaning M, which, with another similar vessel behind it, is of suffiand washing the vessels. The copper G can be filled with cient capacity to contain all the beer of one day’s brewing. When the first fermentation is concluded, the beer is cold water by only turning a cock; and the water, when boiled therein, is conveyed by the pipe g into the mash- drawn off from the great fermenting vessel M into the ing-tun D. It is introduced beneath a false bottom, upon small fermenting casks or cleansing vessels N, of which which the malt lies, and, rising up through the holes in there are a great number in the brewery. They are placed the false bottom, it extracts the saccharine matter from four together, and to each four a common spout is providthe malt; a greater or less time being allowed for the in- ed to carry off the yeast, and conduct it into the troughs fusion, according to circumstances. The instant the wa- u placed beneath. In these cleansing vessels the beer reter is drawn off from the copper, fresh water must be let mains till the fermentation is completed, and it is then into it, in order to be boiled ready for the second mash- put into the store-vats, which are casks or tuns of an iming ; because the copper must not be left empty for a mo- mense size, where it is kept till wanted, and is then drawn ment, otherwise the intense heat of the fire would melt off into barrels and sent away from the brewery. The the bottom. For the convenience of thus letting down at store-vats are not represented in the plate, but are of a once as much liquor as will fill the bottom of the copper, conical figure, and of different dimensions, from fifteen to a pan or second boiler is placed over the top of the copper, forty feet diameter, and usually twenty feet in depth. The as seen in fig. 3, Plate CXLII.; and the steam rising steam-engine which puts all the machinery in motion is from the copper communicates a considerable degree of explained by the figure. On the axis of the large flyheat to the contents of the pan, without any expense of wheel is a bevelled cog-wheel, which turns another similar wheel upon the end of a horizontal shaft, which exfuel. This will be more minutely explained hereafter. During the process of mashing, the malt is agitated in tends from the engine-house to the great horse-wheel, the mash-tun, to expose every part to the action of the which it turns by means of a cog-wheel. The horse-wheel water. This is done by a machine contained within the puts in motion all the pinions for the mill-stones bb, and mash-tun, and put in motion by the horizontal shaft H, also the horizontal axis which works the three-barrelled leading from the mill. The masbing-machine is shown in pump k. The rollers aa are turned by a bevelled wheel fig. 1, Plate CXLII. When the mashing is finished, the upon the upper end of the axis of the horse-wheel, which wort or extract is drained down from the malt, into a ves- is continued for that purpose; and the horizontal shaft H, sel I, of similar dimensions to the mash-tun, and situated for the mashing engine, is driven by a pair of bevelled immediately beneath, from which it is called the under- wheels. There is likewise a sack-tackle, which is not reback. Here the wort does not remain longer than is ne- presented. It is a machine for drawing up the sacks of cessary to drain off the whole of it from the tun above. It malt from the court-yard to the highest part of the buildis then pumped up by the three-barrelled pump A, into the ing, whence the sacks are wheeled on a truck to the maltpan at the top of the copper, by a pipe which cannot be loft A, and the contents of the sacks are thrown in. The horse-wheel is intended to put in horses occasionseen in the plate. The wort remains in the copper pan until the water for ally if the steam-engine should fail; but these engines are the succeeding mashes is discharged from the copper. now brought to such perfection that it is very seldom any But this waiting is no loss of time, because the heat of the accidents occur with them. Fig. 2, Plate CXLI., is a representation of the fermentcopper, and the steam arising from it, makes the wort, which had become cooler, ready for boiling. The instant ing-house at the brewery of Messrs Whitbread and Comthe copper is empty, the wort is let down from the pan pany, Chiswell Street, London, which is by far the most into the copper, and the second wort is pumped up from complete in its arrangement of any work of the kind, and the underback into the copper pan. The proper propor- was erected after the plan of Mr Richardson, who contion of hops is thrown into the copper through the near ducts the brewing at those works. The whole of fig. 2 is hole, and then the door is shut down, and screwed fast, to to be considered as devoted to the same object as the large keep in the steam, and cause it to rise up through pipes vessel M and the casks N, fig. 1. In fig. 2, r is the pipe into the pan ; and by bubbling up through the wort in the which leads from the different coolers to convey the wort pan, it communicates so much heat that it is soon ready to the great fermenting vessels or squares M, of which for boiling in its turn; for it is to be observed, that the there are two, one behind the other; ff represents a part different worts follow each other through-all the different of the great pipe which conveys all the water from the vessels with the greatest regularity, so that there is no well E, fig. 1, up to the water cistern F. This pipe is loss of time, but every part of the apparatus is constantly conducted purposely up the wall of the fermenting-house, employed. When the boiling of the wort has continued fig. 2, and has a cock in it, near r, to stop the passage. a sufficient time to coagulate the grosser part of the ex- Just beneath this passage a branch-pipe g proceeds and tract and to evaporate part of the water, the contents of enters a large pipe x x, which has the former pipe r withinthe copper are run off through a large cock into the jack- side of it. From the end of the pipe x, nearest to the back K, which is a vessel of sufficient dimensions to con- squares M, another branch n n proceeds, and returns to tain it, and provided with a bottom of cast-iron plates, per- the original pipe/ with a cock to regulate it. The object forated with small holes, through which the wort drains of this arrangement is to make all, or any part of, the cold and leaves the hops. The hot wort is drawn off from the water flow through the pipe x x, so as to surround the jack-back through the pipe h by the three-barrelled pump, wort-pipe r, which is only made of thin copper, and lower which throws it up to the coolers L, this pump being made the temperature of the wort passing through the pipe r,

BREWING. 339 Brewing, unti], by the thermometer, it is found to have the exact lever, which bears upon the teeth of one of these cog- Brewing, temperature which is desirable before it is put to ferment wheels, and is thereby lifted up every time a cog passes. in the great square M. By means of the cocks at n and I his lever is fixed on the extremity of an axis, which P\ the quantity of cold water which shall pass in contact passes across the wood frame, and in the middle of it has with the surface of the pipe r can be regulated at pleasure, lever c, (3 & 7), bearing up a trough b, which hangs under so as to have a command of the heat of the wort when it athe opening of the hopper A. By this means the trough enters into the square. b is constantly jogged, and shakes down the malt regularWhen the first fermentation in the squares M is finish- ly from the hopper A, and lets it fall between the rollers: ed, the beer is drawn off from them by pipes marked v, e is a scraper of iron plate, which is always made to bear and conducted by its branches iv to the different rows of against the surface of the roller by a weight, to remove fermenting-tuns marked NN, which fill all the building. the grains which adhere to the roller. Between every two rows are placed large troughs to conlig. 5 is the screw by which the ground or bruised malt tain the yeast which they throw off. The plate shows is raised up, or conveyed from one part of the brewery to that the small tuns are all placed on a lower level than another. K is an inclined bar or trough, in the centre of the bottom of the great vessels M, so that the beer will which the axis of the screw H is placed; and the spiral flow into them, and, by standing in them all, will fill them iron plate or worm, which is fixed projecting from the to the same level. When they are filled, the communica- axis, and which forms the screw, is made very nearly to tion-cock is shut; but as the working off of the yeast di- fill the inside of the box. By this means, when the screw minishes the quantity of beer in each vessel, it is neces- is turned round by the wheels EF, or by any other means, sary to fill them up again. For this purpose the two large it raises up the malt from the box d, and delivers it at the vats 00 are filled from the great vessels M before any spout G. Fig. 6 represents a section of the screw. beer is drawn off into the small casks N, and this quantity The screw is equally applicable for conveying the malt of beer is reserved at the higher level for filling up. The hoiizontally in the trough h as inclined; and similar matwo vessels 00 are in reality placed between the two chines are employed in various parts of breweries for consquares M, but we have been obliged to place them so veying the malt wherever the situation of the works rethat they can be seen. Near each filling-up tun o is a quire. cistern t, with a pipe of communication from the tun O, Fig. 1, Plate CXLII., is the mashing-machine. WW is and this pipe is closed by a float-valve. The small cis- the tun, made of wood staves, hooped together. In the teins t have always a communication with the pipes which centre of it rises a perpendicular shaft NN, which is turn lead to the small fermenting vessels N, and therefore the ed slowly round by means of the bevelled wheels KI at surface of the beer in all the tuns and in the cisterns will the top. RR are two arms projecting from the axis, and always be at the same level; and as this level subsides by supporting the short vertical axis S at the extremities, so the working off of the yeast from the tuns, the float sinks that, when the central axis is turned round, it will carry and opens the valve, so as to admit a sufficiency of beer the axle 8 round the tun in a circle. The axis S is furfrom the filling-up tuns o to restore the surfaces of the nished with a number of arms T, which are shown in fig. beer in all the tuns, and also in the cistern t, to the origi- 2, and have blades placed obliquely to the plane of their nal level. In order to carry off the yeast which is pro- motion. When the axis is turned round, these arms agiduced by the fermentation of the beer in the tuns 00, an tate the malt in the tun, and give it a constant tendency iron dish or vessel is made to float upon the surface of the to rise upwards from the bottom. beer which they contain ; and from the centre of this dish I he motion of the axis S is produced by a wheel Q on a pipe o descends and passes through the bottom of the the upper end of it, which is turned by a wheel P fastentun, being filled through a collar of leather so as to be ed on the lower end of the tube O, which turns freely tight, at the same time that it is at liberty to slide down round upon the central axis N. On the upper end of the as the surface of the beer descends in the tun. The yeast same tube O is a bevelled wheel M, receiving motion from flows over the edge of this dish, and is conveyed down a wheel L, which is fixed upon the end of the horizontal the pipe to a trough beneath. axis I, which gives motion to the whole machine. This Beneath the fermenting house are large arched vaults same axis has a pinion G upon it, which gives motion to P, built with stone, and lined with stucco. Into these the the wheel H, fixed upon the end of a horizontal axle, beer is let down when sufficiently fermented, and is kept which at the opposite end has a bevelled pinion I worktill wanted. These vaults are used at Mr Whitbread’s ing the wheel K, before mentioned. By this means the brewery instead of the great store-vats of which we have rotation of the central axis N will be very slow compared before spoken, and are in some respects preferable, be- with the motion of the axis S, for the latter will make cause they preserve a great equality of temperature, being seventeen or eighteen revolutions on its own axis in the beneath the surface of the earth. same space of time that it will be carried once round the Figs. 3,4, and 7, Plate CXLL, represent the malt-rollers, tun by the motion of the axis N. At the beginning of or machine for bruising the grains of malt. A is the hopper the operation of mashing, the machine is made to move into which the malt is let down from the malt-loft above, with a slow motion; but, after having wetted all the malt and from this the malt is let out gradually through a by one revolution, it is made to revolve quicker. For this sluice or sliding-shuttle a, and falls between the rollers purpose the ascending shaft A, which gives motion to the BD. Ihese rollers are made of iron, truly cylindrical machine, has two bevelled wheels BC fixed upon a tube and their pivots are received in pieces of brass let into iron X, which is fitted upon the shaft. These wheels actuate frames, which are bolted down to the wooden frame of the the wheels D and E upon the end of the horizontal shaft machine. A screw E is lapped through the end of each F; but the distance between the two wheels B and C is of these iron frames; and by these screws the brasses can such, that they cannot be engaged both at once with the be forced forwards, and the rollers made to work closer to wheels D and E; but the tube X, to which they are fixeach other, so as to bruise the malt in a greater degree. ed, is capable of sliding up and down on the axis A suffiG is the shaft by which one of the rollers is turned, and ciently to bring either wheel B or C into action with its the other receives its motion by means of a pair of equal corresponding wheel E or D upon the horizontal shaft; cog-wheels H, which are fixed upon the ends of the pivots, and as the diameters of BE and Cl) are of very different at the opposite ends of each of the rollers: c? is a small proportions, the velocity of the motion of the machine can

340 BREWING. Brewing, be varied at pleasure by using one or other: b and c are and at the same time, by closing the dampers from the Brewing, two levers, which are forked at the ends, and embrace flues into the chimney, the intensity of the draught collars at the ends of the tube X; and the levers being through the fire is checked, which is very necessary to united by a rod, the handle b gives the means of moving be done when the contents of the copper are drawn off. the tube X and its wheels BC up or down to obtain the Immediately over the fire-grate c, an arch of fire-bricks or stone s is placed beneath the bottom of the copper, to action of the different wheels. Figs. 3 and 4 represent a large close copper. AA is defend it from the intense heat. The chimney is supthe copper, and B the pan placed over it. The copper ported on iron columns RR. Behind the fire-grate c is a has a large tube E rising up from the dome of it, to con- cavity r, for the reception of the masses of scoriae which vey the steam; and from the top of this four inclined are always formed in so large a fire. They are pushed pipes R descend, the ends being immersed beneath the back off the grate into this receptacle with an iron hook surface of the water or wort contained in the pan. By as fast as they accumulate. The bottom of this recepthis means the steam which rises from the copper issues tacle is formed of sliding iron doors, which can be opened from the ends of the pipes R, and rises in bubbles through by drawing them out, and in this way the clinkers are disthe liquor in the pan, so as to heat it. In the centre of charged ; or the whole of the fire may be driven back off the copper is a perpendicular spindle o, which, at the the grate into this cavity, and will then fall through into lower end, has arms dd fixed projecting from it, and is the ash-pit and be carried away therefrom, which is very turned round by a cog-wheel b at the upper end. From necessary to be done when the copper is to be cooled, so the arms dd chains are hung in loops, which drag round that men may descend into it to clean out the sediment upon the bottom of the copper when the axis is turned; which is left after boiling the wort. For a more particuand this motion stirs up the hops to keep them from burn- lar description of this method of setting boilers, see Phiing at the bottom : fgis a. chain and roller to draw up the losophical Magazine, vol. xvii. Fig. 6 represents one of the sluice-cocks which are used spindle a when the rowser is not wanted; and ee are iron braces proceeding from the outside of the copper, to re- to make the communications of the pipes with the pumps tain the axis a firmly in the centre of the copper. D is or other parts of the brewery. BB represents the pipe in the waste-pipe for carrying off the steam into the chim- which the cock is placed. The two parts of this pipe are ney when it is not required to heat the liquor in the pan. screwed to the sides of a box CC, in which a slider A The copper represented in the .drawing is made in the rises and falls, and intercepts at pleasure the passage of same manner as usual; but the fire is applied beneath it the pipe. The slider is moved by the rod a, which passes in a manner very different from the common brewing-cop- through a stuffing-box in the top, the box whi-ch contains pers. The method was devised with a view to the burn- the slider, and has the rack b fastened to it. The rack is ing or consuming of the smoke, and was employed in the moved by a pinion fixed upon the axis of a handle e, and brewery of Messrs Meux and Company, London, about the rack and pinion is contained in a frame d, which is supported by two pillars. The frame contains a small the year 1803. The fire-place is divided into two by a wall extended roller behind the rack, which bears it up towards the pibeneath the bottom of the boiler, as shown by Z in the nion, and keeps its teeth up to the teeth of the pinion. plan, fig. 4, where the dotted circle A represents the bot- The slider A is made to fit accurately against the intertom of the copper, and the circle X its largest part. The nal surface of the box C, and it is made to bear against section in fig. 3 shows only one of these fire-places, of this surface by the pressure of a spring, so as to make a which C is the fire-grate. The raw coal is not thrown in perfectly close fitting. Fig. 5 is a small cock to be placed in the side of the through the fire-door in the manner of common furnaces, but is put into a narrow inclined box of cast-iron h, built great store-vats, for the purpose of drawing off a small in the brick-work, and shaped like a hopper. The coals quantity of beer, to taste and try its quality. A is a part contained in this hopper fill it up, and stop the entrance of the stave or thickness of the great store-vat; into this of the air so as to answer the purpose of a door; and the the tube B of the cock is fitted, and is held tight in its coals at the lowest part or mouth of the hopper are brought place by a nut aa screwed on withinside. At the other into a state of ignition before they are forced forwards end of the tube B a plug c is fitted, by grinding it into a into the furnace, which is done by introducing a rake or cone, and it is kept in by a screw. This plug has a hole poker at i, just beneath the lower end of the hopper h, up the centre of it, and from this a hole proceeds sideand forcing the coals forwards upon the grate bars C. ways and corresponds with a hole made through the side Immediately over the hopper h, a narrow passage is left of the tube when the cock is open; but when the plug c to admit a stream of fresh air along the top of the hopper is turned round, the hole will not coincide, and then the to pass over the surface of the fuel which is burning at cock will be shut. D is the handle or key of the cock, the lower end of the hopper h. By this means the smoke by which its plug is turned to open or shut it; this handle rising from that portion of fuel is carried forwards over is put up the bore of the tube (the cover E being first unthe burning coals upon the grate C, and is thereby con- screwed and removed), and the end of it is adapted to fit sumed. Beyond the grate bars c, a breast wall S is erect- the end of the plug of the cock. The handle has a tube ed, to direct the flame upwards against the bottom of the or passage bored up it to convey the beer away from the boiler A, and thence descending under the bottom, the cock when it is opened, and from this the passage f, flame is received into the flues, which make each a half through the handle, leads to draw the beer into a glass turn round the lower part of the copper, as shown in the or tumbler. The hole in the side of the plug is so arplan at tt, and then enter the chimney or perpendicular ranged, that when the handle is turned into a perpendiflue W at the same point; the entrance being regulated cular direction with the passage / downwards, the cock by a damper to make the draught more or less intense. will be open. The intention of this contrivance is, that There is also a sliding door or damper E, which closes up there shall be no considerable projection beyond the surthe lower part of the chimney; and by means of these two face of the tun; because it sometimes happens that a dampers the fire under the copper can be regulated to great hoop of the tun breaks, and, falling down, its great the greatest precision; for by opening the damper E it weight would strike out any cock which had a projection ; admits the cold air to enter immediately into the chim- and if this happened in the night much beer might be lost ney W, and thus take off the rapidity of the draught; before it was discovered. The cock above described being

B

R

I

Brian fon almost wholly withinside, and having scarcely any projection beyond the outside surface of the tun, is secure from II Bribery. this accident. Fig. 7 is a small contrivance of a vent peg, to be screwed into the head of a common cask when the beer is to be drawn off from it, and it is necessary to admit some air to allow the beer to flow. A A represents a portion of the head of the cask into which the tube B is screwed. The

BRIANCON, a strongly fortified town of France, in the department of Upper Alps, capital of an arrondissement of the same name on the right bank of the Durance, 50 miles E.S.E. of Grenoble. It is the highest town of France, being nearly 4300 feet above the level of the sea, and is surrounded by still loftier elevations crowned by forts communicating with each other and with the town, and making it all but impregnable. Pop. (1851) of town, 3433 ; of arrondissement, 30,982. BRIAREUS, in Grecian Mythology, a giant, the son of /Ether, Titan, or Ccelus, and Terra. This was the name he received in heaven ; but that by which he was known on earth was /Egeon. He was of singular service to Jupiter, when Juno, Pallas, Neptune, and the rest of the gods, endeavoured to dethrone him ; but he afterwards conspired with the rest of his gigantic brethren to dethrone the father of the gods. Virgil describes Briareus as having a hundred arms and fifty heads, and breathing out fire. The fable says that as a punishment he was thrust by Jupiter under JEtna, and that whenever he moves the mountain belches forth fire. BRIBE, a reward given to pervert the judgment. The word is French, bribe, which originally denotes a bit, fragment, or relic of meat taken off the table; so that bribe imports as much as panis mendicatus, and still keeps up the idea of the matter of which bribes anciently consisted. Hence also the Spaniards use bribar and brivar for begging; and brivia, brivoneria, and brivonismo, for beggary. In the writers of the middle ages, a bribe given to a judge is called quato litis, and the receiver campi particeps, or cambi particeps ; because the spoils of the field, or the profits of the cause, were thus shared with the giver. BRIBERY, as a public offence, may be defined as the administration of a bribe or reward, that it may be a motive in the performance of functions for which the proper motive ought to be a conscientious sense of duty. When this is superseded by the sordid impulses created by the bribe, a person is said to be corrupted, and thus corruption is a term sometimes held equivalent to bribery. The offence may be divided into two great classes, the one characteristic of despotisms, where a person invested with power is induced by payment unjustly to use it; the other, which is an unfortunate characteristic of constitutional governments, where power is obtained by purchasing the suffrages of those who can impart it. The former offence is in every sense the more odious and formidable, and indeed it may be said, that until a country has outgrown it, there is no room for the existence of elective bribery, since the nations among which justice is habitually sold appear to be far below the capacity of possessing constitutional rights. When Samuel in his old age challenges a rigid scrutiny of his conduct, he says, “ Whose ox have I taken, or whose ass have I taken ? or whom have I defrauded ? whom have I oppressed ? or of whose hands have I received any bribe to blind mine eyes therewith ?” And Amos, when denouncing the condition of the Israelites under Jeroboam, says, “ they afflict the just, they take a bribe, and they turn aside the poor in the gate from their right.” It is a natural propensity, removable only by civilization or some power-

341 B R I top of this tube is surrounded by a small cup, from which Bribery, project the two small handles CC, by which the peg is turned round to screw it into the cask. The cup round the upper part of the tube is filled with water, and into this a small cup D is inverted ; in consequence, the air can gain admission into the cask when the pressure within is so far diminished that the air will bubble up through the water, and enter beneath the small cup D.

ful counteracting influence, to feel that every element of power is to be employed as much as possible for the owner’s own behoof, and that its benefits should be conferred not on those who best deserve them, but on those who will pay most for them. Hence, judicial cori’uption is an inveterate vice of imperfect civilization. It is so deeply seated among oriental races, that the attempts by controlling authority to eradicate it have been often futile. It has been the main impediment to the employment of natives in the British Eastern empire, since no external appearance of respectability, or apparent systematic routine of business, can be relied on as securities that the whole organization is not contaminated by systematic bribery. It is difficult to get the oriental mind to understand how it is reasonable to expect the temptation of a bribe to be resisted. In the Russian empire this oriental^ characteristic has had another conflict with the demands of a higher civilization. The organization of the government requires that the empire should be honestly served by its official men, but their morality is of the humblest oriental standard, and force will not change it. In no country, perhaps, has the offence been visited with more dire chastisement where it has been discovered, yet by the concurring testimony of all who are acquainted with Russian society, not only the official departments, but the courts of law, are still influenced by systematic bribery. There is, perhaps, no other crime on which the force of law, if unaided by public opinion and morals, can have so little influence; for in other crimes, such as violence or fraud, there is generally some person immediately injured by the act, who can give his aid in the detection of the offender; but in the perpetration of the offence of bribery, all the immediate parties obtain what they desire and are satisfied. The purification of the bench from judicial bribery has been gradual in most of the European countries. In France it received an impulse in the sixteenth century from the high-minded chancellor L’Hopital. In England, judicial corruption acquired a painful, but perhaps a wholesome renown, from the fate of the illustrious Bacon. If it were admitted, that although he received customary gifts, they never influenced his decisions, yet a comparison of even this modified culpability with the conduct of his predecessor Ellesmere, whose hands were clean from all contact with unofficial sources of emolument, led undoubtedly to the establishment of a higher morality of the bench. In Scotland for some years after the Revolution, the bench was not without a suspicion of interested partiality ; but during the past half century at least, there has been in all parts of the empire a perfect reliance on its purity. The same may be said of the higher class of ministerial officers. There is no doubt that in the period from the Revolution to the end of Queen Anne’s reign, when a speaker of the House of Commons was expelled for bribery, and the great Marlborough could not clear his character from pecuniary dishonesty, there was much corruption in the highest official quarters. The level of the offence of official bribery has gradually descended, until it has become an extremely rare thing for the humbler officers connected with the revenue to be charged with it. It has had a more

B R I 342 Bribery, lingering existence with those who, because their power is more of a constitutional than an official character, have been deemed less responsible to the public. During Walpole’s administration, there is no doubt that members of parliament were paid in cash for votes; and the memorable saying, that every man has his price, has been preserved as a characteristic indication of his method of government. At the present day there is a lurking suspicion that the promoters of railways and other public objects have accomplished their aims by communicating pecuniary advantages to members of the legislature. One of the forms in which administrative corruption is most difficult of eradication, is the appointment to office. It is sometimes maintained that the purity which characterizes the administration of justice is here unattainable, because in giving a judgment there is but one form in which it can be justly given, but when an office has to be filled many people may be equally fitted for it, and personal motives must influence a choice. It very rarely happens, however, that direct bribery is supposed to influence such appointments. Perhaps those which lie most open to suspicion are the lucrative offices with easy duties at the disposal of the East India Company. In its other great form of electoral bribery, the offence still flourishes, and it is at present the object of the anxious attention of British statesmen. To be a legislator in a free country seems so worthy an object of ambition, and the distribution of a small portion of superfluous wealth among needy voters seems so unselfish a method of securing the distinction, that it is difficult to obtain for the pernicious practice that social condemnation which is necessary to give laws for its extinction a fair field. This offence was a characteristic of Rome in her best days, as it has been of England in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The common word ambition is derived from the ambitus, or going about of the briber distributing money among voters. Severe laws were directed against this practice, as well as against the seeker of office, to attract the attention of those ready to dispose of their votes, making himself conspicuous by being clothed in white, or candidatus—the word whence the common term candidate is derived. It does not appear that bribery was conspicuous in England, until in the early part of the eighteenth century constituencies had thrown off the feudal dependence which lingered among them; and, indeed, it is often said, that bribery is essentially the defect of a free people, since it is the sale of that which is taken from others without payment. It is alluded to by Fielding and Smollett, and had become conspicuous in the days of Hogarth, who represents it in its double shape of demoralization ; one picture shows a reckless expenditure of money among profligate expectants, whose demoralization is a systematic source of profit to them; while another presents us with the impoverished father of a family urged against his conscience to relieve the misery of his wife and children by the sale of his vote. The exceptional classes of humble voters preserved by the reform act in the shape of freemen, or others holding the franchise not by qualification but by privilege, have ever been the most amenable to bribery. It is worthy of remark, that the scandal does not extend to Scotland, probably because the popular element was not let in to the Scottish constituencies until after a considerable amount of public feeling had been concentrated against the practice, It has been comparatively little known in France, and its absence has been attributed, perhaps uncharitably, not so much to the virtue of the humbler ranks as to the unwillingness of the higher classes to make the pecuniary sacrifices readily submitted to in England for political objects. It is certain that towards the conclusion of the reign of LouisPhilippe, this electoral purity was contemporary with much official corruption.

B R I In this country there has been much elaborate legislation Briciani for the suppression of bribery. It has ever had to contend II with the unwillingness of the House of Commons to com- ®ric}£mit electoral questions to the legal tribunals, and has thus been subject to the cumbrous forms and the influence of party spirit inseparable from the gregarious operations of the house. The Grenville Act, and those which followed up its design of infusing impartiality and responsibility with the elements of election committees, have of course had their influence; and in 1851 an act was passed for appointing special commissioners to inquire into accusations of bribery on the spot (15th and 16th Viet., c. 57). It would be useless on the present occasion to offer an account of the laws against bribery, as the whole question is under discussion in parliament while this notice passes through the press. The importance of obtaining some really effective remedy was forcibly exemplified by the statement of an eminent lawyer, Sir Fitzroy Kelly, who, in the House of Commons, on February 10.1854, said “ He agreed that it was quite useless to add to the penalties by which the commission of bribery was now followed, either with respect to the voter or the candidate. They had seen that imprisonment, unlimited except by the discretion or mercy of the judge, heavy pecuniary penalties, disfranchisement, disqualification to hold office, to vote, or to sit in parliament, and even the punishment of transportation where perjury had accompanied bribery, had been all inadequate to repress the offence; for they had found that the bribery and every species of corruption which prevailed at the last general election equalled, if they did not exceed, that which had ever been known at any former period of our history.” It is certain, however, that both public and parliamentary morality have been of late setting strongly against the practice, and it may be useful to preserve a record of so lamentable a statement, that it may serve as that point of highest elevation from which it is to be hoped that the tide of political immorality will henceforth be found to recede, (j. h. b.) BRICIANI, a military order instituted by St Bridget of Sweden, who gave them the rules and constitutions of the orders of Malta and St Augustin. BRICK, a kind of artificial stone made of baked clay. 1. The art of making bricks appears to have been prac- yistory> tised in the earliest ages. Burnt bricks were employed in the construction of Babel. Now, as that structure appears to have been raised about four hundred years after the Flood, this method of making bricks would seem to have existed from the very origin of society. Bricks were in common use in Egypt while the Israelites were in subjection to that nation; for the task assigned them was the making of brick; and we are informed in Exodus that the Israelites built two Egyptian cities. No particulars are given in Scripture of the method of making bricks ; but as straw was one of the ingredients, it is probable that their bricks were not burnt, but merely baked by the heat of the sun. The kiln-burnt Babylonian bricks are imperfectly baked, and contain charred fragments of straw. The sun-dried bricks from the ruins of that city sometimes have inscriptions in the ancient arroiv-headed character. These bricks are of a brown colour, contain fragments of straw, and are often larger than the burnt bricks. Some have been seen 14 inches square, and others even of 19 inches. The art of brick-making was carried to considerable perfection by the Greeks. Pliny informs us that they made use of bricks of three different sizes, distinguished by the following names; didoron, or six inches long; tetradoron, or twelve inches long; and pentadoron, or fifteen inches long (lib. xxxv. c. 14). That the Romans excelled in the art of making bricks we have the amplest evidence, since brick structures raised at Rome 1700 years ago still remain as entire as when first built. Brick-making has been carried to great perfection by the Dutch, who have long been in the

BRIG K-M A K I N G. 343 habit of forming their floors, and even in some cases of Potter’s clay is a compound of Brick. paving their streets with bricks. And it is remarkable how' Silica 43-5 long their bricks will continue uninjured in such situations. Alumina 33-2 Though brick-making has long been carried on in England, Lime 3*5 and especially in the neighbourhood of London, upon a Oxide of iron 1*0 very great scale, and though the process upon the whole Water 18-0 is conducted in this country with very considerable skill, yet it must be acknowledged that English bricks are by 99-2 no means so durable as Dutch bricks. We are disposed Loss. 8 to ascribe this inferiority not so much to the nature of the materials employed in the manufacture of English bricks, Total . 100-0 as to the mode most frequently employed in London in When the clay proceeds from the decomposition of building houses. Few of the London houses, compara- hornblende, as is likewise often the case, it contains about tively speaking, are freeholds. Most of them are built three parts and a half of silica, one of alumina, one of upon ground let for a lease of a certain number of years, lime, and about one and a half of oxide of iron. Somewhich seldom exceeds ninety-nine years. After the ex- times the grains of sand which exist in clay consist of piration of this period, the house becomes the property of fragments of felspar. In such cases the clay may be fused the landlord who let the ground. Thus it becomes the by heat. interest of the builder to construct the house so that it No mixture of alumina and silica, in any proportions shall last only as long as the lease. Hence the goodness whatever, can be fused by the strongest heat which can of the bricks becomes only a secondary object. Their be raised in our furnaces. Hence such mixtures are best cheapness is the principal point. The object, therefore, adapted for making fire-bricks, crucibles, and glass-house of the brickmakers is not to furnish durable bricks, but to pots. Stourbridge clay is such a mixture, blackened by make them at as cheap a rate as possible. Accordingly, coaly matter. It answers these purposes better than any the saving of manual labour, and of fuel, has been car- other clay in England. It is a slate clay belonging to the ried by the makers of London bricks to very great lengths. coal formation, and contains interspersed coaly matter. We cannot but consider this mode of proceeding as very There is a similar bed of clay upon the banks of the Calobjectionable, and as entailing a much heavier expense der, about ten miles east from Glasgow. Mr Buttray used upon London than would have been incurred had twice it to make the crucibles in which he fused steel, a process the original price been laid out upon the bricks when they requiring the most intense heat that can be raised in furwere first used, and had the houses been constructed to naces. Its quality seems fully equal to that of Stourbridge last a thousand instead of a hundred years. No doubt, clay. Neither can a mixture of lime and alumina be fused, certain advantages attend these ephemeral structures. in whatever proportions the ingredients be mixed. But a The inhabitants are enabled, once every century, to suit mixture of silica, lime, and alumina, is very fusible, and their houses to the prevailing taste of the day; and thus, the fusion is most readily effected when we employ two there are no antiquated houses in London. But as the parts of silica to one of lime. The presence of oxide of increase of the price of all the materials of building has iron also renders clay fusible, but not unless its proportion more than kept pace with the increase of the wealth of be much greater than ever is likely to occur in any clay individuals, it is to be questioned whether the houses used for the manufacture of bricks. are always improved when they are pulled down and reFor making common bricks, the most durable mixture built. ought to be common clay and limestone or chalk. PerMature and 2. The best material for making brick is what in the haps the best proportions would be three parts of clay, kinds of English language is called loam, a term usually applied and one part of calcareous earth in powder. When such cla yto a natural mixture of sand and clay. Such a mixture a mixture is exposed to heat, it would experience an may be converted into brick without any addition what- incipient fusion, and would thereby be rendered much ever. Marl likewise answers the purpose of common harder and denser than common bricks. The consebricks very well, indeed better than most other mixtures. quence would be, that it would imbibe much less water, It is a natural mixture of calcareous earth and clay in vari- and would therefore be much less liable to crack and fall able proportions. Now, the more lime it contains, the to pieces in winter, than common bricks. For when water better does it answer for a manure; and the less lime it has insinuated itself into the pores of a common brick, and contains, the more suitable it is to the brick-maker. is converted into ice, it undergoes an expansion which disIt would be in vain to attempt a particular detail of the locates the parts of the brick and reduces it to fragments. constituents of clay, because they vary too much from each This is often conspicuously the case with tiles, which, other to admit of any correct generalization. We believe, from their exposed situation, are more liable to be soaked however, that clays very frequently consist of decomposed with water than common bricks. Hence also covering the felspar, in which case we may conceive them as composed surface of the brick with a coating of paint has a great of about three parts of silica in the state of a very fine tendency to preserve it from cracking and breaking. This powder, and one part of alumina. This is the case with practice is frequently followed in England. porcelain clay. Indeed, the porcelain clay of Cornwall It would be foreign to the object of this article to enter appears incontrovertibly to be nothing else than decayed into any long details respecting the chemical investigafelspar, or perhaps felspar which never had assumed any tions and the opinions entertained at different periods reother form than that of clay. The rock from which it specting the nature of clay. At first it was supposed to is taken is an agglutinated mixture of quartz and this be a peculiar species of earth, but Hellot demonstrated clay. The quartz is separated by washing. Such a rock that it consisted at least of two constituents ; for sulphuric might probably be converted into most beautiful brick, acid had the property of destroying its plastic nature, and merely by cutting it out in the proper shape, and sub- of rendering it scarcely more adhesive than sand. The jecting it to the requisite heat; or rather, by kneading portion that remained behind did not effervesce with acids. the whole into a paste with the requisite quantity of wa- It was not therefore of a calcareous nature. Mr Pott went ter, moulding it into bricks, and then drying and burning a step farther; he showed, in the continuation of his them. Lithogeognosia, that sulphuric acid formed, with the porBrick,

B R I C K-M A K I N G. cess of kneading the clay, as conducted either in the ^ Brick. t tion of clay which it dissolved, a salt possessing the pro- neighbourhood of London or Edinburgh, we have always nerties of alum. In the year 1769 Baume published his a great sparing of labour. Hence we believe the Dissertation on Clays, which he had drawn up in conse- found reason why so many of the English bricks appear full of quence of a premium offered by the Academy of Sciences cracks, even when sold to the builder. Such bricks ought at Bourdeaux, for the best solution of the following ques- never to be purchased, as it is perfectly obvious that they tion . What are the principles and constituents of clay, cannot make a durable building. and the natural changes which it experiences, and what The kneading of the clay is performed in some places are the methods of rendering it fertile ? The academy by men’s feet, in others by the feet of horses, and in did not consider Baume’s solutions as satisfactory. He published his Memoir, in consequence, as a kind of defi- others by machinery. The last method is undoubtedly best; and we conceive likewise that it might be renance. He had been employed along with Macquer in the dered the cheapest. It would be easy to devise machimaking numerous experiments on clay, with a view to the nery for kneading the clay, upon principles similar to those improvement of the porcelain manufacture in France. Guided by these experiments, he drew as a conclusion employed in mashing by the London porter brewers. And, a machine were driven by water, we conceive that that clay is a mixture of two different substances: 1. Si- if such would not be nearly so expensive as either men or lica in a state of purity ; 2. Silica combined with an under- it dose of sulphuric acid. It was the second of these con- horses. When the clay is sufficiently kneaded, it is moulded stituents that gave to clay its fattish and plastic natuie. the form of a brick, by being put into a very simple Margraaf had long before (in 1756) demonstrated that the into wooden mould ; and the upper part of the brick is made ingredient of clay which Baume took for a salt, and which smooth and even by cutting off the superfluous part with he’ affirmed was soluble in water, was a peculiar species of a wooden knife. The process is very simple, and is conearth, different from every other, which constitutes the ducted by the workmen with great rapidity. A good basis of alum, which dissolves in sulphuric acid, but which brickmaker w'ould mould about 5000 bricks in a day. He does not form alum unless a portion of potash be added to disengages the bricks from the mould by a gentle stroke the solution. Thus, by the labours of Hellot, Pott, Baume, the back of the mould ; and the wet bricks are at first and Margraaf, the nature of clay was completely developed. on in rows upon long boards. When sufficiently It was ascertained to be a mixture of alumina and silica, arranged dry to be handled, they are turned, and at last piled up in in variable proportions. It was shown, also, that it some- loose which are thatched with straw to keep off the times contained sulphuric acid, and not unfrequently rain. walls, In this position they are allowed to remain till they potash. Hence the reason why, in some cases, it could become as dry as they can become in the open air.. be converted into alum by digestion in sulphuric acid, have In many cases the clay used for brick-making is destiwithout the necessity of adding any potash to the solution. Modern chemists have added considerably to these tute of the requisite quantity of sand. If such clay were facts. They have shown that chalk, felspar, mica, horn- made into bricks, it would shrink so much in their burnblende, oxide of iron, coal, bitumen, &c. are not unfre- ing, that the bricks would lose their shape, and would crack in every direction. To prevent this, it is quently mixed with it; and that these additions alter its probably qualities considerably, and render it fit or unfit for the necessary to add a certain quantity of sand. This sand should not be very fine. It answers best when the partidifferent purposes to which clay is usually applied. cles are of such a size as to be readily distinguished by Prepara3. Clay intended to be made into bricks ought to be the naked eye. Even when as large as coriander seeds, tion of the dug out of the earth and exposed to the air and weather clay, and f0r a considerable time before it is employed. 1 he longer it has been found to answer better than very fine sand. The brickmakers in the neighbourhood of London bring thig exposure is continued, so much the better will it be formation of the fitted for making bricks. This exposure answers a variety their sand from the bottom of the Thames near Woolwich, brick. where it is raised by boats employed for that purpose, and of purposes. If the stones, by the decomposition of which brought up the river for the use of the brick-makers. the clay has been formed, are not entirely decomposed, 4. No directions can be given respecting the Burning this exposure serves to complete the process, by promot- quantity general of sand to be mixed with the clay, because that ing the disintegrating action of the air and rain. I he exposure serves likewise to pulverize the clay, which is es- depends upon the nature of the clay and upon the uses sential to the making of good bricks. We have little for which the bricks are intended. The more sand is doubt that the same amelioration in the clay would be pro- added, the more accurately do the bricks retain their duced by simply drying it in the open air, and then grind- shape, and the less apt are they to crack during the burning it to powder in a mill. By such a process the quality ing, but at the same time their strength is diminished. of the bricks would be exceedingly improved. Nor do we Chemical lutes are often composed of four parts of sand conceive that such an addition would greatly enhance the and one part of clay. Such mixtures do not contract expenses of the brickmaker, at least in those districts much in burning, and, therefore, are not apt to crack and drop off, which is the reason why chemists employ them. where the mill could be driven by water. When the clay has been reduced to powder, the next But they have not the adhesiveness of brick after being step is to make it into a stiff paste with water.. Too much burned, and would not therefore answer the purposes of water should not be employed, because it is injurious to the brick-maker. In stone-ware the mixture consists of the strength of the bricks ; and the utmost care should be about four parts of clay and one of fine sand. It burns to taken to mix the whole of the clay as equally as possible a hard cohesive substance, capable of striking fire with with the water. If some parts of the paste-be moister steel. Such a proportion, then, in many cases would anthan others, it will occasion an inequality in the texture swer the purposes of the brick-maker. The London brick-makers make another addition to the of the bricks formed of it, will render them apt to crack, and will greatly injure both their strength and their beau- clay, which we believe is peculiar to them. They add to ty. Hence the great importance of working the day for every three parts of the clay about one part of the ashes a considerable length of time before moulding it into from the fire-places of the city of London. These ashes bricks. It is in this part of the process that we believe contain some earthy matter; but they consist in a great British brickmakers in general are most defective. As measure of small coal unburnt and little altered, which has far as we have had an opportunity of witnessing the pro- fallen through the interstices of the grate. The conse-

344 BrkK.

345 BRIG K-M A K I N G. Brick. quence is, that such a mixture, when sufficiently heated, are made by arching the bricks over so as to leave a space ^ Brick, takes fire and burns of itself, though very slowly; so that between each about a brick in width. Over the whole is the London bricks are burned in a great measure by strewed a pretty thick covering of cinders. The flues are means of the fuel mixed with the clay of which they are filled likewise with cinders, or, if they cannot be had, with coal. The fire-place is usually at the west end, and is composed. It is essential to dry the bricks thoroughly in the open generally three feet high. The fire, when once kindled air before burning them; for when heat is applied to wet in the fire-place, propagates itself very slowly through the clay, the water which it contains being prevented from whole clamp, as bricks piled in this manner are called. escaping by the adhesiveness of the mixture, is convert- So very slow is the progress, that bricks in the neighboured into steam, and cracks and breaks the mass of clay hood of London take about three months in the burning. to pieces. Indeed, after the bricks are rendered as dry The heat is very intense, and, as the fuel is mixed up with as they can become in the open air, they ought to be ex- the clay itself, every part of the brick is sure to be suffiposed at first to a gentle heat, which ought to be raised ciently burnt. We conceive that the mixture of about one fourth of to redness very slowly, and in proportion as the moisture of the brick is dissipated. Water adheres with such ob- chalk with the clay of which the London bricks are made, stinacy to clay, that it is never all driven off by the heat would greatly improve their quality. The consequence at which bricks are burnt. But the portion which re- would be an incipient fusion, which would render their mains is so intimately combined with the clay, as to con- surface much more compact and solid. The only difficulstitute one solid mass, which has no great tendency to* ty would be to proportion the quantity of chalk so as to prevent complete fusion, which would run the bricks into absorb an additional quantity of water. Bricks are most commonly burnt in a kiln. This is a each other, and destroy them entirely. Bricks made of very simple structure, usually about thirteen feet long, materials which have undergone complete fusion would ten and a half wide, and twelve feet high. The walls are be greatly superior to common bricks. They would perone foot two inches thick, and incline a little to each other fectly resist the action of the weather, and would, thereas they ascend. The bricks are placed on flat arches, fore, last much longer than common bricks. In Sweden having holes left in them like lattice-work. After the it is customary at some of the iron founderies to cast the bricks are arranged on the kiln, to the number of about scoriae into bricks, which they employ in constructing their 20,000, they are covered with old bricks or tiles. Some furnaces. Such furnaces the writer of this article has brush-wood is then kindled in the kiln, and a moderate seen; and he was assured by the gentleman who had the fire kept up till the bricks are rendered as dry as possible. charge of the works, that they answered fully better than The time required for this is two or three days; and the common bricks. It would be easy to make any quantity bricks are known to be dry when the smoke (which is at of such bricks in some of the large iron founderies of first black) becomes transparent. The mouth of the kiln Great Britain. We are persuaded that such bricks might is then filled up with pieces of brick and clay, leaving only be brought into use for a variety of purposes with great room to introduce a faggot at a time. This structure at advantage, and might even constitute a lucrative article the mouth of the kiln is called a shinlog. The kiln is then of manufacture. Bricks made from the scoriae of iron and supplied with faggots of furze, heath, fern, or whatever copper founderies would vie in beauty with marble and vegetable substance can be procured at the cheapest rate, porphyry, and would possess a lustre of surface to which till the arches look white, and the fire appears at the top. few marbles could reach. Few parts of Great Britain are so well adapted for the The fire is then diminished, and at length allowed to go out, and the kiln is permitted to cool. This burning pro- making of bricks, according to the London plan, as the neighbourhood of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. There the enorcess usually lasts about forty-eight hours. The method of burning bricks in the neighbourhood of mous heaps of small coal, which are of no use whatever, London is very different from this; and we do not know would furnish abundance of fuel at a much cheaper rate whether it be practised anywhere else. It obviously ori- than even the London ashes; while the magnesian limeginated from the difficulty of procuring a sufficient quan- stone that occurs in such plenty in the neighbourhood of tity of vegetable matter to burn the enormous number of Sunderland would enable the brickmaker to give the clay bricks consumed every year in London. If we consider the requisite degree of fusibility. The vast employment of bricks in Great-Britain, espethe immense extension of houses which has taken place in London within the last fifty years, and if we consider that cially in England, is shown by a parliamentary paper, which this vast city, containing nearly 2,500,000 inhabitants, is states that in 1802 the duty was paid on 713,880,743 almost renewed every century, we may be able to form bricks; but in the year 1845 on 1,878,037,639, and the duty some notion of the prodigious quantity of bricks which it in this last year amounted to L.576,199. This tax is now must consume. In the country round London there is a abolished. Fire-bricks are made in the same way as common bricks, Fireparticular kind of clay, well known by the name of Lonthe materials are different. The best clay for their com-bricks, don clay. This clay is almost everywhere covered with but is Stourbridge clay; and, instead of sand, it is usual a bed of gravel, which varies in thickness according to the position to mix the clay with a quantity of old fire-bricks, or crucibles, elevation of the surface. Hence the whole of the country or glass-pots, reduced previously to powder. This mixture round London is fit for making bricks. Nothing more is answers the same purposes as sand, while it does not communecessary than to dig through the surface of gravel, and nicate the tendency to fusion when it comes in contact with get to the clay. various fluxes that are communicated by siliceous sand. There is a kind of bricks mentioned by Pliny as used by Swimming We have already mentioned, that about a fourth part of the London bricks consists of small coal kneaded up the ancients, which were so light as to swim in water. “ Pi- bricks, along with the clay. When the bricks are sufficiently dry, tanae in Asia, et in ulterioris Hispanise civitatibus Massia et they are piled up on each other in parallelopipedons to Calento, fiunt lateres, qui siccati non merguntur in aqua.” (Plinii Natur. Histor. lib. xxxv. c. 14). Pliny does not the intended height. Between each two rows of brick mention the part of the world in which the earth employed in there is strewed a quantity of cinders, amounting to about the manufactures of these bricks was found, though in all prothree inches in thickness. At the distance of about nine bability it could not be far from the cities where the bricks feet from each other, perpendicular spaces are left, about are said by him to have been made. He says that the matea brick wide, which serve the purpose of flues. These rial employed was a kind of pumice stone. But it was quite VOL. v.

BRIG K-M A K I N G. 346 Brick- unknown to the modems, till, in 1791, Fabbroni found a sub- seding hand labour. The Marquis of Tweeddale has been the most Brickmaking. stance at Castel del Piano, net far from Santa Fiora, between successful so far, but his invention has not been found perfect where Tuscany and the Papal dominions, which formed bricks capable the clay contains any pebbles, because he cuts at once a number of bricks out of a layer of clay by means of copper wire descending of swimming in water. This is a white earthy matter, which vertically, and where these wires come into contact with the stones, constitutes a bed in that place, and was known in Italy by the small, the bricks are ragged and require to be again thrown name oi Latte di Luna. In more recent mineralogical books however the feeder. If, however, the clay was entirety freed from it is distinguished by the name of farina fossilis (bergmehl). into his machine would be very simple and effective. Clay must, Haiiy considers it as a variety of talc, and Brochant as a stones, be cast out of the ground by hand, then wheeled to the variety of meerschaum. According to the analysis of Fab- however, machine to be tempered, boys have again to be employed to carry broni this substance is composed of off the bricks when moulded and set them up in stacks to dry, and the machine has therefore the mere passing of the clay through the Silica 55 moulder’s hands to compete with, and so far the competition has been Magnesia 15 unfavourable to the use of the machine. Alumina 12 But pressing the bricks before they are dry has become very Lime 3 general, and for this purpose several machines have been for some Iron 1 years in active operation. That now generally used was introduced Water 14 into England about 20 years ago by the late Mr Bakewell, and was the invention of an American. After the bricks are moulded they 100. are partially dried, and are then placed in a brass mould of the exBut by the more recent analysis of Klaproth, act size of the brick required. By means of a lever, a flat cover Silica 79 drops upon the top of this brass mould, and the same motion raises Alumina 5 an under plate, so that in proportion to the pressure exerted, is the Oxide of iron 3 solidity of the brick. Nothing can exceed the excellence, squareWater 12 ness, and solidity of bricks when this operation is faithfully perLoss 1 formed, and the bricks thus pressed weigh from 1 to 1J lb. heavier than the same sized bricks made by hand and not pressed. The desideratum is to find a machine that can not only compete in 100 price with hand labour, but which can also deliver the bricks in a This mineral, therefore, is neither a variety of talc nor of pressed ready to be placed at once in the kiln. A man and meerschaum. One would be disposed to consider it as a hy- two boysstate, can press by the hand machine about 3000 bricks a-day. drate of silica ; for both the alumina and oxide of iron are Considering the many millions of bricks annually consumed in Engpresent in so small proportions that we can scarcely consider land, it is to be hoped that a successful machine for making bricks them as in chemical combination. of first-rate quality will speedily be invented. Considering the composition of this earth, it is rather sinWe have alluded to the excellence of the Stourbridge clay for gular that it is capable of being agglutinated by a red heat. making fire bricks, but our description would be incomplete if we We suspect that the bricks of Fabbroni, which swim in water, were to omit the extraordinary beds of clay found at Hawarden in have but very little strength. This, if it be the case, must Flintshire. At this place are manufactured in immense quantities those fire-bricks which are not only used throughout Lancashire greatly circumscribe their utility. The colour of the London bricks is not red, as is the case and other counties for the construction of furnaces, but have formed with common bricks and tiles, but a light brownish yellow. for many years an article of export to all parts of the world, but This colour is more pleasing to the eye than common brick particularly to the West Indies. About 50 years ago the late Mr William Hancock established red, and on that account the London bricks are preferred for building hotises. The brick-makers assign a curious enough works at Buckley Mountain, which have since been continued by his and other parties, and the trade gives employment to many reason for this colour. According to them, their bricks are successors families. Two descriptions of clay are found near Hawarden; kept as much as possible from contact with the air during their hundred of them burns blue, similar in appearance to the bricks made in burning. The consequence of this is, that the iron contained one Staffordshire; the other comes out of the kiln nearly white, and these in them is not oxidized to so great a degree as in common latter have the peculiar property of not only resisting the most inbricks. But this mode of reasoning is far from being exact. tense heat without fusing, but the admission of cold air into a furnace If air were excluded entirety, the bricks would not be burnt at constructed with them does not cause them to fly or crack as is too all, because the fire would be extinguished. But if enough of generally the case with the common fire-bricks. Hence they are air be admitted to burn the coal mixed with the clay, which much used for casing the furnaces of iron-founders, soap-boilers, must be the case, that air must also act upon the iron, and re- and others, whose furnaces are necessarily left to cool suddenly duce it to the state of peroxide. Indeed, there can be no when the metal is withdrawn. In many respects the Welsh clay doubt that the iron in the London yellow bricks is in the state is similar to some found in the neighbourhood of Newcastle-onof peroxide as well as in the red bricks, for the peroxide of Tyne, and we subjoin an analysis of each, that in Flintshire being iron gives various colours to bodies, according to circumstances. made by Dr Sheridan Muspratt, and that in Northumberland by Dr We find bodies tinged with it red, yellow, and brown, accord- Richardson. FlintsTiire White Newcastle Clay, ing to the substances with which the oxide is combined. We Analyzed by Clay, Analyzed by ascribe the yellow colour of the London bricks to the ashes of Richardson. Muspratt. , the coals, which, by uniting with the peroxides of iron, form 51-10 Silica 50-362 a kind of yellow ochre. 31-35 Alumina 29 310 The best clay in England for making common building bricks is 4-63 Iron 5'000 found in Staffordshire, and in some parts of Derbyshire. That in 1-46 Lime D355 , Staffordshire contains a large portion of iron, and from it are made 1-54 Magnesia 0 379 those durable blue bricks which have been so extensively used for 10-47 Water 13'526 flooring purposes, and also for building msjny railway stations. Loss 68 Draining and sewerage tiles are also made from this clay, which burns with a peculiar glaze, and during the last few years, the 100-55 100-000 manufactories of blue bricks and tiles have given employment to a Newcastle Flintshire very large number of people. The Derbyshire clay burns into Blue Clay. Blue Clay. bricks of a peculiar redness, and from the absence of pebbles and 51-11 Silica 49-251 lime, and from the care which is bestowed upon it, particularly in 30-40 Alumina 30-548 tempering and grinding, no part of the country can excel Derby 4-91 Iron 7-984 and its vicinity in the production of bricks of great beauty and 1-76 Lime 0-153 solidity. In Manchester, Liverpool, and the other manufacturing Mere traces. Magnesia Mere traces. towns of Lancashire, the clay contains a large quantity of stones, 12-29 Water 12-064 and as cheapness rather than beauty is the desideratum in these busy marts, the bricks made are of a rough description, except for 100-48 100-000 fronting the buildings, when extra pains are taken. Many attempts have been made to introduce machinery in manu- The Flintshire clay is also used for the manufacturing of flooring facturing bricks, but as yet no invention has succeeded in super- tiles, and for wares of a domestic character.

