Encyclopaedia Britannica [3, 7 ed.]

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ANA
ANA
ANA
ANA
ANA
ANA
AND
ANG
ANI
ANI
ANN
ANN
ANT
ANT
APA
APP
AQU
ARA
ARA
ARC
ARC
ARC
ARC
ARC
ARE
ARI
ARI
ARI
ARI
ARM
ARM
ARM
ART
ARU
ASI
ASI
AST
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AST
AST
Plates
Anatomy
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Angling
Animalcules
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Arachnides
Arch
Architecture
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Asia
Assaying
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ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNIC A SEVENTH EDITION.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA OR

DICTIONARY OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, AND GENERAL LITERATURE.

SEVENTH EDITION,

WITH PRELIMINARY DISSERTATIONS ON THE HISTORY OF THE SCIENCES, AND

OTHER EXTENSIVE IMPROVEMENTS AND ADDITIONS; INCLUDING THE LATE SUPPLEMENT,

A GENERAL INDEX, AND NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.

VOLUME III.

ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH; M.DCCC.XLII.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. PART I. ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF RELATION. CHAP. I.—COMPARATIVE OSTEOLOGY.

Compara- X) ED-BLOODED ANIMALS only can be said to postive A*' sess that assemblage of bones denominated skeleton; and as in these the most constant part is the vertebral ' column, it furnishes the general character of Vertebrated. The shells of the MOLLUSCA and the Crustacea have been generally regarded as a species of internal skeleton ; and in the circumstance of affording mechanical support and external protection, they indeed resemble the skeleton of the VERTEBRATA. But neither in mode of developement nor in chemical constitution can they be regarded as of the same nature. Hence it is only in the vertebrated classes that it is requisite to study the peculiarities of the skeleton. Bones ge- In general characters the bones of the Mammalia renerally. semble those of the human subject. Like them, they are white, firm, elastic, and incompressible. They consist also of compact and reticular or cancellated tissue. In the lower animals the latter kind of structure is in general coarser and looser than in man; and in the CETACEA especially the cavities are large. In the carnivorous animals the compact structure is exceedingly dense, and gives the bone much greater weight than in other animals. In the CETACEA also the acoustic or lithoid portion of the temporal bone is of a marble hardness. The bones of the Mammalia may, like those of man, be distinguished, according to their mechanical form, into long, flat, and short bones. Though the first class in general possess a medullary canal, this cavity is imperfect or wholly wanting in the bones of the CETACEA and AMPHIBIA.

I he cavities denominated sinuses are much more completely developed in several of the MAMMALIA than in the human skeleton. In the pig these cavities extend into the occipital bone ; in the elephant they not only give the frontal bone extraordinary protuberance, but they extend into the parietal, temporal, and even the occipital bones, and contribute much to augment the volume of the head. In the ox, deer, and sheep, they communicate with the cavity of the horns. The bones of BIRDS are in general whiter, firmer, and smoother than those of the MAMMALIA ; and they consist of a firm, compact substance, which is elastic and hard VOL. in.

in the bones of the trunk, and extremely brittle in those Comparaof the extremities. With the exception also of some of iat ^ve the thin, flat bones, as the sternum, they consist of thin, ,^ om.vcompact walls, inclosing large capacious cavities, which contain not marrow, but air, and which communicate by one or more minute holes with the windpipe and lungs. While these cavities, which may be regarded as the most perfect and advanced form of sinuses, diminish considerably the weight of the whole skeleton, by the density and completely cylindrical shape, they rather augment the strength. In the chick, and at birth, the bones are homogeneous and without cavities; afterwards they contain marrow; and eventually this disappears and gives place to air. The bones of the REPTILES are not remarkable in any respect, unless in being void in general of medullary cavity. dhe absence of this canal was originally observed by Caldesi, and afterwards by Cuvier, in the tortoise; by d roja in the bones of the frog and toad; and by Carus in those of the turtle. In the crocodile, however, and in several of the lizard family, they are large and distinct. The bones of Reptiles also are less firm than those of Birds and Mammals. The bones of FISHES are remarkable for great softness, flexibility, and elasticity. Those of the lamprey, shark, ray or skate, and sturgeon family, are soft, flexible, sectile, of a bluish white colour, translucent, and so elastic that a cutting instrument forced into them is speedily retruded by the resilient nature of the bony matter. From these characters, the bones of these families have been regarded as cartilaginous, and the fishes themselves have been distinguished by this character. (PISCES CARTILAGINEI, PISCES CHONDROPTERYGII.) In the other fishes, the bones, though softer than those of Mammals, Birds, and Reptiles, present a greater degree of firmness and solidity, are whiter and more opaque, and are much less sectile, than those of the cartilaginous division. As in this respect, therefore, they approach the genuine bone of the Mammals, these are distinguished as fishes with osseous skeletons. (PISCES OSSEI.) The bones of both classes of fishes consist of a large quantity of gelatine, with a small proportion of phosphate A

ANATOMY. Compara- oflime. In the osseous fishes, however, the latter subtive stance is most abundant. • Anatomy. colour of the bones of fishes, though in general whitish gray, is observed to vary in certain genera. In the, crar-pike (esox belone), for/A/vi/»*/»/c* instance, they aie green, . • • i-i 'ii'iw'nr/'r'i/s). tnP and in the viviparous . blenny LtJoTel colour after boiling. colour are unknown.

Uiiau (Bradypus didactylus). The most common number Comparais 12, which is that not only of man, but of the ourang- ^t.ve outang, silky monkey (sirma mankim), patas (a. patas), maimon (simia maimon), macaca (sirnia cynomolgus), baboon (s. sphynx), magot (s. inuus), mandrill (s. maimon).

Zy assumeyi green The causes of these vanet.es m ^

^ nu£ cive,, the

q white be ar,

cat tribe (felis), the dog, wolf and fox, the didelphis tribe, the cavy, guinea pig and paca, the mouse tribe, SECT. I.—OSTEOLOGY OF THE MAMMIFEROUS ANIMALS. excluding the two exceptions already mentioned, the longtailed manis, the stag, the antelope genus, the goat, The skeleton of the MAMMALIA bears a general resemPlate XXXIV. blance to that of the human subject, in the construction, sheep, and ox, and the dolphin and porpoise. The number is 14 in the gibbon, coaita, and weeping monkey, in the fiff. 1. Shed recognise "ufe importance of the trunk, and especially of the°spine, in the different classes of mammiferous aniI ’ m The spine consists of separate vertebrae, which are conveniently distinguished, as in man, into cervical, dorsal or costal, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal or caudal Cervical The number of cervical vertebrae is the same in animals vertebrae. with the longest and shortest necks,—in the horse, camel, and giraffe, and in the mole and ant-eater. They are always seven. The only exception is observed in the A.i or three-toed sloth (bradypus tridactyla), which has 9 cervical vertebrae (Cuvier); and an apparent exception is presented in the dolphin and porpoise, in which the first two are consolidated into one; and in the cachalot or large-headed whale, in which the last six, sometimes the whole seven, are united or ankylosed. The last six are also united in the ant-eater and manis (Cuvier). Even in this state, however, the traces of the original separation are distinct. In the ape the cervical vertebrae are distinguished from those of man chiefly by the spinous processes being stronger and not bifid, and in their bodies being projected more over each other before, so as to support the head more

The spine.

howling ape (simia UelzeM), the tarsius, the brown bear, raccoon and coat,, the weazel gmus the porcup.ne, hog, and giraffe. It ,s 15 m the Ion, hedgehog and tenrec m the badger, pangolin, and seal. The number is 16 in the glutton, hyena, ant-eater, American lamantin, and rnegathenum. In the horse, quagga, and dugong, iey are 18 ; in the rhinoceros 19 ; in the Indian elephant and tapir 20 ; and m the Unau or two-toed sloth ,.3, which, as already stated, is the greatest number yet know n, In the ape family the dorsal vertebrae resemble those of the human subject, but then spinous piocesses are long, and erect in the macaca and magot. . In the bats, instead of spinous processes, which are wanting, there are minute tubercles. The want of these, however, in sundry species, leaves the column comparatively smooth behind. In the proper quadrupeds these processes are larger, straighter, and stronger, as the head is weighty or supported on a long neck, in order to give attachment to the strong yellow cervical ligament. This peculiarity is very distinct in the giraffe, camel, ox, rhinoceros, and elephant. In the dolphin they are straight, and smaller than those of the loins. The lumbar vertebrae vary in number still more, per-Eumbar

the transverse processes of haps, than the cervical and dorsal; and this variety may oc- vertebraa the cervical vertebrae are flattened from behind backwards, casionally be traced to the greater or less distinctness with and those of the atlas are very large, both for supporting which the sacral and coccygeal are distinguished. The r the head and giving attachment to the strong muscles smallest number is 2, which is that of the tw o-toed antemployed in defence, attacking prey, or bearing it off. eater, ornithorhyncus, and American lamantin; and the For the same purpose the spinous process of the axis is greatest 9, which is that of the lori. The most frequent very prominent, while the others are short and directed number is 7, which is that of the greater part of the towards the head. In the mole and shrew the cervical monkeys, the macauco, the great bat (iioctula), the hedgevertebrae, which are void of spinous processes, are simple hog, shrew, raccoon ; the tiger, panther, puma, and cat, in osseous rings, which move easily on each other, probably the feline genus; the wolf and fox in the dog; the hare and to facilitate the frequent motions requisite in these ani- rabbit; the whole murine genus except the hamster; and in mals in burrowing. In the hog the cervical transverse the camel and dromedary. The next number in frequency processes are compressed and broad before, so as to ap- is 6, which is that of the horse-shoe bat, the colugo (galeopeai double. In the elephant the cervical vertebrae have pithecus), the white and brown bear, the coati, the weasel shoi t single spinous processes, and the bodies projecting genus, the civet, the lion, among the feline, and the dog over each other as in the ape. In the Ruminants the among the canine genus, the didelphis and cavy genera, length of the spinous processes diminishes as the neck is the hamster, the stag, antelope, goat, sheep, ox, horse, and elongated. _ Ihus they are almost wanting in the camel quagga. The gibbon, coaita, Ai, Echidna or Ornithorhynand giraffe, in which the arched neck is much retro-flected; cus hystrix of English zoologists, six-banded armadillo, and the same peculiarity is recognised m those of the and dugong, have only 3 lumbar vertebrae; the ourangperfectly.

In the

ZOOPHAGA

10

e T? ‘ these facts c , -s. ii I,length of the neck hyena, outang, armadillo, pongo, andUnau, howling ape, 4; the battarsier, 4; the from it results that the and tapir, 4; vampyre the jocko,

Dorsal vertebrae.

but on ,lie lo g,tud,nal offiS " ^~bot 5CeSer andglrn’ The doisal, thoracic, or cotta, vertebne are distinguish- chl^Sti/aKT nd 8

ed by forming the central fixed basis of the ribs; and rel have 8 their number depends on that of the latter class of bones,

,he

r cuT’

' °

4

In theQuADKUMANA and ZooeHAqA generally the outer

side vtiiiLS iomYl om ii, wmen is tliat oi trie L/hiiiese rooukoy* cr» tUof * 4.* i * o varies whidt tha'ofTnd ° COS “‘vertcom** turned “f tiapkwnrd each posterior articular process'presel an apex .non hat, armadillo, helmet-headed dolphin glo- the next vertebra s l£ked£^ bxeps), and Gangette dolplun, to 23, winch is that of the confine its movement much Though Ufis a^eTk fotd

ANATOMY.

3

Compara- in the RODENTIA, it is there shorter; and the arrangement garded as lumbo-coccygeal; and their number is estimated Comparative live is wanting in the other tribes. The size of the transverse by deducting that of the cervical and costal from the total Anatomy. processes indicates the strength of the loins,—a fact number. The following table, which shows the number Anatomy, which is evinced especially in the instance of the horse, of the costal, the lumbo-coccygeal, and the total number of vertebrae, indicates that their number varies much in porpoise, &c. Sacral ver- The number of sacral vertebrae is still more various, various genera of this family. tebrae. even in the species of the same genus. Thus, while in d. 1-c. t. d. l.c. t. 16 24 46 Porpoise 13 40 60 several of the ape genus, in the lori, in the vampyre bat, Lamantin Dugong...... 18 28 46 Narwal 12 35 54 the colugo (galeopithecus), the coati, and two of the Dolphin 13 47 67 Hyperoodon.... 9 29 45 didelphis, there is one sacral vertebra only, most of the Tursio ...13 38 58 Cachalot or White apes have sacra consisting of 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 pieces ; the D. Globiceps 11 37 56 Whale 14-15 39 60 majority of other animals have 3 sacral vertebrae; the D. Griseus 12 42 61 Greenland Whale... 15 37 59 11 28 46 llorquhal hedgehog, porcupine, guinea pig, paca, hare, tiger, several D. Gangeticus 14 31 52 of the murine genus, the ant-eater, rhinoceros, camel, droIn general, however, if we reckon the first 2, 3, or 5 vermedary, chamois, goat, sheep, and ox, have 4; the ele- tebrae after the costal as lumbar, it may be said that the phant has 5; the Ai 6; the Unau 7; and in the mole, caudal vertebrae of the CETACEA vary from 22 or 25, which white bear, and quagga, they also amount to 7. The fre- are the numbers respectively in the lamantin and dugong, quency of the three sacral vertebrae in the lower animals to 34, 38, and 42, at which they may be estimated in the shows that Galen, who ascribes only 3 to the human sub- dolphin. We shall see that, in the dugong at least, we are ject, must have derived this inference from the former. guided in this estimate by the rudimental bones of the These vertebrae are in the mammalia narrower than in pelvis. man, and their direction forms with the spine, instead of The coccygeal or caudal vertebrae of the MAMMALIA receding backwards, a straight line ; an arrangement evi- may be distinguished into two kinds; those which condently connected with the horizontal position of the for- tain a canal in continuity with that of the vertebral comer. The shape of the sacrum in the lower mammals is lumn and sacrum, and those in which the pieces are solid. that of an elongated triangle ; and it is further remarkable, The first, which are next the sacrum, have articular, that in those species which occasionally assume the erect transverse, and spinous processes, distinct in proportion attitude on the hind leg, as apes, bears, and sloths, the as the animals move their tails. The latter are generally width of the sacrum is proportionally greater. The sa- prismatic in shape, diminish in size towards the extrecral spines, which are short in man and the ape, become mity, and have only slight tubercles for muscular attachlonger in the ZooPHAGA,and form a continuous ridge in the ments. Animals with prehensile tails, as the American rhinoceros, most ruminants, and especially in the mole. In ape (sapajous), have above, at the base of the body of the vampyre bat the sacrum forms a long compressed each vertebra, two small tubercles, between which pass cone, the extremity of which is united to the ischial tu- the tendons of the flexor muscles. By means of this berosities, without sustaining a coccyx. The seal has two mechanism these animals can twine the tail round the sacral bones; but the CETACEA, e. g. the dolphin and por- branch of a tree with sufficient force to support the weight poise, are void both of sacrum and coccyx. of the body. Coccygeal The coccygeal bones constitute the tail of the lower The MAMMALIA with long mobile tails have often two or caudal animals, and in many instances they are extremely numeor three small supernumerary bones placed on the lower vertebrae. rous. The smallest number is 3, which is that of the surface of the junctions of several of the coccygeal vermagot (simia sylvanus, pithecus, et inuus) or Barbary ape ; tebrae, from the 3d or 4th to the 7th or 8th. These and the greatest yet known is that of the ant-eater, in sesamoid bones give attachment to muscles. In the which they amount to 40, and the long-tailed manis, in beaver, which employs its tail as a trowel, the transverse which they amount to 45. Next to these may be placed processes are remarkable for size, while the lower spinous that of the coa'ita 32, the baboon 31, the phalanger (di- processes are larger than the upper ones,—an arrangement delphis orientalis) 30, the marmoset (didelphis murind) 29, which enables it to depress the tail forcibly when it beats the pangolin 28, the silky monkey {simia rosalia) and the ground. black rat 26, the weeping monkey and howling ape 25 ; the The shape of the chest in the MAMMALIA varies in The chest, panther, mouse, dormouse, and elephant, 24; the lion, general as the clavicles are present or wanting. In anibeaver, water-rat, Norway rat, and field-rat, 23 ; the flying- mals provided with clavicles, as the QUADRUMANA, bats, cat, puma, cat, dog, marmot, and rhinoceros, 22; the the squirrel, beaver, mole, ant-eater, hedgehog, and sloth, otter, 21; the Chinese monkey, raccoon, civet, hare, and the shape of the chest approaches to the human, or is rabbit, 20; the tiger and wolf, 19; the macauco, glutton, conoidal, and flattened before and behind. In those void marten, fat dormouse, dromedary, giraffe, and quagga, 18; of clavicles it is compressed laterally, from the smaller inthe tarsier, shre^V, camel, and horse, 17 ; and other genera curvation of the ribs; and the sternum makes a remark- The sterand species, without any determinate order, descending able prominence, so that the transverse or intercostal dia-numso low as to 9, 8, 7, 6, and 4. The quilled duckbill {echidna, meter is less proportionally, and the sterno-vertebral is ornithorhyncus hystrix) has only 12 caudal vertebrae, while greater proportionally, than in man and the claviculated the common one (ornithorhyncus paradoxus') has at least animals. In the long-legged animals, as the giraffe and 20. The gibbon and vampyre bat are the only mammifer- those of the stag kind, this prominence of the sternum is ous animals, excepting the CETACEA, in which there are sufficient to give it a keel-like appearance (thorax carinano coccygeal bones. It sometimes happens that a monkey tus). In the carnivorous animals the chest presents its or opossum loses a portion of its tail, when the truncated greatest longitudinal extent. end is converted into a knotty excrescence, sometimes The number and shape of the ribs varies in the differ- The ribs, carious, always different from the taper point of the last ent tribes. In number, indeed, the ribs always correspond coccygeal vertebra; and in this case it is difficult to de- with that of the costal vertebrae. Thus, in the QUADRUMAtermine the exact species. NA, ZOOPHAGA, RODENTIA, EDENTATA,and RUMINANTIA, In the CETACEA, in which the absence of pelvis affords they vary from 12 to 15 pair, with only three exceptions, no mark to distinguish the lower vertebrae into lumbar, the glutton, hyena, and ant-eater. In the Chinese monkey, sacral, and coccygeal, those below the dorsal may be re- common bat, and armadillo, they are a pair less than in

ANATOMY. Compara- man. While the quilled duckbill {echidna, ornithorhyncus tached from the temporal, and adheres to the cranium by Compara. tive tive hystrix) has only 15 ribs, the common duckbill {ornithor- soft parts only. The sphenoid is not only long separate, AnatQni)r. ]Lyncus paradoxus) has 17; the horse and quagga have but consists of several portions. > v Though, among the QUADRUMANA, the cranium of the t]ie rhinoceros 19, the elephant and tapir 20, and in the Unau or two-toed sloth they amount to 23, which is ourang-outang approaches that of man in shape, it differs the greatest known number. On the whole, the most nevertheless in the connections of the constituent bones. prevalent number is 13. In the carnivorous animals they The temporal wing of the sphenoid bone is very narrow, are narrow and dense in structure. In the herbivorous does not reach the parietal, and touches the frontal only they are large, broad, and thick. In the armadillo the by its upper extremity, so that the temporal bone is parttwo first ribs are large compared with the others. In the ly articulated with the frontal. The temporal suture is two-toed ant-eater, which has 16 pairs, they are so broad not imbricated, but serrated. The same mode of connecthat they are imbricated over each other like the plates of tion is observed in the mandrill, macaca {s. cynocephalus), a corslet, and render the parietes of this animal’s chest magot, and guenon {Cercopithecus), or tailed monkey exceedingly solid. In the two species of duckbill {orni- tribe. In the American monkey the temporal wing of thorhyncus paradoxus and hystrix ; echidna of Cuvier), the the sphenoid touches neither the frontal nor the parietal true ribs, in number 6, consist of two portions—a long or bones ; but the temporal bone is articulated directly with vertebral joined to the spine, and a short or sternal at- the malar by its flat portion. In the American monkeys tached to the sternum. These portions are united by the frontal bone does not touch the temporal wing of the cartilage, so as to resemble the ribs of birds. The 9 or sphenoid, and the parietal is articulated to the malar. In 10 false ribs terminate before in broad, flat, oval plates of the howling ape {simia beelzebul) the connections are as bone, which are mutually connected by elastic ligaments. in man. The sternum, which is broad in the ourang and pongo, The connections of the cranial bones are in the Zoo- Coimecis narrow in the other species of ape, and consists of seven PHAGA the same as in man. In the RODENTIA the sphenoid tions. or eight pieces. In the vampyre and all the bat family is joined to the frontal and temporal, without touching the it is narrow, but presents before or below rather a promi- parietal; and the orbitar and temporalare very small. nent azygous ridge or keel {carina), and an anterior ex- In the armadillo, pangolin, and sloth, the connections are tremity, broad on the sides, like a T, for receiving the as in the RODENTIA; but in the ant-eater the parietal clavicles. In the mole the clavicular extremity of the bone, continued below the cranium, is united to the sphesternum is continued before the ribs, and is flat on the noid at the posterior part of the orbito-temporal fossa. sides for receiving the two short clavicles. In the hog In the elephant, though the cranial bones are at an the sternum is broad behind and narrow before. In the early period consolidated into one, the auditory is always rhinoceros, horse, and elephant, it is prolonged before and distinct from the temporal bone. In the hog, tapir, rhiflat on the sides. In the CETACEA it is broad and thin, noceros, and hippopotamus, the sphenoid is united to the especially before. parietal bone, and its temporal wings occupy a small Cranium. Though the QUADRUMANA have 8 cranial bones, the space only of the orbitar and temporal fossae. The orbisphenoid often consists of two portions, one forming the tar wings, though larger, appear small externally. The orbitar wings and the anterior clinoid processes, the other auditory bone, though distinct, is, however, united by its the temporal or large wings, the posterior clinoid processes, base to the margin of the auditory canal of the temporal and the basilar fossa. The two parietal bones are early bone. The sphenoid of the ruminants is articulated, as united into one in the CHIROPTERA and the other Zoo- in man, with all the cranial bones; but its orbitar wing, PHAGA, in which, however, the frontal remains biparted which is extensive, is principally concealed within the by a middle suture. The temporal tympanum is separat- cerebral cavity, and covered by the orbital part of the ed from the rest of the bone by a suture, which is seldom frontal bone. In the CETACEA generally, all the sutures obliterated in the feline, canine, and viverra genera. The which remain after early life are squamous or imbricated. temporal tympanum is also separate in the RODENTIA, and I he outline of the frontal bone in the ourang-outang is the frontal ununited. The parietal is united in some, as the more irregular than in man, and the orbitar arches are hare, the porcupine, cabia, marmot, rat, and squirrel; se- less surbased. In the American monkeys its outline is parate in the mouse, fat dormouse, and rabbit. The frontal tiiangular, and terminates in a point towards the vertex. and parietal bones of the elephant are early united with others of this family {Simia), this bone is almost the other cranial bones, and form a vault without trace of elliptical, and the orbitar arches are nearly straight; and suture. In the hog, tapir, and hippopotamus, the two m the whole family these arches form, as in man, the anparietal bones form one piece, while the frontal bone is tenor border of the frontal bone, in consequence of the biparted; and though in the rhinoceros both are biparted, the frontal is early united into one portion. The sphe- narrowness of the root of the nose. In the makis it begins to widen, and the eyes become oblique,—a circumnoid bone of the animals of this tribe long consists of two pieces, one forming the orbitar wing; the other the tem- stance which gives their frontal bone a rhomboidal shape. ie fronta. bone in the ZOOPHAGA, and in all the subsepoial wings, which, it is to be further observed, are the smallest, in opposition to their proportional dimensions quent MAMMALIA, except the CETACEA, forms an irrein man. In the Ruminants and SOLIDUNGULA the frontal gular prismatic or cylindrical surface with three faces—a remains long parted by its middle suture; but the two superior, bounded before by the muzzle, behind by the panetals are represented by a single bony vault. The cranial convexity and two lateral, descending into the ortympanum is always distinct from the temporal bone. bitar and temporal fossa on each side. The hedgehog, In the seal and walrus the parietal and the frontal con- mole, shrew ant-eater, some of the phoca, the morse or sist of two pieces. The lamantin has only one bony arch 3 a"d thf rhinoceros, have no proper orbitar arches; representing the two parietal and the squamous part of and np!rfir0n arbi01?e’it l0Ugh br°ad behind> is contracted the temporal bones, while the temporal tympanum is de- and nearly cylmdrica! between the orbits. In the hippotached from the rest of the bone. In the other CETACEA enl p!’ ™minants, and the one-hoofed animals, it the parietal bones are at an early period united to the oc- enlaiges, and forms a vault over each orbit. Lastly, in cipital and temporal bones, so that the five form one solid A lfc S na ow from befor , r e backward, resempoition. I he auditory or pyramidal bone is always de- blbi- a fitlpf f ; hed aCr SS the cranium bu beneatl^ he m •n ,bones ° to form the floor > oft the descends beneath the maxillary orbit.

ANATOMY.

5

The parietal bones of the ourang-outang differ from superior incisors, it is named by Haller the incisive bone Comparalive those of man only in their temporal margin being nearly tor mcisivum); but since it is found not only in the rumidve Anatomy straight. Those of the ape are narrower, and become more nants, which, excepting the camel, are void of incisors, but Anatornyoblique-angled as the cranium is flattened. In the Zoo- in the EDENTATA and CETACEA, this denomination is less PHAGA and EDENTATA they are almost rectangular. The applicable than the former. It may be doubted whether single parietal of the RODENTIAIS nearly quadrilateral; but these should be regarded as additional bones, as they are it is sometimes flat, sometimes rounded, sometimes sur- generally represented by zootomists ; for they are in truth mounted by a crest. Of the single parietal bone of the merely the incisive or anterior portion of the superior ruminants, that of the stag, most of the antelope genus, maxillary bones. In other respects, the difference bethe sheep and the goat, is broad, and sends on each side tween the human and the animal superior maxillary bone a narrow process into the temporal fossa before the occi- is, that in the former each bone is in one piece, in the pital arch; in the camel it is narrower, and bears a lon- latter it is in two. Even in the human foetus the trace gitudinal crest; and in the ox and antilope bubalus it is of the separation may be recognised ; and we have seen it placed behind the occipital crest, and resembles a fillet in the human scull some years after birth. Conversely, surrounding the back of the head transversely. In the it is early obliterated in some quadrupeds. Thus, though SOLIDUNGULA the single parietal is nearly quadrilateral, distinct in the ourang-outang seen by Cuvier, it was not and placed before the occipital crest. found by Tyson or Daubenton, and is wanting in one preThe occiThe occipital bone in the lower mammalia is remark- served in the Hunterian museum. In a young specimen pital bone.1 able for five characters. 1. The proper occipital surface, of the jocko also, noticed by Cuvier, no trace of the ininstead of being oblique or horizontal, and inferior or ba- termaxillary suture was observed. It appears also to be silar, becomes vertical and posterior. 2. The plane of wanting in the perforated bat, the horse-shoe bat, and the occipital hole forms with that of the orbits an angle the three-toed sloth. constantly diminishing, becomes parallel to the orbitar Mutually united on the mesial plane, the intermaxillary plane, and at length crosses it above the head. 3. The bones are united to the maxillary by sutures, which pass plane of the occipital condyles, instead of being transverse from the outer angles of the latter, near the incisive holes, and horizontal, becomes oblique, and at length vertical. towards the palate, where they intersect. In form and 4. The basilar or cuneiform process is not only hori- size it varies in the different orders and genera. Small in zontal, but forms with the occipital a right angle. And, many of the ZOOPKAGA and the walrus, it is large in the 5. The mastoid process, which in man and the ape forms RODENTIA, in the hippopotamus, porpoise, and cachalot, part of the temporal, belongs in the other mammalia to and prominent in the wombat. In the duckbill it consists the occipital. In the polar bear, however, the mastoid of two unciform portions, united by a broad intermediate process constitutes part of the temporal bone. cartilage. From the 1st, 2d, and 3d characters, it results that the . Tlie peculiarity of the animal face consists in the ho-Elongation head of quadrupeds is not balanced on the spine, but is rizontal elongation of the two jaw-bones. In the monkey °f the face, suspended by muscles, tendons, and ligaments, especially tribe this elongation is trifling; and all that is remarked the strong cervical, which connects the occipital spine to is, that the palate and maxillary bones are more elongated the spinous processes of the cervical and dorsal vertebra;. in proportion to their height, and that their anterior part, This ligament, therefore, though feeble and indistinct in instead of being vertical, is more or less inclined forwards. man, is strong, particularly in quadrupeds with heavy The degree of this elongation, which differs in different head or long neck, in order to counteract the disadvantage genera, may be estimated by the acuteness of the facial of the long lever. It is strongest in the elephant, and is angle. almost wholly ossified in the mole—a condition requisite The narrowness of the interorbital space is another Interorbifor the burrowing faculty exercised by that animal. character of the animal countenance. In the guenon and tal region. [ The temThe temporal bone is naturally distinguished in the joral bone. MAMMALIA into two parts ; a fiat or proper temporal, cor- American ape it is a mere septum; but in the ourangoutang, magot, and howler, it is larger, by reason of the responding to the squamous part of the human temporal nasal fossae ascending to this height. From these the bone, and the pyramidal, acoustic, or auditory, correspond- face of the ZOOPHAGA is distinguished by the following ing to the pyramidal or lithoid portion of the human sub- circumstances. 1. The breadth of the ascending maxillary ject. The first only, which is proper to the scull, claims processes throws the orbits to the sides; 2. these orbitar attention here. In the ourang-outang and most of the surfaces form the anterior wall instead of the floor of the genus simia it forms a trapezium with the longest side orbit; 3. the malar bone is united neither to the frontal above, and the height of which varies with that of the nor to the sphenoid bone, and forms only the zygomatic scull. In the American apes it is smallest in this direc- arch and the lower margin of the orbit; 4. the orbit, clostion. In the ZOOPHAGA the proper temporal bone is as in ed neither behind nor below, communicates freely with the ape. Being narrow in the RODENTIA behind, it is a the temporal fossa; and, 5. the palate bones are much little rounded in the short-muzzled EDENTATA, the RUMI- elongated and form a considerable space of the internal NANTIA, and FACHYDEI{MATA. wall, to which the ethmoid bone does not contribute. In -The ethmoid is, strictly speaking, the olfactory bone, the RODENTIA the interorbital space is still larger, by reaand shall be mentioned under the organs of sense. The son of the size of the intermaxillary bones throwing the sphenoid, among other offices, may be regarded as the maxillary backwards and to the sides, where they form the essential ophthalmic bone. inner orbitar wall, in which the palate bones occupy only a ,1’he facial I he facial bones ot the lower MAMMALIA differ from small space. The anterior wall is formed by a process of lones. those of man; first, in the number of separate pieces; the maxillary, which contributes to form the zygomatic and, secondly, in the form and proportional horizontal ex- arch, while the malar is suspended in the middle between tent. the process and that of the temporal bone. Very similar intermaxThe difference in number consists in each superior max- is the face of the elephant, except that the height of the illary illary bone being divided into a maxillary bone proper, and alveoli from the tusks, thrusting the nose upwards, and lines. an anterior or labial portion; which being interposed be- shortening its bones, alters entirely the expression of the tween the proper maxillary, are commonly denominated the head of this animal. intermaxillary (ossa intermaxillariaf As it bears also the In the sloth, in which the face is short in proportion to Com para,

6

ANATOMY.

Compara- the scull, the malar bone attached to the maxillary only, tive Anatomy. ^^^InS^ffSleS-idah

mvoRA.most f

pZfkZ'u. ht^et’eral of the

Orbits.

instance the paca, beaver,

forms the inner wail of these fossa. The zygomatic arch, which ^interrupted in the ant-eater and pa?i|olin, is comnMed in the Cape ant-eater and the armadillo. In the Sp r and rhinoceros the maxillary bone passes beneath the'orbit; and the nasal bones form a sort of vault, which supports in the first animal the trunk, and in the second the horn In the CETACEA the maxillary and intermaxillary bones form a sort of flattened beak, distinguished into four paral-

and porcupine, and the armadil o, ant-eater, and duckbill, among the EDENTATA In the ZOOPHAOA, however, in which the prehensile and masticatory muscles are large and powerful, the « becomes broad, and its coronoid process is extensive. The angle which the « forms with the body of the jaw, and which is almost right m the adult human sub ect J ’ becomes obtuse m the lower ammals, nearly at the same rate at which the ramus disappears ; and indeed the transition of the angle into a

tit.- iiaoal fossa is a vertical opening , surrounded before and laterally by the intermaxillary bones. The maxillary ascend in the same manner, and cover that part of the frontal bone which forms the orbitar vault, hut do not themselves contribute to the formation of this cavity. The nasal bones are two minute tubercles implanted on the frontal bone above the narrow aperture, The malar is in the shape of a style, suspended by cartilages beneath the orbit; and the latter cavity is completed behind by a process of the frontal, which joins the zygomatic of the temporal bone, and below which the orbitar and temporal fossce communicate. The direction of the orbits, the shape of their base or facial border, and their relation to the temporal/ossa, are important circumstances in the animal face and cranium. In the simice the angle of the orbitar axes is rather smaller ; and the shape of the margin, which is quadrilateral in the jocko, becomes oval in the ourang-outang and American monkeys. The angle of the axes enlarges in the other Mammalia; and the base or anterior margin becomes nearly circular in the ZOOPIIAGA, RODENTIA, EDENTATA, and PACHYDERMATA ; but the arch is incomplete behind. In the Ruminants and SOLIDIPEDA, however, in which it is also circular, the border is complete. In the CETACEA the orbitar vault is semicircular, their axes are rectilineal, and there is no floor. In the human scull the junction of the malar bone with the frontal and.sphenoid completes the orbit externally, and prevents it from communicating with the temporal fossa ; and the same arrangement is observed in the simice. In the CARNIVORA, RODENTIA, EDENTATA, and PACHYDERMATA, however, in which the malar bone is

. , , r- AI i • ai after these parts have been seen for the last time in the amphibious MAMMALIA. . . . _ When the mammiferous cranium is considered generally, and the relative direction and proportion of the cranial and facial part of the head examined, we recognise more distinctly the characters by which the lower orders of that class are distinguished from man. This character consists in the position of the occipital bone and hole, the position and direction of the facial bones in relation to the frontal, the elongation of the former, and large size which they present in relation to the cranial. In the human subject, it has been already observed, the position of the occipital bone is oblique and horizontal, and the plane of the occipital hole is horizontal, while its position is anterior. In most quadrupeds, while the bone assumes a vertical position, the hole becomes posterior, and its plane vertical or oblique, in proportion as the face is elongated. The plane of the occipital hole forms with that of the horizontal a considerable angle, which Daubenton undertook to determine, by drawing one line through the plane of the aperture, and another from its posterior margin through the lower edge of the orbit. (Mem. de VAcad, des Sciences de Paris, 1764, p. 568.) In the horse this angle is about 90°, while in the ourang-outang it is only 37°, and in the lemur 47°. In other respects, however, it furnishes an imperfect result, since in most quadrupeds which differ very much it ranges between 80° and 90°. The direction of the face in relation to that of the Camperian cranium, determined according to the method of Camper, line and furnishes more accurate results. While in the human ansle* subject it varies, according to the races, from 70° to 80°,

united neither to the frontal nor the sphenoid, the orbit is not only incomplete on the external posterior border, but communicates freely with the temporal/omt. In the Ruminants is observed an arrangement intermediate between that of the QUADRUMANA and that of the CARNIVORA. The malar bone, united to the frontal, completes

The lower jaw.

UODENTIA,for

in the ourang-outang it is only 65°; in the American and long-tailed monkeys about 60° ; in the macaca and baboon about 45° ; and, lastly, in the mandrillo, the most vicious and ferocious of the monkey tribe, only 30°. In some species in which the ear is elevated and the guttural fossa deep, for instance in the pongo and alouate or

^ T?' i ^ 18 T? United t0 the sPhenoid’how\er, the small size of this angle does not indicate promhii nf Hw tnl3 ^P0™1/^0communicate. The portional elongation of muzzle; and to rectify this inconsahS° suPeificial> that 11 can scarcely be venience, it is requisite to draw the basilaf line of the The lower imv nf fLe ’c i i rir fac^ angle parallel to the base of the nostrils. With from th t Of i chRflvrr ?l7S •quad-ruped dlffers thlS modification, however, the Camperian line admits of TlTtWmla^ circumstances, correct application to the human race and QUADRUMANA w R °nly’ mTwhlch the frontal ^ses are small and not promitheis altogether Caucasanrace, to be- nent. In quadrupeds, forthe instance the the carnivora r ? mostdistinct cotne faint in the negro,in and lost inbegins the monkey of the ruminants, and in elephant frontal several sinuses n ourang-°utang’. indeed, the animal character are so large and prominent as to affect the results toy a large facette. The collar-bone of the echidna and ornithorhyncus is very singular. It consists of a broad central bone, surmounted by two transverse branches spreading out on each side, so as to give the whole bone some resemblance to the letter T, but sinuated so as to make the diverging branches like the Greek v. In young animals this bone consists of three portions. The two diverging branches are genuine collarbones, and may be regarded as a bifurcated bone; while the middle is supported on the sternum, and has articulated to each side a part of the scapula, corresponding to the coracoid process. The collar-bone, indeed, is a powerful buttress, which prevents the arm-bone from being thrust too much forward. The shoulOf the shoulder-blade or scapida, which is present in all der-blade. red-blooded animals with thoracic extremities, and hence in all the MAMMALIA, the principal point is to remark the varieties which its shape presents. Though in man, most of the QUADRUMANA, the CHIROPTERA, and the elephant, the vertebral margin or base of several authors on human anatomy is the longest, it becomes the shortest in most quadrupeds, especially those which, like the Ruminants and the SOLIDUNGULA, have long legs and narrow chest. In most of them, also, this margin, instead of being straight, is rounded, as in the CARNIVORA and RODENTIA. In the CARNIVORA without collar-bone, the hedgehog and didelphis, the acromion is less prominent; there is another eminence directed backwards, almost perpendicular to the spine. The coracoid process, also, which is present in the CHIROPTERA, the hedgehog, and didelphis genus, is wanting in most ot the zoophagous tribe. In the hare the acromion terminates in a long slender process, rising at right angles and bending backwards, which may be named the recurrent. In the Ruminantsand SoLiDUNGULA,notonlyare this and the acromion, but even the coracoid, wanting. The scapula, again, of the hog and rhinoceros is remarkable for the disappearance ot the spine at the glenoid angle ; while from its middle proceeds a prominent process towards the costal or inferior margin. In the mole the scapula is long and narrow, like a cylindrical bone, placed parallel to the spine,—an arrangement which, together with the shoitness and thickness of the clavicle, already mentioned, is evidently connected with the burrowing habits of this animal. Lastly, in the echidna and ornithorhyncus, which in so many characters of organization approach the AMPHIBIA on the one side, and the BIRDS on the other, the scapula is a single sinuous bone, attached by one extremity to the sternum and middle part of the clavicular bone, with the other loose ; and in the middle an articular cayHy, m which the head of the humerus is placed, and winch evidently corresponds to the glenoid. In this instance, therefore, the clavicle and scapula may be regarded as united into a single bone.

Thehume.

the head is a deep pit. The crest of the small tuberosity Compara. is so large, that it represents a square placed vertically, tive so that the linea aspena is above. The rest of the body^j^^ of the bone, which is very short, is arched above, so that the cubital extremity is directed upwards. From this arrangement it results that the cubit is elevated above the shoulder while the palm is turned downwards,—a disposition necessary for the burrowing habits of the animal. In the simice the radius and ulna are arranged as in Radius and man, except that in the cynocephalus, mandrill, magot, and ulna, guenon, the coronoid process of the ulna is narrower, and the radial facette deeper. In the other MAMMALIA the idna very generally disappears or becomes rudimentary only. In the bat family and the colugo (galeopithecus) the ulna is wanting or is represented by a slender style placed below the radius. These animals are therefore destitute of the power of pronation and supination. In the ZOOPHAGA, the radius and ulna, though separate, are void of rotatory motion; and the olecranon is compressed, and continued farther back than in man. In the PACHYDERMATA the radius is before and the ulna behind, and, though distinct, there is no rotation. In several of the RODENTIA, for instance the marmot, porcupine, &c. the coronoid process is small, and in others, e. g. the cavy, hare, and mouse family, it is altogether effaced. In the Ruminants the ulna is united immovably to the radius ; and in the SOLIDUNGULA it is represented by an olecranon adhering to the posterior surface of that bone. In the CETACEA, though both bones are present, they are much flattened. The carpus of the ape genus contains one bone more Carpus, than that of man, situate between the pyramidal and large bone, and which seems to result from the trapezium being divided into two parts. Conversely, in the ZOOPHAGA, but especially in the dog, cat, hedgehog, shrew, bear, and seal, the scaphoid and semilunar are united into one large bone. Those which have a vestige of thumb, as the hyena and glutton, have the trapezium very small. The mole has not only 9 carpal bones, as the ape, but a large sickje-shaped bone, which is attached to the radial margin of the fore paw, and which gives it the shape proper to the habits of the animal, ffhe toes are further very short. Ot the RODENTIA, the hare resembles the ape; but in the beaver, marmot, squirrel, and cat, the scaphoid and semilunar make one bone; while in the porcupine the supei numciary bone is between the pisiform and metacarpal oi the fifth toe. In the two-toed ant-eater there are only 6 caipal bones, 4 in the first row and two in the second; m the three-toed sloth there are only 5, 3 in the first row and 2 in the second; the pangolin has 7; the cachecame 8 and a rudimental small toe; the elephant 8, 7 wedgeshaped and one elongated, corresponding to the pisiform ; and the other PACHYDERMATA 8. In the rhinoceros, which las only 3 toes, the trapezium only is wanting; but there is a supernumerary bone on the margin of the scaphoid, and on that of the unciform, as in the porcupine. The first range consists, in the Ruminants and SOLIDUNGULA, of 4 hones; m the former, excepting the camel, the second consists of 2, and the latter of 3. Those of the CETACEA, which are much flattened, are 3 in the first row and 2 in the second.

The humerus, which exists in all the animals with thoracic extremities, undergoes considerable variations. In the lower animals generally it is much shorter than in man • and it IS invariably shorter in proportion as the metacarpus is elongated. I hus, in animals with what is named a camwn bone, that is, one metacarpal, as in the horse and the ruminants, the humerus is so short that it is concealed m the soft parts as far as the cubit. In the CETACEA it 6 IV AMM LI enerall .t ^is Snever y have as 3many metacarpal Metacarbones as !toes, that fewer than or more than 5,pus. may be said to attain its maximum of brevity. In the bat hnnil and sloth it is long in proportion to the rest of the body C tlon 01

are in e

^

^ Ruminants, in which these bones

7 lfe is • coHsohdated into one named the cannon dina v fST ;';,m0le ^rl,aPs tlle extraor- hone I 16 mamn on the tj s ie SI * WhlGh P the the toes, or Minch use them as organsWalk of prehension, metacarpal i it articulated , ' , with the scapula “ferous animals. Nothut only IS by a small head It wldch

.S connected with a facette of the clavicle by another be

0 ^ ^ ? -d henceTn ^l! longtng to the great tuberosity, and between which and the^^mT r^/ ar ms 18 ^ mefac lbeen imagined, erroneously the oie leg, and therefore it has that named in several x

ANATOMY.

9

Compare- of our domestic animals the different parts of the lower ex- the single toe which constitutes the foot are distinguished Comparative tremity are articulated in opposite directions to those of as the pastern bone, which is the first phalanx ; the corotive An Anatomy. man. Thus the fore- 1leg of r the horse, deer, J_._ .1 atomy. sheep, and net, wj1icj1 is t]le middle or second; and the coffinbom, dog are in truth the metacarpus of these animals ; and what which is the third or unguinal phalanx, which has the' is vulgarly named the fore knee or cannon bone of the shape of the hoof, rounded before, convex above, and flat horse, is actually the carpus or wrist-joint. It is there- below. To the back of the pastern joint are connected fore convex on the dorsal, and concave and inflected on two sesamoid bones; and to the coffin bone is attached the palmar aspect, exactly as the carpus of the human another, named the shuttle bone. In the CETACEA, all the subject. phalanges, which are flattened, and often cartilaginous, In the three-toed sloth, the three bones of which the are united in the fin or paddle. metacarpus consists are mutually consolidated at the base The thigh-bone, which is single in all the classes, fol-Thighand with the rudiment of a fourth toe. In the CETACEA, lows the type of that of the human frame in general figure bone, the metacarpal bones, which are much flattened, are also and parts. In the MAMMALIA it is, however, proportionmutually united. ally shorter, and its length diminishes as that of the meIn the MAMMALIA generally, if we include imperfect or tatarsus augments. In the Ruminants and SOLIDUNGULA, Fore toes. rudimental phalanges concealed in the skin, there are never for instance, it is so short that it is concealed by muscles fewer than 3, nor more than 5. The Unguiculated ani- against the belly; and hence it is too often overlooked mals generally have 5, perfect and imperfect- The cha- and confounded with the leg. In other respects the geracter of the perfect fore toe or finger is to consist of 3 neral characters are, that it is not arched ; that, excepting rows or phalanges, excepting the first of the radial side, in the bear and some of the simia genus, e. g. the ourangwhich has only 2. In the QUAD RUM AN A this is separate, outang, it is shorter than the leg-bones; that its neck is and opposable to the other toes, constituting a thumb, very short, and more perpendicular to the axis of the and giving this tribe of animals a prehensible organ en- diaphysis than in man; and that the great trochanter is titled to the epithet of hand. It is, however, shorter and raised above the head, which is directed inwards. In the less perfect in other respects than the genuine thumb of simice it is quite cylindrical, and void of linea aspera. In the human hand. In the codita (simia paniscus) it is con- the tapir the middle part is found flattened; and at the verted into a rudimental bone, concealed under the skin. external margin there is a prominent crest, terminating In the ZOOPHAGA, which have no power of grasping mi- in an unciform process. In the rhinoceros the great tronute objects, the thumb or first toe is parallel to the others, chanter and the unciform process are so elongated as to and, though equal in length to these in the ursine family, unite almost, and form a hole between them and the diait is shorter in the mustela, viverra, canine and feline ge- physis. The unciform process is observed also in the nera. In the latter, which have the power of erecting the horse, beaver, and armadillo. The thigh-bone of the seal claws, to prevent them from being blunted in walking, the is so short, that the half of its length consists of the two shape of the middle and unguinal phalanx is remark- articular extremities. able. The former is triangular prismatic, with two lateThough the leg-bones of the MAMMALIA bear a general Leg-bones. ral and a plantar or palmar inferior surface. The third similitude to those of man, the tibia alone is constant; and or unguinal phalanx is shaped like a hook, consisting of the fibula, after becoming unusually slender, and chang two parts. One, directed forwards, sharp and pointed, ing its position from the outside to the posterior part of receives the nail or claw, in a long groove like a sheath. the tibia, is converted into a mere appendage, and at The second part of the hook, which is behind, rises verti- length disappears entirely. Thus, though it is distinct, cally from the lower part by which it is articulated, and and occupies its usual position in the simice, in the CHIROPis produced into two processes, to which are attached the TERA it is extremely slender; and since the femora are erecting muscles of the claw, which are flexors of the directed backward, the fibulae are turned towards each phalanx. other. In several of the EDENTATA, for instance the phaAmong the RODENTIA there is a perfect but short thumb tagin, armadillo, and sloth, it is large, curved, and remote in the hare, beaver, and jerbois ; a two-phalanx but conceal- from the tibia. In the dog family and the RODENTIA it is ed one in the squirrel, mouse, and rat family, porcupine, altogether behind the tibia. In the mole and murine genus paca, agouti; and a one-phalanx concealed one in the it is consolidated to the lower third of the tibia, leaving cav y, guinea-pig, marmot, &c. In the EDENTATA the an empty trilateral space above. In the rhinoceros, elenumber of fore toes varies much; in the Tamanoir, and phant, and hog, the fibula is flattened and united to the Tamandua or four-toed ant-eater, the thumb-toe is oblite- whole length of the tibia. In the ruminants it is reprerated ; in the Ai or three-toed sloth, both that and the fifth sented by a small bony appendage, placed on the outer toe are obliterated; and in the two-toed ant-eater, and margin of the astragalus, below the tibia, and forming the Unau or two-toed sloth, these, with the second toe also, external or fibular ankle. Lastly, in the horse and SOLIare obliterated. DUNGUL A, thefibula is reduced to a styloid rudimental proThe elephant has 5 perfect toes, all concealed under cess, which is firmly consolidated in the adult animal to the thick, callous hide of the foot. In hoofed animals with the upper part of the tibia. 4 toes, for instance the hog, tapir, and hippopotamus, the Between the tarsus of man and that of the other MAMthumb-toe is in the shape of a Small rudimental bone. MALIA the following are the principal differences. In the Ruminants the single metacarpal bone (CheselIn the simice the fibular facette of the astragalus is The tarden’s figure of the Deer, Plate I.) is articulated with two nearly vertical, and the tibial is very oblique; and thesus* digital phalanges, which constitute one of the distinguish- calcaneum wants the tuberosity, except in the pongo. In ing characters of this order—the cloven foot. In some the ordinary bat family the calcaneum is elongated into genera, at the root of these two perfect toes are two small a styloid process, concealed in the substance of the membones, often covered with horn, which represent two other branous ubiform expansions; but in the roussette (jpterotoes. The last or unguinal phalanx is always trilateral pus) the tuberosity projects beneath the foot. he fore in shape. In the horse and the SOLIDUNGULA generally, In the RODENTIA the calcaneum is produced considernnon the two lateral toes are represented only by two bony ably backwards, while the scaphoid, which consists of two one. styles, named the splint bones, situate on the two sides of parts, forms a tubercle on the sole. Among the EDENthe metacarpal or cannon bone. The three phalanges of TATA the three-toed sloth is peculiar in having a tarsus.

t

VOL. m.

10

ANATOM Y.

Compara- consisting of four bones only, the astragalus, calcaneum, and tive two cuneiform bones, the first of which is articulated not Anatomy. only with the tibia, fibula, and calcaneum, but with the large cuneiform bone, without any intermediate scaphoid bone. Its connection with the tibia is by means of a convex articular surface, which rolls on the external part of the tarsal end of the tibia. From this mode of articular tion it results that the foot of the sloth admits neither of being elevated nor depressed, but simply of performing lateral motions of adduction and abduction, to which it owes the power of clasping the trunks of trees and climbimr but which renders "progression difficult and laborious, The hog has a scaphoid with three ordinary cuneiform bones, and a rudimental great-toe bone beneath the first, In the tapir and rhinoceros there are only two cuneiform bones. All the animals already enumerated have the same number of metatarsal bones as of toes. In the Ruminants the cuboid and scaphoid bones are united, unless in the camel, in which they are distinct, At the outer margin of the pulley of the astragalus is a bone which represents the lower head of the fibula, and which is farther articulated to the upper surface of the os calcis. In this side also there are only two cuneiform bones, which are united in the giraffe. The two metatarsal bones are always united, as in the metacarpus, into Third can- one, which forms a posterior cannon bone. The SOLInon bine. DUNGULA resemble the camel in this, that the scaphoid is distinct from the cuboid bone, and that there are two cuneiform bones, while the peroneal rudiment and the corresponding articular surface of the calcaneum are wanting. The metacarpal are also consolidated into a single piece, named the hinder cannon bone, each side of which is provided with a minute bony style. Hind toes. The toes of the QUADRUMANA and the MARSUPIALIA are longer than those of man ; but the great toe is shorter than the others, and its metatarsal bone is susceptible of separation and opposition, as the thumb or thumb-toe of the hand. Hence Cuvier, in his first classification, dis tinguished the latter by the name of Pedimana. The Aie-aie among the RODENTIA appears to possess the same faculty. Among the ZOOPHAGA the great toe remains always conjoined with and parallel to the others; and in the canine and feline genera it is obliterated. Among the RODENTIA, that of the beaver is nearly equal to the other toes; those of the marmot, porcupine, and the murine genus, are shorter; in the paca it is almost obliterated; it is reduced to a single bone in the Cape gerboa; and the leporine genus have no trace of it. In the cavy, agouti, and guinea-pig, the great and small toes are each reduced to one bone. In the gerbon (nius jaculus) and alactaga (mus sagitta) the three middle metatarsal bones are united into a single one similar to the cannon bone of the Ruminants and SOLIDUNGULA ; and while the two lateral toes are distinct, though short, in the former animal, they are obliterated altogether in the latter. Among the EDENTATA, the ant-eater, orycteropus, pangolin, and armadillo, have five toes, of which the great is the shortest in all. In the sloth the great and small toe are reduced to one small bone. The other metatarsal bones are umted at their base. The toes have only two phalanges, of which the unguinal are the largest. In the subsequent families the metatarsal bones deserve particular attention. In the elephant and PACHYDERMATA, their tarsal extremity has a flat surface, and the phalangeal consists ot a convex tubercle, which presents below a prominent line in the middle of the bone. In the feoLiDUNGULA this line is above and below both. In the Ruminants, in which the cannon bone consists of the two metatarsal bones, the line of union is represented by a deep line like the tract of a saw. The elephant has 5

perfect toes; the bog 4 ytl|e^1|'an^[hin^^1°sSaf Ruminants have two perfect toes on une metataisa bone and two small ones attached behmdite^ LIDUNGULA have one perfect toe, ^ ’ni^ T are reduced to a single styloid b,°f • walkl th the body is supported in ^ ^ ^f- not ^ phalanx alone; and hence the term foot is ot c the same import as m the human subject and animals similarly constructed. While indeed man supports his person in progression on the os ca/cis and the postenor or metatarsal phalanges, m the other mammiferous animals the former bone touches not the ground, but is always elevated above it a considerable height. All the zoophagous or unguiculated animals, excepting the plantigrade, support themselves chiefly on the unguinal and middle phalanges both of the fore and hind foot; and neither the posterior phalanges nor the calcaneum touch the ground, as is easily demonstrated on observing the gait of the hedgehog, dog, fox, cat, or similar individuals of the same family. The animals distinguished by the name of PLANTIGRADE are believed to support themselves on the entire foot. But though the foot is certainly spread on the ground more freely than in those already mentioned, by the bear, glutton, badger, and others, it appears that not the heel, but the metatarsus, is allowed to touch the ground in progression. In the Ruminants and SOLIDUNGULA, as already mentioned, the only part of the foot which is applied to the ground is the unguinal phalanx; and it is well known that the horse supports himself on the plantar surface of the coffin bone only. Lastly, in the Amphibious Mammals, while the extreme brevity of the humerus and femur unfit them for progression on land without extreme awkwardness and difficulty, the expanded shape and oblique position of the metacarpal bones and phalanges, the length of the tibia and fibula, and the greater length of the first and last than the middle metatarsal phalanges, all concur to give these animals great facility in swimming. (Cuvier, Ossemens Fossiles, tome v. partie i. septieme partie.) In the CETACEA, again, while the total want of pelvic extremities renders motion on land quite impracticable, the fin-like disposition of the metacarpus and metacarpal phalanges, with the great strength of the lumbar, and the length of the coccygeal vertebrae, peculiarly qualify them for locomotion in the waters. SECT. II.

Plate

OSTEOLOGY OF BIRDS.

The number of vertebrae of which the different regions of the spine consist, is not less variable in BIRDS than in M An, AT, A C • I C O ■ , from th T* ld^K.0/,these.va”atl0ns may> fr0m the nUmber exhlblted in the following table ^ by Cuvier. SPECIES.

Vultur. V ulture Falco fulvus. Eagle — halia'ctus. Bald buzzard — biiteo. Buzzard — nisus. Sparrow hawk — milvus. Kite Strix bubo. Efigle owl Strix ulula. Brown owl Mutcicapa grisola. Fly-catcher Turdus merula. Blackbird.., Tanugra tatao. Tanagra Corvus corone. Crow pica. Magpie glandarius. Jay Stumus vulgaris. Starling... Loxia coccothraustes. Grosbeak — pyrrhula. Bullfinch...

Vertebra? V ertebra? Sacral Coccygeal of Neck. of Back. Vertebrae- Vertebrae.

13 13 14 11 11 12 13 11 10 11 10 13 13 12 10 10 10

Anatomv

11

17 11 10 11 11 12 11 10 10 9 13 13 11 10 12 11

’

Spim

ANATOMY. Comparative ' Anatomy.

Vertebras Vertebrae Sacral Coccygeal of Neck of Back. Vertebrae Vertebra:.

SPECIES. .