B B I BrickIt is a great mistake in speaking of technical matters to confound Layer the idea of fire-proof with what is scientifically called infusible, the || former being only a relative term, implying fusibility at the cerBride. tain temperature mentioned in connection with it. Substances ^ j which are perfectly capable of standing all the degrees of temperature employed in factories, may he melted, and frequently volatilized, before the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe, or between the poles of a powerful battery. Thus pure silica, for example, has been rendered molten like glass, and drawn out into fine threads. The degree of fusibility which a substance possesses is mainly dependent upon its chemical constituents; but it appears often to rest as much upon the elementary composition of those ingredients; for not only is the fusibility influenced by the proportion of acids and bases which make up a clay or refractive substance, but also by the manner in which such acids and bases may be combined. The property of easy fusibility is dependent either on the nature of the bases, alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides, or in a still greater degree upon the manner in which the silicic acid and those bases are proportioned in the substance. Alumina is a base, which, in combination with silicic acid, forms one of the most refractory of substances, and imparts this property to the clays in proportion as they are unmixed with lime, iron, magnesia, &c. A chemical analysis, therefore, of clays, although it cannot supersede actual experiment on the large scale, may be of the greatest service, as clays seldom come up to what is required of them, and only acquire the requisite properties by certain additions, the choice of which must be guided by centesimal results. The chief cause of cracking is the contraction which materials undergo by heating, and this must be lessened by the addition of substances which do not shrink themselves, nor impair the refractory nature of the materials. Pure sand, free from lime and iron, and ground fire-clay which has been previously burned, are the substances most generally and appropriately used, and are found to be capable of withstanding, as crucibles, the intense white glow of the glass furnace. The alumina and silica are nicely apportioned in the Welsh clays, hence they include in a great measure the qualifying distinctions we have glanced at, and are therefore very good for producing fire-bricks for manufacturing purposes, where great heat has to be resisted. The large amount of iron present, though an objection, will not materially interfere with the fusibility, as there is so little lime in the clay. (t. t.) (s. h.) BniCK-Layer, an artificer whose business is to build with bricks, or make brick-work. The London Brick-layers’ Company was incorporated in 1568, and consists of a master, two wardens, twenty assistants, and seventy-eight liverymen. BmcK-Laying. See Building. BRICKNOGGING, brick-work employed to fill up the interstices of timber framing. BRICKTRIMMER, a framework of brick, overarching ordinary fire-places, and designed to protect the woodwork from the danger of taking fire. BRIDAINE, Jacques, a celebrated French preacher and home-missionary, was born in 1701 at Chuslan in the department of Gard. Though a rigid Catholic in principle, he gained the good-will of the Protestants of France, by the boldness with which he advocated their cause on many occasions, and the personal kindness which he displayed towards many of their number during the persecutions to which they were exposed under the Regent Orleans and Louis XV. He accomplished no fewer than 250 evangelizing journeys through various parts of France, in the course of which he made himself universally popular. He was the author of a collection of Cantiques Spirituels, which has been frequently reprinted, and of five volumes of sermons, printed at Avignon in 1825. In the neighbourhood of this town he died in 1767. BRIDE (Saxon, bryd), a newly-married woman. In its true and original signification it denoted a woman espoused or contracted to be married; and, in an analogous sense, its use is still retained in Scotland. Among the Athenians betrothment was indispensable to the validity of a marriage-contract. On the wedding-day it was the custom for the bride, closely veiled, to be conducted to her husband’s house in a chariot drawn by mules or oxen. She was seated between her husband and one of his most intimate friends; lighted torches were carried be-

B R I 347 fore her; and as the procession moved along she was enter- ^detained with the hymenean song, which was sung to the ac- ^ groom- ^ companiment of Lydian flutes, as described in the Iliad, xviii. 490. When they alighted, it was usual in some places to burn the axletree of the carriage, to signify that the bride was to remain at her husband’s house. The threshold being crossed, sweetmeats were showered upon the wedded pair, as emblems of plenty and prosperity. Then came the nuptial feast, to which, contrary to the usual practice, women as well as men were invited, though the women appear to have sat at a separate table with the bride. As marriage among the Greeks was celebrated without any public rite, either civil or religious, the guests assembled on such occasions appear to have been regarded in the light of witnesses to the fact. At the conclusion of the feast the bride was conducted by her husband to the bridal chamber ; and then the Epithalamium or nuptial song was sung before the doors of the apartment. (See Theoc. Idyl, xviii.) In the heroic age, as described by Homer, women were held in greater estimation, and enjoyed a much higher social position than in subsequent times, when the restrictions imposed upon their liberty appear to have been of a kind not very dissimilar to those which exist among oriental nations at the present day. The usage of the Dorians, however, and especially at Sparta, formed a striking contrast to that of the lonians ; for the Dorian women continued in the possession of almost unrestricted liberty, so much so, indeed, as to have given occasion for serious charges against their moral character. Among the Romans the custom of taking the bride by apparent force from the arms of her mother or guardian, was kept up in memory, it is said, of the rape of the Sabines under Romulus. A similar practice appears to have existed as a relic of antiquity at Sparta. {Herodot. vi. 65). Preparatory to the nuptials of the Romans, a meeting of friends was sometimes held at the house of the woman, for the purpose of settling the marriage-contract and other preliminaries ; and on this occasion it was customary, at least during the imperial period, for the future husband to place a ring on the finger of his betrothed. On the marriage-day the bride appeared in a white robe, adorned with a purple fringe or with ribands, and fastened at the waist with a girdle, which at night was unloosed by the husband. The hair of the bride was divided on this occasion with the point of a spear ; and she wore a veil, which, as well as her shoes, was of a bright yellow colour. Attended by a numerous train of friends, she was carried home in the evening to the bridegroom’s house, accompanied by three boys, one of whom carried a torch, and the other two led the bride, who held a spindle and distaff. She brought three pieces of money, called asses, in her hand to the bridegroom, whose doors on this occasion were adorned with flowers and branches of trees. Being there interrogated who she was, she answered Caia, in memory of Caia Cecilia, wife of Tarquin the elder, who was an excellent lanifica or spinstress; and before her entrance she lined the door-posts with wool, and smeared them with grease. Fire and water being set on the threshold, she touched both; but, starting back from the door, refused to enter, till at length she passed the threshold, being careful to step over without touching it. Then the keys were delivered to her, a nuptial supper was prepared, and minstrels attended. She was seated on the figure of a priapus, and in this situation the attendant boys resigned her to the pronubce, who brought her into the nuptial chamber and put her to bed. This office was performed by the pronubrs, matrons who had been only once married, to denote that the marriage was to be in perpetuity. The Roman matrons held quite a different position from that of married women among the Greeks ; the wife being mistress of the household, and sharing the honours of her husband. See Marriage, and Divorce. BRIDEGROOM (Saxon, brydguma, i.e., bride’s man),

348 B R I Bridewell a man newly married, or a man about to be married, bor .11 the correctness of the latter definition we have the authority Bridge -1 of Shakspeare :— v “ As are those dulcet sounds at break of day That creep into the dreaming bridegroom’s ear, And summon him to marriage.” In nothing have the usages of different nations varied more than in regard to marriage, and the ceremonies by which it is celebrated or solemnized. Amongst the Romans the bridegroom was decked to receive his bride; his hair was combed and cut in a particular form ; he had a coronet or chaplet on his head, and was dressed in a white garment. BRIDEWELL, a name frequently given to houses of correction. The first establishment of this kind was a royal

B R I palace in the parish of St Bride’s, London, which was called Bridewell from its vicinity to a well dedicated to St Bride or Bridget. This foundation partakes of the mixed character of hospital, prison, and workhouse. It was founded in 1553 by Edward VI., who gave the place where King John had formerly kept his court, and which had been repaired by Henry VIII., to the city of London, with seven hundred merks of land, bedding, and other furniture. Juvenile delinquents are sent to the hospital as apprentices to manufacturers, who reside there; and, on their having faithfully served their time of seven years, they become entitled to their freedom, together with a donation of ten pounds each to enable them to carry on their respective trades. See also Workhouse, and Poor-Laws. ,

B B I D G E. The mathematical theory of the stx-ucture of bridges has been a favourite subject with mechanical philosophers. It gives scope to some of the most refined and elegant applications of science to practical utility; and while its progressive improvement exhibits an example of the veiy slow steps by which speculation has sometimes followed execution, it enables us to look forward with perfect confidence to that more desirable state of human knowledge in which the calculations of the mathematician shall direct the operations of the artificer with security, instead of following with servility the progress of his laboui's. Of the origin of the art of building bridges something will be found in other parts of this work (see the articles Arch, Skew Bridge, and Tubular Bridge). The subject has been much discussed during the last half century, by some ot the most learned antiquaries and most elegant scholars ; but additions still more important have been made to the scientific and practical principles on which that art depends ; and the information that may here be expected will be comprehended under the head of physico-mathematical principles, subservient to the theory of this department of architecture ; while the historical account of the works which appeal to be the most deserving of notice will be found under the articles already referred to. This article will contain five sections, relating respectively (1) to the resistance of the materials employed, (2) to the equilibrium of arches, and (3) to the effects of friction, (4) an account of the discussions regarding the London bridges, in which will be found the views of many philosophers and practical men, and (5) the application of theory to existing bridges. Sect. I.— Of the Resistance of Materials. A. In all homogeneous solid bodies, the resistances to extension and compression must be initially equal, and proportional to the change of dimensions. . . The equilibrium of the particles of any body remaining at rest depends on the equality of opposite forces, varying according to certain laws ; and that these laws are continued without any abrupt change, when any minute alteration takes place in the distance, is demonstrated by their continuing little altered by any variation of dimensions, in consequence of an increase or diminution of temperature, and might indeed be at once inferred as highly probable, from the general principle of continuity observed in the laws of nature. We may therefore always assume a change of dimensions so small, that, as in all other differential calculations, the elements of the curves, of which the ordinates express the forces, as functions of, or as depending on, the distances as abscisses, may be considered as not sensibly differing from right lines crossing each other, if the curves be drawn on the same side of the absciss, in a point corresponding to the point of rest, or to the distance affording

an equilibrium; so that the elementary finite differences of the respective pairs of ordinates which must form, with the portions of the two curves, rectilinear triangles, always similar to each other, will always vary as the lengths of the elements of the curves, or as the elements of the absciss, beginning at the point of rest; and it is obvious that these differences will represent the actual magnitude of the resistances exhibited by the substance to extension or compression. It was on the same principle that Bernoulli long ago observed, that the minute oscillations of any system of bodies, whatever the laws of the forces governing them might be, must ultimately be isochronous, notwithstanding any imaginable variation of their comparative extent, the forces tending to bring them back to the quiescent position being always proportional to the displacements; and so far as the doctrine has been investigated by experiments, its general truth has been amply confirmed; the slight deviations from the exact proportion which have been discovered in some substances being far too unimportant to constitute an exception, and merely tending to show that these substances cannot have been perfectly homogeneous, in the sense here attributed to the word. When the compression or extension is considerable, there may indeed be a sensible deviation, especially in fibrous or stratified substances; but this irregularity by no means affects the admissibility of any of the conclusions which will be derived from this proposition. B. The strength of a block or beam must be reduced to one half, before its cohesive and repulsive forces can both be called into action. We must suppose the transverse sections of the body to remain plane and perpendicular to the axis, whatever the point may be to which the force is applied; a supposition which will be correctly true if the pressure be made by the intervention of a firm plate attached to each end, and which is perfectly admissible in every other case. Now, if the terminal plates remain parallel, it is obvious that the compression or extension must be uniformly distributed throughout the substance, which must happen when the original force is applied in the middle of the block; the centre of pressure or resistance collected by the plate acting like a lever, being then coincident with the axis. But when the plates are inclined, the resistance depending on the compression or extension will be various in different parts, and will always be proportional to the distance from the neutral point where the compression ends and the extension begins, if the depth of the substance is sufficient to extend to this point; consequently the forces may always be represented, like the pressure of a fluid, at different depths, by the ordinates of a triangle ; and their result may be considered as concentrated in the centre of gravity of the triangle, or of such of its portions as are contained within the depth of the sub-

BRIDGE.

349 Bridge. \ \. 3 3/

a

z

(aa Bridge- stance; and when both extension and compression are sistance; or 2 az : (^ a + z)“ —- 5 a : ^J2z '—’-Y-'*-'' concerned, the smaller force may be considered as a negative pressure, to be subtracted from the greater, as is and adding to this the distance of the centre of action from usual when any other compound forces are supposed to the axis, which must be^a — £(ia + z)=^a — i act on a lever of any kind. Now when the neutral point is situated'in one of the surfaces of the b1ock, the sum of we have 12z for the distance of the force from the axis; all the forces is represented by the area of the triangle, . .. aa as it is by that of the parallelogram when the plates re- whence, calling this distance y, z = main parallel; and these areas being in either case equiE. The power of a given force to crush a block is invalent to the same external force, it is obvious that the perpendicular of the triangle must be equal to twice the creased by its removal from the axis, supposing its direction height of the parallelogram, indicating that the com- unaltered, in the same proportion as the depth of the block is pression or extension of the surface in the one case is increased by the addition of six times the distance of the point twice as great as the equable compression or extension in of application of the force, measured in the transverse section. Since the compression or extension of the axis is invathe other; and since there is always a certain degree of compression or extension, which must be precisely suffi- riable, whatever the distance of the force may be, that of cient to crush or tear that part of the substance which is the nearest surface must be as much greater, by the proimmediately exposed to it, and since the whole substance perties of similar triangles, as the half depth, increased must in general give way when any of its parts fail, it by the distance of the neutral point, is greater than that follows that the strength is only half as great in the for- distance itself, that is, in the ratio of a + 6^ to a, since z mer case as in the latter. And the centre of gravity of is to a as a to 12^ (Prop. D.), and to ^ a as a to &y; every triangle being at the distance of one third of its and the strength is reduced in the same proportion as the height from the base, the external force must be applied, partial compression or extension, by the operation of a in order to produce such a compression or extension, at given force, is increased. (Plate CXLIII. fig. 3.) F. The curvature of the neutral line of a beam at any the distance of one sixth of the depth from the axis; and when its distance is greater than this, both the repulsive point, produced by a given force, is proportional to the disand cohesive forces of the substance must be called into tance of the line of direction of the force from the given point action, and the strength must be still further impaired. of the axis, whatever that direction may be. Since the distance z of the neutral point from the axis (Plate CXLIII. fig. 2.) C. The compression or extension of the axis of a block or is inversely as y, the distance of the force, and the radius beam is always proportional to the force, reduced to the di- of curvature, or the distance of the intersection of the planes of the terminal plates from the neutral point, must rection of the axis, at whatever distance it may be applied. We may suppose one of the inflexible plates attached be to the distance z as the whole length of the axis is to to the extremities of the block to be continued to the the alteration of that length produced by the compression given distance, and to act as a lever held in equilibrium by or extension, it follows that the radius of curvature must three forces, that is, by the cohesive and repulsive resist- be inversely as the distance y, and inversely also as the ances of the block, and the external force; and it is ob- compression, and the curvature itself must be conjointly vious that, as in all other levers, the external force will as the force and as the distance of its application. If the always be equal to the difference of the other two forces direction of the force be changed, and the perpendicular depending on the compression and extension, or to the falling from the given point of the axis on the line of the mean compression or extension of the whole, which must force be now called y, the distance of the force from the also be the immediate compression or extension of the axis measured in the transverse section will be increased middle, since the figure representing the forces is recti- by the obliquity exactly in the same ratio as its efficacy linear. And the effect will be the same, whatever may is diminished, and the curvature of the neutral line will be the intermediate substances by which the force is im- remain unaltered; although the place of that line will be pressed on the block, whether continued in a straight line a little varied, until at last it coincides with the axis, when or otherwise. When the force is oblique, the portion per- the force becomes completely transverse: and the radius pendicular to the axis will be resisted by the lateral ad- of curvature of the axis will always be to that of the neuhesion of the different strata of the block, the compression tral line as the acquired to the original length of the axis. or extension being only determined by the portion parallel (Plate CXLIII. fig. 4.) G. The radius of curvature of the neutral line is to the to the axis; and when it is transverse, the length of the axis will remain unaltered. But the line of direction of distance of the neutral point as the original length of the axis the original force must always be continued till it meets to the alteration of that length, or as a certain given quanthe transverse section at any point of the length, in order tity to the external force ; and this quantity has been termed the modulus of elasticity. to determine the nature of the strain at that point. ,„ , Mz Maa , . D. The distance of the neutral point from the axis of a Or r : z = M :/, and r — ~J ~ fyf aS 18 obvious cfrom block or beam is to the depth, as the depth to twelve times the distance of the force, measured in the transverse section. the preceding demonstration ; y being the distance of the Calling the depth a, and the distance of the neutral line of the force from the given point, whatever its direcpoint from the axis z, the resistances may be expressed tion may be. by the squares of £ a + z and £ « — z, which are the H. The flexibility, referred to the direction of the force, sides of the similar triangles denoting the compression is expressed by unity, increased by twelve times the square and extension (Prop. B.) ; consequently, the difference of of the distance, divided by that of the depth. these squares, 2 az, will represent the external force Making the alteration of the axis unity, the correspond(Prop. C.) But the distance of the centres of gravity of ing change at the distance y will be to 1 as z + y to z, the two triangles must always be ^ a > and, by the property of the lever, making the centre of action of the or as 1 + - to 1, and will consequently be equal to greater resistance the fulcrum, as the external force is to the smaller resistance, so is this distance to the distance 1 + 12*/*/ (Prop. D.) of the force from the centre of action of the greater re-

350 Bridge.

BRIDGE. When the direction of the force becomes oblique, the c, the whole extent of the arc, these two deviations must Bridge. actual compression of the axis is diminished, but its effect destroy each other, since the positions of the middle and referred to that direction remains unaltered. of the ends remain unaltered ; consequentlysin. c—pbc , p rc — r I. The total compression of a narrow block, pressed in the — qrc — qr sin. c, whence — — —^— direction of one of its diagonals, is twice as great as if the q rsxn. c—be-, and the exact same force were applied in the direction of the axis. proportion of p to ^ may be found by means of a table of This proposition affords a simple illustration of the ap- sines. But when the arc is small, sin. c being equal to 5 3 plication of the preceding one. Calling the length of any c — c* + r^-r c ...,rc — r sin. c is rc , and r sin. c — be ^ c3 + 120 ^ portion of the axis x, beginning from the middle, and ne3 glecting the obliquity, the distance of the force may be z= (r — b) c — rc ; now r — 6, the versed sine of the arc, called y — nx; and the compression in the line of the becomes ultimately ^ rc2, and (r — b) cz=^ rc3 ; therefore ’• 9=i : i = i : 1 5 that is, the strain at the middle, exforce being everywhere as 1 + its fluxion will be Ppressed by p, must be half as great as the strain at the ends, expressed by q: consequently, when the force is 12nnxx 4»2.r3 d# + d# and the fluent x + which, when considered as single, the distance of the line of its direction from the summit must ultimately be one third of the y — ^ a, becomes x x, which is twice as great as if y versed sine or height. were always = 0. But if the breadth of the block were Now if we call any portion of the chord x, we have for considerable, so that it approached to a cube, the com- the corresponding value of y, the distance from the line pression would vary according to a different law, each of direction of this force, \/ (r2 — x?) — d ; and for the section parallel to the diagonal affording an equal resist- fluxion of the compression or extension in the direction of ance, and the exact solution of the problem would require _L the chord, dx^lfl—which will be true for both poran infinite series for expressing the value ofjnx&x. of the bar, 2whether y be2 positive or negative; but K. If a solid bar have its axis curved a little into a circular tions 2 2 2 form, and an external force be then applied in the direction y — r — x? d — 2d yt (r — ic ), and the fluent beof the chord, while the extremities retain their angular posi- comes x +— (iPx — b x?-\-d2x—2d [r2 arc sine - — tion, the greatest compression or extension of the substance will ultimately be to the mean compression or extension x (i2—a?2)]^. When the arc is small, calling the whole which takes place in the direction of the chord, as 1 + — to CCOC Jl3C^ versed sine A, we may have A—— and^2=r-^ A2— — a en 6 3r 1 + Ybcui ’ b * 9 th depth of the bar, and h the actual #4 12 / + tt, and the fluent is a; (b versed sine, or the height of the arch. 4 which shows the compresconsequence of the bending of the bar by the first portion, and then the strain required to obviate that change, sion or extension in the line of the chord, while c exby means of a force acting in the direction of the middle presses that which the bar would have undergone if it had of the bar, while the ends are supposed to be fixed. If been straight, and the force had been immediately applied each half of the bar were rectilinear, these two strains to the axis; the actual change being greater in the prowould obviously be equal, and would neutralize each other . , , 16 AA 1 in the middle of the halves, which might be considered portion of 1 + r—— to 1. 15 aa as the meeting of the ends of two shorter pieces, acting The greatest strain will obviously be at the ends, where transversely or obliquely on each other, without any strain; the curvature produced by the whole strain being the distance from the line of direction of the force is the elsewhere as the distance from the line joining these greatest, the compression or extension of the surface bepoints. But since the bar is supposed to be curved, it ing here to that of the axis as a + 63/ to a (Prop. E.), or 4A becomes necessary to determine the place of these neutral points, by calculating the change of its angular position as 1 + — to 1; consequently the compression or extenthroughout its extent. sion in tl^e line of the chord is to the greatest actual Considering, first, the middle of the bar as fixed, and calling the angular extent of the variable arc x, beginning change of the substance as 1 + to 1 + —• loaa a from the middle, and the radius r, the ordinate y, or the distance of the arc from the chord, will be r cos. x — b, b Thus if the depth a were 10 feet, and the height or being the cosine of the whole arc ; and the fluxion of the versed sine A = 20, the radius being very large, the whole change of the angular situation, being as the strain and compression of the chord would be to the whole compresthe fluxion of the arc conjointly, will be expressed by sion of a similar substance, placed in the direction of the pr cos. xdx —pb&x, of which the fluent is pr sin. x — pbx. chord, as 5*267 to 1 ; and the compression at the surface In the second place, the curvature derived from the force of the ends would be to the compression of the axis there acting between the two halves, when the ends are con- as 9 to 1 ; and, disregarding the insensible obliquity, this sidered as fixed points, will be as r — r cos. x, and the compression may be considered as equal throughout the fluent of the change of angular situation may be called bar, so that the compression at the ends will be to the qrx — qr sin. x ; and at the end, when x becomes equal to compression of the chord as 9 to 5*267, or as 17 to 10.

BRIDGE. 351 Bridge. Supposing, for example, such a bar of iron to undergo a terials which it supports, as determining the direction of Bridge, change of temperature of 32° of Fahrenheit, which would the curve of equilibrium where it meets the given joint, naturally cause it to expand or contract about y^y in all instead of the weight of the materials terminated by a verits dimensions; then the length of the chord, being limit- tical plane passing through the point of the curve in quesed by the abutments, must now be supposed to be altered tion, which may sometimes be very sensibly less ; this conToW by an external force; and, at the extremities of the sideration being as necessary for determining the circumabutments, the compression and extension of the metal stances under which the joints will open, as for the more will amount to about gQ00 ; a change which is equivalent imaginary possibility of the arch-stones sliding upwards or to the pressure of a column of the metal about 330Ofeet downwards. But we may commonly make a sufficiently in height, since M, the height of the modulus of elasticity, accurate compensation for this difference, by supposing is found, for iron and steel, to be about 10,000,000 feet; the specific gravity of the materials producing the presand such would be the addition to the pressure at one ex- sure, and the curvature of the line which terminates them, tremity of the abutment, and its diminution at the other, to be a little increased, while the absciss remains equal amounting to about five tons for every square inch of the to that of the curve of equilibrium intersecting the joints. section, which would certainly require some particular L. If two equal parallelepipeds be supported each at one precaution, to prevent the destruction of the stones form- end, and lean against each other at the other, so as to remain ing the abutment by a force so much greater than they horizontal, the curve of equilibrium, representing the general are capable of withstanding without assistance. Should effect of the pressure transmitted through them, will be of a such a case indeed actually occur, it is probable that the parabolic form. extremities would give way a little, and that the principal The pressure of the blocks where they meet will obvipressure would necessarily be supported nearer the middle, so that there would be a waste of materials in a situation ously be horizontal, but at the other ends it will be oblique, where they could co-operate hut imperfectly in resisting being the result of this horizontal pressure and of the the thrust; an inconvenience which would not occur if the whole weight of each block. And if we imagine the bar were made wider and less deep, especially towards the blocks to be divided into any number of parts, by sections parallel to the ends, which is the only way in which we abutments. can easily obtain a regular result, it is evident that the force exerted at any of these sections by the external porSect. II.— Of the Equilibrium of Arches. tions must be sufficient to support the lateral thrust and We may now proceed to inquire into the mode of de- the weight of the internal portions; and its inclination termining the situation and properties of the curve of must be such that the horizontal base of the triangle of equilibrium, which represents, for every part of a sys- forces must be to the vertical perpendicular as the lateral tem of bodies supporting each other, the general direc- thrust to the weight of the internal portion; or, in other tion of their mutual pressure; remembering always that words, the lateral thrust remaining constant, the weight this curve is as much an imaginary line as the centre of supported will be as the tangent of the inclination. But gravity is an imaginary point, the forces being no more calling the horizontal absciss x, and the vertical ordinate y, actually collected into such a line than the whole weight d ?/ which, in the case or inertia of a body is collected in its centre of gravity. the tangent of the inclination will be Indeed the situation of the curve is even less definite of a parallelepiped, must be proportional to the distance than that of the centre of gravity, since in many cases it • wi&y may differ a little according to the nature of the co-opera- x from the contiguous ends; and x =■ ; consequenttion of the forces which it is supposed to represent. In 2 reality, every gravitating atom entering the structure ly xAx =■ mAy, and £ x = my, which is the equation of a must be supported by some forces continued in some line, parabola. It is usual in such cases to consider the thrusts whether regular or irregular, to the fixed points or abut- as rectilinear throughout, and as meeting in the vertical ments, and every resisting atom partakes, in a mathema- line passing through the centre of gravity of each block ; tical sense, either positively or negatively in transmitting but this mode of representation is evidently only a convea lateral pressure where it is required for supporting any nient compendium. part of the weight; and when we attempt to represent If the blocks were united together in the middle, so as the result of all these collateral pressures by a simple to form a single bar or lever, the forces would be somecurve, its situation is liable to a slight variation, according what differently arranged; the upper half of the bar would to the direction in which we suppose the co-operating contain a series of elementary arches, abutting on a series forces to be collected. If, for instance, we wished to de- of similar elementary chains in the lower half, so as to take termine the stability of a joint formed in a given direc- off all lateral thrust from the supports at the ends. tion, it would be necessary to consider the magnitude of With respect to the transverse strains of levers in gethe forces acting throughout the extent of the joint in a neral, it may be observed, that the most convenient way direction perpendicular to its plane, and to collect them of representing them is to consider the axis of the lever into a single result; and it is obvious that the forces re- as composed of a series of elementary bars, bisected, and presented by the various elementary curves may vary very crossed at right angles, by as many others extending sensibly in their proportion, when we consider their joint across the lever, or rather as far as two thirds of the half operation on a vertical or on an oblique plane; although, depth on each side, where the centre of resistance is situif the depth of the substance be inconsiderable, this differ- ated. The transverse force must then be transmitted unence will be wholly imperceptible, and in practice it may altered throughout the whole system, acting in contrary generally be neglected without inconvenience; calculat- directions at the opposite ends of each of the elementary ing the curve upon the supposition of a series of joints in bars constituting the axis; and it must be held in equilia vertical direction. If, however, we wish to be very mi- brium, with respect to each of the centres, considered as nutely accurate, we must attend to the actual direction of a fulcrum, by the general result of all the corpuscular the joints in the determination of the curve, and must forces acting on the longer cross arms; that is, by the consider, in the case of a bridge, the whole weight of the difference of the compression or extension on the differstructure terminated by a given arch-stone, with the ma- ent sides of the arms. This difference must therefore be

BRIDGE. 352 (Prop. L.) The uniformity of the load implies that the Bridge, Bridge, constant; and in all such cases the strain or curvature superior and inferior terminations of the arch, commonly must increase uniformly, and its fluxion must be constant; the extrados and intrados, should be parallel; but but if the transverse force be variable, as when the lever called supports its own weight, or any further external pressure, it is not necessary that either of them should be parabolic, the fluxion of the curvature must be proportional to it. unless we wish to keep the curve exactly in the middle of Now the transverse force, thus estimated, being the sum the whole structure. When the height of the load is very of the weights or other forces acting on either side of the great in proportion to that of the arch, the curve must algiven point, the additional weight at the point will be re- ways be nearly parabolic, because the form of the extrapresented by the fluxion of the weight, or by the second dos has but little comparative effect on the load at each fluxion of the strain or curvature, which is ultimately as point. A parabola will therefore express the general form of the fourth fluxion of the ordinate. Also the fluxion of the curve of equilibrium in the flat bands ot brick or stone, the strain being as the whole weight on each side, it fol- commonly placed over windows and doors, which, notlows, that when the strain is a maximum, and its fluxion withstanding their external form, may very properly be vanishes, the whole weight, or the sum of the positive and denominated flat arches. But if we consider the direction negative forces on either side, must also vanish; as Mr of the joints as perpendicular to the curve, it may easily Dupin has lately demonstrated in a different manner. be shown, from the properties of the wedge, that they M. In every structure supported by abutments, the tangent must tend to a common axis, in order that the thrust may of the inclination of the curve of equilibrium to the horizon be equal throughout; and the curve must be perpendicuis proportional to the weight of the parts interposed between lar to them, and consequently circular; but the difference the given point and the middle of the structure. from the parabola wdll be wholly inconsiderable. The truth of this proposition depends on the equality Q. For a horizontal extrados, and an intrados termiof the horizontal thrust throughout the structure, from nated by the curve itself, which, however, is a supposition which it may be immediately inferred, as in the last pro- merely theoretical, the equation of the curve is position. The materials employed for making bridges are y+ \/(yy — oa) not uncommonly such as to create a certain degree of x — Vm hyp. log. a lateral pressure on the outside of the arch; but as there must be a similar and equal pressure in a contrary direcSince in this case w =■ y (Prop. M.), we have J'ydx tion against the abutment, its effects will be comprehended in the determination of the point at which the curve 2 springs from the abutment, as well as in the direction of — m ^ and m&y—y (da?') ; whence, multiplying both da? the curve itself; so that the circumstance does not afford mdyd?y = ydylfxf ; and, taking the any exception to the general truth of the law. It is, how- sides by dy, we have 2 2 2 2 2 ever, seldom necessary to include the operation of such fluent, l m (dy) = f y (da;) , and mt = y , which must materials in our calculations, since their lateral pressure be corrected by making y — « when t vanishes, so that we dy has little or no effect at the upper part of the arch, which 2 2 2 2 2 has the greatest influence on the direction of the curve ; shall have mt — y —a , and y = ^/(a +mt ). But since da; and it is also desirable to avoid the unnecessary employment of these soft materials, because they tend to increase and a? — dX = dy ^(yy—aa) the horizontal thrust, and to raise it to a greater height = * = above the foundation of the abutment. Afm HL (y + \/[y2 — «2]) — Vm HL a> whence all the We have therefore generally J'w&x — mt — m be- points of the curve may be determined by means of a table of logarithms. But such a calculation is by no means ing the height of uniform matter, pressing on the arch at so immediately applicable to practice as has generally the horizontal distance x from the vertex, t the tangent of been supposed; for the curve of equilibrium will always the inclination of the curve of equilibrium, y its vertical be so distant from the intrados at the abutments, as to deordinate, and m a quantity proportional to the lateral pres- range the whole distribution of the forces concerned. sure or horizontal thrust. R. For an arch of equable absolute thickness throughout N. The radius of curvature of the curve of equilibrium is its length, the equation is z — (y2 — m2) and inversely as the load on each part, and directly as the cube V(yy — mm) of the secant of the angle of inclination to the horizon. x — m hl m The general expression for the radius of curvature is r The weight of any portion of the half arch being repre— ; and here, since m&y = &xfw&x, da? being condy da?d^ ';- but dz = dy sented by its length z, we have z — m — do; stant, mffy — w (da?)?; but dz being = da;VC1 + *2)> “j“j^ dz fdx 2 +(D )^ ^= = — (1 + t?), and r = — (1 + ^ ; and m being conw v ' w 4+S) stant, r is inversely as the load w, and directly as the cube of the secant y'(I + 4>-. The same result may also be _ zdz of which the fluent is ^(*2 + m2), reobtamed from a geometrical consideration ot the magmy' _j_ mm) tude of the versed sine of the elementary arc, and the •- n0 further correction than to suppose y initially effect of the obliquity of the pressure ; the one varying as ^ ^ m and we have ^ = 2 _ Again? since the square of the secant, the other as the secant simply. ^ O. Consequently, if the curve be circular, the load must dz — dx we find in the same manner da? = be everywhere as the cube of the secant. ' mmj P. If the curve of equilibrium be parabolic, the load must —, and a; = m hl (z + 4 C+ zz~\ ) — m HL m be uniform throughout the span. V(jnm “k zz)

BRIDGE. Bridge.

= m hl g + y This curve will therefore in some cases m be identical with that of the preceding proposition. It is commonly called the catenaria, since it represents the form in which a perfectly flexible chain of equable thickness will hang by its gravity. S. If the load on each point of an arch he expressed by the equation w — a bx1, the equation for the curve of equilibrium will be my — ^ axq + Since the whole load Jw&x is here ax

% bx?, we have

= ax + ^bx? (Prop. M.), and my=.\ ax? + ^ bx*. This expression will, in general, be found sufficiently accurate for calculating the form of the curve of equilibrium in practical cases; and it may easily be made to comprehend the increase of the load from the obliquity of the arch-stones. The ordinate y at the abutment being given, the value of m may be deduced from it; and since at the vertex my is simply ^ ax?, the radius of curvature r will here be

= -. 2y a T. If we divide the span of an arch into four equal parts, and add to the weight of one of the middle parts one sixth of its difference from the weight of one of the extreme parts, we shall have a reduced weight, which will be to the lateral thrust as the height of the arch to half the span, without sensible error. The weight of the half arch being expressed by a# + 3 bx? when x is equal to the whole span, if we substitute x for

it will become ^ ax

-^bx? for one of the middle

7 parts, leaving \ ax ^ ^ f°r ^ie extreme part, which 0 gives — bx? for the difference of the parts, and one sixth of this added to the former quantity makes it % ax + ^-bx?:

hax+12 bx3 m It is also obvious, that if we subtract, instead of adding, one sixth of the difference, we have 1 ax ; and dividing 7Tb b y x, we obtain a, and thence r z=. m being previously found by the proposition. U. When the load is terminated by a circular or elliptical arc, w — a + rib — n *fib(Z — x'2) and my ~ 1 X (a + nb) a?2 — ! rib2 X ARC SINE ^1 wZ»2 \I(b2 — x2) jr n (bP — a;2)2 -f- ^ rib12. The whole load Jwdx is here ax -j- nbx — ± nb2 arc X sine ± nx VO* — x'2) ; and hence my — 1 ax2 -fl nbx2 — ^ nb2x arc sine X^

i

— h n^esty, however, continued to reject their proposals number of French ships in Quiberon Bay on the coast of in the most resolute manner ; and concluded his last declaBretagne, in the midst of a storm, during the darkness of ration by stating, that it would affect him less to be reduced night, and, what a seaman fears still more, in the neigh- to the last extremity, than to sacrifice the honour of his crown, and all that Portugal held most dear, by submitting bourhood of a rocky shore. When his majesty had met his parliament, which was to become an unheard-of example to all pacific powers, on the 18th November 1760, he confirmed the hopes of which would no longer be able to enjoy the benefit of neuhis allies, and gave assurances of his intention to prose- trality, whenever a war should be kindled between other cute the war with vigour. By this time, however, the powers with which the former were connected by defenpeople were weary of conquests, especially those in Ger- sive treaties. This declaration was issued on the 27th of many ; and the general current of popular opinion seemed April 1762; and soon aftei-wards France and Spain jointly adverse to the German war. But for some time no change declared war against Portugal. As the design of the courts of France and Spain in maktook place in the method of carrying it on. In 1761, however, proposals of peace were interchanged among the bel- ing war with Portugal was professedly to deprive Great ligerent powers of Europe; but the French, designing to Britain of the military and commercial use of the harbours draw Spain into a confederacy with them, were not sincere of that kingdom, their principal endeavours were directed in their intentions ; and in this way the treaty came to no- against the two great ports of Oporto and Lisbon. With thing. An enterprise was projected against Belleisle, on this view, three inroads were to be made; one to the the coast of France, which was conducted by Commodore north; another more to the south; and the third in the Keppel and General Hodgson, and terminated in the cap- intermediate provinces, in order to sustain the other two ture of the island, with the loss of eighteen hundred men bodies, and preserve a communication between them. The killed and wounded on the part of the British ; and how- first body of troops was commanded by the Marquis of Savever unimportant such a conquest might be, the rejoicings ria, and entering by the north-east of Portugal, marched on account of it were great. In Germany, however, the towards Miranda, which he entered on the 9th of May, campaign was unsuccessful on the part of the allies. At through the breaches made by the accidental explosion of first, indeed, they drove the French out of the territory of a powder magazine. From Miranda the invaders marched Hesse, and laid siege to the city of Cassel; but being de- to Braganza, which speedily surrendered; and Moncorvo feated at Stangerod, they were forced to raise the siege, was in like manner taken. They became masters of nearly retire behind the Dymel, and again abandon Hesse to the the whole of the extensive province of Tras os Montes; and enemy, after which they were followed and attacked by every thingbeingclear before them to the banksof the Doura the French; and though the latter were defeated, they Oporto was given up for lost, and the admiralty prepared could with difficulty be prevented from making themselves transports to carry off the effects of the British merchants. masters of Munster and Brunswick. But on the Douro the career of this body was stopped by During all this time appearances of negociation were the peasants, who, animated and guided by some British kept up; but at length M. Bussy, on the part of France, officers, seized a difficult pass, and drove the enemy back delivered to Mr Pitt a private memorial, signifying, that, to Moncorvo. The second body of Spaniards entered the in order to establish peace on a lasting foundation, the province of Beira, and being joined by strong detachments, King of Spain might be induced to guarantee the treaty; immediately laid siege to Almeida, which surrendered on and to prevent the differences which then subsisted be- the 25th of August. The Spaniards then pushed forward tween Britain and Spain from producing a fresh war in to Gastello Branco, and marching to the southward, apEurope, it was proposed, that in this negociation the three proached the banks of the Tagus. During the whole of points which had been disputed between the crown of their progress, and indeed throughout the whole campaign, England and Spain might be finally settled. These were, Great Britain and Portugal had nothing that deserved the first, the restitution of some captures made upon the name of an army in the field; and all that could be done Spanish flag; secondly, a recognition of the privilege of was by the defence of passes, by skir m ishes, and by surprises. the Spanish nation to fish upon the banks of Newfound- The third Spanish army had assembled on the frontiers of land; and, thirdly, the demolition of the English settle- Estremadura, with the design of invading the province of ments in the Bay of Honduras. But this memorial was Alentejo; and if this body of troops had been joined to returned as wholly inadmissible. Mr Pitt declared that the others, they would probably, in spite of all opposition, VOL. V. 3N

il

Reign of have forced their way to Lisbon itself; whilst by acting^ frigates Argo and Panther. By the conquest ot iviamiia Keign ol George III. sepa.rately, it might have so distracted the defenders of there fell into the hands of the British fourteen consider- George II, the country as to enable the other invading forces to pe- able islands, which, from their extent, fertility, and conl7(i2 ' ' netrate to that city. The Count of La Lippe Buckeburg, venience for commerce, were of the greatest importance. therefore, having arrived in Portugal, resolved if possible By this acquisition, joined to the successes in the western to prevent their entrance into that kingdom; and with hemisphere, Britain secured every avenue of the Spanish this view he dispatched Brigadier-general Burgoyne to trade, and interrupted all communication between the difattack an advanced body of Spaniards which lay on the ferent parts of the vast but unconnected empire of Spain. During this time the war in Germany had continued frontier in the town of Valentia de Alcantara. On the 27th of August the town was surprised, and the general with the utmost violence; but although the allies under who was to have commanded the invading force taken, Prince Ferdinand had given the highest proofs of valour, together with one colonel, two captains, and seventeen no decisive advantage had been obtained over the French. subaltern officers, whilst one of the best regiments in the It was, however, no longer the interest of Britain to conSpanish service was also entirely destroyed, and the ene- tinue a destructive contest. There never had been a pemy thus prevented from entering Alentejo. That part of riod so fortunate or glorious for this island. In the course the Spanish army which acted in the neighbourhood of of the war she had conquered a tract of continent of imGastello Branco having made themselves masters of seve- mense extent. Her American territory approached to the ral important passes, the combined army of British and borders of Asia, and the frontiers of the Russian and ChiPortuguese pretended to retire before them, in order to nese dominions. She had conquered twenty-five islands, draw them into the mountainous tracts. They attacked all of them distinguishable for their magnitude, their the rear of the allies, but were repulsed with loss; yet riches, or the importance of their situation; by sea and they still continued masters of the country, and nothing land she had gained twelve battles, and reduced nine fortiremained but the passage of the Tagus to enable them to fied cities, and about forty castles or forts ; she had taken or take up their quarters in the province of Alentejo. But destroyed above a hundred ships of war from her enemies, this the count designed to prevent; and accordingly he and acquired at least ten millions in plunder. Conquests employed General Burgoyne, who having formed a design so extensive and ruinous to the French and Spaniards naof surprising them, committed the execution of it to Co- turally rendered them desirous of a peace, which was at lonel Lee. In the night of the 6th of October this officer length concluded at Paris on the 10th of February 1763. fell upon their rear, dispersed the whole body with consi- The terms granted, and which many thought too favourderable slaughter, destroyed their magazines, and returned able, were, in substance, that the French king should rewith scarcely any loss. The season was now far advanced; linquish all claims to Nova Scotia; that he should likeimmense quantities of rain fell; the roads were destroyed ; wise give up the whole country of Canada; and that for the and the Spaniards having obtained possession of no ad- future the boundary betwixt the British and French dovanced post where they could maintain themselves, and minions in America should be fixed by a line drawn along being unprovided with magazines, fell back to the fron- the middle of the river Mississippi from its source to the river Ibberville, and thence by a line along the middle of tiers of their own country. Nor were the British arms less successful in America this river, and the Lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain, and the East Indies. From the French were taken the to the sea. The islands of St Pierre, Miquelon, Martiislands of Martinico, St Lucia, St Vincent, and Grenada; nico, Guadaloupe, Marigalante, Desirade, St Lucia, and e from the Spaniards the strong fortress called Havana, in Belleisle, were restored to France ; whilst Minorca, G^ ’ the island of Cuba. The conquest of the latter cost a nada, and the Grenadines, St Vincent, Dominica, and lonumber of brave men, more of whom were destroyed by bago, were ceded to Great Britain. In Africa, the island the climate than by the enemy. But it was at this place that of Goree was restored to France ; and the river Senegal, the fleets from the several parts of the Spanish West In- with all its forts and dependencies, ceded to Great Britain. dies, called the galleons and flota, assembled before they In the East Indies, all the forts and factories taken from Anally set out on their voyage for Europe ; and the acqui- the French were restored. In Europe, the fortifications sition of it, therefore, united all the advantages which can of Dunkirk were to be destroyed; and all the countries, be acquired in war. Nine of the enemy’s men of war, fortresses, and posts, belonging to the Electorate of Ha,with four frigates, were taken; three of their best ships nover, the Duke of Brunswick, and the Count of La Lippe had been sunk in the harbour at the beginning of the Buckeburg, restored. In regard to Spain, the British forsiege; and two more in great forwardness on the stocks tifications on the Bay of Honduras were to be demolished; were destroyed. In money and valuable merchandises and the Spaniards were to desist from their claim of right the spoil did not fall short of three millions sterling. To to fish on the Newfoundland bank. The Havana was rethis success in the western world may be added the cap- stored, in consequence of which Florida, St Augustine, ture of the Spanish register-ship called the Hermione, by and the Bay of Pensacola, were ceded to Britain ; the the Active and Favourite king’s ships. This happened Spaniards were to make peace with Portugal; and all other countries not particularly mentioned were to be restored on the 21st of May 1762, just as the Hermione was entering one of the ports of Old Spain; and the prize wras to their respective owners at the beginning of the war. The conclusion of the war did not by any means tend valued at little short of a million sterling. In the East Indies an expedition, undertaken against the Philippine to heal those divisions which had arisen on the resignaIslands, was committed to Colonel Draper, who arrived tion of Mr Pitt; on the contrary, it furnished abundant on this service at Madras in the latter end of June 1762. matter of complaint for the discontented party, whose The seventy-ninth regiment was the only regular corps that views at that time seem to have been the embairassment could be spared for the expedition; but every thing was and disturbance of an administration which they were unconducted with the greatest celerity and judgment. The able to subvert. When the treaty was under consideraBritish forces landed at Manilla on the 24th of Septem- tion, however, only some faint attempts weie made to opber ; on the 6th of October the governor was obliged to pose it; but it soon appeared, that though this opposition surrender at discretion ; and soon after, the galleon bound had 0-proved so feeble, the spirit of the paity was far florn from Manilla to Acapulco, laden with rich merchandise bein exhausted, dhe actual state of affaiis indeed fa to the value of more than half a million, was taken by the voured the views of those who delighted in turbulence and

B R 1 T A 1 N. 467 Reign of in faction. A long and expensive war had drained the succeeded the Earl of Bute in the treasury, was a man of Reign of George III. national treasure, and greatly increased the public debt; approved integrity, understanding, and experience. Lord George Hi whilst heavy taxes had already been imposed, and it was Holland was universally considered as a very able man in J ^63‘ still as necessary to keep them up, and even to impose office, and had already filled many high employments with new ones, as though the war had not ended. Thus the a great degree of reputation. The other secretary, Lord bulk of the nation, who imagined that conquest and riches Egremont, though he had not been long in office, was in ought to go hand in hand, were easily induced to believe every respect of an unexceptionable character. The rest the administration arbitrary and oppressive, seeing it conti- of the departments were filled in a similar manner; yet nued to load them with fresh taxes after such great suc- the discontents and public clamours were not diminished. cesses as had for some years past attended the British It was now alleged that the new ministers were not chosen arms. And indeed it must be owned, that the new admi- on account of any superior gifts of nature or fortune, but nistration appear not to have been sufficiently wary in this merely because they had the art of insinuating themselves respect. Amongst various methods of raising the supplies into favour at court; that the sole reason of their appointfor 1763, they had recourse to a duty of four shillings per ment was, that they might act as the passive instruments hogshead upon cyder, payable by the maker, and to be col- of the late minister, who, though he had thought proper to lected in the same manner as the rest of the excise duties. retire from office, had not yet abandoned his ambitious The other articles of supply, as well as the duty in question, projects, but continued to direct every thing as if he had furnished matter of declamation for the members in oppo- still been in power; that opposition to the new ministers sition ; but this inflamed the popular fury to a great degree, was therefore opposition to him; and that it became those and made the people readily receive as truth whatever was who understood the true interest of their country, and had said by the minority in the parliamentary debates. Besides a real regard to it, not to suffer such a scheme of clandesthe usual declamations, the smallness of the sum to be raised tine administration. Whether the party who made these assertions really by it was particularly urged. This, it was said, showed that the supplying of the wants of government could not be the believed them or not cannot be known; but the effect sole motive for imposing such a duty; and it was further was exactly the same as if they had. The great object of urged, that now the houses of all orders of people, noble- both parties was power; but their different situations remen of the first rank not excepted, were liable to be entered quired that they should profess different political prinand searched at the pleasure of excisemen, a proceeding ciples. The friends of Lord Bute, and of the succeeding which was denominated a badge of slavery. This was administration, were for preserving to the crown the full the language held throughout all the cyder counties, by exercise of the power of choosing its own servants. Their the city of London, and by most of the incorporations opponents, without denying this power, contended that, throughout the kingdom; and in short the whole nation according to the spirit of the constitution, the crown should was thrown into a violent ferment. The friends of admi- be directed in its exercise by motives of national utility, nistration, indeed, urged plausible arguments in favour of and not by private friendship. In appointing the officers their scheme; but the utmost force of reason will go only of state, therefore, they insisted that respect should be a very little way in quieting popular clamour; and whilst paid to those who, possessing great talents, had done emiopposition was railing against ministry within doors, every nent services to the nation, who enjoyed the confidence of method was taken to excite the fury of the people with- the nobility, and had influence amongst the landed and out. Virulent libels, the audacity of which far exceeded mercantile interests. The observance of this rule, they any thing known in former times, now made their appear- contended, was the only proper counterpoise against the ance ; and such was the general intemperance in this re- enormous influence of the crown arising from the possesspect, that it would be difficult to determine which side sion of so much patronage; nor could the nation be reconpaid least regard to any kind of decency or decorum. ciled to such a power by any other means than a very poIn the midst of this general ferment, the Earl of Bute un- pular use of it. Men might indeed be appointed accordexpectedly resigned his office of first lord of the treasury ; ing to the strict letter of the law; but unless these were and his resignation immediately became an object of ge- persons in whom the majority of the nation already put neral speculation. By some he was highly censured for confidence, they never would be satisfied, nor think themleaving his friends at a time when a little perseverance selves secure against attempts on the constitution of the might have defeated all the designs of his enemies, and kingdom. established his own power on the most solid foundation. In the mean time the disposition to libel and invective Such conduct, it was said, must discourage the friends of seemed to proceed beyond all bounds. The peace, the government, and at the same time give proportional en- Scots, and the administration supposed to be directed by couragement to its adversaries to insult it. Others con- Scottish influence, afforded such subjects of abuse to the tended that the earl was very little, if at all, influenced pretended patriots, that ministry resolved at last to make by popular opinion. He had demonstrated his firmness an example of one of them by way of deterring the rest by taking a lead in the difficult but necessary affair of from such licentiousness. For this purpose they made concluding peace; and this being accomplished, he had choice of the paper called the North Briton, which, in lanfully obtained his end, and performed the service to his guage somewhat superior to most other political produccountry which was required of him. The event, how- tions of the time, had abused the king, the ministry, and ever, showed that the former reasoning was nearest the the Scots, in an extravagant manner. One particular patruth. The popular resentment was not in the least per (No. xlv.) was deemed by those in power to be actionabated by the resignation of his lordship, who, though able ; and John Wilkes, member for Aylesbury, was supnow withdrawn from the ostensible administration of af- posed to be the author of it. A warrant was therefore fairs, was still considered as principal director of the ca- granted for apprehending the author, printer, and publishbinet; and this opinion gained the more ground that none ers, of this performance, but without mentioning Wilkes’s of the popular leaders were called into office, nor any name; nevertheless three messengers entered the house apparent change made in the conduct of the new admi- of that person on the night between the 29th and 30th of nistration. April 1763, with an intention to seize him. He objected, No reasonable objection could now be taken to those however, to the legality of the warrant, because his name who filled the great offices of state. Mr Grenville, who was not mentioned in it, and likewise to the lateness of the

468 B R I T A I N. Reign of hour ; and on being threatened with violence, the messen- turn, a message was sent to the Commons, informing them Reign of George III. gers thought proper to retire for the night. Next morning of the supposed offence of Wilkes, and of the proceed-George III! he was apprehended without making any resistance, though ings against him, while the exceptionable paper was also 1 63 ^ ’ some violence was necessary to get him into a hackney- laid before the house. After warm debates, the North ^64. coach, which carried him before the secretaries of state Briton was voted a false, scandalous, and seditious libel, for examination. On the first intimation of Wilkes’s being tending to excite traitorous insurrections; and this was in custody, application was made for a habeas corpus ; but followed by a declaration that the privilege of parliament as this could not be sued out till four in the afternoon, seve- does not extend to the writing and publishing of seditious ral of his friends desired admittance to him, which was, how- libels. The paper in question was therefore condemned and ever, refused on pretence of an order from the secretaries ordered to be burnt by the hangman ; but this was not done of state. But the order, though repeatedly demanded, without great opposition from the mob. could not be produced, or at least was not so ; and on this Wilkes, now determined to make the best use of the vicaccount the gentlemen, conceiving that they were not oblig- tory he had gained, commenced a prosecution in the Court ed to pay any regard to messengers acting only by a verbal of Common Pleas against the under secretary of state, for commission, entered the place where he was without fur- seizing his papers ; and the cause being determined in his ther hesitation. favour, the defendant was subjected in L.1000 damages, This illegal step was followed by several others in rapid with full costs of suit. The prosecution with which succession. Wilkes’s house was searched, and his papers Wilkes had been threatened was now carried on with great seized in his absence; and though it was certain that a vigour; but in the mean time, having grossly affronted Mr habeas corpus had now been obtained, he was nevertheless Martin, member for Camelford, by his abusive language committed to the Tower. Here not only his friends, but in the North Briton, he w^as challenged by that gentleseveral noblemen and gentlemen of the first distinction, man, and dangerously wounded in the belly. Whilst he were denied access to him ; nor was his brother even allow- lay ill of his wound, the House of Commons put off his ed to see him. On the third of May he was brought be- trial from time to time; but beginning at last to suspect fore the Court of Common Pleas, where he made a speech, that there was some collusion betwixt him and his physisetting forth the great love he had for his majesty, the cian, they ordered Dr Heberden, and Mr Hawkins, an bad conduct of ministry, and especially his own grievances, eminent surgeon, to attend him, and report. Wilkes, howalleging that he had been treated worse than a Scotch ever, did not think proper to admit these gentlemen ; and rebel. His case having been argued by several eminent soon afterwards took a journey to France. The Commons lawyers, he was remanded to the Tower for three days; being informed that he had refused to admit the physician after which he was ordered to be brought up, that the and surgeon sent by them, now lost all patience ; and proaffair might be finally settled. Next day Lord Temple re- ceeding against him in absence, he was expelled the house. ceived a letter from Secretary Egremont, informing him A prosecution was also commenced against him before the that the king judged it improper that Wilkes should con- House of Lords, on account of an obscene and blasphetinue any longer a colonel of the Buckinghamshire militia; mous attack on a spiritual peer; and failing to appear and and soon afterwards Temple himself was removed from answer the charges against him, he was outlawed. But the office of lord-lieutenant of that county. Meanwhile the severity shown to Wilkes did not at all extinguish the judges decided that the warrant of a secretary of state the spirit of the party. A general infatuation in favour was in no respect superior to that of a common justice of licentious and abusive writings seemed to have taken of peace ; that Wilkes’s commitment was illegal; that his place. At the very time that Wilkes was found guilty of privilege as a member of parliament had been infringed; publishing the infamous pamphlet above mentioned, the that this could not be forfeited except by treason, felony, common council of London presented their thanks to the or breach of the peace, none of which was imputed to him ; city representatives for their zealous and spirited endeaand that a libel, even though it had been proved, had only a vours to assert the rights and liberties of the subject; tendency to disturb the peace, without amounting to any and in gratitude to Lord Chief Justice Pratt for his deactual breach of it. It was therefore resolved to discharge cision in Wilkes’s affair, they presented him with the freehim; and the prisoner was accordingly set at liberty. dom of the city, and desired him to sit for his picture, Wilkes having thus regained his freedom, resolved to which was to be placed in Guildhall. make all the advantage he could of the errors committed by But these clamours did not prevent administration from the ministry, and to excite as general a ferment as possible. paying attention to the exigencies of the nation. The For this purpose he wrote an impudent letter to the Earls practice of franking blank letters had risen to an increof Egremont and Halifax, informing them that his house dible height, and greatly prejudiced the revenue. The had been robbed, affirming that the “ stolen goods” were hands of members of parliament were counterfeited, and in the possession of one or both of their lordships, and in- the covers publicly sold without the least scruple; and sisting upon immediate restitution. This letter was print- besides, the clerks of the post office claimed a privilege of ed, and many thousand copies of it were dispersed; and franking, which extended even further than that of the soon afterwards an answer by the two noblemen was pub- members of the house. An act was accordingly passed for lished in the newspapers, stating the real cause of the remedying the evil, by restricting the practice within reaseizure of Wilkes’s papers. The North Briton now again sonable limits. At this time it was proved that the annual made its appearance, and the popular party were elated postage of letters sent free amounted to L.70,000, and that beyond measure with their success ; whilst those who had the profits accruing to the clerks of the post office amountsuffered by general warrants sought redress at law, and ed to between L.800 and L.1700 each. Among the other commonly obtained damages far beyond their most san- plans for augmenting the revenue, were those for settling guine expectations. During the whole summer, the minds the island of St John, and for the sale of the lately acof the people were kept in continual agitation by political quired American islands. The former was proposed by pamphlets and libels of various kinds, whilst the affair of the Earl of Egremont, wbo presented a memorial to his general warrants engrossed the general attention. majesty on the subject. The sale of the conquered lands, On the meeting of parliament his majesty mentioned in consisting of the islands of Grenada, the Grenadines, Dohis speech the attempts which had been made to divide the minica, St Vincent, and Tobago, took place in March 1764. people ; and before the addresses could be moved in re- Sixpence an acre was to be paid as a quit-rent for cleared

BRITAIN. 469 four millions sterling; and so ready had the latter been Reign of Reign of lands, and a penny a foot for ground-rent of tenements in George III. towns, and sixpence an acre for fields ; but no person was to give them credit, that some of the American legisla- GeorgellL to purchase more than three hundred acres in Dominica, tures passed acts against incurring such debts for the fu76 or five hundred in the other islands. Amongst the most ture. A petition on the subject was also presented to the * remarkable transactions of this year was the renewal of the House of Commons ; but as it denied the parliamentary charter of the bank, for which the latter paid the sum of right of taxation, it was not allowed to be read. It was L.l,100,000 into the exchequer as a present to the public, then proposed, on the part of administration, that the besides advancing a million of money to government upon agents should join in a petition to the house that they the security of exchequer bills. might be heard by counsel in behalf of their respective coBut by far the most momentous affair which, at this lonies against the tax ; but the agents not thinking themtime, occupied the attention of government, was the consi- selves empowered to prefer such a petition, the negociation deration of a project for raising a revenue from the Ame- was broken off, and matters went on in America as we have rican colonies. This had formerly been proposed to Sir elsewhere related. Robert Walpole; but that prudent minister wisely deIn other respects, the ministry took such steps as they clined to enter into such a dangerous scheme; observing, judged necessary for supporting the honour and dignity of that he would leave the taxation of the colonies to those the nation. Some encroachments having been made by the who came after him in office. The reason given for such French and Spaniards, remonstrances were made to their a proceeding was the necessity of defraying the charge of respective courts, and satisfaction obtained; and though defending them; and this, though extremely reasonable every trifle was sufficient to set on the popular party, they in itself, was effected in such a manner as raised a flame were as yet unable to find any just cause of complaint. which could only be extinguished by the total overthrow Nevertheless, the disposition to tumult and insurrection of the authority of the parent state. Before this time, seems to have become general. The silk-weavers residing indeed, hints had been thrown out that it was not im- in Spitalfields being distressed for want of employment, possible for the colonists to withdraw their dependence arising, it was thought, from the clandestine importation of on Britain ; and some disputes had taken place betwixt French silks, laid their case before his majesty in the year the different provinces, which, although quieted by terror 1764, and the sufferers were relieved by the bounty of the of the French, seemed to augur no good. But now, when public; but this seemed to render matters worse, by conthe colonies were not only secured but extended, it was firming them in habits of indolence and idleness. At the thought proper to make the experiment whether they same time a bill, which was believed to be calculated to would be obedient or not. They already contained more conduce to their benefit, having been thrown out, they than two millions of people, and it was deemed absolutely began to assemble in great numbers, and several disornecessary to raise a revenue from so numerous a body. ders were committed; nor was it without the assistance of Some thought it might be dangerous to provoke them ; but the soldiery, and the utmost vigilance of the magistrates, to this it was replied by administration, that the danger that the riot could be suppressed. During this distm'bmust increase by forbearance, and that, as taxation was in- ance the ferment between the court and popular parties dispensable, the sooner the experiment was tried the bet- continued unabated, and ministers were still reviled in ter. The fatal trial being thus determined on, an act was numberless publications, as mere dependents and tools of accordingly passed for the prevention of smuggling, in the Earl of Bute. order that the duties laid on the American trade might An event which now occurred, however, produced a come into the hands of government. At this time there considerable revolution at court, though it had but little was carried on betwixt the British and Spanish colonies an effect in calming the minds of the people. This was the illicit traffic, which seemed to bid defiance to all law and illness which seized the king in the beginning of the year; regulation, and which was no less obnoxious to the Spanish and whilst it filled the public mind with apprehensions, than to the British government. In some respects, how- produced a bill for settling the affairs of the kingdom in ever, the suppression of this commerce was very incon- case of the crown devolving on a minor. In adjusting this venient to the colonists; for as the balance of trade with bill, ministers were said to have acted with but little reBritain was against them, they found it impossible to pro- spect to the Princess-dowager of Wales, in excluding her cure any specie except by trading with the Spaniards, who from a share of the government; and this proceeding was paid for their goods in gold and silver. This, with another thought to have in a great measure alienated the confidence act requiring them to pay certain duties in cash, was pro- of his majesty, with whom the ministry had hitherto been bably the cause of the resentment shown by the Americans in great favour. Nor did their subsequent conduct prove to government, and their refusal to submit to the stamp that they were at all desirous of regaining the ground which act, which was also passed in the course of this year, hav- they had lost. For having contrived to get the Earl of ing been carried through the Commons by a great majority. Bute’s brother turned out of a lucrative office he enjoyed The disposition to augment the revenue by all possible in Scotland, they offended his majesty, without recommethods seems to have served to keep alive the general mending themselves to the popular party in England, who opinion as to the oppressive and arbitrary measures pur- manifested a perfect indifference as to all that passed in sued by government. The ill humour of the British pa- Scotland. On this occasion Lord Chatham is said to have triots still continued; and the stamp bills were received been solicited to accept the office which he had formerly in America with the utmost indignation. The arguments filled so much to the satisfaction of the nation, and to have for and against American taxation are at present of little declined it. A new ministry, however, was soon formed, importance, excepting in as far as concerns the constitu- on the recommendation of the Duke of Cumberland. The tional question evolved by them, and now almost univer- Duke of Grafton, and Mr Conway, brother to the Earl of sally admitted, that taxation without representation is ty- Hertford, were appointed secretaries of state ; the Marquis ranny ; and the particulars of the opposition of the colo- of Rockingham, first lord of the treasury ; and Mr Dowdenists will be related under another head. We may however swell, chancellor and under treasurer of the exchequer. observe here, that the resistance of the colonists proved The office of lord prvy seal was conferred on the Duke of very distressing to the mother country, on account of the Newcastle ; and the other places were filled with men of immense sums due by the former. To the merchants known integrity, and supposed to be agreeable to the of London alone they were indebted to the extent of people. These changes, however, did not give general

Ji

Reign of satisfaction. The opinion that affairs were still managed George III. by the Earl of Bute continued to prevail, and was industriously kept up by the political writers of the time ; and the 1768. cjty 0p Lomiori expressed their discontent on the occasion of addressing his majesty upon the birth of a third son. This could not fail to offend both king and ministry; but before the latter could show any token of resentment, they lost their friend and patron the Duke of Cumberland who died on the 31st of October 1765. He had been that evening assisting at one of the councils, then frequently held, in order to put matters in a way of being more speedily dispatched by the privy council; and being seized with a sudden disorder of which he had shown some symptoms the evening before, he fell senseless in the arms of the Earl of Albemarle, and expired almost instantaneously. In the mean time the discontents which had inflamed the American colonies continued also to agitate the minds of the people of Great Britain; nor indeed was it reasonable to expect that they could be satisfied with their present condition, commerce being nearly annihilated, manufactures at a stand, and provisions exorbitantly high priced. The large sums due to British merchants by the Americans also severely affected the trading and manufacturing part of the country ; more especially as the colonists refused to pay unless the obnoxious law's should be repealed. The administration, therefore, were under the necessity of either enforcing the stamp act by the sword, or of procuring its immediate repeal in parliament. The loss of the Duke of Cumberland was now severely felt, as he had been accustomed to assist the ministry with his advice, and was respected by the nation for his good sense. But it seems doubtful if at this period human wisdom could have prevented the consequences which ensued. The administration endeavoured to avoid the two extremes, of rushing instantly into a civil war, or sacrificing the dignity of the crown or nation by irresolution and weakness; and suspended their decision until certain intelligence should be received from the American governors as to the state of affairs in that country. But the opposite party animadverted severely on this conduct, insisting on the most coercive methods being immediately adopted for enforcing the laws in which they themselves had had so great a share. Pacific measures, however, prevailed, and the stamp act was repealed; but at the same time another was passed, declaring the right of parliament not only to tax the colonies, but to bind them in all cases whatsoever. The repeal of the stamp act occasioned universal joy throughout Britain and America, though, as parliament insisted upon their right of taxation, which the opposite party denied, matters were still as far from any real accommodation as ever; and the ill humour of the Americans was soon afterwards increased by the duties laid upon glass, painters’ colours, and tea imported into their country; whilst at home the high price of provisions, and some improper steps taken by ministry to remedy the evil, kept up the general outcry against them. In this state of affairs administration were once more disturbed by the appearance of John Wilkes, who had returned from exile, and, on the dissolution of parliament in 1768, whilst his outlawry was still unreversed, stood candidate for the city of London. Failing, however, in his design of representing the city of London, he instantly declared himself a candidate for Middlesex. Innumerable tumults and riots immediately took place ; and so great was the animosity betwuxt the two parties, that a civil war seemed to be threatened. Any particular detail of these transactions would, however, be superfluous. It is sufficient to state, that on a trial the outlawry of Wilkes was reversed, and he was condemned for his offences to pay a fine of L.1000 arid to be imprisoned for twelve months. Idolized

by the people, however, and powerfully supported by mer- Reign oil chants and persons of property, he was repeatedly chosen George n member for Middlesex, and as often rejected by the House of Commons. Tumults frequently occurred; and the in- H70. terposition of the military was construed by the patriots as indicative of a design to establish ministerial authority by the most barbarous methods. 1 hese dissensions did not pass unnoticed by the other European powers, particularly the French and Spaniards. Both had applied themselves with assiduity to the increase of their marine; and many began to prognosticate an attack from one or other or both of these nations. The Spaniards first showed an inclination to come to a rupture with Britain. I he subject in dispute was a settlement formed on the Falkland Islands, near the southern extremity of the American continent. A scheme of this kind had been thought of as early as the reign of Charles II., but it was not till after Lord Anson’s voyage that any serious attention had been paid to it. In the printed account of this expedition, his lordship pointed out the danger incurred by our navigators through the treachery of the Portuguese in Brazil, as w^ell as the importance of discovering some place more to the southward, where ships might be supplied with necessaries for their voyage round Cape Horn; and, with this view, he indicated the Falkland Islands as an eligible rendezvous for vessels in these high southern latitudes. His lordship also, when at the head of the admiralty, forwarded the scheme, and some preparations were made for putting it in execution; but as it met with opposition at home, and gave offence to the court of Madrid, it was laid aside till the year 1764, when it was revived by Lord Egmont. Commodore Byron being then sent out with proper necessaries, took possession of these islands in the name of his majesty, and represented them in a favourable light; but his successor, Captain Macbride, affirmed that the soil was utterly incapable of cultivation, and the climate intolerable. Be this as it may, however, the islands in question had also attracted the notice of the French ; but as that nation had been greatly reduced by the late war, no project of the kind could yet be put in execution at the public expense. M. Bougainville, therefore, undertook, with the assistance of his friends, to form a settlement on the Falkland Islands at their own risk; and the scheme was put in execution in the beginning of the year 1764, and a settlement formed on the eastern part of the same island in which Commodore Byron had established an English colony on the western side. But the French adventurers soon became weary of their new colony; and M. Bougainville, having been reimbursed for his expenses, the French gave up every claim of discovery or right of possession; while the Spaniards, landing some troops in 1766, took possession of the fort built by the French, and changed the name of the harbour to Port Solidad. In 1769, Captain Hunt of the Tamar frigate happening to be on a cruize off the Falkland Islands, fell in with a Spanish schooner which had been at Port Solidad, and charged the commander to depart from that coast, which he declared to be the property of his Britannic majesty. The schooner, however, soon returned, bringing an officer from the governor of Buenos Ayres, who gave a similar warning to Captain Hunt; and the latter, not choosing to push matters to extremities, set sail for England, where he arrived in June 1770. On the departure of Captain Hunt, two frigates were left at the Falkland Islands; but one of these was lost a short time aiterwards. On the 4th of June 1770, a Spanish frigate arrived at the English settlement named Port Egmont, with a number of guns and other warlike implements for carrying on a regular siege; and in three days four other frigates arrived laden in the same manner; so that the English

471 B R 1 T A I N. Reign of commander, finding all resistance vain, was obliged to ca- concealment of these papers might proceed from some mis- Reign of George III. pitulate. The English were ordered to depart within a conduct during the periods in question, over which admi-^orgeiii. 1770. limited time, carrying with them what stores they could; nistration were willing to draw a veil. On the part of the 1770- an(l the Spanish commander declared himself answerable government it was answered, that every paper which could be found in the several offices had been presented; that for whatever they might leave on the island. So audacious an insult to the British flag seemed to if there had been any correspondence between the two render war inevitable, if suitable reparation should be re- courts of which no notice was taken in them, it must have fused. It was accordingly mentioned in the speech from been verbal; and that, at any rate, there were papers sufthe throne in November 1770, when an immediate de- ficient to enable the house to determine the propriety or mand of satisfaction for the injury was promised; and it impropriety of their conduct throughout the whole transacwas further intimated that the necessary preparations for tion. But these excuses did not satisfy the opposition, and war, which had been begun, should not be discontinued. a motion was made to address his majesty for information The affairs of America were also noticed; and, where as to whether any such interference had taken place, and grounds of complaint still existed, an assurance of redress of what nature it was, or in what manner it had been conwas given. But these promises, especially in regard to ducted. The motion, however, was lost by a great majothe Falkland Islands, were far from giving satisfaction; rity in both houses. Nevertheless this manner of decidand a motion was now made in both houses for an inquiry ing the question was far from allaying the ferment which into the conduct of the Spaniards, as well as for the pro- prevailed. The transaction was considered as disgraceful duction of all papers and letters relative thereto. But the to the British nation; nor were all the arguments which demand was opposed by the ministry, upon the grounds could be used by the ministerial party sufficient to shake that the interest of the public service precluded the idea the general opinion. The restitution of the island was of exposing letters or papers transmitted in confidence thought to be an inadequate recompense for the affront while the negociation was depending, and that the king that had been offered ; and the objections to it were urged of Spain had disavowed the conduct of his officer, and on a motion for an address of thanks on account of the communication of the Spanish declaration, which was not promised satisfaction. Some time before this, Mr Harris, the English minister carried without considerable difficulty, and in fact produat the court of Madrid, had dispatched a letter to Lord ced a protest from nineteen peers. On the part of Spain, Weymouth, informing him that a ship had arrived from however, every article of the agreement was ostensibly Buenos Ayres, with an account of the intended expedi- fulfilled; Port Egmont was restored, and the British once tion against Port Egmont, the number of men to be em- more took possession of it, though it was in a short time ployed, and the time fixed for its departure; but Prince afterwards evacuated. In other respects great discontent prevailed throughout Maserans, the Spanish ambassador, had declared his belief that the governor of Buenos Ayres had employed the kingdom. A fire which happened at Portsmouth in force at Port Egmont without any orders, and expressed the year 1770 excited numberless jealousies, and was by a hope that, by disavowing the proceeding, he might pre- some imputed to our enemies on the Continent, The afvent any misunderstanding betwixt the two kingdoms. fair of the Middlesex election was not forgotten ; and notTo this Lord Weymouth replied by inquiring whether withstanding many repulses, the city of London still venthe prince had any orders to disavow the proceedings of tured to send up new petitions to the throne. In one the governor; and, on his answering in the negative, his presented this year by Mr Beckford, the lord mayor, the lordship demanded a formal disavowal. After some time, petitioners lamented having incurred the royal displeasure, it was stated, on the part of Spain, that the prince was au- but renewed a request, frequently preferred before, for a thorized to disavow any particular orders given to M. Buca- dissolution of parliament. This, however, met with a very relli, the governor of Buenos Ayres ; that the island should unfavourable answer. His majesty informed the lord be forthwith restored; and that it was expected the king mayor, that his sentiments on the subject continued unof Britain would, on his part, disavow the conduct of Cap- changed; and that he should ill deserve the title of father tain Hunt, whose menace had induced the governor to act of his people, were he to suffer himself to be prevailed on as be did. But this proposition did not prove satisfactory. to make such a use of his prerogative as he could not but Mr Harris was ordered to quit the court of Madrid; and think inconsistent with the interest, and dangerous to the the correspondence between Prince Maserans and the constitution, of the kingdom. Mr Beckford, far from being court of England was discontinued. About this time Lord disheartened by this answer, demanded leave to address Weymouth resigned his office, and was succeeded by the the king; and having obtained it, made a speech of conEarl of Rochford; and the affair of the Falkland Islands siderable length, which he concluded by telling his majesty, that “ whoever had already dared, or should hereafter ceased to be spoken of. But, on the meeting of the parliament in January 1771, endeavour, by false insinuations and suggestions, to alieit was again brought before the house, when the declara- nate his majesty’s affections from his loyal subjects in getion of the Spanish ambassador, and Rochford’s accep- neral, and the city of London in particular, was an enemy tance, were announced. Prince Maserans then disavow- to his majesty’s person and family, a violator of the public ed, in the name of his master, the violence used at Port peace, and a betrayer of our happy constitution as it was Egmont, the restitution of which was agreed to upon an established at the glorious revolution.” This behaviour understanding that such restitution should be considered of Mr Beckford was censured by tbe court party as indeas ample satisfaction, but not as affecting the question cent, unprecedented, impudent, and little short of high concerning the prior sovereignty of the islands. Jhis pro- treason; whilst, on the other hand, it raised him to the duced a new demand for copies of all papers, letters, and highest pinnacle of popular favour. But he did not long declarations, relating to the Falkland Islands ; and though enjoy the applause of the people ; for he died a short time it was now apparently complied with, the opposition affirm- afterwards, and his death was considered as an irreparable ed that it was still only in part, since, besides a chasm of loss to the whole party. Several other petitions were prenearly two months, of which there was no account what- sented on the subject of popular grievances; but the perever, all copies of the claims or representations made by petual neglect wuth which they were treated at last brought the court of Spain since the first settlement of the islands that mode of application into disuse. A new subject of contention, however, now presented were kept back, and a suspicion was thus excited that the

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V

472 BRITAIN. Reign of itself. The navy was in a bad condition, and the sailors a practice repugnant to the law of England, proposed Reign oil George III. everyWhere avoided the service. Towards the end of to him some queries relative to the power of juries, and George H; ^ August sixteen ships of the line were ready to be put to challenged his antagonist to a debate either at that time 1770. sea; but the legality of press warrants being questioned, or afterwards. But this method of proceeding was com- D70. the manning of them became a matter of great difficulty. plained of as too precipitate, and an excuse was likewise The new lord mayor, Crosby, refused to back the warrants, made for not assigning a day for the debate at any future which proved a very vexatious matter to the ministry; period, so that the matter soon sunk into oblivion. It was, and they were further provoked by the unbounded licen- however, loudly talked of without doors ; and the judges, tiousness of the press. But, on the other hand, the mode who had already sunk in the estimation of the people, of proceeding against some libellers had produced many now became much more obnoxious. complaints regarding the powers of the attorney-general. An accident which occurred soon afterwards contribuHe had filed informations and carried on prosecutions ex ted also to lessen in the eyes of the people the character, officio, without going through the forms observed in all not only of the ministerial party, but that of both houses other cases of the kind; and this was described as incon- of parliament taken collectively; and indeed it must be sistent with the nature of a free government. Examples owned that nothing could be more derogatory to the howere cited of flagrant oppression and injustice occasioned nour of the first assembly of the nation, or to that of the by the exercise of this very power; the laws, it was said, individuals composing it. On the 20th of December 1770 had become changeable at the pleasure of a judge; and a motion was made by the Duke of Manchester, that an the liberty of the subject was taken from him whenever address be presented to his majesty, praying that he he became obnoxious to his superiors. Accordingly a mo- would be graciously pleased to give orders for quickening tion was made in the House of Commons to bring in a bill our preparations for defence in the West Indies and in for explaining and amending an act of the 4th and 5th of the Mediterranean, and particularly for securing the posts William and Mary, to prevent invidious informations, and of Gibraltar and Minorca. But whilst his grace was desfor the more easy reversal of outlawries in the Court of canting on the negligence of the ministry in leaving posts King’s Bench. But this motion was rejected by a great of such importance in a defenceless state, he was suddenmajority, the ministerial party urging that the power of ly interrupted by Lord Gower, who insisted on having the the attorney-general was the same as it had ever been, and house immediately cleared of all except those who had a founded on the common law; that the abuse of power was right to sit there. His lordship was answered by the no argument against the legal exercise of it; that it was Duke of Richmond, who complained of the interruption dangerous to overthrow established customs ; and that the given to the Duke of Manchester as a proceeding both actions of the attorney-general were cognizable by parlia- irregular and insidious. This produced a considerable dement, which control must for ever prevent a licentious ex- gree of altercation ; and the cry of “ Clear the house” ercise of his powers. But these arguments did not put an resounded from all quarters. Several members attempted end to the disputes on this head. The courts ofjustice were to speak, but found it impossible; and, piqued at this at the same time held up in a very despicable light, on ac- shameful behaviour, eighteen or nineteen peers left the count of some late decisions which had been deemed con- house in a body. The members of the House of Comtrary to law and usual practice. By these the judges had mons then present were not only commanded to depart, assumed a power of determining whether a paper was a libel but some of the lords went personally to the bar, and inor not, whilst the business of the jury was confined to the sisted on their leaving the house immediately. The latdetermination of the fact regarding its publication; and ter alleged in excuse, that they attended with a bill, and thus it was alleged that the judges had it in their power were there in the discharge of their duty; but this availto punish a man who had been found guilty of publishing a ed nothing ; they were peremptorily ordered to withdraw paper, whether it was seditious or not. Lord Chatham, in a till their message should be delivered, and at length turnspeech on the Middlesex election, took occasion to mention ed out of doors amidst the greatest tumult and uproar. these abuses ; and was answered by Lord Mansfield, who In the mean time the lords, who had just left their own looked upon himself as particularly pointed at. The former, house, repaired to the lower house, where they were lishowever, was so little convinced by the answer, that he drew tening to the debates, when the commoners who had been from it an additional confirmation of his own arguments, turned out of the Lords arrived, full of indignation, and and moved that a day should be appointed for taking into loud in their complaints of the affront they had received. consideration the conduct of the judges ; in which proposal This was resented by turning out indiscriminately all the he was ably seconded by the ex-chancellor. A committee spectators; amongst whom were the eighteen peers just was accordingly moved for on the 6th December 1770, to mentioned, who were thus excluded from both houses. inquire into the matter ; but after much debate the motion This affair issued in a misunderstanding between the two was rejected by a very large majority. The affair, however, houses, which continued during the remainder of the sesdid not yet seem to be terminated. Lord Mansfield gave sion. Sixteen lords joined in a protest, and censured in notice next day, that on an early day he would communi- the warmest terms the treatment they had met with, as cate to the House of Lords a matter of the utmost import- well as the unprecedented behaviour of administration, ance ; but when that day arrived he produced nothing ex- who had thus attempted to suppress the freedom of decept a paper containing the case of Woodfall the printer, as bate, and rendered the conduct of the house an object of tried in the Court of King’s Bench, that whoever pleased contempt and ridicule to the whole world. might read or take copies of it. This was looked upon as Soon after the discussion on the subject of the Falkland exceedingly frivolous, and greatly disappointed the expec- Islands, an extraordinary instance of corruption in the tations of the whole house. His lordship was asked whe- borough of New Shoreham, Sussex, was laid before parliather he meant that the paper should be entered on the ment. The affair was brought by the returning officer, one journals of the house ; and he answered that he had no Roberts, declaring a candidate duly elected who had only such intention, but only that it should be left in the hands thirty-seven votes, whilst his opponent had eighty-seven of the clerk ; on which the affair would probably have suffrages; and when this man was brought to trial for so been altogether overlooked, had not the ex-chancellor, who strange a proceeding, a scene of unparalleled villany was all along strongly supported the motion, accused Lord disclosed. A great number of the freemen of the borough Mansfield, from the very paper to which he appealed, of had formed themselves into a society called the Christian

B R I 1 Reign of Club, which, instead of sustaining the character indicated George III. by its denomination, was rendered instrumental in furthering the purposes of venality. A select committee of the 1770. members had been appointed to sell the borough to the highest bidder. The committee-men never appeared at elections themselves, but issued orders to the rest, directing them as to how they were to vote; and after the election terminated, they shared the profits among themselves. All this was clearly proved ; but the returning officer was nevertheless dismissed with a reprimand from the Speaker for having trespassed upon the forms which ought to have been observed by such a functionary. A more severe punishment, however, was reserved for the borough, particularly the wretches who had assumed the name of the Christian Club. A motion for inquiry having been carried unanimously, a bill was brought in to incapacitate eightyone freemen of the borough, whose names wTere mentioned, from ever voting at parliamentary elections ; and, for the more effectual prevention of bribery and corruption, the attorney-general was ordered to prosecute the committee belonging to the Christian Club. After some opposition the bill for incapacitation at length passed, and received the royal assent on the last day of the session. The unbounded licentiousness of the press now attracted the notice of parliament, though the evil appeared incapable of being effectually checked. At this period neither rank nor character formed any security against calumny; and indeed it was difficult to say which side went farthest in the career of detraction and abuse. The ministry, however, provoked by a long course of opposition, made loud complaints against the freedom taken with their names; but it was retorted by the opposition, that the abuse from one quarter was as great as that from the other. Some members of the House of Commons complained that their speeches had been misrepresented in the papers, and endeavoured to put a stop to the practice of reporting them. It was at this time considered as contrary to the standing order of the house to print the speeches of the members of parliament; and a motion for calling two of the principal printers to account was carried by a considerable majority. The printers, however, did not attend the summons of the messenger; and a final order for their appearance was directed to be left at their houses, and declared to be sufficient notice when left there. The disobedience of the printers was undoubtedly occasioned by the favour which they hoped to obtain with the popular party; and indeed it was only after severe animadversion that the ministry were able to carry the motion against them. And this opposition was heightened by its being further moved that they should be taken into custody by the Serjeant at arms, for contempt of the orders of the house; a proceeding which was objected to on account of the temper and disposition of the people towards the house, and the great impropriety of adding to their alarms by any unnecessary stretch of the executive power. But the majority urged the necessity of preserving the dignity of the house, and putting an end to those excessive freedoms which had been taken with its members. The serjeant at arms next complained, that not being able to find the printers at their houses, he had been treated with indignity by their servants; on which a royal proclamation was issued for apprehending the two obnoxious typographers, Wheble and Thomson, with a reward annexed. But in the mean time six other printers, who had rendered themselves equally obnoxious on a similar account, were ordered to attend the house, though the motion had not been carried without great opposition. Some of the delinquents were reprimanded at the bar, and one who did not attend wTas ordered to be taken into custody for contempt. Wheble being apprehended in consequence of the proclamation, VOL. v.

AIN. 473 was carried before Alderman Wilkes, by whom he was dis- Reign of charged; Thomson was in like manner discharged; and George IIL the captors received certificates from the magistrates, in 1 L order to entitle them to the promised reward. Millar, ^ one of the six who had refused to attend, was taken into custody at his own house by the messenger of the House of Commons ; but he sent for a constable, and was carried along with the messenger before the lord mayor, and Aldermen Wilkes and Oliver, at the mansion-house. The lord mayor refused to deliver up the printer and messenger at the request of the serjeant at arms; and after some disputes the messenger was committed to prison, as he had been accused by Millar of assault and false imprisonment, and the serjeant had refused to find bail; but he was immediately released upon bail being given. The lord mayor was ordered to attend the house next day, when he pleaded that he had acted in no way inconsistent with the duties of his office, since by his oath he was bound to preserve the franchises of the city ; and his conduct was further warranted by the terms of the city charters, as recognised by act of parliament. It was then moved that he should be allowed counsel; but this motion was overruled, upon the ground that no counsel could be permitted to plead against the privileges of the house. It was, however, carried that the lord mayor’s clerk should attend with the book of minutes; and, notwithstanding all opposition, he was obliged to expunge from it the recognisance of Whittam the messenger. This was followed by a resolution that there should be no more proceedings at law in the case; upon which a vehement altercation ensued, and several of the minority at last left the house in the utmost rage. Though it was now one o’clock in the morning, the ministerial party refused to adjourn, and proceeded to the case of Mr Oliver, who, like the lord mayor, declined to express any regret for what he had done. Some proposed to censure his conduct, others were for expulsion ; but when it was proposed to send him to the Tower, the utmost confusion took place, some members declaring that they would accompany him to the place of his confinement, whilst others left the house. Meanwhile ministry used their utmost endeavours to persuade him to make some kind of apology or concession for what he had done; but finding him immovable, they at last carried the motion for his imprisonment, and he was committed accordingly. After the confusion had been in some measure dispelled, the debates concerning the lord mayor were resumed, and many arguments were urged against proceeding further in the matter; but these being disregarded, the minority left the house; and his lordship refusing the favour offered him of being committed to the custody of the serjeant at arms, was sent to the Tower. Alderman Wilkes, on being ordered to attend, wrote a letter addressed to the Speaker, in which he observed, that no mention had been made of his being a member; and that if his seat in parliament, to which he had been duly elected, wras to be granted, he would attend and justify his conduct. Administration, however, were too wise again to encounter this demagogue; but being at the same time under no little embarrassment how to get off, they at last had recourse to the miserable shift of ordering him to attend on the 8th of April 1771, while they adjourned the house to the 9th. The only other transaction of moment during this session related to the East India Company. It was now proposed to raise two thousand men in England for the service of the Company, by whom the officers appointed by the king were to be paid. But it was considered as unconstitutional and dangerous to keep up an armed force in the kingdom which was not paid by government; and it was likewise urged that it would prove an obstruction to the recruiting service of our own army, on account of the 3o

BRITAIN. Reignp oil Eeign of superior advantages of enlisting in the Company’s service. of relief; and in the beginning of February a number ofGeor gE George III. The session terminated on the 8th of May. In the speech them, with several professors of law and physic, joined in from the throne it was observed,T that the satisfaction ob- a petition to the House of Commons, expressing their 77 ' tained from his Catholic majest) for the injury done this dissatisfaction with subscription to any human forms, and kingdom, and the proofs of the pacific disposition which praying for relief. In this petition they asserted that the courts of France and Spain had given, by laying aside they held certain rights and privileges from God alone, their armaments, enabled his majesty to reduce the forces without being subject to any other authority; that they accounted it a blessing to live under a government which both by sea and land. The many defeats which had been experienced by op- maintained the sufficiency of the Scriptures to instruct in position during this and the preceding sessions now began all things necessary to salvation; and that they had a right to cool their ardour in the cause of patriotism. Many of from nature, as well as from the principles of the reformthem also had lost much of their popularity by taking part ed religion, to judge for themselves what was or was not against the printers; and as every motion had been car- contained in the Scriptures. They prayed therefore to be ried in favour of administration by nearly two to one, a relieved from the burden of subscription, and to be restorgeneral discouragement and languor ensued. The only ed to their undoubted right of interpreting Scripture for gainers indeed by the late contentions were the city ma- themselves, without being bound by any human explanagistrates, and printers who had been punished by the tion of it, or being required to acknowledge the truth of House of Commons. On the rising of parliament, the lord any formulary of religious faith and doctrine whatsoever, mayor and aldermen were of course released from the excepting the Holy Scripture itself. This petition was Tower, and welcomed with every mark of congratulation. presented by Sir William Meredith, who, along with the The city was illuminated ; and the mob, as usual, took ven- other members favourable to the cause, enforced it by geance on the refractory by breaking their windows. A many arguments drawn from the principles of toleration, committee was even appointed to carry on a prosecution and maintained that nothing but hypocrisy and prevariagainst the Speaker of the House of Commons; but as cation could arise from obliging men to subscribe what this did not seem likely to afford redress, they determined they did not believe ; that the repeal of the laws for subonce more to have recourse to the throne. Accordingly, scription would prevent the increase of dissenters, and on the 10th of July 1771, another petition and remonstrance incline many of them to return to the church; that the was presented, the subjects of which were the embank- articles themselves were originally compiled in a hurry; ments on the Thames, the proceedings against the magi- that they contained doctrines highly controvertible; and strates, and a request for a speedy dissolution of parlia- that this restraint on the consciences of men constituted ment. But this met with as unfavourable an answer as any one of the greatest imaginable hardships. The majority of parliament, however, were found inimical to the petition, of the preceding appeals to the sovereign. In the speech from the throne, when the parliament as- though some who then opposed it wished for time to consembled in January 1772, his majesty observed, that the sider it more deliberately, or to refer it to a committee of performance of the king of Spain’s engagements, and the the clergy. At last, however, it was thrown out by a large behaviour of the other European powers, promised a con- majority. The rejection of the subscription bill was followed by tinuance of peace, and that although the necessity of keepingup a respectable naval force was evident, yet no extra- that of a bill for guarding the possessions of his majesty’s ordinary aid for that purpose would be necessary ; and he subjects against dormant claims of the church. After this concluded with recommending a vigilant and active atten- the attention of parliament was called to one of the utmost tion to the concerns of the country, with an assurance of importance, which had been introduced by a message from the interposition of the crown to remedy abuses or supply the king. This was the famous royal marriage bill, occadefects. Little discussion took place on the address in sioned by the marriage of the Duke of Cumberland with answer to this speech ; but an ample subject of alterca- Mrs Horton, a widow lady, daughter of Lord Irnham, and tion was soon furnished by a motion on the part of the go- sister to Colonel Luttrell, and that of the Duke of Gloucesvernment, the object of which was to recognise the neces- ter with the countess-dowager of Waldegrave. By the sity of raising twenty-five thousand seamen for the service message it was recommended to both houses to take it into of the current year. A proposition of this kind, coming their consideration, whether it might not be expedient to immediately after the assurances of peace that had been supply the defects of the laws then in being, and by some given from the throne, seemed very like a contradiction. new regulations more effectually to prevent tbe descendAccordingly it was argued that the peace establishment ants of his late majesty,—excepting the issue of the prinwould thus be augmented till we were overburdened by it; cesses who had married, or might hereafter marry, into that a large sum would be added to the national expenses; foreign families,—from marrying without the consent of his and that as the same augmentation might every year be majesty, his heirs and successors. In consequence of this made on similar pretences, the nation would in this way a bill was brought in, declaring all such marriages, withbe obliged to submit to the hardships of war in a time out the consent above mentioned, to be null and void. The of profound peace. If the assurances of peace from the descendants of his majesty, however, if above the age of throne were well founded, the force in the East Indies twenty-five years, might marry without the royal consent, was already too great; if, on the contrary, a war was at provided they gave intimation twelve months beforehand hand, it would be too small, notwithstanding the proposed to the privy council, and no opposition to the match was augmentation ; and in the same way Jamaica was likely to made by parliament during that interval. But this bill ensuffer from this inferiority. But these remonstrances were countered the most violent and powerful opposition. The by no means sufficient to put a stop to the measure; and principal arguments against it were, that the immediate the question in favour of the augmentation was carried tendency of the measure was to create as many prerogawithout a division. tives in the crown as there were matters of importance in The subject which came next to be discussed was reli- the state, and to extend them in a manner as exceptiongion. This was originated by the tendency which had able as had ever been done in the most despotic period; for some time prevailed to resist the subscription of the that the enacting part of the bill had an inconvenient and church standards. Meetings had been frequently held by impolitic latitude, in extending to all the descendants of discontented members, in order to consider of some mode George II.; that the time of nonage for the royal family 474

475 BRITAIN. Reign of appeared to be improperly extended beyond the limit of have been entertained now, had not the affairs of the Com- Reign of George III. twenty-one years ; that the deferring their marriage to the pany been embarrassed by the misconduct of their ser-GeorgellL age of twenty-six might also be attended with bad conse- vants. During the preceding session a bill had been 77 quences, by driving them into a disorderly course of life; brought in for restraining the governor and council from that the power given by this bill to a prince to marry after all kinds of trade, as well as for enlarging the power of the the age of twenty-six was totally defeated by the proviso Company over its servants ; but the bill was thrown out on which declared the consent of parliament to be ultimately the second reading, and indeed had probably been intronecessary; that the right of conferring a discretionary duced merely to pave the way for what followed. The depower of prohibiting all marriages, was beyond the reach bates on the subject, however, produced a general belief that of any legislature whatsoever, being contrary to the in- the affairs of the East India Company were, owing to the herent rights of human nature, which, as they are not behaviour of its servants, in a very bad condition ; that at derived from, or held under, the sanction of any civil laws, any rate it was insufficient for the government of such excannot in any case be taken away by them ; that this tensive possessions; and that, in consequence, there was bill had a natural tendency to produce a disputed title to an evident necessity for giving up the management of it the crown; and that it provided no security against the to the Crown. A motion was accordingly made for a select improper marriages of princesses into foreign families, and committee to inquire into the affairs of the Company ; and those of their issue, which might as materially affect the although many reasons were urged against the proposition, interest of this nation as the marriages of princes resid- it was carried without a division, and the members were ing in the dominions of Great Britain. To these argu- chosen by ballot. But during the recess the affairs of the ments it was answered, that the inconveniences so much Company continued to retrograde, and the treasury at home talked of were merely imaginary; that if the king should was quite exhausted ; whilst bills to a vast amount drawn make any improper use of his authority, parliament had it on Bengal were nearly due, and these, together with the in their power either to prevent the consequences, or to Company’s debt to the Bank and other public bodies, and punish the minister who advised it; that the crown was the sum to be paid to government, reduced them almost dishonoured by improper connections; that many of the to the verge of bankruptcy. They were therefore reduced greatest national calamities had proceeded from improper to the necessity of asking a loan from administration ; but alliances between the royal family and subjects ; and that their application was received with great indifference, and if experience showed that any material grievances ensued the minister desired them to apply to parliament. Meanfrom this act, it could as easily be repealed hereafter as while the reports of the select committee were published, thrown out now, and on much better grounds. The result and gave the public no very favourable opinion of the bewas, that with great rapidity, and by considerable majo- haviour of the Company’s servants. rities, it passed through both houses. On the meeting of parliament, the minister moved for Though the decision concerning the subscription of the a secret committee, to consist of thirteen persons, and the thirty-nine articles did not promise much success to any members of which were to be chosen by ballot, in order proposed innovations in matters of religion, yet the case that no objection might apply to them which did not miliof dissenting ministers was introduced soon after the tate equally against the whole house. This motion endiscussion of the royal marriage act; and a petition was countered some opposition; but, ultimately, the commitpresented by a great body of dissenters, praying to be re- tee of secrecy was carried, as the other had been, withlieved from the hardship of subscribing to the articles of out a division ; and the members, though chosen by ballot, a church to which they did not belong. This, however, were almost all of them devoted to administration. The was most violently opposed, though with very little suc- select committee was likewise revived, that these bodies cess, in the House of Commons, where it was carried by a might act as checks upon each other, and that between very great majority. In this branch of the legislature it them the nation might have the requisite information rewas maintained that nothing can advance the true interest specting the whole matter. of religion so much as toleration ; and that if articles of In a short time after the appointment of the secret subscription are necessary, it must only be for men des- committee, a report was given in, stating that the Comtitute of principle, who, in compliance with ambition or pany were in great distress for want of money; and that avarice, would as readily subscribe one set of articles as a bill ought to be brought in for restraining them from another. In the House of Lords, however, the bill was re- sending out supervisors to India, a scheme which they at jected by a majority of seventy. Here the doctrine of uni- this time meditated. The minister and his adherents enversal toleration was vehemently scouted, and much was larged greatly on the utility of this bill, which they describsaid of the danger to which the Church of England would ed as not only highly expedient, but absolutely necessary, be exposed by departing from the laws which guarded its in order to prevent the Company from engaging in an exprivileges. The dissenters, it was alleged, had great cause pensive commission, at a time when their affairs were so to be satisfied with the favour they enjoyed by conniv- much embarrassed that they had no resource but to apply ance ; and the laws were only kept on record as a necessary to government for a loan. But notwithstanding all the curb, lest, in the degeneracy of adecliningkingdom, religion arguments used by administration in favour of the bill, the should require protection against heresy and blasphemy. Company were so far from thinking it for their advantage, The only other business of this session was an attempt that they used every endeavour to prevent its passing at inquiry into the affairs of the East India Company, which into a law. They petitioned, and some of their servants were then in a very critical situation. But the subject did were examined in the House of Commons, in order to show not come under consideration till next session, which com- the necessity of sending out supervisors, qualified to bring menced in November 1772; the situation of the affairs of their affairs into some degree of order, and at the same time the Company being alleged as a reason why parliament capable of curbing the excesses of which the Company’s had been called together sooner than usual. The greater servants had too frequently been guilty. In spite of all oppart of the present session was accordingly occupied with position, however, the bill was carried by a large majority; the concerns of the Company. and in the House of Lords it met with similar success, It had been projected, as long ago as the year 1667, to although the minority thought proper to enter a protest. bring them under the inspection of government; but the The select committee now gave in their second report, design did not succeed at that time, nor would it probably containing a statement of the debt, credit, and effects of

B R I T A I N. 476 Reign of the Company in England; beginning with an account of These proceedings proved exceedingly disagreeable to Reign of George III. casli in the Company’s treasury on the 1st of De- the Company, who now presented a petition complainingGem'gelll, cember 1772, and containing a statement of all the debts of the injustice of demanding any further terms on ac1772. and claims against them in every part of the world. Thus count of a loan, after that loan had been discharged. But '' it appeared that the cash, credit, and effects of the Com- no regard was paid to this petition, and the motions were pany, amounted to L.6,397,299. 10s. 6d., and their debts carried in favour of administration. To make some kind to L.2,032,306, which being deducted from the above of compensation, however, it was agreed, that as the Comaccount of their effects, left a balance in favour of the pany had a stock of teas amounting to about seventeen Company of L.4,364,993. I Os. 6d., without any valuation millions of pounds in their warehouses, they should be alof their fortifications and buildings abroad. The state- lowed to export as much of it as they thought proper free ment, however, was complained of as being unfair and of duty, and to employ the money thence arising in the partial; but the members protested their innocence, and advancement of their own affairs. This concession in favour of the East India Company administration insisted that, until proof to the contrary was brought, the house was bound to adhere to it as just. proved in the event the loss of the American colonies; The business was revived after the holidays by an appli- nor indeed could these arbitrary proceedings with so concation from the Company to government for a loan of siderable a body tend to impress the mind of the nation L.1,500,000, for four years, at four per cent, interest, with with ideas favourable to the views of administration. In liberty of repaying the same according to the ability of other respects the minister abated nothing of the disposithe Company, in instalments of not less than L.300,000; tion he had from first to last evinced with regard to the and that they should not make a dividend of more than Company. On the 3d of May 1773 certain resolutions six per cent, until the loan was reduced to L.750,000, after were laid down by him as the foundation of a bill to estawhich they might raise their dividend to eight per cent.; blish certain regulations for the better management of the and when the whole loan was discharged, the surplus of East India Company, as well in India as in Europe. These the net profits arising in England, above the said dividend, were, that the court of directors should in future be electwas to be appropriated to the payment of the Company’s ed for four years; that no person should vote at the elecbonded debt, until it had been reduced to L.1,500,000, in tion of the directors who had not possessed his or her which case the surplus profits were to be equally divided stock twelve months ; that the stock qualification for the between the public and the Company. This request it was future should be L.1000 instead of L.500; that the mayjudged expedient to grant, and it was accordingly resolved or’s court of Calcutta should henceforth be confined to that the affairs of the East India Company are in such a small mercantile causes ; that, instead of this court, a new state as to require the assistance of parliament; that a one should be established, consisting of a chief justice and loan is necessary to reinstate the Company’s affairs ; that three puisne judges, appointed by the crown ; and that a the supply required be granted; and that care be taken superiority should be given to the presidency of Bengal that the Company be prevented from experiencing the like over the other presidencies in India. Each of these resoexigencies for the future. These restrictions were judged lutions was carried by a great majority. By the friends proper by administration for the security of the public; of the Company, however, the bill was supposed to have but the Company replied, that they were contrary to the a tendency to effect a total alteration of its constitution proposals which had been made, and void of foundation, as in England, as well as in the administration of all its being built on the erroneous reports of the secret commit- presidencies in Asia, and to subject their affairs, both at tee. Some time was also demanded for consideration ; but home and abroad, to the immediate power of the crown. that being refused, the question was put and carried as By cutting off the L.500 stockholders, the proprietary ministry desired, by a considerable majority. would become more manageable by the crown; nor was The next step was to deprive the Company of their ter- there any security that the directors would be faithful to ritorial right to the countries which they possessed in the the interests of the Company when they were no longer East Indies. This had been allowed them in the most responsible to them for their actions. This class of proexplicit manner, as appears by some of the papers which prietors presented a petition, which gave rise to a motion, passed between the French and English ministers during bearing that the petitioners had not been guilty of any the negociations that issued in the treaty of Paris; but delinquency in the exercise of their chartered rights acLord North informed the house that it was the opinion of cording to the several acts of parliament made in their several great lawyers, that such territorial possessions as behalf. But the motion was rejected, and the regulating the subjects of any state shall acquire by conquest are vir- bill passed both houses by large majorities. During this time the select and secret committees were tually the property of that state, and not of those individuals who acquire them. He was of opinion, however, pursuing their inquiries. The affairs of the Company were that it would be more beneficial for the public and the investigated from the year 1756, and a report was at East India Company, to let the territorial acquisitions re- length presented by General Burgoyne, containing many main in the possession of the Company for a limited time ; charges of cruelty and rapacity, against several persons and at the same time it was moved, that no participation concerned in the management of the affairs of the Comof profits should take place betwixt the public and the pany, particularly with regard to the deposition of Surajah Company until after the repayment of L.1,400,000 advan- Dowlah in 1756, which was described as the cause of all ced to the Company, and the reduction of the Company’s the evils which had since happened. The report dwelt bonded debt to L.1,500,000; that, after the payment of much on the treachery employed in bringing about that rethe loan advanced to the Company, and the reduction of volution, particularly the fictitious treaty with Omichund; their bonded debts to the sums specified, three fourths of and exposed the conduct of Lord Clive, who had caused the net surplus profits of the Company at home, above Admiral Watson’s name to be affixed to the treaty, after the sum of eight per cent, upon their capital stock, should the admiral himself had refused to sign it. It concluded be paid into the exchequer for the use of the public, and with moving for the restitution of all the money received the remaining fourth be set apart either for reducing the in presents or otherwise in India whilst the receivers actCompany’s bonded debt, or forming a fund for discharging ed in public capacities; and recommended the adoption of any contingent expenses to which the Company might be resolutions, bearing in substance that all acquisitions made exposed. under the influence of a military force, or by treaty with

477 BRITAIN. Reign of foreign powers, belong of right to the state; that to ap- suffering in the same cause with themselves. The wanton Reign of Georgelll.propriate acquisitions obtained by such means is illegal; destruction of the tea at Boston and other places in Ame-GeorgellL ancl that great sums of money had been obtained by such rica, however, considerably diminished the number of means from the sovereign princes in India. The belief their friends, and rendered many of those who still adthat many of the Company’s servants had acted in an in- hered to them much less sanguine in their cause. The famous manner, was at this time so general and so strong, matter was announced to parliament by a special message that these resolutions were carried almost unanimously. from the throne. Lord North and the other ministers Lord Clive defended himself by general protestations of described the conduct of the colonists, particularly in the innocence, which, however, gained but little credit; and town of Boston, as most atrocious, and concluded that when he entered into a particular refutation of the charges government was now perfectly justified in resorting to any against him, he did not succeed in making many converts measures they might think proper to repress the turbuto his reasoning. But his friends wrere not of opinion that lent spirit which had been manifested, and inflict such the charges were of a very atrocious nature, and wished punishment as the enormity of the offence seemed to deto excuse him on the ground of policy and necessity. The serve. The opposition did not pretend to exculpate, treaty with Omichund was justified on the plea of neces- though it still attempted to excuse, the conduct of the sity. Some, indeed, observed that as Omichund had the colonists, by ascribing all the disturbances in that country character of being the most accomplished villain in Asia, to the arbitrary and absurd measures pursued and obstithe Englishman merely wished to have a trial of skill with nately adhered to at home. But the ministry evaded this the Asiatic. This sarcasm, however, was a mere piece of charge by drawing the attention of the house to the more wit, without any solid foundation; for the crime, if there important consideration, whether the Americans were now was any in the transaction, lay in dethroning a sovereign to be dependent on, or independent of, Great Britain. prince by means of traitors, and not in cheating the traitors The Boston port bill was then brought in, and carried, out of their reward. And, in fact, if treachery be once ad- but not without considerable opposition, both within and mitted into transactions, whether civil or political, it is in without doors. Mr Bollan, agent for the council of Masvain to pretend any subjection to the rules of justice; for sachusetts Bay, founding on an act of Queen Elizabeth, those who call in the aid of such an auxiliary are already for securing the liberty of the colonies, drew up a petition, beyond its jurisdiction. General Burgoyne, however, mov- and caused it to be presented before the bill had actualed that Lord Clive had, in consequence of the powers with ly made its appearance: but so little regard was paid to which he was vested in India, received at various times pre- it, that, during the time it lay on the table, the bill was sents to the amount of L.234,000 sterling, to the dishonour brought in by Lord North. After the second reading, and detriment of the state. But this being rejected, after the same gentleman presented another petition, desiring a violent debate, it was moved that Lord Clive, in receiv- to be heard in behalf of the town of Boston, and for the ing such a sum, had abused the power with which he was council of Massachusetts Bay; but this was refused, beintrusted, to the evil example of the servants of the public. cause, although Mr Bollan was agent for the colony, he This motion, however, was also rejected, and it was ulti- was not so for the corporation of Boston, and still less for mately voted that Lord Clive, when he received the sum the council of Massachusetts Bay, as the body which above mentioned, at the same time rendered great and had appointed him was now no longer in existence. This meritorious services to his country. Thus the matter was appeared very inconsistent to many of the members, and concluded, and thus the affairs of the Company were de- produced a new petition from the lord mayor, in the name of such natives and inhabitants of North America as at livered into the hands of administration. The affairs of the East India Company, which had en- that time resided in London, in which the petitioners ingrossed so much time and attention, now gave place to sisted that the bill was illegal, unprecedented, unjust; and those of America, which by this time had assumed a very that, after such a precedent as it went to establish, no lowering aspect. The discontent occasioned by the taxes man or body of men in America could have a moment’s imposed on that country has already been noticed. The security. But as little regard was paid to this as to the stamp act had excited among them a spirit of industry former petitions, and the bill passed both houses without and economy, as well as a desire of providing themselves a division. That this obnoxious bill might not be sent to with manufactures of their own, which had not been fore- America without some mitigation, however, the minority, seen. At the time, as well as afterwards, this was im- who had not chosen to divide formally on the first measure refractory coloputed to wilfulness, or to the discontent of a few, which proposed by government for reducing the 4 would afterwards subside, or be suppressed by the voice nists, proposed the repeal of the duty on tea laid on in of the majority, when things would revert to their former 1767 ; but this was also rejected, probably from an erronechannels. But the trifling tax on tea, which had not been ous impression that the opposition of the Americans was repealed, and the permission given to the Company to ex- that of a mere tumultuous mob, and that by showing proport whatever quantity they pleased, now threw matters per spirit the ministry would at last come off victorious. The extreme pertinacity shown by ministers, in this into a ferment not to be quelled by any means whatever. Of the various proceedings in America, the tumults at instance, undoubtedly proved highly prejudicial to their Boston and elsewhere, the accidental circumstances which cause, both by exasperating the Americans, and by rousadded fuel to the flame, and the war which ensued and ing the indignation of the minority in parliament, and ultimately terminated in the recognition of ikmerican in- rendering opposition more violent and determined. This dependence, an account will be given under the article appeared in every subsequent proceeding relative to the United States. It is only necessary here to give an ac- colonies. Even the bill for regulating the government of count of the manner in which the legislature and people Massachusetts Bay did not pass without a protest; and of Great Britain were affected by these events. a similar result ensued on the passing of the act for the Ever since the conclusion of peace in 1763, the disposi- impartial administration of justice. The opposition made tion shown by government to augment the revenue had to the Quebec bill was even more violent, insomuch that, produced in the popular party of Great Britain a spirit simi- ere it could be carried, the ministers were obliged to lar to that manifested by the Americans, though in an in- lower the high and aspiring tone to which they had acferior degree ; and hence the patriots of Britain affected to customed themselves in talking of American affairs. The consider the Americans as oppressed by government, and minority contended, that without any necessity pleaded,