Fringilla domestica. Sparrow... cardaelis. Goldfinch Parus major. Titmouse Alaiida arvensis. Lark Motacilla nubecula. Ited-breast Hirundo urbica. Swallow... Caprimulgus Europceus. Goat-

sucker Trochilus pella. Colibri Upupa epops. Hoopoe Alcedo ispida. King’s fisher... Picus viridis. Woodpecker. Ramphastos. Toucan Psittacus erithacus. Parrot.. Columba cenas. Stockdove.. Pavo cristatus. Peacock Phasianus colchicus. Pheasant Meleagris gallopavo. Turkey... Crax nigra. Curassow bird. )

9 11 11 11 10 11

11 12 12 12 12 12 12

13 14 13 15

10 11 11 10

10 11 11 9

7 7 8 8 9

7 7 7 7

9 10 8

10 12 11 13 12 15 10

j

15

8

10

Struthio Camelus. Ostrich Casuarius. Cassowary... Phcenicopterus. Flamingo Ardea cinerea. Heron - alba. Stork - gnus. Crane Platalea A'iaia. Spoonbill Rccurvirostra. Avoset Charadrius pluvialis. Plover... Tringa vanellus. Lapwing Scolopax ruslicola. Woodcock... arquata. Curlew.... Hcematopus. Oyster-catcher... Rallus crex. Hail Fulica atra. Coot Parra. Jacana.... Pelicanus onocrotalus. Pelican... carbo. Cormorant... Sterna hirundo. Sea swallow... Larus. Gull Procellaria. Petrel Anas cygnus. Swan - anser. Goose - bernicla. Bernacle - boschas. Duck - tadorna. Sheldrake - nigra. Black diver Mergus merganser. Merganser Colymbus cristatus. Grebe

18 15 18 18 19 19 17 14 15 14 18 13 12 13 15 14

8 11

20 19 12 10 11 12 14 10 10 10 13 10 15 13

1C»

7

16 14 12 14 23 15 18 14 16 15 15 14

9 8

Hocco

7 7 7 9

7 9 8 8

7 8

9 8

9 8

8

8 11 10 10 8

11 9 8

10

8

7 7 9

7 8+

7 8

7 12 14 14 10 11 14 14 14 15 11 14 13 13

In this table the most remarkable circumstance is the great number of dervical vertebra, which are much more numerous than in the Mammalia. They vary from 9, the number in the sparrow, to 23, which is that of the cervical vertebra of the swan. The most common number is 11, which is that of 10 genera. The next most frequent is 12, 13, and 14, which are equally the numbers of 9 genera. The next is 15, which is that of 8; 10 occurs in 6, 18 in 4, and 16 in 3. In the stork and crane they are 19. Jorsal The next remarkable circumstance is, that the dorsal ertebrae. or costal vertebra are greatly fewer than in the Mammalia, never exceeding the number of 11, and being more frequently about 7 or 8. Thus, while they are 11 in the cassowary, swan, and sheldrake, 10 in the goose, bernacle, and grebe, and 9 in the sparrow, lark, humming-bird, parrot, crane, avoset, oyster-catcher, cormorant, and blackdiver, they are 7 or 8 in all the other genera, and only 6 in the bullfinch. There are no lumbar vertebra strictly so named, for those which extend from the chest to the tail are consolidated into one piece with the iliac bones. The tail, which is short, consists of from 7 to 9 vertebra. lock. Ihe part most variable in proportional length is the neck. It is so much longer as the feet are elevated, ex-

Kervi.'al

Wei-tebne,

11

cept in some of the swimmers, in which it is greatly Comparative longer, because they require to seek their food below the Anatmny, surface of the waters on which they float. The bodies of the cervical vertebra are articulated not' by plane facettes, which would admit obscure motion only, but by portions of cylinders, which allow extensive motion. The 3d, 4th, or 5th superior vertebra allow of anterior inflection only, and the others of posterior inflection. This gives the necks of birds an alternate serpentine inflection ; and it is by rendering the two arches, of which this curvature consists, straight or convex, that the animal elongates or shortens his neck. The articular processes of the superior vertebra are directed upwards and downwards; those of the lower are turned anteriorly and posteriorly. Instead of transverse processes, the cervical vertebra of birds are provided with a tubercle above, and the anterior extremity of which terminates in a narrow style, descending parallel to the body of the vertebra. Only the most superior and inferior vertebra have distinct spinous processes, and these have anterior as well as posterior ones. The middle ones have before two crests, which form a half-canal, and.behind a tubercle, often bifid, or, when they are elongated, two rough lines. The atlas, which is articulated with the occipital bone by a single facette, has the shape of a minute ring. As the neck of birds is movable, the back is fixed. The Back, spinous processes of these vertebras are in mutual contact, and they are connected by strong ligaments. Most of these processes are generally consolidated into a single continuous crest, extending along the whole back. The extremities of the transverse processes terminate in two apices, one directed forwards, the other backwards; and occasionally they are consolidated into a continuous mass like the spinous. That this arrangement is requisite for the trunk to remain fixed during the violent motions which take place in flying, is rendered probable by the fact, that in birds which do not fly, as the ostrich and cassowary, the spinal column retains its mobility. The last dorsal vertebra are often placed on the crest of the iliac bones, and they are then united, as the lumbar, on the large piece of the iliac bones, from which it results that the number of vertebra can often be estimated in no other mode than by that of the holes of the nerves which issue from the chord. The caudal vertebra are most numerous in the species Caudal which move the tail with most energy; for instance, the vertebrae magpie and swallow. They have spinous processes below as well as above, and very long transverse processes. The last of all, to which the pinions are attached, is longest, and has the shape of a ploughshare or a compressed quoit. In the cassowary, which has no visible tail, the last bone is conical; in the peacock, on the contrary it has the shape of an oval plate, situate horizontally. It was early observed by the original zoologist and tra- Cranium, veller Pierre Belon, that the crania of birds were void of sutures; and that in a few only Avere these lines of distinction into separate bones recognised. The explanation of this peculiarity is found in the history of the ossification of the head in young birds, which shows that the cranium consists at that period of separate bones, corresponding in number and situation to those of quadrupeds. Thus, there are two frontal bones, which are continued fonvards to form the vault of the orbits ; two small parietal bones behind the frontal; a temporal bone on each side of the scull; a sphenoid united to the occipital, even in subjects in which the other sutures are distinct; or a spheno-occipital bone, which is early united with the temporal. These sutures, however, are distinctly seen only in

12

ANATOMY.

Compara- young birds and those recently hatched; for the bones t ye i are very early united, and in the adult bird the cranial 'Anatomy.^ sutures are invariably obliterated. Thus, in the domestic fowl and turkey the scull is one piece ; and the only trace of suture that remains is a linear depression in the middle of the frontal bone, indicating the original formation in two halves. In the recently hatched bird, also, the sphenoid is separated from the occipital bone by a transverse suture, extending from the one ear to the other. The occipital bone is at the same time a ring, consisting of four parts; a superior, two lateral, and an inferior which is small. The sphenoid, which forms the greater part of the base of the cranium, is nearly trilateral, with a small anterior process, to which the palatine arches are articulated. It has no pterygoid processes, and does not touch the posterior aperture of the nostrils. The temporal bone, though void of zygomatic process, has a pointed style, which contributes to form the posterior margin of the orbit. The frontal bone, after covering part of the cranium, is continued forwards in a broad, thin plate, which forms the vault of the orbits, while these cavities are separated by a thin vertical bony plate which descends at right angles from the frontal bone, and is connected behind with the sphenoid. The long eminences observed on the heads of the cassowary, curlew, pintado, and some species of hocco, are produced from this supraorbital part of the frontal bone; and their interior, which consists of loose diploe, communicates with that of the same bone. Facial The face in birds is rarely so firmly consolidated as the bones. cranium. It is composed of two lacrymal bones, forming the anterior margins of the orbits, and united on the mesial plane; two nasal bones anterior to the lacrymal; two bones corresponding to the superior maxillary, and forming the external lateral parts of the upper half of the bill; two inter-maxillary bones; two anterior palate bones, corresponding to those of the MAMMALIA ; two posterior palate bones corresponding to the pterygoid processes of the sphenoid ; and the lower jaw a paraboloid bone, consisting of two rdmi united before, where they are covered by the horn of the lower half of the bill. Besides these, there is in The quad- the whole class an irregular-shaped bone, common to the rilateral cranium and lower jaw, and connecting these two together. This bone, which has been rather improperly named the square, quadrangular, or quadrilateral bone {os quadratum), consists of a body with curvilinear hollow margins, terminating in two elevated and rather pointed processes, one of which is connected with the cavity named tympanum, while the other, projecting into the orbit, affords attachment to several muscles. The anomalous character of this bone has perplexed several of the most distinguished zootomists; and while Geoffroy gives it the name of os Tympano-styloideum, Spix considers it analogous to the annular process of the temporal bone, which in the human foetus is separate; and Carus regards it as representing the incus, to which it bears a remote resemblance in shape and in one of its connections. Maxillary Both maxillae are void of teeth; but the hard, horny bones. matter of the bill covering the margins and extremities of each jaw, and constituting the mandibles {mandibula), is manifestly constructed to perform for BIRDS what teeth do for the MAMMALIA. But the most remarkable peculiarity of the, facial bones of this class is, that the upper jaw admits of more or less motion. In the majority of instances this is effected by the jaw being united to the cranium by means of thin, flexible, elastic, bony plates; but in the parrot family the upper jaw is entirely distinct, and is connected by a proper articulation. The base of the palatine surface of the upper jaw is divided into 4 branches, which diverge backwards. The

two external ones, which correspond to the zygomatic Compara- ( tive arches of the MAMMALIA, and which are very slender, are articulated to the quadrangular bone which moves on | the temporal before the ear. The two intermediate ones, which have been already stated to correspond to the pterygoid processes, and which are parallel, are placed beneath the septum of the orbits, and are articulated by their posterior extremities with a small bone, variable in shape, but named omoid by Herissant, which is also articulated ! with the quadrilateral. From this arrangement results a singular species of broken lever, not dissimilar to the parallel joint of the piston and lever of the steam-engine, and the effect of which is, that whenever the lower jaw is depressed by its proper muscles, it necessarily causes the quadrilateral bone to perform a slight rotatory motion, in consequence of which, by means of the omoid bone, the upper jaw is at the same time elevated on the ] elastic plates; and as soon as the lower jaw is raised, the elasticity of these plates forces down the superior one. The upper jaw is immovable in a few instances only, and of these the calao or rhinoceros bird is one. The breast bone {sternum) is a trilateral, boat-shaped Sternum bone, concave internally, convex with a middle longi- °r breast- f tudinal crest externally, with the base of the triangle bone‘ above, and the apex, which is also incurvated backwards, below. The middle longitudinal crest, which is occasionally named the keel {carina), is shaped something like a spherical triangle, with the broadest side above, the base before, and the apex behind; and its prominence forms large spaces on each side for the attachment of the pectoral and other muscles used in flight. In the male wild swan {anas cygnus), in some species of curlew, in the crane, and in the guinea-fowl, this crest forms a cavity for the reception of the windpipe. In the ostrich and cassowary, which do not fly, the sternum is void of crest, and is merely arched strongly. The ribs, which rarely exceed 10 pairs, may be distin-The ribs. ; guished into sterno-vertebral and vertebral. Though the latter are generally before, they are sometimes also behind. The vertebral end terminates in two diverging processes, one of which is articulated with the vertebral body, the other with the transverse process. The sternal extremity consists of a bony process, which performs the part of the sterno-costal cartilages of the MAMMALIA by uniting the rib to the sternum. The ribs of birds, however, are further distinguished by presenting near their middle a flat long process, projecting from the rib backwards at an acute angle, and resting on the rib immediately below, so that each rib is supported not only on the vertebrae and sternum, or the vertebrae alone, but on the next rib below. These processes are obliterated in the lower ribs. The coxal bones constitute one piece with the sacrum Basin or and lumbar vertebrae. The ischial portion is united with Pelvisthe sacrum, and the ischiatic notch is converted into a hole. The part which corresponds to the os pubis of the MAMMALIA is not consolidated before so as to form a symphysis, but proceeding directly backwards, terminates in a styloid process, variable in length and slenderness. The only exception to this mode of structure occurs in the ostrich, in which the pubal bones are united below. The infra-pubal or oval hole is present in the whole class not1 withstanding. It is worthy of remark, however, that in young birds this and the ischial aperture are still notches, in consequence of the deficient ossification of the parts. The direction of the pelvis in birds is nearly that of the spine, that is, obliquely backwards, and deviating but little from the horizontal line. The wings or thoracic extremities are connected to the trunk by three bones, the collar-bone or clavicle, the sea- Collarpula, and the bifurcated bone. The collar-bones, which bone.

ANATOMY. s

- ’ompara- are straight, strong, and cylindrical, are articulated by a tive large head with the anterior and lateral part of the sterj Anatomy. numj jn jts motion is rather limited. It forms before and laterally two short processes, one anterior-inferior and internal, articulated with the bifurcated bone; the other posterior-superior and external, uniting with the scapula, and forming a cavity, in which the head of the humerus is lodged. • ■boulderThe scapula is a long bone, flattened, but narrow, and lade. slightly incurvated, with the convex side turned towards the spine, to which it is nearly parallel in position. The head or anterior extremity is thick and extensive, oblique from before backwards, and is articulated behind with the clavicle, before with the humerus. The free extremity is thin, flattened, and sharp. The whole bone is not dissirtiilar in shape to a scimitar. lifurcated Besides these, which BIRDS possess in common with the one, or MAMMALIA, we find an azygous bone, situate on the mesial urcula. plane, denominated in ordinary language the Merry thought, and, from its shape, the fork-like or bifurcated bone. It consists of two long, rounded, converging branches, united at an acute angle, and forming a broad process, flat in the vertical direction, and by which it is articulated to the anterior extremity of the crest or carinated part of the breast-bone. To the posterior or free extremities of the divergent branches are articulated the humeral ends of the collar-bones, which are thus enabled to sustain the violent motions of the humerus during flight. The branches of the bifurcated bone are separate in the ostrich, and each is united with the clavicle and scapula of the same side, so that the three bones form only one, much flattened, and with a hole towards the sternal extremity. In the cassowary the bifurcated bone is reduced to a mere rudimental process at the inner margin of the head of the clavicle. From these facts it results, that the bifurcated bone is particularly useful in the energetic and continued efforts of the wings in flight, and not only serves to keep the clavicles apart, but, by lengthening the distance between the collar-bones and sternum, enables the animal to use a longer lever. It is freest, strongest, and most elastic in the birds which fly best. In birds which do not fly, and which use the wings merely to sustain the equilibrium, as the ostrich and cassowary, it is reduced to almost nothing, or it is in such a rudimental and imperfect form, that it cannot keep the collar-bones apart. rhoracic The bones of the thoracic extremities, or those of the ixtremi- wings, correspond in general to those of the MAMMALIA. They consist of a single cylindrical humerus, articulated with the scapula and collar-bone above, two bones of the fore wing corresponding to the ulna and radius, two bones of the carpus, two of the metacarpus, consolidated by their extremities, one styloid bone as a thumb, a long finger consisting of two phalanges, and a short one consisting of one. The thumb supports the bastard pinions, the large finger and metacarpus the primaries, while the small one, which is covered by the skin, is destitute. In several of the webfooted divers, for instance the duck and penguin {alca impennis and spheniscus), these bones are flattened like thin plates. r elvic In the pelvic extremities the thigh-bone is provided with Ktremi- one trochanter only, is shorter than that of the leg, and is almost invariably straight; and is arched only in the cormorant, duck, and dobchick. In the ostrich its diameter is about four times that of the humerus. The tibia differs from that of the MAMMALIA chiefly at its lower extremity. M' bile the fibula adheres to it like a slender appendage as far as the middle, the tarsal extremity terminates in two trochlear condyles, with an intermediate pulley-like groove. The tarsus and metatarsus are repre-

(

I

!

13

sented by a single bone of considerable length, and the Comparahead or tibial end of which consists of a middle promitive nence and two lateral depressions, and which, therefore, Anatomy, moves in cardinal opposition, but does not admit of extension beyond the straight line. Though variable in proportion to the length in different orders, this bone is very long in the order GRALL^: (GRALLATORES). It terminates below in 3 pulley-shaped processes, to which are attached the bones of the 3 anterior toes, with an internal margin for that of the great toe. In the ostrich there are 2 processes only, corresponding to the two toes. In the penguin tribe, however, the tarsus and metatarsus consist of 3 bones, separate from each other in the middle, but united at the tibial and digital extremities. To the tarso-metatarsal bone of the cock, and others of the Gallinaceous tribe, is attached the spur, a conical pointed excrescence of hard horny matter. SECT. III.—OSTEOLOGY OF THE REPTILES.

The number of vertebrae, and all the other attributes of the spinal column, vary more in this class than in all the others. In the CHELONIAD or Tortoise family there are 7 cer-Vertebra?, vical, 8 dorsal, connected with the shell in an immovable piece, so as to have neither processes nor articular facettes; from 3 to 5 lumbar and sacral, consolidated in like manner ; and about 20 caudal or coccygeal. (Plate XXXIV. fig. 5.) In the SAURIAL or Lizard tribe, the number 7 predominates in the cervical, being that of the crocodile and most lizards. In several, however, there are 8, as in two of the monitor genus, the American safeguard, the lizard of Fontainebleau, the dragon, the iguana, the anolis, and the gecko and seine; and in a few, as the Nilotic monitor, and an undetermined species of monitor, they amount to 9. In the chameleon there are only 5 cervical vertebras. Here, however, a singular peculiarity is observed. Instead of the cervical vertebras being, as in the MAMMALIA, distinguished by being unconnected with ribs, to those, from the third to the seventh inclusive, short ribs, unconnected with the sternum, are attached. The atlas and axis, therefore, alone are proper cervical vertebrae; but the general analogy is observed in the cervical ribs being exceedingly short and almost rudimental. The dorsal vary from 11, which is that of the crocodile and iguana, to 29 and 30, which are the numbers in the New Holland seine and Nilotic monitor. In the American safeguard, cordylus, stellio, crested basilisk, dragon, guana, and great anolis, they are 16 ; in the chameleon, black safeguard, and ameiva, 17 ; in the tupinambis, spotted gecko, and golden seine, 18; in the green lizard and spotted guana (polychrus) 19; in the Fontainebleau and gray lizard 20; 21 in the Levant seine and undetermined monitor; and 22 in the Java and New Holland monitor. TheBATRACHOiD or Ranine reptiles are void of ribs, and it is impossible therefore to distinguish the first three orders of vertebrae from each other. In general, however, there are from the nape to the pelvis 8 vertebrae, all provided with long transverse processes, and which are longest in the last. The sacrum is represented by a long flattened but pointed bone, without coccyx. In the Surinam toad (rana pipa) the last vertebra is consolidated with this bone; and the transverse processes of the second and third vertebrae are so much larger than the others, that they resemble rudimental ribs. In the Salamander family there are from the head to the sacrum 14 vertebrae, all alike in shape except the first, which receives the occipital bone, and the last, which is articulated with the sacrum. These two are distinguished by wanting rudimental ribs, which are small elongated bones, movable, and articulated with the trans-

14

ANATOMY.

Still more manifest is this arrangement in the RANINE Compara, The artitlve tive cular processes are large and imbricated, the posterior or BATRACHOID and SERPENTINE or OPHIDIAL Reptiles. Anatomy. resting on the anterior, so as to resist the motion of the In the former, as exemplified in the frog, the occipital bone, spine backwards. The sacrum consists of one vertebra which forms the posterior cranial vertebra, consists of four pieces, and has two articular processes. The middle craonly, but the coccyx or tail is composed of 27. In the SERPENTINE tribe the vertebrae may be said to nial vertebra is represented by the parietal bones above attain the most extensive numerical developement. With and the posterior part of the sphenoid below, while bethe exception of the head and rudimental ribs, they con- tween it and the occipital or posterior is contained the stitute the whole skeleton. (Fig. 3.) From the head to the temporal as the organ of hearing. The third or anterior tail their shape is the same, and may be distinguished into cranial vertebra is represented by the anterior part of body, articular and transverse spinous processes. In some the sphenoid bone below and the two narrow frontal species, for instance the boa, the spinous processes of the bones above. The face, which may be regarded as the back are so much separated as to allow mutual motion to a organ of the senses, is elongated anterior to the head, considerable extent. In others, conversely, for instance somewhat after the manner of the CHELONIAD family; the rattlesnake, these processes are so long and broad as while an approximation to the BIRDS is indicated in the to touch each other, while the oblique processes, which articulation of the lower jaw, which is connected to the form their bases, are imbricated over each other. In con- head by the intervention of a quadrilateral bone. In the Serpentine family, the cranium of which is very sequence of this arrangement the motion of the spine is limited behind, but more extensive on the ventral sur- similar in other respects, the most remarkable deviation face. The vertebral bodies, which move easily on each is in the want of ethmoid bone. .The lower jaw is conother, are provided with a sharp spine directed towards nected to the cranium by an intermediate bone, corresponding to the quadrilateral, but of an oblong shape, and the tail, which somewhat limits motion in this direction. The first vertebra differs from those of the rest of the something like a collar-bone. The chest of the REPTILE class varies much in the Chest, body in supporting short or rudimental ribs ; there are therefore no cervical vertebrse and no proper neck in the mode of formation. While true ribs are recognised in the serpent family. The caudal vertebrae are distinguished by SAURIAL family only, the BATRACHOID reptiles have a not supporting ribs, and by their spines both dorsal and sternum without ribs, the SERPENTINE ribs without sterventral being double, and forming two rows of tubercles. num, and the CHELONIAD ribs united into the dorsal shell, The articulation of the bodies of these vertebrae is pecu- and a sternum expanded into the abdominal one. In the SAURIAL family the ribs correspond in number Ribs, liar. On the anterior part of the body is a round hemispherical tubercle, while the posterior presents a corre- to that of the costal vertebrae already mentioned, that is, sponding cavity, so that each vertebra forms a cup and 12 in the crocodile and iguana, two of which are not connected to the sternum, 17 in the chameleon, 18 in the ball joint with the following one. The number of costal vertebrae varies from 32, which tupinambis, and 27 in the monitor. The SAURIAL repis that of the blind worm (Angiiis fragilis), to 204 in the tiles, however, are peculiar in having from 1 to 6 ribs atringed snake ( Coluber natrix), 244 in the snake, and 252 in tached to the cervical vertebrae, and the opposite ends of the Boa constrictor, and which is perhaps the greatest which are not connected to the sternum. These, which known number. Of intermediate numbers, the Amphisbama have been named cervical ribs, form a transition to the has 54, the viper {Coluber berus) has 139, the rattlesnake rudimental ribs of the SERPENTINE family, which are 175, and the cobra di capello 192. The caudal vertebrae larger in the neck than elsewhere. The sternum of the vary in number from 7, which is that of the Amphisbcena, crocodile consists of two parts,—an anterior or thoracic, to 112, which is that of the Coluber natrix. Of interme- which is osseous, supporting the two collar-bones,—and a diate numbers, the blind worm has 17, the rattlesnake 26, posterior or abdominal, which is cartilaginous, and extends the boa 52, the viper 55, and the cobra 63; from which to the pubis, and furnishing to the abdominal parietes it appears that the number of the caudal is not in pro- eight cylindrical cartilages. In the East India crocodile portion to that of the costal vertebrae. it appears that these lateral processes are converted into Cranium. Of the heads of the CHELONIADS, the most remarkable a single broad piece of cartilage on each side. (Fig. 4.) characters are, that the facial line is horizontal, and quite The ribs of the CHELONIAD family are represented by Dorsal and continuous with the cranial line; that the orbits, though the dorsal shell, which consists of eight broad incurvated sterno-abcomplete without, are continuous behind with the temporal plates, identified behind with the dorsal vertebra;, and fossae ; that the parietal and occipital bones are compressed terminating before in the margin of the shell, and which laterally, while the latter terminates above in a sharp are doubtless genuine ribs. In the ordinary land-tortoise spine, projecting behind. The occipito-parietal and occi- ( Testudo Or (tea) these are seen in the shape of elevated pito-temporal sutures are distinct. The cranial cavity is bony ridges, proceeding from the head of each rib in a transsmall compared with the volume of the scull. verse concave bend to the margin of the dorsal shell. On These characters are not less remarkable in the SAURIAL each side of these ridges the bone is depressed, and is or LACERTINE Reptiles. The cranium of a crocodile mea- united at its lowest point by a genuine suture with the adsuring from 13 to 14 feet is scarcely capacious enough to joining ones. These sutures, however, are not continuous admit the thumb ; and Cuvier estimates the area of the with those of the sterno-abdominal shell, but meet it in cranial section, which is oblong, at about of that of the the intermediate points. (Fig. 5.) The sterno-abdominal whole head. In these animals, indeed, the bones of the shell consists, in like manner, of several transverse pieces superior and inferior jaws are so much prolonged, and oc- consolidated into one. The ordinary number is eight on cupy so large a proportion of the head, that small space each side of the mesial plane, and a ninth azygous, geneis left for the proper cranial cavity, which indeed is an rally placed in the centre of the shell. In a specimen, immediate continuation of the vertebral. In these ani- however, of the tabular tortoise ( Testudo tabulata), in our mals, also, the anatomist can trace, much more distinctly possession, the number of the sterno-abdominal pieces is than in the more perfect, the resemblance between the 11, of which 8 are in pairs, united on the mesial line from cranial bones and the vertebral. In the CHELONIADS, and before backwards, and 3 azygous at the posterior tip of the SAURIAL especially, the occipital bone is very distinctly a shell. In young animals it is easy to recognise the unions of these constituent bones, which consist of sutures excephalic vertebra. Compara- verse processes, which are directed backwards.

ANATOM Y. ‘ompara- actly similar to those of the cranium in the MAMMALIA. tive So feeble is the union, that it often happens that the abinatomy. s]ieu especially separates at the lines of junction, in the attempt to detach it from the dorsal. The BATRACHOID REPTILES, though void of ribs, are provided with a sternum, which before is a cartilaginous process, terminating on a disc placed below the larynx, where it receives the collar-bones, and forms behind a broad plate placed below the abdomen, and giving attachment to the muscles. In the Salamander tribe, which are without sternum, the ribs consist of twelve pair of small rudimental processes, articulated with the vertebrae, but admitting of very limited motion. Lastly, in the SERPENTINE family, though there is no sternum, the upper vertebrae are provided with costal processes, quite rudimental. The great number of these costal rudiments, amounting in the rattlesnake to 175, in the cobra di capello to 192, in the coluber natrix to 204, and in the boa constrictor to 252, and the freedom of their anterior extremities, enable the animals of this tribe, wdiich are destitute of locomotive members, thoracic or abdominal, to employ the spinal column and the ribs as organs of progressive motion. On this point the reader will find some interesting observations by Sir Everard Home (Phil. Trans. 1812, p. 163). In the region of the neck, where the ribs acquire peculiar length, they are employed in erecting that region, and producing the expansive swelling peculiar to this tribe of animals. It is an important link in the same series of facts, that in the animal absurdly named the flying lizard (draco volans), the five posterior ribs are recurvated and elongated to form the bony skeleton of the membranous sails by which the animal supports itself in its desultory flight from tree to tree, rhoracic It is in the SAURIAL family that the locomotive extreIxtremi- mities of Reptiles ought first to be studied. In these we find an elongated scapula without spine, and one short flat bone, constituting the clavicle, united to the sternum. In the iguana and chameleon this bone is broad and nearly quadrilateral, while in the tupinambis it is large and ovalshaped, with its greatest length from before backwards, ■and with two unossified points. In the RANINE tribe, while the scapida consists of two articulated pieces, the upper towards the spine, each shoulder is provided with two collar-bones attached to the two extremities of the sternum, and the two anterior of which correspond to the bifurcated bone of birds. The sternum, collar-bone, and first part of the scapula, form one piece. In the salamander, in which the same consolidation is observed, the scapular portion is most distinct and directed to the spine, while of the clavicular portion the part connected to the sternum stretches below the chest, but, without uniting with that of the opposite side, the right glides over the left,—an arrangement which facilitates the dilatation of the chest during inspiration. A nearer approach still to the bifurcated bone than is seen in the RANINE may be recognised in the CHELONIAD family. In these animals three bones are united to form the humeral cavity. The first is a flat, trilateral bone, situate below the abdominal and thoracic viscera, close to the abdominal shell, and which, notwithstanding its situation, is evidently the scapula. The second is a bone about the same length, flat, and like the feather of an oar at one extremity, which is free, round in the middle, and flattened in the opposite direction at the other end, which is firmly united at a right angle to a long slender cylindrical bone. At the angle of union of these two bones is part of the glenoid cavity, which is complete in the small end of the scapula. The first of the two bones is the collarbone proper; the second is the lateral branch of the bone, which forms the bifurcated, and which is occasionally

15

united with its fellow. (Plate XXXIV. fig. 5.) The abdo- Comparaminal shell we have already stated to represent the stertive num or breast-bone. Anatomy. The humerus in the SAURIAL and CHELONIAD family is arched and incurvated in a serpentine direction. It is articulated with a radius and uhia, which are succeeded by three rows of carpal bones, one row of four metacarpal bones and digital phalanges, varying in number in different genera. In the skeleton of a fossil animal belonging to the SAURIAL tribe, originally delineated by Collini, and Fossil skeafterwards by Cuvier, and named by him the Pierodac- }e.ton tyle or Wingtoe (Pterodactylus, OSSEMENS FOSSILES, tome^11^ v.), the metacarpal bone and phalanges of the index are '" J “ prolonged to about twenty times the ordinary length, for the purpose, apparently, of giving attachment to the membranous web by which the animal occasionally elevated itself into the atmosphere. This animal, which, like the dragon (draco volans) of modern times, must have combined the contradictory characters of a flying reptile, may be regarded as forming the link between the REPTILES and BIRDS, as the Ichthyosaurus does between REPTILES and FISHES.

In the pelvis of the CHELONIAD family it is remarkable Pelvis, that the pubal and iliac bones appear to change places. Thus the ilium on each side is a narrow bone proceeding backwards to the sacral part of the spine, which is received between its posterior aperture; while theappears in the shape of a broad, trilateral, flat bone, uniting before With its fellow on the mesial plane, behind with the ilium, and below with a flat, thin, quadrilateral bone, cor- • responding to the ischium, with which it forms the oval aperture. The inner of these three bones presents, as usual, the cotyloid cavity. It is further to be observed, that the two iliac bones, and consequently the whole pelvis, are movable on the vertebral column. (Plate XXXIV.

fig. 5.) In the SAURIAL Reptiles the pelvic bones are arranged Pelvic exand shaped nearly as in the CHELONIAD. In the RANINE tremiues. the iliac bones are much elongated, and the pubal and ischial are consolidated into one piece, the symphysis of which forms a rounded crest. The femur is short, thick, and incurvated sinuously, with the convexity before towards the tibial end, and the concavity towards the pelvic. Trochanters, though present in the CHELONIAD, are wanting in the SAURIAL and RANINE Reptiles. In the leg we find both tibia and fibula distinct, and of nearly equal size, in the CHELONIAD and SAURIAL family, but conjoined in the RANINE family. The tarsus consists of five bones, and sustains four or five metatarsal ones, on which are supported three rows of phalanges. The metatarsal bones, which vary in length, are longest in the crocodile and others of the LACERTINE tribe. In the RANINE, again, the astragalus and calcaneum are the bones of greatest proportional length. The anatomical characters now enumerated are proper to the skeletons of Reptiles at present existing on the surface of the earth or in its waters ; and in these we find a gradual transition from the SAURIAL and CHELONIAD, by means of the SERPENTINE, to the finny inhabitants of the ocean. Even the BATRACHOID Reptiles, in the early period of their existence while tadpoles, we shall have occasion to see, approach to the FISHES ; and in one singular genus, if not two, the Proteus anguinus and Siren Lacertina, the characters of the Reptile are combined with those of the Fish, in having at once lungs or internal respiratory cells, and gills or external ciliated branchiae. The transition thus indicated is still more strongly demonstrated in the osteological characters of two Genera of animals now extinct, so far as is yet known,—the Ichthyosaurus and the Plesiosaurus.

16

ANATOMY.

Compara* From the specimens of the Ichthyosaurus hitherto distive covered, it appears that the number of vertebrae varies from .

on

num, and the transverse bone the clavicles; and it is Companj " tive worthy of remark, that not only this bone, but the middle ^ piece, closely resembles in figure and disposition those of Anatom1f the Echidna and Ornithorhyncus. The pelvis consists of' three bones, a vertebral or superior, corresponding to the ilium, narrow and slightly incurvated ; an anterior, ascending forwards, and broad, separating the pubis ; and a posterior, short, forming the ischium. The humerus and femur are longer than in the Ichthyosaurus. There is a very short radius and ulna, and tibia and fibula, articulated with five carpal and tarsal bones; and the rest of both paddles consists of successive rows of flattened but long bones, contracted in the middle, and expanded at the extremities, representing the metacarpal and metatarsal digital phalanges. (Home, Phil. Trans. 1816, 1818, 1819, 1820; De la Beche and Conybeare, Geological Transactions, vol. v. p. 559 ; and Cuvier, Ossemens Fossiles, vol. v. I part ii.) I r;

^i 80 to 90 or more; in one entire specimen they amounted to 104 (Conybeare and De la Beche); that they are flatcal pecifli- tened, with the transverse diameter greater than the longiarities of tudinal, and the two articulating surfaces of the bodies the Ich- calycoid or cup-shaped as in Fishes. Though the annular thyosaurus part is distinct from the body, it is united to its sides. The spinous processes, which are long and prominent, form a continuous ridge above the spine, and are connected to each other by a process from the front of the one spine, which is inserted into a pit in the back of the other. Instead of proper transverse process, a certain number of the vertebrae are provided with two tubercles on each side of the body, of which the superior, convex, is articulated to the tubercle of the rib, while the other, which is concave, receives the head. In the inferior part of the vertebral column, these two tubercles, after approximating, are eventually identified into one. SECT. IV. OSTEOLOGY OF THE FISHES. The ribs, which are numerous, and extend from the occiput to the pelvis, are slender and trilateral in shape, ' The SERPENTINE or OPHIAD Reptiles present in their bifurcated above, and attached to the vertebrae by a head osteological characters an approximative transition to and tubercle. In the perfect specimen of Mr de laBeche those of Fishes. While in the former order the skeleton they amount to 31, and of these 17 appear to be cervical is reduced to the spinal column, ribs, and head, in the or anterior false ribs, with single tubercles; thus affording latter class the spine and head only are left; and in some another mark of resemblance to the SAURIAL family in tribes the transition is still more distinctly marked by osteological characters. the presence of ribs. The bones of the head, distinguished by the extraordiThe vertebra of a fish is distinguished from that of any Vertebra nary size of the orbit, are similar to those of the Saurial other animal by the shape of its body. The cephalic and Reptiles. The sternum, collar-bone, and scapula, though caudal, or anterior and posterior surfaces, are hollow cupalso similar to those of this family, bear a much closer re- like cones, so that the union of each two vertebrae forms semblance to the figure of these parts in the Echidna and a double conical cavity, united by the base, containing a Ornithorhyncus. The humerus is short, thick, and sinuat- substance composed of concentric fibro-cartilaginous layers, ed; the bones of the fore arm flat, and probably constitut- with intermediate albuminous or gelatinous matter. By ing part of the fore or thoracic fin. The Carpus consists this cartilage the vertebral bodies are united; and on this of three rows, the first containing three bones, the other the motions of the spine are effected. This motion, howtwo, four each. These are followed by five or six rows of ever, is chiefly lateral; for the spinous processes are so flattened, irregularly cuboidal bones, gradually diminishing long, and the articulation so complex, that antero-postein size and number to the tips, and which represent at once rior inflection or extension is nearly impracticable. the metacarpus and phalanges of the fore paw, used appaIn the cartilaginous fishes, for instance the shark, sturrently chiefly as a fin or paddle. The pelvic extremities geon, and lamprey, the vertebral bodies form simple tubes, appear to have been less strong and perfectly construct- which, from the extreme elasticity of the constituent cared than the thoracic. The femur is smaller and shorter tilage, propel the contained fluid to a considerable disthan the humerus ; the tibia and fibula are flattened like tance. Thus Sir E. Home saw the fluid projected to the the ulna and radius ; the tarsus consists of two rows only, height of four feet from the intervertebral cavities of the the first containing three, and the second five bones ; and shark. {Phil. Trans. 1809.) In this order, also, the this in like manner terminates in five ranges of flattened spine is infinitely more flexible, and its resilient power, bones, gradually diminishing in size, and which represent when bent by the muscles, is almost incredible. On each T'01 the metatarsus and metatarsal phalanges of the hind naw side, also, the vertebrae are excavated, to form a canal for or paddle. lodging the large blood-vessels. and PieFrom the specimens hitherto discovered of the PlesiosauIhe vertebrae of fishes are numerous, and not easily siosaurus. ^ jt appearS that the total number of vertebra? amounts distinguished into classes. They may, however, be disto 90, of which 35 appear to be cervical, while the other tinguished into two, according as the spinous process is 55 are dorsal and caudal, the regions of which are propor- above only, or above and below at once. Those with the tionally short. The head of this animal also is small and dorsal spine only are denominated dorsal or abdominal vertecompressed, nor has it the large orbit of the Ichthyosau- bra, and have commonly at the sides transverse processes |>e rus. Each rib consists of a vertebral and sternal portion, for the attachment of the ribs. Those with the dorsal united at an obtuse angle, the former articulated by a and ventral spines are distinguished as the caudal vertesingle head to the transverse process, and the latter con- bra. The last caudal vertebra is generally trilateral, flatnected with its fellow by a transverse slip, so that the tened in the vertical direction; and its tip is marked with lower or abdominal ribs appear to have surrounded the articular pits, which indicate the attachment of the small abdomen with a complete cincture. The anterior part of elongated bones which sustain the caudal fins. the chest is occupied by two trilateral bones uniting in Ihe number of vertebrae varies. In the uranoscopus the middle, which, from their connection with the scapula, or star-gazer there are only 25, in the balista 17, and in are believed to be the coracoid bones; and above these the four-spined trunk-fish (ostracion) only 13; while in is a transverse piece, with a middle notch and lateral the sturgeon the number is 84, in the eel 115, and in the sinuated elevations, which is regarded as the sternum; shark 207. while the scapula extends on each side like a buttress beThough FISHES have no chest, and require none, since tween the two. It is. not improbable, nevertheless, that their respiratory organs are gills, all of them are not void the middle portions named coracoid bones are the ster- of ribs. The ray, shark, syngnathus, tetraodon, diodon, cy-

ANATOMY. ■arj omparaive tive Otti natomy. V\

17

clopterus, jistularia, «Src. have indeed no vestige of rib. posterior margin of their aperture. This belt consists of ComparaBut in the sturgeon, balista, eel, uranoscopus, pleuronectes, a single bone on each side, articulated to the posteriortive sea-wolf, and dory, they are in the shape of short rudi- superior angle of the cranium, and uniting below the Anatomy, mental processes; in the trigla and loricaria their sides are breast with that of the opposite side. This bone, which horizontal; in the perch, carp, pike, and chetodon, they may be regarded as a scapula, varies in shape and the f^ctoral encompass nearly the whole upper region of the abdomi- angle which it forms with its fellow in different species. ' nal cavity ; and, lastly, in the silver-fish {zeus vomer), the In fishes flattened vertically, the angle of union is acute; herring, rhomboidal salmon, &c. they are united to a in those which are depressed, the angle is so obtuse as to sternum. In the little animal named sea-horse (syngna- form nearly a straight line. In many fishes, especially thus hippocampus), several series of osseous tubercles of those of the order THORACICI, e.g. pleuronectes, coitus, zeus, the skin, surrounding the body like belts, are supposed to chetodon, perch, &c., in the small unicorn (balista), and represent false ribs. The sternum is limited to a small others, the superior part forms a large spine, which denumber of FISHES. Besides those already mentioned, in scends immediately behind the fin, and to which the adthe dory there is a series of minute flat bones disseminat- ductor muscles are attached. This spine, which is moved along the lower edge of the belly, which is supposed able, has been improperly named a clavicle. to represent a rudimental sternum The rays by which the membrane is supported are not In size and number the ribs vary, though in the silurus, directly articulated to this belt, but are connected by a |ie head, anium. carp, and chetodon they are of largest proportional size ; row of minute flat bones, which may be compared to the in the herring they are as fine as hairs. carpus in the other three classes. When the first ray of The head in the finny tribes is more an object of zoolo- the pectoral fin, however, is thorny, as in the harness-fish gical than anatomical description. The chief points to be (loricaria), and some species of silurus, it is articulated diremarked are, that the cranium forms but a small part of rectly with an osseous belt; and it is remarkable that some the head; that the orbits are separated by a some- fishes, as the silurus and stickle-back, have the power of times membranous, occasionally, as in the wolf-fish, bony; retaining this spinous ray erected against the body as a and that there is on each side a large movable bone, cor- means of defence. This is effected by a cylindrical turesponding to the quadrilateral of BIRDS, not square, bercle, on which the spinous ray is articulated by a holhowever, but oblong, which supports not only the lower low, bounded before and behind by an elevated process. jaw and palatine arches, but the gill-cover. In the car- When the spine is erected, the anterior process, entering ebrs tilaginous fishes the sutures are early obliterated, and the a hole in the cylindrical tubercle, is locked in it by the cranium consists of an inseparable mass of cartilage. In spine revolving slightly on its axis, so that it cannot be the bony fishes the cranium is separable into numerous inflected unless by the spine revolving in the opposite dipieces, and in the perch they amount to 80. In the cra- rection. nium of fishes the anatomist recognises more distinctly The pectoral fins are so long that they answer the pur- Pterygoid than in the superior orders the formation according to the pose of wings in several species of trigla, the trigla hi- pectoral vertebral type. Small in proportion to the whole head, rundo, the flying gurnard (trigla volitans), the springing ^nsthe cranium appears like a direct continuation of the ver- gurnard (trigla evolans,) in the scorpcena volitans, the tebral column. In the osseous division of the class es- tropical flying fish (exoccetus volitans), and some others. pecially, the cranium may be distinguished into the occi- Their situation also is liable to vary. In the exoccetus pital or posterior vertebra, the spheno-parietal or middle, they are near the gills, but in the blennius and others they _ and the frontal or facial vertebra. I he cavity thus formed are remote. Lastly, they are totally wanting in a small is very small; yet small as it is, it is not exactly filled by number only, as the lamprey (petromyzon), the hag-fish the brain, between which and the bones there is inter- (myxine, Lin.; gastrobranchus), the murcenu, the eel genus, posed a pellucid fluid, contained in fine cellular tissue, the sphagobranchus, &c. I he cranium of the osseous fishes also is widest between The abdominal or ventral fins, which correspond to the Abdominal the ears, because the organ of hearing is contained within pelvic extremities of the other classes, are so denominated or ventral its cavity with the brain. In the cartilaginous it is quite because in the majority of fishes they are situate below different. the belly, and nearer the anal outlet than the pectoral. By Icomo1 hough FISHES are destitute of extremities similar to this circumstance a numerous order are distinguished by jRe mem- those possessed by the other three classes of the VERTEl(j-s or fins. BRATA, they are not, however, without locomotive mem- the name of Abdominal Fishes (ABDOMINALES). In a small number of fishes, comprehending the gadus, bers. The thoracic extremities are represented by the blennius, kurtus, callionymus, trachinus, and uranoscopectoral fins, and the pelvic by the ventral. In short, pus, the ventral fins are placed under the throat, below it may be said that the bones of the thoracic and abdomi- the aperture of the gills, and before the pectoral fins, nal extremities are converted into osseous rays in the This order is therefore distinguished by the name of Jufinny tribes. GULARES. Ihtoral In the Ray genus, in which the wing-like disposition of In the most numerous order of all, the ventral fins are f the pectoral fins gives the body a rhomboidal shape, they situate behind and below the pectoral fins. These have consist of numerous radiating cartilaginous lines, all at- therefore been denominated Thoracic Fishes (THORAtaehed to a cartilage parallel to the spine, divisible into CICI). two or three others, and articulated above to another adThe ventral fins consist of two parts—one formed of herent to the spine. Below there is a strong transverse rays covered by a double membrane, apparent externally, bar common to the cartilages of both fins, and separat- and constituting the proper ventral fin ; the other internal, ing at once the sternum and clavicle. This transverse representing the coxal bones of the pelvis, always supportbar is also seen in the shark tribe ; but their pectoral ing the pinnal rays, and often articulated with the bones fins, which are much smaller, are not articulated with the of the trunk. It is never articulated^ however, with the spine spine, nor does it form an osseous belt round the abdoIq the osseous fishes, and in many others usually re- men. The bones of which it consists are generally flat ferred to the cartilaginous division, e. g. the balista, the - tened, varying in shape, and in mutual contact by the inpectoral fins are fixed to an osseous belt, which sur- ternal margin. In the shark and ray genera only is there rounds the body behind the gills, and which supports the a single transverse bone, nearly cylindrical, to the extreVOL. in. c

18

ANATOM Y.

Compara- mities of which the fins are attached. The direction of once, and perhaps intermediate between the two, this ab- Compara. t bve tiye the pelvic plane to the walls of the abdomen varies ac- breviation is carried perhaps to its greatest possible degree, ^Anatomy. corc|jng shape of the body of the fish. In the fiat in leaving the articular ends only of the four locomotive '^nat0U1^ A extremities. Lastly, this reduction is merely prepara-P Ventral ^iey are directed obliquely, and their inner margin fins. forms the keel of the belly. In fishes with a broad or cy- tory to that exhibited in the whole class of FISHES, in lindrical belly they form a plane more or less horizontal. which the three longitudinal bones so conspicuous in the In the JUGULAR and THORACIC FISHES, the pelvic higher classes of animals are completely obliterated, and v bones are always articulated with the base of the belt those representing the hand or forepaw and foot are artiL which sustains the pectoral fins; and they vary much in culated directly to the shoulder and pelvic bones. Besides the bones already mentioned as constituting ti shape and situation. n In the trachinus, uranoscopus, cottm, scicena, chetodon, the skeleton, there are observed in the osseous fishes and perch, these two bones are united by their inner mar- minute bones, generally fork-like in shape, disseminated gin. In the cuckoo-gurnard, in which they are united by through all the muscular parts of the body. The purpose the posterior tip only of their internal margin, they are of these bones, which, as being totally insulated from the broad, flat, and oval. In the sole and flounder genus (pleu- other parts of the skeleton, are denominated ossicula musronectes), in which the fins are attached to their anterior culorum, is chiefly to afford points of support; and they tip, they are united in a quadrangular pyramid, the apex are probably to be regarded as rudimental representatives of which is directed backwards and upwards, and the of osseous parts, more completely developed in the higher base forwards. In some of the stickle-backs these bones animals. It is further a curious circumstance, that the skeleton, Violation are altogether separate, and being long, receive in their middle a movable spine, which supplies the place of the which is so symmetrical in all the other classes and orders, of the law ventral fin. In the dory (zeus faber, L.) they are flat and begins to exhibit a deviation from this first in the skeletriangular, in mutual contact by their whole surface. In ton of the finny tribes. In the Sole genus (Pleuronectes) the silver-fish (zeus vomer) they are small and cylindrical. this deviation is very conspicuous. Both eyes are placed In the whole of the ABDOMINAL order, on the contrary, on the same side of the mesial plane; and the side on the pelvic bones are equally unconnected with the bones which the eyes are placed is broader than the opposite of the shoulder and with the osseous belt of the pectoral one. The former is bounded by a convex margin, the latfins, and are confined to the middle-inferior part of the ter by a concave one. The orbit towards the former is belly, not far from the anus. In general these two bones large, the other small and imperfect. Conversely, it is to are separate from each other, and are retained in their si- be observed, that in the latter the maxillary and intermaxtuation by ligaments. In the carp, in which they are illary bones are larger than in the former. The sides of elongated, they touch only by their posterior third. In the the inferior jaw are less discordant; and though in the herring, in which they are small and approximated, they Sole and Plaice those of the eyeless side are more straight are continuous with the minute bones of the sternum. In and elongated than those of the other, in the Turbot (Pkuthe pike they are broad and trilateral, approximated by ronectes maximus) they are nearly symmetrical. their anterior tips, separate behind where the fin is attached. In the silurus, in which they are united, they CHAP. II.—COMPARATIVE MYOLOGY. form a round and often spinous shield before, while the Though this is the proper place to consider the pecufins are attached to the exterior-posterior margin. Lastly, in the cuirassier or harness-fish (loricaria), the pelvic liarities of the muscular system of animals, the limits asbones are united in one piece, the posterior notch of which signed to this sketch will not allow us to enter into deforms the anal aperture, while the fins are attached to its tails. We shall merely, therefore, take a cursory view of external margin. those points in which the myology of the lower animals The proper fin consists of a certain number of osseous differs from that of the human subject. rays, simple or bifid, supported by one or two rows of miIn general, in the lower animals, especially the MAMnute bones placed between them and the pelvic bones. MALIA, BIRDS, and REPTILES, the muscles correspond in On these small bones the constituent rays move, diverging situation to those of the human subject; and whatever or converging like the rods of a fan, while the whole fin modifications they undergo consist in changes of figure, may be inflected or extended by the minute bones moving and in some few instances in changes in attachment. The on the pelvic, so as to adduct or abduct the fin. former kind of changes may be in all cases pretty accuIn the cartilaginous fishes the structure is different. To rately estimated by the osteological characters of the class, the tip of each pelvic bone are articulated two principal order, or genus; for when the position, shape, or direccartilages, one external, forming a kind of toe with seven tion of a bone is altered, in the same proportion nearly or eight joints; the other internal, supporting all the other are the attached muscles altered in their attributes. rays of the fin, which often exceed thirty in number. Though in the lower animals, however, the zootomist Deficiencr Analogy or If we suppose these bones, like the minute ones of the traces muscles in general quite analogous to those of the in number, M unity of pectoral fin, to represent the tarsus of the other three human subject, in several instances this analogy ceases to IF Principle in c]asseS) must follow that, in the locomotive extremi ties, be observed. In general the muscles of the lower animals iir 3msa- the humerus, with the ulna and radius, and the femur, are less numerous than those of the human subject; and with the tibia and fibula, are obliterated. It is not un- this deficiency in number, though not much observed in important to observe, that the general structure of the the QUADRUMANA, is very remarkable in all the inferior VERTEBRATA tends through various transitions to this ter- orders of the MAMMALIA, and still more in the BIRDS mination. In the AMPHIBIA the long bones of the extre- and REPTILES. In general, also, these variations are most mities are shortened by removing the diaphysis, and leaving conspicuous in the locomotive extremities. Thus the their articulating ends only. In the CETACEA the pelvic small pectoral muscle, which is present in the QUADRUextremities are removed altogether. In the CHELONIAD MANA, is wanting in the CARNIVORA and the whole of and SAURIAL REPTILES the same long bones of the extre- the Ungulated Animals and the Reptiles. The short mities are much abridged; and in the ICHTHYOID REP- supinator is present in the Canine and Feline genera, but TILES, now extinct, but sharing by their structure a form the long is wanting; and both are absent in the CHIROPof animal existence partaking of the reptile and fish at TERA, RODENTIA, PACHYDERMATA, RUMINANTIA, and

II ANATOMY. )]«n Jompara- SOLIDUNGULA, and in the whole class of BIRDS. Both tivc pronators (teres and qimdratus) are present in the QUADRUM ANA and CARNIVORA, but wanting in the CHIROPv\ TERA, Ruminants, and SOLIDUNGULA. The Rabbit, and perhaps the RODENTIA generally, have the pronator teres ; but as the radius is not very movable, its influence is trifling. )1 fyological In the mole the rhomboideus is inserted into the cerviil pculiari- cal ligament, which is ossified; and it therefore elevates 0 esofthe head and neck on the scapula with singular force. ,0 e ‘ This is effected still more remarkably by the occipital part of the rhomboideus, the fibres of which being parallel to the spine, pass below the proper rhomboideus to be attached to the transverse ligament and the middle of the cranium. The strong, thick, quadrangular collar-bone has two muscles, a supradavius and a subclavius. The large pectoral is very thick, and nearly as large as in birds. The common extensor of the fingers or fore toes is the only muscle which is common to man and all the quadruion peds. Of the proper extensors the horse has two on the la« side of the common extensor, but acting as an extensor m. of the fore pastern ; another between the common extensor and the extensor of the pastern, and which seems merely an appendage to the former. The proper extensor of the index is wanting in the RODENTIA, Ruminants, and SOLIDUNGULA ; and while the two latter orders are destitute of the long and short extensors of the thumb, and the feline, canine, ursine, and leporine have the former, they are destitute of the latter. Lastly, the lower animals are wholly destitute of the short muscles of the hand, which in man produce flection, abduction, adduction, and opposition. In the GHIROPTERA only is there one extensor, and flexors of the fore toes. Among the muscles of the pelvic extremities the glutmus maximus, or large muscle of the buttock in man, diminishes much in the QUADRUMANA ; and in the other orders is reduced to a very small size. The buttock in the MAMMALIA generally consists chiefly of the glutceus mediiis and minimus ; and while the glutceus maximus is in the horse in a great part aponeurotic, the g. medius is so large as to produce those forcible and sudden extensions of the hind leg which constitute the kick. In the leg the sartorius of the horse, the animal in which the muscles have been most studied, is large, and is distinguished by the name of the long adductor, in opposition to the gracilis, which constitutes the short adductor. The muscle representing the biceps of man is in all quadrupeds a uniceps, and the single head is attached to the ischium only. In the horse and dog it has been denominated the vastus longus. The gastrocnemius externus etinternus (gemellus), which constitute the calf of the human subject, diminish considerably in the lower animals; and the solceus, which is placed belotv them, also becomes small, and is particu« larly slender in the Ruminants and SOLIDUNGULA. luscles The following muscles are wanting in the whole class ii n ■ birds! ®IRDS• The diaphragm, the recti abdominis, and the T ‘ pyramidales; the muscles of the dorsal part of the spine, the splenitis, the brachialis externus, or third head of the triceps ; the supinators of the fore arm or wing, as already mentioned, all those corresponding to the short muscles of the hand and fingers; the quadratus lumborum, the psoas parvus, the psoas magnus, iliacus internus, obturator externus, and the extensor longus pollieis pedis. Two muscles, which occupy the situation of the pronators, act as flexors, showing the connection between the actions of inflection and pronation, and the occasional substitution of the latter for the former. In tins class, also, the glutccus maximus is of a pyramidal shape, while the true pyriforinis is wanting. The

19

glutceus minimus, which is attached to the anterior edge Cotnparative of the iliac bones, is the iliacus. In place of the pectineus there is a slender muscle, which extends to the knee, Anatomy. over which its tendon passes, and gliding behind the leg, its tendon is bifurcated, one slip going back to be inserted into the posterior part of the metatarsus, the other to be united to the perforated flexor of the first and last toe. This muscle, which is named the accessory femoral flexor, is the one by which birds are enabled to clasp a perch during sleep. In BIRDS the great pectoral is a remarkable muscle in Muscles point of size. It consists indeed of three muscles, thelis^hi large pectoral, the middle, and the small, which occupy 'in£’ the sides of the vertical crest of the sternum, and constitute what is named the breast of the animal; and which are chiefly employed in the energetic motion of the wings in flying. These muscles are sometimes so large that they weigh more than all the other muscles of the animal together. In birds which fly much they are dark coloured and firm; in those which fly little, as the domestic poultry, they are white coloured, and in general soft. The same distinction is observed in the muscles of the two extremities. In birds much on the wing these muscles are dark coloured and firm, while those of the legs are comparatively lighter and more tender; and, conversely, in birds little on the wing and mostly on the legs, as the domestic poultry and many of the Grallce, the waders, swimmers, &c. the muscles of the wings are light coloured and tender, while those of the legs are dark coloured, firm, and strong. The flexor muscles of the leg and toes of BIRDS merit Mechanotice. They consist of muscles corresponding to thenism f long flexors, which are divided into three masses. Thefiercain«' first consists of five portions, three of which may be regarded as constituting a single common perforated flexor. It rises by two bellies, one attached to the external condyle of the femur, forming a perforated tendon, which receives one of those of the muscle corresponding to the peronceus; the other to the posterior surface of the femur, forming the tendons of the index and small toe. This muscle is further connected by intermediate fibres with the accessory femoral flexor,—a muscle placed on the internal surface of the thigh, and sending its tendon over the knee; and as the tendons are inserted into the unguinal phalanges, when the accessory femoral bends the thigh the flexors of the toes inflect them also, and retain them in the inflected position. By means of this arrangement birds are enabled to clasp a perch or other small body when roosting, without continued muscular effort, and thereby to sleep on the perch. This mode of explanation, which was originally given by Borelli, has been controverted by Vicq d’Azyr; but apparently not On good grounds. Among the class of Reptiles, while the muscles of the OPHIDIAL family are confined to those of the vertebra: and rudimental ribs, in the CHELONIAD these are obliterated, and the muscles of the neck, head, and tail, and those of the locomotive extremities alone, are left. In the other two classes of reptiles the muscles are in general analogous to those of the MAMMALIA. There are nut many instances of muscles which, though Cutaneous unknown in man, are found in the lower animals. Ofmuscle. these the most remarkable are the cutaneous muscle (panniculus carnosus), and the suspensory of the eye. The former was absurdly maintained to exist in the human subject, especially by Nicolaus Massa ; but it is manifest that the assertion was derived from the dissection of the lower animals only. It was not long after demonstrated by Charles Etienne, that no fleshy pannicle or cutaneous muscle exists, sUch as is found in the lower animals; ami

ANATOMY.

Compara- tlmt the only cutaneous muscles in man are the latis- and so on to the 13th, each contained in a ligamentous ConiparaUve simus colli, the epicranius or scalp-muscle, and those groove, which forms an investment. The muscles of both tive Anatomy, are attached to the face, and which by their mosides acting together, elevate or incurvate the tail uption give expression to the countenance. The cutaneous wards. The interspinalis and spinalis obliquus or lumbo-sacromuscle even is not found in the QUADRUMANA, nor does it exist in the pig. In various other animals, however, coccygeal are the continuations of the interspinales dorsi it is found in different degrees of distinctness. It is et lumborum. The spinous processes, however, becoming very well marked in the hedgehog and porcupine;—by its indistinct, or being represented by two tubercles, the atmeans they have the power of erecting their spines, and tachments vary. 2d, The muscles which depress or inflect the tail downrolling themselves up;—and in the armadillo and the anteater tribe. In the mole, also, we have seen it pretty well wards take their origin within the pelvis, and are prolonged to various extents along the inferior surface of marked. SuspenIt is an interesting fact, that Galen originally observed the tail. Of these there are four pairs, the ileo-coccygeal sory mus- that the lower animals possess a seventh muscle of the of Vicq d’Azyr, the inferior sacro-coccygeal, the inter-coccle of the eyej or one more than man. The suspensory or infundi- cygeal muscles, and the pubo-coccygeal of the same author. to certain1 hular muscle (musculus choanoides), as it has been named, The insertions of these muscles vary in different genera, animals. fr°m its shape, especially in the Ruminants and SOLI- according to the number of vertebrae of which the tail The pubo-coccygeal is wanting in the raccoon, DUNGULA, has the apex fixed to the margin of the optic consists. The effect of hole, and its base inserted a little behind the four straight but it is distinct in the dog and opossum. muscles. In the ZOOPHAGA and CETACEA it consists of the ileo-coccygeal and it, is to depress the tail and apply four parts, so that these orders appear to be provided it forcibly to the anus. 3d, There are only two muscles which carry the tail to with 8 straight muscles. In the rhinoceros it consists of the sides of the animal—the ischio-coccygceus externus, and two portions. Tail, There is yet another part, the muscles of which can the intertransversalis of Vicq d’Azyr; the former proceedscarcely be said to exist in the human subject, but which ing from the pelvic surface of the ischium below and beattain a very great degree of developement in the lower hind the acetabidum, to the transverse processes of the cauanimals. The coccyx of the human subject is expanded dal vertebrae, the second extending in a continued band in the lower animals into a highly flexible prolongation between all the transverse processes. The tail, therefore, in the MAMMALIA, consists of a denominated the tail (cauda), variable in length, but always consisting of separate vertebrae, articulated and series of successively decreasing vertebrae, moved by eight movable on each other. While the coccyx of the human pairs of muscles. In FISHES it is not easy to trace any analogy between subject possesses two muscles only, the ischio-coccygeus and sacro-coccygeas, which are so insignificant in size that the muscles and those of the other classes. Though the they scarcely serve to move the part, the caudal verte- spine, head and fins, have appropriate muscular bundles, brae of the lower animals are moved by muscles greatly the natural or fascial distinctions are less evident than in the other three classes. It is important, however, to relarger, more numerous, and more powerful. The tail is to animals a much more useful and power- mark, that while the muscles which move the spinal coful organ than the coccyx to man. It is a member which lumn are placed in these classes, partly before, and chiefpeculiarly belongs to them; and though in ordinary cir- ly behind the vertebrae, those of FISHES are placed on cumstances pendulous, it is made to assume a variety of each side. Hence the lateral motion of the spine, which motions of which no other organ is susceptible, and to is inconsiderable in MAMMIFEROUS animals, BIRDS, and perform duties which would be otherwise impracticable. REPTILES, becomes very conspicuous in the finny tribes, With many, as the long-tailed monkeys, the sloths, the especially in the motion of swimming, while the anteroant-eater, and the squirrel tribes, it is indispensable as an posterior inflection or extension is altogether insignificant. organ of prehension. The majority of animals, as the It is almost superfluous to remark, that, in the greater Ruminants, SOLIDUNGULA, &c. use it as a whip or lash to part of the finny tribes, the muscles are white or pale drive away insects. The lion, tiger, and others of the coloured. In a few only, for instance the salmon, trout, feline tribe, lash their sides with it when enraged. The gwiniad (coregonus'), herring (ciupea harengus), carp (cyCetaceous swimmers employ it as a rudder and oar in the prinus), and some others, are the muscular fibres of a pale waters. The beaver uses it as a trowel, to enable him to flesh red. The circumstances on which these differences construct his clay-built dwelling. An organ employed depend are not known; but it is supposed that in the so variously must consist of a muscular apparatus rather latter sorts the proportion of oleo-albuminous matter is complex. more abundant than in the former. The proportion of and caudal The different motions of which the tail of the MAMMA- albumen, however, in the muscles of fish, seems in general muscles. LIA is susceptible may be referred to three heads,—one to be small. They abound in gelatine and isinglass; and by which it is extended or elevated, another by which it in some of the cartilaginous fishes especially, the greater is inflected or depressed, and a third by which it is made part of the muscles seem to consist chiefly of gelatine in to beat the sides. The combination or succession of these various degrees of consistence. This is particularly the motions gives rise to secondary ones more complex in case with the lamprey, the hag-fish (myxine glutinosd), character. It may be twisted on its axis, or turned in a and even with the sturgeon. The sterlet especially (acispiral direction. These motions are effected by three penser Ruthenus), a small species of sturgeon found in the classes of muscles. rivers of Russia, both European and Asiatic, abounds in ls£, The muscles which raise the tail are situate above ; gelatine ; and the presence of this principle enables the they are muscidi sacro-coccygcei superiores. Commenc- inhabitants to use it in the preparation of a species of ing at the base of the articular processes of the 3 or 4 soup, the sterlet, which is esteemed a great delicacy. In last lumbar vertebrae, or those of the sacrum and the cau- some of the genus Pleuronectes this principle is also very dal vertebrae, by fleshy slips, they are connected to ten- abundant. Thus the Plaice {Pleuronectes Platessd), sole dons, which are inserted into the base of the first of the (P. iSb/m), and especially the turbot (P. Maximus), concaudal vertebrae, which are void of articular processes. tain a considerable proportion of gelatine. On the proThe second tendon goes to the next following vertebra, portion of this principle depends the quality of fish used

CL. ^

20

ANATOMY. 21 Cmparaas an article of food in nourishing without exciting. All animal. We are satisfied, however, from observing the moComparative fishes which abound in gelatine uncombined with oleo-al- tions of this body in the living animal, that it is an organ, tive atomy, buminous matter may be safely used as articles of food; not of smell, but of prehension. Cuvier, after adopting ^natomywhile those in which the latter ingredients predominate the ordinary view, has relinquished it, and, on the ground are invariably eaten with the risk of disordering the sto- of personal inspection, admits that the sense of smell in mach and producing indigestion. the elephant is confined, as in other animals, to that portion of the nasal cavities which is contained within the CHAP. III.—COMPARATIVE iESTHIOLOGY, OR THE COM- bones of the head. The trunk of the elephant, therefore, PARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF SENSATION. will with greater propriety be noticed under a subsequent head. SECT. I. THE ORGAN OF SMELL. The nasal cavities of the Cetaceous animals are not The organ of smell consists of the nasal cavities, those so much organs of smell as channels of respiration, and of the ethmoidal and turbinated bones, and the frontal, must also be noticed afterwards. It is sufficient here to sphenoidal, and superior maxillary sinuses, all of which remark, that in these animals the part of the cranium corcommunicate with the nasal. The whole of these parts responding to the ethmoid bone is penetrated by no aperare invested by fine periosteum, lined by mucous mem- ture, or, in other words, is not an ethmoid bone. It has brane. The ethmoid bone is the essential organ of smell; therefore been asserted that the Cetacea have no olfacand the others appear simply to multiply the extent of tory nerve, and no sense of smell. This, however, is by the membrane. no means established. Blainville and Jacobsen have obThe ethmoid bone consists of a perforated plate, with served in the dolphin nerves which they regard as olfacient; a middle vertical one attached at right angles to it, and and Treviranus delineates nerves of the same character. lateral portions composed of thin bony plates convoluted By Otto and Rudolph!, on the contrary, who have had with various degrees of complexity and minuteness in frequent opportunities of dissecting the dolphin and whale, Ipmoid different orders and genera of animals. These convoluted the existence of these nerves is denied. c4s. plates form what are denominated the ethmoidal cells. Though almost all the invertebrated animals give proofs Smell in They may be represented as numerous tortuous canals, of the existence of the sense of smell, in none of them do inverteproceeding from the perforated plate forwards and out- we find any organ in which this sensation appears with brated uniwards, approximating mutually, and forming numerous certainty to be exercised. That these animals possessmals’ communicating cavities. Such nearly is the structure of the faculty of smell, is inferred from the fact, that insects these plates in the Edentata, Ruminantia, Solidun- recognise their food at a distance; that male butterflies gula, Pachydermata, and Carnivora, the last of scent the female even when inclosed in cages ; and that which have more complicated cells than the first. In the the ordinary flesh-fly deposits her eggs on tainted meat, dog they are numerous and extensive. In the Rodentia, and occasionally on fetid plants, in the belief that they for instance the porcupine, they are few—not above 3 or are the proper nidus, though in the latter case the larvce 4 on each side. perish for want of the necessary sustenance. In Birds the internal side of each nostril is occupied Since odorous particles are evidently applied to the olby three orders of plates; the inferior turbinated or factory membrane of all aeropnoic animals by the mespongy bone; the middle, consisting of one plate convo- dium of the atmosphere, and since the organ of smell is luted on itself two turns and a half; and the upper, shaped therefore situate in connection with the wind-pipe, it was like a bell, adhering to the frontal and lacrymal bones. conjectured by Raster, that, in insects at least, the organ These form three tortuous passages, varying in size and of smell is situate at the entrance of the tracheae or airtortuosity in different genera. Though generally carti- tubes. This conjecture derives some probability from the laginous, these turbinated bones are membranous in the fact, that the inner tracheal membrane in these animals is cassowary and albatross, and bony in the calao and soft and moist, and that those in which it is expanded toucan. into convoluted lacunae and tortuous vesicles, for instance In the nostrils of Reptiles there are convoluted pro- beetles, flies, and bees, are remarkable for the nicety of minent plates, which, however, are merely membranous their sense of smell. productions, unsupported by any bone. The antennae, in which this sense has been placed by In the Fishes, in like manner, there are membranous some anatomists, appear to be rather organs of touch than folds, the disposition of which is tortuous. They are, of smell. however, more regularly arranged than in the other In the Mollusca the whole cutaneous covering seems classes. In the cartilaginous fishes they consist of semi- to combine the character of an organ of touch or tact, lunar folds placed in parallel tracts on each side of a and of smell. Like an extensive pituitary membrane, it broad plate, which divides the one side of the nasal cavity is soft, villous, moist, and liberally supplied with nerves. from the other. In the sturgeon, however, they are ar- The Articulata and Zoophytes seem much in the same ranged in diverging plates, which are subdivided into state. But on all these points information is rather conmore minute ones, like the branches of a tree. In the jectural than positive. osseous fishes generally they consist of radiating plates SECT. II. THE EYES ; THE ORGANS OF VISION. disposed round a prominent central tubercle. In these three classes the olfactory nerve is distributed All red-blooded animals, without exception, are proto the membrane much in the same manner. This nerve, vided with two movable eyes, consisting of the same eshowever, does not proceed farther than the superior tur- sential parts as those of man, forming globular organs, and binated bones; and the middle and inferior appear to be placed in the cranio-facial cavities named orbits. In none supplied with filaments of the fifth pair, the naso-oph- are there more or fewer; and the exceptions to the general thalmic branch of which is distributed to the nose in all rule, either in relation to the presence of these organs, the vertebrated animals. In the Mammalia, further, the or number, are only apparent. Among the Mammalia, Blind spheno-palatine ganglion sends several filaments to the indeed, there are two instances of blindness,—in the though not posterior part of the narine membrane. or blind rat (Mus typhlus, Lin.; Spalax typhlus, Pall.), and eyeless By most zootomical authors the trunk of the elephant the golden mole (Talpa Asiatica, Lin.; Chrysochloris,aniITialshas been described as an organ of smell peculiar to that Lacep. and Cuvier). But in neither of these animals are

ANATOMY. 22 Compara- the eyes absolutely wanting; they are merely very mi- and that of the aqueous humour. In the higher regions of Compara. tire nute, and covered by a thin fold of hairy skin, in which the atmosphere, in which the air is very much rarefied, the tive Anatomy. there is said to be no aperture. Much in the same man- refracting power of the aqueous humour is much more con- ^ato^7; ^ ner the murmna coecilia, and the hag-fish (inyxine, Lin., siderable than at the surface, occupied by quadrupeds; gastrobranchus emeus), though provided with eyes, are de- and hence it is more abundant in the former than in the prived of the use of these organs by the opacity of the con- latter class. Its refracting power, however, would be junctiva. In the Anableps (Cobitis Anableps, Lin.), the almost extinguished in a watery medium, from which it cornea and iris are biparted by transverse bands, so as to could differ but little in density ; and hence it is either give the animal the appearance of having two pupils in trifling or absolutely wanting in the inhabitants of the each eye, though the crystalline lens, vitreous humour, deep. In the cuttle-fish family it is entirely wanting. The crystalline lens in Fishes, which is nearly spheriand retina, are single. This animal affords the only example of this structure among the vertebrated animals; cal, projects through the pupil, and leaves little room for but a similar arrangement is observed in the Cephalopo- the aqueous humour. The lens is also very convex in the Cetacea, the Amphibious Mammalia, the diving birds, dous Mollusca and cuttle-fish family. Figure of The general shape of the eye depends on the medium as the cormorant, and the marine and aquatic Reptiles. the eye- in which the animal lives. It is nearly spherical, or apAffecting the oblate spheroidal shape in the Mammahall. proaching the spherical shape, in man and the quadrupeds lia, it becomes extremely so in man, and still more in moving along the surface of the earth; that is, in the Birds. Its consistence is greatest in animals in which it lowest and most dense region of the atmosphere. The is most convex ; and hence it is matter of common obsercornea merely forms a slight convexity, in consequence of vation, that the crystalline of fishes is particularly firm. being the segment of a smaller sphere than the rest of It also contains rather more albumen than the lens of the the eyeball; yet in the porcupine, opossum, &c., this Mammalia. The crystalline lens occupies least propordifference is inconsiderable. To show the degree of this tional space of the eyeball in man, and most in fishes. Axis and convexity, it is merely requisite to compare the axis or The comparative spaces occupied by each of the hudiameter. antero-posterior diameter with the transverse diameter of mours may be understood from the following table, in which the axis of the eye, or the space occupied by the the ball, as exhibited in the following table:— Axis. Tr. Diam. whole three humours, is represented by unity. Aqueous Crystalline Vitreous Man and ape 137 136 Whale C 11 Humour. Humour. Humour. Dog 24 25 Porpoise 2.... 3 Man 13 12 Horse 24 25 Owl 8 Log ..sV— Ox 20 21 Vulture 13 16 5 t,......... OX Ml •37 According to the measurements of the younger SoemSbeep t? T7-T? mering, the axis of the human eye, taken in a beautiful Hor se y......... •if Tyrolese girl of 20, is to the transverse diameter as 100 VJVV1 Owl II 578 57 578 to 95; that of the eye of the magot (simia inuus) as 85 Herring £ f * to 84 ; and that of the bat (vespertilio auritus) as 12 to 11. On the proportion of the total volume occupied by each In the raccoon (ursns lotor) and lynx (fells lynx') alone the axis is exactly equal to the diameter. In all the other ver- of the three transparent parts there are few accurate facts. tebrated animals, it is, as in the measurements of Cuvier, It may be remarked, however, that the human eye among less than the transverse diameter at the rate of from 9 to the Mammalia is that in which the vitreous humour 33 or 45 per cent. In the horse it is as 186 to 212, in is proportionally most abundant. It is estimated to be the seal as 130 to 142, in the Indian elephant as 135 to twenty times more copious than the aqueous. In the ox 180, and in the black whale (balocna mysticetus) as 20 to it is only ten times, and in the sheep nine times the 29. In the owl it is as 17 to 18, in the golden falcon as quantity of the aqueous. 14^ to 16, in the ostrich as 18 to 19^, and in the swan as In the Mammalia generally, the sclerotic is compa-Sclerotic, 7 to 10. In the Reptiles and Fishes it is always less at ratively elastic, soft, and yielding ; but in all animals in the rate of from 3 to nearly 10 per cent. In the cuttle-fish, which the eye deviates from the spherical shape, as the which may be taken as a general example of the inverte- Cetacea, Fishes, and Birds, this membrane is strengthbrated classes, it is much greater, the axis being to the ened by greater solidity and thickness of tissue, or supdiameter as 80 to 57. (D. W. Soemmering de Oculorum ported by accessory parts of a hard unyielding structure. Hominis Animaliumque Sectione Horizontali Commentatio. In the eye of the whale these two parts, the hard and Goetting. 1818, fob) soft, are naturally distinguished in a very striking mariner. In Fishes and the Cetacea which inhabit the sea, the The lateral parts of the sclerotic are nearly an inch thick, anterior part of the eyeball is much more flattened, and and very hard. The posterior part is about one and a half in many fishes it resembles a hemisphere with the plane inch thick, and softer, because the spaces between the surface before and the convex behind. In the ray genus firm fibres are filled with oily substance. The posterior the superior part is also flat, so as to give the eye the ap- part presents for the optic nerve a canal one and a half pearance of the quadrant of a sphere, cut through two inch long, the walls of whiph are formed chiefly by fibres large circles perpendicular to each other. In some fishes, in direct continuity with the dura mater,—-the only fact, especially the burbot ( Gadus Lotaj, the cornea is convex. it may be observed, which favours the statement of the In Birds which occupy the elevated regions of the at- ancient anatomists, that the sclerotic is derived from the mosphere, the deviation from the spherical shape is in the dura mater. The sclerotic of the porpoise, though only direction opposite to that of fishes. On the anterior part, two or three lines thick, has the same structure as that which is sometimes flat, sometimes shaped like a truncat- of the whale. In the seal it is thick before and thicker ed cone, is chased a short cylinder, closed by a very con- behind, but the middle zone is thin and flexible. vex, and occasionally hemispherical cornea, always be- ^ The sclerotic m Birds is thin, flexible, and elastic be-Osseous longing to a much smaller sphere than the posterior con- hind, with a bluish glistening aspect, and without distinct zone of vexity. bonoiJaom vkuoiymo ad) ni fiedt !■ H • fibres. The optic nerve enters, riot by a hole, but an ob-bhris? Aqueous These differences in shape depend on the proportion be- lique cqnal. The anterior part consists of two plates, behumour. tween the density of the medium in which the animals live tween which is enchased a zone of thin, hard, oblong, OSse-

ANATOMY. 23 pig; deep red brown in some birds; and purple red in CoroparaOmpara- ous scales, varying in number from 11 or 12 to 14 or 15, tive imbricated over each other so as to give the anterior part the calmar. The absence of this dark-coloured pigment, dve ’'it' Jiatomy. of the eyeball a great degree of hardness, and a figure which is not unfrequent, is observed in albinos, both hu- ^riatomy. unsusceptible of change. Though these plates are nearly man and animal, for instance white rabbits and white mice. flat in most birds, and form an annular zone slightly con- The transparency of the Ruyschian membrane then shows vex, they are broad, arched, and concave internally in the the choroid of its natural red colour ; and the pupil is red owl gmus, and form a bell-shaped tube, with the posterior and contracted, and the eye intolerant of light. In the Zoophaga, Ruminantia, Pachydermata, So- The taaperture oval and the anterior round. This may be deetuI or nominated the osseous ring {annulus osseus, zona ossea). lidungula, and Cetacea, the concave or inner surface P ?. of the Ruyschian membrane is diversified with colours In the ostrich it is narrow and flat. Among the Reptiles, the Cheloniads possess an osse- metallic lustre, more or less brilliant and something iridesail repKS. ous zone, consisting of plates inclosed in the membrane cent. In the ox it is of bright metallic green, changing without being continuous with its substance. They are to sky-blue; in the horse, buck, buffalo, and stag, it is a also found at the lateral part of the sclerotic in the cha- silvery blue passing to violet; in the sheep of a pale golden meleon and some of the Saurial Reptiles, as the Croco- green, sometimes bluish ; in the lion, cat, bear, and doldilus Sclerops and Lucius, the monitor, and the iguana (D. phin, of a pale gold yellow; and in the dog, wolf, and W. Soemmering). It is also an important character in the badger, of a pure white, surrounded by blue. This structure of the eye of the Ichthyosaurus, which indicates coloured part of the inner choroid surface, which occupies the connection of that animal with the Saurial tribe, chiefly the side opposite to that on which the optic nerve that its sclerotic was provided with an osseous zone, con- enters, is named the tapetum. The use of it is by no means obvious. The explanation of Monro in reference sisting, as in these, of 13 separate pieces. In Fishes the sclerotic is cartilaginous, homogeneous, to the tapetum of the ox, that it represents more distinctsemi-translucent, elastic, and, though thin, firm enough not ly to that animal the colour of his natural food, is not only to collapse. In the ray it is expanded into a tubercle, by frivolous, but inapplicable to the other genera. The tapetum is wanting in all Birds and Fishes, exwhich the eye is attached to a peduncle or stalk. The sclerotic of the sturgeon is so thick that it resembles a cepting the ray, in which there is at the bottom of the eye cartilaginous sphere, with the external part hollowed for a beautiful silvery-coloured space, produced by the transparency of the Ruyschian tunic, through which the tint the humours and membranes. In the Cephalopodous Mollusca it forms behind a of the choroid is seen. In Fishes generally the choroid consists of two dis-Thechotruncated cone, with the apex at the bottom of the orbit laru containing the gangliform swelling of the optic nerve, and tinct separable membranes; the external, the proper cho- sg1Ch l roid, white, silvery, or golden, very thin and not vascular ;° ' several glandular parts, with the eye before. fl rnea. The cornea has often been represented to be merely a and the inner or Ruyschian, black, and consisting of a netcontinuation of the sclerotic; and though this is easily work of vessels. Between these two membranes is a body disproved by accurate dissection of the human eye and of a bright red colour, consisting of numerous tortuous that of our ordinary domestic animals, its inaccuracy is vessels, convoluted and inclosed in pulpy filamentous much more manifestly demonstrated in the animal world tissue. Its general shape is that of a thin cylinder, enat large. In the whale and rhinoceros the margins of the compassing the optic nerve like a ring, which, however, is two membranes penetrate reciprocally. In man and the incomplete at one side. This is the choroid gland,—a ox the corneal margin is enchased within the sharp im- body about Avhich there has been some difference of opibricated edge of the sclerotic. In the tope-fish {squalus nion, but which appears to be glandular rather than any milandra, Lin.; galeus, Cuv.) the cornea is observed dis- thing else. Its vascular structure is well seen in the tinctly passing within the sclerotic in the manner of im- globe-fish, perca labrax, and cod, in which they are very brication. The cuttle-fish is destitute of cornea ; and as large, and form numerous anastomotic communications. there is no aqueous humour, the crystalline lens is cover- They are genei’ally covered by a white, opaque, viscid fluid. The choroid gland is wanting in the Cartilaginous ed by a fine thin membrane, extended beneath the conFishes, the eye of which approaches more nearly to that of junctiva. (.meal In all animals provided with eyelids, the mucous mem- the Mammalia in this as in other circumstances. The ii) usijunc- brane, after being folded behind the eyelids, is reflected choroid of the ray and shark genera is a threefold tissue t n. forwards over the sclerotic and cornea, in the form of a of vessels, thick and consistent; the tunica Ruyschiana thin, transparent membrane. In those void of eyelids, as is very thin and semi-transparent; and between these is a most fishes are, the skin, passing into mucous membrane, layer of silvery matter with metallic lustre. In the cuttle-fish genus, though between the sclerotic is continued directly over the cornea, without forming any angular fold, and adheres strongly. This is very dis- and choroid there are several glandular bodies, there are tinct in the eel, which may be flayed without leaving any none between the choroid and Ruyschian tunic. The trace at the site of the eyes, except a round, translucent choroid is thick, soft, and vascular; the Ruyschian thin, spot. The same peculiarity is remarked in Serpents firm, and dry; and though there is no tapetum, the whole and in the cuttle-fish family. In the zemni, golden mole, interior surface of the eye is covered by deep purple, semiblind eel, and hag-fish, it has been already stated that the fluid, viscid varnish. Ciliary processes are found in all the Mammalia, Birds, Ciliary cornea is covered by opaque mucous membrane. roce ses ? The choroid coat exists in all animals yet examined. It several Reptiles, and even in the cuttle-fish among thePan< ciic Cioroid ci'-nt and is always very vascular. The inner layer, which has been Mollusca ; but they are wanting in almost all fishes. liyschian distinguished by the name of tunica Ringschiana, can scarceThe indented border of these processes is more disWembrane. ly be said to exist in man, small quadrupeds, and birds. tinct, and is converted into a genuine fringe in the large In the large quadrupeds, however, especially the Cetace- animals, as the ox, horse, rhinoceros, and whale, in which ous animals, it appears in the form of a distinct simple the angle applied to the capsule is more acuminated than membrane like epidermis. The lateral and anterior parts in other animals. In the Carnivora, particularly the of the membrane are always invested by a semifluid, viscid lion, the base of the plates is shorter in proportion to the substance, of different shades of black or brown black {pig- other sides than in the previously mentioned animals, so mentum nigrum); chocolate brown in the hare, rabbit, and that the opposite angle is more prominent; nor is the

24 ANATOMY. Compara- border indented. In all the species every third or fourth most important point is the structure of the melanoplectic Comparative plate is shorter than the others, but without determinate or pectiniform membrane {pecten, marsupium nigrurn) of five Anatomy. order. Birds. In this class the optic nerve forms not a round disk Anatoinv. The ciliary plates of Birds are mere serrated striai, as in the Mammalia, but a narrow white line, the margins without sufficient prominence to make them undulate in and extremity of which are in continuity with the nA fluid. In the owl they are fine, closely set, and nume- Along this line is suspended a plicated or convoluted membrane rous ; in the ostrich they are larger and more numerous; membrane, very fine and vascular in structure, like the or mamu. ’ and ill all, their extremities adhere firmly to the capsule choroid, from which, however, it is quite distinct, and en-fuim, ni. tering a depression of the vitreous humour almost like afr"’?’ an(l of the lens. In the tortoise the ciliary processes are so short that wedge. Its vessels, which proceed from a proper branchlts *0 ( s' they are recognised only by the impression left on the vi- of the ophthalmic artery, are distributed in a minute arbotreous humour; in the crocodile, however, they are dis- rescent form, among the folds of which the marsupium continct, and terminate each by an angle nearly right. They sists; and from these vessels the black viscid pigment with are indistinct in the toad, and imperceptible in the ordi- which its folds are covered appears to be secreted. The nary lizards and serpents. plicae or membranous folds vary in number. In the cassoThe ciliary body and processes are large and distinct wary they are only 4; in the brown owl ( S. aluco) 5; in the in the tope-fish; but if they are seen in any other of the car- common owl, ostrich, Guiana macaw, and merganser, they tilaginous fishes, they are wholly wanting in the osseous, in are 7 ; in the flamingo 9 ; in the falcon and swan 11; in the which the Ruyschian tunic is directly continuous with the vulture and goose 12 ; in the duck, large heron, woodcock, uvea. and coot, 13; in the stork and partridge 15; in the crane The utility of these processes in retaining the lens in 17 ; in the pheasant 20; in the turkey 22 ; in the jackdaw its position is nowhere so distinctly seen as in the eye of 25 ; and in the thrush 28. According to the observations the cuttle-fish family, and especially the many-feet of the of the elder Soemmering, to whom we are indebted for ancients {polypus octopodd). In these the ciliary pro- these numbers, the number of folds, though variable in cesses form a large diaphragm or zone, in the aperture of different species, is the same in the same. In most birds which the crystalline lens is truly chased. They pene- the folds are arranged in a pectiniform order. On the use trate a deep annular furrow which surrounds the lens, of this organ different opinions have been entertained by dividing it in two unequal hemispheres, and cannot be de- Petit, Haller, and Home ; but all of them are conjectural. tached without laceration. In the Reptiles and many Fishes, between the optic The iris, of the same intimate structure as in man, is nerve and the retina is a small tubercle, from the margins of The iris and uvea. of a deep tawny or brown in the Mammalia, and marked which the latter membrane appears to rise ; and radiating with fewer coloured strice than the human iris. In Birds fibres are perceived more distinctly than in most quadruit is of a uniform lustreless colour, varying according to peds. In many other Fishes the connection of the retithe species, bright yellow, red, or clear blue. In the na with the optic nerves resembles that of Birds. Thus, microscope it appears like a net-work formed by the in- in the salmon, trout, herring, mackarel, cod, dory, and tersection of numerous very minute fibres. The uvea is moon-fish, the optic nerve, after passing through the so fine that when the viscid varnish is removed it be- Ruyschian tunic, appears to be parted into two long white comes transparent, and the iris appears of the same colour processes, which, following the outline of this membrane on both sides. In Fishes, conversely, the iris is so thin parallel but not contiguous to each other, are connected and transparent that the uvea is seen through it, of a with the retina by their opposite margins. golden or silvery brilliance, showing its direct connection In all animals provided with ciliary processes the retina with the choroid. Intermediate in metallic splendour is terminates at and is connected with the gray pulpy zone the iris of the Reptiles. The vessels, however, are denominated ciliary ligament. In those without ciliary greatly more conspicuous, especially in the crocodile. processes, as the Fishes, it terminates suddenly at the The central aperture or pupil, though round in man, the attached or large margin of the uvea. Quadrumana, many of the Carnivora, and Birds, is In several of the reptiles the retina presents the yelloAv not of that shape when contracted in all animals. In the spot of Soemmering. The principal peculiarities of the feline family it consists of two elliptical ^ogments, which humours have been already mentioned. form angles above and below, and which approach mutuOf the appendages the most important are the lacrymal ally so as to form a slit nearly vertical. In the Ruminants gland and nictitating membrane. it is oblong transversely, and forms at its greatest contracIn the Ruminants the lacrymal gland consists of two or Lacrymal tion an oblong or transverse slit. In the horse, in which it three bodies, each composed of granules, each provided glaniiis also transverse, its upper margin is distinguished by a with a separate short excretory duct. In the hare and five-pointed festoon. In the whale it is oblong transverse- rabbit, in which the gland is large, there appears to be ly, and in the dolphin it is heart-shaped. The pupil of the only one excretory duct, which perforates the upper eyecrocodile resembles that of the cat; in the frog and gecko lid near its posterior angle. it is rhomboidal; and round in the tortoise, chameleon, A gland peculiar to certain species, and wanting in and common lizards. In the ray among Fishes the upper man, that of Harder, is situate at the external or nasal margin forms several radiating slips like the branches of angle, and presents an aperture under the third or nictithe palm-tree, gold-coloured without, dark within. In tating eyelid, from which issues a thick viscid fluid. It the dilated state these slips are folded backwards between is found in the Ruminants, the Rodentia, the Pachythe upper margin of the pupil and the vitreous humour; dermata, and in the sloth genus. but when the eye is pressed they are erected, and close The caruncle exists in the Ruminants as in man, and the pupil like a blind. appears to consist of numerous aggregated follicles. It is The motion of the pupil is voluntary in the parroquet, wanting in the Rodentia. and is indistinct in most of the Fishes. In the Cetacea, as in most animals which live under The pupillary membrane is well known to exist in the water, there is neither gland nor lacrymal passages; and foetuses of all the Mammalia ; but it is not determined they are represented apparently by lacunae below the upwhether it is found in the chick of birds. per eyelid, which discharge a thick mucilaginous fluid. On the subject of the retina in the lower animals the Birds, though destitute of caruncle, have both lacry-

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ANA' O M Y. 25 4>mpara- mal gland and that of Harder, the latter large, oblong, sect. hi.—the EAR. Comparative and flesh-coloured, placed betwixt the levator and adductor, tive inatomy. an(j discharging by a single canal, opening at the inner In warm-blooded animals generally, that is, in the Mamsurface of the third eyelid, a thick yellow fluid. The la- malia and Birds, the labyrinth or essential part of the 2*ucipa- crymal, which is small, round, and very red, is provided organ consists of three semicircular canals, with a globular Wis Mil- in general with two or three canals, which, though small, enlargement to each {ampulla), a cavity common to these are distinct. In most of the Orally and Palmiped canals named vestibule {vestibulum), and a conical taperBirds there is, in place of the lacrymal gland, a hard ing canal, divided into two compartments by a longitudigranular body, occupying the upper part of the orbit, and nal septum. This may be named the bilocular cone (conus following in situation the curvature of the eye. It has, bilocular is). These parts consist of membranous substance nevertheless, no visible excretory duct. inclosed in the bony walls of the pyramidal or auditory bone. In the turtle there is a reddish granular lobulated body, In all the Mammalia the bilocular conical canal is convoof considerable size, extending beneath the temporal vault. luted in a spiral form, and hence is denominated, as in man, In the tortoise, frog, and toad, there are two small blackish the cochlea—a name, however, which is applicable to it in glands without apparent excretory ducts. Neither in this class only. Serpents nor Fishes has any glandular apparatus in the The organ of hearing in the Mammalia consists of the eye been recognised. same parts nearly as in man. In some; indeed, for inHe third Though in man and the monkey tribe the eyelids stance the guinea-pig (cabiai), and porcupine, the cochlea Cochlea ei lid or consist of two semilunar cutaneo-muscular folds, with a makes three turns and a half; and, conversely, in the Cfi-and canals. ndilating minute mucous duplicature at the nasal angle, the latter tacea only one and a half. In most of the Zoophaga, nnnbrane.acqUjres sucfl a developement in the lower animals as to and in the hog, elephant, and horse, the cochlea is much constitute a genuine third eyelid, often distinguished by larger in proportion than the semicircular canals ; but in the name of nictitating membrane. This duplicature is semi- the hare it is small, and in the mole very small. In the lunar in shape in the Ruminants, Edentata, and Pachy- Cetacea, while the cochlea is very large and fully devedermata. In the rhinoceros it is thick and fleshy; but loped, its spiral is on the same plane throughout; and the of this the Cetacea present no trace. In the Birds, on semicircular canals are so small, that their existence was the contrary, in which the eye is covered by the eleva- long denied by Camper, till they were demonstrated by tion of the lower eyelid, which is also the largest, the Cuvier in a foetal whale. In general the labyrinth of the third eyelid is large, and covers the eye like a blind drawn Mammalia is greatly smaller in proportion to the head before it; yet it is in some degree translucent, for it is than in Birds. evident that birds see objects through the membrane. In This part, which is membranous, is inclosed in the solid the owl and goatsucker the eye is closed by the depres- compact substance of the temporal pyramid, so closely that sion of the upper as well as the elevation of the lower its existence appears to be identified with the latter. Reeyelid. searches, however, on the labyrinth in the foetus of the Though the Serpentine reptiles are void of eyelids en- Mammalia, and especially in those of whales, demonstrate tirely, in the crocodile, tortoise, and Batrachoid, there the fact that it is in a completely membranous form, disare three, as in birds, the third being vertical in the two tinct from the bony inclosure; that in shape and constiformer orders, and horizontal in the latter. In the Saurial tuent parts it exists previous to the bony inclosure ; and and Cheloniad,also, the third, which is translucent,moves that the latter is afterwards moulded round the different from before backwards by means of a single muscle, and parts as they acquire their full developement. It is also to may cover the whole eye. In the lizard genus the eyelids be observed, that in the mole the semicircular canals are consist of a circular veil drawn before the orbit, and per- seen within the cranium without preparation, and the forated by a horizontal fissure, which is shut by a sphinc- cochlea is merely inclosed in fine cellular tissue. In the ter, and opened by a levator and depressor. The gecko has bat family, also, both parts are seen without bony inclono movable eyelid. sure. Cenpound In insects, the eye consists of innumerable hexagonal The tympanum forms a cylindrical or spheroidal cavity in Tympaof the surfaces, slightly convex, and mutually separated by mi- most of the Mammalia. In most of the Digitata the num. Anricu- nute furrows, containing fine hairs variable in length. mastoid process consists of a slight prominence of the tymEach of these hexagonal surfaces, which constitute a hard, panum only as it is identified with the latter; but in the elastic, very transparent membrane, may be regarded as cabiai, guinea-pig, hog, the Ruminants, and Solidungula, a cornea or crystalline lens, convex externally, concave it is represented by a long process of the occipital bone. In within, and thicker in the centre than on the margins. most of the Zoophaga and Rodentia the parietes of this Immediately behind is an opaque, viscid coating, varying protuberance, which are thin and hard, form by their se!in colour in the different species, analogous to the choroid paration a large cavity. In the hog only it is occupied pigment of the vertebrated animals, and completely ob- by a firm cancellated structure. structing the transmission of light. Beneath this varnish All the Mammalia, except the ornithorhyncus, have the Tympanal are short, whitish filaments, corresponding in number to tympanal bones as in man; the hammer (malleus), anvil bones. the corneal surfaces, and mutually joined like mosaic or (incus), orbicular bone and stirrup (stapes). The lentitessellated pavement, separated only by the dark-coloured cular bone, which is rarely found in the adult, is probably pigment, and which appear to correspond to the retina of only an epiphysis of the anvil. They are articulated with the Vertebrata. Behind these again is a delicate, dark- each other so as to admit of motion, and are moved by coloured membrane, which appears to correspond to the the same muscles as in the human subject—the internus choroid; and exterior to this is a membrane continuous mallei, externus mallei, laxator tytnpani, and stapedius. In with the optic nerve, and which seems to be a general re- the ornithorhyncus, however, there are only two tympanal tina, forming, by subdivision of its parts on the anterior bones. part of the choroid, the divided or multiplied retina. This In all the Mammalia, except the Cetaceous, the ear External is the structure of what are named compound eyes. That is provided with a bony external canal (meatus); and aperture, of the simple eyes of insects is too minute to be accurate- most of the Mammalia, except the Cetaceous, have a ly demonstrated; but analogy gives probability to the in- cartilaginous funnel-shaped opening (concha) attached to ference that they are not dissimilar. the outer margin of the bony meatus, and which serves to VOL. in. x>

ANATOMY. 26 Compara- collect the sonorous vibrations, and direct them to the double canal, one separated by the membrane of the round Compara. tive meatus. The other exceptions are among the Insecti- hole from the tympanal cavity, the other communicating tive Anatomy. V0RA? the mole, and some of the shrew genus; among with a membranous sac containing three very small friable the Rodentia, the zemni or blind rat, and some of the rat- stones, not harder than starch. There are also three semimole genus; among the Edentata, the pangolin or scaly circular canals of considerable size, each forming a large ant-eater; and among the Amphibia, the morse and se- circumference. In the frog and toad, while the three canals Lithopho. sacs veral species of seal; and the ornithorhyncus paradoxus. form almost a complete circle, the sac contains an amyla-rous am yThe tympanum of the Cetacea is peculiar. It con- ceous friable stone; but the bilocular cone is no longer S sists of a bony plate, convoluted on itself like a buccinum, observed. In the salamander, also, in which the three ^nes unless that the thick side, instead of containing a spiral canals form together a sort of equilateral triangle, the sac appear. cavity, is entirely solid. The opposite side is thin, with which is below contains a single amylaceous stone. The an irregular margin. The anterior extremity of the tym- same arrangement is observed in the Cartilaginous Fishes, panum is open, and there commences the Eustachian unless that the sac contains two amylaceous stones, neartube, which ascends along the pterygoid process, and, pe- ly oval in shape, suspended in a gelatinous semifluid pulp. netrating the maxillary bone, terminates at the upper part In the Osseous Fishes it is a little different. The three of the nose. This direction of the tube and position of semicircular canals terminate in a membranous sac, which its orifice is so much more necessary, because, since these is divided by septa into compartments v/hich contain one, animals have no external bony meatus, and the ear-hole two, or three small stones suspended in gelatinous fluid. scarcely admits a pin, the vibrations of the air reach These minute stones, however, instead of being soft, fritheir organ of hearing entirely by the Eustachian tube, able, and amylaceous, as in Reptiles and cartilaginous and because the Eustachian tube also in these animals Fishes, are as hard as rock, and white as porcelain. These conveys odorous impressions to the part in which the parts are situate on the sides of the cranial cavity, and sense of smell appears to reside. The aperture by which are fixed to it by cellular tissue, vessels, and osseous or it communicates with the nose is provided with a mem- cartilaginous processes. This sac, in the fluid of which branous valve, which prevents the water from entering the extremities of the auditory nerve are distributed, is believed to correspond to the bilocular cone of the higher when the animal expels it by his nostrils. In Birds, of the three semicircular canals the vertical classes. These membranous cavities are contained, in the bony is largest, and obliquely directed forwards and outwards; the second is horizontal and turned outwards; and the fishes, in the general cavity of the cranium; and while only third, which, like the first, is vertical, crosses the second, the middle of the canals is inclosed in the bone of the and is turned in the direction opposite to that of the first. cranium, the extremities and the sac are quite free. The Bilocular The vestibule is small and nearly spherical. The bilocu- sturgeon, which belongs to the cartilaginous order, is the cone no iar cone, which is obtuse at the apex, is situate obliquely first in which the canals are entirely inclosed in the cralonger spi- backwards and outwards below the inferior part of the nial cartilage; but even in this a membrane is interposed cranium. The longitudinal septum consists of two nar- between the cranium and sac, which is free. In the ray row cartilaginous plates connected by a thin membrane. and shark genera, again, these organs are entirely inThe posterior canal is short, and, as in the Mammalia, closed in the cartilage of the head. The tympanal cavity, in like manner, is modified, and is separated from the tympanal cavity by the membrane of the fenestra rotunda; while the anterior, which is eventually disappears as we descend in the scale. Though larger, communicates directly with the vestibule. The present in the tortoise, crocodile, and lizard tribe, it is whole of these parts are inclosed, as in the Mammalia, superficial and open; it becomes membranous behind in the Ranine tribe, and communicates directly with the in the compact bone of the pyramid. The posterior and inferior ^walls of the tympanal cavity back of the mouth; and in the Serpentine reptiles it are formed by part of the occipital bone ; the lateral aper- entirely disappears, so that the handle of the osseous plate ture is large, and the cavity superficial; and its anterior by which the oval aperture is closed is suspended in the part is closed by the posterior superior cornu of the quad- soft parts with its free extremity below the skin, near the rilateral bone and a membrane. The inner wall presents articulation of the lower jaw. In the lizard tribe, also, Cochlear the two apertures—the oval or vestibular, and the round the round or cochlear aperture is seen for the last time, aperture or cochlear. In this class, however, while the upper is In the Cheloniad, for instance, the Batrachoid, and the c^saPPeaB round or triangular, the lower is distinctly elliptical,—a Serpentine, this aperture disappears, and the oval or vesdisposition the reverse of what is observed in man. The tibular alone is left; and in the salamander both disap-Vestibula: Tympanal Eustachian tube or tympano-guttural canal is entirely os- pear, and there is no communication between the external aperture bones dis- seous. The tympanal cavity contains only one ossiculum, part of the cranium and the labyrinth. This arrangement (hsaPl)eaB appearing consisting of two branches ; the first attached to the tym- is continued in the fishes. In the molluscous animals the labyrinthine membrane fied10 '*' panum, corresponding the malleus ; the second closing by an oval or triangulartoplate the vestibular aperture, and is a simple sac, globular or ovoidal, containing pulpy matter, therefore corresponding to the stapes of the Mammalia. in which is suspended a small body, which is osseous in By Carus the incus is supposed to be represented by the the sepia and amylaceous in the many-feet (polypus'), in quadrilateral bone. which the filaments of the auditory nerve are distributed. The external meatus is short, and opened by a simple Our limits do not allow us to enter into the detailed aperture, while the absence of external ear is compensat- description of the organ in the other Invertebrated ed by a ring or zone of fine elastic feathers with thin animals. barbs, between which the air passes very easily. In the SECT. IV. THE ORGAN OF TASTE. owl tribe it terminates in a large cavity, the margins of which are covered by a smooth valvular fold of skin. Though the sense of taste is seated chiefly in the Bilocular The ear of the Reptiles is remarkable for the last ap- tongue in animals, yet that organ performs, in all the cone disap-pearance of the bilocular cone, and the first of the sac- classes, so important a part as an instrument of prehenpears. cular apparatus which is found in the Fishes. In the cro- sion, that it cannot with much justice be distinguished by codile and lizard this part appears, as in Birds, in the shape the former title only. In the present section, therefore, of a conical tube, divided by a cartilaginous partition into a we must regard it as one of prehension as well as of taste.

, . ' '

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r;IIf« ;] 0 IB

ANATOMY. 27 lompara- In the Mammalia and Birds the tongue is a muscular is in all probability found in several of the lizards, the Comparative organ invested by mucous papillated membrane, supported tongues of which, like that of the chameleon, are darted tive Jan atomy. ^ a proper bone, the hyoid, which serves as a point of out suddenly, and become of a dark-blue colour at the Anatomy, support in its various motions. In the Ranine Reptiles moment of projection. In all the Mammalia the tongue is invested by a pa-Papilke. t mue. it is aiso muscular, attached to the margin of the lower n jaw. In the salamander, however, it is attached as far as pillated muco-villous membrane, in which the papillae are the tip, and is movable on the sides only. In the croco- of the same general characters as in man—granular, mushdile it is attached so generally, both by tip and margins, room-like, or fungiform, tubercular or calycoid, and conical that it was long asserted that the animal was tongueless. or acuminated. The only differences consist in the size In the stellio and iguana it is as movable as in the Mam- and abundance of the fungiform papillce, in the number of malia ; and in the seine and gecko to this property is the calycoid and the mode of their arrangement, and in added that of being bifid, or divided by a longitudinal the shape of the conical papillae and the mode of their notch into two pointed tips. In the ordinary lizard, tu- termination. In the Ruminants especially, the conical pinambis, monitor, &c. the tongue is remarkable for its papillae are numerous, long, slightly incurvated, and each great extensibility, and terminates in two long, flexible terminating in a horny but flexible style slightly incurthough semi-cartilaginous extremities. That of the cha- vated backwards. The tongue of the dolphin and pormeleon is still more extensible, and forms, by a peculiar poise, examined even by the microscope, presents no disarrangement of vessels, a cup-like extremity. The tongue tinct conical papillae, but is covered by minute eminences, of the blind worm (anguis fragilis) and amphisbeena is also each penetrated by a small aperture. In the tongue of the dog genus there is a ligamentous Worm of bifid at the tip. The cartilaginous fishes are void of tongue, while in the bony division of the class this organ substance extended longitudinally from the hyoid bone to the dog; its is represented by a hard protuberance, attached to the the tip of the member. This, which has been vulgarly distinguished by the name of worm of the tongue, and middle branchial bone. In some of the Mammalia, however, the tongue is has been absurdly supposed to be the seat of hydrophobic not exclusively muscular. In the singularly long, extensi- rabies, is merely a central pillar of support for the musble, and tortuous tongue of the giraffe, Sir Everard Home cular fibres to act with greater steadiness and effect, and describes a peculiar arrangement of vessels, which he re- which enables the animal to protrude and expand the tongue I-ectile presents as a substitute for muscular motion. Though Sir in lapping water or other fluids better than he could have arange- Everard does not appear to understand the exact nature of otherwise done. A similar central ligament is found in *?nt in this arrangement of vessels, all the circumstances tend to the opossum. He tongue sjlow tbat denominated erectile. These vessels, The tongue of Birds is generally more or less horny, e (].j from the account given, are large, numerous, and com- and almost cartilaginous. That of the woodpecker and municate freely; and it would be impossible to discover wryneck is peculiar in consisting of two parts,—a basilar the reason of such a vascular system, unless for some or posterior, loose and fleshy; and an anterior projecpurpose of this description. (Phil. Trans. Comp. Anat.) tile, long, smooth, acuminated, and covered laterally with When the tongue is protruded it becomes perfectly black four or five stiff spines directed backwards, which make or bluish-black, evidently from the injection and detention the organ a sort of barbed arrow. The soft, loose, or of the blood in its elongated and anastomosing veins. By basilar part of the tongue contains the aperture of the means of this mechanism the giraffe not only elongates glottis; and the surface is covered with minute spines the tongue to the distance of about twenty inches or two pointed backwards, and each of which is placed in the feet beyond the mouth, but twists it round the soft leafy centre of a fleshy papilla. twigs of the trees on which he feeds. It is not improbaAs a prehensile organ of very singular construction, Trunk of ee ble that a similar vascular arrangement exists, though in the trunk of the elephant deserves particular notice ; and A16ant lless degree, in the tongue of the deer, and in the long it cannot be more conveniently introduced than under the ph " projectile tongue of the animals of the ant-eater tribe, as present section, since it is used not only to convey food, the Tamanoir, Tamandua, &c. but drink, into the mouth. The trunk may be described Id of the The erectile arrangement is still more distinctly pre- as a cylindrical tubular organ, consisting of integument, oiameleon. sented in the tongue of the chameleon. The researches a sort of fibro-cartilage, muscles, fat, and a membrane of of Mr Houston of Dublin show that the tongue of this villous character internally. This tube contains two long animal consists of two parts,—a prehensile, which is ante- canals continued from the nostrils, parallel to the axis of rior, and provided with a glandular apparatus for secret- the trunk, and separated throughout by a partition of adiing the viscid fluid by which its tip is covered, and in- pose substance about two fifths of an inch thick. From sects are entangled; and an erectile, which is posterior the extremity to the middle part of the intermaxillary between the prehensile and the hyoid bone, in the form of bone, in which the tusks are fixed, these canals are nearer a trellis-work of innumerable minute anastomosing blood- the anterior-superior than the posterior-inferior part of the vessels, not very dissimilar to those of the cavernous body tube, the latter wall being thickest; and their diameter is in animals generally, and inclosing a central tube connect- the same throughout. At this part they undergo a sudden ing the prehensile portion to the hyoid bone. The effect incurvation, approaching the anterior surface of the interof this arrangement is, that when the vascular network is maxillary bone, and form a semicircular bend with the injected with blood, the anterior part of the tongue is ra- convexity turned forwards. Here also they are so narrow pidly darted out at the insects on which the animal lives. that, without a muscular effort on the part of the animal The injection of these vessels, and the consequent pro- to dilate them, fluids could not ascend beyond this point; jection of the tongue, is not independent altogether of the and hence this forms the only valvular contrivance, either will of the animal; for the veins by which the blood is to impede the progress of fluids upwards, or to propel returned pass through a slit in the tendon of the internal them downwards, at the will of the animal. cerato-maxillary muscles, which are always contracted in Above this curvature each canal is dilated before the order to protrude the hyoid style, and thereby tend, by upper part of the intermaxillary bone, and again is concompressing the veins, to inject the erectile part, and pro- tracted where it bends back to enter the bony nostril; and ject the tongue. ( Trans. R. I. Acad. 1828, and Dublin the curvature is protected before by the nasal cartilage, Hospital Reports, vol. v. p. 487.) The same arrangement which is oval, convex in the male, and flat in the female.