478 B R 1 T A I N. Reign of m* even suggested, an arbitrary influence was extended drew up a paper, in which they denied the distinction es- Reign of George III. by act 0f parliament to that province; they likewise ar- tablished by ministry, and affirmed that the connection be- George III gued in favour of the method of trial by jury; and they tween Great Britain and America was chiefly of a coml 5 ^ ' thought that the establishment of the Roman Catholic re- mercial nature, and that the manifold regulations adopted 1775. ligion in that country gave it a preference over the Pro- for the mutual prosperity of the colonies and of the motestant, which was henceforth to be exercised only by to- ther country formed the great political chain which united leration. them to one another. This remonstrance was vigorously At the conclusion of the session his majesty declared seconded by the opposition; but the administration had himself satisfied with what had been done, and expressed already determined on the line of conduct they were to his hopes that good effects would result from the new re- pursue, and therefore wished to hear as little as possible gulations. The reception which they met with in Ame- on the subject. War was now the word; and although rica will be related in the proper place; in Britain the no weightier reason could be given for disregarding what people seemed to await the event with indifference. The the merchants had to say, this was the motive which imparliament in the mean time was dissolved by proclama- pelled ministers to refuse them a hearing, lest these should tion, and a very short time allowed for the election of new make it appear that the nation was unwisely precipitated members ; so that if opposition at that time possessed any into such a measure. strength, they were not allowed sufficient time to exert it. But though there is no reason to doubt that adminisThe new parliament met on the 30th of November 1774, tration were now fully determined upon a war, and therewhen his majesty informed the two houses that a most fore wished to be troubled with as few objections as posdaring spirit of resistance still prevailed in America, not- sible, they were by no means deficient in arguments in withstanding the means which had been taken to prevent justification of their own conduct. They alleged that the the mischiefs thence arising; and assured them that they petitions so strongly pressed on the attention of the house might depend on his firm resolution to withstand every were principally the work of a factious party; that the attempt to weaken or impair the supreme authority of the advantages resulting from the trade with America arose legislature over all the dominions of the crown. In answer from the dependent condition of the colonies, which now to the speech from the throne, the minority demanded a aimed at shaking off entirely the supremacy which the communication of all letters, orders, and instructions, re- mother country had hitherto exercised over them without lating to American affairs; but this was overruled, and the smallest complaint; that the advantage of the merthe address being carried as a matter of form, the consi- chants themselves was consulted in maintaining that suderation of American affairs was delayed until after the premacy; that they would be the first to feel the pernicious holidays. consequences of its being lost; that war, though no doubt a In the beginning of 1775 the minority received a con- great evil, was sometimes necessary to prevent a greater ; siderable accession of strength by the return of Lord that were the government to yield in the present contest, Chatham, who, after a long absence, again made his ap- no advocate of America could pretend to say what would pearance in parliament. He now testified in the warmest be the last of its demands; that the Americans were not terms his disapprobation of the measures which had been to be reclaimed by concessions; that the honour and chapursued regarding America; he moved for addressing the racter of the nation were at stake; and that Britain had king to recal the troops from Boston ; he predicted, that if often taken up arms for matters of less consequence, and ministers persisted in the course they had for some time should not now hesitate where honour and interest both pursued, they would make the crown not worth the king’s called for the most vigorous and effective exertions. wearing; and he declared that the kingdom would be unThese arguments prevailed, and the motion in favour done if measures of undue coercion were employed. But of the merchants’ petitions was rejected by a prodigious all the eloquence of this great man proved ineffectual; ad- majority. This point, however, had no sooner been disministration were determined upon reducing the Americans posed of, than a violent debate arose concerning the petito subjection, and his motion was rejected by a very large tion of congress to the king, which had been referred to majority. Lord North now presented the papers which had parliament. It was argued by administration, that no been called for by the minority; but lest the publication of petition could be received from the continental congress, particular names should prove detrimental to individuals, which was not a legal body; that it would be admitting only such parts as administration thought proper for pub- their legality to receive a petition from them; and that lic inspection were laid before the house. This was com- the general assemblies and their agents were the only plained of, but to no purpose; and the papers, in their lawful representatives of the colonies, and could alone be mutilated state, were laid before a committee of the whole recognised as such. Opposition disputed these positions, house. but to no pux-pose ; for, after an ineffectual struggle, the In the mean time, petitions against the adoption of co- petition was rejected by a very large majority. ercive measures against America had been received from In the mean time a conciliatory plan, prepared by the most of the trading companies in the kingdom; and as Earl of Chatham, was presented on the first day oi Fethese, though highly displeasing to administration, could bruary 1775. The declared object and intent of this bill not be absolutely thrown overboard, a committee was ap- was to settle the troubles in America, and at the same pointed to consider them ; but this was not to take place time to assert the supreme legislative authority and suuntil American affairs were also considered. The reason perintending power of Great Britain over her colonies. given for this method of proceeding was, that the consi- No taxes were to be levied in America, but with the free deration of commercial matters ought not to interfere with consent of their assemblies. The right of the crown to those of a political kind, each of them being sufficiently station and maintain a military force established by law embarrassing without the other. The delay in hearing in any part of its dominions was pointedly asserted; but these petitions, however, was supposed to be in effect an it was also declared, that it could not be legally employed absolute rejection of them; and so indeed it proved, the to enforce implicit and unlawful submission. A congress committee to which they were consigned being humorous- was also to be held, in order to recognise the supreme ly styled the “ Committee of Oblivion.” The merchants sovereignty of Great Britain over the colonies, and to of London, however, being determined not to give up the settle an annual revenue upon the crown, disposable by point until they had exerted themselves to the utmost, parliament, and applicable to the exigencies of the nation

B R I 'AIN. 479 Reign of And on these conditions being complied with, the acts derision among them, and was imputed to imbecility and Reign of George III. complained of by congress were to be suspended, with fear; they imagined themselves able to abolish the sove- GeorgeII . every other measure pointed out as a grievance, and the reignty of Britain in that country, and were now resolved^ W5* constitution of the different governments to remain as to do it. It was therefore incumbent on every native of settled by their charters. This bill, however, was deemed Britain in such a case to stand forth and vindicate the totally inadmissible, on account of the various concessions interest and glory of his country; and it was the duty it enacted, and particularly from its empowering the co- of parliament and ministry to call forth the whole spirit lonies to assemble in congress; a measure which was at of the nation to a contest in which every thing dear to that time the most offensive, and supposed to be the most them, both in their public and private capacities, was so injurious to the interests of Britain. Lord Chatham show- deeply concerned. The views and principles of ministers ed no deficiency of argument in support of his favourite were attacked in the most violent manner. They were scheme; but his reasoning, though enforced with all the said to be reviving the old exploded doctrines of herepowers of his eloquence, proved unsuccessful, and the pro- ditary right and passive obedience, and requiring the posal was ultimately rejected. Americans to submit unconditionally to the will of Great A petition was next presented to the House of Com- Britain, for no other reason but because she was the pamons by the proprietors of estates in the West India rent state. But if no better reason could be produced, islands, representing their alarm at the association of the they could not be justly blamed for their disobedience. Americans, and the intended stoppage of trade with the The ties between Great Britain and her colonies, howBritish islands, the situation of which, it was alleged, ever, were of a far more noble as well as more binding would be very calamitous, if the acts in question were not nature than even origin and consanguinity. These ties immediately repealed. To the administration, however, were the constitution transmitted from Britain, and the all petitions now appeared to be the contrivance of fac- brotherly assistance hitherto afforded them by Englishtion ; but as it was deemed necessary to inform the nation men, and which ought to render the name dear to them. as to the ultimate views of the government respecting While these ties remained unviolated, there was no room America, Lord North, in a long speech, enumerated the to complain of their behaviour; but they would never most remarkable circumstances relating to the dispute submit to despotic authority in Englishmen more than in with that country. He affirmed that the ferment then any others. Such unwarrantable principles rendered it no prevailing in America proceeded from the unwarrantable longer a question whether the measures of administration arts and practices used to inflame the people against the should be considered, but whether the ministers themruling powers in Britain; that, notwithstanding all their selves ought not to be deprived of the power which they complaints, the public charges borne by individuals in exercised so unconstitutionally. The question was not now America were not more than as one to fifty, compared between Great Britain and America, but simply whether with what was paid by individuals in England; that no- we should give up our colonies or our ministers. This thing but a settled determination to quarrel with the pa- kind of language excited the indignation of the ministerent state could induce the Americans to persist in their rial party, who in return charged minority in plain terms disobedience to the lawful injunctions laid upon them, and with the guilt of all that had happened. There had gone which were neither injudicious nor oppressive; and that a forth, it was said, a factious and republican spirit, by which spirit of resistance, not discontent at oppression, animat- every person who wrote or spoke on the American cause was ed America. For these reasons he proposed to the house actuated, and which had not only induced the Americans to send a greater force to America; and to pass a tempo- to commence a rebellion against the parent state, but had rary act, suspending all the foreign trade of the different filled the house with incendiaries. The final issue of the colonies of New England, and particularly the Newfound- dispute was, that the recommitment of the address was land fishery, until they consented to acknowledge the su- lost by a majority of more than two to one. The debates preme authority of the British legislature. New England were the most violent that had ever been known in the Briwas singled out upon this occasion, as being accounted the tish parliament; and so important was the subject reckonmost guilty. The others, it was hoped, would yield with ed, that not only the people of this country, but even the less compulsion; but the question now was, whether this foreign ministers in London, watched the motions of adcountry should at once abandon all claims on the colonies, ministration with the utmost anxiety. and instantly give up the advantages arising from our soveBut all these victories were not sufficient to prevent reignty, and the commerce dependent on it, or whether it new enemies from starting up. Petitions had been preshould resort to the measures which had become indispen- paring by the London merchants trading to America, and sably necessary to insure both. by those concerned in the West India trade, in order to An address was now carried, which, by the showing of be presented to the House of Lords. This task was unopposition, amounted to a declaration of war. The conse- dertaken by the Marquis of Rockingham; but he was prequences, therefore, were pointed out with the utmost free- vented from executing it by a previous motion in favour dom, and some even denied the charge of rebellion fixed of the address. A long and violent debate, however, enon the province of Massachusetts Bay. The people there, sued concerning the necessity and propriety of receiving they said, had done nothing but what the constitution al- them ; but it was at length resolved that the petition lowed ; they had resisted arbitrary measures; and the ex- could not be received consistently with the interest of amples so frequently set them at home were sufficient to the kingdom. justify their conduct. The address, however, was carried In the mean time matters became daily worse in New as usual by a large majority. But so important was the England; and it was soon perceived, either that the friends subject of it deemed by the minority, that a motion was of government in that colony did not exert themselves, or made for recommitting it, on account of the consequences that they were far from being so numerous as had been that might probably result from the prosecution of the imagined. In order to render their coercive plan the more measures recommended. A very long and violent debate effectual, therefore, it was judged necessary to extend it ensued, in the course of which the administration con- so that every individual of the colony might become sentended as usual for the necessity of enforcing obedience sible of the punishment. This, it was supposed, would be by the sword. The Americans, they said, had become done by a bill for restraining the four provinces of New incorrigible through forbearance; lenity was a subject of England from commerce with Great Britain, Ireland, and

BRITAIN. 480 nation—Reduction of some British settlements in Africa.— Reign of Reign of the British West India islands, and prohibiting them from Unsuccessful attempts on Jersey Threatened invasion of Great George III. George III. carrying on the fishery at Newfoundland. The reasons Britain.—Appearance of the combined fleets of France and alleged for this proceeding -were in substance the same with Spain in the Channel—Unpopularity of the American war— 1775, 1 3 Ministry become obnoxious to the people Schemes of econo^ ‘ those for the others ; and indeed both parties had now so my rejected—Unconstitutional influence of Ministers—Mr much exhausted their arguments, that very little new matBurke’s plan of economy—Defeat of the Ministry on Mr Dunter remained for either. Every step taken by ministry, and ning’s celebrated motion, 6th April 1/80 They recover a maevery proposal made by them, however, produced a violent jority in the House—Catholic Relief Bill Disturbances condebate ; and though they constantly gained the victory, it nected with it in Scotland—Conduct of the mob in Edinburgh. was not without the mortification of hearing their princi—The Protestant Association—Terrible riots in London—• Lord George Gordon committed to the Tower Power of the ples and conduct reprobated in the most opprobrious manMinistry confirmed—Important debate on the employment of ner. In the present instance the bill was carried by a very military force in cases of disturbance—Operations of the war. large majority; but a petition against it was quickly pre—Naval successes—Armed neutrality—Origin of the war with sented by the London merchants concerned in the AmeriHolland Battle off the Doggerbank—Efforts of Britain— can trade, setting forth the danger which would accrue to Events of the year 1/81.—Pertinacity of Ministers King’s Speech Debates on the Address—Motions against the Amethe fisheries of Great Britain from such a prohibition. From rican war New plan proposed by Lord North Debates— the evidence produced in support of this petition, it appearArmy Estimates—Elevation of Lord George Germaine to the ed that, ten years before, the American fisheries had been Peerage, and discussion consequent thereon—Protest—Motions in such a flourishing state, that the four provinces of New for an Address against the American war rejected—One at England alone employed nearly forty-six thousand tons of length carried and presented to the King—Motion against the shipping and six thousand seamen; and that the produce Ministry, who intimate their intention to resign—Naval and Military operations of 1782 Rodney’s victory on the 12th of of the fisheries in the foreign markets had amounted, in the April Results of this glorious achievement—Spanish armayear 1764, to upwards of L.320,000. Since that time, howment destroyed before Gibraltar, and the siege raised—Change ever, they had greatly increased; and what rendered them of Ministry Rockingham Administration—Negociations for particularly valuable was, that all the materials used in them, Peace Sudden death of the Marquis of Rockingham—He is excepting only the timber for building the vessels, and succeeded by Lord Shelburne—Conduct of that Minister— Provisional treaty with America—Peace concluded with France, the salt for curing the fish, were purchased in Britain, and Spain, and Holland Estimate of the results of the contest— the net proceeds of the trade were also remitted thither. Narrative of less important events. Some other considerations were likewise urged as reasons against this bill, particularly the commercial concerns of The final resolution to reduce the colonies by force New England with the city of London, to which alone the colony stood indebted in nearly a million sterling, and the being now taken, it became necessary to make proper prebad consequences of it to the people of Nantucket, who, parations for the purpose; and in this the conduct of adthough inhabiting a barren island off the coast of New ministration was little less censured than in other respects. England, about fifteen miles in length and three in breadth, As the opinion that the Americans were naturally timid, containing six thousand inhabitants, kept one hundred and and incapable of becoming soldiers, prevailed greatly at thirty vessels constantly employed in the whale fishery, this time, a force of a thousand men was judged sufficient which they carried on in the north seas, to the coasts of to reduce the province of New England to obedience. The Africa and Brazil, and even as far as the Falkland Islands. project of ministers was vehemently opposed by the minoThe case of Nantucket, in fact, was so strong that the ad- rity. They insisted that the force was totally inadequate, to no purpose. ministration were obliged to relax a little, and, of their and only calculated to produce expense 7 The first impression, they very justly observed, ought, if own accord, afforded this industrious people the relief which they had such just reason to expect. The bill was possible, to be decisive; and in order to render it so, it debated with great animosity in the House of Peers, and was necessary to send such a fleet and army as might inproduced a remarkable protest, in which the measures of sure the confidence of the public, and be certainly capable of surmounting all obstacles. Many of the friends of government were spoken of with great severity. administration were of the same sentiments ; and the only reason assigned for acting otherwise was founded on a CHAP. XIII. hope that the Americans wmuld, upon more mature consideration, desist from their opposition. That they might REIGN OF GEORGE III. AMERICAN WAR. the more readily be induced to this submission, Lord North’s conciliatory proposition was formed, by which it Force to be sent to America—Lord North’s conciliatory Bill—. was enacted, that when the governor, council, and assemIneffectual endeavours of the West India Planters—Violence of both parties.—Resignation of Lord Effingham and others— bly of any of the colonies, should propose to make a proand when such provision Conduct of London and Dublin—Distress of the Country— vision for the common defence, the levyLast petition of Congress rejected—Whigs and Tories—Their should be approved of byr the king in parliament, mutual recriminations.—Misfortunes of the Newfoundland fleet. ing or imposing of taxes on that colony7 should then be forDifficulty of procuring succours—France and Holland espouse borne ; those duties excepted which it might be expedient the American cause Hessian auxiliaries—Supplies for the to impose for the regulation of commerce, and the net progarrison of Boston destroyed or taken.—Party animosities.— Debates in Parliament.—Military operations—The cause of duce of which should be carried to the account of the colony raised. But this proposal, though highAmerica believed to be desperate—Expense of the war—Sur- where it had been render of Burgoyne at Saratoga—Conduct of Ministers—The ly' extolled by7 the friends of administration, was no less French resolve to assist America—Treaty between France and reprobated by the minority7 than the others had been. America Charges against administration.—Invasion threaten- Nevertheless, after a lengthened debate, the question was ed by the French Exploits of D’Estaign in the West Indies. —Encounter with Admiral Byron—State of the Contest in carried in favour of administration by a majority of more America and the West Indies Condition of the British Navy. than three to one. —Keppel’s engagement with the French fleet—Subsequent A similar fate attended a petition to the throne dissensions, and trial of the Admiral His acquittal—Board of the island of Jamaica. Instead of relaxing any thing of Admiralty attacked.—Resignations of Admirals Keppel, Howe, their severity, the ministry now included the southern coand others—Inquiry concerning the conduct of the American war—General Burgoyne’s affair—Accession of Spain to the lonies in the restrictions imposed on New England. Still, confederacy against Britain Measures for the defence of the however, the petitioners were indefatigable in their endea-

BRITAIN. 481 TCeign of vours to be beard. The West India merchants and plant- inclination to the service. Lord Effingham, who had dis- Reign of ;teorgeIII. ers seconded their last petition by entering into a length- tinguished himself by his opposition to the ministerial mea- George IIL ened detail of circumstances relating to the British islands sures, resigned the command of his I'egiment rather than ' in that part of the world. This affair was conducted by fight against the cause which he had so warmly espoused; '/ Mr Glover, a gentleman celebrated for his literary talents and his example was followed by that of several other and commercial knowledge. From his investigations it officers. For this step Lord Effingham received the thanks appeared that, exclusive of the intrinsic worth of the of the cities of London and Dublin, both of which were islands themselves, their stock in trade and other property extremely averse to hostilities with America; and the amounted to no less than sixty millions; that the exporta- former, indeed, could scarcely restrain itself within any tion to Britain had of late been near two hundred thousand bounds of moderation. After the skirmish at Lexington, hogsheads and puncheons of sugar and rum, amounting the city framed a remonstrance and petition, animadvertto no less than four millions in value; and that the direct ing severely on the ministry and parliament; and it was revenue arising from this source was seven hundred thou- not without the greatest difficulty that the more moderate sand pounds, besides that which accrued from the colla- party procured a counter-petition, couched in less repreteral branches depending upon it. These arguments, how- hensible terms. In the mean time serious inconveniences, arising from the ever, were urged in vain. Conciliatory proposals were made by Mr Burke and Mr Hartley, but they were reject- stoppage of trade, began to be felt in different parts of the ed by great majorities, and instead of serving the cause nation. The suspension of the sale and purchase of negro they were meant to promote, had the very opposite effect. slaves in the West Indies and in North America, and the A dread was entertained of the consequences which might prohibition against exporting arms and gunpowder, had ensue from the republican opinions now so prevalent in the seriously impeded the trade of Bristol and Liverpool with colonies; and all partiality towards them was looked upon Africa ; in consequence of which a great number of ships in so criminal a light, that their opponents became deaf, which had formerly sailed from these ports were laid up, on many occasions, to the voice of reason and humanity and nearly three thousand sailors belonging to Liverpool when urged in their behalf. On the other hand, the fa- were thrown out of employment. These distresses, howvourers of America, urged on by a furious zeal, if not re- ever, made no impression on administration ; who having sentment, against those whom they looked upon as the once laid it down as a maxim, that the subjection of Amepromoters of arbitrary measures, erred equally in their rica was the greatest political good that could happen to opposition to ministry. And this violence of party spirit Britain, were, in a conformity with their own principles, appeared not only among the people at large, but broke obliged to consider every disaster that might occur during forth with the utmost fury in parliament, where the de- the prosecution of this object as a temporary inconvenience, bates often resembled the railings of Billingsgate more which ought not to be put in comparison with the executhan the deliberations of the representative assembly of a tion of so great and necessary a design. But whatever might be the view's of administration in this respect, it was great and powerful nation. In this temper of mind the state of affairs was scarcely far otherwise with the generality of the nation. They felt ever truly represented by either party. Government con- severely the present inconveniences; whilst the probable tinued to enact new laws, now in vain, against the Ameri- subjugation of America afforded no solid reason to hope cans ; whilst their antagonists opposed them in a manner for an equivalent or compensation. It was with the utso little different from that which has been already related, most satisfaction, therefore, that they received the news that any further account of the debates would be equally of Mr Penn’s arrival in 1775, with another petition from tedious and unnecessary. Other petitions were also pre- the congress, to be presented to the king in the first insented, and treated with neglect. The union of the colo- stance, and then given to the public. But their expectanists, and their preparations for war, were described by tions were speedily disappointed. The petition was delithe ministerial party as the mere commotions of a head- vered to Lord Dartmouth on the first of September, and strong mob, but represented by the opposition as an asso- in three days afterwards it was stated that no answrer ciation of an injured and virtuous people, who were about would be given to it. This laconic reply excited no small to found a mighty empire in the west, whilst Britain was surprise, more especially as the language of the petition doomed to sink into utter disgrace and contempt by their was respectful, and expressed a strong desire for peace secession. In the same way, the event of the skirmish at and reconciliation ; and hence it could only be considered Lexington, where the first blood flowed in the contest, as a formal and deliberate, if not insulting, renunciation was magnified by the one party into a disgraceful defeat, of all friendly intercourse with the colonies. and treated by the other as a trifling affair, to which no The rejection of this petition served to inflame, more than regard whatever ought to be paid, far less any inference ever, the mutual resentment of the adverse parties. The drawn as to the fate of the war. The battle of Bunker’s obsolete distinction of Whig and Tory was now revived, Hill, and all the transactions of the year 1775, were in like with such animosity, that Britain itself, as well as Ame/ manner exaggerated by both parties, though in opposite rica, seemed in danger of becoming the theatre of war and directions; and the consequence of these misrepresenta- bloodshed. The Tories were accused of promoting sanguinary addresses, misinforming the government, and cirtions was to fan the flame of mutual resentment. Whilst these altercations continued to agitate the minds culating false representations, in order to add fuel to the of the superior classes of people in Britain, the middle and flame already kindled, and produce civil war. They were lower ranks remained in a kind of indifference, or rather also upbraided with their attachment to the Stuart family; were opposed to the proceedings of ministry. This oppo- their incessant machinations to involve the country in civil sition, indeed, had no influence on the councils of the na- war; the dissension at home and disgrace abroad which tion, but in other respects it proved exceedingly trouble- had invariably attended their councils ; and their indiffesome. The levies were obstructed, and the recruiting ser- rence to the honour and interest of the nation, which, from vice was never known to go on so heavily; numbers of the peace of Utrecht to the present time, they had ever that description of persons who usually fill the ranks of the been ready to sacrifice for the advancement of their party. army not only refusing the usual offers, but even repro- On the other hand, the Tories described the Whigs as the bating loudly the cause in which they were solicited to genuine descendants and representatives of the republican engage. Several officers of high rank also showed a dis- incendiaries who, in the last century, had overturned the vol. y. 3p

Reign of constitution and desolated the kingdom ; as pretending, inGeorge III. deed, to uphold the liberty of Britain, but, under this mask, as desirous of engrossing all the authority to themselves, and of exercising arbitrary power under a mock semblance of freedom. The real question however was, whether the king and parliament, when united, were to be obeyed or resisted. The Tories insisted that they should be obeyed, the Whigs that they ought to be resisted; and hence there were two parties in Britain, the one of which was of opinion that the colonies, owing obedience to Great Britain in all cases whatsoever, ought, in case of refusal, to be compelled to obey; whilst the other, though it acknowledged as a general principle the existence of the same obligation, deemed it inexpedient and impolitic to enforce it. The violence of these bickerings, however, was somewhat allayed by serious commercial misfortunes, which occurred about this time, and added greatly to the difficulties with which the government had to contend. During the last session of parliament, it had been affirmed that the bill for depriving the people of New England of the benefits of the Newfoundland fishery would redound to the interest of Great Britain, by throwing into her hands the profits which were formerly divided with the colonies. But this prediction was belied by the event. The number of ships fitted out this year was scarcely greater than usual, and the congress had prohibited them from being supplied with provisions ; so that not only those on board the ships, but even the inhabitants on the island of Newfoundland itself, were in danger of perishing from want. Many of the ships, therefore, were obliged to go in quest of provisions instead of prosecuting the employment on which they had been sent; and, on the whole, instead of any increase, the profits of the fishery suffered this year a diminution of near L.500,000. Nor was this all. A storm of unprecedented violence occurred in these latitudes during the fishing season ; the sea rose fully thirty feet above its ordinary level, and with such rapidity, that no time was allowed for avoiding its fury : upwards of seven hundred fishing boats perished ; and several ships foundered, with their whole crews. Nor was the devastation confined to the sea; for the waters broke in upon the land and occasioned prodigious loss and destruction. By these misfortunes, the general stagnation of commerce, and the little success which had hitherto attended the British arms, the mercantile portion of the nation was plunged in despair, and petitions were poured in from all quarters. But ministers had determined on their course ; and the only question now considered was, how it might be most effectually put in execution. For this purpose, application was made to the petty states of Germany, which were wont to hire out their forces, and had frequently sent auxiliaries to Britain in former cases of exigency. But the scheme was fraught with difficulties, owing to the distance of the scene of contest, and the danger of mercenaries deserting a cause in which they had no manner of concern. The princes were also alarmed at the probability of losing for ever so many of their subjects ; whilst the latter were not less startled at the prospect of being transported across the ocean into a new world, there to be exposed to all the miseries of war, with very little hope of ever again beholding their native country. Other resources were however devised, such as calling in the assistance of the Hessians, and obtaining from Holland the body of Scottish troops which had been so long in their service. But in these views administration were in a great measure disappointed. All the states of Europe looked upon Britain with an invidious eye ; particularly Holland and France, the two powers who had most reason to hope for advantage from the quarrel. In Holland a very strong party contended warmly for the American interest; pamphlets were daily published at

Amsterdam in justification of the colonies, whose case was Reign of compared to that of the Netherlands in former times ; and George Iij, the colonists were exhorted to persevere in their claims against the pretensions of Britain, which was represented W7G. as insatiably covetous of wealth and power ; as domineering and intolerable, especially since her successes in the war of 1755; and as arrogating if not exercising an absolute sovereignty over the seas. But although these powers thus early expressed their hostile disposition towards Britain, it was otherwise with the Princes of Hesse and Brunswick, by whom a considerable number of troops was furnished ; and, that as many British forces as possible might be employed, large draughts were made from the garrisons of Gibraltar and Minorca, which were supplied with an equal number of men from the electorate of Hanover. The garrison of Boston was liberally furnished with all sorts of necessaries; and although the expenditure already began to occasion considerable alarm, and to raise a suspicion that even the treasures of Britain would not be able to defray the charges of the war, yet some countervailing advantages were derived from this profusion ; for the price of every thing was augmented, including that of shipping; and although the profits realized by contractors and their numerous friends occasioned complaints, great benefit accrued to multitudes employed in the various branches of the public service. Misfortune, however, seemed to attend every scheme in which Britain engaged, although in the present case it must, in part at least, be ascribed to mismanagement. The sailing of the transports for Boston was delayed till the proper season was lost. They remained for a long time wind-bound ; and when at length they were enabled to weigh anchor, they met with such stormy weather that they were tossed about in the Channel till most of the live stock which they had on board perished. Nor did the misfortunes of the convoy end here. After clearing the coast of England, their progress was retarded by a continuance of foul weather ; they were driven by the periodical winds from the coast of America ; and while some made for the West Indies, others were captured by American privateers, and only a very few reached Boston, with their cargoes so much damaged as to be of little or no use whatever. With respect to the parliamentary proceedings of this period little can be said, except that every measure of administration, whether right or wrong, was keenly opposed. The employment of foreign troops, and the admitting of them into the fortresses of Gibraltar and Minorca, were severely censured, as being contrary to the bill of rights. But the administration contended that this bill only forbade the introduction of a foreign military power into the kingdom during peace, that the times however were not peaceable, and that the introduction of the troops was evidently with a view to quell a rebellion. The force designed for the conquest of America vras then declared to be inadequate to the purpose ; but it was replied, on the part of ministry, that the design was to conciliate, not to conquer ; that twenty-five thousand men were sufficient to strike terror; and that though this should not instantly be produced, conciliatory offers would still be held out after every blow that was struck. In the mean time the Americans, sensible of the dangerous situation in which they stood, exerted themselves to the utmost to dislodge the British troops from Boston, which they at length accomplished in March 1776. Ihey then proceeded to put their towns in a state of defence, and repulsed Sir Peter Parker at Charlestown; but they did not exert themselves with equal spirit in the defence of New York, where, besides losing the town, they sustained such a defeat as seemed to threaten their affairs with total ruin. This in fact was the view taken of their situation by the

483 BRITAIN. sary at that time to comply, lest reprisals should be made Reign of Reign of generality of the people in Britain. The successful camGeorge III. paign of 1776 was looked upon as so decisive, that little by capturing their whole Newfoundland fleet then engag- George III, room remained for supposing the Americans capable of ed in the fishery. But so many delays were occasioned 1777* ever retrieving their affairs. Opposition were much em- on various pretences, that not a single vessel was dismissbarrassed, being almost reduced to the single argument ed from any of their ports; and so far were the French about the interference of foreign powers ; whilst the ob- court from entertaining any design of this kind, that in stinacy of the Americans in refusing the offers of Lord the month of July 1777 the whole body of merchants Howe, even at the moment of their greatest depression, throughout the kingdom were assured by government that seemed a very bad omen. The ministry, however, now they might depend on protection for their trade with Amebecame so powerful, that whatever they proposed was im- rica. Meanwhile the greatest preparations for war were mediately carried. The number of seamen for 1777 was made throughout the whole kingdom of France ; and, in augmented to forty-five thousand, and upwards of five fact, the most judicious politicians were of opinion that a millions were voted for the expense of the navy, and for rupture with that power would have immediately followdischarging its debt. The expenses of the land service ed the commencement of hostilities with America. But, amounted to nearly three millions, besides the extraor- whatever might have been the motives of the British midinaries of the former year, which exceeded one million nistry, it is certain, that in defiance alike of probability, two hundred thousand pounds ; and though this vast pro- and of the acrimonious censures of opposition, they convision was the subject of great complaint and animadver- tinued to pretend ignorance of any hostile intentions upon the part of France, until that country of its own accord sion, the power of ministry silenced all opposition. But however administration might now triumph, their thought proper to announce them. This was done by a exultation was of short continuance. The misfortune of formal notification to the court of Britain in the month of General Burgoyne at Saratoga threw the whole nation March 1778, couched in the most insolent terms. In this into a kind of despair, and reduced the ministry to the declaration it was announced, not only that a treaty of utmost perplexity. The great difficulty now was to con- friendship and commerce had been concluded betwixt trive means for raising a sufficient number of forces to France and America, but Britain was insulted by being carry on the war; but from this embarrassment they ex- told that America was actually in possession of indepentricated themselves by encouraging levies for government dence, as if the former had already exerted her utmost service by cities and private persons; and as the design efforts without being able to reduce them. A merit was was kept a profound secret before the Christmas recess, also made of having entered into no commercial stipulathey were not disturbed by the clamours of opposition. tions in favour of France exclusive of Britain. Nothing, The recess was purposely extended in order to give time therefore, could be more offensive than this notification ; for the scheme to take effect; and before parliament met and though it could not decently be said, on the part of again it was actually accomplished, so that ministers could the French monarch, that he wished for war, yet his pacific intentions were conveyed in such haughty terms, that once more face their opponents without any fear. Another and more weighty consideration, however, now the whole could only be considered as a declaration of occurred. The European states in general had long be- that hostility which he pretended a desire to avoid. Accordingly both parties now united in opinion that a held the grandeur of Britain with an invidious eye. The news of the disaster at Saratoga was therefore received by war with France was unavoidable; but they were not for them with the same undisguised exultation as the intelli- that reason any further advanced towards a reconciliation. gence of the defeat of Charles XII. at Pultowa was by the It must be owned, indeed, that the minority had received * powers whom he had so long overawed. Of these the great provocation. They had from the beginning reproFrench, for obvious reasons, were the most active in sup- bated the American war, and prognosticated its bad sucporting the insurgent Americans. Numbers of the young cess. In this they had been overruled, and the character nobility were eager to signalize themselves in the Ameri- of the Americans represented in such a manner as almost can cause ; and among the rest the Marquis de la Fayette, to preclude the notion of their being able to resist. They a young nobleman of high rank and fortune, occupied a had resisted, however, and by destroying or taking priconspicuous place. Impelled by an enthusiastic ardour in soners a whole army, had verified the predictions which favour of the American cause, he purchased a vessel, load- had so often been treated with ridicule. The same party ed her with military stores, and sailed with several of his had frequently insisted in the most earnest manner for friends to America, where he offered his services to con- some kind of concession towards America; but this had gress; and meeting with a most gracious reception, he was constantly been refused with an obstinacy equally uninvested with a command, in which he lost no opportu- pai-alleled and inveterate. They now, however, saw the nity of distinguishing himself. Besides this nobleman, very concessions offered to America after the defeat of several other officers from France and Germany actually Burgoyne, which, if granted in time, would have prevententered the American service, and by their military talents ed all the mischief that had happened. Add to this, that greatly contributed to the exertions which the colonies every inquiry into the measures of government had been were afterwards enabled to make. This assistance, how- frustrated; that a motion on the state of the nation, which ever, would have been but trifling, had not the French could not be absolutely rejected, was rendered ineffectual court also interested itself in their behalf; and about the by delays and evasion ; and that the country was involved time when the news of General Burgoyne’s disaster arriv- in war with a nation well provided for all emergencies, ed in Britain, a ti'eaty was on foot between the French whilst we had supinely suffered them to go on without court and the United States of America. Even before making the least effort to put ourselves in a proper state this time France had shown such a partiality towards the of defence. For these reasons opposition insisted that the Americans, as might plainly have indicated a design of present ministry ought no longer to be intrusted with the ultimately assisting them in their national capacity. The management of public affairs. An acknowledgment of the encouragement given to the American privateers in all the independence of America was now generally supposed to ports of France had produced strong remonstrances on the be the only rational step that could be taken, as it might part of Britain; and an order was at length demanded at present be done with a good grace, and we should unthat all these privateers with their prizes should depart avoidably be obliged to take it at last whether we would the kingdom. With this the French court found it neces- or not-

B R I T A I N. 484 Reign of Notwithstanding the vehemence of these disputes, how- set sail for the continent of America, after convoying the Reign of George III. ever, great courage and steadiness were manifested by homeward-bound fleet of French merchantmen on their George Hj the calm and deliberate portion of the nation. The French return from the West India islands. He made an attempt attempted to excite a general panic by threatening an in- on the town of Savannah, but was repulsed with great loss ; 1778. vasion, which was evidently impracticable, until they had and the result was, that the fears which had been excited first obtained the superiority at sea; yet as multitudes in by the superiority of the French in the West Indian seas the country were apt to be terrified by the bare mention were effectually dissipated. The islands of Dominica, St of a French invasion, orders were issued to call out and Vincent, and Grenada, were indeed lost, the first being embody the militia, which was then composed of men in taken by the Marquis de Bouille, governor of Martinico, every respect as well exercised and disciplined as any re- and the last two by D’Estaing, as already stated ; but these gular troops. It was complained, however, that a French successes were balanced by the failure of the French comsquadron of twelve ships of the line had sailed from Tou- mander in every other enterprise, by his disaster at the lon without any obstruction, under the command of the Savannah, and by the acquisition of St Lucia, which was Count d’Estaing. The most grievous apprehensions were taken in the year 1778 by Admiral Barrington and Geneentertained from the great inferiority of Lord Howe’s na- rals Prescot and Meadows. In other parts of the W’est val force; a circumstance which might expose his fleet Indian seas also the honour of the British arms was very to a total defeat, and the whole convoy of transports to effectually supported by the bravery and vigilance of the be taken or destroyed. But whatever might have been commanders on that station. Admiral Hvde Parker, asthe probabilities of the case, the fortune or conduct of sisted by Admiral Rowley, kept the enemy in continual this commander were such, that none of the anticipated alarm, and intercepted the trade of the French islands in dangers occurred. Addresses were, however, moved for such a manner as greatly distressed them. Three large recalling the fleets and armies from America, in order to frigates dispatched by Count d’Estaing after his failure in station them in places where they might contribute most America were taken, and a great part of a convoy seized effectually to the defence of the kingdom; but this was or destroyed in sight of M. de la Motte-Piquefls squadron opposed by administration, and even by some of the most in the harbour of Fort Royal at Martinico, the admiral popular members of opposition, including Lord Chatham himself having narrowly escaped. He had sailed out of and the Earl of Shelburne. the harbour in order to favour the escape of the convoy The operations of the French in America, with the vari- already mentioned, and, having partly effected his object, ous success of the war, will be more fully related under the withdrew; but he was so closely pursued, that he had scarcehead of United States. It is sufficient here to state that ly time to shelter himself under the batteries on shore. D’Estaing having equally failed in his attempt on the Bri- These successes, which occurred in the years 1778, 1779, tish fleet at New York, and in assisting the allies of France and beginning of 1780, kept the event of the war pretty in their attempt on Rhode Island, sailed for the West In- much in a state of equipoise on the western seas and condies, where he attacked the island of St Lucia; but meeting tinent ; but in the meanwhile the most unhappy dissenwith a repulse, he proceeded to Grenada, which he reduced, sions prevailed in every department of the British governwhile a body of troops dispatched by him also took the ment in Europe, and threatened to involve the nation in island of St Vincent. By this time the French admiral confusion and bloodshed. had been powerfully reinforced, so that his fleet consisted Among other charges brought by the opposition against of twenty-six sail of the line and twelve frigates. Whilst the ministry, that of neglecting the navy was one of the he was employed at Grenada, Admiral Byron, with the most considerable; nor indeed does it appear that the British squadron, accompanied the homeward-bound West charge was altogether groundless. Without a fleet, howIndia fleet till it was out of danger, and then sailed with a ever, it was now impossible to ward off the danger of an body of troops under General Grant for the recovery of St invasion. At this time, indeed, it was in a very weak Vincent; but before reaching that island, certain intelli- condition; but the valour and experience of the officers gence was received of the descent made on Grenada. By- seemed in some measure to compensate every deficiency. ron then steered directly for that island, where, without he- The chief command was conferred on Admiral Keppel, sitation, he encountered the French fleet, notwithstanding who had served with great reputation during the last war; its great superiority. At this time the French squadron whilst Admirals Sir Robert Harland and Sir Hugh Palliser, amounted to twenty-seven sail of the line and seven fri- both officers of undoubted courage and capacity, acted gates ; whilst that of Britain consisted only of twenty-one under him. On arriving at Portsmouth, towards the end line-of-battle ships and one frigate. The British admirals, of March 1778, Admiral Keppel exerted himself so effecByron and Barrington, endeavoured to bring the enemy to tually, that, exclusive of those ships which it was found a close engagement; but this was as studiously avoided by necessary to dispatch to the coast of North America under D’Estaing; and such was the dexterity and circumspection Admiral Byron, a fleet of twenty sail of the line was got with which he acted, that it was only during the transient in readiness by the beginning of June, and ten more in a movements occasioned by the wind and weather that some very forward state of preparation. At the head of this of the British ships could close in with their antagonists. fleet Admiral Keppel sailed from Portsmouth on the 13th But when these occurred, the encounter became so un- of June, in order to protect the commercial shipping exequal, that the British ships were terribly shattered. For pected from all parts of the world, and at the same time some time Captains Collingwood, Edwards, and Cornwal- to watch the motions of the French fleet at Brest. lis, stood the fire of the whole French fleet; and Captain When the British fleet arrived off the coast of France, Fanshaw of the Monmouth, a sixty-four gun ship, singly two French frigates approached in order to make observathrew himself in the way of the enemy’s van to stop them. tions. These proved to be the Licorne of thirty-two, and Several of the British ships forced their way to the very the Belle Poule of twenty-six guns. A signal to give chase mouth of St George’s harbour in Grenada; but finding it was instantly made, and the Milford frigate having come up in the hands of the French, an end was put to the action ; with the Licorne towards the close of the day, requested nor did the latter care to renew it, although the British the French captain to heave to under the British admiral’s ships had suffered much from the greatly superior force to stern. The latter refused; but a ship of the line coming up, which they had been exposed. compelled him to obey. Next morning the Licorne seemD’Estaing having now received fresh reinforcements, ing by her motions to be altering her course, a shot was

485 BRITAIN. In the mean time the preparations at Brest being fully Reign of Reign of fired across her bows as a signal to keep it, upon which ;,eorge HI. she discharged a broadside and a volley of small arms into completed, the French fleet put to sea on the 8th of July, eorge^^^' the America of sixty-four guns which lay close to her, and It consisted of thirty-two sail of the line, besides a large I’j’jg, immediately struck. The behaviour of the French captain number of frigates; and Count d’Orvilliers commanded in was the more extraordinary, as Lord Longford, the cap- chief, while the other principal officers were Counts Dutain of the America, was at that instant engaged in ami- chaffault, de Guichen, and de Grasse, M. de Rochechoart cable conversation with him ; but though such conduct and M. de la Motte-Piquet. A prince of the blood royal merited severe chastisement, no return was made for this had also been sent to serve on board of this fleet; we mean most unprovoked and wanton aggression. The Arethusa of the Duke of Chartres, son and heir to the Duke of Ortwenty-six guns, commanded by Captain Marshall, with the leans, and first prince of the blood royal of France in Alert cutter, was meanwhile in pursuit of the Belle Poule, the collateral line, who commanded one of the divisions which was also accompanied by a schooner, and the chase in the capacity of admiral. On the 9th day of July, was continued till both were out of sight of the Meet. On the British fleet sailed out of Portsmouth in three divicoming up, Captain Marshall informed the French captain sions ; the first commanded by Sir Robert Harland, the of his orders to bring bim to the admiral, and requested his third by Sir Hugh Palliser, and the centre by Admiral compliance. The Frenchman refused to obey, upon which Keppel, accompanied by Admiral Campbell, an officer of the Arethusa fired a shot across the Belle Poule, which great courage and merit. The French had been informthe latter returned with a discharge of her broadside, and ed that the British fleet was greatly inferior to their own, the engagement thus commenced continued upwards of which was true at the time when they received the intwo hours with the greatest fury. The Belle Poule was formation ; and being yet unapprised of the reinforcement superior not only in numbers, but also in weight of metal; it had received, Count d’Orvilliers sailed at first in quest her guns being all twelve pounders, while those of the of it, intending to attack it while in the weak condition reArethusa were only six. But notwithstanding this infe- presented to him. As the British admiral was equally intent on coming to riority, the latter maintained so desperate a fight, that the French frigate suffered a much greater loss of men than action as soon as possible, they were not long before they the British, having nearly a hundred killed and wounded, met. The hostile fleets came in sight on the 23d of July; whilst the Arethusa scarcely lost half that number. Dur- but the appearance of the British ships soon convinced the ing the engagement between the two frigates, Captain French admiral of his mistake, and he immediately deterFairfax in the Alert attacked the French schooner, which mined to avoid an engagement as anxiously as he had was of much the same force, and the contest continued formerly sought it; and in this he was favoured by the two hours with great bravery on both sides, when the latter approach of night. All that could be done by the British, struck to the English cutter. The Arethusa received so therefore, was to form the line of battle, in expectation that much damage, that she became almost unmanageable ; and the enemy would follow the example. During the night the although the captain endeavoured to put her in a condi- wind changed, and the French getting the weather-gage, tion to continue the engagement, he was unable to effect had the choice of coming to action or of declining it enhis object. Being at the same time upon the enemy’s coast, tirely in their own power, whilst the British admiral was deand close in the shore, the danger of grounding in such a prived of the opportunity of forcing them to engage as he situation obliged him to act with the more caution, more had proposed. During the space of four days matters conespecially as by this time it was midnight. Meanwhile the tinued in this state; the French cautiously avoiding abattle, Belle Poule stood into a small bay surrounded with rocks, and the British beating up against the wind with a resoluwhere she was protected from all attacks; and as soon as tion to attack them. But notwithstanding all his efforts, the it was day-light, a number of boats came out from the British admiral had the mortification to see his endeavours shore, and towed her into a place of safety. Notwithstand- defeated by the vigilance and precaution of the enemy. The ing the evident superiority of force on the side of the chase lasted till the 27th of July. But between ten and French, this action was extolled by them as a proof of eleven in the morning of that day, an alteration of wind singular bravery, and the account of it received with as and weather occasioned several movements in both fleets, which brought them so near each other, that it was no much triumph as if it had been a victory. On the 18th of June, the day following the action with longer in the power of the enemy to decline an engagethe Belle Poule, another frigate fell in with the British ment. Both fleets were now on the same tack, and had fleet, and was seized by the admiral’s orders, on account they so remained, the British fleet on coming up with the of the behaviour of the Licorne. The capture of these French would have had an opportunity of engaging ship French frigates furnished intelligence which proved of the to ship; but as this was a mode of combating quite conutmost importance, at the same time that it was highly trary to the wishes of the enemy, their admiral, as soon alarming. It was ascertained that the fleet at Brest con- as he found an action likely to ensue, put his ships on the sisted of thirty-two sail of the line and twelve frigates; and contrary tack, by which means a close action was avoided. this proved in every respect a most fortunate discovery, As soon as the van of the British fleet, consisting of Sir as the admiral had under his orders only twenty ships Robert Harland’s division, came up, they directed their of the line and three frigates. As the superiority of the fire upon it, though at too great a distance to make any enemy was so decided, and as the consequences of a de- impression ; but the fire was not returned by the British feat would have been fatal to this country, the admiral ships till they came close enough to do execution. In this thought himself bound in prudence to return to Portsmouth manner the hostile fleets passed close to each other on opfor reinforcements. He reached Spithead on the 27th of posite tacks, keeping up a very heavy and destructive fire. The centre division of the British line having passed June, and remained till the arrival of the ships from the Mediterranean and the Spanish and Portuguese trade; the rearmost ships of the enemy, the first care of the adwhile the summer fleet from the West Indies brought him miral was to renew the engagement as soon as the ships a further supply of seamen, and enabled him to put to sea of the different fleets yet in action had got clear of each again with an addition of ten ships of the line. But still other respectively. Sir Robert Harland, with some ships there was a deficiency of frigates, owing to the great num- of his division, had already tacked, and stood towards the bers on the American station, and the necessity of manning French; but the remaining part of the fleet had not yet tacked, and some had dropped to leeward, and were repairthe ships of the line in preference to all others.

486 BRITAIN. Reign of jng the damages which they had received in the action. commanders, proved a source of fatal animosity. The bulk Reign of George III. jjjs own gj^jp the Victory had suffered too much to tack of the nation had so long been accustomed to hear of great George III. about instantly; and had he done it he would have thrown and glorious victories at sea, that it was supposed a kind the ships astern of him into disorder. As soon as it was of impossibility for a French and British fleet to encounter *778. practicable, however, the Victory wore, and steered again without the total ruin of the former. The event of the upon the enemy before any other ship of the centre divi- last engagement, therefore, became an object of severe sion, not above three or four of which were able to follow criticism ; and complaints were made, that, through the the example. The other ships not having recovered their bad conduct of the blue division, an opportunity had been stations near enough to support each other on a renewal of lost of gaining a complete victory over the French fleet. the action, in order to collect them more readily for that These complaints were quickly introduced into the public purpose the admiral made the signal for the line of battle papers; and were carried on with a warmth and veheahead. It was now three in the afternoon; but the ships mence which threw the whole nation into a ferment. The of the British fleet had not sufficiently regained their sta- friends of Sir Hugh Palliser, the vice-admiral of the blue, tions to engage. The Victory lay nearest the enemy, were no less violent in the defence of his conduct than his with the four ships above mentioned, and seven more of opponents were in its condemnation; whilst those who Sir Robert Harland’s division. These twelve were the espoused the cause of the admiral manifested equal deteronly ships in any condition for immediate service; of the mination in accusing him of being the real cause of the others belonging to the centre and to Sir Robert Har- escape of the French fleet, through his disobedience of land’s division, three were a great way astern, and five at the signals and orders of his commander, and by remaina considerable distance to leeward, much disabled in their ing at a distance with his division, instead of coming to rigging. Sir Hugh Palliser, who commanded the rear di- the assistance of the rest of the fleet. An accusation of vision during the time of action, in which he had behaved so weighty a nature alarmed Sir Hugh Palliser, who in with signal bravery, came of course last out of it, and, in consequence applied to Admiral Keppel for a justification consequence of the admiral’s signal for forming the line of his conduct, and required of him to sign and publish a of battle ahead, was to have led the van on renewing the paper relative to the engagement of the 27th of July, fight; but his division was upon the contrary tack, and was stating, that he did not intend by his signals on the evenentirely out of the line. The French, on the other hand, ing of that day to renew the battle then, but only to be expecting to be directly re-attacked, had closed together in readiness for the next morning. The admiral rejected in tacking, and were now spreading themselves into a line this demand, on which Sir Hugh Palliser published, in one of battle. But on discovering the position of the Bri- of the daily papers, a variety of details concerning the entish ships which had fallen to leeward, they immediately gagement, reflecting severely on the conduct of the adstood towards them in order to cut them off. This obliged miral, and prefacing the whole by a letter signed with his the admiral to wear, and to steer athwart the enemy’s name. An attack so public, and so detrimental to his foremost division, in order to secure them; directing, at character, induced Admiral Keppel to declare to the adthe same time, Sir Robert Harland to form his division in miralty, that unless Sir Hugh Palliser explained this mata line astern, in order to confront the enemy till Sir Hugh ter to his satisfaction, he could not, consistently with his Palliser should come up, and enable him to act more effec- reputation, ever again act in conjunction with that officer. This altercation having occurred before the meeting tually. In moving to the protection of the leeward ships the admiral was now drawing near the enemy. As Sir of parliament, was of course noticed when it assembled. Hugh Palliser still continued to windward, he made a sig- In the House of Peers an inquiry was demanded into the nal for all the ships in that quarter to come into his wake, conduct of the commanders of the fleet on the 27th of and Sir Hugh repeated this signal; but it was unluckily July; and in the House of Commons it was urged, that as # mistaken by the ships of his division for an order to come Admiral Keppel had expressed a public refusal to serve into his own wake, which they did accordingly; and as he in conjunction with Sir Hugh Palliser, the cause of such still remained in his position, they retained theirs of course. a declaration ought to be investigated. Admiral Keppel Sir Robert Harland was now directed to take his station and Sir Hugh Palliser, who were both present in the ahead, and the signal was repeated for Sir Hugh Palliser’s house upon this occasion, spoke severally on the point in division to come into his wake; but this signal was not question; and after a keen debate, a motion was made for complied with, any more than a verbal message to that pur- an address to the crown to bring Sir Hugh Palliser to a pose, and other subsequent signals for Sir Hugh’s division trial for his behaviour in the late engagement with the coming into its station in the line, before it was too late to French fleet. To this motion Sir Hugh Palliser replied, recommence any operations against the enemy. In the in a speech of great heat and vehemence, that he had alnight, the French resolved to put it wholly out of the ready demanded and obtained a court-martial on Admiral power of the British fleet to attack them a second time; Keppel, whom he now charged with having, through his and for this purpose three of their swiftest sailing vessels misconduct, caused the failure of success in that engagewere fixed in the stations occupied during the day by the ment. This intelligence was received with astonishment three flag ships of the respective divisions, with lights at in the house. It had been, and still continued to be, the ♦heir mast heads, to deceive the British fleet into the be- general desire of individuals of all parties, to heal the lief that the French fleet kept its position with an intent to breach between these officers at a time when the services fight next morning. Protected by this stratagem, the re- of both were so much needed; and it was therefore with mainder of the French fleet drew off unperceived during deep concern that the house learned the determination the night, and retired with all speed towards Brest, which which had been taken to bring Admiral Keppel to a they entered the following day. Their departure was not trial. The admiral, however, conducted himself on this discovered till break of day; but it was too late to pursue occasion with remarkable temper and coolness. He acthem, as they were only discernible from the mast heads quiesced without reluctance in the orders which had been of the largest ships in the British fleet. The admiral then given him to prepare for a trial of his conduct; and he made the best of his way to Plymouth, as being the nearest expressed a hope, that, upon inquiry, it would be found to port, in order to put his fleet into a proper condition to have been neither dishonourable to his country nor disreturn in quest of the enemy. creditable to himself. This action, whatever might have been the merit of the But the conduct of the board of admiralty in admitting

b n ii Reign of the charges against Admiral Keppel, and appointing a „eorgeIIT. trial, was strongly censured in the house, upon the ground that it was their duty to labour with the utmost earnestness, and exert their whole official influence, to stifle an unhappy disagreement, the consequences of which might be highly detrimental to the public service, instead of promoting the dispute, by consenting to bring it to a judicial and public hearing. On the other hand, it was observed, that the admiralty could not, consistently with the impartiality which they owed to every officer of the navy, refuse to receive all matters of complaint relating to subjects in their department; that they had no right to decide on the merits of any case laid before them, but were bound to refer it to a court composed of naval officers, who were the only proper and competent judges in professional matters ; that, in conformity with these principles, they left the decision of the present altercation to the gentlemen of the navy, whose honour and integrity in all instances of this kind had never been called in question, and by whose verdict every officer in that branch of the service must wish to stand or fall. The arguments upon this subject being urged with much heat and vehemence, generated uncommon animosity, and gave rise to a spirit of contention which diffused itself among all classes of society. Individuals of every rank and profession engaged in it with as much zeal as if they had been personally concerned in the issue; and the dissatisfaction that prevailed among the upper classes in the navy appeared in a memorial presented to the king by twelve of the oldest and most distinguished admirals, at the head of whom was Lord Hawke, condemning the conduct of Sir Hugh Palliser without reserve, and censuring that of the admiralty itself, as establishing a precedent pregnant with the most ruinous consequences to the naval service. The majority of those who subscribed this memorial were not only officers of the highest rank and importance in the navy, but unconnected with the opposition, and attached by various motives to the court and ministry ; so that their conduct in this instance must have been uninfluenced by party considerations. No business of consequence was discussed in either house of parliament during the trial, which began upon the 7th of January 1779, and lasted till the 11th of February ensuing. After a lengthened and minute investigation, the court-martial acquitted Admiral Keppel, in the most complete and honourable manner, of all the charges which had been brought against him ; he was declared to have acted the part of a judicious, brave, and experienced officer ; and the accusation was censured in the severest manner. Both houses of parliament then voted him their thanks for the eminent services he had performed; the city of London conferred on him every mark of honour and respect it could bestow ; and the nation re-echoed with his praise; whilst the resentment against his accuser was so strong as to constrain him to retire wholly from public life, and to resign all his employments. But notwithstanding the high degree of national favour and esteem in which Admiral Keppel stood, he thought it prudent to withdraw from a situation in which he found himself not acceptable to those in power, and accordingly resigned his command. The conduct of those who presided at the admiralty board now became an object of severe censure; and a number of facts were cited to prove, that for many years past they had acted in a manner highly reprehensible. The debates were uncommonly animated ; and a resolution for censuring the conduct of the admiralty was lost by a majority of only thirty-four. Administration, however, still kept their ground; and although a second attempt was made to show that the state of the navy Avas incommensurate with the vast sums bestowed upon it, the point

L.

AIN. ' 487 was again lost by nearly the same majority as before. But Reign of however victorious they might be in divisions, the con-George III duct of the admiralty was far from giving general satisfaction. Following the example of Admiral Keppel, Lord Howe declared his resolution to relinquish the service while it continued under the present system of management ; and his resignation was followed by that of Sir Robert Harland, Sir John Lindsay, and several others ; nay, so general had the dislike to the service now become, that no fewer than twenty captains of the first distinction proposed to go in a body to resign their commissions at once ; and they were prevented doing so only by the urgent occasion there was at that time for their services. The same feeling which led to these resignations produced a direct attack upon Lord Sandwich, then first lord of the admiralty. But though in this as in other cases the ministry were victorious, they could not prevent an inquiry into the cause of our want of success in the American war. This was insisted upon by Lord Howe and General Howe, whose conduct had been so much reflected upon, that a vindication became absolutely necessary. The inquiry was indeed singularly disagreeable to the administration, and consequently evaded as long as possible. From the evidence of Lord Cornwallis and other officers of high rank, however, it appeared that the forces sent to America were at no time sufficient to reduce it; that the Americans were almost universally unfriendly to the British cause; and that from the nature of the country, the conquest of it would be attended with great difficulties. It was also proved, that, from its great strength, the camp of the Americans on Long Island could not have been attacked with any probability of success, after their defeat in 1776, owing to the want of artillery and other necessaries. In every instance, therefore, the general’s conduct was shown to have been judicious and proper. But these facts being directly at variance with the view which the ministry wished to countenance, counter-evidence was produced, in order to invalidate the testimony of the respectable witnesses above mentioned, and Major-general Robertson, and Mr Joseph Gallowa}', an American gentleman, were examined. According to the evidence of Mr Galloway especially, the conduct of General Howe had not been unexceptionable; the greater part of the Americans were friendly to the cause of Britain ; the country Avas not so full of obstructions as had been represented; the woods and forests formed no obstruction to the marching of armies in as many columns as they pleased; and soldiers might carry provisions for nineteen days on their backs. Upon such extravagant assertions, proceeding undoubtedly from ignorance, no stress Avhatever could be laid; yet they fully ansAvered the purpose of ministry at this time, namely procrastination, and preventing the disagreeable truths elicited in the course of the inquiry from striking the minds of the public too forcibly. The event of this inquiry, however, encouraged General Burgoyne to insist for an examination of his conduct, which indeed had been so unmercifully censured, that even the ministers began to think he had suffered too much, and that he ought to be allowed to vindicate himself. He was accordingly permitted to bring witnesses in his own behalf, and from the evidence produced, it appeared that he had acted the part both of a general and a soldier; that the attachment of his army to him Avas so great, that no dangers or difficulties could shake it; and that, even when all their patience and courage were found to be ineffectual, they were still ready to obey his commands, and die with arms in their hands. A great number of other particulars relating to his expedition were also cleared up; several charges against him were refuted ; and it appeared that the Americans, far from being

488 BRITAIN. iteign of the contemptible enemy they had been called, were intre- pedition were also named by the government, A junction Itekm of 1 r Georgelll.pij an(j resolute antagonists. was formed between the French and Spanish fleets, in George After the resignation of Admiral Keppel, the command spite of the endeavours of the British to prevent, it; and I✓ ' * of the Channel fleet was bestowed on Sir Charles Hardy, a the combined fleets made their appearance in the British *779. brave and experienced officer, but now advanced in years, seas with upwards of sixty ships of the line, besides a vast having retired from the service with the design of not re- number of frigates and other armed vessels. But all this turning to it, and being at that time governor of Greenwich formidable preparation ended in the capture of only a single hospital. The choice of an admiral to command this fleet ship, the Ardent, of sixty-four guns. The combined fleets was now of the greatest importance, on account of the had passed the British fleet under Sir Charles Hardy in accession of Spain to the general confederacy which took the mouth of the Channel without observing him ; and then place during the present year. This determination was sailing along the coast of England, they came in sight of formally intimated by the Spanish minister on ^he 17th Plymouth, where they captured the Ardent, as already of June 1779, and was attended with new but ineffectual mentioned; after which they returned, without making the proposals for an accommodation with America, and the least attempt to effect a landing. The British admiral removal of the ministry. The imminent danger, however, made good his entrance into the Channel without opposito which the nation was now exposed, required vigorous tion, on the enemy quitting it, which a strong easterly exertion; and various projects for its internal defence were wind obliged them to do; and he endeavoured to entice laid before the parliament. The spirit and magnanimity them up the Channel in pursuit of him ; but the great displayed on this occasion did the highest honour to the sickness and mortality on board their ships obliged them national character, and fully justified the opinion enter- to retire, in order, as they alleged, to recruit the health of' tained of its valour and resources. All parts of the king- their crews. Thus ended the first, and indeed the greatest dom seemed actuated by a desire to concur in every mea- exploit performed by the combined fleets in the British sure necessary for its defence ; large sums were subscrib- seas. An annual parade of a similar kind was afterwards ed by persons of rank and affluence ; and companies were kept up, and as formally opposed on the part of the Briraised, and regiments formed, with an alacrity which quickly tish ; but no act of hostility was ever committed by either banished all apprehensions for the safety of the country. of the Channel fleets against each other. On the other hand, the French, thinking themselves Though the pusillanimity manifested by the combined secure of victory by the accession of Spain, began to ex- fleets was such that the French themselves were ashamed tend their schemes of conquest; and a squadron was fitted of it, the appearance of them in the Channel furnished out under the command of the Marquis de Vaudreuil, des- opposition with abundance of matter for declamation. All tined to reinforce the fleet commanded by D’Estaing. But ranks of men, indeed, now began to be wearied of the before proceeding to its destination, this squadron made American war ; and even those who had formerly been the an attack on the British settlements on the rivers Senegal most zealous in recommending coercive measures were at and Gambia, which were easily conquered. On this oc- length convinced of their utter inutility. The calamitous casion the French quitted their own island of Goree, which effects produced by the continuation of these measures, was soon afterwards taken possession of by Sir Edward indeed, had by this time rendered the greater part of the Hughes, when on his way to the East Indies. But these dis- people exceedingly averse to the war; and the almost unitant conquests being insufficient to produce any serious im- versal wish was, that the oppressive burden of the Amepression, it was resolved to strike a blow nearer home, by rican contest should be cast off, and the entire national the conquest of Jersey and Guernsey. An attempt was ac- strength exerted against those whom we had been accuscordingly made on these islands, but with so little success tomed to consider as our natural enemies. Nevertheless, that not a single man could be disembarked on the spot the national spirit continued to be exerted with unabated which they intended to conquer. The enterprise, however, vigour. Large sums, subscribed in the several counties, proved indirectly serviceable to the cause of America. A were employed in raising volunteers, and forming them fleet of four hundred merchantmen and transports was at into independent companies; and associations were also this time on the point of sailing for New York, under the entered into in the towns, where the inhabitants bestowconduct of Admiral Arbuthnot; but that officer, informed ed a considerable portion of their time in training themof the attack on Jersey, thought it his duty to go to the as- selves to the use of arms. The East India Company, too, sistance of that island rather than proceed on his voyage ; forgot their quarrels with ministry, and not only presentand this delay was followed by another, occasioned by ed government with a sum sufficient for levying six thoubad weather, so that the fleet, which was laden with war- sand seamen, but at its own cost added three seventy-four like stores and necessaries, did not arrive till the end of gun ships to the navy. August, and several important enterprises projected by Administration, however, not yet weary of the plans Sir Henry Clinton were in consequence abandoned. The which they had originally adopted, seemed still inclined French, however, determined to make a second attempt to prosecute schemes of conquest. The virulence of oppoon Jersey ; but their squadron, being attacked by another sition continued unabated; and, what was worse, every part under Sir James Wallace, was driven on shore in a small of the kingdom seemed to imbibe the sentiments of the mibay on the coast of Normandy, under cover of a battery, nority in parliament. Amongst the charges now brought and pursued by the British commander, who silenced the against ministers was that of misapplying the national force. battery, took a thirty-four gun frigate, with two rich prizes, An hundred thousand men were employed for the internal and bui’ned two other frigates and several vessels besides. defence of the kingdom. The army of Great Britain at this Ihus disappointed in the attempt on Jersey, the court time fell little short of three hundred thousand men ; the of trance next projected an invasion of Great Britain navy amounted to three hundred sail, including trigates itself; and the preparations for the enterprise, whether and armed vessels ; twenty millions had been expended on serious or not, were so formidable, as justly to excite a the service of the year 1779; and yet, with all this force considerable alarm in this country. Not only were the and treasure, the utmost boast that ministers could make best troops in the French service marched down to the was, that the enemy had hitherto been kept at bay. Nor coasts of the British Channel, but transports were provid- were the other charges of a less grave description. Veteran ed m great numbers, and many general officers promot- officers had been passed over to make room for persons of ed ; the persons who were to command this important ex- inferior merit; whilst the discontents and miserable state

Reign of eorgelll. •*^r**' l?80,

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BRITAIN. 489 of Ireland, the loss of the West India islands, and other worse. The first proposition in Mr Burke’s plan was to Reign of disasters, were all put to the account of ministers; and it abolish the office of secretary of state for the colonies ;GeorgeHL Was alleged that the universal cry of the nation was for and the utmost efforts of administration could preserve their dismission. To all this ministry replied by denying this office only by a majority of seven. The board of ‘ or attempting to refute every allegation, and at last, after trade, however, was abolished by a majority of nine; but several stormy debates, gained their point of an address this was the only defeat sustained by ministry at present, without an amendment, by large majorities in both houses. all the rest of the plan being rejected excepting only one But the enormous expense incurred in carrying on the clause, by which it was enacted that the offices of lieutewar occasioned such general alarm, that it was no longer nant and ensign in the yeomen of the guards should no possible to refuse complying with some scheme of econo- longer be sold, but given to officers in the army and navy my, or at least giving it a patient hearing. The Duke of on half pay, and of fifteen years’ standing in their reRichmond proposed that the crown should set the example, spective departments of service. But the administration were destined to sustain a still and moved for an address to this purpose; but the motion was negatived. The Earl of Shelburne next brought more mortifying defeat than that which they had met with the subject under the consideration of parliament; and in the abolition of the board of trade. The 6th of April having, in a A'ery elaborate speech, compared the ex- being the day appointed for taking into consideration the penses of former times with the present, and shown the numerous petitions already mentioned, the subject of these immense disparity, he moved that the expenditure of the was introduced by Mr Dunning, in an elaborate speech, vast sums annually sunk in extraordinaries should be in which he dwelt on the numerous attempts which had brought under some control, and that to extend the pub- been made to introduce reformation and economy into the lic expenses beyond the sums granted by parliament, was plans of government, and which had been defeated by an invasion of its peculiar and exclusive rights. But al- ministerial artifice, or overthrown by mere dint of numthough the Earl of Shelburne’s motion was rejected, and bers ; and he concluded by moving the celebrated resosome others of a similar tendency shared the same fate, lution, that “ the influence of the crown has increased, is the minds of the people were far from being conciliated increasing, and ought to be diminished.” After a long to the views of ministers. On the contrary, an opinion and stormy debate, this motion was carried; upon which began to prevail that they exercised an unconstitutional Mr Dunning further moved, that the House of Commons influence over the representatives of the nation, and that was as competent to examine into and correct abuses in as this influence had recently been greatly augmented, the expenditure of the civil list as in any other branch of nothing short of a change in the constitution of parliament the public revenue; and this was followed by a third resocould remedy the evil complained of. Accordingly, on the lution, moved by Mr Thomas Pitt, that it was the duty of 30th of December 1779, a petition to this effect was framed the house to provide an immediate and effectual redress in the city of York, where a number of the most respectable of the abuses complained of in the petitions. The minispeople in the county had assembled; and sixty-one gen- try now interposed with a request that nothing further tlemen were appointed as a committee for carrying into might be done at that sitting; but such was the temper effect the object contemplated by the petitioners. The of the house, that both these motions were carried withYork petition was followed by others of a similar descrip- out a division. tion from twenty-seven of the principal counties and largest Ministry had never experienced such a complete defeat, towns in England; while severe and even opprobrious lan- nor been treated with so much asperity of language. The guage was used in the county meetings respecting both the news of the proceedings of the day were received by the ministry and the parliament. people at large with as much joy as if a complete victory The emissaries of America and the other enemies of over a foreign enemy had been announced. Opposition, Great Britain are said to have been active in fomenting however, though masters of the field at present, did not these discords, which at this period rose to a height un- imagine that they had obtained any permanent victory, known for a century past. But the ministry continued firm, and therefore resolved to make the most of the advantages and, previous to taking any of the petitions into considera- they had gained. Accordingly, at the next meeting it tion, insisted on going through the business of the supplies. was moved by Mr Dunning, that to ascertain the indeAt length, in the beginning of February 1780, a plan pendence of parliament, and remove all suspicion of its was brought forward by Mr Burke, for securing the in- being under undue influence, there should, every session, dependence of parliament, and introducing economy into seven days after the meeting of parliament, be laid before the various departments of government. He proposed the the house an account of all the sums issued out of the abolition of the offices of treasurer, comptroller, and cof- civil list, or any other branch of the revenue, since the ferer of the household; of treasurer of the chamber, mas- last recess, in favour of any of its members; and this ter of the household, the board of green cloth, and seve- passed with little difficulty. But when he moved that the ral other places under the steward of the household; of treasurers of the chamber and household, the cofferer, the great and removing wardrobe, the jewel office, the comptroller, and master of the household, with the clerks robes, board of works, and the civil branch of the board of the green cloth, and their deputies, should be excluded of ordnance. Other reformations were also suggested; from having seats in the house, a warm debate ensued, and but though the temper of the times obliged the minister the motion was carried only by a majority of two. This was to admit the bills, and even to pretend an approbation the last triumph of the popular party; their next motion, of the plan, he had no serious intention of acquiescing for the exclusion of revenue officers, being thrown by a main the scheme to its full extent, or indeed in any part, jority of twenty-seven. A final effort was however made if he could possibly help it. When the plan, therefore, by Mr Dunning, who proposed an address to the throne came to be considered in detail, he was provided with against proroguing or dissolving the parliament, until meaobjections to every part of it. But the general temper sures had been taken to prevent the improper influence ot the people without doors had now affected many of the complained of in the petitions; but on a division the motion members of parliament, and caused them to desert their was lost by a very considerable majority. Ministry would old standard. An economical plan proposed in the House gladly have screened their friends from the vengeance of of Lords by the Earl of Shelburne was rejected by a nar- opposition, alleging the lateness of the hour, it being then row majority, and in the lower house matters went still past midnight; but the Speaker perceiving Mr Fox about VOL. v, 3q

490 BRIT A I N. Reigne of Ueign of to rise, insisted that the house should remain sitting; and showed that those who professed to be the most strenuous Geor & lI George III. thus the deserters from the popular party were condemned friends of freedom and the constitution did not imagine to hear their conduct set forth in terms such as were never that these would be endangered by treating the Roman 1780. perhaps applied on any other occasion to members of the Catholics with more lenity than they had hitherto expe- ^80. rienced. Accordingly, about the middle of May, Sir British senate. The last victory of administration confirmed the unfa- George Saville made a motion for the repeal of some of vourable opinion which the people had conceived of the the disqualifications under which the Catholics laboured. majority of their representatives; and in the height of the He grounded his motion on the necessity of vindicating the ill humour which the conduct of the parliament had cre- honour and asserting the true principles of the Protestant ated in the multitude, those discontents broke out which religion, of which the peculiar merit consisted in an abhorwere so near involving the kingdom in a species of civil rence of persecution. He represented the address above war. The hardships under which individuals of the Ho- quoted as a convincing proof of the loyal disposition of the man Catholic persuasion laboured in this country had Roman Catholics, and as an unfeigned testimony of the lately engaged the consideration of enlightened and libe- soundness of their political principles; and, to silence the ral-minded men; whilst the inutility as well as absurdity objections of those who might suspect the Catholics of of persecuting people from whom no danger was to be ap- duplicity, a test was proposed of so binding and solemn a prehended, and who were not suspected of disaffection to nature, that no authority could annul its efficacy. The pains and penalties of the statutes to be repealed the civil constitution of this country, had induced several persons of rank and influence to undertake to procure were laid before the house by Mr Dunning. By these them relief from the disabilities under which they la- statutes it was made felony in a foreign clergyman of the boured. Meanwhile the calamities of the times had afford- Catholic communion, and high treason in one who was a ed the Catholics a proper occasion for manifesting their native of this kingdom, to teach the doctrines, or perform attachment to government; and accordingly they present- divine service according to the rites, of that church; the ed a loyal and dutiful address to the king, containing the estates of persons educated abroad in the Catholic persuastrongest assurances of affection and fidelity to his person sion were forfeited to the next Protestant heir; a son, or and civil government. They declared that their exclusion any other nearest relation, being a Protestant, was emfrom many of the benefits of that constitution had not powered to take possession of his own father’s, or nearest diminished their reverence for it; that they had patiently kinsman’s estate, during their lives; and a Roman Casubmitted to such restrictions and discouragements as the tholic was disabled from acquiring any legal property by legislature thought expedient, and had thankfully received purchase. The mildness of the British government did such relaxation of the rigour of the laws as the mildness not indeed countenance the enforcement of the severities of an enlightened age and the benignity of the British go- enacted by these statutes; but still the prospect of gain vernment had gradually produced; that they submissively subjected every man of the Roman Catholic persuasion to waited, without presuming to suggest either time or mea- the ill usage of informers; and on the evidence of such sure, for such other indulgence as the happy causes al- miscreants the magistrates were bound, however unwilling, luded to could not fail in their own season to effect; that to put these cruel laws in execution. In consequence of such representations, the motion made their dissent from the legal establishment in matters of religion was purely conscientious; that they held no in favour of the Roman Catholics was received without opinions adverse to his majesty’s government, or repug- a dissentient voice; and a bill conformable thereto was nant to the duties of good citizens; that they thought it brought into and passed through both houses. The test their duty to assure his majesty of their unreserved affec- or oath to be taken by the Catholics was conceived in the tion to his government, of their unalterable attachment strongest terms. They were to swear allegiance to the to the cause and welfare of the country, and their detes- king’s person and family, and to abjure especially the pretation of the designs and views of any foreign power against tensions to the crown assumed by the person called Charles the dignity of the crown and the safety and tranquillity III. They were to declare their disbelief and detestation of the people; and that, though they did not presume of the doctrines, that it is lawful to put individuals to death to point out the particular means by which they might on pretence of their being heretics; that no faith is to be be allowed to testify their zeal and their wishes to serve kept with heretics; that princes excommunicated by the the country, they would be perfectly ready, on every pope and council, or by the see of Rome, or any other auoccasion, to give such proofs of their fidelity, and of the thority, may be deposed or murdered by their subjects or purity of their intentions, as his majesty’s wisdom and the by any others; and that the pope of Rome, or any other sense of the nation should at any time deem expedient. foreign prelate or sovereign, is entitled to any temporal or This address was presented to the king on the 1st of May civil jurisdiction or pre-eminence, either directly or indi1778, and was signed by the Duke of Norfolk, the Earls rectly, in this kingdom. And they were solemnly to proof Surrey and Shrewsbury, the Lords Stourton, Petre, fess, that they made the aforesaid declarations with the Arundel, Dormer, Teynham, Clifford, and Linton; and utmost sincerity, and in the strictest and plainest meanby a hundred and sixty-three commoners of rank and ing of the words and language of the test, without harbouring a secret persuasion that any dispensation from fortune. The only obstacle which stood in the way was the diffi- Rome, or any other authority, could acquit or absolve culty of overcoming the prejudices of the lower classes, them from the obligations contracted by this oath, or de. who were disposed to disapprove of and condemn any in- clare it null and void. t The favour shown to the Roman Catholics in England dulgence shown to those of a persuasion which they had been taught to regard with horror and detestation. But encouraged those of the same persuasion in Scotland to notwithstanding the prepossessions of the vulgar, it was hope for a similar relief; and several Scottish gentlemen of resolved by several individuals of generous and liberal high rank and character, who had seats in the house, not sentiments, to espouse their cause as far as it could be only expressed their warmest wishes for the extension of the done consistently with the principles of the constitution indulgence to their own country, but declared their intenand the general temper of the times. And the circum- tion to bring in a bill for the purpose the ensuing session. stance of their being patronized by some of the principal The design was approved of by the General Assembly of leaders of opposition was greatly in their favour; for it the Church of Scotland; and a petition on behalf of the

491 BRITAIN. Reign of Roman Catholics in Scotland was in consequence prepared. the secret fears of others, who still imagined that it was Reign of Georgein. gut ^gge favourable prospects were for a time obscured not inconsistent with good policy to discourage a religion, George IIL by a dense cloud of religious fanaticism, looming large and from the professors of which so much danger had accrued ' ’ high in the political horizon. A pamphlet appeared, in to the constitution of this country in former times, and which the doctrines and professors of the Roman Catho- who, though averse to acts of violence, thought it neceslic religion were represented, the former as damnable, sary to keep alive the antipathy to the ancient faith, and and the latter as the common foes of mankind and the by no means to show a willingness to grant any further disturbers of all states; and this inflammatory production indulgence than it had hitherto experienced. On these being circulated among every class, raised up a great num- grounds they were of opinion, that a suspension of the ber of enemies to the intended petition. The opposition laws enacted against it, although tacit and unauthorized, was at first chiefly conducted by persons at Edinburgh, wras sufficient to remove all complaints of harshness and who assumed the title of The Committee for the Protest- oppression on the part of the Roman Catholics; and they ant Interest, and under that denomination carried on a looked upon the penal statutes as a requisite bar to concorrespondence with all those who coincided in their opi- fine the Catholics within the bounds of due submission to nions, being in fact a very large proportion of the common the laws of a Protestant state. Hence a society was formed in London, under the depeople in Scotland. This committee, from its residence in the capital of the kingdom, was naturally supposed to signation of the Protestant Association, and Lord George consist of persons of weight and influence; and hence it Gordon, who had rendered himself conspicuous in Scotland in a manner directed the motions of all the others. The by his opposition to the repeal, was elected its president; persons of whom it was composed, however, acted from and this body now prepared to act in a decisive manner honest though mistaken views. They aimed only at the against the resolutions of the legislature. On the 29th of May 1780 the members of the association preservation of the Protestant religion and the liberties of their country, which they conceived to be endangered by held a meeting in order to settle as to the manner in which the indulgence shown to individuals of the Roman Catho- they should present a petition to the House of Commons lic persuasion ; and, actuated by these ideas, they exerted against the repeal of the penal statutes ; and on this occathemselves so effectually, that the principal gentlemen of sion a long speech was delivered by the president, who rethe Catholic persuasion thought it requisite to convey to presented the Roman persuasion as gaining ground rapidly the ministry an intimation of their desire to desist for the in the country, and affirmed that the only method of stoppresent from applying for an indulgence similar to that ping its progress, was to go up with a spirited remonstrance which had been extended to their fellow-subjects of the to their representatives, and to tell them in plain and resame communion in England. They published also in the solute terms that they were determined to maintain their newspapers the representation which they had made to the religious freedom against all enemies, and at whatever ministry, in hopes of convincing the country that they were sacrifice. This harangue being received with the loudest sincerely disposed to remove any cause of dissatisfaction applause, Lord George next moved that the whole body on their own account, and to submit to any inconvenience of the association should meet on the second day of June, rather than occasion disturbance, even in the prosecution in St George’s Fields, at ten in the morning, to accompany of a lawful and praiseworthy object. But matters had now him to the House of Commons for the presentation of the petition ; which was also assented to unanimously. Lord gone too far to be conciliated by any concessions. On the 2d day of February 1779, the populace met ac- George then infoi'med the meeting, that if he found himcording to appointment, in order to carry into execution the self attended by fewer than twenty thousand persons he various projects which they had in contemplation. They would not present the petition ; he directed them to form began by an attack upon the house inhabited by the Ro- into four divisions, the first, second, and third consisting man Catholic bishop, and others of his persuasion, which of those who belonged to the city, Westminster, and Souththey committed to the flames, together with the place of wark, and the fourth of the Scottish residents in London ; worship adjoining to it; and having in the same manner de- and all were requested, by way of distinction, to wear blue stroyed another house, which also contained a chapel, they cockades in their hats. Three days previous to the presenproceeded to vent their resentment on several individuals tation of the petition, he gave notice of it in the ordinary of the same persuasion by burning their effects. The next form to the house, and stated the manner in which it was objects of their vengeance were those who had patronised to be presented; but this was received with as much inthe Roman Catholics. They beset the houses of Dr Ro- difference and unconcern as all his former intimations. bertson and Mr Crosby ; but the friends of these eminent On the second day of June, according to appointment, persons, on hearing of the intentions of the rioters, came about fifty or sixty thousand persons assembled in St to their assistance in such numbers, and so well prepared George’s Fields; and drawing up in four divisions, as had to repel force by force, that the populace did not dare to been arranged, proceeded to the parliament house, with commit the violence they had premeditated. This spirit- Lord George Gordon at their head. An immense roll of ed conduct, which was followed by the adoption of the parchment was carried before them, containing the names necessary precautions against their malevolent designs, of those who had signed the petition. On their way to the put an end to the attempts of the mob at Edinburgh. But house they behaved with propriety and decency; but imthe spirit of dissatisfaction on account of the intended in- mediately on their arrival disturbances commenced. The dulgence remained in full force; and ministry being held rioters began by compelling all the members of both out as harbouring a secret determination to undermine houses whom they met to put blue cockades in their hats, the Protestant religion, and to introduce popery, were in and call out “ No Popery;” they forced some to take an consequence loaded with the most outrageous invectives. oath that they would vote for the repeal of the popery Matters, however, did not stop here. The same ungo- act, as they styled it; and they treated others with great vernable spirit was soon communicated to a part of the indignity, posting themselves in all the avenues to both English nation; the cry against popery became daily houses, the doors of which they twice endeavoured te louder among the inferior classes; and that inveteracy break open. But their rage was chiefly directed against which time appeared to have mitigated began to revive in the members of the House of Lords, several of whom naras powerful a degree as if the nation were actually under rowly escaped being murdered. the impending horrors of persecution. To this were added During these disturbances Lord George Gordon moved

402 BRITAIN. Reign of for leave to bring up the petition, which was readily grant- bers perished through intoxication. It was not until the Reign J George III. et[. but when he moved that it should be taken into imme- afternoon of the 8th, however, that people began to recover George Uil diate consideration, his proposal was strenuously opposed from their consternation. During the greater part of the 7 * by almost the whole house. Enraged at this opposition, day, the disorders of the preceding night had created so he came out several times to the people during the de- terrible an alarm, that the shops were almost universally bate, acquainting them how averse the house appeared shut in every part of London. Nor were the melancholy to grant their petition, and naming particularly those who effects of misguided zeal confined solely to the capital. The had spoken against it. Several members of the house ex- outrageous disposition of the populace was preparing to postulated with him in the warmest terms on the unjusti- enact the like horrid scenes in other parts of England, and liableness of his conduct; and one of his relations, Colonel the mob actually rose in Hull, in Bristol, and in Bath ; but Gordon, threatened to run him through the moment any through the timely interposition of the magistracy, these of the rioters should force their entrance into the house. places were saved from their fury. It was some hours before the house could carry on its deOn the subsiding of this violent and unexpected comliberations with any regularity, which was not done till motion, Lord George Gordon was arrested, and committhe members were relieved by the arrival of a party of the ted close prisoner to the Tower after having undergone a guards. As soon as order had been restored, the business long examination before the principal lords of the council. of the petition was resumed, when Lord George Gordon On the 19th of June both houses met again pursuant told the house that it had been signed by nearly a hun- to adjournment; and on this occasion a speech was read dred and twenty thousand British Protestant subjects, and from the throne, acquainting them with the measures he therefore insisted that the petition should be consider- which had been taken in consequence of the disturbances, ed without delay. But notwithstanding the dangers with and assuring them of the readiness of the crown to conwhich they were menaced, and the proof which the mover cur in any measures that might contribute to the mainof the petition had given that no means would be left un- tenance of the laws and liberties of the people. The employed to compel them to grant it, the Commons con- speech was highly approved ; but the conduct of adminitinued immovable in their determination, and of two hun- stration was severely censured, and charged with unpardred members then present in the house, six only voted donable neglect for not calling forth the civil power, and for taking the petition into immediate consideration. employing the military in due time to obviate the misIn the mean time the mob had dispersed itself into va- chiefs which had been committed. Ministry excused itself, rious parts of the metropolis, where they demolished two however, on the ground of not having sufficient strength Roman Catholic chapels belonging to foreign ministers, to answer all the demands of assistance that were made and openly vented the most terrible menaces against all during the riots, and the absolute impossibility of suppersons of that persuasion. On the 4th of June they as- pressing them till the arrival of troops from the country. sembled in great numbers in the eastern parts of London, The various petitions which had been presented for the and attacked the chapels and houses of the Roman Catho- repeal of the act which had occasioned the riots, were lics in that quarter, stripping them of their contents, which now taken into consideration; but the house continued in they threw into the street, and committed to the flames. the same mind as formerly. Nevertheless it was thought They renewed their outrages on the following day, destroy- proper to yield somewhat to the prejudices of the people, ing several Romish chapels, and demolished the house of by passing a bill for preventing persons of the popish perSir George Saville, in resentment of his having brought suasion from teaching or educating the children of Protestinto parliament the bill in favour of the Roman Catholics. ants ; but this was afterwards thrown out by the Lords. On the 6th both houses met as usual; but finding that Nothing could have happened more opportunely for no business could be done, they adjourned to the 19th. the ministry than the Protestant riots; for such were the During this and the following days the rioters were ab- alarm and terror occasioned by them, that the ardour solute masters of the metropolis and its environs. Some which had been manifested in favour of popular meetings of those who had been concerned in the demolition of the and associations, as they were called, for opposing the chapels belonging to foreign ministers having been seized measures of government, was in a great degree suppressand sent to Newgate, the mob collected before that pri- ed. The county meetings were also represented as havson, and demanded their immediate release ; and this be- ing a tendency, like the Protestant association, to bring ing refused, they proceeded to throw into the keeper’s on insurrections and rebellions; many began to consider house firebrands and all manner of combustibles, which all popular meetings as extremely dangerous; and among communicating fire to that and other parts of the build- the commercial and monied classes, some were so panicing, the whole of the immense pile was soon in flames. struck by the late riots, that all attention to the principles Amidst this scene of confusion, the prisoners, amounting to of the constitution was overruled by their anxiety about about three hundred, were all released, including several the preservation of their property. Had it not been for who were under sentence of death. In the same manner these events, it is probable that the spirit of opposition they set fire to the King’s Bench and Fleet prisons, and to which then prevailed in the different counties would have a number of houses belonging to Roman Catholics. The compelled administration to make some concessions to the terror occasioned by these incendiaries was such that people. most people hung out of their windows pieces of blue silk, In the suppression of these riots, however, the interfewhich was the colour assumed by the rioters, and chalked rence of the military without the command of the civil on their doors and shutters the words “ No Popery,” by magistrate became a matter of suspicion to the country; way of signifying they were friendly to their cause. and in the House of Lords the Duke of Richmond exThe night of the 7th of June concluded these horrors. pressed a desire that some of his majesty’s ministers Not less than thirty-six different conflagrations were count- would rise and give their lordships assurances, that the ed at the same time. The Bank had been threatened, measures taken in order to suppress the riots, which were and was twice assailed ; but being well guarded, both at- defensible only upon the ground of necessity, would be tempts failed. In the evening large bodies of troops arrived so stated, and that what had been illegally done, on the from all parts, happily in time to put a stop to the progress ground of necessity, would be cured by an act of indemof the rioters, and falling upon them wherever they ap- nity. Various other observations were thrown out relative peared, multitudes were killed and wounded, whilst num- to the king’s prerogative and to military law; upon which

493 BRITAIN. Reign of Lord Mansfield observed, that neither the king’s preroga- and the king was understood to be invested with a power Reign of " 3eorge III. tive nor military law had any thing to do with the conduct of ordering the troops to act discretionally whenever he . of government in their endeavours to quell the late out- should judge proper, without any authority from the civil i’jqq 1780. rages. All men, of all ranks, descriptions, and denomina- magistrate, the people could have no possible security for tions, were bound, by their oath of allegiance, to inter- their liberties. We now proceed to notice the operations of the war, pose for the prevention of acts of high treason or felony, wherever any attempts to perpetrate such crimes were which, notwithstanding the powerful confederacy against made in their presence, and were criminal if they refused Great Britain, were rather in her favour than otherwise. to do so. In the whole of these proceedings, therefore, The Spaniards had commenced their military operations the military had not acted in their technical capacity as with the siege of Gibraltar, but with very little success; military, but had merely exercised their duty as civil and the close of the year 1779, and beginning of 1780, were men, which they, in common with other civil men, had productive of considerable naval advantages to Great Briboth a right and an obligation to exercise. When a body tain. On the 18th of December 1779, the fleet under the of men were convened, without proceeding to the actual command of Sir Hyde Parker in the West Indies capturperpetration of treasonable or felonious acts, then the pre- ed nine sail of French merchant ships under the convoy of sence of the civil magistrate was necessary before the some ships of war; and two days afterwards he detached military could interpose at all; and for this reason, that Rear-Admiral Rowley in pursuit of three large French as no acts of felony were committed, they could have no ships, which were supposed to form part of M. la Motteplea in their civil character for meddling at all. But by Piquet’s squadron returning from Grenada. About the the statute law of the country, it became felonious in any same time several other vessels were taken by the same combination of men to persevere in that combination after squadron commanded by Sir Hyde Parker. On the 8th the riot act had been read by a justice of the peace ; and of January 1780, Sir George Brydges Rodney, who had this being done, they had then, and not till then, a consti- been intrusted with the command of a fleet, one object of tutional reason for their interposition, namely, the privilege the destination of which was the relief of Gibraltar, fell in and duty of hindering the commission of felony whenever with twenty-two sail of Spanish ships, and in a few hours captured the whole fleet. In little more than a week they had it in their power to do so. This extraordinary doctrine was far from being agreeable afterwards the same fortunate admiral met with still more to the nation in general, and was very freely censured in signal success. On the 16th of the month he engaged, publications of all kinds. It was admitted, that if soldiers near Cape St Vincent, a Spanish fleet, consisting of eleven came accidentally as individuals to any place where felonies sail of the line and two frigates, under the command of Don were committing, they might interfere, as well as others Juan de Langara. The Spaniards made a gallant defence ; of the king’s subjects, in the prevention of them. But but four of their largest ships were taken, and carried into this was a different case from that of bodies of armed Gibraltar. These were, the Phoenix of eighty guns and troops being sent under officers commissioned by the king, seven hundred men, on board of which was the Admiral and with orders to act against riotous and disorderly per- Don Juan de Langara; the Monarca, of seventy guns and sons without any authority from the civil magistrate. The six hundred men, Don Antonio Oyarvide commander; constitution of England knew no such character as a mer- the Princessa, of seventy guns and six hundred men, Don cenary soldier, at the sole will of the executive power. Manuel de Leon commander; and the Diligente, ot sevenSoldiers were held to their duty by laws which affected ty guns and six hundred men, Don Antonio Abornoz comno other part of the community; and no soldier, as such, mander. Two other seventy gun ships were also taken; could be employed in the service of the constitution with- but one of them was driven on shore on the breakers out a particular act of parliament in his favour. The idea and lost, and the other was likewise driven on shore, but that a military man was convertible into a soldier or a ci- afterwards recovered. Four ships of the line and the two tizen, as royalty might move its sceptre, was a novelty got frigates escaped; but two of the former were much daup for the present occasion. Mercenary armies were un- maged in the action, during which one ship, the San Doderstood to consist of men who had either detached them- mingo, of seventy guns and six hundred men, was blown selves or been forced from civil societies; and on these up. The five men of war taken were remarkably fine ships, suppositions laws were made regarding their liberties and and being afterwards completely refitted and manned, lives, such as no members of civil society could submit to. were put into the English line of battle. The Spanish adSoldiers were only tolerated by annual bills, and under miral and his officers applied to Sir George Rodney to obrepeated pretences ; and the very idea of blending them tain the liberty of returning to Spain upon their parole of with the common subjects of the state, and giving persons honour; but this he declined for some time, having received of their description a right of judging on its most import- information that a great number of British seamen,^ who ant occurrences, would have filled our ancestors with hor- ought to have been released, were then prisoners in Spain. ror. The laws tolerated an army for certain periods, and However, having afterwards received assurances that these under certain restrictions; but there was no existing law captives would be immediately set at liberty, he released which admitted the interference of the military in any of the Spanish admiral and officers upon their parole ; and the the operations of civil government. It was acknowledged prisoners in general were treated with a generosity and that the late atrocious riots had rendered an extraordina- humanity which made a great impression upon the court ry exertion of power absolutely necessary; but it was at of Madrid and the Spanish nation. When Admiral Rodney had supplied the garrison of the same time contended, that the interposition of the army in those outrages, without any authority from the Gibraltar with provisions, ammunition, and money, he civil magistrate, was an act of prerogative unconstitutional proceeded on his voyage to the West Indies; having sent and illegal, although perfectly seasonable and beneficial. home part of his fleet, with the Spanish prizes, under the The public safety and benefit might sometimes excuse command of Rear-Admiral Digby. On the twentieth of exertions of power, which would be injurious and tyran- March an action was fought in the West Indies, between nical on ordinary occasions; but the utmost care ought to some French and English men of war, the former under be taken that such extraordinary exertions should not be the command of M. de la Motte-Piquet, and the latter, established as precedents, which might operate fatally to forming part of Sir Peter Parker’s squadron, under that the constitution. If a large standing army was kept up, of Commodore Cornwallis. The contest was maintained

J

BRITAIN. 494 Reign of on both sides with great spirit; but the French were at three millions of dollars were secured by the victors, and Reign of George III. length forced to sheer off, and make the best of their way other valuable commodities, including twenty-five quintals George IIll of quicksilver, for extracting the precious metals from for Cape Francois. 1 80, ^ Soon after Admiral Rodney had arrived in the West their ores, and the loss of which consequently rendered Indies, and assumed the command of his majesty’s ships the mines useless. But whilst the British were making the most vigorous at the Leeward Islands, an action took place between the fleet under his orders and that of the French under the efforts, and upon the whole gaining advantages over the command of Count de Guichen. This occurred on the powers who opposed them in the field, enemies were rais17th of April. The British squadron consisted of twenty ed up throughout all Europe, who, by reason of their actships of the line, besides frigates ; and the French fleet of ing indirectly, could neither be opposed nor resisted. The twenty-three ships of the line, and several frigates. The power which most decidedly manifested its hostile intenaction began a little before one, and continued till about a tions was Holland; but besides this, a most formidable quarter after four in the afternoon. Admiral Rodney was confederacy, under the title of the Armed Neutrality, was on board the Sandwich, a ninety gun ship, which beat three formed, evidently with the design of crushing the power of the French ships out of their line of battle, and entirely of Great Britain. Of this powerful confederacy the embroke it. But the Sandwich and several other ships were press of Russia avowed herself the head; and her resoluso much crippled that an immediate pursuit was impossible, tion was intimated on the 26th of February 1780, in a without compromising the safety of the disabled ships. The declaration addressed to the courts of London, Versailles, victory was accordingly claimed by both sides, but no ship and Madrid. In this paper it was alleged, that her impewas taken on either, and the French retired to Guada- rial majesty’s subjects had often been molested in their loupe. Admiral Rodney’s ship, the Sandwich, had suf- navigation, and retarded in their operations, by the ships fered so much, that for twenty-four hours she was with and privateers of the belligerent powers ; that she found difficulty kept above water. Of the British upwards of herself under the necessity of removing the vexations three hundred were killed and wounded in this engage- which were offered to the commerce of Russia, as well as ment. On the 15th of May another action took place to the liberty of commerce in general, by all the means between the same commanders. But as it did not com- compatible with her dignity and the welfare of her submence till near seven in the evening, and only a few ships jects ; but that before adopting any serious measures, and were engaged, nothing decisive took place. The fleets to prevent all new misunderstandings, she thought it just met again on the If th of the same month, when a third and equitable to expose to the eyes of all Europe the prinaction ensued ; but this, like the former, terminated with- ciples which she had adopted as the guides of her conduct. And these were contained in the following propositions ; out any material advantage to either side. On this occasion the British lost upwards of two hundred men killed First, that neutral ships should enjoy a free navigation, even and wounded; while, according to the French accounts, from port to port, and on the coasts of the belligerent the total loss sustained by the enemy in the three actions, powers ; secondly, that all effects belonging to the subjects amounted to nearly a thousand killed and wounded. The of the belligerent powers should be looked upon as free preceding details show that the French at this time had a on board such neutral ships, excepting only such goods as formidable fleet in the West Indies ; and its force was aug- were stipulated contraband; thirdly, that the principles mented in June by the junction of a Spanish squadron near recognised, and the articles enumerated as contraband, the island of Dominica; so that the French and Spanish in the treaties between Great Britain and Russia in 1734 fleets, when united, amounted to thirty-six sail of the line. and 1766, should still be adhered to. In the former it was Notwithstanding their superiority, however, they did not provided, that “ the subjects of either party may freely attack any of the British islands, nor even reconnoitre the pass, repass, and trade in all countries which now are, or fleet under the command of Sir George Brydges Rodney, hereafter shall be, at enmity with the other of the said which then lay at anchor in Gros Islet bay. By the vigi- parties, places actually blocked up or besieged only exlance and good conduct of the admiral, indeed, their efforts cepted, provided they do not carry any warlike stores or were in a great measure paralysed; and so sensible were ammunition to the enemy,” whilst, “ as for all other effects, the inhabitants of these islands of his services, that the their ships, passengers, and goods, shall be free and unhouses of assembly of St Christophers and Nevis pre- molested ; but,” that “ cannons, mortars, or other warlike sented addresses to him, testifying their gratitude for the utensils, in any quantity beyond what may be necessary security which they enjoyed in consequence of his spirited for the ship’s provision, and may properly appertain to and be judged necessary for every man of the ship’s crew, or and seasonable exertions. In the month of June, Admiral Geary, who command- for each passenger, shall be deemed ammunition of war ; ed the grand fleet, took twelve valuable merchant ships and if any such be found, they may seize and confiscate bound from Port-au-Prince to Bourdeaux and other ports the same according to law; but neither the vessels, pasof France ; but in the month of July a very unexpected and sengers, nor the rest of the goods, shall be detained for that important capture was made by the Spaniards, which ex- reason, or hindered from pursuing their voyage.” And in cited considerable alarm in Great Britain. On the 8th of the treaty of 1766 the same enumeration was given of the August, Captain Moutray, who had under his command goods stipulated as contraband, as in the treaty of 1734. the Ramillies of seventy-four guns, and two frigates, with Her imperial majesty further proposed, fourthly, that in a fleet of merchantmen bound for the East and West order to determine what characterizes a port blocked up, Indies under convoy, had the misfortune to fall in with that denomination should not be granted, except to places the combined fleets of France and Spain, which had sail- before which there were actually a number of enemy s ed from Cadiz the preceding day. The Ramillies and the ships stationed near enough to render its entry dangertwo frigates escaped ; but the rest were so completely sur- ous ; and, lastly, that these principles should serve as rounded, that five East Indiamen, and fifty merchant ships rules in judicial proceedings and in sentences as to the bound for the West Indies, were taken. This was one of legality of prizes. Her imperial majesty declared, that the most complete naval captures ever made, and proved she was firmly resolved to maintain these principles ; that, a heavy stroke to the commerce of Great Bidtain. The in order to protect the honour of her flag and the security prize, however, great as it was, scarcely compensated the of the commerce and navigation of her subjects, she had Spaniards for the capture of Fort Omoa, where upwards of given an order to fit out a considerable naval force; that

BRITAIN. 495 Reign of this measure, however, would have no influence on the body to conclude a treaty with Holland. Mr Laurens Reign of George III strict and rigorous neutrality which she was resolved to himself was instantly committed prisoner to the Tower, George III. observe, as long as she should not be forced to depart from and a spirited remonstrance was addressed to the states her principles of moderation and impartiality; and that of Holland, requiring a formal disavowal of the transaction. ‘ * it was only in such an extremity that her fleet would be The states, however, answered evasively, that they would ordered to act, wherever honour, interest, or necessity, take the matter into consideration according to the forms should require. This declaration was also communicated and usages of the country, and that a reply would be given to the States-general by Prince Galitzin, envoy extra- as soon as the nature of their government would admit. ordinary of Russia, who invited them to make common The British government could not possibly mistake this cause with the empress for the protection of commerce pitiful equivocation; and accordingly the most vigorous and navigation ; and similar communications and invita- measures were instantly resolved on. On the 25th of Jations were made to the courts of Copenhagen, Stockholm, nuary 1781, it was announced to the House of Commons and Lisbon, in order, as was alleged, that the navigation that his majesty had directed letters of marque and reprisal of all the neutral trading nations might be established and to be issued against the States-general and their subjects. legalized, and a system adopted founded upon justice, and For the causes and motives of his majesty’s conduct in this calculated to serve as a sort of maritime code for future respect, the house were referred to a public manifesto ages. against that republic, which had been ordered to be laid The memorial of the empress of Russia, though pro- before parliament. The charges against the republic were ceeding upon principles unfavourable to the views of Great briefly summed up by Lord North in his speech on the Britain, and incompatible with her maritime superiority, occasion. The states, he said, had, in open violation of received a civil answer from that court; but other powers, treaties, not only refused to give Great Britain that asas might have been expected, received it with far greater sistance which those treaties entitled her to claim when cordiality. In the answer of France it was observed, that attacked by the house of Bourbon, but had also, in direct what her imperial majesty claimed from the belligerent violation of the law of nations, contributed to furnish France powers was nothing more than the rules prescribed to the with warlike stores, and had now at length thought proper French navy ; the execution of which was maintained with to countenance the magistracy of Amsterdam in the inan exactness known and applauded by all Europe. Strong sult which they had offered to this country, by entering approbation was expressed of the principles and views of into a treaty with the rebellious colonies of Great Britain, her imperial majesty ; and it was declared, that from the as free and independent states. By the treaty of 1678, it measures now adopted by Russia, solid advantages would had been stipulated, that in case Great Britain was attacked undoubtedly result, not only to her subjects, but also to by the house of Bourbon, she had a right to take her choice those of all nations. Sweden and Denmark likewise ac- of either calling upon the States-general to become parties ceded formally to the armed neutrality proposed by Russia; in the war, and to attack the house of Bourbon within and the States-general, after an interval of some months, two months, or of requiring an aid of six thousand troops followed their example. It was further resolved by the and twenty ships of war, which the states were to furnish parties to this armed league, to make common cause at sea immediately after the claim was made. But though this against any of the belligerent powers who should violate, country had always preserved inviolate her faith with Holwith respect to neutral nations, the principles which had land, yet that republic had refused to fulfil the terms of this been laid down in the memorial of Russia. treaty. The States-general had also suffered Paul Jones, But though the British ministry could not openly en- a Scotsman, and a pirate, acting without legal authority gage in war with all the other powers of Europe, they de- from any acknowledged government, to bring British ships termined to take signal vengeance on the Dutch, whose into their ports, and to refit there.1 A rebel privateer had base ingratitude and perfidy now became a subject of in like manner been saluted at the Dutch island of St Eugeneral speculation. It has already been observed, that statius, after she had been suffered to capture two Briever since the commencement of hostilities with the Ame- tish ships within cannon-shot of their forts and castles. ricans, the Dutch had shown a decided inclination in their A memoi'ial had been presented at the Hague in June favour; and this partiality continued to be evinced to a 1779, on the breaking out of the war with Spain, to claim degree beyond what might have been expected from the the aid we were entitled to require by the treaty of 1678; natural avidity of a mercantile people. Frequent me- but of this not the least notice had been taken on the part morials and remonstrances had in consequence passed of the states. Two other notices had since been deliverbetween the two nations, and the breach gradually grew ed, each of which met with the same reception. The wider and wider, until at last matters came to extremities, British ministry had done all in their power to bring the by a discovery that the town of Amsterdam was about states to a true sense of their interest; and when the neto enter into a commercial treaty with America. This cessity of the case compelled them to seize on the Dutch came to light in the beginning of September 1780, by ships carrying stores to France, they had paid the full the capture of Mr Laurens, lately president of the Ame- value of the cargoes, and returned the ships; so that neirican congress, and who had been empowered by that ther the private merchant, the private adventurer, nor the 1 This man, who had formerly been a servant in Lord Selkirk’s house, had landed in 1778, and plundered it of the plate, but withou doing any further mischief. The action, however, proved very disagreeable to his own party; and, at the desire of Dr Franklin e wa after ™77JX?hetemade ? a descent wards restored. After this exploit attempted to set fire theoftown of Whitehaven, without success. In on the coast of Ireland, but he without committing anytoact hostility: his peoplebut indeed carried off some sneep and oxen, but their captain paid liberally for what they had taken. In the month of September 1779, he appeared in the Frith or north with several prizes, and advanced up above the island of Inchkeith, so as to be nearly opposite to Leith. His design was supposed to have been to burn the shipping there; but he was prevented from attempting this by a strong westerly wind; and such taken or tlie bad a attem fcaf° / defence of the harbour, by erecting batteries and otherwise, that he would probably have miscarried / P been 111 ade b7 bim- Pn leaving the coast of Scotland he fell in with the Serapis and Scarborough, both of which he took te s e ate a rw , ,ark P /' engagement, in which these vessels were reduced to almost total wrecks. These prizes were carried by Jones into °ur ’ an(furnished l16 was this transaction to which noworalluded. was called a pirate, of his not behurg at tbai that ftime properly with a commission eitherLord fromNorth France America;Hethough this was dentedonbyaccount the opposite party?

BRITAIN. 496 ■Reign of states, had suffered any loss. France only had felt the in- the united powers of the French and Indians had been con- Reign of III George III. convenience, by her being deprived of that assistance which quered, and the Dutch settlements had suffered severely. George In the year 1781, however, the British naval power in VTTY7^ she would have received from those cargoes. The minister 78 1781 • ‘ lamented the necessity of a war with Holland; but it ap- the West Indies seemed to sink, and some events took place which threatened serious results. This was owing peared to him to be unavoidable. The difficulties with which the nation had to struggle were certainly great; to the great superiority of the combined fleets of France but they were by no means insuperable. He was neither and Spain, by which that of Britain was now so far outdesirous of concealing their magnitude, nor afraid to meet numbered, that it could not achieve any thing of consethem, great as they must be acknowledged; convinced, quence. An ineffectual attempt was made by Admiral that when the force of this country was fully exerted, Rodney on the island of St Vincents, and an indecisive it would be found equal to the contest, and that the only engagement took place on the 28th of April 1781, between means of obtaining an honourable and a just peace, was to Admiral Hood and the Count de Grasse, the event of show ourselves capable of carrying on the war with spirit which, however, was certainly honourable to Britain, as the French had a superiority of six ships of the line. But the and vigour. But before this resolution could have been communicat- damage done to the British ships having obliged them to ed officially to the naval commanders in the West Indies, retire to Barbadoes to refit, the French availed themselves the Dutch were actually attacked. The island of St Eu- of the opportunity to effect a descent on the island of Tostatius was, on the 3d of February 1781, summoned by Ad- bago ; and although the governor made a gallant resistance, miral Rodney and General Vaughan to surrender to the he was at last obliged to surrender. Admiral Rodney had arms of Great Britain, and only one hour was given for con- sent Rear-admiral Drake with six sail of the line, three sideration. Submission was inevitable. The island accord- frigates, and some troops, to the assistance of the island; ingly surrendered; the property found on it was confiscated, but they were dispatched too late, as the island had capiand a sale instituted, with circumstances of rapacity which tulated before the intended relief could have reached it. But the great and decisive stroke, which happened this afterwards became the subject of a discussion in parliament, and drew upon the nation the ill will of all Europe. year, was the capture of Lord Cornwallis, with the division The Dutch in fact seem to have acted with great impru- of the army under his command, at Yorktown. This was dence, and, notwithstanding their provoking conduct to- a great calamity ; and other events were sufficiently morwards Britain, to have made no preparations for war in the tifying. The province of West Florida had been reduced event of being attacked. But in spite of this inactivity, by the Spaniards; Minorca was besieged by them with they still retained much of their ancient valour, and were every prospect of success ; the island of St Eustatius had in fact the most formidable naval enemies whom Britain been surprised by the French ; and in short every circumstance seemed to proclaim the necessity of putting an end had to contend with. By August 1781 they had equipped a considerable squa- to a war so calamitous and destructive. But all the disdron, the command of which was given to Rear-admiral asters which had yet happened were insufficient to induce Zoutman ; and on the 5th of that month this squadron fell the ministry to abandon their favourite scheme of war with in with the British fleet commanded by Admiral Hyde the colonies. The parliament met on the 27th of November 1781. It Parker. The force under Zoutman consisted, according to the Dutch account, of one ship of seventy-four guns, has already been stated, that in the year 1780 the minisone of sixty-eight, one of sixty-four, three of fifty-four, try had sustained a defeat so signal as seemed to prognosand one of forty-four, besides frigates; but the English ticate the ruin of their power. They had indeed afterwards account states the hostile fleet to have consisted of eight acquired a majority, and the terror produced by the riots two-decked ships. No gun was fired on either side till the had contributed not a little to the re-establishment of their fleets were within half musket-shot distance. The action influence. The remembrance of what had passed, howbegan about eight in the morning, and continued with the ever, most probably induced them to dissolve parliament; utmost fury for three hours and forty minutes. Both sides whilst the successes at Charlestown and in other parts of fought with equal ardour, and little advantage was gained America once more gave them a decided majority in both by either. When the action ceased, both squadrons lay houses. But the disasters of the year 1781 involved them like logs on the water; but after a time the Dutch ships in the most serious difficulties. In the speech from the of war, with their convoy, bore away for the Texel, whilst throne, his majesty observed, that the war was still unhapthe English were too much disabled to follow them. A pily prolonged by the restless ambition which had first exDutch seventy-four gun ship sunk soon after the action. cited the enemies of his crown and people to commence it. On board the British fleet upwards of four hundred were But he should not discharge the trust committed to the killed and wounded; and the loss of the Dutch was pro- sovereign of a free people, nor make a suitable return to his bably greater. Admiral Zoutman, in his account of the subjects for their zealous and affectionate attachment to engagement, states that his men fought like lions ; and the him, if he consented to sacrifice, either to his own desire of British admiral, in the dispatch transmitted by him to the peace, or to their temporary ease and relief, those essential admiralty, observes that his majesty’s officers and men be- rights and permanent interests, upon the maintenance and^ haved with great bravery, nor did the enemy show less preservation of which the future strength and security ot Great Britain must depend. The events of war, he said, gallantry. The impossibility of crushing the power of Great Bri- had been very unfortunate to his arms in Virginia, having tain by any force whatever was now beginning to be evi- ended in the loss of his forces in that province; but the dent even to her most inveterate enemies. In Europe, misfortune in that quarter called loudly for the firm conthe utmost efforts of France and Spain were able to effect currence and assistance of parliament, in order to frustrate nothing more than the annual parade of a mighty fleet in the designs of the enemy, which were as prejudicial to the Channel; and this called forth the apparition of a the real interests of America as to those of Great Britain. British fleet, so formidable that the enemy never durst at- His majesty regretted much the additional burdens which a tack it. The states of Holland had sent out their force; continuance of the war would unavoidably bring upon his and this too was opposed by one which, if insufficient to subjects; but he still declared his perfect conviction of conquer, was at least able to prevent their effecting any the justice of his cause, and hoped that, by the concurthing detrimental to our possessions. In the East Indies rence and support of his parliament, by the valour of his

497 BRITAIN. Reign of fleets and armies, and by a vigorous, animated, and unit- attempts to reduce that continent by force i. f arms would Reign of SeorgellLed exertion of the powers and resources of bis people, be be in vain, and must be injurious to this country, by weak- George III, would be enabled to restore to his dominions the blessing ening her power of resisting her ancient and confederated 1 81, enemies. This was supported by a number of arguments 7 of a safe and honourable peace. A motion for an address of thanks, couched in the usual interlarded with the most severe reflections on the constyle, was made in the House of Commons; and it was duct of ministers. But the motion was opposed by Lord urged, that a durable and advantageous peace could result North, who said that, if agreed to by the house, it would only from the firm, vigorous, and unremitting prosecution put an end to the American war in every shape, and even of the war, and that the present was not the time to re- cripple the hands of government in other respects. It linquish hope, but to resolve upon exertion. The motion, would point out to the enemies of this country what were however, was vehemently opposed by Mr Fox and Mr to be the mode and conduct of the war; and thus inform Burke. The latter remarked, that if there could be a the enemy in what manner they might best point their greater misfortune than had already been inflicted on this operations against this country during the next campaign. kingdom in the present disgraceful contest, it was hear- With respect to the American war in general, his lordship ing men rise up in the great assembly of the nation to acknowledged that it had been extremely unfortunate ; vindicate such measures. If the ministry and the parlia- but he affirmed that the misfortunes and calamities which ment were not to be taught by experience,—if neither ca- had attended it, though of a most serious and fatal nature, lamities could make them feel, nor the voice of God make were matters rather to be deplored and lamented as the them wise,—what had this fallen and undone country to events of war, in themselves perpetually uncertain, than hope for? A battle might be lost, an enterprise might to be ascribed to any criminality in ministers. He added, miscarry, an island might be captured, an army might be that though he totally disapproved of the motion, yet he lost in the best of causes, and even under a system of vi- was willing to declare it to be his opinion, that it would gour and foresight; because the battle, after all the wis- not be wise nor right to go on with the American war as dom and bravery of man, was in the hands of heaven ; we had hitherto done; that is, to send armies to traverse and if either or all of these calamities had happened in from south to north the provinces in their interior parts, a good cause, and under the auspices of a vigilant admi- as had been done in a late case, and which had failed of nistration, a brave people would not despair. But it was producing the intended and desired effect. On the other hand, General Burgoyne observed, that not so in the present case. Amidst all their sufferings and their misfortunes, they saw nothing so distressing as declaring a design of maintaining posts in America, of the the weakness or wickedness of their ministers. They seem- nature of New York, was declaring a design of offensive ed still determined to go on, without plan and without war; and that such a maintenance of posts would prove foresight, in this war of calamities; for every thing that an improvident and preposterous mode of warfare. With happened in it was a calamity. He considered them all regard to the American war, the impracticability of it was alike, victories and defeats ; towns taken and towns eva- a sufficient justification for supporting the present motion. cuated ; new generals appointed, and old generals recall- But he was now convinced that the principle of the Ameed ; they were all alike calamities in his eyes, for they rican war was wrong, though he had not been of that opiall spurred us on to this fatal business. Victories gave us nion when he formerly engaged in the service in America. hopes, defeats made us desperate, and both instigated us He had been brought to this conviction by observing the to go on. In the course of the debate, it was contended uniform conduct and behaviour of the people of America. on the part of administration, and particularly by Lord Passion, prejudice, and interest, might operate suddenly North, that by the address, as originally proposed, the and partially; but when we saw one principle pervading the house did not pledge themselves to any continuance of whole continent, and the Americans resolutely encounterthe American war; but this was strongly denied by the ing difficulty and death for a course of years, it must be gentlemen in opposition. However, the point was at last a strong vanity and presumption in our own minds which decided in favour of ministry by a large majority ; and the could lead us to imagine that they were not in the right. address was then carried as originally proposed. In the It was reason, and the finger of God alone, which implantHouse of Peers, a motion for an address similar to that of ed the same sentiment in three millions of people. After some further debate, Sir James Lowther’s motion the House of Commons was made by Lord Southampton, and seconded by Lord Walsingham ; but it was vigorously was rejected by a majority of two hundred and twenty to opposed by the Earl of Shelburne and the Duke of Rich- one hundred and seventy-nine. This, however, was a mamond, whilst Lord Stormont and the lord chancellor de- jority in which the ministry had little reason to exult, as fended the course adopted by ministers; and the address it was sufficiently apparent, from the numbers who voted was ultimately carried by a majority of more than two to against administration, that the uninfluenced sense of the one. A short protest against the address was, however, house was clearly and decisively against any further proentered by the Duke of Richmond, the Marquis of Rock- secution of the American war. Other arguments to the same purpose with those of ingham, and Earl Fitzwilliam ; in which they declared that they dissented, for reasons too often urged in vain General Burgoyne, just mentioned, were used in the debate for the last seven years, against the ruinous prosecution on the army estimates. On the 14th of December, the of the unjust war carrying on by his majesty’s ministers secretary at war informed the house, that the whole force against the people of North America, and too fatally con- of the army, including the militia of this kingdom, requirfirmed by repeated experience, and the disgraceful loss of ed for the service of the year 1782, would amount to one hundred and eighty-six thousand two hundred and twena second army, to stand in need of repetition. Though ministers thus succeeded in carrying the ad- ty men, and for this force the parliament had to provide. dresses in the usual form, they did not meet with equal The sum required for these troops for pay, clothing, and success in their main design of carrying on the war. After other articles, amounted to four millions two hundred and the debate on tbe number of seamen, which was fixed at twenty thousand pounds. This military force exceeded one hundred thousand for the ensuing year, Sir James that of the last year by upwards of four thousand men ; and Lowther moved as a resolution of the house, that the war the expense was consequently greater by upwards of twencarried on with America had been ineffectual for the pur- ty-nine thousand pounds. The increase was occasioned by poses for which it was undertaken; and that all further the greater number of troops already sent, or then going, to 3R VOL. v.