28 Compara-

ANATOMY. Both canals are lined by a dry, greenish-yellow coloured cuneiform cartilages form, by means of adipose cellular Compara. 31 tlve membrane, marked with superficial intersections {ruga:), tissue, before the upper extremity of the ventricle of the ^closing rhomboidal spaces, and some venous branches. glottis, a large cushion like a spherical segment, which, ^ Muscular Though the muscular fasciculi of the trunk are nume- touching that of the opposite side, causes the air to whistle apparatus rous, they may be referred to two orders,—those forming through the canal in its course to the mouth, and occaof the the substance or inner part of the organ, and those by sions the flute-like voice of some of these animals, as the trunk which it is invested. The former, which are transverse, weeper {s. apella) and the capuchin {s. capucina). In the Voice of j highly an(j cu). |.jle axjs jn different directions, consist of nume- howler {s. seniculus), so remarkable for its morning and the howler a e Ca rous sma * ii muscular packets proceeding in various direc- evening yelling, though the larynx is similar in general P > tions, some running from the inner membrane to the cir- characters to that of the common sapajou, in having the cumference of the tube, others directly from right to left, two rounded cushions before the ventricles, the hyoid and others crossing the two former obliquely. All these bone is arched in the form of a spherical chamber, with little muscles are inclosed in cellular tissue, containing a large quadrilateral aperture, and each ventricle opens white homogeneous fat; and all of them terminate in slen- into a membranous sac, lying between the epiglottis and der tendons, some of which cross the layers of the longi- the adjoining wing of the thyroid cartilage. The air, which tudinal muscles in their course to the external covering, passes between the vocal chords, is therefore partly imwhile others are attached to the internal membrane. pelled into this osseous and elastic cavity of the hyoid Cuvier calculates the number of these minute transverse bone, and probably by its resonance in this situation gives muscles in the trunk of the elephant to be not fewer than the voice of these animals the deep-toned howl by which 30,000 or 40,000. (Plate XXXVII. fig. 13.) they are known in the American forests. The longitudinal muscles, which are external, may be Among the Zoophaga, in the dog the cuneiform cartidistinguished into anterior, posterior, and lateral bundles. lages are large, the arytenoid small, the vocal chords well The first extend from the anterior surface of the frontal marked, and the ventricles deep. In the feline tribe the bone, above the nasal bones and cartilages, in parallel anterior ligaments, though destitute of cuneiform cartibundles, connected by tendinous intersections downwards lages, are thick, and separated from the back of the epion the trunk. The posterior extend from the posterior glottis by a broad, deep furrow. The posterior ligaments, surface and inferior margin of the intermaxillary bones, though neither free nor sharp-edged, are distinguished and form two layers which meet on the median line along from the anterior by an appearance of greater firmness, the lower surface of the trunk. The lateral muscles form more regular fibres, and by an intermediate furrow. The two pairs, one of which, descending between the anterior approximation of the anterior ligaments towards the gloU and posterior muscles to the middle of the trunk, may be tis forms a sonorous vault, in which the air may be forcir regarded as a continuation of the orbicular muscle of the bly vibrated by the posterior. In the bear the cuneiform lips, or the representative of the nasalis labii superioris ; cartilages assume the shape of styles, and their posterior while the other, which is attached to the anterior margin extremity forms a distinct eminence, not above, but withof the orbit, and is expanded over the root of the former, out the arytenoid cartilages, while the ventricles are merely may be supposed to correspond to the levator of the deep fissures. upper lip. The kangaroo has neither cuneiform cartilage, anterior The whole of these muscles are supplied by a very ligament, nor ventricle; and it may even be said to be large branch of the infraorbital or second branch of the tri- void of vocal chord, while the margins of the glottis are facial nerve, which, entering on each side between the much separated in the middle. This arrangement appears lateral and superior muscle, is distributed to the whole of to indicate that the animal is almost destitute of voice. the trunk. In the opossum, in which there is merely a small infeWith such a construction, it is not difficult to under- rior ligament susceptible of tension, voice is limited to a stand the numerous motions of the elephant’s trunk. whistling sound. While the longitudinal muscles are employed either to In the Solidungula, in which the cuneiform cartilages shorten the tube, to bend it upwards or downwards or to are completely concealed by the mucous membrane, there the side, or by means of the tendinous intersections to is neither superior ligament nor proper ventricle; but an give it peculiar inflections, it is manifest that the trans- aperture in the lateral wall of the laryngeal membrane, verse ones, which act as antagonists to the longitudinal, above the vocal chord, leads into a large, oblong, sinuous may also either dilate or close the canals, or incurvate or cavity, situate between this membrane and the thyroid alter the direction of particular parts. cartilage, and covered chiefly by the thyro-arytenoid VacuefyThe foot of the Lacerta Gecko and the house-fly pre- muscles, by which it may be compressed; and above the ing appa- sents a prehensile apparatus of peculiar construction for anterior commissure of the vocal chords, or below the alkin alon the1 feet 0fw S g surfaces, in opposition to the action of gra- base of the epiglottis, is an aperture on the mesial plane, v. certain ity‘ 1° the former animal the plantar surface of each leading into a cavity below the vault formed by the anteanimals, toe presents sixteen transverse slits, leading into an equal rior margin of the thyroid cartilage. This cavity, which number of pouches, which by means of appropriate mus- may be named the infrathyroid, is superficial in the horse, of the ass, cles are capable of forming an equal number of vacua, so and its aperture is large; while in the ass, with a small, that the atmospheric pressure is employed with muscular round aperture, the cavity is large, capacious, and globular effort to support the animal in his unnatural position. A in every direction, and allows the latter animal to make similar apparatus is found in the upper surface of the head his voice re-echo in the singularly harsh sound denominated of the sucking fish {echeneis remora); and something ap- the bray. Conversely, though the lateral cavities are proaching to it, though less distinctly, in the foot of the equally large in both animals, the apertures in those of walrus. (Home, Phil. Trans. 1816.) the ass are small, round, and situate nearer the epiglottis CHAP. IV.—COMPAKATIVE ANATOMY OF THE ORGANS OF than the vocal chord, while those of the horse are large, oblong, and situate immediately above the vocal chord on and horse, VOICE. each side. On the latter peculiarity appears to depend _ Under this head our limits allow us to mention very few the neigh of the horse. circumstances. In the Cetacea we recognise neither vocal chords In the American long-tailed monkeys {sapajous) the nor glottis, that is to say, an aperture variable in size ao

ANATOMY. 29 Ciipara- cording to the will of the animal; but the superior part eagle, hawk, falcon, buzzard, sparrow-hawk, and goss- Comparaj,1 ‘ve of the trachea, which represents the larynx, forms a hollow hawk; in the owl genus and the majority of the waders tiv6 'n pyramid or funnel, rising into the posterior part of the and swimmers, as the heron, bustard, woodcock, lapwing, Anatomy, ' nostrils, in which only it opens, while on the sides is left rail, coot, gull, cormorant, and some of the passerine birds. a passage for the food. This pyramidal funnel is formed In these birds, in which the motions of the lower larynx by an elongated triangular cartilage, corresponding to the are necessarily limited, the voice is not variable or extenof epiglottis, attached by membrane to the arytenoid carti- sive in its notes. lages, which also take the shape of scalene triangles, with The second form of larynx has three pair of proper the small side connected to the cricoid cartilage. Strictly muscles, a constrictor of the glottis, an auxiliary constricspeaking, therefore, the Cetacea have no larynx, and tor, and a laxator or opener of the glottis. This kind of probably no vocal organ; and the superior part of the larynx is observed in the whole of the parrot genus and trachea, with the nostrils, serves merely to admit the at- psittacoid birds generally, as the toucan, macaw, calao, &c. mospheric air for the purposes of respiration. In the third kind of musculo-membranous larynx there Birds are distinguished by possessing not only a glot- are no fewer than five pair of muscles, the longitudinal tis or laryngeal aperture similar to that of the Mamma- levator of the demiannular cartilages, the posterior lelia at the upper end of the trachea, but a second, deno- vator of the same cartilages, the small levator, the obminated the inferior glottis or larynx, at the lower end, lique levator, and the transverse levator. This quinquenear its bifurcation. The former, which is composed of muscular larynx is found not only in all the birds properfour cartilages, or six, according as the cricoid consists of ly named whistlers or warblers, as the nightingale, hedgeone or three pieces, on the middle of the posterior part of sparrow, blackbird, thrush, goldfinch, lark, linnet, canary, which is a small round bone, articulated with two oblong chaffinch, &c., but in others whose tones are more monolongitudinal bones, parallel, and forming between them in tonous, as the swallow, sparrow, stork, crossbill, &c., and the posterior wall of the windpipe a longitudinal slit, sus- even in some the tones of which are harsh and positiveceptible of approximation by means of muscles, is intend- ly disagreeable, e.g. the jay, magpie, crow, raven, &e. ed merely to regulate the admission of air into the windThe differences remarked in the notes of these three pipe, or its expulsion from that tube, and to close more or divisions of birds with the quinque-muscular larynx deless accurately its superior orifice. pend not so much on anatomical peculiarities as on the : Inirior The inferior larynx consists of a membrane projecting timbre of their larynx, and on the mobility of the trachea 0 Provided with fimbriated or garded, not as a mere pouch in which the young may take pole!6 aa" cibated processes attached to the neck, and which are in refuge after they are grown, but as a subsidiary uterus, comall respects sinv'lar to the gills of fishes. These gills dis- bining the character of the Mammae of the other orders.* appear as the animal grows; and wdien it assumes the true The Mammalia are peculiar in possessing a uterus. In ranine or reptile character, vesicular lungs like those of the other classes this organ is withdrawn, and the ovary other reptiles, and which had continued in a hitherto (fig. 11) and oviduct alone are left. In the ovo-viviparous latent and rudimental state, are developed, and the ani- animals, as the ovo-viviparous shark, the oviduct (fig. 12) mal breathes as others of the same tribe. resembles that of the common fowl. In the lower classes A peculiar form of respiratory organ is found in the the ova are hatched out of the body entirely. lamprey or seven eyes, and the two species of hag-fish, (Myxine, Lin.; Gastrobranchus, Bl.; and Gastrobranchus In the space assigned to this article, it was imposDombey). The former has on each side seven apertures sible to treat fully of a subject so extensive as the strucleading into cylindrical tubes, in which the branchiae are ture of the animal world; and while the author has arcontained. (Plate XXXVII. fig. 3.) In the two species ranged its divisions in such a manner as to show in what of hag these tubes are dilated into ovoidal cavities, in order it may be most easily and advantageously studied, which the water is received, and on the membrane of he has introduced only those topics which are most indiswhich the branchial vessels are distributed. In this re- pensable, and most require illustration. For more comspect, therefore, the hag-fish approaches to the mode plete details, therefore, he rfefers the reader to the followof respiration among the cephalopodous Mollusca, in ing works. which the bratichice are inclosed in a cavity. Lastly, in 1. Lemons d'Anatornie Comparee de G. Cuvier, Membre the Aphrodite aculeata, which may be taken as an example de 1 Institut National, &c.; recueillies et publiees sous of the respiration of worms, there is a series of tubes like ses yeux par C. Dumeril, chef des Travaux Anatomiques, tracheae and bronchi, proceeding from the surface to the &c. Cinq tomes. Paris, tome i. 1799;—tome v. 1805. interior, and in which the water containing the air requi- 2. Blumenbach’s Manual of Comparative Anatomy ; with site for respiration is received. (Fig. 6.) additional Notes by William Lawrence, Esq. F\ R. S. Second edition, revised and augmented by William Coulson. SECT. III. SECRETORY ORGANS. Lond. 1827, 8vo. The notes are derived chiefly from Urinary Under this head ought to be described the urinary or- the work of Cuvier and the papers of Sir E. Home in the organs of gans of the four vertebrated classes. Those of the Mam- Philosophical Transactions. 3. Gore’s Translation of Cathe ovi- malia agree in consisting of kidneys more or less loburus’s Introduction to the Comparative Anatomy of Animals. parous lated, ureters or excretory tubes, a reservoir or urinary Lond. 1827, 2 vols. 8vo. The arrangement of this work, classes. bladder, and a urethra opening on the same mucous sur- in which the author examines the forms of organs as they face with the organs of generation. In the three oviparous ascend, from the lowest to the highest classes, diminishes classes considerable changes are made. Though in Birds its general interest. 4. Lectures on Comparative Anatoand Reptiles the glandular organs denominated kidneys my, in which are explained the Preparations in the Hunteare left in the shape of aggregated glands with the two rian Museum. By Sir Everard Home, Bart. Lond. 1823, excietoiy tubes, the bladder is withdrawn, and the ureters 6 vols. 4to. This work consists of the papers read by open in the cloaca. The only apparent exceptions are the author at the Royal Society, and published in their the ostrich and cassowary, in which the cloaca is so orga- Iransactions. Though entitled, therefore, Lectures on nized that it may serve as a bladder or temporary recep- Comparative Anatomy, it embraces a much more extentacle of the urinary secretion. In the Reptiles the pre- sive field, and contains a great number of physiological sence of this organ is variable, being found in the Che- and pathological papers. This renders it at once rather loniad and Batrachoid ; and the iguana, tupinambis, desultory and prolix. It contains, nevertheless, a-great chameleon, stellio, and dragon, among the Saurial tribe ; number of facts illustrative of peculiarities of structure in but wanting in the crocodile, lizard, agami, gecko, and the the animal world; and it is particularly valuable by the whole Ophidial tribe. In Fishes it is not less variable. number of engravings with which it is embellished. It While the ray and shark tribe are destitute of bladder, can scarcely be said to possess any arrangement whatever. and the ureters terminate in a cloaca, this receptacle 5. Recherches sur les Ossemens Possiles, oil Von retablit les exists in the sea-devil, lump-fish, globe-fish, and others characleres de plusieurs animaux dont les Revolutions da of the cartilaginous division. Globe ont detruit les especes. Par M.le Bar. G. Cuvier, &c. A peculiar secreting organ, deserving notice, is the poiPoison gland and son gland of the poisonous serpents. It is a glandular body Nouvelle edition. Tome i. 1822, Osteology of the Elephant, fangs of situate on each side above the upper jaw, behind and be- Hippopotamus; tome ii. partie i. 1822, Osteology of the serpents. low the eyes, with a considerable cavity, which opens into Rhinoceros, Horse, Hog, Daman, and Tapir; tome iv. 1823, Osteology of the Deer and Ox, the Bear, Hyena, a long excretory tube, lying along the outer surface of the Lion, Glutton, Wolf, and Dog; tome v. partie i. 1823, upper jaw, and opening in the tubular tooth, represented Osteology of the Reptiles, the Ichthyosaurus and the at fig. 17 and 18; and which is movable in an articulation, Plesiosaurus; partie ii. 1823, Rodentia, Edentata, and may be erected, as in fig. 18, or depressed, as in 16, at Monotrema, Amphibia, and Cetacea. Paris, 1824. the will of the animal. The poisonous serpents are there- I hese papers contain much accurate osteological descripfore distinguished from the innocuous by the presence of tion. (v.)

41

VEGETABLE Int 'iluc- All the plants which collectively form the vegetable fry kingdom have been arranged under two great divisions. Kearks. 'i'|lose which possess visible organs of reproduction, as stamens and pistils, have been termed phcenogamous, and constitute the first 23 classes in the sexual system of Linnaeus; while those in which the reproductive organs are either obscure or have not yet been discovered, have been termed cryptogamous, and form the 24th class of that system. Humboldt estimates the total number of known species at 44,000; of which 38,000 belong to the former division, and 6000 to the latter. M. Brogniart, jun. supposes the present known Flora to embrace 50,350 species, of which 10,200 may be considered as cryptogamous, and 40,150 species as belonging to the phaenogamous division. On the present occasion we propose to describe the structure of those plants only whici. are included in the division of phaenogamous plants. Of the vast number of plants which cover the surface of our globe, it belongs to the botanist to describe the external forms in such manner as may serve to discriminate species, and assign to each its place in a methodical system of arrangement: it is the province of the anatomist to demonstrate, by dissection, their internal structure, so as to prepare the way for a rational explanation of their functions. In pursuing this object we may examine successively each of the parts as they severally present themselves to view; or we may, in the first place, study the elementary organs common to all plants, and then consider how their combinations form the different parts of vegetables. The former method is the analytic, and was necessarily that of the first observers ; but, now that all the different parts are recognised as being formed out of the same elementary organs, we gain, both in conciseness and clearness, by adopting the latter or synthetic mode. We shall accordingly describe, first, the elementary organs, and the primary textures which they form; and proceed afterwards to the consideration of the individual members and more complex organs of the plant. These elementary organs have been denominated vessels and cells; and they form, either singly or conjointly, what are called the vascular system and cellular tissue of plants. Their combination gives rise to certain textures, which appear in the well-known forms of skin, of bark, and of wood. On these we shall bestow the appellation of common textures, and exhibit a general view of their structure and disposition in the several parts of the vegetable body. A brief description of some minuter parts, as of hairs and glands, will terminate this division of the subject. In the second part we shall begin with a description of the general structure of seeds, and afterwards treat more particularly of those bodies under the two great divisions of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous seeds, tracing also the changes of form and of structure which they exhibit in their evolution and progress to the state of the mature plant. The structure of the mature plant itself will next claim our attention ; and we shall accordingly exhibit the anatomy of its several members, as of the trunk, the branch, and the root, in their more remarkable varieties and forms. After this, the structure of the organs that spring from these several members, as buds and bulbs, leaves, flowers, and fruits, will be separately and distinctly examined; and having thus followed the progressive changes of form and of structure exhibited in the several stages of vegeVOL. in.

ANATOMY. table existence, we shall terminate our descriptions by Introducanatomical representations of the organs in which the tory seed was produced, and the series of appearances succes- Bemarks. sively displayed in its formation. Through the whole of the descriptive detail we shall adhere as closely as we can to the language of demonstration ; supporting and illustrating our representations of structure by continual reference to figures, selected in great part from authors of repute, and in some instances from dissections made by ourselves. We are aware, that of many reputed anatomical facts very different representations have been given, all equally professing to rest on microscopical observation. In such circumstances, we can do no more than report concisely the statements of different observers; but shall dwell chiefly on those descriptions and representations which seem best entitled to credit, and appear most conformable to the analogies of other organized structures. When we consider the immense number of species that compose the vegetable kingdom, and call to mind that in form, in size, and in structure, each species differs from every other through every period of its existence, it must appear altogether impracticable to describe and delineate any considerable number. Fortunately, however, these diversities arise not from differences in the elementary organs, but chiefly from their varied proportion, disposition, and texture. In numerous species the disposition of the internal organs is very similar, where the external form and texture widely differ. In other instances the arrangement and composition of the internal parts vary not less than that of the external figure. Of these varieties we shall exhibit different examples. In describing individual parts or organs, we might have brought many concurring examples, and exhibited many similar representations, to confirm the views of structure under consideration; but, in general, we have dwelt only on one or two examples, and these we have selected from plants which are either important in themselves, or whose structure has been most satisfactorily displayed, or which seemed to afford the best illustration of the peculiarities we were engaged in describing. From one example clearly given, the reader will readily apprehend the nature of analogous structures, and escape the perplexity and fatigue which unnecessary repetitions might occasion. Instead, also, of describing the vegetable at one or two stationary points of its existence, in some of which its size is so minute as to be scarcely capable of demonstration, we have followed it through the several stages of its growth. In this way we really study it as a living body, continually exerting its vegetative powers, and daily exhibiting the most striking variations in external form, and frequently in internal structure. We hope thus to have conferred an interest on the descriptive part, which may in some measure relieve the unavoidable dryness of anatomical details; to have exhibited, in some instances, clearer views of vegetable organization; and to have given a continuity to the subject which isolated dissections, at a few stated periods, could not alone have bestowed. It remains only to add a few remarks on the nomenclature employed in the present article. In the description of external parts we have adhered chiefly to the Linnaean nomenclature; but some of the terms employed by Linnaeus, in relation to anatomical structure, are exceedingly vague and inappropriate; others

ANATOMY, VEGETABLE. 42 Introduc- are manifestly erroneous, and, however well suited to the express the idea we designed to convey; and that, in ge- Introduc. j tor tory ] y purposes of botany, are not at all to be tolerated in any neral, they have been used in one and the same sense, and Remar in no other. Except in one or two trivial instances, weV vv H, Remarks. thjng that aspires to correct anatomical description. In the anatomy of seeds we have adopted many of the have not ventured to introduce new terms, but have stu- '^ terms employed by Gsertner, in his excellent work De diously sought to avoid it, retaining even an inappropriate Ffuctibus et Seminibus Plantarum, most of which had pre- expression, sanctioned by use, if it did not, at the same time, lead to ambiguity, or convey an idea evidently false ; viously been used by Malpighi and Grew. Thus, in every instance, we have exercised our own and we have in general resisted that torrent of new and judgment in the selection of terms, and, where it seemed barbarous terms, founded often on fancied refinements and necessary, have subjoined the synonyms of different wri- pretended discoveries, with which several continental ters. Though we presume not to say that we have uni- writers have of late attempted to deluge this branch of formly chosen the best, we trust they will always clearly science. PART I. OF THE ANATOMY IN GENERAL OF THE ELEMENTARY ORGANS AND COMMON TEXTURES OF VEGETABLES. CHAP. I. OF THE ELEMENTARY ORGANS. PrelimiBefore we proceed to describe the structure of the nary ob- individual parts of vegetables, it may be useful to exhibit beivations. a genera| view 0f the elementary organs of which they seem to be composed. Such a view will prepare the reader for understanding more clearly the descriptive language hereafter to be employed, and will even much abridge the extent to which that description must otherwise be carried. Every one is familiar with the natural division of plants into herbs and trees, and is aware that, how different soever they may appear in form and texture, they all possess, in common, certain parts or members which we name the root, the trunk, and the branches, from which proceed the leaves, the flowers, the fruits, and seeds. Infinitely varied as these several parts are, in figure, size, and texture, they all originate from a few constituent or elementary organs, whose situation, proportions, and combination, give rise to all the diversity that we see. “ Upon the anatomical analysis of all the parts of a plant,” says Grew, “ I have certainly found, that in all plants there are two, and only two, organical parts essentially distinct, viz. the pithy part and the ligneous part.” (Anatomy of Plants, p. 19.) “ And as every part hath two, so the whole vegetable, taken together,” he adds, “ is a composition of two only, and no more. All properly woody parts, strings, and fibres, are one body; all simple barks, piths, parenchymas, and pulps, and, as to their substantial nature, peels and skins, are all likewise but one body; the several parts of a vegetable differing from each other only by the various proportions and mixtures, and variated pores and structure, of these two bodies.” (Ibid. p. 47.) In the anatomical descriptions of Malpighi, the compound structure is resolved, in like manner, into two constituent parts, called by him the ligneous and utricular portions. To these parts may be assigned the general appellations of the Vascular System and Cellular Tissue of plants, the description of which shall form the first subjects of consideration. Section I. Of the Vascular System. Art. I.— General Characters of the Vessels. Definition.

By the vascular system may be understood, in a general sense, all those parts of a plant which do not exhibit the form either of membrane or of cells. It constitutes almost the entire bulk of the more solid parts of

trees, and by Grew and Malpighi was denominated the ligneous body, in contradistinction to the cellular tissue which accompanies it, and which forms by far the largest portion of many herbaceous plants. To common observation, a piece of dry wood appears to be a mass of solid fibres, that is, a series of particles arranged in a filiform figure, and destitute of any continuous canal. Thus Tournefort and others considered the ligneous parts of a plant to be a mass of minute solid filaments, placed parallel to each other, like the threads in a skein of silk, between the interstices of which the sap ascended; but the anatomical researches of Grew conducted him to a different conclusion. “ If it he asked,” says he, “ what all that part of a plant, whether herb or tree, which is properly called the woody part—what all that is ? I suppose that it is nothing else but a cluster of innumerable and most extraordinary small vessels or concave fibres.” (Anat. of Plants, p. 20.) Malpighi held similar opinions concerning the vascularity of plants, which was farther attested by the microscopical observations of Hooke and Leeuwenhoeck. Du Hamel, though he admits that, under maceration, the parts of plants seem capable of indefinite subdivision, yet, from many circumstances, avows his conviction of their vascularity; and Hedwig maintains that the oldest and most compact plant is but a congeries of vessels and cells, which have nothing of the character of a fibrous solid, except in the thin membranous coats by which they are formed. (De Fibrce Veyetab. Ortu, p.17.) Few circumstances have contributed more to per-Names of plex and retard our knowledge of the structure of plants, than the vague and erroneous nomenclature that has been employed to designate their constituent organs, more particularly in relation to the vascular system. Thus the several terms filaments, fibres, strings, threads, and nerves, which, in their ordinary acceptation, are understood to express a solid substance, have been constantly made use of in describing the tubes or vessels of plants. The same organs, however, even by the same writers, are frequently called tubular bodies, ligneous tubes, concave fibres, ducts, canals, arteries, veins, and vessels. In our future descriptions we shall employ the term vessel in a generic sense, to express all the diversity of names just enumerated ; and the different kinds or species of vessels we shall hereafter attempt to discriminate by appropriate appellations. Vessels, as -we have said, exist in almost every part of a plant. In the higher orders of animals the fluids contained in the vessels are conveyed to a central reservoir called the heart, from which they are again sent out to all parts of the body. Near to this reservoir the ves-

ANATOMY, VEGETABLE, 43 ;; ikientarysels are few in number and large in size ; and they gra- they seem only to break into smaller parcels, and run Elementary ([gans. dually lessen in size and increase in number as they re- side by side, never inosculating with each other, nor being Organs, r cede from it. In plants there is no such reservoir, but ramified, so as to be successively propagated one fromv^v^w/ the fluids which enter by innumerable mouths at the root another, as in the vessels of animals. Neither, adds he, (are at once distributed equally through all parts of the are they wound together like threads in a rope, but are vegetable that are fitted to receive them. Hence in only contiguous or simply tangent, like the several cords plants there is little variation in the diameter of the ves- in the braces of a drum. (Anatomy of Plants, p. 66.) Even in the leaf, where the vessels seem to ramify out of sels ; and their general figure is therefore cylindrical, ir size. From the extreme minuteness of the vessels, it is greater into less, as in the arteries of animals, yet, if the scarcely possible to compute their number with accuracy. skin and pulp of the leaf be removed, and the vessels laid By driving off their fluids without destroying their figure, bare, it will appear that they are all of the same size as is done in the preparation of charcoal, Hooke number- everywhere in the leaf, and all continued through it, as ed in a line, ygth part of an inch long, not fewer than 150 distinct tubes, like the several threads in a skein of silk. vessels; therefore, in a line an inch long, there must be The distribution of the vessels is not effected, therefore, 2700, and in a surface of a square inch, 7,290,000 vessels ; by their ramifying out of greater into less, but by the di“ which would seem incredible,” says he, “ were not every vision of a greater fasciculus into several smaller fasciculi, one left to believe his own eyes.” These facts he ve- till at last they come to be single. (Anatomy of Plants, rified by other observations on decayed wood, in which p. 155.) It may be doubted whether, when the vessels of dif-anasto Do not the vessels were empty; and also on petrifactions of ligneous bodies, in which the places of the vessels were very ferent fasciculi come into contact, they ever actually111080, conspicuous. In very close and dense wood, as that of unite and are lost in each other, forming that kind of conguaiacum, the vessels were still more minute than in the nection which is called inosculation or anastomosis. Grew examples just quoted. (Micrographia, p. 101, 108.) In strenuously contends against any such connection of the a piece of oak of the size of about Ygth part of a vessels in any part of the plant. “ On a superficial view, square inch, Leeuwenhoeck reckoned 20,000 vessels; so indeed, the vessels of the leaf,” says he, “ seem to be inosthat in an oak-tree of no more than one foot in circum- culated, not only side to side, but the ends of some into ference, or about four inches in diameter, there will be the sides of others: but neither is this ever really done, found, according to his computation, 200,000,000 of such the lesser fasciculi being only so far diducted as to stand I vessels. (Select Works, translated by Hoole, vol. i. p. 3.) at right angles with the greater; but they are never inThe largest vessel observed by Hedwig (De Vegetab. osculated, except end to end, or mouth to mouth, after Ortu, p. 26) in the stem of the gourd appeared through they are come at last to their final distribution.” (Anahis microscope about j^th of an inch in diameter; and as tomy of Plants, p. 155.) Malpighi, however, from the fact his instrument magnified 290 times, the true diameter of the alternate separation and conjunction of the vessels, must be reckoned the 3480th part of an inch, which and from analogy with what occurs in the animal system, would give for the square inch 12,110,400 vessels. In speaks always of the anastomosis of the vessels, but he certain plants, however, the vessels are large enough to nowhere gives us any thing like proof of the fact; and Du be discerned by the naked eye, and in some cases they Hamel, from actual dissection of several fasciculi, regards them in their union as resembling more the nerves than acquire a large size. ■“I ji d(n fas- The vessels of plants do not, like those of animais, the blood-vessels of animals. When, indeed, we consider cicri. exist single, but are collected into fasciculi or bundles, the extraordinary minuteness of the vessels, and the cirwhich, however, have often the appearance of single ves- cumstance of their possessing nearly the same size in sels. In the stems of herbs, and in roots, Grew discover- every part, there is no room for that continual ramification ed each small fasciculus to be composed of from 30 to 100, out of one into another, and consequent diminution of or sometimes many hundred vessels. (Anatomy of Plants, diameter, that occur in the vessels of animals; and the imp. 20.) The direction of these fasciculi in the trunk is mensity of their number, together with the endless sepagenerally perpendicular, but in other parts their course is rations and re-unions which their fasciculi make, seems caloften oblique, and in their smaller ramifications they pro- culated to fulfil the purposes of less general distribution duce all sorts of figures. In herbs the fasciculi are more in the plant, which successive division and perpetual anasor less numerous, and placed often at considerable dis- tomosis effect in the animal system. tances from each other, exhibiting the appearance of small Another general circumstance in the vessels of plants Have no columns dispersed through the cellular tissue: in other is, that we do not discover in them any structure which valves, instances they are much more numerous, but destitute of has the true nature and use of valves, similar to what is any symmetrical arrangement; while, in trees, they are met with in the veins and absorbent vessels of animals. disposed regularly around the axis, presenting in their Dr Hooke could never observe in their canal any thing transverse section the well-known appearance of concen- that had the appearance of valves. (Micrographia, tric circles in the wood. p. 116.) Did such a structure exist, the absorption of fy, llaiify. In some parts, where the fasciculi stand at a distance nutrient matter from the lobes of the seed, and its confrom each other, some vessels often quit one parcel to veyance, in a backward course, to the embryo, could not, unite with another, and return afterwards to that which says Grew, have place; neither could the root, as it often they had previously left. In this manner they are said does, grow upward and downward both at once. (Anatomy to ramify, and frequently, by their ramification, a reticu- of Plants.) If the piece of a root of elm-tree be cut in lated appearance is produced, as occurs especially in the autumn, the juices, says Du Hamel, are found to escape bark and leaves. In the wood of the trunk, where they indifferently at either end, as the one or the other is alstand collaterally in a perpendicular direction, they very ternately held downward; a circumstance, he observes, seldom, if ever, run into one another, but keep, says Grew, inconsistent with the opinion of Mariotte, who maintained like so many several vessels, all along distinct; as, by the existence of valves. (Phys. des Arbres, tom. i. p. 56.) cutting, and so following any one fasciculus, may be ob- It is well known, also, that many plants may be made to served. (Anatomy of Plants, p. 20.) In branches and grow in an inverted position, so as to put forth leaves roots, though the direction of the fasciculi be changed, and flowers from their roots; and large trees have been n

44 ANATOMY, VEGETABLE. Elementary nourished by juices received through the extremities of mitted that at certain seasons they carried sap. At an Element^U Organs, their ingrafted branches, after all connection between early period, however, Ray maintained that the vessels Organ» the earth and the roots had been cut off. In general, in- thus supposed to convey air were truly sap-vessels; andv^v> deed, the extreme minuteness of the vessels seems almost Du Hamel, in common with Grew, admitted that they to preclude the possible existence of valves in their ca- carried sap in spring. Hill considered them altogether as nal ; but in some instances, where the vessels in aged sap-vessels; and Reichel, Hedwig, and others, by filling trees have become enlarged, membranous productions them with coloured fluids, proved that such was their have been found to occupy their cavities, which some have true office. On the other hand, no experiments, says alleged to perform the office of valves. They occur, how- Ludwig, have yet shown that there exist in vegetables ever, only at an advanced period of growth, and form no vessels destined to convey only air; and in this opinion necessary part of the structure of the vessel, and, instead subsequent writers, with few exceptions, have acquiesced. of promoting, contribute only to obstruct the course of It will, however, be convenient to treat of their general the fluids. nature and form under the distinct appellations of sapThus far with regard to the general nature of the ves- vessels and spiral vessels, by which they are commonly sels of plants: let us next .discriminate their several spe- known. cies or kinds. By Grew and Malpighi the common sap-vessels were Opinion regarded as entire tubes, having no apertures but in of Grew the direction of their length. Grew represents a single Art. II.—Of the Common Sap-Vessels. vessel as having the appearance exhibited in fig. 1, Plate Sap.vesTo ascertain the kinds and situation of the vessels XXXVIII., the aperture or canal of which is not visible unsels. 0f plants, various means have been employed. The plant less highly magnified, as in fig. 2. According to Malpighi of Mai. has been dissected both in its dry and recent state; the these vessels send off numerous capillary filaments to the pighi, natural qualities and movements of its fluids have been cellular tissue, so that the cells are surrounded by a observed; and its vessels have been filled with coloured plexus of vessels, as is particularly seen in the pith of liquors, by causing it to vegetate in them. By the com- elder and some others; and these ramifications, he adds, bined use of these several means, many important parti- spring probably from the perpendicular vessels both in the culars have been ascertained; but it must be acknow- bark and wood. {Anatom. Plantar, p. 29. Lugd. Bat. ledged that the question is still beset with doubts and dif- 1688.) These lateral ramifications were observed also ficulties, and that, with relation to it, great diversity of by Leeuwenhoeck in a piece of fir-wood newly felled. Of0fLeeu. opinion continues to prevail. A concise statement of the this wood he procured a longitudinal section, so extreme- wenhoscl facts ascertained with respect to the movements of the ly thin that he could see distinctly the particles of fluid vegetable fluids may perhaps contribute to define the moving in the vessels, as represented in the upper portion situation and kinds of the vessels that convey them. of fig. 3, Plate XXXVIII.; while lower down, on many Course of It has been proved that, early in spring, before the parts of these vessels, small points or dots were visible, the sap. leaves appear, a watery fluid rises abundantly in the which he at length discovered to be round apertures; and woody part of the trunk of trees, and continues visibly to as he did not see these apertures in any other parts than ascend to the very extremity of the branches, until the those in which he had separated the horizontal cellular leaves are developed, when, to appearance, it ceases to tissue from the perpendicular vessels, he concluded that, flow, and can no longer be collected by perforating or tap- at these points, these two organs were connected. He ping the tree. This fluid has been shown to ascend farther separated two of the vessels from the remainder, through the wood, and to rise, in general, most abundant- and through the microscope they appeared as in fig. 4; ly through its youngest or outmost circle; but in trees but the “ engraver,” he adds, “ said that he could not whose vessels have not been obstructed from age or other possibly draw all the jagged parts that he saw; and we causes, it rises through every circle to the very pith, and, both of us perceived, in the broken membrane or coat of as far as can be judged, in all the vessels that compose the tube, many excessively minute vessels, which, by reathose circles. At this early period of vegetation no fluid son of their smallness, he was unable to express in the is found in the bark, nor between it and the wood, nor in drawing.” {Select Works of Leeuwenhoeck, by Hoole, vol. i. the pith; but the vessels of the bark are perfectly dry. p. 12.) # These facts are deducible from observations on the natuIt may however be said, that this communication beral flow of the fluids by Grew, Du Hamel, Walker, and tween the vessels and cells is maintained not by ramiothers; and are supported by various experiments of M. fications from the vessels, but through apertures or pores de la Baisse, Bonnet, Reichel, and others, made by caus- in their sides; and, accordingly, many appearances have ing plants and parts of plants to grow in coloured liquors, been remarked as existing on the sides of the vessels, of in which the vessels of the wood alone became filled; but which different authors have given very different repreno tinge of colour was communicated to those of the bark. sentations, and which some have regarded as pores. Thus, To these vessels the several names of lymph-ducts, sap- on the vessels of the fir Malpighi observed certain dotted vessels, ligneous tubes, ascending and adducent vessels, appearances, which he describes as roundish tubercles, have been applied: we shall in future denominate them and which were so numerous that they appeared to cover sap-vessels. the vessels. On the vessels of the elm, the beech, and Kinds of The vessels which thus form the mass of wood have the willow, Leeuwenhoeck saw similar particles, which resap-ves- by some writers been distributed into different kinds, sembled small globules. {SelectWorks,\o\. 'n.Tp. \f Dr Hill of Hill, sds. an{] supposed to exercise very different functions. At describes the vessels of the alburnum, or newly formed certain periods of vegetation they appear empty; and wood of the willow, as connected with each other by a hence Malpighi supposed two species of vessels to exist flocculent interstitial matter. When, by long maceration, in the wood, one destined to carry sap, and the other to this matter is detached, the vessels then exhibit a dotted convey air: to these latter, from their supposed office, he appearance; and, if examined by a highly magnifying gave the name of tracheae, and from their structure called power, these dots, according to him, are so many oval them spiral vessels. {Anatom. Plantar. Idea, p. 3.) Grew swellings, and each has, as it were, a mouth. Through also believed these empty tubes to be air-vessels, but ad- these mouths, which he represents as innumerable, and

ANATOMY, VEGETABLE. 45 Cletentary existing on all parts of the vessels, he conceives the fluids number, size, structure, and uses of those which have Elementary < tons, to he discharged into the cellular tissue. (On the Con- been denominated spiral The common fathers of Vege- Organs, struction of Timber, p. 18.) In fig. 5, Plate XXXVIII., is a table Anatomy, Grew and Malpighi, who at the same'^,^v^*^ representation of these vessels connected by flocculent mat- time, but in different countries, prosecuted their inquiries ter, with their extremities collapsed from the escape of without any knowledge of or communication with each their juices, and their sides sprinkled with the little mouths other, are nearly of one opinion on all the more imporwhich he mentions. These mouths, If they exist at all, tant points in relation to these vessels. Later writers are probably not pores in the sides of the vessels, but the have differed alike from them, and from each other, on little apertures seen by Leeuwenhoeck, and produced by almost every point. As the subject is of fundamental imthe separation of the cellular tissue while the parts are portance in the economy of vegetables, we shall endeavour still young and tender. The same author, speaking of to set before the reader the leading facts and opinions the vessels of the mature wood of the pear, states them concerning it; to canvass their relative merits; and deto be close canals, as in fig. 6, with no lateral apertures duce from the whole such conclusions as seem most nearly to approach the truth. in them. >p i m A still later writer, M. Mirbel, declares, that not Malpighi describes spiral vessels as existing in the Opinion of I ^I'bel, fewcr than fjve species of vessels are to be found in the ligneous parts of all plants. He called them spiral Malpighi, woody part of plants. These he denominates porous tubes, because, when extended, they were resolved, not into secleft tubes, tracheae, mixed tubes, and vessels en chapelet, parate rings, but into a single zone, which might be drawn from their supposed resemblance to a string of beads. Of out to a great length. In general they form continuous these several species we have given representations in tubes, but are sometimes contracted at regular distances, figures 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12, Plate XXXVIII. The first so as to resemble somewhat a series of oblong cells. One of species, or porous tubes, according to this writer, exist in these contracted spiral vessels, as delineated by Malpighi, every part of the plant where the sap moves with free- is represented in fig. 17, Plate XXXVIII., at the extremity dom. Their sides are covered with small eminences or of which the spiral filament is in part drawn out; and siprojections, in the centre of which is to be found a small milar appearances of the spiral structure are exhibited in pore. (Exposition de la Theorie de V Organisation Vegetale, figures 9 and 10, by Mirbel. In herbs, according to Malp. 107.) Improving a little on Hill, he represents these pighi, these spiral vessels constantly accompany the compores not as promiscuously placed, but as ranged in trans- mon sap-vessels, and are ensheathed by them; in shrubs, verse lines (fig. 7); and through them he conceives the they occur in every part of the wood, single or in clusters; fluids of the plant to percolate, not, however, into the and in trees, an intermixture of spiral vessels with the cells only, but out of one layer of tubes into another, in a common sap-vessels is observed in every part of the wood. lateral direction. In this manner he conducts the fluids In the fir, they are found immediately beneath the bark, from the centre to the circumference of the wood, and at and are so numerous as to constitute the chief bulk of the length, by a route not so easily followed, contrives to get wood. They exist with the sap-vessels in the petioles them into the vessels of the bark, the sides of which he and ribs of the leaf, and likewise in the petals of the declares to be perfectly entire, and alike destitute of pores flower. In the roots they are also met with, and in some and clefts. (Ibid. p. 297.) roots are so abundant, as to exceed in bulk all the other Several writers have sought to discover these al- parts. They exist, he adds, in every part of the plant exnd nhers. leged pores in the sides of the vessels. With Malpighi, cept the bark; and are annually formed with the alburnsome regard the appearances observed not as pores, but as ous vessels of trees. (Anatom. Plantar, passim.) From the writings of Grew we collect also that of Grew, elevations on the surface of the vessels; others, as particles contained within them. Under a very highly mag- spiral vessels exist in every part of a plant except the nifying power, Kieser thinks he has, in some vessels, de- bark. In the root they are numerous, of very various tected the existence of pores; while M. Dutrochet pro- size, and their bore is generally larger than that of the nounces the same objects to be corpuscles, filled with common sap-vessels. In the trunks both of herbs and nervous matter; and De Candolle suggests the probabi- trees they are equally visible, and in position, size, and lity of their being small glands, destined in some way to number, subject to great variation. Sometimes they are contribute to the nutrition of the plant. These different collected into fasciculi, at other times they are disposed opinions, formed on viewing the same objects, sufficiently in rays, and in other instances they are arranged in a cirmanifest the difficulty and uncertainty of microscopical cular form: they stand sometimes next to the pith, in observations made with highly magnifying powers, as was other instances next to the bark, and in other cases again long since pointed out by Hooke, who first applied the they alternate with the common sap-vessels in every part microscope to the examination of the structure of plants. of the wood. They have a more ample bore than the “ Of such minute objects,” says he, “ there is much more common vessels, and vary in size to at least twenty differdifficulty to discover the true shape by an instrument ent degrees. In the leaf they always accompany the than by the naked eye; the same object quite differing sap-vessels, and both in its petiole and ribs are constantin one position to the light, from what it really is and may ly surrounded or ensheathed by them. They have a be shown to be in another. In some objects,” he adds, similar position in the petals of the flower, and in the vas“ it is exceedingly difficult to distinguish between a pro- cular parts of the fruit. (Anatomy of Plants, passim.) minency and a depression, between a shadow and a black Hence, then, it appears, from the dissections of Malpighi stain, or a reflection and a whiteness in the colour; and and Grew, that, in every plant in which vessels are to be the transparency of most objects renders them yet more seen, and almost in every part of it, spiral vessels abound; difficult than if they were opaque.” (Micrographia, Preface.) they exist, however, only in the ligneous portion, or that part in which the sap ascends, and are never to be found in the bark. Art. III.—Of the Spiral Vessels. By Du Hamel, the spiral vessels, supposed to con-of Du Ha>e.sc Various as have been the opinions of writers respect- vey air, are described as existing in the leaves and the “elion. ing the common sap-vessels of plants, they have dif- flowers, the petals of which are almost wholly composed fered yet more in their views concerning the position, of them. In the herbaceous portion of young branches

46 ANATOMY, VEGETABLE. Elementary they are also well seen; which portion afterwards be- organs; but thinks it proved that no direct commumca-Element,•'I Organs. comes ligneous; so that it cannot be doubted that they tion exists between them and the cells. {Mem. sur F Or- Organ! exist in the wood, though he could never discover them ganisation des Plantes, 1814, p. 116, 117.) Lastly, M. de but in young branches. (Phys. des Arbres, tom. i. p. 42.) Candolle admits the existence of spiral vessels in the wood If, however, all the empty vessels seen in a transverse of the trunk, but not of the roots; and, with Kieser, resection of the wood be deemed air-vessels, and all air- gards them as conveying only air. {Organographie vessels have a spiral structure, then, says this author, Vegetale, tome i. p. 39.) From the combined observations of all the precedthey would, in many plants, form a great part of the ligneous body. From these large vessels, however, he has ing writers, with the exception of MM. Mirbel and seen, in autumn, fluids to escape; so that they are not de Candolle, we learn that spiral vessels exist not only in properly air-vessels, or, as Grew observed, they sometimes every part of the trunk, but in the root, and in every other part of the plant except the bark and the pith. From the carry sap. They are not to be found in the bark. Opinion Under the common name of sap-vessels, Hill deli- actual presence of sap in these vessels early in spring, and of Hill, neates all the varieties of vessels that constitute the wood; again in autumn, and from the entrance of coloured fluids they are largest in the outer circles, smaller in the others ; at all seasons, we also learn, that their true office is not to they contain, says he, in spring and at midsummer, a convey air, as Malpighi and others formerly, and Kieser limpid liquor; but at all other seasons they appear emp- and others more recently, maintain; but to carry sap. ty, and have therefore been erroneously deemed air- Are we therefore to regard them as a species distinct vessels. He says nothing of their spiral construction; from the common sap-vessels, or are both to be held but describes the vessels which form the chief mass of merely as varieties of one common kind ? This question the wood as possessing solid and firm coats, forming an may receive some illustration from a little farther inquiry arrangement of plain and simple tubes, as in fig. 6, into the formation and structure of the sap and spiral Plate XXXVIII., resembling those of the alburnum, except vessels. that they have no mouths in their sides. (On the Construction of Timber, p. 8 and 19.) Art. IV.— Of the Structure of the Sap and Spiral Vessels. ofReichel, M. Reichel maintains the existence of spiral vesMalpighi seems to have regarded the common sap-Structu: sels in almost all parts of the plant. By causing plants to vegetate in coloured fluids, he traced them from the vessels as being formed of a series of small vesicles or of 5,sap.\ roots, through the trunk and branches, to the extremity cells, mutually opening into each other. {Anat. Plantar.^ of the leaves, and into all parts of the flower,—as the p. 28.) In this instance he appears either to have miscalyx, the petals, the style, the stamens, and the anthers. taken a series of elongated cells for vessels, or to have In fruits and in seeds, and in the radicle and plume of conceived that the contractions, occasionally formed in the latter, they were equally apparent. The coloured the vessels themselves, afforded evidence of their having liquors, as they rose, communicated a tinge to the cellu- been constructed originally by cells. Grew, on the other lar tissue of the wood, as was previously observed by De hand, considered these vessels to be composed of straight la Baisse ; but no trace of colour was ever observed either fibres, placed parallel to each other, so as to form a cylinin the bark or pith, which therefore contain no spiral ves- drical tube. {Anat. of Plants, p. 112.) Leeuwenhoeck sels. He considered the spiral vessels as the organs held them to be composed of two fine transparent coats, everywhere conveying nutrient matter to the plant, and formed of other vessels excessively minute. ( Select Worhs, as having no title to the appellation of air-vessels. (En- vol. i. p. 11.) And Du Hamel, by submitting thin layers cyclop. Methodique, article Physiol. Veget. p. 288.) Si- of wood to long maceration, obtained bundles of longitumilar experiments of Hedwig and others confirm these dinal fibres of extreme minuteness, by which he consifacts as to the general distribution of the spiral vessels, dered the lymphatic vessels of the wood to be formed. and their bearing to every part the fluids absorbed by the {Phys. des Arbres, tome i. p. 32.) Hill describes the alburnous vessels as being formed of the same material as roots. of Mirbel, We have already enumerated the five different spe- the cells, and to collapse when emptied of their fluids. In cies of vessels which Mirbel regards as constituting the one instance, where a strong light was made to penetrate woody part of plants. According to him, true spiral the vessel, it appeared as if composed of numerous cells; vessels (which he continues to denominate tracheae) are but on farther examination, these seeming divisions alnot to be found in the root, but only in the trunk and the tered their places, and were found to proceed from porparts which are produced from it. Even in the trunk tions of watery sap still retained in the vessel. This apthey are to be found only around the pith, and never in pearance, as he properly observes, may be a very necesthe exterior ligneous layers. He admits that they exist sary lesson against hasty judgments. {Construction of in all soft and succulent parts, and that coloured fluids Timber, p. 33.) According to M. Mirbel, “ the entire mass of the rise in them as well as in the other varieties of vessels; but they never are to be found either in the bark or pith. plant is nothing but cellular tissue, the cells of which {Exposition de la Theorie de l Organisation Vegetale, differ only in form and dimensions.” The cells and vesp. 74, 78.) sels are thus considered to be formed out of one and the of Kieser. According to M. Kieser, spiral vessels are found in all same membranous tissue. In forming cells, this memthe more perfect plants, from the earliest period of their brane is supposed to dilate in every direction: in proexistence; and in all parts of them, except the bark and ducing vessels, it increases only in length. {Exposition pith. They vary much in size, and in aged plants are de la Theorie de F Organisation Vegetale.) The manner in frequently obstructed by a species of vesicle, which ori- which he supposes the vessels to be formed out of the priginates from the interior sides of the vessels. According mitive membrane is very fanciful; and he is probably to him, nothing but air is found in their cavity, though, right in thinking that “ no one before himself had formed in the wood of guaiacum, he has seen all the spiral vessels, a similar conception of vegetable organization.” in common with the cellular tissue, completely filled with Concerning the structure of the spiral vessels, opin-Structu resinous matter. He does not know the anatomical rela- ions have varied still more than in relation to those justofspira tion subsisting between the spiral vessels and the other considered. Malpighi describes them as composed of'resse,s’

ANATOMY,

VEGETABLE. 47 membrane, as is very frequent in trees; or sometimes Elementary fffiiilaentarya thin pellucid plate, of a silvery colour, somewhat broad, JjLans. and which, being placed spirally, and united at its edges, they are connected by ramifications which proceed from Organs, v »LX ~y-constructs a tube. When this tube is drawn out, it does not the spiral fibres themselves. From the minuteness of the' )p !oa °f separate into distinct rings, but is resolved into a continu- spiral fibre, it is difficult to decide whether it is a solid or ous gpjrai zone. At particular places these vessels are tubular body, and often, from the same cause, to pronounce sometimes contracted, so as to exhibit the appearance of whether it is round or flattened.. It is transparent, has oblong cells opening into each other, as in fig. 17, Plate considerable consistence and tenacity, and in some plants XXXVIII. In size they greatly surpass the ordinary sap- appears to possess elasticity. The number of fibres that form the spire of a vessel is vessels ; and their canal is then frequently occupied by membranous vesicles, which nearly fill their cavity. (Anat. very various ; sometimes, as before remarked, there is only Plantar, p. 3-26.) These vesicles were also observed by one, but more often several, which are twisted in the same Leeuwenhoeck, and their appearance, in the transverse plane and the same direction. He has seen nine fibres thus united; and when unrolled, the spires of the vessels section of an enlarged vessel, is represented in fig. 25. f rew, According to Grew, the thin plate that forms the spiral then seem to form a kind of riband. When many fibres vessel is not flat, and, instead of being single, consists of are employed to form a spire, they always run parallel, two or more round filaments or threads, placed collate- and do not cross ; so that the side of the vessel has never rally, but perfectly distinct. These component filaments he more than the thickness of a single fibre. At their first regards as united by other smaller transverse filaments, and formation the fibres are not united; it is only in more the thin plates which they form by their connection advanced age that they become united, either by ramificaconstitute the spiral vessel,—“ as if we should imagine,” tions from their edges, or by a peculiar membrane. The he adds, “ a piece of fine narrow riband to be wound direction of the fibre in twisting is sometimes from right spirally, and edge to edge, round a stick, and the stick to left, and sometimes the contrary. The size also is very being drawn out, the riband to be left in the figure of a various. In young plants it is very small, so that a millitube, answerable to a spiral vessel.” As, however, the metre comprises the diameter of 2600 of these fibres ; and riband is composed of numerous threads, placed parallel in some instances they have little more than half that size. to each other, so is the plate that forms the spiral vessel; In older vessels they have a larger size. Between the and it is according to the greater or less delicacy of the knots of the trunk they are simple, and do not ramify; met vessel examined, and the manner of its dissection, that it but in the knots they undergo great changes of form, and | sap, appears to be constituted either of a flat plate or a round are variously ramified and combined. .s,h| filament. The spiration of the filaments he considered to be made in the root from right to left, and in the trunk Art. V.— Of the Transformations of the Spiral Vessels. from left to right. (Anat. of Plants, p. 73 and 117.) u Ha- The opinion of Du Hamel with respect to the conIt was the opinion of Grew, that the “ common sap- Opinion of struction of these vessels was very similar to that of vessels begin to be formed in spring, but the spiral ves- Grew, Grew, and he employed the same analogy of a riband sels not till the end of summer, at least not till about that edwig, twisted round a stick to illustrate it. Hedwig gave a time do they appear.” (Anat. of Plants, p. 131.) Malpighi very different account of them. Reconsidered the spiral also describes these vessels as gradually appearing in the vessel to be composed of two distinct parts ; one a mem- alburnum, and augmenting in size in every successive ring branous canal conveying air, and the other a spiral tube of wood ; an observation made also by Grew, who describes rolled round it, by which the fluids were conveyed. The the “ spiral vessels as being amplified in each annual ring, spires of the tube, in some instances, are represented as so as to form a vessel of a wider bore.” These facts inclose; in others they are separated, and the intervening dicate that the spiral vessels, after their formation, underportions of the membranous canal exhibit a dotted appear- go considerable changes in the progress of vegetation, or, ance. He considered all the sap-vessels, from their first to use the language of Grew, that “ they are postnate, and formation, to possess this compound structure, and, by a seem produced by some alteration in the quality, position, series of changes, which he professes to describe, to be and texture of their fibres.” ultimately transformed into the solid fibre of the wood. In treating of the transformations or metamorphoses of of Kieser. (De Fibrce Vegetal). Ortu, p. 25.) Others, also, have the spiral vessels, M. Kieser illustrates his ideas by a believed the spiral vessel to be formed of a membranous series of dissections of the stem and root of the gourd tube, but have denied that it conveyed air; and the spiral (cucurbita pepo), made apparently with great care. These tube of Hedwig they have regarded as a solid filament. designs occupy several plates of his work ; and being From the different appearances which they exhibit, MM. taken from different parts of the same plant, at different Treviranus and Bernhardi distinguish several varieties of stages of its growth, and viewed with the same magnifyspiral vessels; as does also M. Kieser, whose account of ing power, they show the progressive changes in form these vessels is not only the most elaborate, but that and appearance of these vessels as the plant increases in probably which approaches nearest to truth. We shall age. M. Kieser exhibits corresponding vertical and hotherefore subjoin a brief abstract of his observations on rizontal sections of the same parts; but our object will be the structure of these vessels, and more particularly on answered by copying only certain portions of the vertical the series of transformations which they seem to undergo. sections. The construction of these vessels M. Kieser professes The ligneous portion of the stem of the gourd possesses to have studied with the greatest care, and to have esta- ten bundles of vessels, symmetrically disposed around the blished incontestably the following points. Sometimes, pith, and standing at unequal distances between it and says he, only one fibre, sometimes many, go to form the the bark. In fig. 13, Plate XXXVIIL, we have copied the spire ot a vessel. These fibres are commonly round, some- representation of a vertical section of the vessels in one of times a little flattened, and are twisted spirally about an these bundles, taken from a portion of the plant near the empty space, so as to form a tube. The spiral fibres in summit of its stem, and made with the aid of a microyoung plants, and sometimes in mature ones, are in close scope magnifying 130 times. The number of vessels in contact; in other instances they are separated, and the each bundle at this period is said to vary from three to interstices are then occupied by a dotted or punctuated five. They are constructed of one or more fibres, placed

ANATOMY, VEGETABLE. 48 Elementary contiguous to each other, and twisted into a spiral form, necting membranes and those which thus fill the cavity of Element , Organs, producing a round cavity within. These are called simple aged vessels. In some instances the size of the dots is OfgMi [ . spirals. They are found in every young plant, and in the large, and they appear transparent at the centre; in 6 others the dots are extremely small. Their form is obspiral newly formed parts of old ones. Their size is smaller P ' than that of the other varieties to which they give origin. long, and they are ranged generally in determined lines, The number of fibres in each spire varies from one to parallel to the direction of the spires. In the next vertical section of a fasciculus of vessels, nine ; and they are the only variety met with in some of taken from about the middle of the stem of the same plant, the inferior vegetables. The next figure (fig. 14, Plate XXXVIII.) exhibits a simi- all the peculiarities of size and form are still more dislar section of the vessels of the same plant at the internodial tinctly seen. Of the twenty-three vessels which appeared space below. Of the four vessels contained in this bundle, in the horizontal section of a fasciculus at this period of the outer one, «, is larger than the rest, but its spires are growth, six only were apparent in the vertical section, and contiguous, as in those of the former figure: the inner are exhibited together in fig. 16, Plate XXXVIII. Of these, one, is formed of a series of rings, disposed in a per- the first two, or outer ones, are by much the largest, and pendicular line. These rings are very like the spires of belong to the punctuated variety. A portion of the anthe preceding variety, and often combined with them in terior wall of these two vessels has been removed by the the same vessel. They are sometimes separated from sections at /, l, so that the inner surface of the posterior each other only by a space equal to their own diameter; wall is brought into view; and in the former vessel, d, a in other instances to eight or ten times that distance, portion of the posterior wall itself has also been carried forming then the substratum of the next variety. In their away. In both vessels the spiral fibre, indicated by the Annular present form they constitute the annular spiral; and in white line, is prominent in the section ; and in the second, spiral. herbaceous plants occupy frequently the same position as e, it is unrolled at m, n,—where, at m, it is seen single, transparent, and round, while at n it is united with the the simple spiral, that is, next to the pith. From the two simple varieties of form just described, punctuated membrane that connects the spires, and has other more complex forms are produced, as the plant ad- a flat or riband-like form. The third vessel, f, of this vances in age. In the next section, made still lower down fasciculus is also of the punctuated class, and the three on the same plant, the vessels exhibit the forms represented last, g, h, i, are simple spirals ; the last of all, i, being in fig. 15 of the same plate, which brings the third varie- in the progress of formation, and its spires not yet brought ty of spiral vessel into view. The exterior vessel, b, of into a state of contiguity. There is a fourth variety of vessel that is said to have this fasciculus, or that nearest to the bark, is of much larger size: its spires, represented by the white lines in the same origin as the last, being formed in part by spires the figure, are separated to nearly equal distances from or rings, but the separations between which are filled up, each other, and the intervening spaces are filled up with a not by membrane, but by small productions or ramificamembrane, sprinkled over with small obscure points or tions from the spires or rings themselves; and these raPunctuat- dots, constituting the punctuated spiral vessel. In this mifications are often so implicated as to form a net-work; ed spiral. variety the rings are never contiguous. Such vessels oc- whence the names of ramified and reticulated spiral vessels. Ramifielr cur only in the more advanced age of herbaceous plants, Like the former variety, they do not exist in the young spiral' \ but are said to be original formations in the alburnum of plant, but are formed gradually in a more mature age, trees: they acquire a much greater size than the two for- and by the same series of actions ; that is, the spires or mer varieties, especially in the stem ; but do not become rings, which were at first contiguous, separate at a later so large in the root. In herbs they occupy a position ex- period, and the intervals are filled up by ramifications terior to that of the two preceding varieties ; but in trees from the spires themselves. At first these ramifications the largest vessels of the annual layers are nearer to the are few, as in the vessel, a, fig. 21, when they are termpith. The three other vessels in this figure are simple ed ramified spirals; and as these ramifications increase, spirals, in part unrolled. the vessel becomes reticulated, as exhibited at the letter Reticuk ^ The spiral fibre in these vessels is of various size, be- c, fig. 20. They are found but in few plants, and ap- e4 ing largest in the greatest vessels: it is sometimes so pear to differ from the punctuated variety chiefly in the small as to be scarcely visible. It is often difficult to de- position of the rings, which are more or less obliquely termine whether its form is spiral or annular: for the placed, and at diflerent points send off one or more most part it is spiral in herbs, and annular in trees. The branches. membrane which connects the spires or rings in this vaIn his ninth plate, M. Kieser has given similar repreriety is not visible in young vessels, but appears in more sentations of the vessels of the same plant, as they appear mature age. It is at first transparent, but becomes opaque from sections made near the root. The fasciculus at this from age. In this punctuated variety of vessel the spires part of the stem contained twenty-nine vessels, as seen in cannot be unrolled without tearing the connecting mem- the horizontal section, of which only eight were visible in brane. As to the points or dots observed on this mem- the vertical section. These retained nearly the characters brane, they have been taken by some for pores on its of those given in the preceding section, fig. 16; but exsurface; by others for clefts produced by the joining of ceeded them in number and size. The large ones, situthe spires. They are clearly not clefts, says M. Kieser, ated next the bark, were of the punctuated class, while and it is against the supposition of their being pores that the smaller ones, next the pith, were simple spirals. In their position has a relation always to the spires, and not fig. 18 we have copied the three smaller vessels. In one to the adjoining cells. In the vessels of some plants, as of these, o, which belongs to the punctuated variety, the in those of the French bean, when magnified 400 times, interior of the vessel is nearly filled up with small portions these points, fig. 21, a, seem as if pierced by a hole ex- of punctuated membrane, produced from the inner wall ceedingly small; but in other instances they are quite of the vessel itself, as is still more clearly seen in horizondark, and similar to those found on the membranous tal sections of similar vessels in fig. 25. The two vessels productions that fill the cavity of aged vessels, where p, q, of fig. 18, are the youngest, and consist only of there is not the smallest reason for considering them as the simple spiral fibre ; the last, it is said, being composed pores. There seems a great analogy between these con- of two such fibres, which, in consequence of the transpa-