B R I T A I N. 498 Reijrn of the East Indies. But the expense of those troops was to vice. The Earl of Abingdon could not help conceiving, Reign of George III. be reimbursed by the East India Company. After some that although there was not a right of election, there must George II further statements relative to the military force of the king- be a right of exclusion vested in the house, when the ad7 i 81, * ^ dom, and its expense, had been made by the secretary at mission of any peer happened to be against the sense of war, Colonel Barre declared, that the estimates of the army its members; that he considered the admission of Lord as then laid before the house were scandalous and evasive. George Germaine to a peerage as an insufferable indignity There was a much greater number of non-effective men to the house, and as an outrageous insult to the people; than was stated in the estimates; in fact, they amounted that it was an indignity to that house, inasmuch as it conto a fifth part of the army. The house should also recollect, nected them with one whom every soldier was forbidden that the estimates lying on the table did not compose the to associate withal; and that it was an insult to the peowhole expense of the army ; for extraordinaries of several ple, as the person now raised to the peerage had done millions were yet to come. Neither were the men under nothing to merit honours superior to his fellow-citizens. the several descriptions given by the secretary at war the Lord Sackville defended himself as well as he could whole number of military force employed. Other troops against this attack. He denied that he knew by whose were employed solely at the discretion of the minister, and advice he had been raised to the peerage; he impugned paid irregularly and unconstitutionally, without the consent the justice of the sentence of the court-martial; he reor knowledge of the legislature ; particularly the provincial presented himself as the victim of an acrimony and hoscorps in America, amounting to nine thousand men in ac- tility without example; he adverted to the time which tual service, the statement of which force, though it had had elapsed since the sentence of the court-martial was been called for from year to year, was never brought into pronounced, and to the political offices which he had since the estimates. Lord George Germaine explained, that been called to fill; and he contended that his elevation the reason why the provincial corps had not been included to the dignity of the peerage was virtually a repeal of the in the estimates was, that some share of the public money proceedings of the military tribunal in question. The might be spared, by avoiding to vote an establishment for Duke of Richmond replied with great ability to the varithese troops. They were raised and paid in a manner by ous pleas which Lord Sackville had brought forward in much the most economical for the nation. Sir George his own justification. In particular, he observed, that Saville expressed the strongest disapprobation of any fur- their lordships were not ignorant, that the noble viscount ther prosecution of the American war, or of raising any rested a considerable part of the vindication of his bemore troops for that purpose. General Conway also dis- haviour at the battle of Minden upon the supposed existapproved entirely of a continuance of the American war ence of a striking variation in the orders delivered from in any form. He considered an acknowledgment of the Prince Ferdinand to the commander of the cavalry. It independence of America as a severe misfortune, and a was understood that the first order was, that the cavalry heavy stroke against Great Britain ; but of the two evils should advance; and the second, that the British cavalry he would choose the least, and submit to the independence should advance. Yet even under these supposed contraof America rather than persist a day longer in the prose- dictory orders, it was evident that the noble lord ought to cution of a ruinous war. Notwithstanding these and other have advanced, and, certainly, the distance being short, arguments, however, the question was carried in favour of he enjoyed a sufficient space of time for obedience to his ministry by a considerable majority, and the supplies were instructions. Lord Southampton, who delivered one of the messages, was now present in the house ; and it would voted accordingly. Besides the grand question of the continuance of the seem that he had no choice on this occasion but to acknowAmerican war, several other matters of smaller moment ledge, either that he did not properly deliver such orders were agitated during this session, particularly the affair to the noble viscount, or that the latter, having properly of St Eustatius, already mentioned, and an inquiry into received them, neglected to obey them. But whatever the state of the navy. But on these, as on the greater difficulties might have arisen during the endeavours to question, the ministry prevailed, though not without a determine exactly how much time had actually been lost strength of opposition which they had seldom encountered in consequence of the non-compliance of Lord Sackville before. A motion for censuring Lord Sandwich was lost with the orders which he received, he could with much faonly by nineteen; and so general was the desire for a cility have solved what all the witnesses examined as to change of administration, that it excited surprise how the this point were not able positively to determine. If, sumministry still retained their places. Nothing could place moned as he was to appear upon the trial, his deposition in a more striking point of view the detestation in which had been called for, he could have proved, because he held they were held, than the extreme repugnance to the ad- all the while his watch in his hand, and seldom ceased to mission of Lord George Germaine to the dignity of the look at it, that the time lost by the noble viscount delaying peerage. On this occasion the affair of Minden was not to advance, under pretence of receiving such contradictory only brought above board ; but, after his actual investiture, orders as made it impossible for him to discover whether and when he had taken his seat in the house, under the he ought to advance with the whole cavalry, or only with title of Lord Viscount Sackville, a debate ensued respect- the British cavalry, was one hour and a half. It was thereing the dishonour which the peers had sustained by his fore extremely evident that the noble lord had had it in his admission into their house. The Marquis of Caermar- power to bring up the cavalry from the distance of a mile then moved, that it was reprehensible in any minister, and and a quarter; the consequence of which would have been highly derogatory to the honour of the house, to advise that, by joining in the battle, they might have rendered the the crown to exercise its indisputable right of creating a victory more brilliant and decisive. But before the arrival peer, in favour of a person labouring under the heavy of this cavalry, the engagement was concluded. Such was censure of a court-martial; and urged, in support of his the testimony, said the duke, which, having had the honour motion, that the House of Peers being a court of honour, to serve at the battle of Minden under Prince Ferdinand of it behoved them most carefully to preserve that honour Brunswick, he must have borne, if, being summoned, the uncontaminated, and to endeavour to mark, as forcibly as members of the court-martial had thought proper to have possible, the disapprobation which they felt at receiving examined him on the trial. Under such circumstances, into their assembly, as a brother peer, a person stigma- the noble viscount could have but little reason to complain tized in the orderly books of every regiment in the ser- of the sentence of the court-martial, of the orders which

499 BRITAIN. Reign of followed It, or of the loss of his commission. The motion days relish these answers, that they addressed the king to Reign of !3eorgeIIT. was powerfully supported by other arguments, both by know who it was who had advised his majesty to return GeorgeHI. ^ the Duke of Richmond himself and by other peers ; but such answers to their loyal and constitutional remon1 82, ' ^ it was nevertheless rejected by a large majority. A pro- strances. In the reign of King William, repeated instances test was however entered, signed by nine peers, in which were to be found in the journals, of advice given by parthe sentence and the public orders were particularly stated; liament relative to the Irish war and the war on the conand in which they declared, that they looked upon the rais- tinent. The same thing occurred frequently in the reign ing to the peerage a person so circumstanced as a measure of Queen Anne, who, in an address from the parliament, fatal to the interests as well as to the glory of the crown, was advised not to make peace with France until Spain should be secured to Austria, and also not to consent to and to the dignity of the house. The ruinous tendency of the American war was now peace until Dunkirk should be demolished. In short, it so strikingly apparent, that it became necessary for those was manifest from the whole history of English parliawho had a just sense of the dangerous situation of the ments, that it was ever considered as constitutional for country, and wished well to its interests, to exert their parliament to interfere, whenever it thought proper, in all most vigorous efforts to put an end to so fatal a contest. matters so important as those of peace and war. Other Accordingly, on the 22d of February, a motion was made arguments were urged in support of the motion, which was by General Conway, that an humble address should be seconded by Lord Althorp ; and petitions from the mayor, presented to his majesty, imploring him to take into his burgesses, and commonalty of the city of Bristol, and from consideration the many and great calamities which had the merchants, tradesmen, and inhabitants of that city, attended this unfortunate war, and to listen to the humble against the American war, were also read. But in order prayer and advice of his faithful Commons, that the war to evade coming to any immediate determination on the on the continent of North America might no longer be pur- question, a proposition was made by the attorney-general, sued for the impracticable purpose of reducing that coun- that a truce should be entered into with America, and a try to obedience by force. The motion was seconded by bill prepared to enable his majesty’s ministers to treat on Lord John Cavendish, but vigorously opposed by adminis- this ground ; and under pretence of allowing time for this tration, who had still strength sufficient to carry their point, measure, he moved that the present debate be adjourned though only by a single vote, the motion being rejected by for a fortnight. This motion, however, was negatived by a hundred and ninety-four to a hundred and ninety-three. a majority of nineteen; and the original motion of GeneThe increasing power of the opposition now showed that ral Conway was then put and carried without a division. The general immediately followed up this victory with a the downfal of the ministry was at hand. The decision of the last question was considered as a victory gained by the motion for an address to the king, soliciting his majesty former, and Mr Fox instantly gave notice that the subject to put a stop to any further prosecution of offensive war would be resumed in a few days under another form. It against the colonies; which was agreed to, and presented was accordingly revived on the 27th of February, when a to his majesty by the whole house on the 1st of March. petition from the city of London was presented, solicit- On this occasion his majesty answered, that there were no ing the house to interpose in such a manner as to prevent objects nearer to his heart than the happiness and prospeany further prosecution of the American war; after which rity of his people ; that, in pursuance of the advice of the General Conway moved, as a resolution, that it was the Commons, he should take such measures as might appear opinion of the house that the further prosecution of offen- conducive to the restoration of harmony between Great sive war on the continent of North America, for the pur- Britain and her revolted colonies; and that his efforts pose of reducing the revolted colonies to obedience by should be directed in the most effectual manner against force, would be the means of weakening the efforts of this our European enemies, until a peace could be obtained country against her European enemies, and would tend consistent with the interests and permanent welfare of the to increase the mutual enmity so fatal to the interests kingdom. The proceedings of the House of Commons both of Great Britain and America. It appears from the gave general satisfaction ; but the royal answer was not journals, said the general, that from the days of Edward thought sufficiently explicit. Accordingly, on the 4th of III. down to the present reign, parliament has at all times March, General Conway moved that an humble address given advice to the crown in matters relating to war and be presented to his majesty, to return his majesty the peace. In the reign of Richard II. it was frequently done, thanks of that house for his gracious answer to their last and also in that of Henry IV. One remarkable instance address; the house being convinced that, in the present of this occurred in the reign of Henry VII. when that circumstances of this country, nothing could so essentially prince consulted his parliament respecting the propriety promote those great objects of his majesty’s paternal care of supporting the Duke of Brittany against France, and for his people as the measures which his faithful Comalso of declaring war against the latter ; and when he told mons had most humbly but earnestly recommended to his parliament that it was for no other purpose than to his majesty ; and this motion was unanimously agreed to. hear their advice on these heads that he called them to- The general then moved a resolution, that, after the solemn gether. In the reign of James I. the parliament interfer- declaration of the opinion of the house, in their humble ed repeatedly with their advice respecting the palatinate, address presented to his majesty, and his majesty’s assuthe match with Spain, and a declaration of war against rance of his gracious intentions, the house would consider that power. In the time of Charles I. there were similar as enemies to his majesty and the country all who should interferences ; and in the reign of his son Charles II. the endeavour to frustrate his majesty’s paternal care for the parliament made repeated remonstrances, but particular- happiness of his people, by advising the further proseculy in 1674 and 1675, on the subject of the alliance with tion of offensive war on the continent of North America. France, which, they urged, ought to be renounced, and After some debate this motion was agreed to without a at the same time recommended a strict union with the division; and, on the 6th, after a number of papers had United Provinces. To some of these remonstrances, in- been read in the House of Peers relative to the surrender deed, answers were returned not very satisfactory; and of Earl Cornwallis and the army under his command, the the parliament were informed that they were exceeding Duke of Chandos moved, first, that, in the opinion of the line of their duty, and encroaching upon the preroga- the house, the immediate cause of the capture of the tive of the crown. But so little did the Commons of those army under Earl Cornwallis in Virginia, was the want of

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500 BRITAIN. Reign of a sufficient naval force to cover and protect the same; The ill success of Britain in America has already been Reign of George III. anc}, secondly, that the not covering and protecting of the taken notice of. The disaster of Cornwallis had produced George III, army under Earl Cornwallis in a proper manner was high- a sincere desire of peace with America; but this could 1782. ly blameable in those who advised and planned the expe- not be accomplished without making peace with France dition. But after considerable discussion these motions also; and that power was still haughty and elated with were rejected. success. Minorca had now fallen into the hands of the In spite of all these efforts, however, the ministry still Spaniards; and though the capture of a few miserable kept their ground, and with astonishing resolution com- invalids, attended with such extreme difficulty as the bated the force of opposition, which was daily increasing. Spaniards had experienced, ought rather to have intimiOn the 8th of March several resolutions were moved by dated them than otherwise, they now projected the most Lord John Cavendish ; one of which bore that the chief important conquests. Nothing less than the entire reduccause of the national misfortunes was the want of fore- tion of the British West India islands was contemplated sight and ability in his majesty’s ministers; and another by the allies; and indeed there was too much reason to respected the immense sum expended on the war, which suppose that this object was within their reach. In the was alleged to be little less than a hundred millions. But beginning of the year 1782 the islands of Nevis and St all inquiry was still frustrated, and these motions were Christophers were obliged to surrender to Count de Grasse lost by a majority of ten. Meanwhile, as the unpopularity the French admiral, and the Marquis de Bouille, who had of Lord North was further increased by the proposal of already signalized himself by several exploits; and Jamaica some new taxes, particularly on soap, the carriage of was marked out as the next victim. But the end of all these goods, and places of entertainment, opposition determined aspiring hopes was fast approaching. The advantages hiif possible to force him to resign; and on the 15th of therto gained by the French in their naval engagements March it was moved by Sir John Rous that the nation with the British fleet had proceeded entirely from their could have no further confidence in the ministers who had keeping at a great distance during the time of action, and the conduct of public affairs. Lord North endeavoured from their good fortune and dexterity in gaining the wind. to vindicate his own administration. He affirmed that it At last the French admiral De Grasse, prompted by his could not be declared with truth that the national cala- natural courage, or induced by circumstances, determinmities originated from the measures of the present admi- ed, after an indecisive action on the 9th of April 1782, to nistration. The repeal of the American stamp-act, and risk a close engagement with his formidable antagonist, the passing of the declaratory law, took place before his Admiral Rodney. The action was brought on by the entrance into office. As a private member of parliament count shortening sail to prevent the loss of a disabled he gave his vote in favour of both, but as a minister he ship, by parting with which he might have avoided the was not responsible for either. When he accepted office disaster that followed. This memorable engagement took the times were scarcely less violent than the present. He place off the island of Dominica, three days after the forapproached the helm when others had deserted it; and, mer. The British fleet consisted of thirty-seven ships of standing there, he had used his utmost efforts to assist his the line, and the French of thirty-four. The engagement country. That the American war was just and requisite, commenced at seven o’clock in the morning, and continuand prosecuted for the purpose of supporting and main- ed with unremitting fury till half past six in the evening. taining the rights of the British legislature, was a position It is said that no other signal was made by the admiral for the truth of which he would ever contend, whilst he but the general one for action, and that for close combat. enjoyed the power of arguing at all upon the subject. As Sir George Rodney was on board the Formidable, a ship to peace, he not only wished most earnestly for it, but of ninety guns ; and the Count de Grasse was on board the also for the formation of such a ministry as might at once Ville de Paris, a ship of a hundred and ten guns, which had prove acceptable to the country, and cordially co-operate been presented to the French king by the city of Paris. for the welfare and honour of the state. The house at In the course of the action, the Formidable fired nearly length divided upon the question, when there appeared a eighty broadsides; and for three hours the admiral’s ship majority of nine in favour of administration. was involved in so thick a cloud of smoke that it was alBut notwithstanding this decision, it was well known most invisible to the officers and men of the rest of the that the ministry could not stand their ground ; and, ac- fleet. The van division of the British fleet was commandcordingly, four days after, when a motion similar to that ed by Sir Samuel Hood, and the rear division by Rear-adby Sir John Rous was about to be made by the Earl of miral Drake ; and both these officers greatly distinguished Surrey, Lord North informed the house that his majesty themselves in the course of the action. But the decisive had come to a full determination to change his ministers; turn on this memorable day was given by a bold manoeuvre and that, in fact, those persons who had for some time of the Formidable, which, taking advantage of a favourconducted the public affairs were no longer his majesty’s able shift in the wind, passed through the French line, and ministers. They were not now to be considered as men threw them into irretrievable confusion. The first French holding the reins of government and transacting measures ship that struck was the Caesar, of seventy-four guns, the of state, but merely as performing their official duty till captain of which fought nobly, and fell in the action. When other ministers were appointed to take their places. In she struck she had scarcely a foot of canvass without a shot consequence of the declaration of Lord North, the Earl of hole. Unfortunately, soon after she was taken possession Surrey agreed to waive his intended motion, and, after of, she took fire by accident, and blew up, when about some further debate, the house adjourned. And thus an two hundred Frenchmen perished in her, together with an end was put to an administration which had long been ob- English lieutenant and ten English seamen. The Glorieux noxious to a great part of the nation, and whose removal and the Hector, both seventy-four gun ships, were also contributed very much to allay those ferments by which taken by the British fleet; together with the Ardent of every part of the British dominions had been agitated. sixty-four guns ; and a French seventy-four gun ship was Peace now became as much the object of ministry as war also sunk in the engagement. It was almost dark when the had been formerly. But before we proceed to any ac- Ville de Paris, on board of which the Count de Grasse had count of the negociations for that desirable object, it will fought gallantly, struck her colours. Five thousand five be necessary to notice the military events which disposed hundred troops were on board the French fleet, and the the other belligerent powers to an accommodation. havoc among them was very great, as well as among the

501 BRITAIN. [Reign of French seamen. The British lost in killed and wounded dred women, besides children, perished on this occasion. Reign of ieorge III. about a thousand men. Captain Blair, who commanded The prosecution of the war was thus attended with dis- George H • the Anson, and several other officers, were killed in the asters and difficulties to all parties. The signal defeat 1 82 ^ ’ action; and Lord Robert Manners, who commanded the above mentioned not only secured the island of Jamaica Resolution, died of his wounds on his return home. It was against the attempts of the French, but prevented them universally allowed that in this engagement the French, from entertaining any other project than that of distressnotwithstanding their defeat, behaved with the greatest ing commerce. In the beginning of May an expedition was undertaken valour. De Grasse himself did not surrender till four hundred of his people were killed, and only the admiral and to the remote and inhospitable regions of Hudson’s Bay; two others remained without a wound. The captain of the and though no force existed there capable of making any Caesar, after his ensign-staff was shot away, and the ship resistance, a seventy-four gun ship and two thirty-six gun almost battered to pieces, caused his colours to be nailed frigates were employed in the service. All the people to the mast, and thus continued fighting till he was killed. in that part of the world either fled or surrendered at the The vessel, when taken, was a mere wreck. Other French first summons. The loss of the Hudson’s Bay Company, officers behaved with equal resolution. The valour of the on this occasion, amounted to L.500,000; but the humaniBritish requires no encomium ; it was proved by their suc- ty of the French commander was conspicuous, in leaving a sufficient quantity of provisions and stores of all kinds cess on this glorious day.1 This victory was a very fortunate circumstance both for the use of the British who had fled at his approach. for the interest and the reputation of the British admiral. Another expedition was undertaken by the Spaniards to Before this event the new ministry had appointed Admi- the Bahama Islands, where an equally easy conquest was ral Pigot to supersede him in the command in the West obtained. The island of Providence, defended only by Indies ; and it was understood that they meant to set on three hundred and sixty men, could make no resistance foot a rigid inquiry into the transactions at St Eustatius. when attacked by five thousand. An honourable capitulaBut the splendour of this victory put an end to all thoughts tion was granted by the victors, who likewise treated the of the kind ; he received the thanks of both houses of par- garrison with kindness. Some settlements on the Mosliament for his services; and he was created an English quito shore were also taken by the Spaniards; but the peer, by the title of Baron Rodney of Rodney Stoke, in the Bay-men, assisted by their negroes, bravely retook some county of Somerset. Sir Samuel Hood was also created of them; and having formed a little army of the Indians in Baron Hood of Catherington, in the kingdom of Ireland ; those parts, headed by Colonel Despard, they attacked and and Rear-admiral Drake and Captain Affleck were creat- carried the posts on the Black River, making prisoners of ed baronets of Great Britain. Some attempts were also about eight hundred Spanish troops. The greatest disasmade, in the House of Commons, to procure a vote of cen- ter which befel this power, however, was their failure besure against the new ministry for having recalled Lord fore Gibraltar, which happened in the month of SeptemRodney; but the motions for this purpose were rejected ber 1782, and was accompanied with such circumstances of horror and destruction as evinced the absurdity of perby a large majority. Though the designs of the French against Jamaica were sisting in the enterprise. Thus all parties felt that it was now effectually frustrated, the victory was not followed by high time to put an end to the contest. The affair of those beneficial results which many had expected from it; Cornwallis had shown that it was impossible for Britain and none of the British islands which had been taken by to conquer America ; the defeat of De Grasse had renderthe French in the West Indies were afterwards recaptur- ed the reduction of the British possessions in the West Ined. Some of the ships which had been taken by Admiral dies impracticable by the French ; the final repulse before Rodney were also lost at sea, particularly the Ville de Gibraltar, and its relief afterwards by the British fleet, put Paris, Glorieux, and Hector; and a British man of war, an end to that favourite enterprise, in which almost the the Centaur, of seventy-four guns, foundered at sea on whole strength of Spain had been employed ; and the enthe 24th of September 1782. The Jamaica homeward- gagement of the Dutch with Admiral Parker showed them bound fleet was also dispersed by a hurricane off the banks that nothing could be gained by a naval war with Britain. The events which led to the removal of Lord North and of Newfoundland, when the Ramillies of seventy-four guns and several merchantmen foundered. About this time the other ministers who had so long directed public meathe British navy sustained a very considerable loss at sures in this kingdom have been already noticed. On home, by the Royal George, of a hundred guns, being this occasion it was said that his majesty expressed consiupset and sunk at Portsmouth. This melancholy acci- derable agitation of mind at being in a manner compelled dent, which happened on the 29th of August, was occa- to make an entire change in his councils; for the memsioned by a partial heel given to the ship, in order to bers in opposition would form no coalition with any of the cleanse and sweeten her. The guns on one side being old ministry, the lord chancellor only excepted. On the removed to the other, or at least the greater part of them, 30th of March 1782, the Marquis of Rockingham was apand her lower deck ports not being lashed in, the ship pointed first lord of the treasury; Lord John Cavendish thwarted on the tide with a squall from the north-west, chancellor of the exchequer; the Earl of Shelburne and filled with water, and sunk in the space of about three Mr Fox principal secretaries of state ; Lord Camden preminutes. Admiral Kempenfelt, a number of other of- sident of the council; the Duke of Richmond master of ficers, and upwards of four hundred seamen and two hun- the ordnance ; the Duke of Grafton lord privy seal; Ad1 The Count de Grasse, after his defeat, was received on board the Barfleur man of war, and afterwards landed on the island of Jamaica, where he was treated with great respect. After continuing there some time, he was conveyed to England, and accommodated With a suite of apartments at the royal hotel in Pall-mall. His sword, which he had delivered up, according to the usual custom, to Admiral Rodney, was returned to him by the king. This etiquette enabled him to appear at court, where he was received by their majesties and the royal family in a manner suitable to his rank. From the time of his arrival in London to his departure, which was on the 12th of August 1782, he was visited by many persons of the first fashion and distinction, and was much employed in paying visits to the great officers of state and some of the principal nobility of the kingdom, by whom he was entertained in a very sumptuous and hospitable style. He received, indeed, every mark of civility which the British nation could bestow ; and was treated with much respect even by the common people, from the opinion that was generally entertained of his valour and merit.

502 B R I T A I N. Reign of miral Keppel first lord of the admiralty ; General Conway in the measure, though his ideas were different. He did not Reign* George III. commander in chief of all the forces in Great Britain ; Mr wish to see England’s sun set for ever, but looked for a spark George I[. Thomas Townshend secretary at war ; Mr Burke paymas- to be left which might light us up a new day. He wish- ''■^V'4' 1 82, 7 ter of the forces ; and Colonel Barre treasurer of the navy. ed to God that he had been deputed to congress, that he Other offices and honours were likewise conferred on dif- might plead the cause of America as well as Britain. He ferent members of the opposition; and some were raised was convinced that the liberties of the former were gone to the peerage, particularly Admiral Keppel, Sir Fletcher as soon as the independence of the states was allowed; Norton, and Mr Dunning. and he concluded his speech with observing, that he was The first business in which the new ministry engaged not afraid of his expressions being repeated in America, was taking the necessary measures for effecting a general there being great numbers there who were of the same peace. No time, in fact, was lost in the pursuit of this great opinion with him, and perceived ruin and independence object; and the empress of Russia, having offered her me- linked together.” diation, in order to restore peace between Great Britain If his lordship really expected that by a flourish of rheand Holland, Mr Secretary Fox, within two days after his toric he could persuade the Americans to abandon a sysentrance in office, wrote a letter to Simolin, the Russian tem for which they had fought so desperately, he greatly minister in London, informing him that his majesty was overrated his own powers, and mistook the men with whom ready to enter into negociations for peace, on the basis of he had to deal. No obstruction, however, arose to the genethe treaty of 1674; and that, in order to facilitate such ral pacification. As early as the 30th of November 1782, negociations, he was willing to give immediate orders for the articles of a provisional treaty were settled between a suspension of hostilities, if the States-general were dis- Britain and America. By these it was stipulated, that posed to agree to that measure. But the states of Holland the people of the United States should continue to enjoy, did not appear inclined to enter into a separate peace; nor without molestation, the right to take fish of every kind perhaps would it have been agreeable to the principles of on the grand bank, and on all the other banks of Newsound policy if they had consented to any propositions of foundland; and that they should continue to exercise the this kind. But immediately after the change of ministry, same privilege in the Gulf of St Lawrence, and at every negociations for a general peace were commenced at Paris ; other place in the sea where the inhabitants used hereand Mr Grenville was invested with full powers to treat tofore to fish. They were likewise to have the liberty to with all the parties at war, and to propose the independence take fish of every kind on such parts of the coast of Newof the thirteen United Provinces of North America in the foundland as British seamen resort to, but not to cure first instance, instead of making it a condition of a gene- or dry them on that island. They were to enjoy the priral treaty. Admiral Digby and General Carleton were also vilege of fishing on the coasts, bays, and creeks of the directed to acquaint the American congress with the paci- other dominions of his Britannic majesty in America; and fic views of the British court, and with the offer made to the American fishermen were permitted to cure and dry acknowledge the independence of the United States. fish in any of the unsettled bays, harbours, and creeks of But before this work of pacification had made any con- Nova Scotia, Magdalen Islands, and Labrador. But it siderable progress, the new ministry sustained an irrepar- was agreed that, after such places should be settled, this able loss by the death of the Marquis of Rockingham in July right could not be legally put in practice without the con1782. Even before this event, considerable apprehensions sent of the inhabitants and proprietors of the ground. It were entertained of their want of union ; but the death of was arranged that creditors upon either side should meet the nobleman just mentioned occasioned an absolute dis- with no impediment in the prosecution of their claims; solution. The Earl of Shelburne, who succeeded him as that the congress should earnestly recommend it to the first lord of the treasury, proved so disagreeable to some legislatures of the respective states, to provide for the resof his colleagues, that Mr Fox, Lord John Cavendish, Mr titution of all estates and properties which had been conBurke, Mr Frederick Montague, and two or three others, fiscated belonging to real British subjects, and of the esinstantly resigned. Others, however, though little attached tates and properties of persons resident in districts in the to the earl, continued in their places; and his lordship possession of his majesty’s arms, and who had not borne found means to attach to his interest Mr William Pitt, arms against the United States; that persons of any other son to the late Earl of Chatham. Though then in an early description should have free liberty to go to any part whatstage of life, that gentleman had already distinguished him- soever of any of the thirteen United States, and remain in self greatly in parliament, and was now prevailed upon to it for twelve months unmolested in their endeavours to accept the office of chancellor. The seceding members of recover such of their estates, rights, and properties, as the cabinet were at pains to explain to the house their mo- might not have been confiscated; that the congress should tives for taking this step, which were in general a suspicion earnestly recommend to the several states a revision of all that matters would be managed differently from the plan acts or laws regarding the premises, so as to render them which they had proposed while in office, and particularly perfectly consistent, not only with justice and equity, but that American independence would not be acknowledged. with that spirit of conciliation which, on the return of the But this was positively denied at the time, and with truth, blessing of peace, should universally prevail; that no fuas appeared by the event. There appeared, indeed, a du- ture confiscations should be made, nor prosecutions complicity in the conduct of the Earl of Shelburne not easily menced against any person, or body of men, on account of to be accounted for. Even after it had been intimated by the part which he or they had taken in the war; that those General Carleton and Admiral Digby that the indepen- who might be in confinement on account of such a charge dence of the United Provinces would be conceded by his at the time of the ratification of the treaty in America majesty in the first instance, instead of piaking it a con- should be immediately set at liberty; that all hostilities dition of a provisional treaty, his lordship said, that “ he by sea and land should immediately cease ; that prisoners had formerly been, and still was, of opinion^that whenever on both sides should be set at liberty; that his Britannic the independence of America was acknowledged by the majesty should expeditiously, and without committing deBritish parliament, the sun of England’s glory was set for struction of any sort, withdraw all his armies, garrisons, ever. Jhis had been the opinion of Lord Chatham and and fleets, from every port, place, and harbour, of the other able statesmen; nevertheless, as the majority of the United States; that the navigation of the river Mississippi, cabinet were of a contrary way of thinking, he acquiesced from its source to the ocean, should remain for ever free

BRITAIN.

503

, hi Reign of and open to the subjects of Great Britain and the citizens who had settled in the island of Minorca and in the two Reign of iJj.eorge III. of the United States; and, finally, that if any place or Floridas, to sell their estates, recover their debts, a.n(l territory belonging to Great Britain or to the United States transport their persons and effects, without being restrain^ ■ 1^2‘ should be conquered by the arms of either before the ar- ed upon account of their religion, or on any other pretence rival of the provisional articles in America, it should be whatsoever, except that of debts and prosecutions for restored without compensation or difficulty. crimes. The liberty of cutting logwood, in a district of In the treaty between Great Britain and France it was which the boundaries were to be ascertained, without moagreed that Newfoundland should remain with England, lestation or disturbance of any kind whatsoever, was grantas before the war; and, to prevent disputes about boun- ed to Great Britain. The king of Spain was to restore daries, it was arranged that the French fishery should com- the islands of Providence and the Bahamas, in the condimence at Cape St John on the eastern side, and, sweep- tion in which they were when conquered by his arms, ing round by the north, should have for its boundary Cape And all other conquests of territories and countries upon Ray on the western side. The islands of St Pierre and either side, not included in the present articles, were also Miquelon, which had been taken in September 1778, were to be mutually restored without difficulty or compensation, ceded in full right to France. Great Britain was to reBut no sooner were these articles ratified and laid before store to France the island of St Lucia, and to cede and parliament, than they excited the most vehement declaguarantee to her that of Tobago; and France was to sur- mations against ministry. Never had the administration render to Great Britain the islands of Grenada and the of Lord North himself been arraigned with more asperity Grenadines, St Vincent, Dominica, St Christophers, Nevis, of language. The ministry defended themselves with reand Montserrat. The river Senegal and its dependen- solution, but found it impossible to avoid the censure of cies were to be given to France ; and the island of Goree parliament. An address without any amendment was inwas also to be restored. Fort James and the river Gam- deed carried in the House of Lords by a considerable mabia were guaranteed to his Britannic majesty; and the jority; but it was lost in the lower house. On the 21st o-um trade was to remain in the same condition as before of February some resolutions were moved in the House of the commencement of hostilities. The king of Great Bri- Commons by Lord George Cavendish, of which the most tain was to restore to his most Christian majesty all the remarkable were, that the concessions made by Britain establishments which belonged to him at the breaking were greater than its adversaries had a right to expect; out of the war on the coast of Orixa and in Bengal; and and that the house would take the case of the American became bound to secure to the subjects of France in that loyalists into consideration. The last motion indeed his part of India, and on the coasts of Orixa, Coromandel, and lordship consented to waive, but the rest were carried Malabar, a safe, free, and independent trade, either as in- against ministry. dividuals, or under the direction of a company. PondiThese proceedings, however, made no alteration with recherry, as well as Karical, was to be restored to France ; gard to the treaty, which had already been ratified by all the the two districts of Valanour and Bahour, round Pondi- contending powers, the Dutch only excepted. The terms cherry, and the four contiguous Magans round Karical, offered the latter were a renewal of the treaty of 1674; were also to be given up; and the French were again to which, though highly advantageous, they at that time poenter into the possession of Mahe, and of the comptoir at sitively declined. They afterwards, however, made an offer Surat. The allies of France and Great Britain were to be to accept the terms which they had formerly rejected; but invited to accede to the present pacification ; and in the the compliment was then returned by a refusal on the part event of their disinclination, no assistance on either side of Britain. When the preliminary articles had been settled was to be given to them. Great Britain renounced all with the courts of France and Spain, a suspension of arms claims to Dunkirk. Commissioners were to be respec- with Holland ensued; but though the definitive arrangetively appointed by both nations to inquire into the state ments with the other powers were finally concluded by the of commerce, and to concert new arrangements of trade month of September, it was not till then that the prelimion the footing of mutual convenience. And all conquests nary articles were settled with Holland. The terms were on either side, in any part of the world whatsoever, not a general restitution of all places taken on both sides dumentioned nor alluded to in the treaty, were to be restored ring the war, excepting only the settlement of Negapatwithout difficulty, and without requiring compensation, nam in the East Indies, which was to remain in the hands The prisoners on each side were also to be released with- of Britain, unless an equivalent should be given on the out ransom, upon the ratification of the treaty, and on pay- part of Holland. The navigation of the eastern seas was ing the debts which they might have contracted during to remain free and unmolested to all British shipping. The their captivity ; and each crown was respectively to reim- remaining articles concerned only the exchange of prisonburse the sums which had been advanced for the mainte- ers, and such other matters as are common to all treaties, nance of their prisoners, by the country where they had Thus an end was put to the most dangerous war in which been detained, according to attested and authentic vouch- Britain had ever engaged, and out of which, notwithstanders. These preliminary articles of peace were concluded ing the powerful combination against her, she came supeat Versailles on the 20th of January 1783, between Mr rior to all her enemies. The politicians who had imagined Alleyne Fitzherbert, minister plenipotentiary on the part that the prosperity of Britain depended in a great measure of his Britannic majesty, and Charles Gravier, Comte de on her colonies were singularly mistaken. This was shown Vergennes, the minister plenipotentiary on the part of the at the time, and has been completely confirmed by subseking of France. quent experience. For a number of years she had not only At the same time preliminary articles of peace between been deprived of these colonies, but opposed by them with Great Britain and Spain were also concluded at Versailles all their force ; yet though attacked at the same time by between Mr Fitzherbert and the Conde d’Aranda, the three of the greatest powers in Europe, and looked upon minister plenipotentiary of the Spanish monarch. His with an invidious eye by all the rest, the damage done to Catholic majesty was to continue in possession of the her enemies still greatly exceeded that which she had island of Minorca, and to retain West Florida; whilst East received. Their trade by sea was almost ruined; and on Florida was to be ceded to him by the king of Great Bri- comparing the loss of ships on both sides, the balance in tain. Eighteen months from the ratification of the defini- favour of Britain was twenty-eight ships of the line and tive treaty were to be allowed to the subjects of Britain thirty-seven frigates, carrying in all near two thousand

BRITAIN. 504 Reign of guns. Notwithstanding this, however, the state of the some directions for preventing the dock-yards and ma- Reign ofl George III. nation appears to have been really such that a much longer gazines from being exposed to similar danger in future. George Hi Thus it appeared that the whole of the alarm of treason continuance of the war would have been impracticable. 1782. Having thus given as full an account as our limits admit and American incendiaries was occasioned by the politiof the great national events till the conclusion of the peace cal enthusiasm of a wretched vagabond, who chose to stake in 1783, we shall now advert to some others, which, though his life on the wild venture we have described. Still, however, it appeared that the French court were of sufficient importance to deserve notice, could not be previously introduced without interrupting the narrative. very well acquainted with many particulars relating to the On the 8th of December 1776 a fire broke out in the rope- state of this kindgom, and the movements of our squadrons, house of the dock-yard at Portsmouth, which totally con- which ought by all means to have been kept secret. These sumed it, but without doing any very material damage. treacherous communications were first detected in the For some time the affair passed as an accident; but in clear- month of June 1780. One Ratcliffe, master of a cutter, dising away the rubbish a tin-box was found with a wooden closed that he had been hired by a fellow called Roger to bottom, containing matches which had been lighted, and carry packets to France, for which he was to be paid L.20 underneath was a vessel filled with spirits of wine. The each time, and to have L.100 besides at a certain period; fire, however, not having been properly supplied with air, but apprehending that he might incur some danger by conhad gone out of itself before it touched the spirits of wine; tinuing this employment, he gave information of what was for if it had caught fire, all the stores in the storehouse, going on to one Mr Steward, a merchant at Sandwich, by sufficient to fit out fifty sail of the line, would have been whom his last packet was carried to the secretary of state. destroyed. In the beginning of the year 1777 a fire hap- After being opened and sealed up again, it was returned, pened at Bristol, which consumed six or seven warehouses; and he was directed to carry it to France as formerly. Seand by the discovery of machines similar to those already veral succeeding packets were treated in the same fashion, mentioned, it was evident that the fire had not been acci- though it was some time before Ratcliffe saw the principal dental. The terror of the public was now greatly increas- party concerned ; but this was at last accomplished by his ed, and violent mutual accusations were thrown out by the complaining to Roger that he had not been paid the L.100 ministerial and popular parties. On this point, however, according to promise. A meeting having been procured, it they soon came to a right understanding, by the discovery was found that the person who furnished intelligence to the enemy was one M. Henri de la Motte, a French gentleof the author of all this mischief. This was one James Aitken, otherwise called John the man then residing in London. On searching his house, Painter, a native of Edinburgh. Having from his early no papers of any consequence were found ; but being abyears been accustomed to a vagrant life, to which indeed sent when the messengers first arrived, he, on his return, his profession naturally led him, he had gone through a threw some put of his pockets, unperceived, as he thought, variety of adventures. He had enlisted as a soldier, de- by any body. The papers, however, were taken up by serted, and, when pinched by want, made no scruple of the messengers, and gave plain indications not only of a betaking himself to the highway, or of committing thefts. treasonable correspondence with the enemy, but also of his Having traversed a great part of America, he had there being connected with one Henry Lutterloch, a German, imbibed to such a degree the prejudices against Britain, who then resided at Wickham near Portsmouth. This that he at last took the extraordinary resolution of singly person being also apprehended, not only made a full disoverturning the whole power of the nation; an achievement closure of the treasonable correspondence with France, which he was to accomplish by setting fire to the dockyards but gave abundant proofs of being himself one of the most at Portsmouth and Plymouth, and afterwards to the prin- depraved of mankind, and lost to every feeling exceptcipal trading towns of the kingdom. With this view he ing the desire of accumulating wealth. His evidence, carefully inspected the docks and other places on which however, and other strong circumstances, were sufficient his attempts were to be made, in order to ascertain in what to convict M. de la Motte, who was accordingly executmanner they were guarded, which he found in general as ed, though the king remitted the more dreadful part of his negligent as he could desire : and had there not been some sentence. During his trial, and on every other occasion, deficiency in the construction of his machines, he must he behaved in such a manner as showed him to be an achave done incredible mischief; for as his attempts were al- complished gentleman, and not only excited the compasways detected by the discovery of his machines, it is evi- sion, but the admiration, of every one who saw him. During the whole course of the "war, only one other perdent that he had met with abundance of opportunities. For some time the affair at Portsmouth, as has already been son was detected in any act of treason ; and he appears to mentioned, passed for an accident. It was soon recollect- have been actuated merely by mercenary motives. This ed, however, that a person had been seen loitering about was a man called David Tyrie, a native of Edinburgh. the rope-house, and had even been locked up a night in it; Flaving been bred in the mercantile line, and engaged in a that he had worked as a painter, and taken frequent op- number of speculations with a view to gain money, in all portunities of getting into that house, and other buildings of which he had discovered considerable abilities, he at last in the yard. These circumstances exciting a suspicion engaged in the more dangerous one of conveying intellithat he was the incendiary, he was traced to different gence to the French, of the ships of war fitted out in Briplaces, and at last found in a prison, to which he had been tain, the time of their sailing, and other particulars. For committed on a charge of burglary. On his examination, this he was apprehended in the month of February 1782. however, he behaved with an assurance and apparent con- The discovery was made by means of one Mrs Askew, who sciousness of innocence which almost disconcerted those passed for Tyrie’s wife. This person having delivered a who were appointed to examine him ; but at last he was bundle of papers in a hurry to a school-mistress, desired deceived into a confession by another painter, a native of her not to show them to any one; the latter, however, not America, who pretended to compassionate his case. Evi- only inspected them herself, but showed them to another, dence was thus procured against him, but he still main- by whom they were sent to the secretary at war. By this, tained his character to the last, rejecting and invalidating and another packet discovered by^ William James, who the testimony of his perfidious friend, on account of his had been employed to carry it to France, Tyiie was conbaseness and treachery. He received his sentence with victed of treasonable correspondence with the enemy, and great fortitude, but at length confessed his guilt, and lef* executed in the month of August 1/82.

505 BRITAIN. the Ministry The Prince’s Correspondence—Regency Bill Reign of Reign of On the whole, it appears that notwithstanding the expassed Recovery of the King—Conduct of the Irish Parha- George III. ieorge III. cessive virulence of parties, which even proceeded so far nient respecting the Regency—The Slave Trade—Mr V\ilas to produce duels between some members of parliament, berforce’s Propositions—^Jesuitical Support of Mr Pitt.—-Mr 1783. 1783. neither entertained any designs against what was believed Addington chosen Speaker of the House of Commons—New Taxes Extension of the Excise Laws—Proposed Repeal ot to be the true interest of the nation. The one seems to Religious Tests and Penal Statutes—Indian Affairs—Trial of have regarded its honour too much, and to have been inMr Hastings Affair of Nundcomar. clined to sacrifice even its existence to that favourite notion ; the other perhaps regarded the national honour too remarked, that in the debates in the little; nor indeed could an advantageous idea have been of Commons upon the treaties concluded under formed of the spmt of the nation winch should have subShe|bume.s admiLtnition, by which the American nutted to the dismemberment of its empire without a Strugt0 a close> the 4ms of those treaties gle. The event, however, has shown, that the loss of the * d of by the majority of the house; and this di J colonies, so far irom being a disadvantage, has beenthevery di was e/pressed by cj,rryi„g an amendment reverse. The commerce of Britain, mstea o S t tbe ministerial motion for an address of thanks to his pendent on America, has arrived at a much greater he,ght ^ d how that the nat!on at than ever; whilst the consequent increase ot wealth has J Jisapproyed „f the conditions of the peace. All enabled the nation to support that enormous debt part of ^ of had ,ong been w(.ary of the war „ith the which was contracted, first in defending, a . co]on;eS; and desirous to relinquish every claim ot sovetempting to conquer, the colonies. reignty over them; and this point being decided, other objects of negociation were of too little importance to exCHAP. XIV. cite any great degree of public interest. The majority which now voted against administration consisted of men reign of george in.—intermediate period. brought together by views little connected with tbe acNature of the opposition to Lord Shelburne’s administration— complisbment of any patriotic object, and in a manner States of Parties Coalition between Lord North and Mr Fox. which well merits the attention ot the historian —Coalition Ministry Taxes—Mr Pitt’s Motion for Reform The death of the Marquis of Rockingham left in a very in Parliament Irish Independence Bill.—Mr Dundas’s India disjointed state the party which had opposed the American Bill Mr Pitt’s Office-Reform Bill—Petition of the American war. Lord Shelburne’s administration appears to have Loyalists Establishment of the Prince of Wales—New Inventions Opinion of the Public respecting the Coalition— been formed under the influence of the crown alone, to Mr Fox’s India Bills—Report of the Secret Committee— the exclusion of Lord North and his friends, as well as Sir T. Rumbold and Mr Hastings accused by Mr Dundas— of Mr Fox and the other principal members of the former Report of the Select Committee—Debates on Mr Fox’s Bills. 0ppOSition. Thus an attempt appears to have been made inuiio.—^ crovern the kingdom without supporting thi —First Bill carried in the Commons-—Jlis Majesty’s disappro- ^ govern the royal prebation intimated Rejected in the Lords—Change of Minisy try, and of Mr Pitt to ">g«i.e by the strength of any political party. An event Crown and the House of Commons—Resolutions of the House however, occuired ot a natm e undoubtedly not a little against the new Ministry Mr Pitt’s Bill for regulating India dangerous to the constitution ; but being new in itseh, it rejected Further Disputes.—The Public take part with the seems not to have been foreseen by speculative writers Administration—New Coalition proposed—Air Pitt refuses to Up0n jlie British government. resign, and the King also refuses to dismiss the Mmister.—Disq'he American war had been conducted with a profusion solution of* Parliament.—Infections.— Xotal Defeat ot tiie C/Oaliu i]*x* 4.*. tion!—-Consequences New Parliament—Mr Pitt’s new India of expense totally unexampled m former contests. Ihe BUI Debates on this Measure Finance Restoration of the service of government became of itself an immense opiect Forfeited Estates Westminster Election.—Nabob of Arcot’s 0f trade, an employment in which thousands of all kinds Debts. Nature of these Exposition of Mr Burke—Mr Pitt s of artists, manufacturers, and merchants, engaged; and Plan of Parliamentary Reform—Rejected in limine—Finances. hence the patronage enjoyed by the minister for the time ,—Duke of Richmond’s Fortifications.—Regulation of Public was proportionally extensive. The natural consequence Offices Irish Propositions.—Foreign Affairs—League to protect the Germanic Constitution—Commercial Treaties—Bri- was, that he and his friends, with a long train of their tain and Hanover.—Debate on the Duke ot Richmond’s Plans. friends and dependents, were enabled to accumulate great —Militia Laws Mr Pitt’s Sinking Fund—Discussion there- wealth, and rise to the enjoyment of influence in all parts on .Fallacy of the Scheme—Wine Duties—Best size and of the country. The impracticability of accomplishing form of Ships of War—General State of the Empire—India.— the great object of the war at last led to its termination ; Air Burke’s Proceedings against Air Hastings—Mr Pitt’s In- and the minister who had been unsuccessful in conductdia Bill amended by Air Dundas’s act—Attempt against the King’s Life by Alargaret Nicholson—Commercial Treaty with ing it was dismissed, as had usually been done upon such France Debates thereon—Mr Pitt’s Defence of the Treaty. occasions in Britain, to make way for his antagonists, who Consolidation of Taxes.—Corporation and Test Acts—Prince ilacj iong recommended, and who c^uld, therefore, with a of Wales’s Debts—Accusation of Mr Hastings.—Mr Sheridan s better grace adopt, measures of paciflcation. But the disS^epS-Im^lchmen” vS“Rreii«L™ T“,ii °f the minister and hi* fl'ie"ds from their official Proceeding—Affairs of Holland—State of Parties in the Unit- situations did not at once destroy their political imported Provinces—Interference of the Neighbouring States—Prus- ance in the state. They constituted a very formidable sians invade Holland Meeting of Parliament—Conduct of body of men in both houses of parliament; and such was the Government in regard to Holland approved of by the Op- t^e influence which the possession of power had conferred position Naval Promotions, and Debates thereon—Act against upon Lord North, that to the latest period of his life he was the Exportation of Wool—State of the Revenue—Compensa- understood to be able to carry along with him, at all times, tion to the American Loyalists—Slave 'Trade—Bill for Regulating the Transportation of Negroes—Indian Affairs—.Decla- upwards of forty votes in the House of Commons; a power ratory Bill.—Trial of Air Hastings—Burke’s Oration of Five which was evidently too dangerous to belong to a subject of Days Mode of Procedure—Accusation of Sir Elijah Impey. a free state, and so indeed it proved by the event to be. —State of European Politics—Sweden—Wars between SweMr Fox, and the other statesmen who had led the opden and Russia Danish Invasion of Sweden—Interposition position to Lord North’s measures during the American of the British Envov, and Recal of the Danish troops—The King’s Illness Regency Question.—Debates and Proceed- war, but who had retired from administration on the acings connected therewith.—Manoeuvring and Procrastination of cession of Lord Shelburne to the treasury after the death VOL. v. 3s t