ANATOMY,

VEGETABLE. 49 In the early growth of trees, the formation and develop-Elementary Ehsentary rency of the posterior wall of the vessel, appear to cross Cj^ans. each other. ment of vessels go on at the centre, adjacent to the pith, in v Organs, v s y/ But M. Kieser has not confined his examination to the the same manner as in herbs ; but at a later period, when ^" ^ ^ Spills of stem of this plant. In his tenth plate he has given simi- the additional growth is made at the circumference of the theoot. lar sections of a portion of the root. The piece of root tree, the first formation of vessels must occur in the alburhe examined presented, in the horizontal section, four fas- num, and the subsequent changes of character be effected in ciculi, each of which contained about thirty-seven vessels, the several layers of wood; which accords with the fact that varying in size; the larger ones being placed exteriorly, spiral vessels are rarely to be detected in the alburnum, but and the smaller ones towards the centre of the root. The are found with all their different characters, and of all sizes, cells of this part were small, and nearly of the same size in the several layers of wood, as may be seen in all the transand form throughout, differing much from the varying verse sections of wood delineated by Grew, Malpighi, and size and form of the cells in the stem. Of the thirty-seven others. In truth, the descriptions of Kieser with respect vessels before mentioned, only ten were retained in the to the structure and transformations of the spiral vessels • vertical section, all of which belonged to the punctuated accord, in most respects, with the opinions of Grew, as variety. Of these, two had united so as to form but one briefly stated, page 47 of this article, and as may be farcavity ; and two others were filled up with membrane. In ther seen by referring to pages 73 and 177 of Grew’s fig. 19 we have copied the appearance of three of these Anatomy of Plants. It is further to be remarked that, in these representavessels. One of these, indicated by the letter r, is from the middle of the figure, and its size is intermediate be- tions of Kieser, which exhibit all the vessels visible in all tween those on each side of it. A portion of its anterior parts of the stem and root of this plant, only one kind of wall has been carried away in three places, which brings vessel is described, which at different periods of growth the inner side of the posterior wall into view. The vessels assumes different forms ; that no vessel answering to the a t of the same figure are the smallest, and situated at the common or lymphatic vessel of authors is mentioned; centre of the root: all the three belong to the punctuat- and consequently, that all the vessels described, however ed variety, no simple or annular spirals being found at differing in size and external character, are in truth but this period in the root. varieties of one common kind. Calling to mind also that, In the knots of plants the vessels undergo great changes in the earliest production of leaves and of flowers, and of form, the larger vessels being contracted in different even of stamens and pistils, vessels either possessing the parts, and giving off productions or ramifications which spiral character, or capable of assuming it, are everywhere form new vessels, and give to the whole a very irregular met with,—that they occur also in the stem adjacent to appearance, as may be seen in the upper part of fig. 20, the pith in succulent plants, and in the alburnum of trees, taken from the appearance of the vessels in the knot of and every successive ring of wood produced from it—in the balsam (Impatiens Balsamina L.). In this figure short, in every part and portion of the plant, except the M. Kieser has also given an ideal representation of bark and pith,—and believing, as we do, in those changes the various metamorphoses already described, viz. of the of form suggested by Grew, and subsequently demonstratannular vessel into the simple spiral, and of that into the ed by Kieser,—we are led to the general conclusion that other varieties: thus the letter a represents the rings only one kind of vessel exists in the ligneous portion ofOnly one of the annular vessel, which at b begin to form the other plants, as well as in that of the gourd; and that °fsaPvesse spiral: at c the simple spiral passes into the ramified different plants, and in different circumstances and condi^' variety, and this again, at d, into the reticulated vessel: tions of vegetation, this vessel is capable of assuming the at e the vessel becomes contracted at different parts, different forms, sizes, and characters, which have led as previously observed by Malpighi, fig. 17, and by Mir- many writers to describe these organs as constituting difbel, fig. 11 and 12. This latter author called this the ferent species, and serving different uses. r epls en vessel en chapelet, from its resemblance to a string of M. de Candolle, in his late work on the Organography Opinion of beads. From these vessels go off the branches /y f, to of Plants, seems also to reject the separate existence of^e ^an* form the ramified spirals of the knot. In fig. 12 of the the ordinary sap-vessels or lymph-ducts of authors, and todolle‘ same plate M. Mirbel has given a similar ideal represen- consider, with Kieser, all the vessels collectively to postation of the five species delineated by him in figs. 7, 8, 9, sess a spiral character, which appears under five different 10, and 11; but they do not carry with them the same forms in the vessels severally named tracheae or simple evidence of accurate observation as the several varieties spirals, annular spirals, punctuated and reticidated spirals, indicated in the alleged transformations of Kieser. and the vessels en chapelet. (Oryanographie Vegetale, Such is the account given by M. Kieser, of the deve- tome i. p. 32.) Without deciding positively in favour of lopment and appearances of the vessels in herbaceous Kieser’s views, he admits that the different orders of vesplants, and of the successive changes in character which, sels have among them very intimate relations; and in fain the progress of growth, they undergo. All the figures vour of the opinion that they are really modifications of except the last are taken from dissections of the same each other, he alleges that almost all these orders exist plant, beginning with that part of the stem which was of together in certain classes of plants, and are wanting altolatest growth, and proceeding in succession to the parts gether in others. Still, though he has no theoretical obof earlier growth, or older formation. At first the vessels jection to make to these alleged transitions of form, he are comparatively few in number, of nearly uniform size, has never been able to verify them by actual observation, and belong to the varieties of annular and simple spiral: and thinks the facts require further investigation. (fLbid. at a later period those first formed become augmented in p. 48, 51.) With respect to the existence of pores in the size, and assume the characters of punctuated and ramir spiral vessels, as alleged generally by Mirbel, and even fied vessels ; they are now also removed farther from the occasionally by Kieser, but denied by a great number of centre, and their place is supplied by new vessels of observers, M. de Candolle has been led by his own obsimpler forms. With the age of the plant, they all con- servation to entertain doubts, and to believe that what tinue to increase in size and number, and to acquire the has been regarded as a pore is a luminous point, such as new characters which distinguish the several varieties in is exhibited by bubbles of air in water, when placed under the manner already described. the microscope. (Jibid. p. 55.) VOL. m. G

50 ANATOMY, VEGETABLE. Elementary The late opinions of M. Dutrochet on the structure of for at certain periods they have been found filled with Elementarj Organs. plants seem to us to have drawn attention more from their sap; and at all periods, when in active vegetation, they Organs. V- v novelty than their value. He criticises the opinions of will absorb and convey coloured fluids. It should also be ''~ “^ ofDutro Mirbel in relation to the structure of the vessels, and says borne in mind that the respiratory function in vegetables is diet. that those denominated by that author jootws tubes, are performed, not by the trunk, but by the leaves.of the plant. Dismissing then these notions concerning the uses of altogether destitute of pores, but have corpuscles adhering to, or rather implanted in their sides, on which account he the spiral vessels, and adhering to the opinion, that in calls them corpusculiferous tubes. (JElecherches Anatom, sur all their variety they serve the office of conveying sap la Structure des Vegetaux, &c. p. 23.) In like manner the through the plant, we shall conclude this branch of the tracheae are said to have similar corpuscles attached to their subject with a brief notice of their modes of termination. If we begin at the root, we may consider these vesselstions Termina. sides, but which adhere only weakly, and form no necessary part of the organization. (Ibid.) With respect to the as terminating at that part, by continuation of canal, invesseoftlK ^s' uses of these two kinds of vessels in the wood, he con- the capillary absorbents of the rootlet. As, further, the siders the corpusculiferous tubes to be the canals by which vessels of plants, like those of animals, are the only organs the sap ascends from the roots; while the spiral vessels, which convey the materials out of which not only the or tracheae, convey not air, but a diaphanous liquid, pre- fluid, but the solid parts of the plant are formed, it may, pared in the leaves, and which descends, by the spiral in a general sense, be said that their modes of terminavessels, to impart its vivifying influence to all parts of the tion are as numerous as the kinds of distinct parts or orplant, (ifo'e?. p.29-31.) No direct communication, it is said, gans which the vegetable system contains. Hence, thereexists between the cells and vessels which compose the fore, as the cellular tissue of plants contains various matvegetable texture; they are only contiguous. Fluids, ters often precisely similar to those which exist in the nevertheless, are transmitted from one to the other; not vessels, it may be inferred that the vessels have a termihowever through holes or passages expressly designed for nation in those organs; and this inference may perhaps that purpose, as Mirbel contends, but through intermole- carry more weight with many than the attempts before cular spaces, left between the integrant globular mole- related of Malpighi and Leeuwenhoeck to demonstrate it cules, of which the organic solids are composed. (Ibid. anatomically. Another termination of these vessels must be in certain minute and ill-defined organs called glands, p. 47, 48.) Such is an outline of the different opinions that have which separate from the mass of fluids peculiar secrebeen held regarding the structure of the sap-vessels. Dif- tions ; and a fourth mode may, in the leaves, be in other ferences not less great still continue to exist with regard vessels which carry back the juices from those organs. to their uses. Our reasons have been already given for The last and fifth mode of termination is into transpiring coinciding in opinion with those who hold the vessels to or exhalent organs, by which a certain portion of the conbe the proper channels in which the sap is conveyed. M. tents of the vessels is discharged: so that in plants the Kieser, however, contends that the spiral vessels of the sap-vessels terminate externally at one extremity in abwood are always empty, or contain only air, and considers sorbents, by which fluids are received; and at the other them, with Malpighi, to be organs by which air is convey- in exhalents, by which these fluids are in part discharged. ed. To this opinion M. de Candolle also inclines, though he admits that in some cases they may convey lymph. Art. VI.— Of the Proper Vessels. (Organog. Veget. tome i. p. 61.) Those physiologists who thus oppose the opinion that By observation of the natural flow of the sap, comthe vessels carry fluids, suppose the sap to be conveyed bined with the results of experiments made with coloured by certain minute channels, said to exist between the cells. liquors, we have endeavoured to determine the situation The place of these alleged channels is marked out in a sec- and kinds of vessels by which it is conveyed in the wood. tion of cellular tissue (fig. 29, Plate XXXVIII.) taken from The same method will best assist us in ascertaining the M. Kieser, in which the black points at the angular junc- nature and place of the vessels met with in the bark. . tions of the cells are said to denote them : from their poIt was before stated, that, early in spring, the sap Course of Intercellu- sition they have obtained the name of intercellular canals. of plants rises through the wood alone, and that no fluid the sap in lar canals, gy many, however, the existence of such spaces at the whatever is then to be found in the bark. At a later^16"00^ angles of the cells is denied; and, indeed, when we con- period, however, the case is completely reversed; for the template the various size and form of the cells, the dif- vessels of the wood no longer appear to carry sap, and ferent degrees in which they are filled with fluid or so- those of the bark then become abundantly supplied with lid matters, and consequently the greater or less degree it. This difference is very clearly and concisely stated of compression which these alleged intercellular spaces by Grew. “ The sap,” says he, “ in many plants, as the must undergo, we can hardly admit the sufficiency of such vine, ascends visibly through the wood for a month, in minute, tortuous, and precarious channels to convey the March and April, and rises through every ring of wood ascending sap with that force and velocity which the ex- to the very centre, yet at the same time there ariseth periments of Hales and others have proved it to possess. no sap at all out of the bark, nor between it and the On the other hand, no direct communication between the wood.’ “ But late in spring,” he continues, “ and in spiral vessels of plants and the external atmosphere, si- summer, the sap is no longer visible in the wood, but is milar to that which occurs between the tracheae of insects abundant in the bark, in the inner margin adjacent to the and the air, has been shown to exist; and the total ab- wood.” Du Flame!, too, remarks, that when the lymph sence of spiral vessels in the bark, where they would be rises abundantly through the wood in spring, the bark is in ^ near to the atmosphere, and their presence in the root, dry, and adheres to the wood, and no sap then issues from’ where they are almost beyond its influence, are alike re- it, nor from between it and the wood; but, later in the pugnant to the notion that they exercise a respiratory season, he adds, the bark yields abundance of sap. These function. Lastly, the absence of sap in these vessels at statements have been verified by the multiplied observacertain seasons, on which alone the notion of their being tions of various subsequent authors. tracheae or air-vessels was founded, depends, as we have But why is the sap thus present only in the wood seen, on the period at which the examination is made; at its first rising in spring ? Why at a later period does

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VEGETABLE. 51 ;ie|jnrary it cease to be visible in that part? And how and why All the ringlets of bark between these incisions had a Elementary ' >r|ms. does it afterwards find a passage into the bark? Some leaf-bud upon them except one, and all but this one ring- v Organs, v > -TT^ observations of Du Hamel, Hales, and Walker, point, we let grew and swelled at their bottoms till August; and -^ ^“* ' ClfL w think, to the true cause. In spring, says Du Hamel, the larger and more thriving the leaf-bud was, so much vlwncnt" hen tlie saP rises vigorously, the buds have not appeared ; the more did the adjoining bark swell. ( Veg. Statics, ,f A when they begin to open, the sap then flows less freely ; p. 149.) Mr Knight also found the bark of the vine to ea*; and when the leaves are fully developed, then the flow become shrivelled and dry when the leaves were stripped of sap entirely ceases. Dr Hales also remarks, that, to- off; but in those parts in which it communicated directly wards the end of April, when the young shoots come with the leaves, it continued moist and flourishing. {Phil. forth, and the surface of the vine is greatly increased by Trans. 1801, p. 335.) By connecting, therefore, the circumstances attending the expansion of the leaves, the sap then ceases to flow in a visible manner till the return of the next spring. All the flow of sap with the development of the leaves, we bleeding trees, he adds, cease to bleed as soon as the gain satisfactory reasons for all the apparent anomalies young leaves begin to expand enough to perspire plenti- observed to attend its course. Early in spring, before the fully, and draw off the redundant sap. The bark of oak, appearance of the leaves, no natural outlet for the escape too, separates easily when lubricated with sap; but be- of the rising sap exists, and therefore, when the vessels fore the leaves appear and perspire, the bark will no are cut or perforated, they readily pour out their sap, longer run (as they term it), but adheres most firmly to or bleed; but late in spring, and in summer, when the the wood. ( Vegetable Statics, 3d edit. p. 126.) In like leaves are developed, the more watery parts of the sap manner, in an experiment of Dr Walker, a birch-tree are thrown off by transpiration; and while this process bled from every perforation in its trunk, and from every proceeds, the fluids do not accumulate in such quancut extremity of its branches, until vernation or budding tity in the minute vessels of the trunk as to be effused began ; then the bleeding was almost immediately checked; or bleed through their cut or perforated sides. A cold and when the young leaves had pushed beyond the //?/- day, however, or a moist and still atmosphere, by checkbernaculum, the bleeding entirely ceased. (Edin. Phil. ing transpiration from the leaves, restores more or less the propensity to bleeding from the trunk ; and in auTrans, vol. i. p. 31.) It is however certain, that though the sap was no longer tumn, when fructification begins, and vegetation makes a visible in the wood after the leaves were developed, it pause, the same disposition to bleeding recurs in the continued nevertheless to rise through it; for in no other trunk, from the check imposed on the more active powers way could the leaves obtain the large portion of fluid of growth. which it is known that they constantly discharge by It is further evident, that, when the vessels of the Qualities transpiration ; and coloured fluids manifest their presence bark become supplied with fluid, they cannot have de-of sap in in the vessels of the wood, as well after as before the de- rived it immediately from those of the wood, since, in die bark; velopment of the leaves. The leaves, therefore, must be these different parts, the fluids have frequently no sort of regarded as the organs which, by their perspiration, draw agreement in properties. Thus, Grew remarks, that aloff, as Dr Hales observes, the redundant sap; and hence, most all plants, late in spring, and in summer, bleed from in an experiment where a notch was cut two or three their bark; and the sap has either a sour, sweet, hot, feet above the lower end of a stem, though a great quan- bitter, or other taste. At this period the bark of the vine tity of sap passed by the notch, yet was it perfectly dry; yields a sour sap; but, “ what is vulgarly called bleeding because, stfys he, “ the attraction of the perspiring leaves in the vine is,” he adds, “ quite another thing, both as to was greater than the force of trusion from the column of the liquor which issueth, and the place whence it issues; water.” {Vegetable Statics, p. 111.) that is, it is neither a sweet nor a sour, but a tasteless as*t Not only, however, does the development of the leaves sap, issuing, not from any vessels in the bark, but from render the sap no longer visible in the wood, but they the air-vessels of the wood.” {Anatomy of Plants, p. 125.) ht yre" also appear to be the organs by or through which it Malpighi, also, was well aware of the difference in the 0 finds its way to the bark. In all the experiments just re- qualities of the sap, and thought every plant possessed its cited, the bark continued dry until the sap disappeared peculiar sap; but he has not so accurately defined the from the wood; in other words, until it was drawn off by situation of the vessels that contain it. Du Hamel, howthe leaves; and then, and not till then, the bark became ever, points out distinctly the difference of quality in the moist, and continued laden with sap through the rest of sap of the bark and wood. In the bark of some plants it the summer. Now, as it has been before shown that no is white, in others red, and in others yellow. It is in sap enters the bark by the roots, nor gets into it directly some instances milky, in others resinous, and in others from the wood, there is no other known channel by which it gummy. In many plants it has a sweet taste, in some it can be conveyed, except through the leaves; and these, is caustic, and in others insipid. It has sometimes much therefore, necessarily appear to be the organs by which it odour as well as flavour, and frequently it is destitute of is apparently carried off from the wood, and by or through both. {Phys. des Arbres, tome i. p. 68.) which it at the same time finds its way to the bark. But if the qualities of the sap in the bark be thus acquired in This inference appears to follow, not only from the fact different from those of the sap in the wood; if these pe- the leaves, of the bark continuing dry until the leaves are developed, culiar qualities are detected in it only after the developbut from the circumstance that it is again rendered dry af- ment of the leaves, and the leaves be the organs by which ter having become moist, if these same leaves be removed. alone the sap can be conveyed from the one part to the If, says Du Hamel, we remove the leaves of a young tree other; then it seems to follow that the sap must acquire when in full sap, and whose bark is easily detached, in a few these new properties in the leaves during its transmission days after the same bark will adhere as closely to the wood through them. Malpighi remarked the existence of this as it commonly does during winter. This direct connection altered sap in the leaves, and held them to be the organs between the leaves and bark is also well illustrated in an which prepared nutrient matter for the plant; and Dr experiment of Hales, employed by him for a very different Darwin, by immersing plants of spurge in coloured lipurpose. From two thriving shoots of a pear-tree he cut, quors, not only saw, as others had previously done, the in several places, half an inch of the bark off all round. red fluid ascend through the leaf, but another fluid, of a

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ANATOMY,

52 ANATOMY, VEGETABLE. Elementary white colour, returning at the same time from the ex- fig. 22; and in fig. 23 a fasciculus of the same vessels Element! ill Organs. tremities of the leaf, and descending into the petiole. magnified is given as delineated by M. Mirbel. A re- Ofgani, (Botanic Garden, vol. i. notes, p. 450-53.) This same mark also of Hill, if it be deemed to rest on correct ob-^' returning fluid Mr Knight observed in similar experi- servation, is entitled to great attention. “ The vessels of ments on branches of the apple and horse-chesnut trees, the bark that form the fasciculi are not,” says he, “ united and even traced it through the petiole into the inner to each other, but are connected with the cellular tissue bark, by the vessels of which it seemed to be conveyed to at numerous places; and, when separated from it, there the extremities of the roots. (Phil. Trans. 1801.) The appear on the sides of the vessels small oval depressions, motion, therefore, of the sap in the bark is not that of dotted as it were with pin-holes.” ( On the Construction ascent, as Grew and Malpighi and many others have be- of Timber, p. 28.) These appearances he regards as of a lieved, but of descent, as the observations and experiments glandular nature, but their description corresponds better of M. de Sarrabat, Du Hamel, Knight, and others, abun- with that of Leeuwenhoeck respecting the lateral ramificadantly prove. To these vessels of the bark Grew assigned tions from the vessels of the wood; and they may probaparticular names, according to the apparent quality of the bly be the points at which communication is effected befluid they conveyed. Malpighi gave them the general tween the vessels and cells. appellation of vasapeculiaria, from their containing a fluid The cause of the reticulated appearance which the their ret different from the common sap. By others they have vessels of the bark exhibit in trees, is doubtless to be at-culafiro been called cortical vessels, a term, however, not applica- tributed, as we think Du Hamel somewhere remarks, to ble to many tribes of vegetables which are entirely desti- their peculiar mode of growth. A new layer of cortical tute of bark. Lastly, Du Hamel and others denominated vessels is every year added to. the inner surface of the them proper vessels, which term differs but slightly from bark, as well as a new layer of ligneous vessels to the outthe appellation of Malpighi, and, though not very precise, er surface of the wood; so that, as Grew observes, the is that we shall continue to employ. new matter of the tree is every year distributed two conDescripFrom regarding the newly formed vessels of the wood trary ways,—one part falling outward towards the bark, tion ot the as 0f jjle bark, Grew uniformly represents the bark and the other part retaining its situation inward to constiVeS as ossess n sels ^ " P * g tw0 distinct species of vessels, in which tute the wood. At first the newly formed cortical veshe has been since followed by several other writers; but sels are straight, and stand parallel, like those of the the vessels which he calls lymphceducts belong rather to wood ; but, by the continual growth of the new parts the wood, so that we may regard him as describing only formed between the bark and the wood, the older vessels one species oi'proper vessels. In herbs, these vessels stand of the bark are gradually forced outward; and being thus sometimes in distinct parcels or columns ; sometimes they every year disposed around a large cylinder, are necessaare disposed in a ring; sometimes they have a radiated rily more and more separated from each other, and proposition; and sometimes they are more intermixed with duce at length that net-like form which we observe them the sap-vessels, and seem to alternate with them. In to possess. The newly formed vessels of- the wood, on trees, the vessels of the bark are more distinct, and have the other hand, retain their original position, and therea much more regular appearance. They are commonly fore preserve their parallelism, seldom or never exhibitpostured near the inner margin of the bark, and, when ing those flexures and reticulations so common to the vesviewed in a longitudinal direction, seem collected into sels of the bark. fasciculi, which are more or less numerous, and the compoIn the bark, as well as in the wood, the vessels are their sia nent vessels of which continually diverge and join with found to possess different sizes. In the pine, vessels conothers, so as to form a reticulated appearance, as in fig. 24, taining turpentine are represented by Grew, which are Plate XXXVIII. Of these reticulated fasciculi, many layers very much larger than the comjnon sap-vessels, and are exist in an old tree; and to these layers the thickness of surrounded by smaller ones, exactly as the large spiral the bark is chiefly owing. As they proceed inward, the tubes of the wood are said to be ensheathed by the comdirection of the fasciculi is less oblique, so that near to mon sap-vessels. The milky juice of a species of sumach the wood they are almost straight. Hence the spaces is contained in very large vessels, disposed so as to form formed by the reticulations are very unequal, often large a ring, and each large vessel is surrounded by many smallin the exterior part of the bark, and diminishing in size er ones. (Anat. of Plants, tab. 20.) The appearance of towards the wood: they are. everywhere filled with cel- these large vessels in one species of pine is well reprelular tissue. Such is a general description of the situa- sented by Hill, and the account he gives of their formation of the proper vessels of the bark, as given by Grew, tion is probably correct. In this tree (pinus orientalis), Malpighi, and Du Hamel. some of these vessels form oval openings, large enough their The vessels which thus form the vascular portion of to admit a straw; these openings occupy the centre of structure the bark appear to differ but little in structure from the the bark, and are surrounded by a ring of smaller vessels. more simple vessels of the wood. Grew considered them As their contents are soluble in alcohol, it is easy to obtain to possess a similar structure, from believing them to be them empty. In fig. 26, Plate XXXVIII., the vessels of this formed by the inner bark at the same time with the ves- tree, as they appear in the bark, are displayed; the woody sels of the wood; and therefore, he adds, “ they may be portion of the tree having been scooped away, so that the reasonably thought similar in the bark and wood.” (Anat. longitudinal aspect, as well as the transverse sections of of Plants, p. 112.) Malpighi regarded them as simple them, is exhibited. From a strict inquiry into their natubes, containing sometimes peculiar juices; but advances ture, Dr Hill concluded that these larger vessels were nothing particular respecting their structure. (Anat. originally the same as those of the smaller fasciculi in Plantar, p. 3.) M. Mirbel’s opinion deserves some no- the bark of the same tree ; “ so that if we conceive one tice, inasmuch as he declares the structure of these ves- of these smaller fasciculi opened in its centre, and the sels to differ entirely from all those of the wood. Their vessels driven every way outward, till they are stopped sides, says he, are perfectly entire; they have neither by the substance of the bark, we shall have an idea of pores nor clefts, and may therefore be deemed simple tubes. the structure of this large vessel, which is nothing more (Exposit. de la Theorie de V Organised. Veget. p. 109.) A than a great cylindrical hollow formed in the centre of single vessel of this kind is represented in Plate XXXVIII. such a fasciculus.” (Hill on the Construction of Timber^

ANATOMY, VEGETABLE. 53 ■y lemitary p. 29.) It is in trees that have copious and viscid juices but in the case before us, a readier explanation presents Elementary j Oi^is. that these enlarged vessels are formed; and where the itself. The new matter of the wood is formed at the samev> Organs, v ,,-/ juices do not concrete, it is probable that, as the vessels time, and in the same place, as that of the bark; and ^~ ^ annually recede from the centre, they suffer a reduction through this new woody matter the red vessels were disin size from the continued effects of desiccation and com- persed as well as in the bark. Consequently every addition made to the ligneous layers would furnish some vessels pression to which they are exposed. ‘‘ einsi- The foregoing varieties appear alone entitled to the that contained these proper juices; and this, being annu)n y appellation of the proper vessels of the bark. In many ally repeated, would exhibit that intermixture of proper tribes of vegetables, however, as will afterwards be shown, vessels with sap-vessels which is observed in all the ligno distinction of bark and wood exists ; but one uniform neous layers of this and many other trees. Hence these distribution of vessels extends from the centre to the cir- proper vessels of the wood must be held to retain the pocumference of the plant. Such plants have also their sition in which they were originally produced, and cannot proper vessels, but the place and disposition of these ves- be said to have approached nearer to the centre, but only, sels are not so precisely ascertained. From the mode in by the addition of new layers exterior to them, to be which their growth is accomplished, as well as from ob- placed farther from the circumference of the tree. As servation of their structure, it may be inferred that their Grew, therefore, held the alburnum to be a part of the J proper vessels are distributed through the whole substance bark, he might correctly say that these vessels “ did once of the plant, accompanying in every part the sap-vessels. appertain to it.” J 111 some plants possessing this arrangement of parts, such as different species of, wheat,‘Malpighi {Anal. Plant. Art. VII.— Of Collections of the Proper Juices in the tab. 4, fig. 15) describes and delineates & vas proprium Cellular Tissue. forming a part of each fasciculus of vessels; and a simiBesides this accumulation of the proper juices in cer-In single * lar intermixture, of the two kinds must, we conceive, 1 tain vessels of the wood, it frequently happens that de-ceUsexist in ah similar structures. Even in many plants possessing a distinct bark, ves- positions of similar matter occur in all parts of the cel! sels containing proper juices are found in the wood. In lular tissue of plants. In the bark of the oak and poplar, 1 every circle of wood, from the inmost that surrounds and of other trees, resinous concretions are often found in the pith, to the outmost in contact with the bark, vessels the cells; they are situated irregularly, and, according to containing a gum, turpentine, or some other concrete or Malpighi, are observed even in very young bark. Somecoloured juice, Vnay frequently be found. Malpighi con- times the cells containing milky and resinous juices are ceived ihem to exist in all plants, though, from the nature so postured in the bark, says Grew, as to form cylindrical of their fluids, they could not always be distinguished ; channels, which are neither parallel nor anywhere inosand he believed them to afford a highly perfect juice for culated, but run, with some little obliquities, distinct from the nutrition of.the plant. According to Grew, “ the tur- one another. They appear to be formed out of the cells, pentine vessels that are scattered up and down the wood and are not bounded by any walls or sides proper to themof the pine and fir are the self-same which did once ap- selves, but only by those of the cells. (Anat. of Plants, j pertain to the bark; but being pinched up by the wood, p. 112.) They are often short and tortuous, always iso1 they are become much smaller pipes.” (Anat. of Plants, lated ; and are sometimes placed irregularly, at others 1 p. 115.) Du Hamel also regarded them as similar to disposed in a circular form. They occur sometimes in t those of the bark, but rendered much smaller by com- the pith, and possess very different sizes and figures. 1 pression. In the ,pine and fir they are disposed circularly They have frequently been deemed a species of proper a around the axis, much like, the sap-vessels, and alternate vessels, from the mere circumstance of their containing ' with them. (Phys. des Arbres, tf»me i. p. 41.) similar juices, and from possessing sometimes an elongatIn Piscidia erythrina, the proper juices are of a scar- ed form; but they are organs which, neither in form nor 1 let colour, and the vessels that contain them are there- in function, bear any resemblance to vessels. Mirbel prof fore readily discerned wherever they exist. This plant poses to name them secretory canals, and M. Link cellular has been selected by Hill to demonstrate the position of reservoirs—the term certainly most generally applicable, t these vessels. In the bark they are collected into fasci- and involving no hypothesis respecting either their formac culi, all the vessels of which contain coloured juices, and tion or functions. a are disposed in a ring on the inner margin of the bark. The manner in which these cellular reservoirs may In cellular 1 Within this ring stands the alburnum, through the sub- be produced in the bark or pith is readily explained, on reserv°irss stance of which many smaller red vessels are distributed ; the supposition that a communication everywhere subsists a and similar red vessels are more sparingly seen in every between the vessels and the cells. One set of vessels has 1 layer of wood, particularly in that which envelopes the been shown to receive and carry sap to the leaves, and j pith. (Construction of Timber.} another to bring it back from them to the bark; and these Now the red vessels thus observed in the wood of the two sets of vessels are everywhere in their course surround; above-mentioned plant must either have been formed in ed by cellular tissue. Hence the cells in every part may the situations they occupy, or transported from some other receive a portion of the fluid which the vessels are em] place. The latter supposition is inadmissible, inasmuch ployed to convey. Thus in herbs, the cells both of the bark : as the wood of trees is formed by layers of new vessels and pith are filled with fluid, which led Grew to believe s superimposed on one another ; and no removal of the old that the sap was actually transmitted through those ori vessels, nor reproduction of new vessels within the old gans ; but at the same time he delivers facts which, even 1 layers, ever takes place ; consequently no actual transpo- in his own opinion, prove that it is derived directly from s sition of vessels could occur, nor could new vessels be the vessels. Not only in herbs, but “ in every annual c developed in the wood after it had been completely form- growth, whether of a sprout from a seed, of a sucker from e ed. If, however, an alternate deposition and absorption a root, or of a scion from a branch, the pith is always o of matter go on into and from the cells, it is possible that found the first year full of sap; but in the second year t the vessels might in this way become filled with a mat- the same individual pith always becomes dry, and so it t ter different from that which they originally possessed; continues ever after. One cause whereof is, that the

ANATOMY, VEGETABLE. 54 Elementary lymphasducts of the bark being the first year adjacent to whole substance of the plant, which renders the discrimi- Element;, Organs, the pith, they do all that time transfuse part of their sap nation of their common and proper juices more difficult. Orgai, ^ Besides two orders of vessels existing in the ligneous into it, and so keep it always succulent. But the same 0 lymphseducts the following year are turned into wood, and part of trees, M. Dutrochet describes a particular form of^™ ” the vessels which are then generated and carry the sap cell, which, in the wood, serves only as a receptacle forchel , stand beyond them in the bark; so that the sap, being fluids; but to which, in the bark, he assigns a vascular now more remote from the pith, and intercepted by the function. This is the elongated cell observed by Malnew wood, cannot be transfused with that sufficient force pighi, and represented by him in fig. 18, Plate XXXIX. and plenty as before into the pith, which, therefore, from M. Dutrochet, from the resemblance which its figure the first year always continues dry.” (Anat. of Plants, is said to bear to a spindle, has given it the name of clostre; and his representation of it is given in fig. 17, p. 124.) All that is here said respecting the transfusion of the Plate XXXIX. These elongated cells form what Kieser common sap from the vessels into the cells as it ascends and others have called the ligneous fibres. By M. Duthrough the wood, is equally applicable to the proper trochet they are regarded as reservoirs of the nutrient juices as they descend through the bark. During the first juices, and as containing secretions which impart soliyear of growth, both the sap and proper vessels are adja- dity to the wood. In the bark, however, these same cent to the pith as well as to the bark, and each order clostres are declared to be the organs in which the elamay' therefore transfuse its fluids into the cells of either. borated sap is contained, and by which jt is transmitted ^ ^ The common sap, from retaining its fluidity, is frequent- to the roots to furnish the materials of their growth. The ly removed by absorption, and the cells that contained it clostres, which thus convey the nutrient matter, ought not, appear empty and dry; but where the proper juices are he adds, to be confounded with the “ proper vessels,” transfused, and become viscid or concrete, they are re- which are the true secretory organs. These vessels are tained, and appear in different quantities and forms both tubes of greater diameter than the clostres, and contain in the bark and pith, according to the nature and proper- various excrementitious substances, as resin, &c. in differSI.') Acties of the fluids from which they are derived, and the ent plants. (Recherches Anatoyniques, 8zc. texture and situation of the tissue into which they are cording to M. Dutrochet, therefore, the elongated ceils and vessels which exist in the bark and wood exercise poured. In interTo these collections of the proper juices in the cells functions precisely opposite; for whilst in the wood the cellular of the cellular tissue may be referred the opinions of corpusculiferous vessels convey the sap, and the cells are canals. those who describe them as existing sometimes in vacui- reservoirs for containing it, in the bark the cells are the ties between the cells. Grew had remarked the occa- organs which transmit the elaborated sap, and the vessels sional presence of these juices in cylindrical channels those in which the excrementitious matters are contained. In our view, these notions are the reverse of fact, since formed by these vacuities, to which M. Treviranus has given the name of intercellular canals. According to him, we consider the vessels, both in the wood and the bark, these canals not only contain the proper juices, but con- as the organs by which the fluids are conveyed, and the vey them to all the cellular parts of plants, and are various forms of the cellular tissue as the general recepthe true proper vessels of the bark. We before saw that tacles into which they are in part deposited: they may, M. Kieser, after making the wood to consist almost entire- however, in some instances be retained in the vessels ly of spiral vessels, destined only to convey air, supposed themselves, as well as in the cells. the sap to be carried by these same intercellular canals. Section II. (Kieser, Mem. sur V Organisat. des Plantes, p. 36.) With M. Treviranus, he also considers them as the real proper Of the Absorbent and Exhalent Systems. vessels of the bark, by which alone the juices are conveytlw ed. (Ibid. p. 86.) Art. I.— Of the Absorbent System. Opinion of M. de Candolle considers the proper juices to possess Connected with the vessels that distribute the fluids DeCan- no special organ for their conveyance, but to nestle in dolle. tiie cavities that surround them, and form sacs or reser- through organized bodies, is another system of vessels, voirs of various size and form. He distinguishes several by which extraneous matter is taken -up to support the kinds of these reservoirs, which vary with the figure of growth of parts, and supply the waste occasioned by the containing sac. Thus, what others call “ proper vessels,” the exercise of the various functions. To these vessels he designates by the names of tubular and fascicular reser- anatomists have given the name of Absorbents. The voirs. In this, however, he appears to confound the function which they perform is carried on either from “ proper juices,” destined immediately to the functions of the external surface, or from some internal part of the nutrition and growth, with various fluid or solid matters, body; and its exercise, in animal bodies, may be distineither simply deposited in the cellular tissue, or that have guished into three kinds or stages. The first is that undergone subsequent alteration by the agency of a secret- in which new or extraneous matter is taken up and added Sp ing organ. The reservoirs of the proper juices, and the to the system, as in the absorption of substances from the juices themselves, are, he says, readily seen in many fami- skin, or of chyle from the intestines; the second is that lies of dicotyledons ; but have not been observed with cer- in which substances previously separated from the fluids tainty, either in monocotyledonous or acotyledonous tribes. by secretion, but without becoming organized, are again ( Organog. Veg. tome i. chap. 11.) The reason of this seems taken up by the absorbents, and reconveyed into the to be, that in dicotyledons the bark, in which the pro- blood-vessels, as in the absorption of milk, bile, and fat; per juices are seen, is distinct from the wood, in which the the third kind is that in which the secreting organs themcommon sap flows; and the colour, consistence, and quali- selves, and successively all the solid parts of the body, ties of the two' fluids, therefore, at once point out their are removed by the action of the absorbent vessels. By respective places; but in plants belonging to the two lat- plants this function is exercised to less extent, and seems ter tribes there is no proper distinction of bark and wood; to comprise only the first two kinds or degrees of it, viz. and the two orders of vessels, as shown by Malpighi in the primary absorption of extraneous matter, and the rethe instance of wheat, are associated together through the absorption of certain secreted matters; but in them there

ANATOMY,

VEGETABLE. 55 variety, or seminal spongioles (spongiolce seminales), are Elementary n does not appear any power of re-absorbing what has once formed an organized part of the system. Hence the for- placed on the surface of the grain, apparently with great Organs, / ■ np'vlL' mation of organized parts in plants is not accompanied, regularity; and by them the absorption of moisture is efas in animals, by the unceasing removal of old particles; fected. Not only water, but coloured liquors, are abb > tioin but the particles which have once become organized con- sorbed by these spongioles, though the molecules of such nU* tinue permanent until removed by some cause or process liquids never enter the ordinary pores of plants, which foreign to the living powers of the plant. When once, pores must be infinitely greater than the apertures with therefore, the organs of plants have become mature, they which the spongioles may be furnished. This is the more are exposed to decay only from the operation of foreign remarkable, says M. de Candolle, when we call to mind causes, and cannot be mined from within by that gradual that these colouring molecules traverse the compact and loss of balance between the secreting and absorbing func- almost stony coats of seeds, and yet do not enter leaves tions which the advances of age bring on the animal sys- whose tissue is so lax, and which are visibly furnished tem. Neither, in the vegetable system, can the removal with pores that have the power of absorbing water when of organized parts under disease, any more than in health, in contact with it. ( Organog. Vegetale, tome i. chap. 7.) But plants absorb fluids by other parts of their sur-Absorption have place; and, consequently, the several modes or stages of ulcerative absorption, so finely illustrated by the face as well as by the roots. This absorbing power ex- by leaves, researches of Mr Hunter, belong not to the economy of tends, in some of the lower tribes, over the entire surface of the vegetable, which is destitute of any organ analogous plants. ^erj, As the function of absorption is thus of more limited to a root; in other instances, where the roots are small eipif extent in plants than in animals, so may we expect to and the soil arid, the plant derives almost all its moisture find the arrangement of organs destined to its exercise. by the absorption of dews through the leaves. The exIn the more perfect animals, the absorbent vessels are periments of Bonnet show that all leaves, both those of quite distinct from those which carry blood, are pro- herbs and of trees, when brought into contact with water, vided everywhere with glands, and, like the veins, are are capable of absorbing it, and that the moisture thus abfurnished with valves. From their beginnings, in all parts sorbed is communicated through the vascular system of of the body, to their termination, they continually unite the leaf. The leaves of herbs he found to absorb nearly with one another, until, after a long course, they form at alike from either surface ; but those of trees absorbed best length two trunks, which deliver their contents into the by the lower surface. The petiole and larger riblets aplarge veins near the heart. As no common reservoir exists peared to absorb much less than the other parts of the in plants, there is no such single point to which their ab- leaf. So great and general is this absorbing power, that sorbed fluids require to be carried. Hence their absor- vegetables, says he, may be said to be planted in the air, bents seem everywhere to have a very short course, to nearly as they are in the earth, the leaves being to the form no union with one another, but to deliver their con- branches what the capillary rootlets are to the roots. tents at once into the sap-vessels adjacent to them. They {Recherches sur l' Usage des Feuilles, p. 22, 47.) What then are the organs by which this function is aExternal appear to be destitute alike of glands and valves, and in)SOr t oa i deed, in an anatomical view, they can scarcely be con- carried on in the leaf? M. Bonnet imagined the vessels l 01P 68, sidered distinct from the sap-vessels, but may rather be of the leaves to receive their fluids through the pores ^ P ’ deemed ramifications from them; so that although we adjacent to them; and that the leaves, which had only grant, with Grew, that the ordinary sap-vessels do not few pores, possessed but little absorbent power. {Ibid. r ramify one out of another, yet they certainly send olf p. 20, 22.) He thought, also, that the hairs frequently dist those fine ramifications which, from their office, we de- tributed over the leaf attracted moisture, and might even n act as absorbents; though he admits that many leaves nominate the absorbents of plants. ISOftIn the root, the absorbents are capable of being de- which have only slight inequalities on their surface, withnuts | monstrated. When a plant is immersed in coloured fluids, out hairs, exercise an absorbent function. {Ibid. p. 47.) n- r* many of its capillary absorbents become tinged through This subject has been since investigated by M. de Cantl their whole course to their termination in the sap-vessels, dolle, whose researches appear to confirm the account of proving them to be simple ramifications from these vessels Bonnet as to the absorbing power of the pores. AccordP themselves. A further proof of the identity of these two ing to him, these pores are found on all parts of the leaf tl s; systems is derived from the fact, that any part of a sap- except the riblets, which have none, but are covered with v vessel is not only capable of emitting capillary absorbents hairs. At the mouth of the pore a vascular net-work is fi from its sides, but of exercising itself an absorbent func- always to be found, which he regards as a production from ti tion, whenever its cut extremity is brought into contact the larger vessels of the leaf. He asserts that pores are w with a fluid. These absorbents are formed very speedily found only in those parts where vessels go to terminate, a and in great multitudes on the roots of annual plants; and and not in others; and that in trees this structure occurs even in perennial plants they appear, like the leaves, to chiefly on the lower surface of the leaf, while in herbs it e suffer an annual decay, and to be reproduced with the re- is equally seen on both surfaces. The stem in general turn of vegetation. has few or no pores, except where it is soft and heroi’ffliles, ■ M. de Candolle describes a structure as existing at the baceous ; and even then the pores occur only in the deeper extremities of the roots and of the pistil, and also on the green furrows, not on the prominent lines which bound outer coat of seeds, which possesses a peculiar aptitude for them, and are usually covered with hairs. No pores are to absorption. To this structure he gives the name of spon- be found on roots or bulbs or fleshy fruits, but most of the giole: it is composed of small round cells, and in roots is organs above ground are more or less furnished with them. situated at all their fibrous extremities. The entire body Exposure to the air seems necessary to their formation; of each radical fibril is indeed made up of an analogous for plants, or parts of plants, that live beneath water or cellular tissue; but it is the extremity alone which actual- earth, are destitute of pores, but acquire them if brought ly absorbs, and which therefore possesses a peculiar ab- into the free air. Exclusion of light prevents also the forsorbent or hygroscopic power. The pistillary spongioles mation of pores; and hence etiolated plants are not furare in like manner situated at the extremity of that nished with them. {Mem. de VInstit. Nat. tome i. p. 351.) organ, and absorb the fecundating liquor. The third In general, his anatomical researches respecting the ex-

56 ANATOMY, VEGETABLE. Elementary istence of pores in leaves agreed with the results of Bon- foreign agents except heat, water, and air. On these Elen*, Organs, net’s experiments on the absorbing power of their surfaces ; shoots young bulbs, as large as the eggs of pigeons, are °fgii and when we consider that all plants and parts of plants sometimes to be found, and the substance of the oldS^ secluded from the air are at the same time destitute of bulb has in great part disappeared. In such cases, the111 pores, and of the power of absorbing by their surfaces, it matter from the cells of the old bulb must be considermay be inferred that the organs of absorption on the ex- ed as removed by absorption, and conveyed into the ternal surfaces of plants are the minute vascular produc- vessels of the shoot, where it was in part employed in tions which, in tender and succulent parts exposed to the forming the new organs of the young bulb, and in part air and light, everywhere perforate the cuticle, and form deposited, to experience, perhaps, in some future growth, in it those innumerable orifices which we denominate pores. similar successions of removal and deposition. In the Internal But the function of absorption in plants is not con- living parts of perennial plants, also, nutrient matter apabsorp- fined to the taking up of extraneous matters. Many facts pears to be alternately deposited and absorbed from the tion : prove that, in every part where active vegetation exists, cells during the active periods of vegetation ; and in the internal absorption is continually going on. The organs cellular tissue of herbaceous plants a similar deposition by which this absorption is immediately performed can- and absorption of fluids seems to be frequently taking not, perhaps, from their extreme delicacy and minuteness, place; so that, in all the vegetating parts of plants, these be rendered capable of anatomical demonstration; but alternate functions of secretion and absorption are more certain facts which occur in plants, coupled with certain or less constantly exercised. analogies derived from other organized textures, must, we A good illustration of the manner in which these func-in tmi think, carry complete conviction of their existence. In tions are alternately exercised is afforded by an exalmost every part, and on every surface of animal bodies, periment of M. de Candolle. The parasitic plant called the vessels which exercise absorption may be traced ; but misletoe draws its nourishment, as is well known, from the mouths or orifices by which they actually absorb are the tree on which it grows. M. de Candolle placed a scarcely ever to be seen. In one instance only, viz. in branch of an apple-tree, bearing a stalk of misletoe, in an the intestines, have they been followed to their begin- infusion of cochineal for five days. He then dissected it, nings, and discovered in the act of exercising their appro- and observed the coloured liquor to have risen through priate function. (Gordon’s System of Human Anat. vol. i. the wood and alburnum of the apple-branch, and reached p. 70.) But though their orifices remain in other parts the place of junction between it and the misletoe, which it undiscovered, no anatomist hesitates to admit their exist- strongly reddened; and from thence it penetrated into ence when he sees the canals of the vessels themselves the woody part of the misletoe. There did not, however, laden with blood, or milk, or bile; and seeing them thus appear to be a true anastomosis between the vessels of to convey fluids whose colour manifests their presence, these different plants; but, at the base of the misletoe, he equally believes them capable of absorbing and convey- where the parts were so deeply reddened, a minute celing other fluids, though they may not be visible to the lular structure was observed. Into these cells the vascueye. Believing further, that no solid part of the body, lar system of the apple appeared to deposit its sap, and nor even fluid part that has been deposited in close cavi- from them the capillary absorbents of the misletoe, distrities, can be removed in a natural manner from its place, buted upon the cells, seemed, like the ordinary absorbents but by the agency of these vessels, he comes to regard of roots, to take it up. {Mem. de Vlnstit. Nat. tome i. the simple fact of the disappearance of such solid or fluid p. 370.) From these and many similar facts it may be inpart as sufficient evidence of its absorption. ferred, that absorbents, communicating with the vessels of Now the facts and analogies on which internal ab- the plant, exist in every part, and that the removal of all in seeds; sorption rests in the vegetable system are precisely of the secreted matters from the cells and other close cavities of same nature, and the evidence of its existence is scarcely the vegetable, when effected by the living powers of the less complete. In every part of the cellular tissue of plant, is accomplished, as in animal bodies, by the exerplants various substances have been found which must cise of an absorbent function. have been primarily derived from the vessels, the only organs which furnish new materials to the plant. These Art. II.—Of the Exhalent System. substances, however, often disappear from the cells, and are again to be detected in the vascular system. Thus, But from their external surface, and from the same Organs in the seed, as will afterwards be shown, the cells of the parts as we have seen to exercise an absorbent function, exhalat cotyledon contain a solid unorganized matter, which could plants, in certain circumstances, give off a large quantity have been originally deposited in them only by means of of fluid by transpiration; and the organs by which this the vessels. During germination, this solid matter is ren- function is performed seem, from many considerations, to dered fluid, disappears from the cells, and is again to be be the same as those by which, under other circumstances, traced in the vessels on its way to afford nutriment to the absorption is accomplished. This function of transpiration radicle and plume. We say, then, that this unorganized is common to all terrestrial plants, and, with few excepmatter must have been taken up from the cells of the co- tions, all are more or less furnished with pores; hut it tyledon, and conveyed into the vascular system, by the does not occur in aquatic plants, according to De Candolle, agency of absorbent vessels, which, it is probable, are dis- which are destitute of pores. Fleshy leaves and fruits, tributed everywhere on the inner surface of these cells ; and the petals of flowers, which have but. few pores, just as, in the animal system, absorbent vessels are con- transpire little; and etiolated plants, which.are destitute sidered to take up the fat from the inner surface of the of pores, do not transpire at all. On the contrary, herbacells in which it is deposited, and convey it into the vessels ceous stems and plants, which have numerous pores, of the animal. throw off most fluid by transpiration. This general agreeThis alternate absorption and deposition of the nu- ment between the existence of pores and the exercise of trient matter of seeds is sometimes strikingly display- the transpiratory function leads to the presumption that ed in the growth of potatoes. It frequently happens that they are the orifices through which the fluids are dispotatoes lying in a damp cellar put forth shoots which charged ; and if it be admitted that these pores are situgrow to a considerable size, without the access of any ated at the extremity of the fine ramifications that come

ANATOMY, VEGETABLE. 57 ] emetary off from the vessels, their fitness for such an office cannot other plants equally destitute of pores, rapidly acquire Elementary be denied. Comparing these facts regarding transpiration when plunged in water. (Organog. Veget. tome i. p. 88.) Organs. with those previously stated concerning absorption, M. The view thus presented of the external absorbent Inte al ™ de Candolle is led to conclude that the pores on the sur- and exhalent vessels may probably be extended to the faces of plants are the organs by which these functions minute vascular productions which seem everywhere toancj ak_ are alternately carried on, according to the existing con- spring from the vessels internally. If secreting and ab-sorbing dition of dryness or humidity in the surrounding atmo- sorbing vessels be held to exist in every part of the plant, organs, they must everywhere communicate with the vascular sphere. ; -ae Repulsive as this conclusion may at first seem to system ; for it is from the vessels of this system that the tlio»‘ of our ordinary conceptions of organized bodies, yet there matter of their secretions is primarily derived, and it is sopon are many circumstances in the structure and habits of into the same vessels that, in many cases, these secretions plants that give to it great probability; so much so, that are subsequently returned. Nor does the exercise of the we ourselves had long since reached the same point by a two functions of secretion and absorption in plants preroute different from that pursued by M. de Candolle. It sent any apparent obstacle to the supposition of their is highly probable that the exhalents of the leaves are being performed at different times by the same organs. simple ramifications from the larger vessels, like the ca- Thus, when nutrient matter is deposited in the cellular pillary rootlets ; and as they have no valves in their canal, tissue of the seed, it is destined only for a future use; there is no mechanical impediment to their exercising an and the purpose of nature would be defeated were an abinverted action. The sap-vessels themselves readily ab- sorbent function to be at the same time employed for its sorb even coloured fluids when inverted; and though removal. On the other hand, when this matter is again their exhalent terminations are too fine to receive such taken up during the germination of the seed, no secreting fluids, yet why may they not, like the trunks from which function seems then to be exercised in that part; for the they spring, be capable of taking up ordinary fluids in organ itself, in many seeds, gradually wastes, and no fresh that manner? The fluids absorbed through the leaves matter is deposited in it. Even when the cotyledon to must at once enter the sap-vessels, for there is no com- a certain extent augments in size, its nutrient matter is mon reservoir to which they can first be carried; and it continually drawn off for the support of the radicle and is extremely improbable that, from the same parts of the plume, and no fresh matter of the same kind seems to be same vessels, exhalents and absorbents, capable of exer- then deposited; so that the same vessels which formerly cising only opposite functions, should at the same time exercised the function of secretion may, without disturbarise. In the animal system the exhalents spring from ing the economy of the plant, be now employed in the exarteries, and the absorbents terminate in veins; but in the ercise of absorption. As thus the two functions do not less complex structure of plants it seems demonstrable require to be performed in the same part at the same that both orders of vessels must at once communicate time, they may, if nothing else forbid, be exercised at difwith the same sap-vessels. It is therefore more proba- ferent times by the same organs. In the animal system, ble to suppose that, instead of two distinct orders of where the organs themselves are removed, secreting and vessels, as in animals,, one only should be provided, capa- absorbing vessels must necessarily co-exist; and to mainble, under different circumstances, of exercising different tain the integrity of parts, their functions must proceed functions. This vicarious office of the organs under con- at the same time, and to a certain extent balance each sideration leads to no confusion in its exercise; for the other; but as no similar operations appear to be carried on condition of the atmosphere, which favours transpiration, in the vegetable system, no such complex organization is is that which removes from the leaves the power of ab- required to sustain them. sorption ; and, on the contrary, absorption occurs only in a humid atmosphere, when, as Hales has shown, little or Section III. no transpiration takes place. Of the Cellular Tissue. apciv Besides exhalation carried on through visible pores, n. plants, like other bodies, lose their humidity by simple Art. I.—Description and Structure of the Cells. evaporation. This evaporation seems to go on in a moderate degree under favourable circumstances by day and The elementary organ denominated cellular tissue may Definition, by night, and is quite distinct from the copious transpira- be said to consist of a membranous substance, disposed tion that is carried on by the agency of solar light through into a great number of small circumscribed cavities, conthe pores. That the pores are exhaling organs, was an nected with each other, and arranged in rows or suites, opinion first advanced by Hedwig, and subsequently generally in a direction opposed to that of the tubes, illustrated by De Candolle, Sprengel, Link, and Rudol- which represent the vascular system. From Grew it rephi. (Organog. Vegetale, tome i. p. 86.) In like manner, ceived the appellation of parenchyma, a term still often though absorption may be carried on in certain circum- used in describing different parts of this tissue ; by Malstances through the pores of leaves, yet there are plants pighi, it was called the utricular substance; and it owes, which largely imbibe water, but in which few or no pores we believe, its present name to M. du Hamel. have been detected. Thus, fleshy leaves which have lost The cavities which distinguish its construction were Descriptheir moisture quickly regain it either when plunged in called indifferently bags or bladders, pores and cells, by Aon. water or exposed to rain, though they possess but few Grew; by Malpighi, utricles; by others, vesicles; and pores; and';The aquatic algae, says M. de Candolle, evi- more commonly cells. The form of these cells varies so dently imbibe water over their whole surface, though much, not only in different plants, but in different parts of they are wholly destitute of pores. He supposes that, the same plant, as to have authorized, in some degree, beside the ordinary pores which may be readily seen, these different appellations. The tissue which they conplants may be furnished with others that are invisible stitute enters into the composition of every organ in the from their extreme minuteness. By such pores we might more perfect plants. Of many herbaceous plants it forms account for the loss of weight which plants destitute of the chief portion, and some of the lower tribes of vegevisible pores gradually undergo when exposed to the free tables, as the algae, lichens, mushrooms, &c. are said to be air, and also for the increase of weight which mosses, and wholly composed of it; in other words, no vessels can be vol. in. H

58 ANATOMY, VEGETABLE. Elementary actually demonstrated in them. In most cases it contri- Grew remarked, that in the pith and bark of succulent Elemen, Organs. butes greatly to modify the form of organs, and adds al- plants the cells were often filled with aqueous juices, and Orgat, ways to their bulk and strength. Nothing can exceed in the same plant, at other periods, they appeared empty, the diversity of appearance in figure, bulk, and texture, or filled only with air. In the seed, the cells of the coty1 which it exhibits in the several parts, circumstances, and ledons contain minute unorganized particles, which, at a conditions in which it is placed. It represents sometimes future period, serve as nutriment for the young plantule. a lax cellular substance, all the parts of which are succu- Other particles of still smaller size, of a resinous nature lent and transparent; in other instances it is compressed and a green colour, exist in other parts of this tissue, and into a solid, opaque body, retaining but faint traces of its bestow on the plant its verdure. In every part of the former cellularity; and in others, again, it is spread out plant these cells are also the occasional receptacles of the into a most thin and delicate membrane, in which the peculiar fluids which both the sap-vessels and the proper cellular character is wholly lost. It everywhere envelopes vessels convey; and hence various gummy and resinous and holds together the vascular system, and seems to be substances, corresponding in quality to the fluids previousthe general receptacle of almost all the vegetable secre- ly existing in the vascular system, are frequently detected in them. In the pulp of fruits, the various acid, sacchations. Figure of The figure of the component cells of this tissue is rine, and austere juices that we meet with, are contained the cells; exceedingly various. Sometimes they have nearly a in different modifications of this tissue; and it is into its globular or spheroidal shape; in other instances they are cells that the osseous secretions, which constitute their angular, and exhibit in their section a greater or lesser shells and stones, are made. These facts prove not only number of sides and angles, being in a few examples tri- the great importance of this tissue in the construction of angular ; in others square, but more commonly hexago- the vegetable organs, but the active share it bears in the nal, the figure which collections of soft cells, mutually economy of their functions; and demonstrate likewise impressing each other, seem naturally disposed to assume. an universal communication between the vessels and the This form is represented in the transverse section of cells, cells. fig. 28, Plate XXXVIII.; they seem in this figure, and in The sides of these cells, when emptied of their con-struck most of those given in different works, to possess double tents, and viewed through the microscope, appear to be sides; but, as M. Kieser has remarked (Mtm. sur F Or- formed by a very fine transparent membrane, which some ganisat. des Plantes, p. 91), this appearance is produced maintain to be everywhere entire, and others to be perfoby the borders of the subjacent cells being seen through rated with pores. The same sources of error exist here the transparent sides of the superior layer. In Plate as before noticed in similar microscopical observations on XXXIX. fig. 16, is a representation of a transverse slice of the vascular system; and, accordingly, the respective disthe cellular part of sugar-cane, drawn from nature, and so putants maintain, with equal confidence, the same opinions thin as to exhibit only one layer of cells, in which the sides with regard to the porosity or non-porosity of the cells, as appear distinctly single ; but, in a thicker slice of the same they had previously held concerning the vessels. We plant, fig. 21, comprehending more than one layer, the must therefore call in the aid of other means besides double appearance becomes very evident. those of the microscope, for determining the important their size; The size of the cells varies not less than their figure fact whether the cells have or have not any direct comin different plants and in different parts of the same plant. munication with each other. In one of the plates of Grew they are represented as Dr Hooke examined the films or sides of the cells ofare ck possessing twenty different sizes, from that of a minute cork, of the pith of elder, and of many other plants, forcavities pore, to the size of a common pea. Hooke examined the very purpose of discovering whether any direct comthem in cork, and in the pith of many plants. In cork munication existed between them; but “ each cavern or he reckoned several lines of these cells or pores, as cell,” says he, “ is distinctly separate from the rest, withhe calls them, and found there were about sixty placed out any kind of hole in the encompassing filmsnor could endwise in one eighteenth part of an inch, or somewhat he, with his microscope, nor by his breath, nor by any more than a thousand in the length of an inch; and, other way that he tried, “ discover a passage out of one of therefore, in a square inch above a million, and in a cubic those cavities into another.” (Micrographia, p. 116.) inch above 1200 millions. (Mierograpkia, p. 114.) In Dr Grew describes the little cells or bladders that comthis substance the cells are not visible by the naked eye, pose the bark of roots as possessing a spheroidal shape in but become very distinct when highly magnified. In most plants. When viewed with the microscope, their most plants, however, they are readily visible, and their sides are as transparent as water; and “ none of them,” appearance is familiar to every one. he adds, “ are visibly pervious from one into another, but When viewed in a longitudinal section, their hexagonal each is bounded within itself.” (Anat. of Plants, p. 64.) form is much less distinct, and is sometimes wholly lost. Both Hooke and Grew, however, believed a communicaIn fig. 22, Plate XXXIX., is a series of single columns of tion to exist between the cells, from the fact of their conthe cells of sugar-cane, in which each cell is, to appear- taining liquor; and Malpighi held the same opinion from ance, bounded only by four sides. Similar representations similar considerations ; but they nowhere describe the are given by Hooke of the cells in cork, and by Kieser in mode or structure by which they conceived it to be acmost of the figures which exhibit longitudinal sections of complished. the cellular tissue; but in some instances the hexagonal Later writers have not only adopted this opinion, form is visible even in these sections. In fig. 23 of the but professed to demonstrate the structure by which the •came plate we have given, in outline, the appearance of communication is maintained. M. Mirbel describes the two series of columns of these transparent cells, in which sides of the cells as composed of an extremely thin, one series is seen behind the other, and gives somewhat colourless, and transparent membrane, which is commonof the confused double appearance exhibited in the trans- ly perforated with pores, the diameter of whose aperture verse section, fig. 21. is not perhaps the 300th part of a millimetre. These contents; The nature of the matter contained in the cells of pores are ranged generally in transverse series, and this tissue varies according to the part in which it exists, through them, it is said, the cellular tissue both receives and the peculiar powers of the plant. Both Hooke and fluids from the vessels, and transmits them very slowly