BRITAIN. 506 lleign of of the Marquis of Rockingham, appear to have at last be- the debates upon the treaty of peace in the middle of Reign of George III. come weary of an unprofitable opposition, and desirous February. From that period it was considered as obvious George III] upon almost any terms of entering into the enjoyment of that a new administration must be formed; and hence 1 1783. power. But their party, though possessing very great ta- from that time public business remained at a stand, and ‘ lents, was too weak in point of numbers to be able to con- the nation was kept in suspense. The period was critical, tend against the minister of the day, supported by the on account of the termination of the war, at which great whole patronage of the crown. On the other hand, though bodies of troops and seamen were to be discharged, and Lord North and his friends formed in both houses of par- many pecuniary arrears paid off. The different regiments liament a very formidable phalanx, still they also were of militia were also disembodied, and sailors and soldiers too few to contend against ministerial influence, and the dismissed in a state of turbulence, natural to men accusparty usually called the “ king’s friendswhile from the tomed to arms, and whose pay had not been regularly paid. natural course of things they might also expect that their These and other circumstances, joined with the unsettled numbers would gradually diminish. They had risen by state of the government, produced various disorderly proattaching themselves to the service of the state ; and the ceedings at Portsmouth, Plymouth, and other places. In changes which mortality produces would by degrees en- the mean time, a loan could not be negociated by the miable the existing government to supplant them by a new nistry whilst they wanted the countenance of the House race of ambitious men. In this state of matters the two of Commons. During the whole month of March, however, opposition parties, led by Lord North and Mr Fox, thought they still lingered in their places, and a variety of negociafit to come to an agreement to unite their strength, and tions were carried on by the court for the purpose of atthus, by forming a complete majority in parliament, to im- tempting to form a new ministry, without an unconditional pose themselves upon the sovereign as his ministers. In transfer of the government of the kingdom to the Coalition. this way the majority was produced which opposed Lord Confident of their own strength, however, this political Shelburne’s administration, and it has since been known combination were desirous of attaining power upon their own terms, and continued to display their superiority in under the appellation of the Coalition. The effect produced upon the public mind by this coali- the House of Commons, with a view to compel their own tion was extremely important; and it is probable that even reception at court. On the 24th of March, on the moyet its consequences are not fully understood. In almost tion of Mr T. W. Coke, seconded by Lord Surrey, an any other country than Britain, and indeed at many for- address was agreed to, requesting his majesty to take into mer periods of our history, such a combination of power- consideration the distracted state of the empire after an ful men, possessing a predominance in the legislature, exhausting war, and to comply with the wishes of the could not have failed to prove fatal to the constitution, house, by forming an administration entitled to the confiand destructive of the internal tranquillity of the state. If dence of his people. His majesty answered, that it was the king gave way to such an aristocratical combination, his earnest desire to do every thing in his power to comand received its leaders into his service, it was to be fear- ply with the wishes of his faithful Commons. The delay, ed that the whole patronage of the crown, together with however, continued ; and all descriptions of men were inthe authority of the royal name, and the majority which volved in doubt, suspense, and anxiety. On the 31st of they already possessed in the other branches of the legis- the same month, a new address, moved by Lord Surrey, lature, might enable them to fortify themselves by new was agreed to, urging in very earnest terms the formation institutions and laws, and render them independent both of what was called an efficient and responsible administraof the king and people. No hope appeared from a disso- tion, formed upon principles of strength and stability, and lution of parliament, as the public at large were not at suited to the actual state of his majesty’s affairs both at once aware of the critical situation to which the constitu- home and abroad. And at last, on the 2d of April, his mation had been brought by the Coalition; and a prince of jesty, yielding to what appeared as necessity, appointed an a rash character would, in such circumstances, perhaps administration consisting of the leaders of the Coalition. The Duke of Portland was promoted to be first lord of have seen no other resource for the protection of his prerogative, than to attempt to govern without a parliament, the treasury; Lord North and Mr Fox were appointed the majority of which were evidently acting, not the part principal secretaries of state; Lord John Cavendish was of dutiful subjects or faithful representatives of the people, made chancellor of the exchequer; Lord Keppel was but of individuals conspiring to seize, for their own private placed at the head of the admiralty; Lord Stormont was advantage, the emoluments and authority of office. This created president of the council; and the Earl of Carlisle judgment will not probably be regarded as too severe, was advanced to be keeper of the privy seal. These conwhen it is considered, that at the period in question there stituted the cabinet; and the other offices of government existed no pretext for opposition to the crown founded were filled by the supporters and friends of ministers. The upon any complaint of the nation against the abuse of its right honourable Charles Townshend was appointed treaprerogatives ; and that the individuals who now coalesced surer of the navy, Mr Burke paymaster general of the could not have been induced to do so upon any pretence forces, and Lord Viscount Townshend master-general of of political principle. Lord North, the steady assertor and the ordnance. The seals were put in commission, at the supporter of the royal prerogative, and the conductor of head of which was Lord Loughborough. Theright honourthe American war, now joined Mr Fox, the opponent of able Richard Fitzpatrick was appointed secretary at war ; that war, and the eloquent champion of the privileges of the James Wallace, Esq. was made attorney-general; John Lee, people ; and neither of these men, nor their friends, ever Esq. became solicitor-general; the Earl of Northington was pretended that they had relinquished their former opinions. appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland; and, in Scotland, the The purpose of the present coalition was therefore noto- honourable Henry Erskine was made lord-advocate, in the rious ; whilst the outrageous abuse with which they had room of Mr Henry Dundas. But the new administration formerly treated each other served only to afford a new was no sooner installed, than an opposition was formed, example how completely ambition is capable of subduing which, in the House of Lords, was led by the Duke of every resentment, and all the ordinary passions of the hu- Richmond and Lord Thurlow ; and in the House of Comman mind. mons by Mr Pitt, and Mr Jenkinson, afterwards created The party now called the Coalition had displayed the successively Lord Hawkesbury and Earl of Liverpool. auperiority of their numbers in the House of Commons in The Coalition administration, on entering into office,

BRITAIN. 507 Reign of were under the necessity of instantly negociating a loan India. The chief feature of his plan consisted in sub- Reign of Seorge III. 0f twelve millions, to supply the necessities of the state; jecting the presidencies of Madras and Bombay to a con- George IIL ^ and to provide for the interest of this loan various- taxes trolling jurisdiction, to be conferred on the government of were proposed by Lord John Cavendish, the chancellor of Bengal, which he wished to vest in the person a of gover' the exchequer. These were imposed on bills of exchange, nor, entitled to act when he thought fit, in opposition to receipts, probates of wills and legacies, bonds, and law the opinion of his council. Another object of this bill was proceedings, stage coaches, quack medicines, carriages, to secure to the native proprietors their estates in perpeletters-patent, and other articles; whilst registers of births, tuity, on payment of a fixed tribute, and to extend these marriages, and deaths, were also taxed. These taxes gave provisions to the nabob of Arcot and the rajah of Tanrise to debates which produced little interest. But the jore. Mr Dundas contended that such a measure was case was otherwise with regard to another subject in which rendered necessary in consequence of the improper conMr Pitt took the lead. duct and tyranny of the servants of the East India ComTowards the close of the Amei’ican war, when want of pany, and especially of their principal servant Mr Hastsuccess had begun to render it unpopular, it had been re- ings, whom he proposed to recal, and to send out to Inpeatedly urged, both in parliament and in various publica- dia Lord Cornwallis, as governor-general, in his stead. tions, that the ministerial majorities in favour of the mea- The scheme, however, proved abortive; but it led to other sures pursued against the colonies would never have exist- legislative efforts on the same subject. ed if the people of this country had been fairly represented Though Mr Pitt had been unsuccessful in his proposal in the House of Commons. By degrees this sentiment at- to reform the representation of the people in parliament, tracted attention; and to give countenance to parliamen- he immediately brought forward a bill containing a protary reform came to be regarded as a sure step towards ject for an inferior species of reform, respecting the fees, the attainment of popular favour. Accordingly, Mr Pitt, gratuities, and perquisites in the different departments of then a young man, endeavoured to recommend himself to the public offices. The object of this bill being economy, notice, by engaging eagerly in the pursuit of this object. it passed through the House of Commons, but was rejectHe opened the subject in the House of Commons on the ed in the House of Lords. 7th of May, in an eloquent speech, in which, after declarTowards the close of the session, a petition from the ing his admiration of the general fabric of the British con- American loyalists was, by his majesty’s command, prestitution, and affirming that he wished not to alter but to sented to the House of Commons by Lord John Cavenrestore its true spirit, which time and changes, accident and dish. It stated that the petitioners, some of whom were events, had enfeebled and diminished, he asserted that the persons of the first character, fortune, and consideration, state of parliamentary representation was partial and in- having adhered to Great Britain during the contest with adequate, and the progress of undue influence alarming and the colonies, had been attainted in North America as ominous; that the true spirit of liberty had decayed, and traitors, and their effects confiscated by the legislatures that the powers of control, in different branches of the of the different states. Many of the petitioners were government, were greatly debilitated; that wild specula- widows and orphans, who had lost husbands and fathers tions of reform were afloat without doors; but that the mea- by their adherence to the British cause; whilst others sures he was about to propose were equally moderate and were military and civil officers, clergy and other profesnecessary. He stated his plan of reform to be,—first, that sional men, who had lost their means of subsistence in measures ought to be taken to prevent bribery and expense the same manner. They prayed the House of Commons at elections; secondly, that for the future, when the ma- to grant them such relief as might seem adequate to their jority of voters of any borough should be convicted of situation ; and, on the motion of the chancellor of the exnotorious corruption, the borough should be disfranchised, chequer, an act was accordingly passed, appointing comand the minority of voters not so convicted should be en- missioners to inquire into the circumstances of such pertitled to vote for the county in which the borough might sons as were reduced to distress by the late dissensions in be situated; thirdly, that an addition ought to be made to America. the representation, to consist of knights of the shire, and On the 23d of June his majesty, by a message, requestof representatives of the metropolis. Mr Pitt was opposed ed the aid of parliament in making a separate establishwith much earnestness by Lords North and Mulgrave, and ment for the Prince of Wales. Sixty thousand pounds also by Mr Powis. He was supported, however, by Mr only were demanded for this purpose; and it was stated Fox and Mr Beaufoy, and also by Mr Thomas Pitt, who by Lord John Cavendish, that his majesty intended to aloffered, as a testimony of his sincerity, to make a volun- low the prince L.50,000 a year out of the civil list, without tary sacrifice of his borough of Old Sarum. Mr Henry requiring from the public any further assistance than the Dundas, who now attached himself to Mr Pitt, supported above sum of L.60,000, which would be requisite to deon this occasion the motion of his friend, and asserted, that fray the extraordinary expense attending a new establishto comply with the wishes of the people would be the hap- ment. This last sum was the more readily granted, because piest means of putting an end to their complaints. Mr rumours had gone abroad, which were alluded to by Mr Pitt’s resolutions, however, were lost by a very large ma- Pitt in the House of Commons, that an intention had exjority. isted on the part of the administration, particularly of Mr During the same session the new administration brought Fox, to give the prince a very splendid establishment at forward a bill, admitting in express terms the exclusive the public expense, but that this proposal had not proved rights and absolute supremacy of the parliament and courts acceptable to his majesty. Mr Fox said, that he undoubtof Ireland in matters of legislation and judicature, and pre- edly considered the proposed establishment as much too venting any writs of error or appeal from the courts of that low; and that if it had remained with him to have adviscountry to the courts of Great Britain. The bill passed ed an establishment, he would most assuredly have prowith little opposition, and tended to gratify the people of posed a sum more adequate to the object in view. The Ireland, though, by increasing the line of separation be- person, however, most proper to decide in the business tween the countries, it evidently placed them in greater had been of an opinion very different, and it was his duty hazard of disunion. to submit. During the present session Mr Dundas obtained leave Parliament was soon afterwards prorogued. The nation to bring into parliament a bill for regulating the affairs of was now in a state of perfect tranquillity. Some anxiety,

BRITAIN. 508 Reign of however, existed in the minds of men with regard to the second bill, which accompanied the first in all its stages, Reign of George III. public welfare. The load of public debt which had been was intended to regulate the administration of affairs in George III incurred seemed excessive ; and though commerce began India. It forbade the exchange, acquisition, or invasion 1 8 1 to flow into new and extensive channels, the returns of of any territory in India, by the general council, or any " trade necessarily required some time to exhibit themselves presidency there. It abolished all monopolies in India, in the form of a flourishing revenue. In the interval, there- and prohibited the acceptance of presents, making them fore, between the period at which the ministerial expen- recoverable by any person for his sole benefit. It sediture for the support of the war ceased, and that at which cured an estate of inheritance to the native landholders, the first profits of foreign trade were received, a consider- and provided against the alteration or increase of rents. able shortcoming took place in the public revenue, and in- It prohibited the molestation of princes subject to the dividuals experienced many difficulties. These, however, Company, and restrained the Company’s servants from colgradually passed away; and two inventions were by de- lecting or farming their revenues, or having any pecunigrees brought to perfection, which of themselves secured ary transactions with them. It prescribed a mode for ada profit to the public, almost equivalent to the burdens justing the disputes between the nabob of Arcot and the which it had irrcurred in consequence of the American rajah of Tanjore, and also between them and their Briwar. These were the machine for spinning cotton, the in- tish creditors. It disqualified the agents of the Company, vention of a man, originally of low station, Richard Ark- or of any protected Indian prince, from sitting in the Briwright; and the very valuable kinds of pottery contrived tish House of Commons ; and directed all offences against by Mr Wedgewood. The first of these, by producing at the act to be prosecuted in the courts of India or in the a cheap rate the most beautiful cotton fabrics, in a great Court of King’s Bench. The East India Company’s affairs had hitherto been measure put an end to the use of silk, and gave to the British manufacturers a kind of monopoly of many of the governed, in terms of the charter of the Company, by a most useful articles of clothing; whilst the other not only court of proprietors, and a court of directors elected by drew to the nation immense sums from foreign countries, the proprietors. The rights of these courts, however, were but, from the bulky nature of the commodity, employed an to be absolutely taken away; and their whole powers, or the sovereignty of British India, was to be vested duimmense tonnage of shipping in its exportation. In the mean time people had leisure to reflect upon the ring four years certain in the hands of seven individuals, nature of the coalition of political parties which had re- nominated by the present administration, through the mecently taken place. The tendency of that measure, and dium of their parliamentary majority. It was undoubtthe possible evils which might result from it, did not at edly a bold measure, openly to assault the privileges of once present themselves to the minds of men, because it such a body of men as the East India Company; but it was not known to the public at large that the sovereign was still more new and singular under the British constihad felt his own independence affected by the event. tution, in the form in which it had existed for more than The general sentiment, however, was that of indignation a century, to vest a large portion of the executive power, against the political parties, who had so far forgotten all including the command of armies, and an immense pecuthe principles which they had long and loudly professed, niary patronage, in the hands of a few individuals, who as to be capable of uniting with each other for the sake were to hold their places for a fixed period, independentof power and emolument. It was universally said that no ly of the will of the crown. By taking possession in this honesty was to be found among political men, and that no manner of the patronage of Hindustan, the present admiprofession of patriotism ought henceforth to be trusted. nistration would have found means to render themselves Thus a severe wound was inflicted upon the public morals for a certain time avowedly independent of their soveof the nation, by the want of consistency which its most reign, and they would not have failed to renew their own conspicuous characters had exhibited; and the wound was powers at the end of that period. It is to be observed, only the deeper from the apparent strength of administra- however, that the administration had in some degree been tion, which included in itself the men of greatest political led by circumstances which previously occurred, and which influence in the kingdom, who were considered as likely did not originate with them, to adopt some decisive measures for reducing India under better management than to retain long the power which they now possessed. In this state of affairs parliament assembled on the 11th that in which it had been placed by the East India Comof November. In the speech from the throne, the neces- pany ; and of these it will not be improper here to take a sity of providing for the security of the revenue, and of at- short review'. The circumstance of a great and wealthy empire having tending to the situation of the East India Company, were stated to both houses, as apologies for calling them to- been vanquished by a company of merchants, was a thing gether after so short a recess. Some days passed in dis- so new in the history of the wmi'ld that it could not fail to cussions relative to different parts of the revenue, when be attended with a variety of inconveniences. The EuroMr Secretary Fox moved for leave to bring in two bills re- pean nations have a near resemblance to each other in lative to the affairs of the East India Company. By the laws, manners, arts, and religion; and the mutual jealousy first of these, it was proposed to take from the East India which for some centuries they had been accustomed to Company the whole administration of their territorial and entertain of each other had prevented any of them fiom commercial affairs, and to vest it in seven directors, named making great conquests. W hen any power, therefore, hapin the bill, viz. Earl Fitzwilliam, the Right Honourable Fre- pened to acquh'e a portion of territory, this addition was derick Montague, Lord Viscount Lewisham, the Honour- never very great; and the laws of the neighbouiing states able George Augustus North, Sir Gilbert Elliot, Sir Henry being nearly alike, the conquered province scaicely expeFletcher, and Robert Gregory, Esq. These directors, or rienced any misfortune from a change of masteis. Hence commissioners, were to hold their office during four years, the evils attending upon great conquests had ceased to be and not to be removable by his majesty, without an ad- known among the nations of Europe ; and the conquerois dress from either house of parliament; and they were to and the conquered being in all cases men of similai characbe aided by a board composed of nine assistant directors, ters and talents, easily mingled with each other. The nobles who were to be removable by five of the principal direc- of Alsace were as well received at the couit of fiance as tors, and were to have full authority over all the com- those belonging to the ancient dominions of the French pany’s servants and affairs, civil as well as military. The crown ; and the natives of the Netherlands regaided with

BRITAIN. 509 Reign of much indifference their transition from the dominion of ther sum of L.l 19,000, amounting in all to L.160,000; Reign of George III. Spain to that of Austria and of France. But when the Bri- although his salary did not exceed L.13,335 per annum, George HItish made conquests in Hindustan, all the evils occurred and he had no other fair means of acquiring wealth. He 1783. which naturally attend the loss of national independence, was charged with having abolished the committees instiand that most wretched of all states of human affairs, in tuted to superintend the payment of the revenue due by which a race of strangers enjoys permanent dominion, whilst the zemindars, or natives holding lands under the Comthe natives of a country are subjected to hopeless depres- pany ; with having compelled them to travel many hundred sion and slavery. The British invaders of India undoubted- miles to negociate separately with himself the terms on ly possessed, or speedily acquired, the same rapacity with which they were to hold their estates; with having sufferother conquerors ; and as they were the servants of a com- ed his private secretary to receive a bribe of no less than pany of merchants whose only principle of exertion was L.20,000; with having concealed other peculations of the profit, it is probable that under them avarice and extortion Company’s servants ; with having given a lease of lands to assumed more vexatious forms, because accompanied with the nabob of Arcot, in direct disobedience of the Comgreater assiduity, and a more persevering temper, than pany’s orders; and with having violated the most solemn were exhibited by the former conquerors of that country, treaties entered into with the nizam of the Deccan. who issued from the deserts of Tartary and Arabia. The Charges so heavy could not be passed over, and leave was people of Great Britain, accustomed at home to the mild- accordingly given to bring in a bill of pains and penalties est government, and to the most equitable administration against Sir Thomas Rumbold, and two of his associates, of justice that the world ever experienced, heard with hor- Peter Perry and John Whitehill, for breaches of public ror of the crimes, robberies, perfidies, and massacres which trust and high crimes and misdemeanours; and at the their countrymen had committed, and by which the na- same time an act was passed i*estraining those persons tional name and character had been rendered odious in the from leaving the kingdom, and obliging a discovery of their East. The British government, also, being no party to these property, and preventing its alienation. In other resolutions brought forward on the 15th of crimes, wished to see them repressed, and very naturally supposed that the best remedy would consist in taking April, Mr Dundas stated a variety of accusations against India under its own immediate management. Some pub- Mr Hastings and Mr Hornsby; and a resolution was adoptlic-spirited individuals, indeed, dreaded the accession of in- ed, declaring it to be the duty of the directors of the East fluence which the crown would thus necessarily acquire; India Company to recal the governor-general, and Mr but men of humanity were willing to encounter consider- Hornsby the president, from their respective offices. Acable hazard, for the sake of altering the unjustifiable mode cordingly, the court of directors issued orders for this purpose ; but these were appealed from to a court of proprieof management which had prevailed in the East. Early in 1781, two committees were appointed by the tors, who, on the 31st of October 1782, prohibited the House of Commons, to inquire into the mal-administration court of directors from complying with the resolution of of the East India Company’s affairs both at home and the House of Commons. The result was, that Mr Hastabroad; and all parties in the house concurred in the ap- ings retained his office, and Mr Dundas, in the following pointment. The first, or select committee, conducted by session of parliament, brought forward the bill which we some of the most distinguished members of opposition, have already mentioned, but which was not passed into was directed to inquire into tbe state of the administration a law. At the same time that Mr Dundas, as chairman of the of justice in the provinces of Bengal, Bahar, and Orixa, and consider how the British possessions in the East In- secret committee, brought forward the resolutions already dies might be governed with most advantage to this coun- mentioned, the select committee presented their report; try, and with the greatest happiness to the natives. The and on the 18th of April, General Smith, their chairman, second, or secret committee, under the management of proposed various resolutions, in some of which Mr Hastpersons in the confidence of administration, was directed ings was criminated along with Sir Elijah Impey, chiefto inquire into the causes of the war in the Carnatic, and justice of the supreme court of Bengal. By means of investigations carried on by this committee, the leading the condition of the British possessions in those parts. On the 9th of April 1782, Mr Henry Dundas, lord-ad- members of opposition, particularly Mr Fox and Mr Burke, vocate of Scotland, and chairman of the secret commit- qualified themselves for directing at a future period the tee, moved that the reports of that committee be referred attention of the legislature and of the public to the state to a committee of the whole house. Upon this occasion, of Indian affairs. Mr Fox made use of his knowledge to Mr Dundas, in a long speech, enumerated the causes of bring forward the two remarkable bills already mentionthe calamities of the East, particularly the departure of ed ; and to justify so strong a measure, it was alleged that, the Company’s presidencies from the line of policy pre- by the mismanagement of the courts of directors and proscribed to them, namely, to avoid military operations with prietors, the affairs of the Company had been brought into a view to conquest; the corrupt interference of their ser- such a state of extreme embarrassment as rendered it vants in the domestic and national quarrels of the country absolutely necessary to vest the administration in other powers ; their breaches of faith and disregard of treaties ; hands. These abuses were arranged under three heads, as they their peculation and scandalous oppression of the natives ; and the criminal relaxation on the part of the directors in affected, first, the independent powers of India ; secondly, the exercise of their controlling power over their servants, the states in alliance with us; and, thirdly, our own terand their ready connivance at the grossest misconduct. ritorial possessions. Under the first head were classed Mr Dundas also brought forward a variety of other reso- the extravagant projects and expensive wars entered into lutions, which were adopted by the house ; and criminated by the Company to extend their dominions; their violain strong terms Sir Thomas Rumbold, formerly governor tions of treaty; the sale of their assistance in support of of Madras, and Mr Hastings, then governor-general of the ambition, rapacity, and cruelty of others; and the Bengal. Among various charges, it was stated that Sir betraying in turn almost every prince, without exception, Thomas Rumbold had remitted to Europe, between the with whom they had formed any connection in India. 8th of February 1778, the day of his arrival at Madras, The second class of abuses comprehended the corrupt and and the beginning of August in the same year, the sum ruinous interference of the Company in the internal goof L.41,000; and during the two subsequent years a fur- vernment of the princes dependent on them ; the unjust

510 BRITAIN. Reign of exaction of exorbitant aids and tribute; the enormous Mr Dundas did not object to the measure under consi- Reign of George III. peculations of the Company’s civil servants ; and the rapa- deration because it increased the influence of the crown, George III, city of the military. The third included the management but because it did what was much worse, by placing a 1 C83. 0f countries under the immediate dominion of the new and unexampled influence in the hands of the minisCompany, with respect to which it was affirmed, that the ter and his party for five years, which would be indepengeneral system of their conduct in India was directed to a dent both of the crown and the parliament. The bills single end, the transmission of wealth from that country were further attacked, not merely by those persons who to this. With this view, monopolies had been established, might be supposed to aspire to supplant ministers in their not only of every article of trade, but even of the neces- offices, but also by several country gentlemen of independsaries of life; the privilege of pre-emption had been se- ent character and high reputation for integrity; whilst the cured to the Company; and a variety of no less ruinous and ordinary members of opposition impugned the motives of arbitrary preferences followed. By this oppressive con- their author in very pointed terms. duct the merchants and bankers of India, many of whom The principal supporters of the bills were the two sein extent of trade and credit were scarcely equalled by cretaries of state, Mr Burke, Mr Sheridan, Mr Erskine, Mr those of the first class in Europe, fell gradually into de- Lee, Mr Adam, Sir Grey Coupar, Mr Anstruther, Mr cay; whilst the native cultivators and manufacturers were Courteney, Mr Rigby, Lord Maitland, and Sir Henry obliged to accept of a bare sufficiency for their mainte- Fletcher ; and they were opposed by Mr William Pitt, Mr nance, measured out to them by tbe judgment of those Thomas Pitt, Mr Jenkinson, Mr Powis, Mr Dundas, Mr who alone were to profit by their labour. The case of the Macdonald, Sir James Lowther, Mr Buncombe, Mr Marzemindars, and of the cultivators under them, was, if pos- tin, the Marquis of Graham, Mr Arden, Mr William Grensible, still more deplorable. At the time we obtained ville, Mr Beaufoy, Mr Wilberforce, Lord Mulgrave, and the dewannee or stewardship from the Mogul, the pro- Mr Wilkes. The first bill, however, was carried by a convinces of Bengal and Bahar had been laid waste by a fa- siderable majority; and on the 9th of December it was mine, which carried off upwards of one third of the popu- presented to the House of Lords by Mr Fox, attended by lation. But the first thing done for their relief was to a great number of members. On the first reading, Earl exact from the remainder the same tribute which had Temple, Lord Thurlow, and the Duke of Richmond, rebefore been paid by the whole. Nor was this all. The probated the measure in the most unqualified terms, but Company’s government in India had set up to public auc- without calling for a vote of the house; and Lord Thurtion the whole landed interest of Bengal, without the least low, at the same time, pronounced a panegyric upon the regard to the rights of private property, or even giving character and services of Mr Hastings. a preference to the ancient possessors; and the zeminMeanwhile an alarm seems to have been excited in the dars, most of them persons of ancient families and respect- mind of the sovereign. He had reluctantly given way to able fortunes, were under the necessity of bidding against the strength of the coalition, and conferred upon its leadevery desperate adventurer and schemer, or of seeing ers the first offices of the state; and he now heard it allegtheir estates delivered up to the management of strangers. ed, with some plausibility, that this combination of ambiThe sufferings of the natives under our dominion in India tious men, not satisfied with the ordinary influence attend^ were further aggravated by their being almost wholly ex- ing their situation, were about to fortify themselves in the cluded from any share in the expenditure of the Com- possession of power in such a way as gradually to enable pany’s government; all the principal collections of the them to become independent both of him and his people. revenue, all the honourable, all the lucrative situations in The moment seemed therefore to have arrived when temthe army, all the supplies and contracts of every kind, porizing measures could no longer be pursued, and a stand were in the hands of the English; so that the natives, must be made for the support of the royal prerogative. with few exceptions, were only employed as the servants Accordingly, on the 11th of December his majesty had a or agents of Europeans, in subordinate stations in the conference with Earl Temple, in which he confessed himarmy, and in the inferior department of collection, where self completely convinced of the correctness of the views it was impossible to proceed a step without their assist- entertained by opposition; and although it was now someance. It was therefore urged, that the present govern- what late to oppose a measure which had been brought ment of India was not in its nature capable of reform. forward by tbe ministers of the crown, and carried through Nothing could be expected from the court of proprietors, the House of Commons under the apparent sanction of because the members, as individuals, derived more profit the royal authority, a resolution was nevertheless adoptfrom supporting Indian delinquents, than they could ever ed to endeavour to prevent its further progress by means hope to receive from the fair dividends of the Company; of the House of Lords. A card was accordingly circulatand the court of directors, being a representative body, ed, understood to be sent by Earl Temple, in consequence naturally partook of the imperfections of its constituents. of vrritten authority from his majesty, in which it was In these views Mr Fox was powerfully supported by stated, that his majesty allowed Earl Temple to say, that the splendid eloquence of Mr Burke. But Mr Pitt con- whoever voted for the India bill was not only not his friend, tended, that although India undoubtedly wanted reform, but would be considered by him as his enemy; and that the alteration to be adopted ought to be constitutional, if these words were not strong enough, Earl Temple might and not such as in its principle endangered the safety of use whatever words he should deem stronger or more to every chartered incorporation in the kingdom. The com- the purpose. The consequence of this interposition was, pany’s charter was not the result of the mad prodigality that, on the 15th of December, upon a question of adjournof a Plantagenet, a Tudor, or a Stuart, but a fair purchase ment in the House of Lords, the ministers were left in a deliberately made from parliament, which could not be minority of eight. On the same day Mr Baker brought violated without a gross disregard to public faith. By forward a motion in the House of Commons, to declare, vesting the whole patronage of India in commissioners that, to report any opinion of his majesty, upon proceednominally appointed by parliament, but actually selected ings depending in parliament, with a view to influence the by administration, the influence of the crown would be votes of the members, is a high crime and misdemeanour, augmented to a degree which would enable it, like an ir- and a breach of the fundamental privileges of parliament. resistible torrent, utterly to overpower and sweep away This motion was seconded by Lord Maitland, and supportthe remaining liberties of the country. On the other hand. ed by references to the journals, and by the principle, that

* I

BRITAIN. 511 ’eign of advice ought only to be given to the king by his ministers, ranee that no dissolution would take place; and the latter Reign of urge III. wh0 are responsible for all the measures of government. having declined to comply with this requisition, Mr Fox George III. Pitt, however, opposed it, as proceeding upon unau- moved that the house should resolve itself into a com1733. Mr thenticated rumours, and asserted that the precedents al- mittee on the state of the nation, and the motion was car- 1733. luded to in the journals were not applicable to the present ried by a large majority. It was then resolved, that to iscase. But the motion was nevertheless carried by a large sue public money after a prorogation or dissolution of parmajority; and as it was feared that a dissolution would liament, unless an act had previously passed, appropriatinstantly take place, the house resolved that they would ing the supplies to specific services, would be a high crime consider any person as an enemy to his country who and misdemeanour ; that, in the present state of his mashould advise his majesty to interrupt their discharging jesty’s dominions, it was necessary to have an administrathe important duty of providing a remedy for the abuses tion possessing the confidence of the house and the pubwhich prevailed in the East Indies, and that they would lic ; that the recent appointments did not enjoy the conresolve themselves into a committee on the state of the na- fidence of the house ; and that the second reading of the tion on the 22d December. But on the 17th Mr Fox’s In- mutiny bill should be deferred till the 23d of February. dia bill was rejected in the House of Lords; and at twelve Warm debates ensued upon these resolutions. The Coao’clock on the night of the 18th a message was delivered lition was branded as a corrupt confederacy of two despeto the secretaries of state, requiring them to transmit to rate factions to seize upon the government of the country; his majesty the seals of their offices, by the under secre- and the India bill was represented as an experiment made taires, as a personal interview would be disagreeable to the by the late secretary of state, with a view to raise himself king. Early next morning, letters of dismission, signed to a degree of power superior to that of the sovereign. by Earl Temple, were sent to the other members of the On the other hand, the new administration was described cabinet, and a general resignation of offices followed. as a coalition, not indeed of parties, but of the shreds and A new administration was immediately formed, in which remnants, of the dregs and outcasts, of parties ; as a body Mr Pitt was appointed first lord of the treasury and collected for the purpose of fighting the battles of secret chancellor of the exchequer ; the Marquis of Caermarthen and unconstitutional influence, of trampling on the power and Mr Townshend, who had been created Lord Sidney, and dignity of the House of Commons, of establishing a were made secretaries of state; Lord Thurlow became government of cabal, intrigue, and favouritism, and of delord high chancellor; the privy-seal was transferred to stroying the very principles of laudable ambition and hothe Duke of Rutland; Earl Gower became president of nourable service in the state. the council; the Duke of Richmond was made master of On the 14th of January Mr Pitt obtained leave to bring the ordnance, and Lord Howe first lord of the admiralty; in a bill for the better government and management of the Mr Grenville and Lord Mulgrave were appointed joint affairs of the East India Company. By this bill, commispaymasters of the forces, and Mr Henry Dundas treasu- sioners were appointed by his majesty, authorized to surer of the navy; the office of lord advocate of Scotland, perintend and control all operations of the courts of diwhich this gentleman had formerly held, being transferred rectors and proprietors of the East India Company, relafrom the Honourable Henry Erskine to Mr Hay Campbell. tive to the civil and military government or revenues of A spectacle was nowr about to be exhibited which had the territories and possessions of the Company. This long been unknown in Britain,—that of an administration board of control was to have access to all papers belongappointed by the crown, in direct opposition to the House ing to the Company; and the court of directors was on of Commons. This, however, was no longer the House of no pretence to send out orders to India, without the preCommons which had subdued the royal prerogative, and vious approbation of the board, which was also authorized contended with success against our ablest and most ambi- to alter and amend the orders of the directors. Flis matious monarchs. The late coalition had produced through- jesty was authorized to name the commanders-in-chief in out the nation a general distrust of the character of those India, and to remove any governor, general, or member who formed the majority of its members ; and it was soon of the councils, of any British settlement in India; and found that a representative body possesses little power or all nominations by the court of directors to these offices influence, and may be safely disregarded, when it ceases were declared to be subject to the approbation of his mato be the organ of the public sentiments. It was expected jesty ; nor w7as the court of proprietors allowed, for the that an immediate dissolution of parliament would take future, to revoke any proceeding of the court of directors place ; but the change of the highest officers of the crown which had been approved of by his majesty. It was obhaving been hastily made, it is probable that the new mi- jected to this bill, that it disfranchised the East India nistry dreaded entering instantly upon the business of an Company, or violated their charter, no less than Mr Fox’s election against the powerful parties coalesced in opposi- bill had done ; and although a meeting of the court of protion to them. The majority of the House of Commons also prietors had passed a vote in favour of the regulations condreaded a dissolution, and, on Monday the 22d of Decem- tained in it, yet at the second reading, on the 22d of Jaber, they voted an address to the king, stating the present nuary, it was negatived by a small majority. inconveniencies which would attend a prorogation or disThe discussion of this bill did not prevent the House of solution of parliament. His majesty returned an answer Commons from endeavouring to shake the determination on the 24th, acquiescing, in general terms, in the senti- of the court, and to intimidate the new administration. A ments contained in the address, and assuring the house resolution was moved and carried, declaring in pointed that, after a short adjournment, their meeting would not be terms the disapprobation of the house, of the appointinterrupted by any prorogation or dissolution. ment and continuance in office of the present ministers, When the house met on the 12th of January, Mr Fox which they considered as unconstitutional. Mr Pitt was attempted to introduce, previous to any other business, also called upon to explain upon what principle he venturthe discussion of certain resolutions which had been pre- ed to remain in office after the House of Commons had pared by the opposition ; whilst the new ministers endea- declared him unworthy of their confidence. He answervoured, by means of a stratagem, to be heard first, Mr ed, that though novel and extraordinary, his conduct was Pitt declaring that he had a message to deliver from the by no means unconstitutional; that the immediate appointking. But after some tumult, Mr Fox being allowed to ment or removal of a minister did not rest with the house; proceed, called upon Mr Pitt to give the house an assu- that he neither could or ought to remain long in such a

512 BRITAIN. Reign of situation ; but that he was bound to use his own discre- Portland and Mr Pitt. A message was accordingly sent Reign of George III. tion to prevent the consequences which might attend an by Mr Pitt, acquainting the duke that he was command- George IIL ''w' instant resignation, from the country being left without ed to signify to him his majesty’s earnest desire that his 1 an executive government. The public at large now began grace should have a personal conference with Mr Pitt for to be greatly interested in the dispute which had occur- the purpose of forming a new administration, on a wide red between the king and the House of Commons. The basis, and on fair and equal terms. The duke requested common council of London voted an address of thanks to an explanation of the message with regard to the words his majesty for the dismission of his late ministers ; and equal terms ; but Mr Pitt declined any preliminary discusthis address was followed by similar addresses from the sion. The Duke of Portland likewise proposed that he merchants and trades of the city of London, from the city should be permitted to understand that the message imof Norwich, and other parts of the kingdom. The Coali- plied a virtual resignation by Mr Pitt, or that he himself tion made some attempts in the county of Middlesex, in should receive his majesty’s commands personally relative Westminster, and in the county of York, to turn the tide to the conference. But both of these propositions were of addresses in their own favour; but in these instances, refused, and here terminated the efforts of the St Albans if they avoided a defeat, they gained no victory. association. In the meanwhile, a number of independent members On the 18th of February the chancellor of the excheof the House of Commons attempted to heal the present quer, in his place in the House of Commons, being rebreach by proposing a new coalition of parties, and the quired to say, previous to the consideration of the quesformation of an administration upon a still broader basis tion of supply for the ordnance department, whether any than formerly. On the 26th of January, about seventy communication was to be expected relative to the resolumembers of the House of Commons met at the St Albans tions of the house which had recently been laid before the tavern, and signed an address, to be presented, by a com- king, replied, that his majesty, after considering all the mittee of their body, to the Duke of Portland and Mr Pitt, circumstances of the country, had not thought fit to disrequesting them to communicate with each other on the miss his ministers, and that his ministers had not resignarduous state of public affairs, and expressing a hope that, ed. This produced a warm debate, in which it was obby a liberal intercourse, every impediment to a cordial co- served by Mr Fox, that it was the first instance since the operation of men of character, acting on the same public revolution of a direct denial on the part of the crown to principles, might be removed. In answer to this address, comply with the wishes of the House of Commons ; and both parties expressed themselves desirous to comply with he threw out a hint that it might be necessary for the the wishes of so respectable a meeting ; but the Duke of house to protect its own authority by refusing to vote the Portland declined any interview with Mr Pitt, for the pur- supplies. But to allow his majesty’s ministers time to conpose of union, while that gentleman continued prime minis- sider well their situation, he proposed to defer the report ter in defiance of the resolutions of the House of Commons ; of the ordnance estimate for two days. The refusal of and, on the other hand, Mr Pitt refused to resign as a pre- the supplies was treated by the friends of the new adminisliminary to negociation. To co-operate with the St Albans tration as a threat which the utmost madness of faction meeting, one of its members moved and carried unani- would not seriously attempt to execute, and which could mously a resolution, that the present critical state of pub- never be justified by his majesty’s refusal to dismiss minislic affairs required an efficient, extended, and united admi- ters who had been condemned without a trial. On a dinistration, entitled to the confidence of the people ; and it vision, however, there appeared a majority of twelve for was also resolved that the continuance of the present mi- postponing the supplies. On the 20th of February a new nisters in office was an obstacle to forming an efficient, ex- address to the throne for the removal of the ministers was tended, and united administration ; resolutions which were carried by a majority of twenty-one; and on the 27th his ordered to be laid before his majesty. The meeting at the majesty’s answer was reported by the speaker, in which it St Albans tavern next declared that an administration was stated that no charge or complaint had been suggestformed on the total exclusion of the members of the last ed against the ministers, nor was any one of them specior present administration would be inadequate to the exi- fically objected to; and that, on the other hand, numbers gencies of public affairs. Mr Fox expressed his wishes of his subjects had expressed to his majesty the utmost for a union, but insisted on the resignation of the chan- satisfaction with the change of his councils. This answer cellor of the exchequer in compliance with the resolutions was abundantly artful, as it tended to alienate the people of the House of Commons, as an indispensable prelimi- from the House of Commons, and, at the same time, to nary. Mr Pitt, on the contrary, adhered to office, and de- perplex the Coalition, who could not accuse the prime miclared that the house might address the crown for his dis- nister of any political crime, as he was a young man, who mission ; but till the king should think proper to remove had never enjoyed the chief direction of any important him from his situation, he held it to be neither illegal nor affair. A second address to the throne, however, was unconstitutional to retain it, and would not recede from his moved in the House of Commons on the 1st of March, and former determination. He at the same time suggested, agreed to by a majority of twelve, remonstrating against that there might be persons on the opposite side of the the answer to the former address. His majesty replied in house with whom he could not act. Lord North, under- civil terms ; but persevering in his resolution to retain his standing himself to be alluded to, declared his readiness ministers, the opposition resolved to make a last effort to to relinquish his pretensions to an official situation, if these overcome the royal determination. Mr Fox declared that should be deemed any obstacle to a union ; and this self- he would not propose an address to the throne, because denying declaration was received with great applause. Mr he wished for no answer, but a humble representation, to Marsham, Mr Powis, and other members of the St Albans which it was not customary to make any reply. And this association, then called upon Mr Pitt to yield to the press- representation consisted of a long remonstrance against the ing exigencies of his country, but in vain. These gentle- alleged unconstitutional appointment ot an administration men, however, still continued their efforts; and, to remove in opposition to the wishes of the House of Commons ; and the difficulty arising from Mr Pitt’s refusal to resign, or to concluded by stating, that the house had done its duty in save the honour of the house upon that point, they procur- pointing out the evil, and that the blame and responsibied the royal interference to the extent of requesting that lity must henceforth lie wholly upon those who had prea negociation should be set on foot between the Duke of sumed to advise his majesty to act in contradiction to the

BRITAIN. 513 Reign of uniform maxims which had hitherto governed his own con- payment of the bills accepted by them, in case the funds Reign of George IIL (]uct, as well as that of every other prince of his illustri- of the Company should prove deficient. But it neverthe-George III. ous house. This representation was carried by a majori- less passed into a law; and Mr Pitt, still further to sup1783. 0f on]y one vote, which the Coalition appear to have port the East India Company, brought forward a bill to considered as a defeat; for they finally yielded to their diminish the duty upon tea, for the sake of preventing destiny, and suffered the mutiny bill, which had been their smuggling, and in lieu thereof to substitute a commutalast security against a premature dissolution, to pass in the tion tax upon windows. The amount of the revenue raised from tea was between L.700,000 and L.800,000; and the usual terms. Soon after the partial cessation of this struggle, parlia- object of the new act was to proportion it in such a way as ment was dissolved; and in the elections which ensued, the to raise upon that article in future no more than L.169,000, new administration were extremely successful. Upwards which it was supposed would enable the Company to sell of a hundred and sixty members of the former House of thirteen millions of pounds of tea, instead of five millions Commons lost their seats; and of these, nearly the whole and a half. But these, which all passed and received the royal aswere the friends of the previous administration. Thus the defeat of a powerful combination was completely accom- sent, were subordinate to the bill for regulating the geneplished, and its leaders were rendered of little importance ral management of the affairs of the Company, which, in the legislature of the empire; and thus terminated the though framed upon the same model with that proposed by strength of the celebrated Coalition, the fate and effects of Mr Pitt in the last parliament, yet differed from it in sevewhich ought never to be forgotten. That unfortunate mea- ral particulars. The powers of the board of control were sure may be said to have ruined the political fortunes of enlarged; in cases of urgency and secrecy, it was authoMr Fox, undoubtedly one of the most accomplished states- rized to transmit its own orders to India without these men whom Britain ever produced. From that period he being subject to the revision of the court of directors : in was generally regarded as unfit to be intrusted with power; the governor-general and council of Bengal was vested an his eloquence ceased to persuade, and his counsels, even absolute power over the other presidencies in transactions when full of wisdom, were regarded with distrust, because with the country powers, and in all applications of the rehis coalition with Lord North constantly rose up against venues and forces in time of war; the receiving of presents him, and suggested suspicions of his integrity, or at least was declared to be extortion and disobedience of orders; of his wisdom. This coalition also had a tendency to the Company’s servants were required, on their return to diminish the attachment of the nation to the House of England, to lodge in the exchequer a statement upon oath Commons, and its confidence in that branch of the legisla- of their whole property ; and for the effectual punishment ture which, in fact, might be nothing more than a com- of crimes committed in the East Indies, a new court of bination of factious men aiming at personal aggrandize- justice was instituted. Mr Francis opposed in strong terms the general princiment, and in certain circumstances rendering it necessary for the people to arrange themselves behind the throne, ple of this bill, as tending to create an incongruous power, in order to obtain protection against one of the worst and nominal on the part of the directors, real on the part of most oppressive of all governments, that of a corrupt aris- administration ; and Mr Fox affirmed that the proposed board of control violated the privileges of the India Comtocracy. On the 18th of May the new parliament assembled; pany no less than the enactment of his bills had done, and in the speech from the throne his majesty assured whilst it increased in a greater degree the dangerous inboth houses of his satisfaction in meeting them, after re- fluence of the crown. He treated with great contempt curring, in so important a moment, to the sense of his the new court of judicature, which he said might fairly be people, and of his reliance on their being animated by the called a bed of justice, as justice would sleep upon it, and same sentiments of loyalty and attachment to the consti- thereby embitter the calamities of India, by removing all tution which had been so fully manifested throughout the fear of punishment. When the bill came to be discussed kingdom. He directed their attention to the affairs of in the committee, Mr Pitt acted in a manner which afthe East India Company, but warned them against adopt- terwards on many occasions distinguished his mode of ing any measures which might affect the constitution; and transacting the national business. Instead of coming forconcluded with expressing his inclination to maintain, in ward, like the leader of a party, with a measure complete their just balance, the rights and privileges of every branch in all its parts, and prepared to receive the firm support of his adherents, he not only of himself proposed some esin the legislature. The affairs of the East India Company were speedily sential alterations, but adopted those suggested by others, brought before parliament. On the 24th of June a bill whether friends or antagonists. The consequence was, was introduced by the chancellor of the exchequer to al- that, in the committee, it underwent important modificalow the Company to divide four per cent, on their capital tions. The power of issuing orders, in the first instance, for the half year concluding at midsummer 1784. The ne- was limited to the case of the court of directors neglectcessity of the case was urged in justification of this bill for ing to transmit dispatches to the board, after fourteen supporting the credit of the Company; and it was alleged, days’ notice, upon any subject which the board might think that notwithstanding their present distresses, which were it necessary to take up. The directors were also empoweradmitted to be great, there existed a sufficient probability ed to elect a secret committee of three members, to comthat their affairs upon the whole might warrant such a di- municate with the board concerning such orders as the vidend. The bill passed through both houses, and receiv- board might of its own authority transmit to India. The ed the royal assent. On the 2d of July, Mr Pitt brought appointment of the commander in chief of the army was forward another bill, which had for its object to allow the withdrawn from his majesty, and left with the Company, Company a respite of duties due to the exchequer, to ena- together with the negative upon nominations in general. ble them to accept of bills beyond the amount prescribed Mr Pitt himself also brought forward some amendments by former statutes, and to establish the regularity of their respecting the constitution of the new tribunal. Authofuture dividends. This act gave rise to various debates, rity was now given to any person or persons to move the particularly in consequence of a question put by Mr Phi- Court of King’s Bench for an information. The court was lip Francis, how far the honour of parliament would be also authorized to issue commissions to the courts in Inpledged by it to enable the East India Company to make dia, for the purpose of taking depositions; and the direcVOL. v. 3T

514 BRITAIN. Reign of tors of the Company, and persons returning from India, as candidates. Lord Hood easily carried his election ; but Reign of George III-were excluded from the judicature that was to be erected. between the other candidates the contest was carried on George III. The bill, thus amended, passed the House of Commons on with unexampled obstinacy. The engaging manners of the 28th of July, and the House of Lords on the 9th of Mr Fox, who had for some time represented the city of H84. August. Westminster in parliament, enabled him, however, notEarly in July the chancellor of the exchequer informed withstanding the general unpopularity of the Coalition, to the House of Commons that Sir Elijah Impey, chief judge engage with success in the contest. After the election of the supreme court of justice of Bengal, had arrived in had continued upwards of six weeks, it was concluded England, in consequence of being recalled by his majesty, on the 17th May 1784, leaving a considerable majority in pursuant to an address of the house. The acute sensibi- favour of Mr Fox. At this time, being the very day prelity or powerful imagination of Mr Burke having induced vious to the return of the writ for the election, the high him to interest himself greatly in the sufferings of the bailiff, at the request of Sir Cecil Wray, granted a scrunatives of India under the British government, he now tiny into the votes which he had taken. This was procalled on the ministry to enforce the resolutions of the tested against by Mr Fox and several of the electors; and house respecting Sir Elijah Impey, by bringing him to immediately on the meeting of parliament, the conduct of trial; and he repeatedly endeavoured to introduce as the the high bailiff was vehemently attacked by opposition, subject of deliberation the reports of the committees of and no less vigorously defended by administration. On a the former parliament respecting Indian affairs; but he motion of Lord Mulgrave, however, it was resolved that was either defeated, with little reply, by a motion for the the high bailiff of Westminster should proceed in the order of the day, or overpowered and silenced by the loud scrutiny with all practicable dispatch. In the beginning and continual clamour of the house. of February the business was resumed in the House of During the present session it was found necessary to Commons. The scrutiny had continued eight months, have recourse to a loan of six millions, to settle the re- and only two parishes out of seven had been scrutinized; maining expenses of the American war. The naval esta- so that it was admitted that probably more than two years blishment was at the same time fixed on a higher scale longer would be necessary to finish the scrutiny. On the than in former years of peace. The number of seamen and 8th of February, however, Mr Welbore Ellis moved that marines voted was twenty-six thousand ; but the military a return of the election be immediately made by the high force was not large, as it did not exceed seventeen thou- bailiff of Westminster; and, after a variety of debates, it sand five hundred men for guards and garrisons. Several was at length carried, and Lord Hood and Mr Fox were new taxes were imposed upon linen and cotton manufac- returned as members for Westminster. tures, hats, paper, candles, bricks, postage of letters, horses, On the 18th of February, the attention of the House of hackney-coaches, persons dealing in exciseable commo- Commons was called to the payment of the debts of the dities, and persons engaging in the amusement of shoot- nabob of Arcot. The statute which Mr Pitt had got ing game or hunting, none of which met with almost any passed during the preceding summer authorized in geopposition. neral terms the court of directors to establish, in concert The session closed with a motion, brought forward by with the nabob, funds for the payment of such of his debts Mr Dundas, for the restoration of the estates forfeited in as should appear to be justly due. The court of directors Scotland in the rebellion of 1745, to the descendants or accordingly ordered the council at Madras to investigate other heirs of the rebels. As this measure had for its these debts; but the board of control, with some trifling object the relief of individuals whose unequivocal attach- limitation, ordered the whole debts to be paid out of the ment to his present majesty and his family could not be revenues of the Carnatic. Mr Dundas undertook the supposed to be tainted or affected by the crimes of their defence of the board of control, and treated with ridiancestors, it met with the approbation of the Commons ; cule a declaration made by Mr Francis, that rumours were but in the House of Lords it was opposed by the Lord abroad of a collusion between the board of control and Chancellor Thurlow, on the ground both of its impolicy the creditors of 1777. He justified the whole of the naand its partiality ; impolicy, as rendering nugatory the set- bob of Arcot’s debts. One set of debts incurred in 1767 tled maxim of the British constitution, that treason was a consisted of money borrowed by the nabob at the rate of crime of so deep a dye that nothing was adequate to its from thirty to thirty-six per cent, interest, to pay off a punishment but the total eradication of the person, the sum due by the nabob to the Company, which was at that name, and the family, out of the society which he had time in the utmost distress, and the interest had afterattempted to injure; and partiality, because the estates wards been reduced to ten per cent. The second branch forfeited in 1715, and which were forfeited upon the same of the nabob’s debts had arisen from sums borrowed to grounds and principles as those in 1745, were passed over pay off his own cavalry, which the Company had ordered in silence, whilst a person who had been forfeited in 1690 him to reduce, but which he was unable to dismiss from was even included in the provision. The bill, however, want of money to pay their arrears. He had borrowed this passed the Lords, and received the royal assent. money, and the Company had engaged its credit for the At this time the British nation enjoyed profound peace; loan. A third class of debts, incurred or consolidated in and the public attention being no longer excited by na- 1777, were acknowledged by the nabob to be valid, and tional efforts, or by the enterprises of any political faction, were only approved of by the board of control, subject to was easily directed to objects of less importance, among his objections, or to objections by the Company or the rest which may be mentioned the discoveries in aerostation, of the creditors. which had hitherto proved of more curiosity than utility. Mr Burke stated a variety of objections to the nabob’s Parliament assembled again on the 25th of January debts. It appeared that the nabob had contracted a debt 1184. In the speech from the throne, the object parti- with the Company’s servants to the amount of L.888,000 cularly recommended to the attention of both houses was sterling, which, in the year 1767, was settled at an intethe final adjustment of the commercial intercourse be- rest of ten per cent. In the year 1777 a second debt of tween Great Britain and Ireland. The first business the nabob of Arcot, amounting to L.2,400,000, was settled taken up related to the choice of two members of parlia- at twelve per cent, interest; and to this was added another ment for Westminster at the late general election. Lord debt, called the cavalry debt, of L.160,000, at the same Hood, Mr Fox, and Sir Cecil Wray, had offered themselves interest. The whole of these four capitals, amounting to

515 BRITAIN. Reign of L.4,440,000, produced at their several rates annuities tions to the utmost of his strength ; and that he would ex- Reign of George III. amounting to L.623,000 a year, more than half of which ert his whole power and credit, as a man and as a minis- Ceorge IIL stood chargeable on the public revenues of the Carnatic. ter, honestly and boldly, to carry such a system as should ' ' These annuities, equal to the revenues of a kingdom, were place the constitution on a footing of permanent security. possessed by a small number of individuals of no conse- And at the commencement of the session, when the subquence, situation, or profession. Mr Burke admitted that ject was alluded to, Mr Pitt took the opportunity to dethe loan of 1767 was the fairest, as it could be convicted clare, that on this business he laboured incessantly; that of nothing worse than the most enormous usury. The in- it was that which of all others was nearest his heart, but terest at thirty-six per cent, was first paid, then twenty- at so early a period of the session it was impossible to five, then twenty, and, lastly, the interest was reduced to state his plan specifically; that much remained to be done, ten per cent.; but all along the interest had been added to but his ideas were not matured; that a reform in parliathe principal, so that of L.888,000 Mr Burke doubted whe- ment comprehended a great variety of considerations, ther the nabob ever saw L.100,000 in real money. With relating to the essentials of the constitution ; that in this regard to the cavalry debt, Mr Burke stated, that instead path he was determined to tread, but he knew with what of ready money, the English money jobbers engaged to pay tenderness and circumspection it became him to proceed ; the nabob’s cavalry in bills payable in four months, for and he requested the house to come to the subject uninwhich they were to receive immediately at least one per fluenced by any of those schemes and hypotheses which cent, per month, but probably two, such being the rate ge- had hitherto been suggested. It was not till the 18th of April, however, that he called nerally paid by the nabob, and that a territorial revenue was assigned to them for that purpose ; but it was upwards the attention of the house to this important subject. He of two years before the arrears of the cavalry were dis- declared himself aware of the difficulties he must expect charged ; and these jobbers being all this time in receipt to encounter in proposing a plan of reform; but he enterof the assigned revenue, they paid off the nabob’s troops tained more sanguine hopes of success than formerly, bewith his own money. As to the debt of 1777, Mr Burke cause there never was a moment when the minds of men observed, that in different accounts the principal sum were more enlightened on this interesting topic, or more rose from L.1,300,000 to L.2,400,000, and the creditors prepared for its discussion. He was particularly anxious had never appeared the same in any two lists. In the to remove the objection of innovation. Anciently great year 1781 they were satisfied to have twenty-five per cent, fluctuations had taken place in the franchise. The number at once struck off from the capital, yet they were now to of members had varied, and even the representation of obtain payment of the whole. It appeared, therefore, that the counties was not uniform. As one borough decayed the nabob and his creditors were not adversaries, but col- and another flourished, the first was abolished and the lusive parties; and that when the nabob gave an acknow- second enfranchised. This arose from a maxim the apledgment of debt to a European, he received no money, plication of which was intrusted to the crown, that the and only endeavoured to support his own influence by re- principal places, and not the decayed boroughs, should be ceiving the servants of the Company into his pay. The called upon to exercise the right of election. He was no motion for an inquiry into the conduct of the board of advocate for a revival of this discretionary power, but the control on this occasion was however negatived on a divi- maxim upon wdiich it was founded ought now to be carried into effect. The outline of his plan was this: To sion. WTien Mr Pitt came into office, he had the singular good transfer the right of choosing representatives from thirtyfortune of being highly popular with the nation, while he six of such boroughs as had already fallen, or were fallwas selected to support the royal prerogative and autho- ing into decay, to the counties, and such chief towns and rity against the majority of the House of Commons, then cities as were still unrepresented; to provide a fund for possessed by the Coalition. Accordingly, it became one the purpose of giving to the owners and holders of such of the features of his conduct to attempt, if possible, to boroughs disfranchised, an appreciated compensation for reconcile the services expected from him by the crown their property ; and to make the receiving of this compenwith the apparent pursuit of whatever measure happened sation a voluntary act of the proprietor, and if not received for the time to be an object of popular favour. The at- when tendered, to place it out at compound interest, until tempt to procure a reform in the representation of the it became an irresistible bait to such proprietors. He also people in the House of Commons was one of these objects. proposed to extend the right of voting for knights of the He had formerly engaged in it while acting in opposition ; shire, to copyholders as well as freeholders. Besides the and now, after he had become the first minister of the thirty-six boroughs already mentioned, he proposed to crown, he still undertook to stand forward as its advocate. purchase the franchise of other boroughs, and to transfer Every writer of history must be sensible of the defective the right of returning members to unrepresented large nature of the details which he is able to give as to the towns, which should petition parliament for the privilege. causes which produce or regulate the most important Thus a hundred members would be given to the popular events, and which often lie hidden in a region far beyond interest of the kingdom, and the right of election extendthe limits of his penetration or research. In what way, or ed to a hundred thousand additional persons. Mr Fox disby what means, Mr Pitt contrived to retain the confidence approved of purchasing from a majority of the electors of of his master, whilst he at the same time stood forward as a borough the property of the whole, and of holding out the champion of a reform which every body knew to be pecuniary temptations to an Englishman to relinquish his hateful at court, it is impossible to conjecture. Certain it franchise, though he declared himself a friend to the geis, however, that after he had attained to the chief place neral principle of a more equitable representation. Mr in the present administration, he still continued to corre- Wilberforce supported Mr Pitt’s proposal, because, by putspond with the leading advocates of parliamentary reform, ting an end to the representation of the decayed boroughs, whose meetings he had been accustomed to attend. In a dangerous aristocratical coalitions would in future be precircular letter to Mr Wyvil, president of a committee of vented. But it was warmly opposed by Mr Powis, who Yorkshire gentlemen, it was stated that Mr Pitt had given alleged that the people of England had not called for reauthority to declare, that he would bring forward the form, and that the business in which Mr Pitt had unforsubject of a parliamentary reform as early as possible in . tunately engaged himself was a volunteer crusade, or a the session; that he would support his intended proposi- piece of political knight-errantry. Lord North likewise

516 B R I T A 1 N. Reign of opposed all change, alleging that the people were actually lence of this country; and concluded by proposing to al- Reign of George III. contented, happy, and in full possession of their liberties. low the produce of the colonies to be imported into Bri- George 11L. And, finally, leave to bring in the bill was refused by a tain through Ireland, and to equalize the duties on the 7 large majority; which was probably the very result Mr produce and manufactures of both countries; in return for which concession it was stipulated, that the parliament Pitt not only anticipated, but also desired. As the sole object for which the English monarchs an- of Ireland should irrevocably secure some provision for ciently assembled their parliaments was to obtain money defraying the expense of protecting the commerce of the from their subjects, so the adjustment of the public ex- empire in time of peace. After some debates upon the penses, and levying adequate supplies, always continue to subject, petitions from Fiverpool, Paisley, Glasgow, Manoccupy a large portion of the time of every session of par- chester, and other places, to the number of sixty, were liament. The prodigal expenditure which had taken place presented against the measure; and from the 16th of during the war still required additional taxes. For this March to the 12th of May the House of Commons were purpose new demands were made. Hawkers and pedlars, almost incessantly employed in hearing counsel and exaand attornies, were taxed ; and the duties on male servants mining witnesses. Certain exceptions were now introand post horses were enlarged. An impost laid upon retail duced to the general rule of admitting an equal commerce shops, however, encountered persevering opposition in par- between the countries; corn, meal, flour, and beer, were liament, as well as much unpopularity in the nation. It was excluded in favour of British agriculture; and various represented as unfair, because it fell upon a small number regulations were made to secure an effectual equality of of industrious persons; and it was observed, that, unlike duties upon every particular object of trade in both counother taxes, those who imposed it were in no hazard them- tries. The plan thus amended produced a variety of deselves of paying any part of it. But of all the taxes pro- bates, in the course of which Lord North expressed his posed by the minister, none encountered such sarcastic wish for a complete incorporative union of the two kinganimadversion as that upon maid-servants; and Mr Pitt, doms, in preference to a partial settlement, which might who was understood to be something of a misogynist, was prove the source of perpetual discord. The resolutions, accused by Mr Sheridan of holding out a bounty to celi- however, were warmly opposed ; and being carried by only bacy. But the subject which excited most attention was a small majority, administration did not think proper to that of the ordnance. As early as the year 1782, the press the adoption of the scheme. Duke of Richmond had planned an expensive system of The American war had in somemeasure alienated the Brifortifications, for protecting the different dock-yards of tish nation from ideas of conquest and military splendour. the kingdom ; the idea having originated in the alarm oc- Commercial pursuits were now chiefly valued, and formed casioned by the appearance of the combined fleet in the the principal object of encouragement to the government, Channel. The works had for some time been carried on, and of pursuit by the people; but to prosecute these with and the sum of L.50,000 annually voted, without much success, it was necessary to preserve a good understandattention being given to the subject. But during this ses- ing with the neighbouring powers; and this was effected, sion it was moved that an account should be laid before though with some difficulty, in consequence of certain the house, of the expenses already incurred on fortifica- foreign occurrences not unworthy of attention. tions, at Plymouth, Portsmouth, Gosport, Chatham, DoJoseph II. was at this time at the head of the house of ver, and Sheerness, with a report of the probable expense Austria and of the Germanic body; and among the various of completing the fortifications of Portsmouth and Ply- projects which marked his restless career, there was one mouth ; and afterwards the annual grant was opposed. which, had it been attended with success, could scarcely Mr Pitt defended the Duke of Richmond, but agreed to have failed to affect the future condition of the Germanic a proposal which had been made to take the opinion of a body. He had entered secretly into a negociation with the council of officers; and this put an end to the debate. elector of Bavaria, then an infirm old man, for an exchange A bill for better regulating the office of the treasurer of the electorate of Bavaria in lieu of the provinces of the of the navy passed without any sort of opposition ; and an- Austrian Netherlands, which were to be converted into a other for the better examining of the public accounts met kingdom for the elector. Count Romanzof, the Russian miwith little opposition; but a third brought in by Mr Pitt, nister to the diet of Frankfort, informed the Duke of Deuxfor the general reform of public offices, encountered stre- ponts, nephew and heir to the elector, of the substance of nuous opposition. Mr Sheridan contended that it was un- this treaty; and at the same time assured him that it necessary, as the treasury possessed ample power to make would be carried into execution, whether he consented the necessary reforms ; and Mr Burke contrasted, in strong to the exchange or not. In the month of January of this terms, the trifling economy here proposed, with the pro- year the duke gave notice of the intended measure to digality of the ministers in their proceedings respecting Frederick II. king of Prussia, who regarded it as a prothe revenues of the Carnatic, and the sanction given by ject dangerous to his own independence, as well as to that them to the pretended debts of the nabob of Arcot. The of the other German states, and endeavoured instantly to bill, however, passed through both houses, and received spread an alarm through Europe. He alleged, that the prothe royal assent. posed exchange was in the highest degree iniquitous and One of the most important subjects brought under the unfair; that though the population on both sides was nearconsideration of parliament during the session, was an at- ly equal, the extent of territory on the side of Bavaria tempt by Mr Pitt to establish a plan of commercial union more than doubled that of the Low Countries, while their between Great Britain and Ireland. This plan was pro- respective revenues were equally disproportioned ; that in posed to the Irish House of Commons on the 7th of Fe- Bavaria, agriculture, commerce, and finance, were notoribruary, by Mr Ord, and consisted of ten articles, usually ously neglected, whereas in the Austrian Netherlands these styled the Irish Propositions, which were passed with little resources had been extended to their utmost pitch ; that, debate, and an address of approbation voted to his majesty. whilst the territory which the emperor hoped to acquire On the 22d of the same month Mr Pitt introduced the was capable of considerable improvement, that which he subject to the British House of Commons. He expatiated gave away might be expected to retrograde rather than on the false and oppressive policy which had long been to advance ; that these circumstances, however, were of pursued by government in regard to Ireland, in order to little importance, compared with the political consequences render her completely subservient to the interest and opu- which must result from such a measure ; that the Nether-

BRITAIN. 517 Reign of lands being situated at a distance from the other Austrian sion ; but Mr Pitt declined entering into any defence of Reign of George III. dominions, had always proved a source of weakness, rather the Germanic league, as he and his colleagues in office had George IH. than of strength, to that power ; that, although a consider- not interfered in the formation of it; observing that acci7 able revenue was derived from these provinces, it was often dent alone had placed the sovereignty of Hanover and dearly bought, in consequence of the wars occasioned by of this country in the same hands, and desiring to have the vicinity of France; that great political efforts had it understood that Great Britain was by no means bound recently been made by the court of Vienna to avoid all by any leagues entered into by the elector of Hanover. future grounds of quarrel with the French monarchy, and Mr Fox, however, denied that the affairs of Hanover could this had been accomplished by the marriage of an Aus- be really separated from those of Britain. Supposing that trian princess to the king of France ; that the possession it should hereafter appear necessary for Great Britain to of Bavaria, from its vicinity to the rest of the Austrian join the court of Vienna against the league of the Germadominions, would secure to the emperor a chain of terri- nic princes, and that the elector of Hanover should appear tory from the banks of the Rhine along a great part of the as one of those princes at the head of his own troops, he course of the Danube, and give him such a preponderance put the question, Whether a British army could be directas would overturn all power in Germany capable of resist- ed to act in a hostile manner against troops led by their ing the head of the empire ; and that this mighty country sovereign in his character of elector of Flanover ? When might, at no remote period, be consolidated into one mass, George I. purchased Bremen and Verden from Denmark, and Austria would then probably rank in every sense as the minister of that day, General Stanhope, used precisethe first power in Europe. ly the same language, and told the House of Commons Thus reasoned Frederick the Great. Succeeding events that they had nothing to do with his majesty’s conduct seem to warrant a belief that such an acquisition of strength respecting his electoral dominions. But the consequence by the house of Austria might have proved of considerable was, that the resentment of the Swedish monarch Charles utility to Europe; but at the time when the scheme was XII. on account of this transaction, threatened Great Briproposed it excited general apprehensions. The treaty tain with a most dangerous invasion ; and the very next for the exchange had been concluded under the auspices year General Stanhope was under the necessity of demandof Russia and France, and to them accordingly the king of ing additional supplies, to enable his majesty to defray the Prussia addressed his remonstrances. But the emperor of expenses to which he was exposed in consequence of his Germany and the elector of Bavaria soon found their pro- purchase. ject so strongly disapproved of by other powers, that they The attention of parliament was again directed to the absolutely disavowed it; whilst the court of France content- Duke of Richmond’s plan of fortification. In consequence ed itself with replying to the remonstrance of the king of of the former debate on the subject, the project had been Prussia, that the exchange had been proposed, as depend- remitted to the consideration of a board of officers, of which ing upon the voluntary arrangement of the parties, but the Duke of Richmond was appointed president; and which that, as the Duke of Deuxponts had refused his consent, consisted, besides the president, of Lieutenant-generals the proposition of course became fruitless. Earl Percy, Earl Cornwallis, Sir Guy Carleton, Sir William Frederick, in the mean time, exerted himself with great Howe, Sir David Lindsay, Sir Charles Grey, Lord George assiduity in negociating a league with the electors of Han- Lennox, and John Burgoyne, and six major-generals, toover and Saxony, for the preservation of the Germanic con- gether with Vice-admirals Barrington and Milbank, Rearstitution, and for preventing such cessions and exchanges admirals Graves and Lord Hood, and Captains Hotham, of territory as might afterwards prove injurious to the ba- Macbride, Bowyer, Luttrell, Sir John Jervis, and Sir Anlance of power in the empire. A treaty to this purpose was drew Snape Hammond. On the 10th of February Mr Pitt therefore concluded on the 23d of July, and several German stated to the House of Commons that the board had reprinces acceded to it, among whom were the elector of ported to his majesty their approbation of the plan, as perMentz, the landgrave of Hesse Cassel, the dukes of Bruns- fectly adequate to the defence intended, and as being at wick, Namur, and Saxe-Gotha, and the prince of Anhalt. the same time the least expensive in the construction, and The elector of Hanover also entered readily into the trans- requiring a smaller force to defend the works, than any action, and from that period an intimate connection com- other that could be proposed. He also presented an esmenced between the courts of London and Berlin. Some timate, which had been prepared by the board of engiBritish politicians, however, supposed that the opposition neers, of the expense necessary to construct the fortificamade to the imperial project was unwise, as tending to tions. The decision of the House of Commons, however, excite a spirit of hostility against us on the part of Aus- was delayed till the end of February, when the subject was tria, which, of all the powers of the Continent, was consi- again brought forward by Mr Pitt, who proposed a resodered as our most natural ally; and it was probably ow- lution, bearing, that to provide effectually for securing the ing to the part taken by Britain in this transaction that dock-yards of Portsmouth and Plymouth by a permanent the emperor published an edict prohibiting the importa- system of fortification, was an essential object for the safetion of British manufactures into any part of the Austrian ty of the state, intimately connected with the general dedominions. In the course of the summer also the French fence of the kingdom, and necessary to enable the fieet to issued an edict restricting the sale of various articles of act with vigour and effect whenever its services were reBritish manufacture, particularly saddlery, hosiery, woollen quired. This led to a long and not very interesting decloths, and hardware, unless upon payment of duties the bate, the result of which was, that upon a vote the house amount of which was equivalent to a prohibition. To divided equally, when the speaker gave his casting vote counteract these proceedings commercial treaties were in opposition to the measure. On the 17th of May, hownegociated with the courts of Petersburgh and Versailles ; ever, the question was revived by Mr Pitt, who proposed that with the latter having been undertaken in pursuance that the fortifications should still be carried on at Portsof a provision in the definitive treaty of peace. mouth and Plymouth, though upon a more limited scale; Parliament met on the 24th of January 1786. In the but the motion was opposed with much severity of lanspeech from the throne some notice was taken of the con- guage, and at length withdrawn. tinental dispute above mentioned, which was said to have T. he attention of paihament was for some time occupied terminated in such a way as to threaten no interruption with a proposal for reducing the laws relative to the milito the tranquillity of Europe. This excited some discus- tia into a general act, and providing for their being an-

BRITAIN. 518 Reign of nually called out and disciplined. Mr Pitt opposed the could not be done by stealth, and a minister would not Reign of George III.calling out of the militia annually; but afterwards, find- have the confidence to come to the house expressly to de-George IIL ino- that a different opinion prevailed, he consented, on mand the repeal of so necessary a law. 1786, Mr Fox approved in general of the institution of a sinkcondition that, though the whole number of men were balloted for and enrolled, only two thirds should be actually ing fund, but thought twenty-eight years too long a peemployed. The measure, however, did not pass without riod to look forward to for the effect of the project. Before that term had arrived, it was not improbable that opposition. . . But the subject which occupied most attention during we might have another war; and a variety of circumthe session was the proposal of a sinking fund to be applied stances might occur, which would operate as a temptatowards discharging the public debt. Mr Pitt had occa- tion to a future chancellor of the exchequer, and a future sionally mentioned it, during the preceding session, as a House of Commons, to repeal the act, annul the institugreat and important national measure which he intended tion, and divert the appropriation of its stock to the imto bring forward ; and early in the present session he moved mediate services of the year. He stated two specific obthat certain papers should be laid upon the table of the jections to the plan. The first was, that the sum approHouse of Commons, to enable them to form an estimate of priated ought not to have been made unalienable in time the annual amount of the national revenue and expendi- of war; and the second, that, by the institution, parliature, from which a judgment might be formed of the ex- ment being bound to nobody but itself, the whole plan isting disposable surplus, and of the sum it would be fur- was liable to be annihilated by a future parliament. Mr ther necessary to provide to raise the total to the amount Fox repeated his objections at a future stage, and at requisite to form the basis of the intended sinking fund. last, in consequence of the acquiescence of Mr Pitt, inOn the 7th of March he proposed the appointment by bal- troduced an amendment, that whenever a new loan should lot of a select committee of nine persons to examine these hereafter be made, the minister should not only propose papers, and to report the result to the house. He stated taxes sufficient to pay the interest of the loan, but also to it as his intention to take every possible step to give com- make good whatever it should be found expedient to take plete satisfaction to the nation in a matter of such general from the sinking fund to supply the necessities of the naconcern; and he conceived that the solemnity of a com- tion ; meaning, that if, when a new loan of six millions was mittee, and the formality of a report, would answer the proposed, there should be one million in the hands of the purpose better than a set of unconnected papers or the commissioners, then the commissioners should take a milaffirmation of a minister. The committee as balloted con- lion of the loan, and the bonus of that million should be resisted of the Marquis of Graham, Mr William Grenville, ceived by them for the public, who would thus have only Mr Edward Elliot, Mr Rose, Mr Wilberforce, Mr Beau- five millions to borrow. In the House of Lords, the other foy, Mr John Call, Mr Smith, and Mr Addington. When objection stated by Mr Fox was urged with some variation this committee had made its report, Mr Pitt, on the 29th by Earl Stanhope, who expatiated on the danger which March, proposed his plan to the Commons in a committee might occur, in future wars, of diverting the fund from its of the whole house. He congratulated parliament upon proper destination. But the bill nevertheless passed into the prospects of the nation in a style of animated eloquence. a law without any alteration. The establishment of a sinking fund appears to have He stated the revenue for the current year, as reported by the committee, to amount to L.15,397,000. The inte- been one of Mr Pitt’s favourite schemes of finance ; and, in rest of the national debt was L.9,275,769, and the civil list fact, it was that which produced him the greatest degree L.900,000, which, together with the whole other expen- of popularity; while, from his remaining in power during diture for the army and navy, and other establishments, the long and expensive war which succeeded its establishamounted to L.14,478,000; consequently there remained ment, it continued to be regularly and fully carried into a surplus of the annual income, above the expenditure, of effect. When a new loan was made, the minister not only L.900,000. One million he stated to be the sum annually proposed taxes sufficient to pay the annual interest of the to be contributed to the sinking fund; and to make up new debt, but also to afford a surplus or sinking fund the sum of L.100,000 wanted to complete this amount, he of one per cent, per annum, to be applied by the comproposed small additional taxes upon spirits, timber, and missioners towards the extinction of the debt. It is alhair powder and perfumery. The sum of L. 1,000,000 thus most superfluous to observe, that this scheme, from which provided he proposed to place in the hands of commis- such mighty results were anticipated, both by the politisioners appointed for that purpose, in quarterly payments cal friends and opponents of the ministry, and which was of L.250,000 each, to begin on the 5th of the following loudly vaunted of as a monument raised to perpetuate his July. It was his wish that the commissioners should con- fame, is now known to every tyro in political science to sist of persons of rank and distinction, the speaker of the have been bottomed on principles wholly fallacious ; and House of Commons, the chancellor of the exchequer, the the consequence has been, that some of its firmest supmaster of the rolls, the governor and deputy-governor of porters, having abjured the opinions which they originally the bank of England, and the accomptant-general of the entertained respecting it, afterwards united with those who high court of chancery. He alleged, that by laying out had all along entertained sounder views, in putting an end the sinking fund regularly at compound interest, the mil- to this expensive and cumbrous delusion, which had for a lion to be applied would rise to a great amount in a period time imposed on the arithmetic as well as on the sense of that was not very long in the life of an individual, and but the nation. The only effect of such a fund, when well conan hour in the existence of a nation. It would diminish trived and steadily adhered to, seems to be, that it enathe debt of this country so much as to prevent the exi- bles a nation to maintain its credit in difficult circumgencies of war from ever raising it to the enormous height stances, and thus to carry on the accumulation of public which they had hitherto done. In the period of twenty- debt to the highest possible amount, as well as to make eight years, the sum of a million, annually appropriated, trial in the completest manner of all the moral and politiwould produce an income of four millions annually. By cal consequences of the funding system. We may add, placing the sum in the hands of commissioners, to be ap- that the project was not of Mr Pitt’s contrivance ; it formed plied by them quarterly to the purchase of stock, no sum only one, and that too not the most plausible, of three plans would ever lie within the grasp of a minister great enough presented to him by Dr Price. When the estimates for the navy were voted this year, to tempt him to infringe upon this national revenue. It

519 BRITAIN. Reign of some observations were suggested by Captain Macbride, the empire. The remaining foreign possessions, such as Reign of George III. which are worthy of being recorded, on account of their Ireland and the West India islands, might be supposed to George HI relation to the progressive improvement of the chief de- remain in union with the metropolitan country chiefly in 1786. fence of the British islands. He censured extremely the consequence of their weakness, which rendered its protecvoting of large sums of money for the repair of sixty and tion necessary to their safety, or made them incapable of sixty-four gun ships; and observed that our having so many erecting themselves into separate governments in opposivessels of this sort was a principal reason of the many de- tion to its will. But the territories which had been acfeats we had suffered in the last war. The French had quired by the British in India were, in this respect, in a very now not more than three or four sixty-four gun ships, and peculiar situation. It might perhaps have been possible, they took care not to build any new ones upon that con- by an incorporating union, and an extension of the privistruction. Another thing against our navy was, that the lege of representation, to combine into one firm and conFrench seventy-four gun ships were of two thousand tons solidated government the whole British islands, together burden, while our seventy-fours had been reduced to six- with the American colonies; but with regard to the terteen hundred tons. Captain Macbride expressed his be- ritory of Hindustan, any thing of this kind was altogether lief, that if the number of our ships were reduced one impracticable. That great and fertile country, inhabited third, the navy of England would prove one third stronger. by men of a feebler race, and of different language, chaHe condemned the system of suffering the ships to remain racter, and religion, is incapable of being united to the in their copper bottoms during time of peace; and con- British nation upon principles of equal political freedom. tended, that if we persisted in this practice there would It had been originally acquired, not by a conquest made be no occasion to argue whether ships of one size or ano- under the direct authority of the executive government ther should be built, for we should soon have no navy in of Britain, but by a company of merchants, who, by unitour possession. The French had discovered the folly of ing the military superiority of Europeans with the arts of the practice, and had for some time left off the mode of commercial men, contrived gradually to subjugate one of sheathing their ships. We ought therefore to do the same, the fairest portions of the globe, containing a population or at least to take off the copper when the ships were to many times greater than that of their native country. The remain long in still water. The copper corroded and de- progress of such a power towards empire was necessarily stroyed their bolts more than either worms or time; and attended with the most cruel hardships to the natives of hence, the instant the ships which had been long laid up the subjugated country. When the mercantile invaders in ordinary were sent to sea, their bottoms would drop out, possessed abundance of European troops, they employed and thousands of brave seamen would perish in the ocean. them in making direct conquests of additional territory; The ideas of Captain Macbride were confirmed by Sir when these troops were exhausted by war or by the cliJohn Jervis, and, as far as related to the sheathing with mate, or, having enriched themselves, had returned to Europe loaded with the spoils of the East, and left their forcopper, by Captain Luttrell. At this time the British nation, recovered from the mer employers in that quarter in a state of considerable effects of the war, was enjoying considerable prosperity. weakness, the servants of the Company then exerted their The administration of justice, proceeding in the ordinary ingenuity to foment divisions among the native princes; and course sanctioned by the constitution, produced its usual when they could no longer act as principals, they appeared and natural effects of tranquillity and general satisfaction. as seconds in every quarrel, and obtained new territories as The sovereign, in consequence of his domestic virtues and the reward of their insidious aid. With such views they regular life, was personally popular. The members of formed and broke alliances without scruple; and, on readministration had obtained their offices under circum- ceiving supplies of troops from Europe, they were never stances which originally secured the good will of the na- at a loss for pretences upon which to extend their domition ; and no public events had occurred to expose their nion. All this was the natural result of the situation of characters to any severe trial, or to produce an alteration the British East India Company with regard to the nain the public opinion regarding them. Still, however, the tives of Hindustan. But as the jealousy of the neighbourmost distinguished members of the late coalition, continu- ing states of Europe, together with their equal progress ing to hold seats in parliament, naturally wished to attract in the art of war, had long put an end to the extension of the public notice, and to rescue themselves from the ne- conquests, and produced much political moderation in the glect into which they had of late fallen. For this purpose transactions of nations, many of the people of Great Brithey appear to have looked towards our Indian empire for tain learned with astonishment that their countrymen had materials upon which to exert their talents and to demon- conducted themselves in Hindustan in a manner which in strate their public spirit; and accordingly, during the pre- Europe would have been regarded with abhorrence. Efsent session, an attempt was commenced by Mr Burke to forts, however, had been made to ameliorate as much as bring to trial and punishment Warren Hastings, late gover- possible the government of India, by subjecting it, in a nor-general of Bengal, for crimes alleged to have been considerable degree, to the direct authority of the executive government of this country, instead of suffering it to committed in that country. There is something in the nature of the British consti- remain totally vested in a company of merchants; and tution, or rather, perhaps, in that of every free state, which here it appears to have been wished that the affair should renders conquest, or even the acquisition of foreign ter- be suffered to rest, and that whatever was past should be ritories, in any form, not a little inconvenient. In the overlooked and forgotten. This, however, did not suit the present views of oppocase of the British American territories, a constitution less or more resembling that of Great Britain had been sition, Mr Burke, in particular, had been led by an arestablished in every colony or province; and these sepa- dent imagination to interest himself deeply in the calamirate constitutions had produced abundance of internal ties suffered by the natives of India; and the policy of prosperity to the colonies; but the whole formed a dis- his party at this time coincided entirely with his feelings. jointed empire, slightly bound together by a limited exe- Accordingly he endeavoured with much eagerness to cutive power, and destitute of a common legislature; and bring to trial and punishment the most distinguished peran attempt, made by the legislature of the parent state, to son who had recently figured upon the great theatre of make laws for the whole of the subordinate communities, Indian affairs. But great obstacles stood in the way of gave rise to a war which ended in the dismemberment of Mr Burke’s proposed attempt to procure a parliamentary

BRITAIN. 520 Ueign of conviction of Mr Hastings. He had to overcome a long to no protection from the British government. Upon the Reign of George III. series of unpopularity, the personal indifference which other points he in like manner asserted, not only the inno- < jia(j been shown to him by the House of Commons, and cence, but the meritorious nature of his conduct, resting 1786. tbeir indisposition so much as to give him a hearing, to- his defence chiefly upon such arguments as conquering 1786. gether with the coldness of the nation at large regarding princes usually employ to justify encroachments upon their complaints of East India delinquency. All these, how- weaker neighbours. On the 1st of June Mr Burke brought forward in the ever, he surmounted by efforts of the most obstinate perseverance, and of consummate eloquence, upon the fertile House of Commons his first charge, which related to the subject of cruelty, oppression, and treachery, committed expulsion of the Rohillas from their country, to the number under the authority of the British government in the East; of sixty thousand men, women, and children. On this the public attention was gradually attracted to the sub- occasion Mr Burke, exerting all his eloquence, representject ; and at last it formed the chief subject of conversa- ed the prosecution as not merely a question respecting the character of an individual, or brought forward for the tion and of political discussion in all parts of the island. Mr Hastings had arrived in England on the 16th of purpose of inflicting a hardship upon him, but as a meaJune 1785, and on the 20th of that month Mr Burke had sure necessary for the establishment of the principle of given notice of his intention to move for an inquiry into responsibility with regard to the future governors of our the conduct of the ex-governor-general. On the day of distant possessions, and therefore as a national and imthe meeting of parliament, in January this year, Major perial question, decisive of the good or ill government of Scott, the particular friend of Mr Hastings, publicly re- millions yet unborn. He described, in interesting terms, minded Mr Burke of the menace he had thrown out, and the character of the Rohillas, the simplicity of their manrequested Mr Burke speedily to decide upon the course he ners, the prosperity of their country, and their zeal for was to pursue. Accordingly, about the middle of February, agriculture and commerce ; and he denied that there existthis gentleman having resolved to proceed against Mr ed any plausible ground to justify the assistance which Mr Hastings, by moving the House of Commons to impeach Hastings had given to one of their rapacious neighbours him at the bar of the House of Lords, endeavoured to to expel them from their territory. After a debate, howprepare for substantiating the charges which were to be ever, the house decided that this charge did not contain brought, by proposing that the house should order produc- sufficient matter of impeachment against Mr Hastings. tion of various papers ; and motions to this effect were re- The next article of crimination against Mr Hastings was newed by him at different periods. These motions gave founded upon his alleged oppressive conduct towards Cheit rise to a variety of debates, in which Mr Dundas, who, as Sing, the rajah of Benares. From this prince he had first president of the board of control, now acted as minister arbitrarily demanded payment of a sum of money, in adfor India affairs, together with Sir Lloyd Kenyon, master dition to the ordinary tribute, and, on the rajah delaying of the rolls, chiefly opposed Mr Burke, and threw con- payment, imposed upon him a fine of half a million stersiderable difficulties in his way. Mr Pitt appeared also ling; then he insulted him by an ignominious arrest, and to be favourable to Mr Hastings ; but, upon the whole, thereafter expelled him from his dominions. This charge he preferred assuming the character of a candid and im- was opened with great ability by Mr Fox, and opposed partial judge upon the occasion, affording neither protec- by Major Scott and Mr Grenville, who inveighed against tion to the accused nor favour to the accuser. At last, in the rajah for his alleged unwillingness to support the Brithe month of April, Mr Burke presented to the house his tish power in a dangerous crisis, and for the favour he charges against Mr Hastings, twenty-one in number; and had shown the schemes of its enemies. By this time the to these an additional article was afterwards added. The repeated discussion of the subject had begun to interest charges were of various degrees of importance ; and some the public; and pamphlets were published, in which Mr of them had sufficient weight to excite a considerable de- Hastings’ character was violently attacked, and as eagergree of public interest. Mr Hastings was accused of driv- ly defended. His conduct as a governor-general of India, ing a whole people, the Rohillas, from their territory, with- however, appeared to the majority of the people so totally out any show of cause for so doing; of arbitrarily confis- inconsistent with those ideas of equity which regulate the cating the property of the native princes, and imprisoning opinions of men in this country, that a violent degree of pothem and their servants for the purposes of extortion; of pular indignation was excited against him. Hitherto, howentering into war with the Mahrattas without necessity, ever, he had been supported in the House of Commons by and treacherously delivering the Mogul into their hands those who usually adhered to administration; though Mr on the conclusion of peace; together with a variety of other Pitt himself had on all occasions declared his wish to act offences of minor importance. On the 26th of April Mr candidly as a judge, and to avoid treating the matter as a Hastings presented a petition, requesting to be furnished question to be supported by a particular party. But upwith a copy of the articles of impeachment, and to be heard on this article of charge concerning the rajah of Benares in his defence against them before any witnesses should be he entered into the views of Mr Fox; and having declared examined. This request was at once granted; and Mr himself satisfied that Mr Hastings had in this case acted Hastings having appeared at the bar, stated the great ef- unjustifiably, it was determined by a majority that the acforts which he had made for the aggrandisement of the cusation contained matter of impeachment against the late British power in the East, and entered into a defence of his governor-general of Bengal. conduct on the particular points upon which he had been During this session some further provisions were enactaccused. He asserted that the liohillas were a tribe of ed for the better regulation of the government of India. adventurers, in driving whom from a usurped territory he On the 7th of March a motion was made by Mr Francis, had only assisted in performing an act of necessary jus- and seconded by Mr Windham, for leave to bring in a bill tice ; that the princes or princesses whose property he was to explain and amend the act, formerly brought in and accused of having seized for the use of the conquerors, had carried through by Mr Pitt, for regulating Indian affairs. deserved their misfortunes by their treachery and rebel- Mr Francis censured strongly three different parts of Mr lion ; that the war with the Mahrattas had not been com- Pitt’s act; first, that which establishes a double government menced by him; that the terms of the pacification were al- of India at home, by the court of directors and the board most universally considered as advantageous ; and that the of control; secondly, the excessive power, by means of a Mogul having thrown himself into their hands, was entitled constant casting voice in the council, which was bestowed

521 BRIT AIN. Reign of upon the governor-general of Bengal; and, thirdly, the in- ought to be examined with much jealousy, on account of Reign of George III. stitution of a special court of justice for the trial of Indian its introducing an innovation into the established system Gemge^ ^ 1737. delinquents, which deprived such persons of the privilege of our policy ; that all the wars of Great Britain had been 1787. 0f triai by jury. On the authority of Lord Macartney, Mr wars of necessity; and that the jealousy of the power of Dundas defended the powers conferred upon the governor- France has been founded upon the fullest experience of general of Bengal; and declared the necessity of a new her ambitious character. If this was a mere commercial court of judicature, from the voluminous nature of the treaty, the framers of it had only to prove that the new evidence in the cases of Sir Thomas Rumbold and Mr channel of trade which it opened would not obstruct, or Hastings, which could not be gone through by the ordinary would be more beneficial than, the other ancient channels form of jury trial. At the same time he stated it as his which this kingdom had long been in possession of, and intention to bring forward a bill for amending, in certain which had been found to be the sources of her commercial respects, the regulating act of 1784. Mr Francis’s motion wealth and prosperity. But if, on the other hand, the was accordingly rejected; and on the 16th of March Mr treaty was intended as a political measure, and if minisDundas brought forward his new bill for the regulation of ters had in view such a close and intimate connection India, which conferred still further powers upon the go- with France as would in future render it difficult for the vernor-general, authorizing him to act in opposition to the two countries to go to war, strong and satisfactory reasense of his council when he thought fit to take the respon- sons would be required for having pursued and concluded sibility upon himself; united the offices of commander-in- a measure so new in the history of this kingdom, and of chief and governor-general; authorized the board of con- such vast magnitude and importance. Mr Pitt reprobattrol to inquire into the fortunes of persons serving in India; ed the principles stated by Mr Fox, in as far as they went and divided the service there into different branches, de- to sanction the policy of a constant animosity with brance. claring that the servants of the Company should rise by Such a doctrine militated in the most direct manner possigradation only in those branches of service for which they ble both against humanity and common sense; for if war is had been prepared by their former habits. After a variety the greatest of all evils, and commerce the chief blessing which a country can enjoy, it must be the duty of those to of debates in both houses, the bill was passed. The session of parliament terminated on the 11th of July, whom public affairs are intrusted, to endeavour as much and during the remainder of the year the British empire as possible to render the one permanent, and to remove enjoyed profound tranquillity. An incident, however, oc- the prospect and danger of the other. This was the obcurred, which called forth demonstrations of attachment to ject of the present treaty; and the advantages likely to the person of the king from all orders of men in the king- arise from it would operate upon succeeding administradom. On alighting from his carriage on the 2d of August, tions in both countries, so as to induce them to avoid a war a woman approached his majesty, under the pretence of as long as it could be done with honour and prudence, offering a petition, and at the same time aimed a thrust at and would also strengthen the resources of this nation him with a knife, which, however, did no harm. Being for carrying on hostilities whenever these should become instantly seized, and examined by some members of the indispensably necessary. This was the true method of privy council, with the assistance of several medical gentle- making peace a blessing. The quarrels between France men, this woman, whose name was Margaret Nicholson, and Britain had not only continued to harass those great proved to be insane, and was ordered to be confined for nations themselves, but had frequently embroiled the life in Bethlehem Hospital. A public thanksgiving was rest of Europe, and had disturbed the tranquillity of the ordered for his majesty’s safety, and addresses of congra- most remote parts of the world. In time past they had acted as if they were intended by nature for the destructulation poured in from all parts of the country. One of the most important measures of Mr Pitt’s ad- tion of each other; but he hoped the period had now arministration was carried into effect in the autumn of this rived when they would justify the order of the universe, year. It consisted of a commercial treaty, which, as we and show that they were better calculated for the purposes have already stated, Mr Eden was sent to negociate with of friendly intercourse and mutual benevolence. On the 12th of February the house resolved itself into France, and which was concluded on the 26th of September. This treaty stipulated, in general terms, that there should a committee for the purpose of considering the commerbe a perfect liberty of navigation and commerce between cial treaty with France, when Mr Pitt entered into a full the subjects of the two sovereigns in all their European do- explanation and defence of the measure. He considered minions, with the view of giving fair encouragement to the it in three points of view; as affecting our manufactures, produce and manufactures of both countries ; and a parti- our revenues, and our political situation. With respect cular tariff was adjusted with regard to a great number of to the first, he showed, that though the treaty had been commodities, while all articles which it did not include formed upon principles of strict reciprocity, yet that this were to be reciprocally imported on the terms allowed to country must, from the very nature of the case, unavoidthe most favoured nations. Each of the monarchs reserv- ably have the advantage. With regard to the effect of the ed the right of countervailing, by additional taxes on cer- treaty upon the revenue, he remarked, that although a tain commodities, the internal duties imposed on the ma- considerable reduction must undoubtedly take place of the nufactures, or the import charges paid on the raw mate- duties upon French wines, and even upon Portuguese wines, rial ; and it was also declared, that if either of the sove- should the provisions of the Methuen treaty be still kept reigns should be at war, every thing should be deemed free in force, yet this would be balanced by the increased conwhich might be found in the ships of the respective na- sumption, and by putting an end to the fraudulent manutions, with the exception of goods usually deemed contra- facture of home-made wine, which was brought to market band, even though the whole or a part of the lading should as foreign wine, a practice which no regulations of excise had hitherto been able to suppress. And with reference belong to the enemies of the other state. This treaty appears to have been acceptable to a con- to the political tendency of the treaty, he recurred to his siderable majority of the nation. When parliament as- former observations on that subject, which it is unnecessembled on the 23d of January 1787, it was announced in sary to repeat. On the part of the manufacturers, it had been objected the speech from the throne, and formed the first subject of deliberation. When the usual address to the throne to this treaty, that the proposed intimate connection with was moved, Mr Fox remarked that the treaty in question France would afford opportunities of enticing away our 3u VOL. v.

522 BRITAIN. Reign of workmen, and conveying the tools and raw materials of our the usage of the church of England. He only deprived Reign of George III. manufactures out of the kingdom. But to this it was an- himself of a privilege which he might otherwise enjoy, George III. swered, that the law in regard to these matters would re- and which the law, for the safety of the church, had limitmain as formerly, and afford to our manufactures the same ed to persons of particular opinions. Mr Pitt supported D87* protection as at present, by restraining the interference of the same view of the question, upon the ground of the foreigners in regard to the matters alluded to. It was also danger to the established church which would result from objected in general, that the commodities in which France intrusting official situations to dissenters. Mr Fox supporttraded, being the produce of her soil, which could not ed the motion in favour of the dissenters; remarking, howsuffer in their quantity or quality by lapse of time, where- ever, upon this occasion, that, from their conduct in a late as our commodities being principally manufactures, which political revolution, he could not be suspected of being owe all their value to skilful and ingenious labour, the biassed by an improper partiality towards them. The moFrench might by degrees become as industrious and skil- tion was lost on a division by a majority of seventy-eight. ful as ourselves, and thereby enter into a successful comOn the 20th of April Mr Alderman Newnham brought petition with us in every branch of our present trade, under the view of the House of Commons the pecuniary whilst our soil and climate rendered it impossible for us situation of the Prince of Wales, whose affairs had at this to equal them in the articles of their produce. To this time fallen into a state of embarrassment. In 1783, when it was answered, that the different nature of the objects of the prince came of age, Mr Fox and his colleagues, who British and French commerce was favourable to Britain, were then in office, wished to grant him an annual income on account of the superior population employed in bring- of L.100,000 ; but his majesty insisted that he should only ing our manufactures to market; and, at all events, that be allowed one half of that amount. In the year 1786 the the threatened change could not occur in twelve years, prince, having contracted a debt of L.100,000, exclusive which was the whole duration of the treaty. The mem- of L.50,000 expended upon Carlton House, applied to his bers of opposition objected to the treaty chiefly upon po- majesty to obtain relief from this incumbrance; and on litical considerations. Mr Fox contended that the only receiving a refusal, he instantly dismissed the officers of situation in which Great Britain could stand, in the gene- his court, ordered his horses to be sold and the works ral system of Europe, with honour, dignity, or safety, was at Carleton House to be stopped, and reduced his houseas a counterpoise to the power of France. Mr Francis re- hold to the scale of that of a private gentleman. By these proached Mr Pitt with a desertion of the principles of his savings an annual sum of L.40,000 was vested in trustees father Lord Chatham, the most prominent feature of whose for the payment of his debts^ But this decisive and spipolitical character was Antigallicanism. Mr Flood, Mr rited conduct was represented at court as disrespectful to Sheridan, and others, expressed the same sentiments; the king; and from the period in question his majesty’s diswhilst Mr Powis and Mr Alderman Watson opposed the satisfaction with the prince appears to have been no longer treaty, as bringing the British commerce unnecessarily concealed. On the occasion of the assault made upon the into hazard at a time when it was extremely prosperous. king’s person by Margaret Nicholson, no notice of the acOn the other hand, the treaty was defended by Mr Gren- cident was sent by the court to the Prince of Wales; and ville, Mr Wilberforce, and Mr Dundas, and the resolution when, on receiving the intelligence, he instantly repaired proposed by Mr Pitt was carried, on a division, by a large to Windsor, he was received there by the queen, but the majority. In the House of Lords the treaty was warmly king did not see him. In these circumstances the prince opposed by Dr Watson, bishop of Llandaff, and by Lords permitted his situation to be brought before the House of Loughborough, Stormont, and Porchester; but this oppo- Commons, with a view of submitting his conduct to the sition proved as unavailing as that in the lower house. judgment of the public. Accordingly, on the day already During the present session a plan for consolidating into mentioned, Mr Newnham demanded of the chancellor of one act of parliament the whole of the duties imposed by the exchequer whether ministers intended to bring forthe statutes of customs and excise, was brought forward ward any proposition for the relief of the Prince of Wales ; by Mr Pitt, and received the universal approbation of the at the same time alleging, that it would be disgraceful House of Commons. The duties imposed upon French to the nation to suffer him to remain longer in his present merchandise, in pursuance of the late commercial treaty, reduced circumstances. Mr Pitt replied, that he had rewere also included in the same act, although that part of ceived no commands from his majesty upon the subject, the measure was resisted by opposition. and that without such it was not his duty to bring forward On the 28th of March Mr Beaufoy, at the request of an affair of this nature. Mr Newnham then intimated his the deputies of the dissenting congregations about London, intention of bringing forward a motion on the subject upon moved for the repeal of the corporation and test acts. He the 4th of May. But on the 24th of April Mr Pitt requestobserved that the test act was originally levelled against ed to know the precise nature of the intended motion; the Roman Catholics, and the corporation act against those stating his wish to avoid a discussion of the subject, and sectaries who had agitated the kingdom in the times of adding, that if it was persisted in, he would be under the Charles I. and during the usurpation, but with whose cha- necessity of bringing before the public some circumstances racter the dissenters of the present age had nothing in of extreme delicacy. At the same time Mr Rolle, an adcommon ; and he contended that, as every man had an un- herent of the ministry, declared that the question involved doubted right to judge for himself in matters of religion, matter by which the constitution both in church and state he ought not, on account of the exercise of that right, to might be essentially affected. This menace was believed incur any punishment, or to be branded with what is un- to allude to an intimate connection supposed to subsist bedoubtedly a mark of infamy, an exclusion from military tween the prince and Mrs Fitzherbert, a lady of a Roman service and civil trust. He referred to the examples of Catholic family, with whom it was alleged that the prince Scotland, Holland, Russia, Prussia, and the dominions of had been married both by Catholic and Protestant clergythe emperor, in none of which religious opinions were now men, although such a proceeding, even if it had taken place, made the ground of civil disqualification. Lord North spoke could be productive of no legal effects, in consequence of against the proposed repeal, chiefly on the footing of the the provisions of the royal marriage-act. Mr Newnham rehazard attending innovation. He denied that a man was plied, that his intended motion would be for an address to subjected to any punishment because he did not choose to his majesty to relieve the Prince of Wales from his present receive the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper according to difficulties; and when some members expressed a wish that

BRITAIN. 523 Reign of the affair might be privately accommodated, Mr Sheridan brought forward, and opened by Mr Thomas Pelham, Sir Reign of George III. declared, that after the insinuations and threats which had James Erskine, Mr Whndham, and Mr Francis. Mr Pitt George IIL been made, the prince could not possibly recede with ho- adopted the cause of the accusers, and on some occasions, 1 8 ^ ^* nour. Accordingly, on the 30th of April, when the subject though in a very mild tone, Mr Dundas did the same. ' was again mentioned, Mr Fox, who had been absent during At one period Lord Hood stood forward, and, in a very the former debate, stated, that he had authority from the solemn manner, requested the attention of the house to the prince to say, that there was no part of his conduct which consequences of proceeding, with too scrupulous a nicety, he would not willingly submit to public investigation. The to canvass the conduct of those who had filled stations allusions made to something full of danger to the church abroad of high difficulty and important trust. Certain acand state he treated as a tale fit to be imposed only on the tions, which appeared to those at a distance in a very crilowest of the vulgar; and added, that his royal highness minal light, were yet, he alleged, on a nearer investigawas ready, in the other house, as a peer of parliament, to tion, perfectly justifiable on the grounds of absolute and give his majesty, or his ministers, any assurances or satis- indispensable necessity; and if the dread of an impeachfaction on the subject which they might require. Mr Fox, ment by parliament were to be hung over every comat the same time, directly assured the house that the whole mander in whose hands was placed the defence of our nastory alluded to was untrue. The result therefore was, that tional possessions, it must necessarily operate as a dangeran accommodation took place. The prince was allowed an ous restraint on their exertions, when it was considered annual addition to his income of L.10,000, and a sum of that no general nor admiral had scarcely ever been fortuL.180,000 was granted by parliament for the payment of nate enough to conduct himself in the performance of his his debts. duty, so as not occasionally to fall into circumstances in But the subject which chiefly occupied the attention of which the public service compelled him to do things in parliament during the present session was the accusation themselves neither pleasing to his feelings, nor strictly of Mr Hastings. After examining Mr Middleton and Sir legal, but, from the indispensable necessities of their situaElijah Impey as witnesses in the beginning of February, tion, perfectly justifiable. But Mr Pitt denied that these Mr Sheridan, on the 7th of that month, opened the third sentiments had any application to the case of Mr Hastings, charge against Mr Hastings, which set forth, that without since no adequate political necessity had been pointed out justice, or any excuse of political necessity, he had seized which could justify his conduct. In the course of the the lands, and confiscated the treasures, of the begums or proceedings, also, it appeared that several members were princesses of Oude, the mother and grand-daughter of the disposed to consider the merits of Mr Hastings as in some reigning nabob, and that he had even compelled the latter measure compensating his crimes; and thus, although they to become the instrument of this robbery. Mr Sheridan’s voted his conduct criminal on particular occasions, they speech lasted five hours and a half. The subject of the had an intention of voting in his favour when the general charge was well fitted for a display of all the powers of question should come to be proposed about the propriety pathetic eloquence, owing to the rank and sex of the par- of proceeding to impeachment. But Major Scott took an ties whom, on this occasion, Mr Hastings was accused of opportunity to declare that Mr Hastings and his friends having treated with the most barbarous rapacity, treachery, wished to decline such a mode of defence; and he read and cruelty. Every advantage was taken of these circum- to the house as a part of his own speech, a paper signed stances by the eloquent accuser; and Mr Sheridan’s dis- by Mr Hastings, in which he requested, if a general vote course was considered as a model of splendid and impres- of criminality should pass against him, that they would sive oratory. When he sat down, the whole house, which further proceed instantly to an impeachment, and thus afwas filled with members, peers, and strangers, instantly ford him an opportunity of defending himself judicially. joined in a loud and long-continued tumult of applause, A committee was at length appointed to prepare artiexpressing their approbation in the irregular mode of re- cles of impeachment against Mr Hastings. It consisted peatedly clapping with their hands. Mr Burke declared of Mr Burke, Mr Fox, Mr Sheridan, Sir James Erskine, it to be the most astonishing effort of eloquence, argument, the Right Honourable Thomas Pelham, the Right Hoand wit united, of which there was any record or tradi- nourable William Wyndham, the Honourable St Andrew tion ; Mr Fox said, that all that he had ever heard or St John, John Anstruther, Esq. William Adam, Esq. M. read, when compared with it, vanished like vapour before A. Taylor, Esq. Welbore Ellis, Esq. the Right Honourthe sun; and Mr Pitt asserted, that it surpassed all the able Frederick Montague, Sir Grey Cooper, Sir Gileloquence of ancient or modern times, and possessed every bert Elliot, Dudley Long, Esq. Lord Maitland, the Horesource which genius or art could furnish to control and nourable George Augustus North, General Burgoyne, and agitate the human mind. After a short suspension of the Mr Grey. An attempt was made by Mr Burke to prodebate, some of Mr Hastings’ friends attempted to speak cure the appointment of Mr Philip Francis as a member in reply, but found it impossible to procure a hearing. of this committee, but without success. On the 25th of At last some members proposed, that for the sake of de- April Mr Burke presented the articles of impeachment, corum, the debate should be adjourned; and this proposal which were read, and ordered to be printed, and considerwas carried. On the following day Mr Francis resumed ed on the 9th of May. Upon that day Lord Hood rethe charge, which was opposed by Mr Burgess, Major peated his former arguments, and was supported by Mr Scott, Mr Nichols, Mr Vansittart, and Mr Alderman le Smith and the notorious John Wilkes. This last person Mesurier. After having heard the arguments on both insisted strongly on the silence of the natives of India resides, Mr Pitt rose, and having stated the sense he enter- specting the dreadful oppression said to have been practained of the high importance of the procedure against tised against them, and attributed the greater part of what Mr Hastings, and his endeavours to give to every fact appeared criminal in the conduct of Mr Hastings to the stated in each particular charge the fullest investigation, craving and avaricious policy of this country, whose dedeclared himself fully satisfied that criminality was brought mands had in some instances driven Mr Hastings to the home to Mr Hastings, though not perhaps to the full ex- use of means not strictly justifiable. The amount of the tent alleged by the accusers. The motion for accusation charges, supposing the facts to be true, was, in his opiwas accordingly carried, upon a division, by a very large nion, this, that Mr Hastings, by oppression, by injustice, majority. and by corruption, had obtained for the East India ComAt a future period of the session other charges were pany nine millions and a half sterling. Mr Wilkes thought

BRITAIN. 524 Reign of the acts complained of politic and just, and declared that extent which it could bear without ruin. Accordingly, Reign of George III. lie could not vote for the impeachment of Mr Hastings, in 1782, Mr Hastings, in one of his letters, complained George IIL while he benefited by his misdeeds. He added, that it strongly of the cruelty of his situation, and of the expen- '**7^**' l ?87 ‘ ‘ appeared incomprehensible to him how gentlemen who sive establishments and offices which he was under the necondemned his actions suffered a day to pass without pro- cessity of constituting in India, in order to gratify the avaposing retribution to the sufferers. The lord advocate of rice of his employers; declaring that he had at that time Scotland, Mr Hay Campbell, also supported this view; about him two hundred and fifty persons, the younger considering the necessities of the Company, and the dan- sons of the first families in Britain, all looking up to him gerous crisis of their affairs, as grounds of justification for for patronage, and expecting to be put in possession of the strong measures pursued by Mr Hastings, in order to sudden riches. But these riches, it is evident, could not extricate them; and declaring that, as the Company had be drawn from the natives of Hindustan without much actually reaped the benefit of them, and so far approved oppression ; and when this oppression produced rebellion, of them as never to signify any intention of restitution, he or combinations of the native princes against the British could not conceive with what propriety Mr Hastings could power, it became necessary to be guilty of further opbe impeached. Mr Pitt acknowledged that many measures pression, or more grievous extortion, to collect means by during the administration of Mr Hastings were uncom- which to overcome the resistance of an oppressed people. monly brilliant, and that in these his merits were unques- It is admitted on all hands that Mr Hastings was almost tionable ; but he trusted that no man who seriously regard- unboundedly successful in the service of his employers. ed the honour of the House of Commons would think that He sent home annually great numbers of men loaded with the justice of the country could admit of any compromise the plunder of the East; while at the same time, by great activity and intrepidity, he collected resources wherewith whatever. The question of impeachment w'as therefore carried by to maintain and extend the British power, and was enabled a large majority ; and on the 10th of May, at the bar of to support it in all quarters against the most extensive tbe House of Lords, Mr Burke, in the name of the House combinations of the princes of that country. Now there of the Commons of Great Britain, impeached Warren are two systems of morality according to which the chaHastings, Esq. late governor-general of Bengal, of high racter of such a man as Mr Hastings may be tried. The crimes and misdemeanors; and informed the Lords that one is founded upon the principle of obedience to his emthe Commons would, with all convenient speed, exhibit ployers, and fidelity to the trust reposed in him; and the and make good articles against him. On the 21st of the other upon the eternal law of humanity. According to same month, upon the motion of Mr Burke, Mr Hastings the first of these, that conduct is most worthy of applause was taken into the custody of the serjeant at arms of the which tends in the highest degree to promote the interest house; but he was immediately admitted to bail by the of those whom we serve; and, considered in this point of House of Lords, himself in the sum of L.20,000, and two view, the merits of Warren Hastings have seldom been sureties in L.10,000 each. But as the session of parlia- surpassed. It is true that he plundered the provinces of ment w'as prorogued on the 30th of May, the trial was the East; but it was to aggrandise and enrich his country necessarily postponed to another session, and by various that he did so. He accounted their persons and fortunes delays it was ultimately protracted to an extraordinary as of little consideration; but he did so because he was the devoted servant of Britain. Accordingly, the French, length. The impeachment of Mr Hastings, from the attention whose public enemy he had been, regarded him with adwhich it excited, and the talents which were exerted in car- miration, and uniformly extolled his actions as more than rying it through, undoubtedly forms an event of consider- human. But if, in opposition to all this, we are to weigh able importance in British history. It ended in the acquit- the conduct of Mr Hastings by those maxims of morality tal of the party accused ; but the immense expense which which assume the immutable law of humanity as the rule he incurred, and the uneasiness which he must have suf- by which human actions ought to be regulated, there can fered from the odium excited against him, unquestionably be no doubt that he must be condemned. He can only be amounted to a very severe punishment. A British House regarded as one of those robbers of nations, to whose crimes of Commons held him guilty of inhumanity, rapacity, historians and poets have given a too fatal celebrity. He perfidy, and tyranny, towards a numerous and civilised was guilty of plundering and oppressing a pacific race of people, who had been subjected to his power; and these men, at the extremities of the earth, in whose aftairs neisentiments were so widely diffused throughout Great Bri- ther he nor his country had any right to interfere. But tain, that the minister of the day, always studious of popu- the principal criminals in this case were the British East larity, thought it necessary to join in the general current of India Company, the British legislature, and the British opinion. But to enable the reader to appreciate correctly nation, who sent him upon such a service. Mr Hastings the merits of Mr Hastings, or the reasonableness of the was only the guilty tool of a guilty people; and surely it accusations which were brought against him, it is neces- ill became the British House of Commons, which had ausary to consider correctly the situation in which that gen- thorized the acquisition of conquests, or, in other words, tleman stood. He was invested by the British East India sanctioned rapine and oppression, in the East, and whose Company with absolute power over a large portion of Hin- constituents had become rich by the plunder or the produstan, in order to govern for th