ANATOMY, VEGETABLE. 59 gether deny their existence ; but M. Kieser contends stre-Elementary through its cells. {Exposition de la Theorie, &c. p. 105.) M. Sprengel and some others adopt this view of the po- nuously for it. He describes them as small interstices Organs, rosity of the cells; but it is denied by Link, Treviranus, situated at the angles of the hexagonal cells, and formed and Kieser. The latter author declares, that notwith- not by any sides of their own, but by the mutual approach standing all that has been said concerning the pores in the of three contiguous cells, and possessing, therefore, a prissides of the cells, his observations, made with the greatest matic form. These interstices he conceives to exist at care and exactness, have not enabled him to discover the every angle, and thus every cell to be surrounded by slightest trace of them. The sides of the cells, he adds, them. In fig. 29, Plate XXXVIII., the black angular are always formed by a membrane extremely thin, but al- points denote their place. By their conjunction with together smooth and uniform; and the cells themselves each other they form a canal, which, when the hexagonal have never an open communication with each other. figure is perfect, and the cells are ranged horizontally, extends both in a longitudinal and transverse direction; (Kieser sur V Organisat. des Plantes, p. 94.) If, then, no pores exist in the sides of the cells for and when the cells are placed obliquely, the canals have tie C the reception and transmission of the fluids they contain, a similar direction. Their size varies according to that some other means must be provided for the accomplish- of the cells, by the sides of which they are constructed; ment of these objects. M. Link, accordingly, supposes they contain and convey the proper juices in the bark, the juices to pass from one cell to another by transudation. but in the pith are often dry; and their course is said to M. Rudolphi thinks that a decomposition of the fluid is terminate only with that of the cells themselves, at the effected by the cells themselves, during which it is trans- surface of the plant. {Mem. sur V Organisat. des Plantes, mitted through their sides; and M. Dutrochet calls in p. 104.) Such are the organs which, as we have seen, the aid of electrical agency. To us there occur no pro- M. Kieser considers to convey both the sap and the probable means of accomplishing these operations, consistent- per juices in plants. That in some circumstances they ly with the integrity of the cellular structure, but the may exist, and become reservoirs of the sap or other exercise of those alternate functions of secretion and ab- juices, seems highly probable; but of the impropriety of sorption which, from so many other considerations, we ascribing to such casual productions the performance of have supposed to be carried on in every living part of the the primary functions of the vegetable system, we have already spoken. vegetable system. The cellular tissue, as described above, is that form Changes of Another question of importance in relation to the sides f°rms in the of the cells is, whether they are single or double; that of it which must be regarded as the most perfect. From ce is, whether each cell has a side of its own, or whether one various causes, however, it is subject to great alterations. ^ ‘ side is in every position common to two cells. Mirbel In herbs, and in the pith and succulent parts of trees, the asserts the former, and Kieser maintains the latter opi- cells preserve their original form and appearance for a nion. In fig. 29, Plate XXXVIII., is an outline representa- considerable time; but by the growth of the other parts, tion of these double sides as given by Kieser. From the and consequent extension and compression they expeextreme thinness of the membrane, it is very difficult, he rience, they acquire in the bark and wood an elongated says, to distinguish this double structure; but where the figure, and this both in a transverse and longitudinal dicells are large, and a glass that magnifies highly is em- rection. In the latter case they surround and connect ployed, each partition that separates two cells is distinctly the layers of vessels with each other, constituting what seen to be composed of two membranes, which are some- has been named the parenchyma of the bark and wood. times separated about the middle of the partition, and In this form their size is often greatly reduced, their caunited towards the angular points. {Mem. sur l Organi- vities sometimes obliterated, and their cellular character sat. des Plantes, p. 91.) MM. Amici, Dutrochet, De altogether effaced. In other instances traces of a cellular Candolle, and others, support this opinion. (See Organog. structure are occasionally visible, appearing in detached Veg. tome i. p. 21.) The existence of this double struc- portions among the perpendicular vessels. In some plants ture receives some countenance from the fact observed in the cells become elongated in a longitudinal direction, the construction of the honeycomb by the late Dr Bar- and yet preserve their capacity nearly unchanged. It was clay, who says that each side of every cell in the comb is probably this form of cell that led Malpighi to regard composed of two plates, or is double. ( Wernerian Trans- sometimes as a vessel, what, in reality, appears to be only actions, vol. ii.) It may still, however, be more properly a series of elongated cells. To his representation of these said, that each side of every cell is truly single, and is cells, as given fig. 18, Plate XXXIX., we have before referrendered double only by coming into contact with the red. M. Kieser considers these elongated cells as forming the ligneous fibres of the wood, and that the bark is almost corresponding side of an adjacent cell. lerolu ■ When the cells have a regular hexagonal figure, and entirely formed of them. {Mem. sur V Organisat. des Plantes, caials. are equally distended with their appropriate juices, there p. 99, 101.) These cells, he says, were originally round; is no reason to suppose that any vacuities are left be- but in trees they become so much lengthened as to exhitween their sides or angles. Mathematicians have long bit the form of a tube. It is easy, however, he adds, to since demonstrated a regular hexagon to be one of those detect transverse partitions in these seeming tubes, which, figures that completely fill up a given space; and that no having often a diagonal direction, give to these cells the , vacuities can exist either about its sides or its angles. form of a double pyramid with sharp points. The memWhere, however, the cells deviate from this regular brane which forms these cells is, in all trees except the figure, and more or less approach to a spherical form, va- ConifercB and some others, smooth, without pores, and cuities or interstices may readily be conceived to occur. transparent. {Ibid. p. 299.) To these organs Treviranus These vacuities are said to have been first noticed by gave the name of fibrous utricles; by De Candolle they Grew and Leeuwenhoeck, and afterwards by M. Trevira- are called tubulated cells; and Dutrochet, from their nus, who describes them as interstices left between the spindle shape, denominates them, as we have seen, clostres. cells in their mutual approximations towards each other. His representation of them, fig. 17, Plate XXXIX., corHe gave them the name of intercellular canals, as already responds with the foregoing description of Kieser. From suffering compression in a transverse direction, stated. Gn the other hand, MM. Mirbel and Rudolphi alto- the cells have frequently their longer diameter thrown

ANATOMY, VEGETABLE. 60 Elementary into that position, and thus extend from the centre to tion, we have given the name of common textures, because Comma Organs, the circumference of the plant. This position, as will af- they are very generally to be found in all plants, and in Text**, terwards be shown, was fully noticed by Grew and Mal- almost all parts of them, howsoever varied in quantity,v pighi. Leeuwenhoeck also observed it, but mistook the proportion, and arrangement. These textures are famicells thus elongated for vessels, and considered their par- liarly known under the names of cuticle or skin, of bark, titions as valves,—errors which M. Kieser, as well as of wood, and of pith; to which may be assigned the geothers, duly points out. In this transverse direction the neral appellations of the cuticular, the cortical, the ligtissue forms partitions more or less large between the ves- neous, and medullary textures. All the several textures just enumerated are readilyTheirp, sels, as will afterwards be shown; and by the obliteration don var;, of its cells it is frequently reduced to the condition of a distinguished by their different places and charactersous in the section of most arborescent plants, in which they * solid membrane. Ituptures Besides these more constant and necessary changes commonly appear well defined, and perfectly distinct from of the cells. in the figure and character of the cellular tissue, it often each other. In many plants, however, both herbs and suffers others of a more casual and accidental nature. In trees, this distinction of parts is not preserved; but, with the pith, as the plant grows up, divers ruptures, says Grew, the exception of the cuticle, all the other textures are occur, oftentimes very regularly, and observed constantly blended together through the entire substance of the in the same species of plant. These ruptures are some- plant, as was long since noticed both by Malpighi and times prolonged, so as to form a tube of considerable Grew. “ In the stalk of maize or Indian wheat,” says length. {Anatomy of Plants, p. 120.) Others have ob- Grew, “ the work of nature appears less diversified; in r served similar canals in the pith, formed not by sides which, although there are the same parenchymous and ligof their own, but by those of the adjacent cells, and neons parts as in all other plants, yet is there neither bark very various in size and form. They have been called nor pith, the vessels being dispersed and mixed with the lacunce, or reservoirs, contain a variety of substances, and parenchyma, from the circumference to the centre of the Cells con- sometimes, especially in aquatic plants, only air. As we stalk.” “ The like structure,” he adds, “ may also be tain vesi- have seen the cavities of the larger spiral vessels to be seen in the sugar-cane and some other plants.” {Anat. of cles. filled with vesicles, so the larger cells of the pith, accord- Plants, p. 104.) Similar observations were made by Maling to Grew, frequently contain smaller ones, or are di- pighi, not only on different species of wheat and sugarvided by cross membranes. A similar observation is made cane, but on ferns and palms. “ In ferns,” says he, “ the by Kieser, who likewise remarks that, in the empty cells vascular fasciculi are numerous, but placed without order, of Calla, JEthiopica, he has sometimes seen small round- and are everywhere sustained by the intervening cellular headed bodies, supported on little peduncles, which spring tissue, the cells of which are sometimes much smaller than from the sides, and point towards the centre of the cells. the orifices of the vessels themselves.” Anat. Plantar. Small crystallized bodies are also occasionally found in p. 24, 25.) This structure is represented in the transverse the cavities of the cells, and within the intercellular ca- section of the sugar-cane, Plate XXXIX. fig. 25; and in nals. {Mem. sur T Organisat. des Plantes, p. 94.) Of a similar section of the palm, fig. 26 of the same plate. This variety of structure, thus clearly described, and Theory I those changes in the character of the cellular tissue, by which its cells are converted into receptacles and reser- distinctly delineated in the works of Malpighi and Grew, Desfon. voirs of the proper juices of the plant, we before dis- has likewise been noticed by M. Desfontaines. ye_ tames; coursed when treating of the proper vessels. To such an getables, according to him, may be distinguished into extent does this change sometimes proceed, that, in aged two divisions: Is#, Those which have no distinct concenoaks, and, according to Kieser, in guaiacum, and probably tric layers, whose solidity decreases from the circumfein many other plants, the whole cellular tissue becomes rence towards the centre, and whose pith is interposed filled with these secreted matters, and the distinctive cha- among the vessels, and does not extend in divergent rays: racters of the cells, and almost of the vessels themselves, 2d, Vegetables which have distinct concentric layers, are obliterated and lost. whose solidity decreases from the centre towards the circumference, and whose pith is contained in a longitudinal canal, and extends in divergent rays. The former strucCHAP. II. ture he considers as peculiar to plants whose seeds are THE ANATOMY IN GENERAL OF THE COMMON TEXTURES monocotyledonous, and the latter as belonging to those which have dicotyledonous seeds. {Mem. de Vlnstitut. OF VEGETABLES. Nat. tome i. p. 478.) This opinion, though partly correct, is not universallyimperfeiPreliminary Observations. applicable. That many plants which spring from moNature of The elementary organs, whose description has so long nocotyledonous seeds are destitute of concentric layers, the com- occupied our attention, form, either singly or by their and have no distinct bark or pith, is certain; but it is not tures eX" combination, all the other parts of plants. Some of the less certain that many herbaceous plants, which are prolower tribes of vegetables consist entirely of cellular tis- duced from dicotyledonous seeds, are pretty much in the sue, in which no vessels are at any period to be seen ; same condition, being equally destitute of concentric ' and, even in the higher orders, many parts exhibit no ap- layers and of divergent rays, and in which the bark and pearance of a vascular structure. There can be little the pith must be regarded as one continuous structure. doubt, however, of the existence of such a structure, On the other hand, some monocotyledonous plants, as since, physiologically speaking, we can form no just con- M. Desfontaines admits, may deviate a little from the preception of the growth of an organized body, without asso- scribed conditions. In a paper on the organization of such ciating with it the existence of a vascular system. In all plants, M. Mirbel, who regards this doctrine as the most plants the pith consists of a cellular tissue alone. In her- important step made of late years in Vegetable Anatomy, baceous plants this tissue forms their greater portion; but says, nevertheless, it would be erroneous to assert that in trees the number of vessels is so great as to constitute they have never a bark. In several species of plants he the chief bulk of the plant. To certain forms of these produces examples to the contrary; and adds, that in elementary organs, whether existing singly or in combina- some instances their diametral growth goes on at the cir-

ANATOMY,

VEGETABLE. 61 contained juice concretes or possesses a dark colour. Common yornron cumference, which would seem to approximate them to I/ exta:9. dicotyledons. As, however, there is no appearance of di- (Anat. Plantar, p. 4.) It is probable, however, that the Textures. v«-Vw/vergent rayS? or 0f concentric layers, these examples are organs here considered to be vessels may in some cases c considered by him rather to confirm than overturn the be cells, into which these juices have been poured; but 1 theory of M. Desfontaines. ( Annales du Mus. d’Hist. Nat. where real vessels of this kind are found, they are not to I tome xiii. p. 67.) But if in this theory its second divi- be considered as a part of the original structure of the s sion embrace only those plants in which the concentric pith, but occurring only in consequence of the changes ' layers are perfect, and divergent rays exist, then it ex- which the vegetable body undergoes in the progress of ! eludes a great number of herbaceous plants, whose seeds its growth. The general nature of the pith is thus clearly an- Its nature, have two cotyledons; and if the absence of these regular nounced by Grew. “ Although,” says he, 11 it have a diflayers, and of divergent rays, serve as a passport to the [ first division, then many of these same plants must be ferent name from the parenchyma in the bark and the ina admitted among those whose seeds have but one cotyle- sertions in the wood, yet, as to its substance, it is the very ^ don. The theory of M. Desfontaines, therefore, rests on same with them both ; whereof there is a double evidence, II viz. their continuity and the sameness of their texture too partial an observation of the structure of plants. so that all these parts are “ one entire piece of work, being only filled up in divers manners with the vessels.” Section I. (Anatomy of Plants, p. 119.) This continuity of the pith Of the Pith or Medullary Texture. with the cellular tissue, of the bark, by means of the inserie 51 The pith (medulla) of plants, when present, occu- tions or transverse ranges of utriculi, as he calls them, is P pies the centre of the stem, where it is commonly sur- also adduced by Malpighi as evidence of the similarity of P r rounded by a circle of vessels which construct for it an their nature, and of the pith being, as it were, an intera appropriate canal. In the succulent shoots of trees, its cepted portion of the bark (Anat. Plantar, p. 4, 30); an proportion to the other parts is generally large ; but it di- opinion which seems abundantly confirmed by the interP n minishes as the tree advances in age, and is frequently mixture of the medullary and cortical textures in many e entirely obliterated. Where the vessels of the wood are plants, in which, as already remarked, the distinctive f few in number, as in herbs, only a few fasciculi are seen characters of bark and pith are alike lost, and the entire t to surround the pith, and the intervening spaces are oc- stem exhibits only one uniform appearance of structure. The term medulla, employed by the ancients to note Errors cupied by a boundary of thickened cellular tissue. In some plants, again, no pith whatever exists, but the stem this texture, derived its origin, no doubt, from the re-concerning 1 is hollow or tubular. In other instances, and especially semblance which the pith in the centre of trees bore *'’ in roots, the centre of the stem is occupied by vessels; to the marrow in the bones of animals; and as the same and in others, both cells and vessels, promiscuously blend- term, in animal anatomy, was incorrectly employed to express alike the marrow in the bones and the nervous ed together, constitute the centre of the stem. In those plants where the pith is present, and pos- substance in the vertebral column, so the same latitude of ■scr|. in. sesses its most perfect form, it is seen to be composed signification has been extended to the vegetable system. t entirely of cellular tissue, possessing often very different Hence, as Malpighi remarks, the medulla in vegetables s. shades of colour, but, in its anatomical characters, re- was regarded as analogous in its nature to the brain of St sembling exactly the description already given of that tis- animals,—a doctrine which even later writers have contiSI sue. Its bulk in different plants is exceedingly different, nued to espouse. It is not our present intention to deai as are also the form and size of its cells. It is frequently scribe the uses of the pith, but only to remove erroneous ei entirely insulated by the surrounding vessels, but is often opinions concerning its nature, and restore to it that just C( continuous with the cellular tissue of the bark. Its cells anatomical character long since assigned it by Malpighi C( contain, especially in the early age of the plant, aqueous and Grew, and which some writers have of late put forth fli fluids, which afterwards disappear, and then the cells be- as a considerable novelty. C( come filled only with air. The “ proper juices” of the plant Section II. rr may also be sometimes detected in the cells of the pith. 0 Of the ruptures produced in it by desiccation and other Of the Wood or Ligneous Texture. a causes, we have already spoken in discoursing of the celli Immediately surrounding and enveloping the pith is The wood, lular tissue: they occur particularly in succulent plants, w where the cells are large, and their sides thin; so that as the part called the wood (lignum vel lignea portio of Maltl the plant advances to maturity, the pith breaks and shrinks pighi). It is essentially composed of vessels and of celU| I up, making the trunk a pipe. (Grew’s Anatomy of Plants. lular tissue, but combined in such an infinite variety of p. 129.) We have also noticed the fact, that, within the proportions, and exhibiting such a boundless diversity of p Cl cavities of the larger cells of the pith, new vesicular pro- forms, that it is difficult to seize even its more general features, without the risk of extending our description d ductions are sometimes found. sselfin Grew speaks of the existence of vessels in the pith beyond the limits which our plan necessarily prescribes. Except in those vegetables in which no vessels have j)escrip. 0“ p4- of certain plants, as in that of the fig and the pine; but l ! he adds, that they are usually so postured as to form a been hitherto demonstrated, but in which they must ne-tion. r ! ring about its margin. (Anatomy of Plants, p. 119.) vertheless be presumed to exist, this texture may be conThey are doubtless to be considered as enlarged proper sidered to form a part not only of every plant, but of all 1 vessels, which made a part of the first ligneous circle, and its organs; for into whatever part fluids are conveyed, n h i have retained therefore nearly the situation in which they vessels must be supposed to extend; and wherever veswere originally formed. Hence, as he observes, they are sels are present, cellular tissue is to be found: hence, in w of divers kinds, answerable to those of the bark, contain- its distribution, it may be considered the most universal of oi ing in the fig a milky juice, and in the pine a resinous all the textures. In trees, the vessels, as we have fre-jn 0rdiin substance. Similar vessels, containing a “ proper juice,” quently remarked, are very numerous, and, when viewed nary trees, st were observed also in the pith of elder by Malpighi, who in a transverse section, are seen to be disposed in layers w seems to regard such appearances as common where the or concentric circles around the axis, and to stand also iu se

62 ANATOMY, VEGETABLE. Common lines or radii, diverging from the centre of the tree. (See preserve always the same position, the fasciculi being Com, < Textures, fig. 4 Plate XL.) Between each line or ray of vessels a placed at the same relative distance fiom each other and exturq "■^~'tlhn partition of cellular tissue is interposed, which ex- from the common centre of the pith. Sometimes, insteadH tends in the direction of the ray, through the entire sub- of a few solitary fasciculi, they consist or several ranges, stance of the wood. At certain distances, varying in dif- forming an imperfect sort of concentric layers ; and in such ferent trees, thicker transverse portions of the same sub- examples the ligneous texture is commonly separated by stance are placed, and are readily distinguishable in almost distinct but irregular marks from the two other textures, every species of wood. Between each layer that is an- In these plants the cellular tissue preserves its characters, nually added to the wood, and each of the smaller layers and exhibits no appearance of divergent rays, that cro to the formation of the larger one, cellular tissue The three modes of arrangement above described Causey seems also in some trees to be longitudinally interposed ; appear to constitute the chief varieties of structure in the^s varie, so that it is probable that in both directions each fasci- ligneous texture ; but in each variety, and through every cuius of vessels is intercepted by cellular tissue, and that stage by which they graduate into one another, the greatin such trees no two fasciculi are on any side in immediate est diversity of forms prevails. Each species of plant has contact with each other. It is even probable that the its peculiar internal structure, as well as its external form; individual vessels which contribute to form the fasciculi and this seems to be in a great measure determined by are themselves connected by intervening cellular tissue, the number of vessels that enter into its composition, and which acts like the neurilema that holds together the fila- their peculiar mode of arrangement. If the vessels are ments of the fasciculi in the nerves, or the cellular sub- few, the cellular tissue is large in proportion, and its stance that connects the primary filaments in the muscular characters are distinct and well preserved; if they are fibres of animals. In this manner, the whole vascular numerous, and disposed in rays, the tissue is compressed system of the plant is everywhere connected and held in various directions, loses more or less completely its celto^ether by cellular tissue. Of this tissue, and the dif- lular character, and forms alike those divergent rays or ferent figures its cells acquire, from the different modes transverse partitions already so often noticed, and those and degrees of compression to which they are exposed, thin membranous expansions or fascia; which, both in the we have already spoken. bark and wood, are seen sometimes to cover the vessels In palms. In many trees, however, as palms, the vascular fas- in a longitudinal direction. Though the whole of the ciculi, though numerous, are much less abundant than ligneous texture is thus made up of vessels and cells, vanin the examples just referred to. They are consequently ously formed and blended together, yet many wiiters placed at a greater distance from each other, and, not speak of ligneous fibres, which some describe as consistbeing disposed in regular lines, do not constitute that ing of vessels, others of cells, and others of an assemjd radiant appearance so common in ordinary trees, but are blage both of cells and vessels. _ U promiscuously dispersed through the cellular tissue. (See The manner, too, or rather the place, m which the fio-. 26, Plate XXXIX.) As this tissue itself is not, from the vessels are developed, in perennial plants, will greatly same causes, compressed either in the direction or to the contribute to vary the appearance of the ligneous texture, extent before described, the smaller membranous parti- In those trees whose diameter is annually increased by tions that divide the vascular radii from each other are the formation of new vessels around the cylinder of older not produced; neither, for similar reasons, is there any wood, the new parts must necessarily present in thendistinct appearance of the larger partitions that, at certain longitudinal section the appearance of annual layers sudistances, intersect the diameter of other trees. The cel- perimposed on one another, and, in their transverse seclular tissue, therefore, in such plants, retains more of its tion, that of concentric circles; but in palms and similar primitive character, and appears everywhere to surround trees, where the development of new parts seems to be the vascular fasciculi, but nowhere to be so compressed accomplished in a different manner, their appearance, as to form solid partitions between them. In some plants under similar sections, may be expected to be different, which possess this structure, as the sugar-cane (fig. 25, In a longitudinal section of the palm, says M. Desfon- Strut Plate XXXIX.), the cells indeed retain their perfect forms ; taines, we discover an assemblage of large ligneous fibres ot pal and even the fasciculi of vessels, though standing at consi- (that is, vascular fasciculi), solid, smooth, and flexible; derable distances from each other, have towards the centre and these are composed of others still smaller, which are of the plant a symmetrical arrangement. This latter cir- firmly united together: they mostly run parallel to the axis cumstance is observable in many other plants, which have of the trunk, from the base to the summit, without intereven fewer vessels than the sugar-cane; so that it is pro- ruption ; but some proceed obliquely, and cross the others fiable that, in the first instance, it takes place in all; and at angles more or less sharp. (See fig. 2|, Plate XXXIX.) that the irregular position of the vessels in the palm and In a transverse section of the same stem, continues the similar trees, particularly towards their circumference, author, we remark neither concentric circles nor transproceeds from the peculiar modes of their growth, and are verse partitions; but the fasciculi of vessels, placed without not a primary condition of their structure. This inter- order by the side of each other, are enveloped by the celmixture of the vessels and cells in the plants now under lular tissue, which fills up all the intervals : they sensibly consideration extends from the circumference to the approach each other, harden and diminish in size in procentre, so as to constitute their entire bulk, to the exclu- ceeding from the centre to the circumference (see fig. 26, sion of bark and pith ; unless we choose rather to say Plate XXXIX.) ; so that the stem has much more strength that in such plants the medullary, ligneous, and cortical and solidity near the surface than in the interior,—an ortextures, are all blended together. ganization quite distinct from that of ordinary trees. In herbs. In other examples the vessels form a still smaller porThe cause of this diversity of structure seems to Thei tion of the ligneous texture, consisting only of a few be amply accounted for by the different modes in whichtfro'v fasciculi, which stand at considerable distances from each the growth of these trees is accomplished. When the other, the intervening spaces being occupied by cellular seed of a palm is sown, the leaves, says M. Desfontaines, tissue which forms the chief bulk of the plant. (Fig. 15, successively develope and augment in number for four or Plate XXXIX.) Though few in number, the vessels, how- five years ; the neck of the root augments in the same ever, are symmetrically disposed, and in the same species proportion ; the bulbous part, formed by the re-union of

r ANATOMY,

VEGETABLE. -onaon the petioles of the leaves, increases insensibly; its soli- which, like our ordinary trees, augment in size by the de- Common Fevires. dity augments, and at length the stem rises above the position of new matter near the surface, are named Ex- Textures, ^ earth with all the size it ever acquires. Its figure is cy- ogenous ; and those which, like palms, grow' from within, lindrical from the base to the summit; and if the diame- Endogenous. ter be measured at different epochs, it will be seen, as Section III. Ksempfer had already remarked, not to increase. The palm, therefore, is a regular column, whose summit is Of the Bark or Cortical Texture. crowned with leaves, disposed above each other circularThis texture, in its component parts, resembles that of The bark, 1 ]y: those which grow in spring shoot always from the top; the older ones, placed below, dry, and when they the wood, being made up, like it, of vessels and cellular fall leave circular impressions, which furrow the surface of tissue intimately connected with each other. Its structure, the stem, and mark its years until it has ceased to grow. as a distinct texture, is best characterized in the bark of in trees, If next we examine the interior, we discover, as M. ordinary trees, as it is there separated, in a great measure, Desfontaines thinks, the true reason why the stem rises from the ligneous texture. As in these plants a new in a column, and does not, like other trees, yearly aug- layer of vessels is annually made to the wood, so a simiment in size. This was done by M. Daubenton, who lar but much thinner layer is yearly added to the bark, states that every leaf of the date-palm, in proceeding to which the name of liber has commonly been applied. from the bud, is formed by a prolongation of the vascu- These vessels are at first straight, and run parallel to the lar fasciculi and cellular tissue which exist in the trunk axis of the trunk ; but, by the successive formation of new of the tree, as is apparent in the petiole of the recent layers beneath them, they are gradually forced outward, leaves, and of the dried ones that adhere to the trunk. become separated more and more from each other, and, The elongation of the trunk is produced, therefore, by touching in a few points only, exhibit at length a reticuthe leaves which annually proceed from it; and as the lated figure (see fig. 24, Plate XXXVIIL), the meshes of parts which form these leaves spring from the centre, they which yearly augment in size, from the greater space over always, as they shoot, force the older leaves outwards. which they are continually spread. Between the vessels thus annually formed, a consider-is united Hence, therefore, as the augmentation of these trees orito the ginates at the centre, all the parts capable of displace- able portion of cellular tissue is interposed, which, in thewo ment must be pushed outwards, just as the new layers of young and succulent state of parts, contributes chiefly to °dbark and wood, formed annually in ordinary trees, force the thickness of the bark. This tissue is variously compressed by the vessels, so as to form transverse partitions outward the older layers of bark exterior to them, ffe ii of In these latter trees, continues M. Daubenton, the re- between them, which, in the vine, the oak, and many ■oHti on cession of the bark has no limits so long as new parts other trees, as both Grew and Malpighi remarked, are rutare * continue to be formed beneath it, because the new cor- seen to be continuous with those of the wood ; and in this tical layers are flexible, and the older ones readily break way the two textures are united together. In the exand give way; but in the palm the substance of the pressive language of Grew, the bark, therefore, does not trunk has more compactness as we approach the circum- “ merely surround the wood as a scabbard does a sword, ference, and, at a certain point of density, it no longer or a glove the hand, but is truly continuous with it, as the yields to the central force of the interior parts; so that skin of the body is with the flesh.” In the willow and when this point is reached, no further enlargement takes other trees, when full of sap, the bark is so easily separatplace; and hence the date-palm scarcely exceeds ten inches ed that it seems to have no connection with the wood; diameter. It is for similar reasons that the trunk of the but this is supposed by Grew to arise merely from the exdate-palm is of the same size through its entire length; treme fineness and tenderness of the vessels that are anfor, in proportion as the tree rises, the exterior parts of nually formed in that part, and which on that account the trunk lose successively their flexibility; and when oppose no obstacle to the separation. (Anat. of Plants, they have acquired a certain degree of density they no p. 129.) It is probable, however, that the cellular tissue longer yield to the force from within; and as this is forms the only direct connection between the cortical and equally the case in all parts, the trunk is necessarily of ligneous textures; and that, if a vascular communication the same size throughout. (Mem. de VInstit. Nat. tome i. exist, it is only, as in all other cases, through the medium of that tissue. p. 482, &c.) Besides the transverse compression which the cellular Altered by It is further evident that, in this mode of growth, no appearance of concentric circles, similar to those of ordi- tissue experiences from the vessels, it is compressed in pressure, nary trees, can have place; for, by the growth at the the opposite direction by the formation of the new layers centre, the exterior vessels are continually displaced from of bark and wood beneath the older bark. These in the their original positions, are more and more compressed progress of their growth exert an expansive force outas they are forced towards the circumference, and pre- wards, so that the cells of the tissue are made to assume Isent in their transverse section that irregular distribution an oblong or flattened form in the direction of the vessels which they have been described to possess. Hence the of the trunk, or sometimes to form a thin fascia upon the cylindrical figure and the absence of concentric layers are vessels, in which the cellular character is nearly or entireas necessary consequences of the mode of growth in ly obliterated. It is by the continued exertion of this these trees, as the presence of those layers and the force acting on the exterior and desiccated layers that conical figure are of the mode of growth in ordinary trees. these latter ultimately crack, producing figures of differThe greater solidity of the parts at the circumference ent sizes, which have frequently the shape of rhombs, the is clearly to be ascribed to the same cause; and even fissures of which represent, according to Grew, the posithe want of regular transverse partitions must in part tion and track of the vessels in their reticulations. (Anat. also have a similar origin, and be ascribed, perhaps, of Plants, p. 129.) The spaces or meshes formed by in part to the smaller number of vessels which these these reticulations are always filled up by cellular tissue, plants possess, as well as to their irregular distribution, which, in the opinion of Malpighi, originates from the from this difference in their mode of growth, these two vessels themselves. great divisions have received different names: those Both in the vessels and cells of this texture, collections

ANATOMY, VEGETABLE 64 t] Common of the “ proper juices” frequently occur; especially in plants ^jer^ Xe - U Textures. in which these juices are of a viscid nature, and disposec these several textures, as they exist in leaves^k^'\ e! Contains proper juices. of wood, and even in the pith of certain trees, it is only Section IV. in plants in which the “ proper juices” are coloured, or disposed to concrete, that this intermixture of the cortical Of J the Connection subsisting between the Vessels and Cells in the several Textures. and ligneous textures has been traced through the whole substance of the tree; but it is probable, from the conIn our discussion of these several textures, we have Mode d junction of the vessels of the bark and wood at the period noticed only in a general way the direct means by connect of their formation, that it is common to other plants, the which the vessels and cells that construct them are con-otvj nature and properties of whose juices afford no clew to its nected with each other ; but, when treating of the sapdetection. , . . ^ vessels, of the absorbent vessels, and of the cellular tissue, In most herbaceous plants, the cortical texture is we endeavoured to show that an universal communicaThe bark in herbs; not so clearly distinguished from the ligneous, since in tion obtains between these elementary organs, and consethem the greatest variety obtains both in regard to the quently inferred that some mode of connection, by which number and relative position of the sap and “ proper ves- it can be accomplished, must have place. Grew consider-Opinioc sels and very frequently the cellular tissue is quite conthe vascular and cellular parts to be connected with of Gm tinuous and of uniform appearance through the entire ed each other, not only by the transverse partitions of cellusubstance of the plant. In general, however, the sap-ves- lar substance that intercept the vessels, but “ per minisels occupy the inner place, and are surrounded by the mas partes organicas; that is to say, the paienchymous “ proper vessels,” disposed either in rings or distinct fasci- fibres are wrapped round about the vessels, or at least inculi, more or fewer in number. Sometimes the sap-vessels terwoven with them, and with every fibre of every vessel, seem to be placed exterior to the others ; and hence it is difficult to discover the true place of the “ proper vessels as in very white ash or fir wood may be observed. {^Anat. difficult

boundaries of the cortical and^igne-

C 1 S in palms; t ^ph^: trS=: of “ proper vessels” with those that carry sap seems to be general through thfwhole plant and consequently no distinction can be made be^veeiTithe^gneous and corfical textures. In such nlants the “ proper juices” must be considered to exist in every part • and accordingly Malpighi, as we before remarked points out a vas proprium, or “ proper vessel,” as accompanying every fascicukis of vessels in different spe•p. J wheaX (Anat Plantar, p. 24.) From the simiSv of slue Jrf to pita and especially from their y •. . . i-..i i ^ mode of growth, there can be little doubt that a similar intermixture of the two kinds of vessels prevails everywhere in them; and with respect to these plants, what has already been said of the construction of the ligneous texture, is equally applicable to that of the bark. We have thus given a very brief and general view of the principal textures that enter into the construction of plants, and pointed out the more prominent diversities of character and appearance which they uiey exhibit, a, as well ... in their simple as indleir more complex forms, and as they exist either separately or variously intermingled together. Our descriptbns have been confined entirely to the trunk or stem-but, with slight variation, they are applicable equaliv to the root and branch, in which a similar combination the elementary organs obtains. In the root, however, in roots of they commonly exisUn a more compressed and compactand branches; ed form so that the ligneous texture is seen chiefly to predominate, frequently to the entire exclusion of the pith and often in great part also to that of the cellular portion of the bark. This, however, is not universal, esneciallv in annual plants, some of which, as the carrot and others,particularly in a cultivated state, are distinguished

cells of the pith of elder (samhucus), ^ of some other plants, the vessels are very abundant, and in every case are probably derived from the straight ligneous fibres (vessels) both of the bark and wood. P* 29*> ndeed he held it probable that the nutrient fluu s m g through the vessels were in all parts poured into the cells, and there undergoing a certain preparation, were afterwards mixed with more recent juices, and with them take up and applied to the support of the young buds a leaves, p. 30.) This doctrine has smee been hold ]-jy Darwin and Knight, and it necessarily supposes a vas cular connection between the vessels and the cells, by which the functions both of secretion and absorption can be performed. The microscopical observations of Leeuwenhoeck, already noticed, supply further evidence in support of this opinion. In the hypothesis of Mirbel both cells and vessels are of considered as formed out of one and the same membrane. He rejects, therefore, the aid of all intermediate orga™* as , necessary to connect them together, and supposes a c0m. mumcation to be everywhere maintained betwee vessels and cells, by the medium of pores in their sides, As, however, these pores are nowhere proved to have existence but in the imagination of the author, we J altogether reject their agency in maintaining a communcation between the vessels and cells of plants. In the of I opinion of M. Kieser, the conjunction of the cells with t vessels is extremely simple the sides of the cells, says he, being contiguous to the sides of the vessels. {Mem. sur V Organisat. des Plantes, p. 94.) But mere con^guity of parts does not amount to connection, much less does it alford any information concerning the actual commun

ANATOMY,

VEGETABLE. 65 |l n tion that exists between these organs. In addition, there- other, and opposed to the four points of the compass : the Common branch notwithstanding absorbed, in forty-eight hours, Textures, xtu:S. fore, to connection by cellular substance, it seems abso■v -'lutely necessary to suppose also the existence of a vascu- twenty-four ounces of water. ( Veg. Statics, p. 128, lar structure, which shall at once serve as a medium both edit.) And when similar incisions were made on branches while still attached to the tree, their leaves continued of connection and communication. green nearly as long as those of other branches in a naBefore concluding this branch of the subject, we may etii ice observe that the structure of the cellular tissue, and its tural state ; whence he justly inferred that, at these gaps eta e relation to the vascular system in plants, appear, in made in the branch, a lateral movement of the sap must nil 1 many points, to resemble that of the adipose cells, and have taken place. Experiments of a similar nature have ,ur . their relation to the vascular system of animals. These been made, and like results obtained, by Mr Knight (Phil. cells are described as minute close cavities, possessing no Trans. 1808); so that it seems clear that in certain cirapparent communication with each other; and within cumstances a lateral movement of the sap must have them adipose matter is alternately deposited and removed. place. In what manner, then, must we suppose this movement How ef« Now the deposition of this matter could only be accomplished by secreting vessels which terminated in the cells, to be accomplished ? Grew supposed the cellular tissue, fected. and its removal be effected by absorbents which origi- that stretches from the circumference to the centre of nated from them ; and accordingly both blood-vessels and the plant, to be the organ by which such a communicaabsorbents are found to be present in this texture; but tion could be maintained; but the impermeability of this neither the secreting nor absorbing orifices have ever been tissue to fluids opposes such an opinion. Malpighi thought actually observed. Within the cells of the cellular tissue the lateral communication to be made by an anastomosis of plants the alternate deposition and removal of various of vessels; but in the vessels of plants no such mode of matters are not less certain ; and in the germinating seed communication appears to exist. From the ascent of the the matter that actually existed in the cells is found af- sap in branches in which the vessels had been thus preterwards in the vessels. We are led, therefore, or rather viously cut through, Mr Knight infers that this fluid does we are driven, not only by the direct exclusion of all other not rise in the vessels at all, but is conveyed through the alleged means of communication, but by a close analogy cellular tissue. This opinion necessarily implies the perin the exercise of these animal and vegetable functions, meability of this tissue by fluids, which, as we have shown, to conclude, that secreting and absorbing vessels must be is contradicted by direct experiment, as well as by microemployed to deposit and remove the secreted matter from scopical observation. Since, therefore, this lateral movethe cells of plants, in the same way as they are considered ment of the sap cannot be accomplished, either by simple to effect similar depositions and removals of adipose mat- percolation through the cells or vessels, or by direct anaster from the cells of animals: and as this alternate func- tomosis of the vessels with one another, no other known tion seems to go on in every part of the plant capable of means of effecting it remain, but those of alternate depoactive vegetation, it may further be inferred that a vascu- sition and absorption by the vessels into and from the lar communication exists between the vessels and cells cells. And if, as we have seen, the sap-vessels of plants deposit coloured fluids in the cells, which the capillary in all parts of the vegetable system. By means of this general communication between the absorbents of parasitic plants are able to take up, there eg.:ir ve-i vessels and the cells, we are enabled to assign satisfactory seems no reason for denying to the vascular productions, ntilf reasons for some puzzling phenomena, which have occur- which have been supposed everywhere to spring from the Silt red in relation to the movements of the sap. It is by this perpendicular vessels, a like capacity of absorbing fluids alternate action of secretion and absorption that in young from the adjacent cells. These fluids must, however, in plants we must suppose the cells of the pith, during the all cases, have been deposited before they could be abfirst year, to be filled with fluid, and to be rendered dry sorbed ; and, by the alternate exercise of these functions, for the most part ever after. In like manner, the surface there is no difficulty in conceiving how a lateral moveof the bark in contact with the wood appears in some ment of the sap might be accomplished in parts where, by trees, as the birch, to be rendered moist during the rise the incision of the vessels, a stop was necessarily put to of the sap in spring; which led Dr Walker and others to its perpendicular ascent. suppose that the sap rose in part between the bark and the wood,—an opinion not at all probable in itself, and cerSection Y. tainly not supported by what is observed in most other Of the Skin or Cuticular Texture, and its Appendages. trees. The fact, however, is easily explicable, on the supposition that the sap was transfused from the alburnous Art. I.—Description and Structure of the Skin. vessels of the wood, in the same manner as, at a later peThe skin, rind, cuticle, or epidermis, as it has been va-The skin, riod, it is secreted in the same part, but in a different form, by the vessels of the bark, to form the new matter riously named, is the last of the common textui’es that remains to be described. It is the general envelope which that is annually added to the tree. That the sap of plants was capable of moving in a la- invests all parts of the plant and all its productions, being of teral direction, was inferred by Malpighi, from the fact equally common to the trunk and branches, the root, the that parts lived and grew when the perpendicular vessels leaves, the flowers, and the fruit; but in these different that supplied them with nutriment had been destroyed. parts, and even in similar parts of different plants, it ex(Anat. Plantar, p. 13.) The experiments of Hales afford hibits the greatest diversity of appearance and form. more decisive evidence regarding this lateral movement In herbaceous plants, and in the young shoots of those Descripof the sap. He cut two large gaps in the opposite sides which are arborescent, it resembles a thin membrane, but tion. of an oak-branch, at four inches distance from each other, is generally thicker on the stem than on the roots or carrying the incisions down to the pith: the branch leaves. In some leaves, however, it is thick and dense, in young nevertheless absorbed and perspired water, but only in as is the case also in several fruits, and is thereby fitted trees, half the quantity that another similar but uncut branch to resist the effects of too rapid desiccation. On the did. In a branch of cherry-tree he made four similar upper surface of some leaves, on many fruits, and on cuts down to the pith, at four inches distance from each roots, it is an entire membrane, destitute of any apertures I VOL. m.

ANATOMY, VEGETABLE. 66 Common or pores; but on many stems on the under surfaces of which it has been removed, Du Hamel observes, that Con, Textures, leaves, and sometimes on the upper, it is frequently fur- when the wound is covered with waxed cloth, a new cuticle Tex| -^v***^ nished with numerous pores, often visible to the naked is promptly formed without any separation of a portion^, the bark beneath. When the exterior portion of eye, and with other luminous points of smaller dimensions, of the bark is removed with the skin, the inner part of. it.is which Du Hamel also regards as apertures. It is readily equally capable of regenerating a cuticle ; but if the separable from the bark in recent and succulent paits, 01 wound be noTp'rotected from the" air, a certain degree of after maceration in water; and in certain leaves it is exfoliation first occurs, and, under the decayed parts, a very completely separated by a species of caterpillar, new skin forms. Even where the bark of a cherry-tree named by Reaumur the miner. It appears then to be a thin transparent membrane, often destitute of colour, and was entirely removed from the trunk, he found that, the deriving, therefore, its appearance from the colour of the wood was capable of regenerating a new bark and cuticle, the parts were properly protected from the air. This parts beneath; but both in leaves and flowers it is often if did not originate from that which remained on the itself coloured. It is frequently seen to extend in all its cuticle dimensions, in common with the parts it covers. \eiy roots and branches, but was reproduced in isolated poroften, too, as will be noticed hereafter, its surface is cover- tions on different parts of the trunk; it continued, howed with hairs; and sometimes small follicles or utricles are ever, after the lapse of fifteen years, always different from that of the natural growth. In other instances, he adds, met with, which exercise a glandular function. ^ the cuticle does not seem to be regenerated at all. He The characters above enumerated belong chiefly to the In old remarks certain analogies to exist between the cuticle in trees. cuticle in its young and succulent state. In perennial plants it commonly possesses others that are quite dissimilar. It some plants and in animals. In both, he adds, it seems is of a different colour not only on different trees, but on in certain circumstances capable of great extension; in both different parts of the same tree. It is white and shining it is easily regenerated, and that too in isolated portions, on the trunk of the birch, and browner on the branches; and not by continuity of organs, as is common in other greyish on the plum-tree ; red and silvery on the cherry ; instances ; and in both, lastly, it is perpetually obliterated, green on the young branches of the peach ; and ash-co- and continually and imperceptibly renewed. (Phys. des loured on the larger branches. In these and many other Arbres, tome i. p. 11.) With respect to the nature of the cuticle, very differ-Its instances it does not, says Du Hamel, merely, participate in the colour of the body it covers, but contributes itself ent opinions have been advanced, and still continue to to give colour to the exterior bark; for when it is strip- prevail. Are we to regard it as a peculiar organ, formed ped off, the substance below has frequently a different immediately by the proper exercise of the vegetative colour. (Phys. des Arbres, tome i. p. 10.) By the gradual functions, or is it produced in a sort of secondary manner, enlargement of the trunk it is stretched and dried, and at by some changes induced on some previously constructed length loses its vitality, and, as well as the bark beneath, organ ? Grew asserted it to be sometimes original, and in is variously cracked and broken. Before this happens, some instances produced out of the exterior layer of the however, it often undergoes considerable extension in all cortical texture beneath it; and this first view of its oriits dimensions, enlarging in breadth, and stretching lon- gin seems to be generally supported by the descriptive gitudinally over the young shoots. This expanded state character which has been assigned to it. Its co-existence is particularly remarkable in certain fruits, in which, when with the first traces of vegetable organization, its conthey enlarge slowly, the cuticle is extended without rup- tinued growth and expansion, and its subsequent regeneture to a very large size ; but if the expansion be very ration after removal, all seem to favour its primary and inrapid, as after considerable rains, the cuticle then gives dependent origin, which is also supported by investigaway. In certain trees the cuticle is more susceptible of tions into its minute structure. Mirbel, however, and expansion than in others; and in very vigorous trees it some other writers, after Hill, have regarded it, in all breaks more slowly than in those whose growth is lan- cases, not as an original membrane, but formed by the guishing, although these latter push forward more slowly exterior sides of the common tissue of the plant; and than the former. (Ibid. p. 11.) In some vigorous trees where there is no separation of these sides in the form of of this description it altogether resists rupture ; and in this a membrane, such plants are held to be destitute of a custate the tree is often said to be hide-bound or bark- ticle. (Exposit. de V Organisat. Veget. p. 103.) Another question relating to this organ is, whether it It: bound. Composed In most instances the cuticle, when taken from young must be considered a simple membrane of uniform struc-tu of lavers. branches, appears to consist of a single layer; but on the ture, or a compound of two distinct parts, like the true branches of many species, says Du Hamel, after one plate skin and the cuticle in animals. Grew seems to have re-0 or layer has been removed, another may be seen beneath, garded it as a simple body, but constructed both of vesselsol which resembles the former in its texture, but is much and cells, the cells being continuous with those of the thinner and more green and succulent. From the birch- bark. (Anat. of Plants, p. 62.) Such, too, seems to have tree he has removed more than six layers, very thin and been nearly the opinion of Malpighi, who describes it as of very distinct from each other, and is of opinion that more constructed of horizontal ranges of cells, but often deli-pi might still be separated. Sometimes the original cuticle neates reticulations of vessels as constituting a part of its seems to be entirely thrown off, and the exterior covering structure. (Anat. Plantar, p. 2, 19.) In the birch, the is formed by a portion of the cellular tissue of the bark. plum, the cherry-tree, and others, Du Hamel declares thed Grew thinks that this substitution takes place annually, component fibres of the cuticle to possess a directionm the older skin being cast off, like the skin of an adder, by transverse to that of the trunk; but this is not general. the generation of a new one beneath. (Anat. of Plants, In the birch-tree the fibres seemed to be placed parallel p. 114.) Du Hamel describes also the existence of small to each other, and to be connected together by lateral leaflets or scales, which are continually detached from the fibres; but he could see nothing of the vesicular structure cuticle of some trees ; and these he considers to be as con- of Malpighi and Grew, and therefore regards the strucstantly replaced, by the formation of new ones beneath ture of this texture to lie altogether fibrous. (Phys. des Is regene- them. Arbres, tome i. p. 8 and 9.) M. Desfontaines, on theo rated. ■ Concerning the regeneration of the cuticle on parts from other hand, describes it as a membrane resembling in ap^t: 4

ANATOMY,

VEGETABLE. 67 pores of unequal figure, between which he observed some Cominon jijQion pearance a thin plate of parchment, and perforated by imt iures. perceptible pores, which give issue to the insensible trans- opaque and tortuous filaments, disposed in a reticulated VwTextures, v-v ’T’^piration. Its structure he regards as unknown, but con- manner, each mesh being formed by six filaments, four of ^ ^ siders it capable of regeneration, (d/ewz. da l Instil, Nett, which terminated at each pore. To this arrangement of filaments he gave the name of cortical net-work, and retome i. p. 4$1.) M. Kieser, who professes to have studied this texture garded it as quite distinct from the cuticle that covered >pi on falser, w|th great attention, adopts nearly the opinion of Grew, it. The meshes of this net-work differ much in size and pronouncing the cuticle to be constructed of a very fine figure in different leaves; and, when minutely examined, cellular tissue, and of extremely minute vessels which run they are often seen to form junctions, but never to cross through its whole extent. These vessels form an exceed- each other; whence he was led to regard them as vessels ingly delicate and subtile net-work, the meshes of which derived from those of the expanded petiole, and thus conpossess very different forms, and their vessels terminate stituting a very fine vascular net-work. A similar strucat the orifice of a pore. His observations were made on ture was observed in the petals of the flower. (Encyclop. the cuticle of leaves. On the inferior surface of the leaf of Method, tome i. p. 67.) M. de Candolle considers the cuticle in certain parts Opinion of Amaryllis formosissima (fig. 14, A, Plate XLI.), magnified 260 times, these vascular meshes of the cuticle have an to be a simple and proper membrane; in other parts to be Le Canelongated hexagonal form; and four of their vessels pro- formed by layers of cellular tissue. The cuticle of leaves, dolle. ceed always to terminate at the orifice of the little oblong and probably of all annual shoots, appears to be formed of aperture or pore situated at their junction. In Canna a layer of flattened cells, differing in form and in other Indica, the vessels of the meshes on the lower part of the conditions from those of the parenchyma of the leaf. It leaf, which thus terminate in the pores, are said to origi- may be regarded in this state as a proper membrane. nate from a fasciculus of the spiral vessels that ramify When stripped off and examined by the microscope, it through the leaf, as is represented at a' in fig. 14, B, exhibits small spaces, bounded by lines or rays, or a sort Plate XLI.; and within the areas of the larger meshes a of net-work, the meshes of which have different figures in still finer net-work of vessels is seen. On the inferior sur- different plants. The lines, says he, appear in the form face of the leaf of a species of fern, the vessels of the of single or double filaments, and may be considered cuticle, instead of forming meshes of different figures, ex- hollow, and as forming a system of cuticular vessels which ■H hibit the appearance of sinuous lines, which run in every terminate in the pores. In more advanced age, and espei direction through the cuticle. See fig. 15, Plate XLI. cially in the trunks of old trees, this primitive cuticle which represents the central part of the little adjoining gradually changes its character, and finally disappears. , leaf, magnified 130 times. These sinuous vessels often It is then succeeded by a thicker membrane, which no I j°in> and, after making a half-circle, terminate by one ex- longer exhibits the net-like figure of the former, and api tremity in the minute pores everywhere spread over the pears evidently to be formed by the exterior cells of the e leaf, and by the other in the larger vascular fasciculi that cellular tissue, which, by the combined effects of distenramify through it. At the letter b', in this figure, the tion and desiccation, assume a membranous appearance, e hexagonal cells that construct the parenchyma of the to which the term epidermis is properly applicable. This e leaf are distinctly visible through the vascular sinuosities epidermis may be considered single when composed of iof the cuticle. It was by the examination of this leaf one layer of cells, and double, triple, or multiple, when :■ that M. Kieser was first enabled to discover the origin and formed of two or more successive layers. It is thus that itermination of the vessels that construct the cuticle, Ulloa, in describing a tree in Peru, speaks of having deIhaving in all his previous investigations examined the cu- tached more than 150 epidermoidal layers, when he lost l tide in its separated state, after it was detached from its all patience in counting them, seeing that he had not then II connection with the other organs; but the researches reached to half the thickness of the bark. A similar ape made on this leaf rendered every thing clear. (Mtm. sur pearance is exhibited in the numerous layers that form the epidermis of the white birch, amounting sometimes to d f Organisat. des Plantes, p. 141-2.) jf: (rocker The vascular net-work of the cuticle, thus described 15 or 18 in advanced age, and which ends by breaking ]. withers, by M. Kieser and others, had been regarded as a decep- into that cracked condition of the bark that presents only tion by M. Krocker, who considered these reticulated discontinuous portions of white epidermis on the remnants figures as no part of the real structure of the cuticle, but of its cellular envelope. At an early period the cuticle is merely as the sides of the subjacent cells; in which opi- most easily torn in a longitudinal direction, which is that nion Sprengel, Link, Jurine, and Mirbel, concurred; but of its growth; but at a later period, when the diametral M. Kieser, in opposition to this opinion, maintains that, growth has increased, the cells of the tissue are drawn out in the fern and other leaves, the real cellular structure more in that direction, and therefore more readily break of the parenchyma is seen entire through the vascular re- transversely than in length. (Organog. Veget. tome i. ticulations of the cuticle, with the meshes of which the chap. 5.) sides of the subjacent cells do not anywhere coincide. He observes that these cells are commonly much smaller than Art. II.—Of the Pores of the Skin. the vascular meshes which cover them; and that the vesThe pores of the cuticle, called sometimes cortical or Descripsels of these meshes may be traced, as before remarked, to the larger fasciculi that construct the leaf. In the miliary glands, sometimes exhaling pores, sometimes cor- tion of fern the vascular structure of the cuticle is the same on tical pores, and more lately, by Link and De Candolle, ^ both sides of the leaf, but the superior side does not pos- stomata, were first noticed by Grew, who describes many sess pores. orifices as existing on the leaves of different plants, Saus- A very different view of the structure of the cuticle which vary in size, number, shape, and position. In the was taken by the late celebrated M. de Saussure. He white lily they are of an oval shape, of a white colour; and regarded it not as a simple, but a compound texture, con- each is surrounded by a slender border. When viewed sisting of a very delicate external pellicle or membrane, through a good glass they appear as if standing about beneath which was placed a net-work of very fine vessels. one sixth or one eighth of an inch apart all over the leaf, The external membrane he describes as perforated by but not arranged in any regular order. In the pine, also,

anatomy, vegetable. 68 or rhomboidal. In size they very much varied in differ- Co*J 0g shape, but Common they have an oval But have nave no rising border, andplants, but in the same plant the size was uniform. v^ Texiures. are arranged in lines from one end of the leal to tne ent (Amt. ofPhnts.r-1S3.) Hedwig considered the The largest pores were seen on the leaf ot the white lily, ^Y\ the smallest on that of the French bean. (Kieser s Mem. borders mentioned by Grew as produced by a ring of one sur l' Orqanisat. des Plantes, p. 144.) or more vessels, which terminated in the pore. I he n Although the pores are generally dispersed over the ber of pores he represents as exceedingly great. In the parenchyma of leaves at nearly equal distances, yet where square of a line of the cuticle of a bulbous lily he reck- the vessels run parallel, they are disposed in one or more oned 577 pores. „ , „ _ofo lines between them. Sometimes, again, they are collected The characters and position of these pores or stomata into little clusters, as in the leaves of crassula cordata, Description of have been further examined by M. de Candolle on more where the roundish dots or points, visible by the naked pores by than 600 plants. They occur most frequently on the 3)e Can- leaves, occupying both surfaces in some herbs, and in eve are clusters of pores or stomata. This appearance Pore,, suggested to M. de Candolle the idea that the stomata orifices dolle. trees chiefly the inferior surface. Stems in general have might be the orifices of vessels, as each of the little points768^ no pores, except, as in the Graminece, where they are mentioned above is the termination of a fibre, which is succulent, and have the character of leaves ; or where the itself a bundle of vessels. This idea is further strengthenplant is altogether destitute of leaves, as the Cactus. Un ed by the fact that these pores are not found in plants the prominent lines or vessels of the leaves and stems no that are destitute of vessels; and though he could never pores are to be seen, but only in the grooves or depressed trace the continuity of a vessel with a pore, yet M. Comsurfaces of the parenchyma. They are never observed assures us he has seen the vessels terminate in on the root, not even on bulbous roots, where the scales paretti them. Mirbel, on the other hand, considers the pores to of the bulb are true leaves. The small leaflets called be the orifices of cells; and Kieser regards them as constipula} and bractece. sometimes have and sometimes have not pores. The calices of the flower in general have nected with the intercellular canals. (Organog. Veget. pores, but the petals have not. Pericarps of a foliaceous tome i. chap. 6.) Some have considered the pores as organs, by which consistence have pores: when fleshy, they are destitute o them. The envelopes of the seed are destitute of pores, the resinous or waxy matter found on certain leaves is but they are found on all seminal leaves that rise above exhaled; others, as organs for the absorption and transthe ground. The lower tribes of vegetables, as the fad, piration of air or gas; and others, with more probability, as those by which moisture is thrown off by the leaf. Intlonli Trans; musd, hepatica, fungi, &c. are destitute of pores. support of this last opinion, it may be stated that pores : The occurrence of pores in those plants where they are Influence ore! of air on found seems to be much influenced by external circum- exist in all leafy parts that transpire, and are more mi-P ' the pores; stances. They are never met with but on vegetables, and merous in membranous leaves that transpire most, than in those parts of vegetables that are exposed to the air; fleshy leaves which transpire little. 4 hey are wanting and therefore the internal surfaces of many leaves that altogether in aquatic leaves and in etiolated leaves; also embrace the stem are without pores, though on the ex- in fleshy fruits, in roots, and in the petals of flowers, ternal surfaces of the same leaves they are abundant. which do not transpire in any degree analogous to leaves. No plant that is completely aquatic, nor any part of it In darkness too, when transpiration ceases, the pores are that is habitually under water, is provided with these or- closed ; and they again open and transpire when light regans ; but the parts which rise above the water are furnish- appears, and especially in bright sunshine. It is always need with them. In ranunculus aquations the leaves that cessary to distinguish the evaporation, more or less great, are constantly under water are destitute of pores, while that goes on through the tissue in all organs by day and those that float on the surface are provided with them, by night, from the active transpiration which occurs in but only on their superior face. Even leaves which do sunshine, but only in organs furnished with pores, and not naturally possess pores when under water, acquire which seems to be executed by them. Besides transpiration, M. de Candolle believes that, inAbsoi them if they are made to grow in air; and land plants, on the contrary, when made to grow under water, may, by certain cases, the pores may also serve for absorption ; but '’J P such treatment, be deprived of their pores. Thus, the this he considers to be rarely the case, and out of the natural leaf of green mint, when growing in air, possesses not course of vegetation ; and that the experiments which fafewer than 1800 pores on its lower surface; but if kept vour this opinion may be explained by the hygroscopic for a month under water, its leaves fall, and the new ones powers of the vegetable tissue. He thinks the results ob- i ;i* that succeed are destitute of pores. tained by Bonnet, who kept leaves a long time in life by layof light on Light seems to be necessary also to the production of ing their porous surfaces on water, may be explained by pores. res, for etiolated plants do not possess them. When supposing this treatment to prevent decay by checking grown by the light of lamps, the leaves possess a few transpiration, rather than by promoting absorption. ( Orpores ; and, in all cases, the parts secluded from light and ganog. Veget. tome i. p. 87.) This suggestion will not, air are destitute of these organs, but acquire them if they however, explain the phenomena of an experiment conare duly exposed. {Mem. de flnstit. Nat. tome i. p. 351.) tinued for many years in the conservatories of the Royal Research- This general account of the pores of plants is confirmed Botanic Garden here, under the care of Mr Macnab. es of Itu- by the researches of M. Rudolphi. In most herbaceous He has kept a species of fig {ficus elastica) for several dolphi. plants he found the pores to occupy both sides of the years fastened against the wall, with its roots, stem, and leaf, but in trees only the inferior surface. They were branches entirely exposed to the air; and in that situation not often met with on the parts of the flowers, or on fruits ; it has not only lived, but actually grown in every part, so they were never seen on roots, nor on the trunks of trees; as to have increased greatly in size, only by being thus nor ever on aquatic plants, except on such parts as were kept in a warm and moist atmosphere, and occasionally raised above the water. The lower tribes of vegetables sprinkled with water. seemed to be universally destitute of them; the leaves In addition to these visible pores, it is probable, says In'* also of those plants that were covered thickly with hairs M. de Candolle, that the surface of vegetables is furnished Pore on both sides had no pores. The form of the pores was with others that are invisible, but so small that with the commonly oval or elliptical, but in a few instances square strongest microscopes we are unable to recognise them:

ANATOMY, VEGETABLE. 69 mom their existence, therefore, can only be presumed from most always placed on the same surface as the pores ; and Common xtun« physiological phenomena. Ihus, a pair of a vegetable hence the superior surface of the leaf, which is common- Textures, destitute of pores loses weight when exposed to the air, ly destitute of pores, has in general but few or no hairs. by the escape of the fluid it contained; or a portion of The pores, as before stated, seem to be the true organs of moss equally destitute of pores, if placed in watei, speedily transpiration ; and the various kinds of hairs serve to proacquires additional weight. Whether these results are tect the plant against the excess of solar light, against obtained through the medium of minute pores, or of un- variations of temperature, against humidity, or sometimes organized apertures, such as are admitted to exist between against insects. (Organog. Veg. tome i. chap. 10.) Hairs, the molecules of all matters,—and whether through the also, of various kinds are met with on the different parts same pores or apertures a passage is afforded to gases or of the flower. These often have the colour of the peother fluids, or to the oily or waxy secretions that cover tals or other parts on which they grow, and are distincertain surfaces,—are questions, adds M. de Candolle, to guishable from the true lymphatic hairs, though somewhich no answer can at present be given. (Organog. times associated with them on the same organ. With regard to the structure of these minute bodies, structure, Veg. tome i. p. 88.) little that is satisfactory can be said. They seem to originate either directly from the cuticle or from the cortiArt. III.—Of Hairs. cal texture beneath it; but not often from the ligneous texture, except in those instances where they are ;cri]i From the surface of the cuticle, in many parts of her\ ai baceous plants, and in the succulent parts of arborescent very long and rigid, as in the awns of wheat. Du Hamel ie t1, . ones, hairs (pili) are seen to spring. They possess very observes that almost all of them are implanted on small iaU " different forms, and vary likewise greatly in texture. In bodies, similar to the bulbs which give origin to the hairs a strict sense, they may be defined small filaments pos- of animals. (Phys. des Arbres, tome i. p. 183.) They sessing considerable stiffness, which project from the sur- commonly resemble simple filaments, but often appear face, and stand out pretty erect. When they are very like elongated cells threaded on one another, and, instead numerous, a little soft, and less erect, they take the name of terminating in a sharp point, end in a small papilla or of villi; when still softer and less numerous they are utricle, which yields in many instances a viscid or oily termed down (pubes). Sometimes this down is composed matter, or sometimes a coloured liquor, which has led of long hairs nearly resembling wool, at other times it many to regard them as exercising a glandular function. One species of these supposed glandular organs has approaches more to the character of cotton. When the hairs are stiff and ranged along the edge of a surface, like been more particularly examined, and their fluid analyzed, the lashes of the eye, they are named cilia ; and if, with by M. Deyeux, who gives the following account of it. these characters, they are produced to a greater length, as Soon after the seeds of the chick-pea (cicer arietinuni) Hairs of in the beard or awn of wheat, they acquire the name of are sown, its first leaves are seen to be covered with hairs, chick-pea. barba or arista. Sometimes they resemble the bristles of at the extremity of each of which is a transparent glothe hog, and are then called seta:. Many other varieties bule, about the size of a small pin-head, consisting of a are enumerated by botanists, who further distinguish them fluid matter. It abounds most in mid-day, when the air by various names, according as they terminate in a single is warm and dry, and is scarcely perceptible at night, or point, or are hooked, or forked, or branched, or feathered, when the air is cold and moist; after rain, indeed, it does &c. In some instances, instead of appearing like one con- not again appear for two or three days. When these fluid tinuous substance, they are composed of many joints, or globules were removed in a dry day by blotting-paper, are said to be articulated. In fig. 16 and 17, Plate XLL, they soon re-appeared; they were acid to the taste, we have copied from Du Hamel a few of the varieties, both reddened litmus paper, and caused an effervescence in of single and jointed hairs ; but the forms they exhibit are carbonate of potash when brought in contact with it. He so numerous and diversified, that we must refer to the regarded them as composed of oxalic acid, the properties writers on botany for minuter information. In some ex- of which they precisely resembled. (Mem. de Vlnstit. Nat. ® amples the point of the hair is terminated by a small tome i. p. 157.) rounded globulet, and sometimes by a fine filament, that seems to proceed out of the hair, Art. IY.—Of Prickles and Thorns. ir} si- Some writers distinguish hairs into two general classes, 11 > —the glandular and lymphatic. In the former class, the It is not easy to discriminate between some of the harder Definition; hair or filament is sometimes the excretory duct of the species of hairs, described in the former article, and those small gland situated at its base; and in other instances, to which the appellation of prickles (aculei) has been asas in the chick-pea, the glandular or secreting organ is signed. They are defined by Du Hamel to be excresseated at the extremity of the hair. The lymphatic class cences, often hard, and always terminated by a sharp embraces a much greater variety of hairs, which differ point, which are developed with the other productions of widely from each other in consistence, direction, and form. plants, but are not inclosed in particular buds; so that They spring only from the parts of plants which are ex- they may for the most part be regarded as hard and soposed to the air, and are not found, therefore, on the lid hairs. They spring equally from the stem, the branch-P0Sltl0n> parts concealed below the earth or in water: they are es, the petioles of the leaves, and also from the leaves also rare on plants that grow in the shade, are want- themselves in various plants; and in the chesnut and ing altogether in etiolated plants, and are most abundant, some others they are seen to cover the fruit. They are in general, on plants that grow in warm places, and are frequently straight, but in the rose and many others are well exposed to solar light. With respect to their seat or curved at the point, as in fig. 18, Plate XLI.; and, accordorigin, as compared with that of the pores, although, says ing to Malpighi, possess sometimes in this plant a little M. de Candolle, these two kinds of organs appear some- head, which yields a viscid fluid. times mingled, yet each has a determined place; for the Regarding their structure, Grew remarked that they sf pores are seated on the cellular or parenchymatous parts, were connected only with the skin or the bark, and he while the lymphatic hairs constantly spring from the vas- therefore named them cortical, to distinguish them from cular or ligneous parts. Yet the hairs, he adds, are al- thorns properly so called, such as those of the hawthorn,

anatomy, vegetable. (Lectures on Inflammation, p. 318.) Besides these more Co® which spring from the wood, and which he denominates^ simple structures, it is well known that most of the inter- lestjl I 01* i■ v neous. These latter, he adds, always ascend whde the co - nal viscera are likewise denominated glands, though tical thorns commonly point downwards. 5 fering in all their characters from those just mentioned. A p. 33.) In proof of their origin from the bark, DuHame The ambiguity which thus prevails in animal anatomy,in remarks that if, after maceration in boiling water, the in relation to the use of the term gland, has been increasedtable; ta* of such Plante be stripped off nil the prickles come tenfold in the applications that have been made af it toH' away with it, and leave not the smallest impression on the the organs of vegetables. It is justly observed by M.de wood, nor even on the more interior layers of the baik it- CandoUe, in reference to this subject, that the numerous self. When a section alsoAljA is made of the 1 branch and r. 18,1Plate late XLL,*» the wood. fy and , the• A. is have often promoted our researches into the former, ]e, ma pricklei as~in figiYs, pith approximations fz are both ootn seen to have J ‘'V'W •“ internosed,,between the but have sometimes led physiologists astray, and introintro, no connec but the inner layer a- of *eba k P does not> duced int„ the language of botany many inexact expres base of the prickle and the wood. The prickle does not In animal anatomy the term gland is understood to however, spring from the skin, for it is formed of many express some organ that exercises a secretory function; layers like the bark. As the parts become more solid, it but in vegetable anatomy this term has often been applied is less freely supplied with juice, and therefore hardens to bodies that are not known to be real secretory organs. and turns brown. (Pln/s. des Arbres, tome i. p. ■ the cells of the cellular tissue, which frequently conPrickle of In the nettle (urtica dioied), Malpighi states, that be- Thus tain resinous or oily matter, have been sometimes named the nettle. gJdg the common prickles on the leaves, there are among cellular glands ; the little globulets or utricles at the exthem others of a different description. They possess more tremities of the hairs on the edges of leaves, utricular of a lio-neous character, are hollow internally, and contain j -u o i p r a iuicfvvh eh" when i gains admission beneath the skin, glands; the small organs formed by the pores on the leaf, excites itching and tumour. (Anat. Plantar, p. 137.) Dr cort/mZ or miliary f/W, ; certam fleshy tubercles on the Hooke had previously given a much more minute account leaves, urceolar glands ; and the little sea es that cover of the sting of this plant. Almost every part of it, says he, the fructification in ferns, scahform glands. The mtar h covered with prickles like sharp needles. Each prickle rium of the lower commonly contains a sweet juice, an consists of two parts, very different in shape and quali- is therefore deemed a gland; but Lmnaeus, with his usual ty from one another; one is shaped much like a round disregard both of the structure and function of organs, bodkin, is very hard and stiff, exceedingly transparent and considers as a nectary, not only the body which may seclear, and hollow from top to bottom. When this bodkin crete, but any other that may serve as a receptacle of the is thrust into the skin, it does not at all bend ; but a cer- secretion ; and indeed is said to comprehend under this tain liquor is then seen to move up and down in it, rising term all those bodies which have no resemblance to the towards the top, when the point is pressed down on the other parts of the flower, in whatever variety of form they base. This base is formed by a little bag, is more pliable may appear, or whatever purpose they may serve. (Willthan the bodkin part, and within it is a cellular structure, denow’s Principles of Botany, p. 87.) in some other mwhich contains a thin transparent liquor (see fig. 19, stances the term gland has been used, not to express the Plate XLI.): it is this liquor that rises in the tube, and, be- secreting organ itself, nor even the receptacle of the seing deposited beneath the skin after it is punctured, ex- cretion, but the solid excreted matter on the surface of cites the irritation that succeeds. (Micrographia, p. 142.) certain leaves; and others consider hairs, and every other The true thorn (spina) derives its origin, as Grew re- protuberance that projects from the surface, and contains marked, from the ligneous part of the plant, and in some a fluid different from the common sap, as entitled to the plants is produced from the degeneration of some other distinctive appellation of gland. organ, as of the leaf, or even the branch itself: we shall Amid such diversity of opinion concerning the struc-iat therefore defer the further consideration of its structure, ture, position, and function of these minute organs, and ini* until we come to treat of that of the branch. such vagueness in the methods employed to characterizeg» Uli them, it is extremely difficult to define their true nature, 1 Section V. or declare the principle on which this definition should „„ . „ Tr , ,7 proceed. The mere existence of a fluid, distinct from the Of the Glands of \ egetables. common in anv nan. cannot be considered as becommon snn sap in any or organ, Ambiguity Perhaps in the whole science of anatomy there is no stowing on it the title of gland, otherwise the greater porof the term word that has been employed with such latitude of signi- tion of some plants would come to be regarded as glancm* ';land, fication, and is therefore exposed to so much ambiguity, lar: those varieties of structure which exercise no secreas the term gland. In animal anatomy it was doubtless tory function may also be excluded from the list of glands; used at first to denominate certain organs, from the exter- and so likewise the hairs of plants, though containing penal resemblance which they bore to certain fruits or seeds; culiar fluids, may be excluded, since these peculiarities in Animal and in that sense it is still employed on several occasions. „appear to arise frequently ^ _ foreign ^ ^to rr v from circumstances Anatomy, Afterwards it was understood to signify not so much the the action of the organ itself; and even if they do not, external form as the internal organization, and was con- some specific variation of the general name they bear is sidered to express a certain structure, by which alone the preferable to the employment of so ambiguous a word as function of secretion could be exercised; but it is well gland. But where any organ is distinct from the com-^ observed by Dr Thomson, in his valuable work on Inflam- mon textures of the vegetable, and by the peculiarity oi mation, that “ the definition of a secreting glandular part its structure is fitted to produce those changes on the vemust be taken from its function, and not from its struc- getable fluids which we name secretion, it may be deemture; for nothing can be more various than the internal ed a secreting organ. This secretory function, however, structure of those organs that are denominated glandular may sometimes be exercised, as in animal bodies, by roem secreting organs: they consist sometimes of convoluted branous surfaces, and sometimes by small isolated bodies, vessels, sometimes of follicles or small hollow bags, and to which, perhaps, may properly belong the denomination sometimes of transparent membranes, in which neither of glands. convoluted vessels nor mucous follicles can be perceived.” But even though this method of defining glands were

70

ANATOMY, VEGETABLE. 71 and resinous matter are found. (Phys. des Arbres, tome i. Common i* ^aB lopted, it still is a matter of no small difficulty to distin*2 |s. jish their species by appropriate appellations. In ani- p. 183.) On the leaves of sage, Hooke mentions the oc- Textures, al anatomy no settled rule obtains; but the name of the currence of an infinite number of round balls resembling ‘ and is assigned from some accidental circumstance of pearls, and which, says he, are nothing but a gummy exuaccording tuation, figure, use, &c. In vegetable anatomy the bo- dation. (Micrograp'h ia,, p. 142.) M. Guettard has de-10 Guet .nist, regarding glands only as aiding the discrimination scribed not fewer than seven species of glandular bodies tard ' species, refers commonly to their situation, and speaks on the leaves of different plants, to which he assigned ’ ' foliaceous, stipular, or petiolar glands, according as names, chiefly from the appearance of their form; these ey happen to be seated on the leaves, the stipules, or the are the miliary, the vesicular, the squamous, the globular, itioles. The anatomist imposes names according to their the lenticular, the utricular, and the urceolar glands. Of rms, as they chance most to resemble a globule, an these reputed species, those called miliary are no longer ricle, or some other figure; and the physiologist is held to be glands, but cuticular pores; and the squamous fiefly directed by ideas which indicate their functions, species is found to be identical with the thin scale that stinguishing them into mucous, oily, resinous, or necta- covers the fructification of ferns. Others add to this list ferous glands, according to the nature of the fluid they the organ called nectary; but the very vague notions enrnish. Of these different modes, that which proceeds tertained of its nature and use altogether preclude the i the apparent form, where it can be discovered, seems possibility of assigning to it any precise anatomical chae most precise; but as this cannot always be accom- racter. Other writers have proposed to reduce all the bodies and others, ished, the situation of the organ, or the nature of the called glands to two classes, the cellular and the vascular, creted fluid, must occasionally be had recourse to. ced ! Of these bodies it is to be remarked that they differ in according as they conceive them to be formed of cellular hy ie respect from most of the corresponding organs in ani- tissue simply, or of this tissue and vessels combined. But als, almost all of them being seated on the external parts such an arrangement would lead us, in some instances, to i the plant, like several of the more simple glandular bo- confound the mere receptacles of secreted fluids with the ' board of one pair of bellows, and as soon as it subsides, same sweep of the crane as the anvil K, so that the iron they step upon the other pair, which also sinks, and then can be conveyed to either with equal ease. The first step in making the different parts of the anthey return: they have ropes suspended from the roof to enable them to lift themselves, and mount from one bel- chor is to assemble or faggot the bars. For the centre of lows upon the other with more ease. The common tue- the mass which is to make the shank, four large bars are iron, which is simply a cone of wrought-iron, set with clay first laid together; then upon the flat sides of the square into fire-stone, composing the back of the hearth, is very so formed smaller bars are arranged, to make it up to a soon burnt by the great heat. The most improved forges, circle. The number is various, but in large anchors six therefore, are now furnished with what is called the water or eight bars are laid on every side. This circle is surtue-iron, which is made hollow, and water introduced into rounded by a number of bars arranged like the staves of it to keep it cool. For this purpose two cones are form- a cask: as many as 36 are often used, and they form a ed of thick iron plate, each with a small aperture at the complete case for the others. The ends are made up by vertex; these, when put one into the other, are welded short bars to a square figure. The faggot is finished by together at their bases and their points, so as to form one driving iron hoops upon it at sufficient distances; see W cone, which is hollow, with a small space all round; two in the figure; and it is suspended from the crane in such pipes communicate with the hollow, one bringing a con- a manner that it can be moved and turned in any directinual supply of cold water, and the other conveying away tion, by only one or two men, even when it weighs three that which is heated by the fire. By this means the tue- tons. For this purpose an iron pulley k is hooked to the iron is kept cool, and can never acquire such a degree of iron loop n of the crane ; and a short endless chain l passed heat as to be burned away: this tue-iron is set with fire- over the pulley suspends the faggot in its loop. In this clay into a frame of cast-iron, built up in the brick-work manner the weight of the iron is in reality borne by the pivot of the pulley k, and the mass can be easily turned of the wall B. The anvil K is only a cubic block of cast-iron, placed on round upon its centre to bring any side upwards. To give the ground much lower than the ordinary smith’s anvil; a power to the man who guides it, one of the four central because, as the anchor-smiths always strike by swinging bars is double the length of the faggot, and projects, see their hammers over their heads, at arms’ length, they have g} to form a long lever, by which it is steered; and two more force when the work lies low on the ground than if holes are made through the end of this bar to insert a raised up. At a distance of eight or nine feet from the cross lever A, by which the faggot is turned or rolled round hearth AA a strong crane-gib LM is erected, so as to turn upon its centre. As the faggot hangs very nearly on a freely upon the vertical post M. It has no tackle, but the balance in the loop of the chain l, the man, by weighing upper beam L, which must be horizontal, has a large iron on the end of the long bar g, can easily raise up its end loop n hung upon it, with a roller o, which admits it to run from the anvil K, and, swinging the crane on its pivots, freely backwards and forwards upon the beam: the lower move it into the fire, which is made up hollow like an end of the loop suspends the anchor; therefore, by mov- oven. To effect this form, the fireman first spreads the ing the rollers along the beam of the gib, and by turning coals evenly upon the hearth, and with his shovel or slice the gib round on its pivots, the anchor can be placed in makes a flat surface about the level of the tue-hole: he any position in the fire or upon the anvil. To give mo- then arranges some large cinders or cakes round in a tion to the roller o, a rack p is connected with it; and circle upon this surface, and by other cinders builds it up this is moved by a pinion upon the axis of the wheel t, like an oven or dome, leaving a mouth to introduce the which has an endless rope hanging down, so that a la- iron. The oven is adapted in size to the magnitude of bourer can reach it, and thus remove the anchor nearer the mass of iron, and must be brought forwards upon the or farther from the centre, however great its weight may hearth, to leave a space between its interior cavity and be. The workmen employ scarcely any other tools than the orifice of the tue-iron; in which space a passage is their sledge-hammers, and a few large punches, cutting made from the tue-hole to the fire, and filled up with chisels, and sets or prints, which, when urged by the large lighted coals, and then covered up by small coals. hammers, will give any particular figure to the work: the The blast from the bellows passes through these hot coals, hammers are of the largest kind, and weigh from 14 to in order that the cold air may not enter the fire at once 18 pounds, according to the strength of the workmen. and blow on the iron, but be first converted into flame, In the Royal dock-yard great use is made of a stamping which is urged forcibly into the oven, and reverberated machine, which the workmen call Hercules, and which is from the roof and sides upon the iron placed in the centre. very similar to the machine for driving piles. A heavy As the floor of the oven is nearly upon a level with the iron weight N, guided like the ram of the pile engine, is tue-hole, the flame from the coals between it and the fire drawn up by the strength of several men, and let fall upon also plays upon the bottom, and thus heats the iron on all the anchor, to weld the bars, in the same manner as by a sides. The outside of the dome is covered over with a forge-hammer. The machine is erected on a large block considerable thickness of small coals, which cake togeof stone, which supports the anvil O: two square iron ther, and, as the inside of the oven consumes, settle down bars PP are fixed on each side of the anvil, in a vertical into a dome again, which the smith aids by striking the position, the angles of the bars being placed towards each outside with the flat of his slice. If the Are breaks out other. These vertical bars are eight or nine feet high, at any place in the roof, the smith immediately repairs and are fixed at the top to a beam in the roof of the the breach with fresh coals, and damps them with water, building in which the machine is placed. The ram N, that they may not burn too fast; for if the inside of the which weighs 47} cwt., is fitted to slide up and down be- oven burns very fiercely, the flames will not be reverberated tween the bars P, having notches in its sides, which re- so forcibly as when it is in the state of burning cake. Care ceive the angles of the bars: it is drawn up by a rope must likewise be taken to prevent the fire from burning passing over an iron pulley Q, mounted upon pivots above back to the tue-iron. The mouth of the oven should be the top of the vertical bars ; and the rope has eight or ten made no larger than to admit the work; and, that as little small ones 11 spliced into it, for as many men to act to- heat as possible may escape by the iron, the mouth is gether (which they do by a motion similar to that of filled round it with coals. F is an iron screen hung on

ANCHOR. 108 Anchor. hinges, to swing before the mouth of the fire when the some of the metal with chisels whilst it is hot, and using k * iron is withdrawn, that the workmen may not be scorched sets or punches, properly formed, to make a square angled v to the shoulder of the scarf. The upper end of the shank by the heat. All the men unite to assist in blowing the bellows, is likewise square; and the length between these square which they work in the manner already described, from parts is worked either to an octagon or round, tapering rehalf an hour to an hour, according to the size of the an- gularly from the lower to the upper end. The hole to rechor, until they have raised the iron to a good welding ceive the ring of the anchor is pierced through the square heat. The mouth of the fire is opened occasionally to in- part at the upper end, first by a small punch, and then spect the process, and the faggot is turned in the fire if larger ones are used till it is sufficiently enlarged. The it is not found to be heating equally in every part. Eight punch is made of steel; and when it is observed to change men, and sometimes more, are employed to forge an an- colour by the heat, it is struck on the opposite end to chor: six of them strike with the hammers, one is sta- drive it out, and is instantly dipped in water to cool it, and tioned at the guide-bar, and the eighth, who is master or another driven in. The projecting pieces or nuts, which foreman, directs the others, and occasionally assists to are to keep the stock or wooden beam of the anchor, and euide the anchor. When the whole of that part which is its place on the shank, are next welded on. To do this the in the fire comes to a good welding heat, the workmen shank is heated, and at the same time a thick bar is heated leave the bellows and take up their hammers; the coals in another forge : the end of this is laid across the shank, are removed from the iron, w hich is swung out of the fire and the men hammer it down to weld it to the shank; by the man who guides it, assisted by others, and the hot then the piece is cut off by the chisel, and another piece end placed on the anvil; during which time one or two welded on the opposite side. Whilst this process of forging the shank is going on, labourers with birch brooms sweep off the coals which adthe smiths of another forge, placed as near as convenient here to it. The smiths now begin hammering, one half the number to the former, are employed in making the arms, which standing on one side, and the other half on the other: are made from faggots in the same manner as the shank, they use large sledges weighing from sixteen to eighteen but of less size and shorter: they are made taper (seeX), pounds, and faced with steel, striking in regular order, one end of each being smaller than the other: the larger one after the other, swinging the hammers at arms’ length, ends are made square, and cut down with scarfs, r, to and all striking nearly at the same place. The foreman correspond with those, s, at the lower end of the shank. places himself near the man who guides, and with a long The middle parts of the arms are rounded, and the outer wrand points out the part he wishes them to strike, and at extremities are cut away as much as the thickness of the the same time directs and sometimes assists the guide to flukes or palms m, that the palms may be flush with the turn the faggot round, so as to bring that side uppermost upper sides when they are welded on. The flukes are genewhich requires to be hammered. This is continued as rally made at the iron-forges in the country, by the forgelong as the metal retains sufficient heat for welding. This hammer ; but in some yards they are made by faggoting process is exceedingly laborious for the workmen, and is small bars, leaving a long one for a handle. When finishmuch more effectually performed by means of the Her- ed, they are welded to the arms, which have then the apcules, which strikes such powerful blows upon the iron as pearance of X. The next business is to unite the arms to to consolidate the bars much more than the strokes of the end of the shank ; and in doing this particular care is small hammers can do, however long they may be conti- necessary, as the goodness of the anchor is entirely denued. When the iron has lost so much of the heat that pendent upon its being effectually performed. In so large it will no longer weld, the foreman takes a number of a weld, the outside is very liable to be welded, and make a pins, made like very thick nails without heads: one of good appearance, while the middle part is not united. To these he holds in the end of a cleft stick, places its point guard against this, both surfaces of the scarfs should be upon the iron, and two smiths, with their sledges, strike rather convex, that they may be certain to touch in the on it with all their force, to drive it through the bars ; but middle first. When the other arm is welded, the anchor this they must do quickly, or the pins will become hot and is complete, except the ring, which is made from several soft, so as not to penetrate the bar. These pins are in- small bars welded together, and drawn out into a round tended to hold the whole together more firmly, and, by rod, then bent to a circle, put through the hole in the swelling out the sides, to fill up any small spaces there may shank, and its ends welded together. If the shank or be between the bars. The iron is now returned to the other part is crooked, it is set straight by heating it in the fire, another mouth being opened on the opposite side of crooked part, and striking it over the anvil, or by the Herthe oven, to admit the end or part which has been welded cules. After all this the whole is heated, but not to a to come through, that a part farther up the faggot may be white heat, and the anchor hammered in every part, to heated; and when this is done the welding is performed finish and make its surface even. This is done by lighter in the same manner as before. Thus, by repeated heat- hammers, worked by both hands, but not swung over the ings, the faggot is made into one solid bar of the size and head. This operation renders the surface of the metal length intended. It is then hammered over again at weld- hard and smooth; and if very effectually performed, the ing heats to finish it, and make an even surface; and in anchor will not rust materially by the action of the seathis second operation the workmen do not leave off ham- water. The hammering is continued till the iron is quite mering as soon as the iron loses its full welding heat, but black and almost cold. It is common with some manufaccontinue till it turns almost black. This renders the sur- turers, after they have made up the shank, to heat it again, face solid and hard, and closes all small pores at which the and apply the end of a thin flat bar properly heated upon sea-water might enter, and by corroding the bars, expand it; then by turning the large shank round, the har is them, and in time split open the mass of iron. wound spirally upon it, so as to form a complete covering The shank for an anchor is made larger at the lower to. the whole. I his method admits of emploving a kind end, where the arms are to be welded to it, and is of a of iron which is less liable to corrosion, but we fear it is square figure. A sort of rebate or scarf s is here formed on sometimes resorted to to conceal the bad qualities of the each side of the square, in order that the arms may apply iron of which the anchor is composed. more properly for welding. This scarf is made in the oriI he iron from which anchors are made ought to be ol ginal shape of the faggot, and finished by cutting away the best quality: that kind of it which is called red short

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An, or will not bear sufficient hammering to weld the bars; and ' cold short, from its brittleness, is not to be depended upon Amfia. when the anchor is in use. A good anchor should be forrned of the toughest iron that can be procured. 'atei A new and improved method of fabricating anchors, for olio which a patent has been taken out by Lieutenant Rodgers, banM j^g i)een lately introduced. This consists in making the nflK ‘ shank hollow, and uniting it to a solid square at one end, and to a solid piece at the other, which forms the crown and part of the arms. The hollow part is bound at intervals by hoops, and the whole forms a much stronger anchor, of the same weight, than those of the common construction. The stock also is let on over the end of the square, and keyed up against a collar, by which means the anchor can be unstocked with great facility. See Plate XLIII. fig. 7. The most extensive establishment for fabricating anchors, &c. is that at Woolwich dock-yard. There the blowing apparatus, the working of the lift and tilt hammers, &c. is all done by a steam-engine of from 14 to 16 horse power. The improvements of Perring and Rodgers have been there introduced. (c.) To steer the ship to her Anchor, is to steer the ship’s head towards the place where the anchor lies when they are heaving the cable into the ship, that the cable may thereby enter the hause with less resistance, and the ship advance towards the anchor with greater facility. Anchor-Ground is a bottom which is neither too deep, too shallow, nor rocky; as in the first the cable bears too nearly perpendicular, and is thereby apt to jerk the anchor out of the ground; in the second, the ship’s bottom is apt to strike at low water, or when the sea runs high, by which she is exposed to the danger of sinking; and in the third, the anchor is liable to hood the broken and pointed ends of rocks, and tear away its flukes, whilst the cable, from the same cause, is constantly in danger of being cut through as it rubs on their edges. Anchor, in Architecture, is a sort of carving somewhat resembling an anchor. It is commonly placed as part of the enrichment of the boultins of capitals of the Tuscan, Doric, and Ionic orders, and also of the boultins of bed mouldings of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian cornices, anchors and eggs being carved alternately through the whole building. Anchors, in Heraldry, are emblems of hope, and are taken for such in a spiritual as well as a temporal sense. ANCHOVY. See Ichthyology. ANCIENT, or Antient, a term applied to things which existed long ago. Thus we say, ancient nations, ancient customs, &c. See Antiquities. ANCIENT Demesne, in English Law, is a tenure whereby all manors belonging to the crown in the times of William the Conqueror and St Edward were held. The numbers, names, &c. were entered by the Conqueror in the record called Domesday Book; so that such lands as by that book appeared to have belonged to the crown at that time are called ancient demesne. ANCIENTY, in some ancient statutes, is used for eldership or seniority. The elder sister can demand no more than her other sisters, beside the chief mesne, by reason ot her ancienty. This word is used in the statute of Ireland, 14 Henry III. ANCONA, a delegation or province of the Papal States, in Italy, a part of the ancient mark of Ancona. It is bounded on the north by Urbino, on the east by the Adriatic Sea, on the south by Macerata, and on the west by Urbino. Its extent is 646 square miles, or 413,440 acres. It is a mountainous district, with scarcely any plains; but between the projections of the Appenines there are some valleys, watered by the Musone, the Esino, the Aspino, and several smaller mountain rivers, which

A N c 109 yield good crops of corn, maize, garlic, fruit, almonds, Ancona tobacco, and some silk. Agriculture is much neglected, II but more attention is paid to cattle. The delegation con- Ancylotains 3 cities, 17 market-towns, and 34 villages; and in 1816 the number of inhabitants was 147,355, who, besides agriculture, find employment in manufactures of linen, silk, stockings, paper, and some other articles. The country is remarkably healthful. Ancona, the capital of the delegation of the same name. The city is in lat. 43° 43' 36" N. and long. 12° 42' 27" E. It is situated on the declivity of a tongue of land projecting into the Adriatic Sea, on which, after the destruction of the fortifications in 1815, a strong fort was built as a defence towards the sea. It has three gates towards the land. The most striking objects are the government palace, the town-house, the exchange, and the cathedral built at the extremity of the cape, on the site of an ancient temple of Venus. There is a college, an hospital, and several monasteries and nunneries. The inhabitants in 1816 were 29,792, among whom were 5000 Jews, who live in a separate quarter. The streets are narrow, and far from clean. There is a fine mole 2000 feet in length, on which a lazaretto and quarantine-house is built. The harbour is capacious, but complaints are made of the mud gradually increasing and injuring it. The trade is carried on by means of about 1100 vessels, which arrive and depart annually. This place endured a long siege in the year 1799, but at length the French garrison wbo defended it surrendered to a combined army and navy of Russians, Austrians, and Turks. ANCONES, in Architecture, the corners or quoins of walls, cross beams, or rafters. Vitruvius calls the consoles by the same name. ANCOURT, Florent Carton d’, an eminent French comic writer and actor, was born at Fontainbleau, on the 1st November 1661. He died on the 6th of December 1726, being 65 years of age. The plays which he wrote were all, with one exception, of the comic cast. They have been frequently reprinted, and form, in the best edition, namely, that of 1760, a collection of 12 vols. 12mo. ANCRE, a small town of France, in Picardy, with the title of a marquisate, seated on a little river of the same name. Long. 2. 45. E. Lat. 49. 59. N. ANGUS Martius, the fourth king of the Romans, succeeded Tullus Hostilius 639 years before Christ. He defeated the Latins, subdued the Fidenates, conquered the Sabines, Volsci, and Veientines, enlarged Rome by joining to it Mount Janiculum, and made the harbour of Ostia. He died about 615 years before the Christian era. ANCYLE, in Antiquity, a kind of shield that fell, as was pretended, from heaven, in the reign of Numa Pompilius ; at which time, likewise, a voice was heard declaring that Rome should be mistress of the world as long as she should preserve this holy buckler. It was kept with great care in the temple of Mars, under the direction of 12 priests ; and, lest any should attempt to steal it, 11 others were made so like as not to be distinguished from the sacred one. These ancylia were carried in procession every year round the city of Rome. ANCYLOBLEPHARON (from ayxv'kog, bent, and /3Xscpagov, an eyelid), a disease of the eye, which closes the eyelids. ANCYLOGLOSSUM (from ayy^Xog, crooked, and yXuxJm, the tongue), a contraction of the ligaments of the tongue. Some have this imperfection from their birth, others from some disease. In the first case, the membrane which supports the tongue is too short or too hard; in the latter, an ulcer under the tongue, healing and forming a cicatrix, is sometimes the case. These speak with some difficulty. The ancyloglossi by nature are late before

110 AND Ancylosis they speak ; but when they begin, they soon speak proper'll ly. These we call tongue-tied. Andaman. ANCYLOSIS, in Surgery, implies immobility or stiffness of the joints, and is used to express such stiffness, whether proceeding from internal or external causes. ANDABATiL, in Antiquity, a sort of gladiators, who, mounted on horseback or in chariots, fought hoodwinked, having a helmet that covered their eyes. ANDALUSIA, an extensive province in the south of Spain, on the Mediterranean Sea. Though its surface is very unequal, and its soil and climate vary with the elevations of the land, it must be considered the most rich and delightful of all the divisions of the peninsula. It is divided into four districts, which, in conformity with ancient usage, are denominated kingdoms, viz. Jaen, Cordova, Seville, and Granada, the description of each of which will be found in their alphabetical place. Andalusia, New, a division of the province of Terra Firma in South America, whose boundaries cannot be well ascertained, as the Spaniards pretend a right to countries in which they have never established any settlements. According to the most reasonable limits, it extends in length 500 miles from north to south, and about 270 in breadth from east to west. The interior country is woody and mountainous, variegated with fine valleys that yield corn and pasturage. The produce of the country consists chiefly in dyeing-drugs, gums, medicinal roots, brazil wood, sugar, tobacco, and some valuable timber. To this province also belonged five valuable pearl fisheries. The capital of New Andalusia is Comana, Cumana, or New Corduba, situated in lat. 10° 5' N. about nine miles from the North Sea. Here the Spaniards laid the foundation of a town in the year 1520. The place is strong by nature, and fortified by a castle capable of making a vigorous defence. The country is better known under the name of Guiana. The revolution which began there in 1810 is not yet terminated. ANDAMAN Islands. These islands, which are situated on the eastern side of the Bay of Bengal, are a continuation of the archipelago which extends from Cape Negrais to Atchein Head, stretching from lat. 10° 32' to 13° 40' N., and from long. 90° 6' to 92° 59' E. They are called the Great and the Little Andaman. The Great Andaman, which is the northern island, is 140 miles in length, and only 20 broad. It was formerly supposed to be one island; but two straitshave been discovered, which open a clear passage into the Bay of Bengal, and divide the Great Andaman into three islands. The Little Andaman, which lies 30 miles south of the Great Andaman, is 28 miles long and 17 broad. It does not afford any good harbour, though tolerably safe anchorage maybe found near its shores. These islands have an extremely moist temperature. They are situated in the direct current of the south-west monsoon; and the central mountains, some of the lofty peaks of which, as Saddle Peak in the large Andaman, rise to the height of 2400 feet, intercept the clouds, which, for about eight months in the year, descend in incessant torrents of rain on the plains below. According to a meteorological table kept by an officer resident on the island, 98 inches of water appear to have fallen in the course of seven months. On the whole, however, the temperature is milder than in Bengal, and the heats not so intolerable. . The island is totally uncultivated, and the savage inhabitants glean a miserable subsistence from the spontaneous produce of the woods, in which the researches of the Europeans have hitherto found little that is either palatable or nutritious. The principal trees are the banyantree, the almond-tree, the oil-tree, which grows to a crreat height and yields a very useful oil; the poon, the dammer, the red wood, which for furniture is little inferior to

AND fine mahogany; the ebony, the cotton-tree, the soondry, AndjB, chingry, and beady; the Alexandrian laurel, the poplar, a Octree resembling satin-wood, bamboos, cutch, the melon, aloes ; the iron-tree, of stupendous size, whose timber almost bids defiance to the axe of the wood-cutter. There are many other trees well adapted for the construction of ships ; and, as in all the equatorial forests, there are numberless creepers and ratans, which surround the stems of the trees, and are so firmly interlaced together, that the forests are impervious, except a road be previously cut through them. The only quadrupeds seen on the island are hogs, rats, and the ichneumon ; also the guana, of the lizard tribe; all which are very destructive to poultry. There are several species of snakes and scorpions, by which the labourers employed by the British in clearing away the underwood were frequently bitten; but in no instance did the bite prove mortal. The patient was frequently affected with violent convulsions, which gradually yielded to the operation of opium and eau-de-luce. Fish abound on the shores, and are caught in great numbers during the prevalence of the north-east monsoon, when the weather is mild: grey mullet, rock cod, skate, and soles, are among the best. There are, besides, various other species, such as guanas, sardinas, roe-balls, sable, shad, prawns, shrimps, cray-fish, a species of whale, and sharks of an enormous size. Shell-fish are in great plenty, and oysters of an excellent quality. The shores abound in a variety of beautiful shells, such as gorgonias, madreporas, murex, and cowries, with many other sorts equally beautiful. Birds are not numerous, and they are extremely shy. Doves, parroquets, and the Indian crow, are the most common. Hawks from the neighbouring continent are sometimes seen hovering over the tops of trees; and a few aquatic birds, such as the king-fisher, a sort of curlew, and the small sea-gull, frequent the shores. Within the caverns and recesses of the rocks are found the edible birds’ nests so highly prized among the Chinese for their supposed medicinal and restorative qualities. The whole population of the islands does not exceed 2000 or 2500, and they are probably the most savage people on the face of the whole earth. They are far below the ordinary scale of barbarism; and in their modes of subsistence, and in their dwellings, they rise very little above the brute creation. They wear no clothes, and seem insensible to any feeling of shame from the exposure of their persons. The woods supply them with little in the way of food. They are provided with no pot or vessel that can bear the action of fire, and they cannot therefore derive much advantage from such esculent herbs as the forests may contain. The cocoa nut, which thrives so well in the neighbouring islands, is not found in the Andamans, though the natives are extremely fond of it. The fruit of the mangrove is principally used by them. Their principal food consists of fish, in quest of a precarious meal of which they climb over the rocks, or rove along the margin of the sea, often without success during the tempestuous season; but they eagerly' seize on whatever else presents itself, such as lizards, guanas, rats, and snakes, from their diseased and extenuated figures, it is plain that they have no abundant or wholesome nourishment. In stature the inhabitants of the Great Andaman seldom exceed five feet; their limbs are disproportionably slender, their bellies protuberant, with high shoulders and large heads ; and, what is singular and unaccountable, they have all the characteristic marks of a degenerate race of negroes, with woolly hair, flat noses, and thick lips; their eyes are small and red, their skin of a deep sooty black, while their countenances exhibit a mixed expres-

AND ’ Ibi-. sion of famine and ferocity. Lieutenant Alexander de' my-vj gcribes the inhabitants of Little Andaman as far from being a puny race. When he landed in a boat he counted sixteen strong and able-bodied men, many of them very lusty. The ingenuity of these savages is principally seen in the fabrication of a few simple weapons on which they depend for their subsistence. These are a bow from four to five feet long, with arrows of reed, headed with fish-bone or wood hardened in the fire, a spear of heavy wood sharply pointed, and a shield made of bark. With these implements they shoot and spear the fish, which abound in their bays and creeks, with surprising dexterity. Their ' habitations display little more art than the dens of wild I beasts. Their canoes are hollowed out of the trunks of 1 trees by fire and instruments of stone, as they have no > , iron among them. Being much incommoded by insects, their first occupation in the morning is to plaster their 1 bodies all over with mud, which, hardening in the sun, forms an effectual defence. They paint their woolly heads with i a mixture of ochre and water; and, when completely j dressed, it is observed by Mr Symes, who visited the island > in his voyage to Ava, that a more hideous appearance is not i to be found in human form. Their language does not pos8 sess the slightest affinity to any spoken either on the conti11 1 nent of India or on the islands. It is not harsh to the ear. 1 Their songs are wildly melodious, and their gesticulations ^ when singing extremely impassioned. The men have all the c8 cunning and vindictive dispositions of savages; and they showa marked hatred to all strangers. They have little idea o1 of a future state, but they adore the sun and the moon, and the genii of the woods, waters, and mountains as inferior 8 agents. During the south-west monsoon, when tempests f prevail with unusual violence, they deprecate the wrath o of the malignant being who, according to their notions, 1' has occasioned the storm, by chanting wild choruses in s1 small congregations assembled on the beach or on some f *. rock that overhangs the ocean. These islanders have occ casionally been persuaded to come on board British ships; b but though they were well fed and kindly treated, no pers e suasion could induce them to remain. The settlement o ; of these islands, with their negro inhabitants, so widely f different in their appearance not only from all those of the l § Asiatic continent, in which the Andamans are embayed, 5 but also from the natives of the Nicobar islands, presents a a curious problem, which has never been satisfactorily c explained. It is supposed, however, by Symes, that the of original stock must have been settled on the island by t « the accidental ship week of some Arab slave-ship. The 1 English made a settlement on the larger Andaman in the J year 1791. Their object was to procure a commodious i harbour on the east side of the Bay of Bengal, to receive a and shelter ships of war during the continuance of the o I north-east monsoon; also to provide a place of reception i for convicts sentenced to transportation from Bengal. 1 But the settlement, proving unhealthy, has been since a abandoned. These islands have been frequently visited by ! British ships, but the barbarous natives reject all friendly i | intercourse. Lieutenant Alexander states that they pres sented a hostile aspect to the party who landed in search of fresh water, assailed them with volleys of arrows, and testit fied, by the most ferocious signs, their determined aversion t to them. In April 1824 the British armament destined ( |‘ against the Burmese touched at the great island, when t the natives persevered in their hostility, discharging flights ( of arrows at their boats, and then flying into the woods, tyiese islands, together with the Nicobar and other smaller islands, were included by Ptolemy in the general appella1 tlon °f Insulae, Bonce Fortunes, and were supposed by him to be inhabited bj^ a race of anthropophagi, though there ure no proofs of the modern inhabitants being addicted

and in to this practice. (Symes’ Embassy to Ava ; Alexander’s Andante Travels from India to England, comprehending a Visit to II the Burman Empire, &c.; Hamilton’s Gazetteer.) (f.) Anderson. ANDANTE, in Music, signifies a movement moderately slow, between largo and allegro. ANDEGAVI, or Andegavus, a town of Gallia Celtica (Pliny, Ptolemy); now Angiers: called Andecavi (Tacitus). Long. 30. W. Lat. 47. 30. N. ANDELYS, an arrondissement in the department of the Lower Seine, in France. It extends over 390 square miles, or 256,440 acres; is divided into six cantons, which are subdivided into 147 communes; and contains 63,211 inhabitants. The chief place, of the same name, has a population of 5256 souls. ANDENA, in old writings, denotes the swath made in the mowing of hay, or as much ground as a man could stride over at once. ANDEOL, Saint, a town of France, in the department of Lozere, five miles south of St Viviers, whose bishop formerly resided there. Long. 2. 50. E. Lat. 44.24. N. ANDERAB, the most southern city of the province of Balk, possessed by the Usbec Tartars. The neighbouring mountains yield excellent quarries of lapis lazuli, in which the Bukhars drive a great trade with Persia and India. ANDERAVIA, or Inderabia, a low, level, and narrow island on the Arabian shore of the Persian Gulf, about three miles in length. It is separated from the mainland by a strait three miles in length, and free from danger ; but ships running for shelter under this island must not come within a mile of its south end, until a remarkable tree, which will be distinguished standing by itself, bear westnorth-west. Lat. 26. 40. N. ANDERNACHT, a city in the duchy of the Lower Rhine, belonging to Prussia. It is situated in a plain on the river Rhine, and is fortified with a wall, castle, and bulwarks. It has a trade in stone jugs and pitchers, which are sent to the mineral waters at Dunchstein. There are three monasteries here, and several churches. Long. 7. 4. E. Lat. 50. 27. N. ANDERO, Saint, a seaport town in the Bay of Biscay, in Old Castile, seated on a small peninsula. It is a trading town, and contains about 700 houses, two parish churches, and four monasteries. Here the Spaniards build and lay up some of their men of war. Long. 3. 45. W. Lat. 43. 20. N. ANDERSON, Alexander, a very eminent mathematician, who flourished in the early part of the 17th century. He was born at Aberdeen, but passed over to the Continent, and settled as a private teacher or professor of mathematics at Paris, where he published or edited, between the years 1612 and 1619, various geometrical and algebraical tracts, which are conspicuous for their ingenuity and elegance. It is doubtful whether he was ever acquainted with the famous Vieta, master of requests at Paris, who died in 1603; but his pure taste and skill in mathematical investigation had pointed him out to the executors of that illustrious man, who had found leisure, in the intervals of a laborious profession, to cultivate and extend the ancient geometry, and, by adopting a system of general symbols, to lay the foundation and begin the superstructure of algebraical science, as the person most proper for revising and publishing his valuable manuscripts. Anderson did not come forward, however, as a mere editor; he enriched the texts with learned comments, and gave neat demonstrations of those propositions which had been left imperfect. He afterwards produced a specimen of the application of geometrical analysis, which is distinguished by its clearness and classic elegance. Of this able geometer we are ignorant both of the time of his birth and of Ins death. His brother David Ander-

112 AND Anderson, son, a small proprietor in Aberdeenshire, but engaged in business, had likewise a strong turn for mathematics and mechanics, which, joined to great versatility of talent, made him be regarded by his neighbours at that period as a sort of oracle. The daughter of this cleyei and active burgess was married to John Gregory, minister of Drumoak, in that county, father to the celebrated James Gregory, inventor of the reflecting telescope; and is supposed to have communicated to her children that taste for mathematical learning which afterwards shone forth so remarkably in the family of the Gregorys. The works of Anderson amount to six thin quarto volumes, which are now very scarce. Ihese are, 1. Supplementum Apollonii lledivivi; sive, Analysis problematis hactenus desiderati ad Apollonii Pergsei doctrinam i/tvtfsojv, a Murine Ghetaldo Patritio liagusino hucusque non ita pridem restitutam. In qua exhibetur Mechanice sequalitatum tertii gradus sive solidarum, in quibus magnitude omnino data aequatur homogeneae sub altero tantum coefficiente ignoto. Huic subnexa est variorum problematum practice, eodem Auctore. Parisiis, 1612, 4to. This tract refers to the problem of inclinations, by which, in certain cases, the application of the curve called the conchoid is superseded. 2. AmoXoyia: Pro Zetetico Apollonian! problematis a sp jam pridem edito in supplemento Apollonii Redivivi. Ad clarissimum et ornatissimum virum Marinum Ghetaldum Patritium Ragusinum. In qua ad ea quae obiter inibi perstrinxit Ghetaldus respondetur, et analytices usus clarius detegitur. Parisiis, 1615, 4to. I his is an addition to the author’s former work. 3. Francisci Vietae Fontenacensis de iEquationum Recognitione et Emendatione Tractatus Duo. Parisiis, 1615, 4to. To this work Anderson has supplied the dedication, preface, and appendix. 4. Ad Angularium Sectionum Analyticen Theoremata KadoXauT^a, a Francisco Vieta Fontenacensi excogitata, at absque ulla demonstratione ad nos transmissa, jam tandem demonstrationibus confirmata. Parisiis, 1615, 4to. 5. Vindicise Archimedis; sive, Elenchus Cyclometriae Novae a Philippo Lansbergio nuper editae. Parisiis, 1616, 4to. 6. Alexandri Andersoni Scoti Exercitationum Mathematicarum Decas prima; continens Quaestionum aliquot, quae nobilissimorum turn hujus turn veteris aevi Mathematicorum ingenia exercuere, Enodationem. Parisiis, 1619, 4to. C (b.) Anderson, Sir Edmund, a younger son of an ancient Scotish family settled in Lincolnshire. He was some time a student of Lincoln College, Oxford, and removed from thence to the Inner Temple, where he applied himself diligently to the study of the law, and became a barrister. In 1582 he was made lord chief justice of the common pleas, and in the year following was knighted. He held his office to the end of his life in 1605. His works are, 1. Reports of many principal Cases argued and adjudged in the time of Queen Elizabeth in the Common Bench, Lond. 1644, fol.; 2. Resolutions and Judgments on the cases and matter agitated in all courts of Westminster in the latter end of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, Lond. 1655, 4to. » Anderson, James, LL. D. The subject of this article, who has been brought into notice principally from the more recent encouragement given to agriculture, and the versatility of his own genius, was born at the village of Hermiston, in the county of Edinburgh, in the year 1739. His parents were in humble life, and had possessed a farm for some generations, which he was destined to inherit and to cultivate. At that period improvement

AND was in infancy, and the husbandman had to contend withAnde a climate whose uncertainty seemed to keep pace withW ;J the progress of his skill, and which too often disappointed him of the fruits of his industry. Anderson, while yet at an early age, lost his parents: however, his education was uninterrupted; and conceiving that an acquaintance with chemistry would promote his profession, he attended a course of lectures on that science, then delivered by Dr Cullen. None of the other pupils besides himself took notes of his lectures, which being afterwards surreptitiously obtained from him, with the design of publication, he defeated the intended purpose, apprehensive that his preceptor’s fame might be diminished by these imperfect transcripts. His own active occupations had already commenced, and, along with the practice of husbandry, he prosecuted his original taste for literature. Enlarging the sphere of his employments, Anderson forsook his first possession, for a farm of 1300 acres, which he rented in Aberdeenshire, though nearly in a state of nature, and where agriculture is still behind the southern districts. But previous to this he became known to men of letters, by some essays on planting, which, under the signature Agricola, he ventured to commit to the world through the medium of the Edinburgh Weekly Magazine, in 1771. Soon embarking in a higher sphere of literature, he composed the article Monsoon for the first edition of this Encyclopaedia, in 1773, wherein he threw out some luminous ideas, and, among other observations, predicted from physical facts, and the state of geographical knowledge, that no polar continent would be found by the circumnavigators then employed by government. In the year 1777 he published a considerable quarto volume, said to have been composed two years preceding, on the means of exerting a spirit of national industry with regard to agriculture, commerce, manufactures, and fisheries; and in this he enters into detailed views of many subjects of political economy. The interest of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland is in a particular manner considered; and the author maintains, that the only effectual means of increasing agriculture is by promoting manufactures; as also, that the neglect-which the agriculture of these parts of the kingdom experienced, resulted from the neglect of manufactures. Scotland, he affirms, is better adapted than England for the production of wool; and this, as well as other products, he thought, would be best encouraged by premiums. The advantages which might result from attending to the fisheries, he judged, would be very great, and the shoals of herrings frequenting the coast could be converted into a source of national wealth under suitable establishments. Anderson, who soon after had the degree of doctor of laws conferred on him by the University of Aberdeen, did not abandon these inquiries. He printed a tract regarding the fisheries, which was circulated among his friends ; and, in consequence of being more widely diffused, he was appointed by the Lords of the Treasury to survey the western coast of Scotland, for the purpose of obtaining satisfactory information on the subject. This he did in 1784, and received the full approbation of his employers ; and he published a brief account of the Hebrides, a chain of islands then as little within the general acquaintance of the inhabitants of Great Britain as if they had been under the dominion of another country. The principal obstacles to the fishery, Dr Anderson considered, were to be found in a duty on salt and coals, and he recommended the repeal of both. It is certain that, from thenceforward, this great branch of national industry has received infinitely more patronage than before his report, and, while we only shared the labours of the Dutch for centuries, the fisheries on our own coast have since been monopolized by ourselves. No-

AND non'thing can be more impolitic than to fetter the exertions of ^Mhe industrious by exorbitant duties, or equally oppressive with denying fuel to the poorer classes, where it is scarce, by duties on its importation. Dr Anderson had now withdrawn from his northern farm, where he resided above 20 years, and settled in the vicinity of Edinburgh. His agricultural speculations were still continued ; and when a parliamentary grant was about to be proposed to Mr Elkington for a particular mode of draining land, he reclaimed the practice as having been observed by himself many years anterior. Repeated exunples, indeed, prove that the rewards granted by Parliament for improvement are attended with such slight investigations, that the merits of real invention are overlooked. Dr Anderson now projected a periodical publication called The Bee, consisting of miscellaneous original matter, which attained the extent of 18 volumes in octavo. It was published weekly, and a large proportion of it came from his own pen, which is seldom a prudent course in an editor. The relation of Great Britain and her colonies, and the political rights of mankind—subjects which had excited strong interests throughout Europe—also received some commentaries from Dr Anderson. He wrote a tract called The Interest of Great Britain with respect to her Colonies, and commenced a correspondence with General Washington, which was afterwards published. Towards the year 1797 he again removed to Islesworth, in the neighbourhood of London, where he undertook another periodical publication, appearing at more distant intervals than the former, entitled Recreations in Agriculture, Natural History, Arts, and Miscellaneous Literature. This work was prefaced by two copious dissertations, the one on agriculture, the other on natural history; and opened with a discussion regarding a very curious and important subject, namely, an inquiry into what are denominated varieties in plants and animals. Many useful and interesting remarks appear in the course of this publication, a portion of which was supplied by other contributors; and it is embellished by beautiful vignettes from engravings on wood. Owing to some difficulties attending the publication, it ceasecH in 1802. Though natural history is rather predominant, the rest of his leading subjects are not overlooked. Dr Anderson henceforward lived in a great measure in retirement, though occasionally reminding the world of his wonted inquiries, by the publication of tracts on unconnected subjects. He obtained a patent for an improved hot-house, wherein no fuel was used; and employed himself in experiments regarding the degree of temperature and humidity most beneficial to plants. Likewise, having observed the uncommon depredations of wasps, he is said, after satisfying himself of their manner of increase, to have devisad a plan for their absolute extermination. This was chiefly by the destruction of the females before founding their respective colonies by the depositation of innumerable eggs; and hand-bills were circulated under the auspices of an association formed by him, offering a reward for every female brought in dead within a specified time. It does not appear, however, that the breed was at all diminished by the proposed expedient. Dr Anderson still remained in his retreat, enjoying the cultivation of his garden; and nothing of importance is known to have proceeded from his pen. After a gradual decline, partly occasioned by the over-exertion of the mental energies, he died in the year 1808, aged 69. He was twice married; first, to Miss Seton of Mounie; secondly, to an English lady. By his first marriage he had thirteen children, six of whom survived him. One of his sons made distinguished progress in the art of engraving on wood; and, if the vignettes of the Recreations in Agriwliii.

AND 113 culture were executed by him, they afford ample testimony Anderson, of his abilities. Dr Anderson was endowed with a vigorous understanding, which he chiefly displayed in treating of agricultural matters, and those connected with rural economy; but he was at the same time of a versatile talent, which could readily be occupied on transient facts and occurrences. Many of his works were of a fugitive nature, consisting of small impressions, which were not renewed, and hence are difficult to be obtained at present, if they have not totally disappeared. None of them soars to the more lofty regions of science ; they are directed to practical views in useful projects, and for the most part relate to subjects of ordinary detail. Of this the reader will be enabled to judge by the subjoined list, which we believe is the most copious that has yet appeared. The industry of Dr Anderson was indefatigable, whether in personal exertion or mental energy; and he possessed elevated sentiments of independence. During a period of overstrained political fervour, certain papers formed part of the periodical works already referred to, which were thought libellous on the government. Although Dr Anderson’s principles were noted for attachment to the existing administration, he was called upon to give up the author of the obnoxious compositions, which he steadily refused, and, even in the face of the civil magistrates, charged his printers not to violate their fidelity to him and the author in betraying his name. The business terminated here, until a factious individual insinuated to the same magistrates that the compositions had proceeded from one of the supreme judges, whose party politics were avowedly hostile to those of government. Dr Anderson having learned the reproach, hastened to relieve the object of it by divulging the name of the real author, who, to the universal surprise of the public, proved to be none other than the traducer himself. 1776. A Practical Treatise on Chimneys, containing full instructions for constructing them in all cases, so as to draw well, and for removing smoke, 12mo. 1776. Free Thoughts on the American Contest, 8vo. 1777. Observations on the Means of exciting a Spirit of National Industry, 4to. 1777. Miscellaneous Observations on Planting and Training Timber Trees, by Agricola, in 8vo. 1777. An Inquiry into the Nature of the Corn Laws, in 8vo. 1777. Essays Relating to Agriculture and Rural Affairs, 8vo. A fifth edition, in 3 volumes, was published in 1800. 1779. An Inquiry into the Causes that have hitherto retarded the Advancement of Agriculture in Europe, 4to. 1782. The Interest of Great Britain with regard to her American Colonies considered, 8vo. 1783. The True Interest of Great Britain considered, or a Proposal for Establishing the Northern British Fisheries, 12mo. 1785. An Account of the Present State of the Hebrides and Western Coast of Scotland, being the Substance of a Report to the Lords of the Treasury, 8vo. 1789. Observations on Slavery, particularly with a View to its Effects on the British Colonies in the West Indies, 4to. 1790. Papers by Dr Anderson and Sir John Sinclair on Shetland Wool, 8vo. 1791. The Bee, 18 vols. 8vo. 1792. Observations on the Effects of the Coal Duty, 8vo. 1793. Thoughts on the Privileges and Powers of Juries, with observations on the State of the Country with regard to Credit, 8vo.

114 AND Anderson. 1793. Remarks on the Poor’s Laws of Scotland, 4to. 1794. A Practical Treatise on Peat Moss, 8vo. 1794. A General View of the Agriculture and Rural Economy of the County of Aberdeen, and the Means of its Improvement, 8vo. 1794. An Account of the Different Kinds of Sheep found in the Russian Dominions, by Dr Pallas. With five Appendixes, by Dr Anderson. 8vo. 1795. Two Letters, to Dr Edward Home, on an Universal Character, in 8vo. 1797. A Practical Treatise on Draining Bogs and Swampy Grounds, with Cursory Remarks on the Originality of Elkington’s Mode of Draining Lands, 8vo. 1799. Recreations in Agriculture, 6 vols. 8vo. 1800. Selections from Correspondence with General Washington, 8vo. 1801. A Calm Investigation of the Circumstances that have led to the Present Scarcity of Grain in Great Britain; suggesting the means of alleviating that evil, and of preventing the occurrence of such a calamity in future; 8vo. 1803. Description of a Patent Hot-house, which operates chiefly by the Heat of the Sun, and other Subjects, 8vo. Dr Anderson, besides, wrote many papers in periodical publications, and an account of Ancient Fortifications in the Highlands, read to the Society of Scotish Antiquaries. Anderson, Robert, the fourth son of William Anderson, and of Margaret Melrose his wife, was born at Carnwath in Lanarkshire on the 7th of January 1750. His father was a feuar, that is, a person who possessed some small parcels of real property by the tenure of a perpetual lease. Having received the earlier part of his education in his native town and in the adjacent village of Libberton, he was afterwards placed under the tuition of Robert Thomson, master of Lanark school, who had married a sister of Thomson the poet, and who has been commended for his uncommon proficiency in classical learning. Excellence however is always a relative term; nor must it be forgotten that the grammar schools of Scotland had about that period descended to their very lowest level. James Graeme, a native of the same town, was his companion and friend at all these seminaries: he appears to have been an amiable young man of promising talents, and to have been imbued with the love of literature. One of their school-fellows at Lanark was John Pinkerton, who afterwards became a conspicuous member of the republic of letters. Anderson’s father had died in 1759, in the 40th year of his age, leaving his widow with a very slender provision. Uniting considerable energy of character with a large share of piety, she made a vigorous effort to educate her four sons; and as she survived till the year 1796, she had the satisfaction of seeing one of them arrive at independence and distinction. Having discovered an early taste for reading, he soon made choice of one of the liberal professions. His first destination was for the church: in the year 1767 he was sent to the university of Edinburgh, and in due time was enrolled among the students of divinity. Graeme, who had entered the university at the same time and with the same views, died of consumption in 1772, in the 23d year of his age; and, after a short interval, his faithful friend published a collection of Poems on several occasions, by James Grceme. Edinb. 1773, 12mo. These poems he inserted in the 11th volume of the British Poets, together with an account of the author, in which his literary merits are estimated, not with the discrimination of sober criticism, but with, all the partiality of friendly zeal. About this period he relin-

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quished the study of divinity, and betook himself to the Ai, study of medicine. He was for a short time employed 0 as surgeon to the dispensary at Bamborough Castle in Northumberland; and in a neighbouring town he then formed connections which had no small influence on his future destiny. On the 25th of September 1777 he married Anne, the daughter of John Grey, Esq. of Alnwick, who was related to the noble family of that name. Re. turning to Scotland, he took the degree of M. D. at St Andrews on the 20th of May 1778, after having been duly examined by the professor of physic. He now began to practise as a physician at Alnwick; but his general habits were rather those of speculation than exertion, and a moderate provision, acquired by his marriage, had emancipated him from the necessity of professional labour. In 1784 he finally returned to Edinburgh, where he continued to reside for the period of 46 years, in a condition of life removed from affluence, but perfectly compatible with genuine independence and comfort. He possessed the valuable secret of living within his income ; and his house was long distinguished by a hearty and unostentatious hospitality. His amiable and affectionate wife died of consumption on the 25th of December 1785, in the 39th year of her age, leaving three daughters, the youngest of whom speedily followed her mother to the grave. He did not resume the practice of physic, but being satisfied with his moderate acquisitions, he devoted much of his time to the education of his two children, and to miscellaneous and desultory reading, rather than to any systematical course of study. In 1793, after having remained a widower for eight years, he married Margaret, the daughter of Mr David Dali, master of Tester school in the county of Haddington. For several years his attention was occupied with his edition of The Works of the British Poets, with Prefaces biographical and critical, which was published at Edinburgh, and extends to 14 large octavo volumes. The earliest volume, which is now the second in the series, was printed in 1792-3; the 13th was printed in 1795, and another volume was added in 1807. He was frequently solicited to revise his Lives of the Poets, and publish them in a separate form ; but after having collected some materials for such a work, he finally abandoned the design. In the mean time he had published The Miscellaneous Works of Tobias Smollett, M. D. with Memoirs of his Life and Writings. Edinb. 1796, 6 vols. 8vo. The sixth edition of this collection was printed in the year 1820. Of his account of the ingenious author, the eighth separate edition appeared under the title of The Life of Tobias Smollett, 31. D. with critical Observations on his Works. Edinb. 1818, 8vo. But the most able and elaborate of his productions is the third edition of his Life of Samuel Johnson, LL. D. with critical Observations on his Works. Edinb. 1815, 8vo. The same service which he rendered to Dr Smollett he afterwards extended to Dr Moore, having published The Works of John Moore, M.D. with Memoirs of his Life and Writings. Edinb. 1820, 7 vols. 8vo. At an earlier period he had published The Poetical Works of Robert Blair ; containing the Grave, and a Poem to tbs Memory of Mr Law; to which is prefixed the Life of the Author. Lond. 1794, 8vo. And his latest publication was The Grave, and other Poems, by Robert Blair: to which are prefixed, some Account of his Life, and Observations on his Writings. Edinb. 1826, 12mo. Dr Anderson contributed his ready aid to many different publications, and was always influenced, not by the love of money^but by the love of literature. With many eminent men in England, Ireland, and America, he maintained a literary correspondence; and having survived most of his lettered contemporaries, he enjoyed the

AND ,. esteem and consideration of a second and even of a third ^generation. In 1802, 1809, and 1810, he paid three long visits to Dr Percy, the late excellent Bishop of Dromore; and he likewise enjoyed the friendship of Dr Ledwich, Dr Ryan, Mr Boyd, Mr Cooper Walker, and many other literary men of the sister island. No part of his character was more conspicuous than his uniform and unabating zeal to promote the success of young men who discovered any promise, however moderate, of literary talent; and some of the more distinguished writers of our own age and nation were not without their obligations to his disinterested friendship. Mr Campbell dedicated to him his earliest and most popular publication, The Pleasures of Hope. Miss Bannerman, a very ingenious and accomplished lady, who died at Portobello on the 29th of September 1829, dedicated to him her first collection of Poems. Edinb. 1800, 8vo. Thomas Brown, John Leyden, and Alexander Murray, who all died at too early an age, were among the most eminent of his young friends. For Dr Brown, who became professor of moral philosophy in the university of Edinburgh, he entertained a very cordial esteem, which suffered no abatement or interruption. Another prominent feature of his mind, was his ardent regard for the civil and religious liberties of mankind. This characteristic he displayed from the first years of manhood till the last day of his earthly existence; and, on the very evening before his death, he gave a signal proof of his unquenchable zeal, by sending for a map of Greece, in order, as he expressed himself, to form some notion of the general elements of this new state. His principles were those of a very decided Whig; and, during the extraordinary excitement which attended the close of the last century, he was sometimes misrepresented as little better than a republican. The honest alarm of one class of individuals, and the hollow zeal of another, had a strong tendency to confound all nice distinctions. His bodily frame had never been robust; but the uniform temperance and regularity of his habits contributed to prolong a life which was marked by cheerfulness and benevolence. His faculties, mental and corporeal, betrayed few or no symptoms of old age. During the greater part of his last winter he was confined to his own house by what was considered as a common cold, and was attended by his friend and contemporary Dr Hamilton. His lungs however seemed to be affected in an unusual manner; and, five days before his dissolution, his physician discovered that dropsy in the chest had supervened. As he had now reached a very advanced age, he indulged not even the faintest hope of recovery. Though his chief or only suffering proceeded from difficulty of respiration, the progressr of his malady was swift and certain: but the native alacrit) of his mind seemed incapable of diminution ; and maintaining much and varied conversation during the last days, and indeed during the last hours ofhis life,heevincedmore than his usual continuity of thought and accuracy of expression. As the vital tide was rapidly receding, his heart seemed to expand with new kindness towards all those who approached his couch. 01 the immediate prospect of death he spoke, not merely with resignation, but even with cheerfulness; with the subdued but confident hope of one who had long and habitually reposed on the assurances of the Christian faith. He died on Saturday the 20th of February 1830, after having completed the 80th year of his age; and, according to his own directions, his remains were interred in Carnwath churchyard. His eldest daughter, Anne Margaret, was married in 1810 to David Irving, LL. D. and died in 1812, leaving an only son. His second daughter, Margaret Susannah, lived to deplore the loss of a parent,

AND 115 whose declining years she had soothed by the most ex- Andes, emplary attention to all his wants and wishes. (x.) ANDES. The Andes are distinguished above all the known mountain chains by their immense extent and their prodigious altitude. They run almost parallel to the west coast of the southern continent of America, at a mean distance of between 100 and 200 miles, rising in some places to the enormous height of 25,000 feet; and stretch from the mouth of the river Atrato, on the isthmus of Darien, in the latitude of 8 degrees north, as far as Cape Pilares, at the outlet of the Straits of Magellan, in the 53d degree of south latitude, a range of at least 4200 miles. They send out, nearly at right angles from their colossal ridge, between the latitudes of 14° and 20° south, three dependent branches, called by the Spaniards Cordilleras. Of these secondary chains, the first and most northern is that of the coast of Venezuela, which is likewise the highest and narrowest. With an irregular altitude, it bends eastwards from the Atrato, forming the Sierra of Abibe, the mountains of Cauca, and the high Savannahs of Folu, till it reaches the stream of Magdalena, in the province of St Martha. It contracts as it approaches the Gulf of Mexico, at Cape Vela; and thence extends to the mountain of Paria, or rather the Galley Point, in the island of Trinidad, where it terminates. This secondary chain attains its greatest known elevation where it rears the snowy summit, or Sierra Nevada, of St Martha and of Merida, the former being nearly 14,000 and the latter above 15,000 feet in altitude. These insulated mountains, covered so near the equator with eternal snow, yet discharging boiling sulphurous water from their sides, are higher than the Peak of Tenerifte, and can be compared only with Mont Blanc. In their descent they leave the Paramo or lofty desert of Rosa and of Mucachi; and on the west side of the lake Maracaibo they form long and very narrow vales, running from south to north, and covered with forests. At Cape Vela the mountain chain divides into two parallel ridges, which form three confined valleys ranging from east to west, and having all the appearance of being the beds of ancient lakes. These ridges, of which the northern is the continuation of the Sierra Nevada of St Martha, and the southern the extension of the snowy summits of Merida, are united again by two arms which seem to have been placed by the hand of nature as dikes to confine the primeval collections of water. The three valleys thus inclosed are remarkable for their elevation above the sea, rising like steps one above another, the eastmost, or that of the Caraccas, being the highest. This plain was found by Humboldt to be elevated 2660 feet, while the basin of Aragua has only 1350 feet in height, and the Llanos, or reedy plains of Monai, spread within 500 or 600 feet above the level of the shore. The lake of the Caraccas appears to have forced a passage for itself through the quehrada or cleft of Tipe, while that of Aragua has been gradually dissipated by a slow process of evaporation, leaving some vestiges of its former existence in pools charged with muriate of lime, and in the low islets called Aparecidas. The medium height of the Cordillera of the coast is about 4000 or 5000 feet; but its loftiest summit, next to the Sierra Nevada of Merida, is the Silla (or saddle) of the Caraccas, which was visited by Humboldt, and ascertained from barometrical measurement to have an elevation of 8420 feet. Farther to the eastward the mountain chain becomes suddenly depressed, especially its primitive rocks; the beds of gneiss and mica slate meeting as they advance with accumulations of secondary calcareous substances, which envelope them completely, and rise to a great elevation. The incumbent mass of sandstone, with a calcareous base, extending from

ANDES. 116 Andes. Capelluarl, forms a detached range of mountains, in which Andes is that of the Chiquitos, which province it traverses, a making a sort of semicircular sweep between the parallels V no trace of primitive rock is found. The second branch, which stretches from the Andes of 15 and 20 degrees south latitude, and appearing to conacross the American continent, and exhibits a chain of nect the colossal heights of Peru and Chili with the mounprimitive mountains, is named by Humboldt the Cordillera tains of Brazil and Paraguay. It supplies the rivers that of the Cataracts of Orinoco. This very enterprising tra- feed the Maranon on the one side, and the Plata on the veller surveyed it over an extent of upwards of 600 miles, other. The structure and disposition, however, of the from the Black River to the frontiers of the Great Bara; Cordillera of the Chiquitos still remain almost unknown. but the rest of the chain is very little known, running These grand chains of mountains divide the southern through unexplored wilds and regions almost inaccessible, occupied by fierce and independent tribes of savages. It continent of America, from the latitude of 19 to that of leaves the great trunk between the 3d and 6th degree of 52 degrees, into three immense plains, which on the west southern latitude, and runs eastward from the Paramo or side are shut up by the enormous ridge of the Andes, but high desert of Tuquillo and St Martin, and the sources of are all open on the east, and towards the Atlantic Ocean. the Guaviari, rearing the lofty summits of Umamaand Ca- The most northern is the valley of the Orinoco, consistnavami, and pouring forth the large rivers Meta, Zama, and ing of savannahs or level tracts covered with reedy herbYmerida, which form the roudals or tremendous rapids of age and scattered palms. The next is the plain of the Ature and Maypure, the only openings existing at present Maranon, which is entirely covered with dense, impenebetween the interior of the continent and the plain of the trable forests. The third and southmost valley is the PamAmazons. Beyond these cataracts the chain of mountains pas, a dead flat of most prodigious expanse, clothed, like again acquires greater elevation and breadth, occupying that of the Orinoco, with a coarse, rank herbage, and abanthe vast tract inclosed between the rivers Caura, Cavony, doned to the occupation of countless herds of wild cattle. Of these immense plains, the subsoil resembles the comand Padamo, and stretching southward to the boundless forests where the Portuguese settlers gather that potent position of the neighbouring mountains. In the valley of drug the sarsaparilla. Farther eastward this chain is the Orinoco, the primitive rock is generally wrapt in a not traced, no European or civilized Indian having ever coat of sandstone, with calcareous cement, or covered with explored the sources of the Orinoco; all access in that calcareous concretions, which betray the vestiges of requarter being prevented by the ferocity of the Guaicas, a cent organic remains, but show none of the older impresdwarfish but very fair and warlike race, and by the valour sions, such as the belemnites and ammonites, so common of the Guajaribos, a most desperate tribe of cannibals. in Europe. The woody plain of Maranon is distinguished Beyond these recesses, however, we are made acquainted by the thinness of its soil, and the total absence of any with the continuation of the chain of the cataracts, by calcareous ingredients, the granite approaching close to the astonishing journey performed by Don Antonio Santos, the surface, which is in some places left quite bare over an who, disguised like a savage, his body naked, and his skin extent of many furlongs. But the Pampas of Buenos Ayres stained of a copper colour, and speaking fluently the seve- are covered to a great depth with beds of alluvial deposites, ral Indian dialects, penetrated from the mouth of the Rio in which the powers of vegetation, fomented by the rays Caronis to the' Lake of Parime and the Amazons. The of a burning sun, luxuriate in wanton profusion. range of mountains sinks lower, and contracts its breadth The lake of Titicaca covers a surface of 16,000 square to 200 miles, where it assumes the name of Serrania de miles, being in some places 70 or 80"fathoms deep. It has Quimeropaca and Pacaraimo. A few degrees farther east- an elevation of 12,800 feet above the sea, and terminates ward it spreads out again, and bends south to the Canno at the mountain Potosi, which rises to 16,000 feet, and is Pirara along the Mao, near whose banks appears the Cerro yet covered with the ruins of the ancient Peruvian civilior hill of Ucucuamo, consisting entirely of a very shining zation. Near this centre the volcano of Antiquipa stands, and yellow mica slate, which has therefore procured from at the height of 17,800 feet, while the double peak of the credulity of early travellers the magnificent appella- the Nevados, or snowy Illimani, tow'er to the enormous tion of Dorado or Golden Mountain. East from the river elevations of 24,200 and 24,450 feet, or about 3000 feet Essequibo this Cordillera stretches to meet the granitic or above the summit of Chimborazo, which was long regarded gneiss mountains of Dutch and French Guiana, inhabited as the loftiest pinnacle of our globe. But, in the northern by confederated bands of negroes and Caribs, but giving extension of the Cordillera, Mount Sorata rears its snowy birth to the commercial streams of Berbice, Surinam, and head, at the stupendous elevation of 25,000 feet. Maroni. In those tropical regions cultivation ascends to very The chain of the cataracts of Orinoco has only a mean near the limits of perpetual snow. Various prolific crops, height of about 4000 feet above the level of the sea. The and particularly wheat and potatoes, are grown at the greatest elevation occurs where the mountain of Duida height of 14,000 feet above the level of the sea. A conrears its enormous mass from the midst of a luxuriant siderable population, dispersed in towns or villages, occupy plain, clothed with the tropical productions of palms and tracts about 1000 feet higher, and enjoy health and viananas, and discharges from its steep sides, about the gour in a keen atmosphere, twice as rare as at the level of close of the rainy season, volumes of incessant flames. the sea. I he ancient Peruvians had worked some gold Jso one has yet had the resolution or perseverance to mines at the vast altitude of 17,000 feet. climb through the tangling and rampant bushes to its I he disciple of Werner traces with delight, in the mapeak, which, measured trigonometrically, gives an altitude jestic features of the American continent, the same orof 8465 feet above the sea. The whole mountain group der and succession of rocks which the sagacity of that ilwhich forms this Cordillera is distinguished by the lustrious geologist had discovered in the mountains ol abrupt descent of its south flank; nor is it less remark- Saxony. Granite appears still the oldest material of our able for containing no rock of secondary formation, or globe: to it succeeds the laminated species, or gneiss; exhibiting any vestige of petrifactions and organic re- then mica slate, containing garnets; next primitive slate, mains. It contains only granite, gneiss, mica slate, and with beds of native alum; now slate mixed with hornhornblende, without any casing or admixture of sand- blende ; above this greenstone or primitive trap, followed stone or calcareous matter. by amygdaloid; and last of the series, porphyry slate. The third great branch sent out from the trunk of the Resting or flanked against those primary rocks, beds of

ANDES. 117 mief,. the older limestone begin to appear, followed by a suite the efforts of the contending elements are betrayed, es- Andes, ‘■‘yX'''of’minerals bearing indications of organic remains—mica pecially during the rainy season, by a doleful moaning slate, hornblende, gypsum, and calcareous sandstone. The noise, or hollow and portentous groans, enough to cast a only formations which Humboldt did not meet with.in his darker shade on the gloom of superstition, and to fill the imaextensive travels, were those of chalk, roestone, gray- gination of the remotest settler with secret awe and dread. A person who for the first time climbs the mountains wacke, topaz rock, and the compound of serpentine with granular limestone which occurs in Asia Minor. The of Switzerland is astonished to witness, in the space pergrand ridge of the Andes is everywhere covered with por- haps of a few hours, so rapid a change of climate, and phyry, basalt, phonolite, and greenstone; which being such a wide range of vegetable productions. He may beoften broken into columns, appear at a distance like ruin- gin his ascent from the midst of warm vineyards, and pass ed castles, and produce a very striking effect. Near the through a succession of chesnuts, oaks, and beeches, till bottom of that enormous chain, two different sorts of he gains the elevation of the hardy pines and stunted limestone occur ; one with a silicious base, inclosing some- birches, or treads on Alpine pastures, extending to the times cinnabar and coal; and another mostly calcareous, border of perpetual snow. But within the tropics every and cementing the secondary rocks. These formations thing is formed on a grander scale. The boundary of are of enormous thickness and elevation. “ Beds of coal permanent congelation is 7500 feet higher at the equator are found in the neighbourhood of Santa Fe, 8650 feet than at the mean latitude of 45 degrees. Under a burnabove the level of the sea; and even at the height of ing sun ananas and plantains grow profusely near the 14,700, near Huanco in Peru. The plains of Bogota, al- shore ; oranges and limes occur a little higher ; then sucthough elevated 9000 feet, are covered with gypsum, ceed fields of maize and luxuriant wheat; and the trasandstone, shell-limestone, and even in some parts with veller has actually reached the high plain of Mexico, or rock salt. Fossil shells, which in the old continent have the still loftier vale of Quito, before he finds a climate not been discovered higher than the summits of the Py- analogous to that of Bordeaux or of Geneva. Now only renees, or 11,700 feet above the sea, were observed in commences the series of plants which inhabit the central Peru, near Micuipampa, at the height of 12,800 feet; and parts of Europe. again at that of 14,120, beside Huancavelica, where sandBut the very magnitude of the Andes appears to have stone also appears. The basalt of Pichincha, near the the effect of diminishing the impressions of awe and woncity of Quito, has an elevation of 15,500 feet, while the der which the sight of them so powerfully excites. The top of the Schneekoppe in Silesia is only 4225 feet above country on which they rest is heaved to such a vast altithe sea—the highest point in Germany where that spe- tude above the sea, that the relative elevation of their cies of rock occurs. On the other hand, granite, which summits becomes diminished in comparison with that of in Europe crowns the loftiest mountains, is not found in the surrounding amphitheatre. The majestic forms of the American continent above the height of 11,500 feet. Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, and Antisana, though 6000 feet It is scarcely known at all in the provinces of Quito and higher than Mont Blanc, and clothed, like it, with eternal Peru. The frozen summits of Chimborazo, Cayambe, and snow, seem to a traveller scarcely more sublime from the Antisana, consist entirely of porphyry, which, on the plains of Riobomba and Quito, than the celebrated mounflanks of the Andes, forms a mass of 10,000 or 12,000 feet tain when viewed from the vale of Chamouni. It requires in depth. The sandstone near Cuenca has a thickness some time for his imagination to expand itself to the new of 5000 feet, and the stupendous mass of pure quartz on scale of grandeur. the west of Caxamarca measures perpendicularly 9600 The central Andes, with all their magnificence, want a feet. It is likewise a remarkable fact, that the porphyry feature which, in the higher latitudes, contributes so much of those mountains very frequently contains hornblende, to the beauty and sublimity of the Alpine scenery. They but never quartz, and seldom mica. have no vestige whatever of glaciers, those icy belts “ The central Andes are rich beyond conception in all dropping from the limits of congelation, and spreading in the metals, lead only excepted. One of the most curious concrete sheets, or hanging in disjointed columns fantasones in the bowels of those mountains is the pacos, a com- tically thrown, which occur alike in the heart of Switzerpound of clay, oxyde of iron, and the muriate of silver land and on the northern shores of Norway and Lapland. with native silver. The mines of Mexico and Peru, so This defect is evidently owing to the almost uniform temlong the objects of->envy and admiration, far from being perature which prevails near the equator. In those toryet exhausted, promise, under a liberal and improved rid regions the days are constantly of the same length, system, to become more productive than ever. But na- and the sun shines through the whole year with very ture has blended with those hidden treasures the active nearly equal force. The limit of perpetual congelation is elements of destruction. The whole chain of the Andes hence marked on the sides of the mountains of Quito with is subject to the most terrible earthquakes. From Coto- singular precision. The temperature decreases regularly paxi to the South Sea no fewer than forty volcanoes are in proportion as one ascends them, till at a certain altitude constantly burning; some of them, especially the lower it comes to the point of freezing, where the permanent ones, ejecting lava, and others discharging the muriate of field of snow begins to appear, defined with an almost unammonia, scorified basalt, and porphyry, enormous quan- varying border. But in the higher latitudes the sun retities of water, and especially moya, or clay mixed with mains during the summer so long above the horizon, and sulphur and carbonaceous matter. Eternal snow invests shines with such augmented force, that the heat of the their sides, and forms a barrier to the animal and vege- atmosphere, and consequently of the surface of the ground, table kingdoms. Near that confine the torpor of vegeta- suffers a wide alteration in the different seasons. To the tion is marked by dreary wastes.” (Edinb. Review, vol. general investure of snow is therefore annexed every xv. p. 233.) winter a zone of considerable breadth, which again softens \\e may subjoin that, near Quito, the liquid mud eject- and partly melts away during the continuance of the sumed by the volcanoes often involves myriads of small dead mer months. This alternate thawing and freezing occahsh. ^ In some parts, the mountains, like the fabled cave sions the production of glaciers, by converting succesof /Eolus, seem at times to let out their imprisoned air, sively the lower detached masses of snow in the precipitand produce such furious gusts of wind as to sweep every ous flanks of the mountains, into a collection of broken dung before them to a vast distance. In other districts, and intermingled pillars of translucid ice.

ANDES. menon scarcely inferior to it in the United States of Aire- ^ For the same reason, the Andes, though torn by flaming rica. We allude to the famous arch described by MrU volcanoes, and convulsed by frequent and terrible eai t - Jefferson, which crosses the Cedar creek in Rockbridge quakes, are exempt from those avalanches and eboulements county, about a hundred miles beyond the Blue Ridge, which in Switzerland and other mountainous parts of Eu- in the higher district of Virginia. The divided rock is a rope often bury the helpless traveller in a torrent of snow, pure limestone, leaving a chasm about 90 feet wide, of and batter down whole villages by the sudden discharge which the walls are 230 feet high, sprinkled with verdant of a shower of rocks. Under the equator the variation bushes, and enamelled with gay flowers, among which the of temperature throughout the year is so small as not to aquilegia is conspicuous. This bridge, viewed from a disturb the solidity of the vast collections of snow; but little distance below, has all the appearance of a Gothic on the flanks of the Alps or Pyrenees, as the heat of the arch ; and is of such solidity, that loaded waggons used summer increases, portions of the upper field of snow be- formerly to pass along it, till a more convenient line of come loosened, and, sliding down, put other masses likewas formed. wise in motion, till spreading wider, and gaining accele- road In some places the natives of Peru connect the clefts rated force, the whole tide precipitates itself to the plain, sweeping all before it. Such is the accident of an ava- of their mountains by pendulous bridges thrown fearlessly lanche ; "but the occurrence of an eboulement, though less across, and suspended from both sides of a gap. They frequent, is more tremendous. When the alternation of are composed of ropes made of the tough fibres of the frost and thaw detaches a mass of rock, it rolls down the agave, hanging in a gently sloping curve, and covered with side of the mountain with resistless fury, shivering into frag- reeds or canes, with occasionally a narrow border of basments and tearing every thing opposed to it, overwhelm- ket-work. The intrepid Indian, regardless of the horrors I ing men, cattle, and houses, in one common heap of ruins. of the unfathomed abyss which yawns from below, comBut the Andes are distinguished from the chains of the mits himself to his frail and floating arch, and swiftly European mountains by frightful quebradas or perpendi- glides along its bending curvature, till he gains the oppocular rents, which form very narrow vales of immense site bank. The Andes likewise give rise to waterfalls of immense depth, whose terrific walls, fringed below with luxuriant trees and shrubs, seem to lift their naked and barren heads height and amazing force. The cataract of Tequendama, to the distant skies. The noted crevices of Chota and considered in all its circumstances, exceeds any other in Cutaco are nearly a mile deep, the former measuring the known world. The basin which feeds its streams is 4950, and the latter 4300 feet, in a vertical descent. The the vast plain of Bogota, 7465 feet above the level of the task of crossing such tremendous gullies is often a work sea, encircled completely with lofty mountains, except of infinite toil and extreme danger. In those mountain- where the water, aided probably by the concussion of an ous countries travellers are accustomed to perform their earthquake, has cut for itself a narrow passage. The river journeys sitting in chairs fastened to the backs of men Funcha, swelled by numerous feeders, gradually contracts called cargueros or carriers. These porters are mulattoes, its channel to the breadth of about 40 feet, and then gaand sometimes whites, of great bodily strength and ac- thering augmented force, dashes at two bounds from a tion, who will climb along the face of precipices, bearing perpendicular height of near 600 feet into a dark gulf. loads of twelve and fourteen, or even eighteen stone. The Owing to the excessive rapidity and depth of its current, cargueros lead a vagabond life, exposed to incredible fa- it must discharge a prodigious volume of water, which tigue, but recommended to them by its irregular course. quite stuns the ear by the roar of its crash; while it raises Often those wretched men toil over mountains for the enormous clouds of thick spray and vapour, that continuspace of eight or nine hours every day, till, like beasts of ally bedew, and perhaps quicken, the vegetation of the burthen, they have their backs chafed and made quite adjacent grounds. Every thing conspire's to exalt the raw with the load. In this deplorable condition they are beauty and grandeur of , the scenery. “ Independent of not unfrequently abandoned by unfeeling travellers, and the height and mass of the column of water,” says Humleft alone to sicken, pine, or die in the forests. Yet their boldt, “ the figure of the landscape, and the aspect of the earnings would appear inadequate to such violent and rocks, it is the luxuriant form of the trees and herbaceoverpowering exertions, since they receive scarcely three ous plants, their distribution into thickets, the contrast ol guineas for performing the journey from Ibague to Car- those craggy precipices, and the freshness of vegetation, tage, which requires fifteen, and perhaps twenty-five or which stamp a peculiar character on these great scenes of thirty days. nature.” The transition from a temperate to a warm cliThe Icononzo, remarkable for its natural bridges, is a mate is rapid and surprising. The plain of Bogota bears small quebrada or cleft of the mountains, through which rich crops of wheat, then succeed oaks and elms, interflows the river of the Summa Paz, descending from the mingled with aralias, bigonias, and the yellow-bark trees; highest upland desert. The rocks consist of two differ- but immediately below the cataract a few palms appear, ent kinds of sandstone, the one extremely compact, and as if it were to mark the advance to a sultry soil. the other of a slaty texture, divided into their horizontal A lively idea of the character and grand features of the strata. The rent was probably caused by an earthquake, Andes may be conceived from the account which the which the harder portion of the stony mass had resisted, celebrated Humboldt has given of his journey across that and now connects the upper part of the chasm. This majestic chain. Our readers will be glad to peruse it in natural arch is 50 feet long, 40 broad, and 8 feet thick at the author’s own words. the middle. Its height is about 300 feet above the sur“ The mountain of Quindiu, in the latitude of 4° 36', is face of the torrent, which has a medium depth of twenty considered as the most difficult passage in the Cordilleras feet. About 60 feet below the natural bridge another of the Andes. It is a thick uninhabited forest, which, smaller arch occurs, composed of three slanting blocks of in the finest season, cannot be traversed in less than ten stone wedged together, which had probably fallen from or twelve days. Not even a hut is to be seen, nor can any the roof at the same instant of time, and struck against means of subsistence be found. Travellers, at all times the sides of the crevice in their descent. of the year, furnish themselves with a month’s provision, The natural bridge of Icononzo has perhaps no coun- since it often happens that, by the melting of the snows, terpart in the old world ; but the writer of this article and the sudden swell of the torrents, they find themselves had the pleasure of seeing, in early life, a similar pheno- so circumstanced that they can descend neither on the

AND de side of Cartago nor that of Ibague. The highest point rv/0f the road, the Garito del Paramo, is 11,500 feet above the level of the sea. As the foot of the mountain, towards the banks of the Cauca, is only 3150 feet, the climate there is generally mild and temperate. The pathway, which forms the passage of the Cordilleras, is only 12 or 15 inches in breadth, and has the appearance, in several places, of a gallery dug and left open to the sky. In this part of the Andes, as almost in every other, the rock is covered with a thick stratum of clay. The streamlets which flow down the mountains have hollowed out gullies about 20 feet deep. Along these crevices, which are full of mud, the traveller is forced to grope his passage, the darkness of which is increased by the thick vegetation that covers the opening above. The oxen, which are the beasts of burden commonly used in this country, can scarcely force their way through these galleries, some of which are more than a mile in length; and ,*. if perchance the traveller meets them in one of these passages, he finds no means of avoiding them but by turning back and climbing the earthen wall which borders the crevice, and keeping himself suspended by laying hold of the roots which penetrate to this depth from the surface of the ground. “ We traversed the mountain of Quindiu in the month of October 1801, on foot, followed by twelve oxen, which carried our collections and instruments, amidst a deluge of rain, to which we were exposed during the last three or four days, in our descent on the western side of the Cordilleras. The road passes through a country full of bogs, and covered with bamboos. Our shoes were so torn by the prickles which shoot out from the roots of these gigantic gramina, that we were forced, like all other travellers who dislike being carried on men’s backs, to go barefooted. This circumstance, the continual humidity, the length of the passage, the muscular force required to tread in a thick and muddy clay, the necessity of fording deep torrents of icy water, render this journey extremely fatiguing; but, however painful, it is accompanied by none ol those dangers with which the credulity of the people alarms travellers. The road is narrow, but the places where it skirts the precipices are very rare. “ When travellers reach Ibague, and prepare to cross the forests of Quindiu, they pluck, in the neighbouring mountains, several hundred leaves of the vijao, a plant of the family ol the bananas, which forms a genus approaching to the Thalia, and which must not be confounded with the Heiiconia Bibai. These leaves, which are membranous and silky, like those of the Musa, are of an oval form, two feet long and 16 inches broad. Their lower surface is a silvery white, and covered with a farinaceous substance, which falls oft in scales. This peculiar varnish enables them to resist the rain during a long time. In gathering these leaves, an incision is made in the middle rib, which is the continuation of the foot-stalk; and this serves as a hook to suspend them when the movable roof is formed. On taking it down, they are spread out, and carefully rolled up in a cylindrical bundle. It requires about an hundredweight of leaves to cover a hut large enough to hold six or eight persons. When the travellers reach a spot in the midst ot the forests where the ground is dry, and where they propose to pass the night, the cargueros lop a few blanches from the trees, with which they make a tent. In a few minutes this slight timber-work is divided into squares, by the stalks of some climbing plant, or the threads of the agave placed in parallel lines 12 or 13 inches from each other. The vijao leaves meanwhile have sen unrolled, and are now spread over the above work, tl! usaV° ?over .‘t are cool the tiles a house. These huts, hastily built, and of commodious. If, during

AND 119 the night, the traveller feels the rain, he points out the Andeuse spot where it enters, and a leaf is sufficient to obviate the II inconvenience. We passed several days in the valley of Andrada. Boquia, under one of those leafy tents, which was perfectly dry amidst violent and incessant rains.” For further information relative to the structure of the Andes, see the various sketches given by Humboldt, and particularly an abstract of his geological observations inserted in the Journal de Physique, vol. liii. for 1801. See likewise, by the same author, a memoir on the Geographic and Geognostic labours of M. Pentland, in the Nouvelles Annates des Voyages et des Sciences Geographiques for October, November, and December, 1829. (b.) ANDEUSE, a city of Languedoc in France, situated in long. 3. 40. E. and lat. 43. 45. N. ANDORRE, or Andorra, a valley on the Spanish side of the Pyrenees, of about 190 square miles in extent, containing 6 parishes, and which has ever been considered as neutral. It is a hilly district, with some good pasture for sheep, and several mines of iron, which are worked by the numerous rapid streams that pass through the district in their course towards Catalonia. It is a kind of independent republic, governed by two deputies chosen in each of the six parishes, and by two syndics. The expenses of governing are defrayed by a species of rent paid by owners of flocks, to the community, for the use of the pasture land. The king of France is called the protector in civil affairs, and the bishop of Urgel in ecclesiastical r matters. It enjoys its peculiar criminal and civil law s and courts of justice. The chief judge is nominated alternately by the king of France and the bishop of Urgel, but there is no appeal to either France or Spain from his decisions. As the land does not produce sufficient corn for the supply of the inhabitants, a stipulated quantity is allowed annually to be introduced from France, for which permission a subsidy of 960 francs is granted to the king. The whole number of the inhabitants is about 15,000, who are neither French, nor Spaniards, nor Catalans, but speak a language containing a mixture of the three idioms. The council of state and the courts of justice assemble at the village of Andorra, and the former body retain the ancient Spanish title of cortes. ANDOVER, a market and borough town in the hundred of the same name, in Hampshire. It is on the river Ande, 63 miles from London, on the great road to the west of England. It is a clean, well-built town, carrying on some trade in shalloons, and more in malt. It is connected with the sea by means of a canal, navigable to Southampton. Two members are returned to parliament, elected by the corporation, consisting of about 24 persons, who are said to be under the influence of Lord Portsmouth and Mr Etwall. Population in 1801, 3304 ; in 1811, 3701; and in 1821, 4123. ANDRA, or Andros, a Turkish paschaliac, including the island of that name and the neighbouring islands of Tine, Mitone, Delos, Syra or Syros, Thermia Zea, and Hydra. The inhabitants are estimated at 96,800, almost wholly Greeks; the most industrious, and, exclusive of the effects of the present war, the most flourishing people of the Archipelago. There are some smaller islands included in the paschaliac, whose whole extent is 474 square miles. The island of Andros contains 12,000 inhabitants, mostly Greeks, who raise much silk, wine, and oil, and sufficient corn for their own consumption. ANDRADA, Diego de Payva d’, or Andradius, a learned Portuguese, born at Coimbra in 1528, who distinguished himself at the council of Trent, where King Sebastian sent him as one of his divines. He wrote several volumes of sermons, and other pieces ; one of which, De Conciliorum Autoritate, was highly esteemed at Rome

120 AND AND Andrapo- on account of the great extension of authority which it ANDRETTA, a town, with 4049 inhabitants, in the Ai, ^ disraus f^civc to the pope* He died, in l^TS* province Prmcipnto h/lteriore or the Kingdom of Nciplcs* | fe ,11. ANDR APODISMUS, in ancient writers, the selling of ANDREW, the apostle, bornhad at been Bethsaida in GaAndrehnus. sons for s]aves> Hence also andrapodistes, a dealer in lilee, brother toSt, Simon Peter. He a disciple of^' ' slaves, more particularly a kidnapper, who steals men or John the Baptist, and followed Jesus, upon the testimony ' children to sell them,—a crime for which the Thessalians given of him by the Baptist. (John i. 35, 40, &c.) This was tlie were noted. first*disciple whom our Saviour received into his ANDRAPODOC APELI, in Antiquity, a kind of dealers train. Andrew introduced his brother Simon, and they in slaves. The Andrapodocapeli had a particular process passed a day with Christ, after which they went to the for taking off moles and the like disfigurements on the faces marriage in Cana (ibid, ii.), and at last returned to their of the staves they kept for sale, by rubbing them with ordinary occupation. Some months after, Jesus meeting bran. At Athens, several places in the forum were ap- them while they were both fishing together, called them pointed for the sale of slaves. Upon the first day of every to him, and promised to make them fishers of men. Immonth, the merchants called AvcSgawrodoxaOTjXo/ brought them mediately they left their nets, followed him (Matt. iv. 19), into the market and exposed them to sale: the crier, stand- and never afterwards separated from him. After our Saing upon a stone erected for that purpose, called the viour’s ascension, his apostles having determined by lot people together. what parts of the world they should severally take, ScyANDREAS, John, a celebrated canonist of the 14th thia and the neighbouring countries fell to St Andrew, century, was born at Magello, near Florence ; and was pro- who, according to Eusebius, after he had planted the goslessor of the canon law at Padua, Pisa, and afterwards at pel in several places, came to Patrse in Achaia, where, Bologna. He had a beautiful daughter, named Novella, endeavouring to convert the proconsul fEgeas, he was by whom he is said to have instructed so well in all parts of that governor’s orders scourged, and then crucified. The learning, that when he was engaged in any affair which particular time of his suffering martyrdom is not known; hindered him from reading lectures to his scholars, he sent but all the ancient and modern martyrologies, both of the his daughter in his room ; and, lest her beauty should pre- Greeks and Latins, agree in celebrating his festival upon vent the attention of the hearers, she had a little curtain the 30th of November. drawn before her. To perpetuate the memory of this Andrew, or an order of knights, daughter, he entitled his commentary upon the Decretals more usually called the Order of the Thistle, of Gregory IX. the Novella. He married her to John Knights of St Andrew is also an order instituted by Calderinus, a learned canonist. The first work of Andreas Peter the Great of Muscovy in 1698, the badge of which was his Gloss upon the Sixth Book of the Decretals, which is a golden medal, on one side whereof is represented St he wrote when he was very young. He wrote also Glosses Andrew’s cross, with these words, Czar Pierre, monarque upon the Clementines ; and a Commentary in Regulas Scxti, de Unit le Kussie. This medal being fastened to a blue which he entitled Mercuriales, because he either engaged ribbon, is suspended from the right shoulder, in it on Wednesdays (diebus Mercuni), or because he inSt Andrew's Day, a festival of the Christian church, serted his Wednesday’s disputes in it. He enlarged the celebrated on the 30th of November in honour of the Speculum of Durant in the year 1347. He died of the apostle St Andrew. plague at Bologna in 1348, after he had been a professor ANDREWS, St, a city of Scotland, in the county of 45 years, and was buried in the church of Dominicans. Fife, pleasantly situated in a spacious bay of the German Andreas, St, a market-town on the Danube, in the Ocean, into which flow the river Eden, the small rivulet circle of Pilesch, and palatinate of Pest, in Hungary. It of Kinness, and several other streams. It was formerly contains one Catholic and seven Greek churches, 1040 a place of much greater extent and importance. At prehouses, and 7980 inhabitants, who trade very extensively sent it is only about a mile and a half in circuit, and conin the wine produced in the vicinity. It is also the name sists of three leading streets, intex*sected by a few consiof an island in the Danube, opposite to the town, which is derable lanes. The principal street is well built, and is fourteen miles in length and one in breadth, and remark- straight and broad, and of late years its appearance has able for its great fertility. been much improved. The town contains many* interestANDREASBERG, a bailiwick in the pi'ovince of Gru- ing memorials of antiquity. Of the splendid cathedral, benhagen, in the kingdom of Hanover. It extends over which was founded by Bishop Arnold in 1159, and at87 square miles, or 55,680 acres, containing 4250 inhabit- tained to its highest magnificence in 1318, part of the ants, who are chiefly employed in mining. The soil is east and west ends, and of the south side, are all that very poor, and affords scarcely any produce ; but, like the now remain. The length of this edifice from east to west rest of the Hartz forest, it abounds with metallic sub- was 350 feet within the walls ; that of the transept 180 feet, stances. The capital of the bailiwick is of the same name. This whole pile of building, which it took 150 years to It is 1880 feet above the level of the sea, on the declivity complete, was in June 1559 demolished in a single day of the Hartz mountains, containing 400 houses, and 3206 by John Knox and his infuriated followers. About 40 inhabitants, who subsist chiefly by mining, whilst the fe- yards to the south-east is the chapel of St Regulus, the males are employed in making lace. Near it is the An- tower of which is a lofty square prism, the side of the base dreasberg silver mine, from which is produced annually being 20 feet, and the height 108. The chapel to the east about 40,000 ounces of silver, besides a large quantity of of the tower, which was the principal one, remains; but lead and copper, all of which are smelted in the town. of a small chapel to the west, which formerly existed, ANDRELINUS, Publius Faustus, born at Forli in there is now no trace. The arches of the windows Italy. He was a long time professor of poetry and philoso- and doors are round, and the figure of some of them phy in the university of Paris. Louis XII. of France made is more than half of the circle, which is an undoubted him his poet laureat, and Erasmus tells us that he was like- proof of their antiquity. The priory, which was founded wise poet to the queen. His pen was not wholly employ- by Robert, bishop of St Andrews, during the reign of ed in making verses, for he wrote also moral and prover- Alexander I. in 1120, was of great extent, and richly bial letters in prose, which were printed several times, endowed. The prior had precedence of all abbots and Flis poems, which are chiefly in Latin, are inserted in vol. i. priors, and on festival days had a right to wear a mitre of the Delicice Poetarum Italorum. He died in 1518. and all episcopal ornaments. The walls of the pre-

AND c

- '‘, cinct are all that now remain to mark the vast extent ros- of this edifice. Part of the top of the great altar towards “^the east end of the cathedral was discovered between 30 and 40 years ago, in consequence of an excavation made in the hope of finding concealed treasure. At a much more recent period, the soil, which had for ages been permitted to accumulate, having been removed, part of the pavement was laid open, and several shafts of two rows of pillars parallel to each other, by which it is supposed that galleries in the inside of the walls had been supported. The other religious houses were, that of the Dominicans, founded in 1274 by Bishop Wishart; another of Observantines, founded by Bishop Kennedy, and finished by his successor Patrick Graham in 1478; and, according to some, the Carmelites had a fourth. Immediately above the harbour stood the collegiate church of Kirk-heugh, originally founded by Constantine III., who, retiring from the world, became here a Culdee. From its having been first built on a rock, it was styled Prcepositura Sanctce Marim de Rupe. On the east side of the city are the remains of the castle, on a rock overlooking the sea. This fortress was founded about the year 1200, by Roger, one of the bishops of St Andrews, and was repaired towards the end of the 14th century by Bishop Trail, who died in it in 1401. Pie was buried near the high altar of the cathedral, with this singular epitaph: Hie fuit ecclesise directa columna, fenestra Lucida, thuribulum redolens, campana sonora. The castle was the residence of Cardinal Beaton, who, after the cruel execution of the celebrated reformer George Wishart in front of it, was afraid of the fury of the people; and his knowledge of this, joined to his apprehension of an invasion from England, induced him to strengthen the fortifications, with a view of rendering the castle impregnable. In this fortress he was surprised and assassinated by Norman Lesley, aided by fifteen others. Early in the morning of May 29, 1546, they seized on the gate of the castle, which had been left open for the workmen who were finishing the fortifications; and having placed sentinels at the door of the cardinal’s apartment, they awakened his numerous domestics one by one, and, turning them out of the castle, without violence, tumult, or injury to any other person, inflicted on Beaton the death he justly merited. The conspirators were immediately besieged in this castle by the regent, earl of Arran; and although their strength consisted of only 150 men, they resisted his efforts for five months, owing more to the unskilfulness of the attack than the strength of the place, for in 1547 the castle was reduced and demolished, and its picturesque ruins serve as a land-mark to mariners. The entrance to the castle, and the window out of which it is said Cardinal Beaton leaned to witness the cruel martyrdom of George Wishart, are still pointed out. The parish church is a spacious structure, 162 feet in length by 63 in breadth, and is large enough to accommodate 2500 persons. It contains a lofty monument of white marble, erected in honour of Archbishop Sharpe, w ho, in revenge for his oppressive conduct, was murdered by some of the exasperated reformers of that day. On this monument is a rude piece of sculpture representing the tragical scene of the murder. To the north is situated the college church, which belongs to the united college of St Salvator and St Leonard. It was founded in 1458 by Bishop Kennedy, and contains a beautiful tomb of its ounder, who died in 1466; wdiich is a fine specimen of 1 C ar< llitecture ififtQ : this tomb,^iat About thesilver year oo3, °^ on *opening six period. highly ornamented & J vol. m.

AND 121 maces Were discovered, which had been concealed there St in times of trouble, three of which are still preserved in Andrews, the university, and three were sent to the other universities of Scotland. On the top is represented our Saviour; around are angels with the instruments of his passion. With these are shown some silver arrows, with large silver plates affixed to them, on which are inscribed the arms and names of those who were victors in the annual competitions of archery, which were regularly held until within these few years. Golf is now the reigning game. That sport, and foot-ball, were formerly prohibited by an act of parliament passed in the reign of James II. in 1457, as interfering too much with the acquisition of dexterity in archery, an accomplishment in those days of much consequence to the safety of the state. The statute has been long obsolete, and the inhabitants, and the students who attend the university, have full permission to enjoy this elegant amusement. The celebrated university of this city was founded in 1411 by Bishop Wardlaw. It consisted formerly of three colleges. 1. St Salvator’s was founded in 1458 by Bishop Kennedy. This was a handsome building, with a court or quadrangle, which is 230 feet long by 150 wide, and a gateway surmounted by a spire 156 feet high. On one side is the church; on another what was the library of St Salvator’s; the third contains apartments for students; the fourth is unfinished. The buildings connected with the college being in a state of great decay, a grant has been made by government for erecting a new structure. Part of this building will soon be finished, and the remainder, it is expected, will be immediately after commenced. When it is completed it will be in a high degree elegant and commodious. 2. St Leonard’s College was founded by Prior Hepburn in 1522. This is now united with the last, and the buildings sold, and converted into private houses. 3. New or St Mary’s College was established by Archbishop Hamilton in 1552; but the house was completed by Archbishop Beaton. This is said to have been the site of a celebrated school long before the establishment even of the university, where several eminent clergymen taught gratis the sciences and languages ; but it was called the New College, because of its late erection into a divinity college by the archbishop. The buildings of this college have been substantially repaired, and with great taste. The university is governed by a chancellor,—an office which it was originally intended should be permanently exercised by the archbishop of St Andrews. Subsequent to the Reformation, the chancellor has been elected by the two principals and the professors of both colleges. The rector is the next great officer, to whose care are committed the privileges, discipline, and statutes of the university. The colleges have their principals, and professors of different sciences, who are indefatigable in their attention to the instruction and the morals of the students. The place possesses, in its pure and salubrious air, and in its extensive grounds for exercise, very great advantages for the education of youth. In St Salvator’s College ai’e taught the languages, philosophy, and the sciences. St Mary’s, which stands in a different part of the town, is reserved exclusively for theology. The classes and discipline of the two colleges are quite distinct, each having its respective principal and professors. They have a common library, which is entitled to a copy of every work entered in Stationers Hall, and which now (1830) contains upwards of 40,000 volumes. An addition has been in the course of last season made to the library, which was much required, in consequence of the great increase of the number of books. Seventy-five bursaries or endowments belong to the tt

AND AND 122 St university, and are conferred on the students. Of these, terwards confirmed. The charter of Malcolm II., written Am; Andrews. 58 belong to the United, and 17 to the New College. on a small bit of parchment, is preserved in the tolbooth.^i The number of students at St Andrews never exceeded Here also are kept the silver keys of the city, which, for : 300 at any period. During the present year (1830) they form’s sake, are delivered to the king if he should visit amount to 190 at both colleges—149 at the United Col- the place, or to a victorious enemy in token of submission. In this place, likewise, is to be seen the enormous axe lege, 41 at St Mary’s. The trade of St Andrews was once very considerable. with which, in 1646, Sir Robert Spotswood and other disSo late as the reign of Charles I. it had thirty or forty tinguished loyalists were beheaded. The town undertrading vessels, and carried on a considerable herring and went a siege in 1337, at which time it was possessed by white fishery, by means of busses, in deep water, which the English and other partisans of Baliol; but the loyalhad for ages been a most profitable branch of commerce, ists, under the earls of March and Fife, made themselves and a source of wealth. During the troubles which fol- masters of it in three weeks, by the help of their batterlowed the death of this monarch, this whole coast, and St ing machines. It is 9 miles E. of Cupar, and 39 N. N. E. Andrews in particular, became a scene of murder and ra- of Edinburgh. The population, according to the last cenpine ; and every town suffered in proportion to its magni- sus, was 4899. Long. 2. 50. W. Lat. 56. 19. 33. N. (f.) ANDREWS, James Pettit, a late English historian tude and opulence. St Andrews was required to pay a contribution of L.1000, which the inhabitants, after being and miscellaneous writer, was the younger son of Joseph plundered, were not able to raise : a composition of L.500 Andrews, Esq. of Shaw-house, near Newbury, Berks, was accepted, which was raised by a loan at interest, and where he was born in the year 1737. He was educated has remained a burden upon the corporation, it is believ- privately, and is said to have discovered an early taste for literature and the fine arts. He joined the Berkshire mied, ever since. The harbour of St Andrews is artificial: it is guarded litia when they were first called out, being then about 18 by piers, and is safe and commodious; but it is difficult of or 19, and held the rank of lieutenant in that regiment access, having a narrow entrance, and being exposed to until it was disbanded. On the institution of the new the east winds, which raise a heavy sea on the coast. The system of London police, he was appointed one of the shore of the bay is low; and, in the storms of winter, commissioners for the district ol Queen’s Square and St Margaret’s, Westminster, and discharged the duties of vessels are frequently driven on it and lost. St Andrews had a manufactory of sail-cloth to some ex- that office with great industry and integrity until his tent, but it is now discontinued. The game of golf being death, which took place at his house in London, on the much practised here, there is a manufactory of golf balls, 6th of August 1797, in the 60th year of his age. He which, after supplying the home consumption, sends about married Miss Ann Penrose, daughter of the Rev. Mr Pen9000 annually to other parts. The shipping of the port rose, late rector of Newbury, by whom he had two sons consists of about eleven vessels, which are employed in the and a daughter. He seems to have possessed a cheerful coasting trade. St Andrews is a royal borough, uniting and social disposition, and enjoyed the conversation of a with Cupar, Perth, Dundee, and Forfar, in returning a large circle of literary acquaintance, who frequently met at his house and experienced his hospitality. member to parliament. Mr Andrews appears to have devoted a considerable According to early traditions, St Andrews owes its origin to a Greek monk, Regulus, who having been warned portion of his time to literary pursuits; and he is the auin a vision to visit Albion, was shipwrecked in the bay thor of several works which are not undeserving of notice. about the end ot the fourth century. He was hospitably The first publication upon which we find him employed is received, according to these ancient accounts, by the an edition of the poems of his friend and relation Penrose, king, who presented him with his own palace, and built in 1781; to which he prefixed an introduction, containing near it the church of St Regulus, the remains of which a short account of the life and character of the author. are still to be seen. At this time the place was styled His first original production, so far as we have been able Mucross, or the land of boars. All around was forest, and to ascertain, was a pamphlet in behalf of the chimneythe lands bestowed on the saint were called Byrehid. The sweepers’ apprentices in 1788, which is said to have led boars equalled in size the ancient Erymanthian ; as a proof to the act of parliament passed not long afterwards for of which, two tusks, each sixteen inches long and four the purpose of ameliorating the condition of that unfortuthick, were chained to the altar of St Andrew. The nate class of beings. In 1789 he published Anecdotes, Anking changed the name to Kilrymont, and established here cient and Modern, 8vo, a work of pleasantry, in the comthe first Christian priests of the country, called Culdees. position of which he acknowledged having received assistThe church was supreme in the kingdom of the Piets, ance from the late laureat Mr Pye, the facetious antiquary Hungus having granted to God and St Andrew that it Captain Grose, and others. To this volume he added a should be the head and mother of all the churches in his Supplement in 1790. The most extensive work undertaken by Mr Andrews dominion. He also directed that the cross of St Andrew should become the badge of the country. In 818, after was his History of Great Britain, connected with the Chrothe conquest of the Piets, he removed the episcopal see nology of Europe; with Notes, &c. The first volume, to St Andrews, and the bishop was styled maximus Sco- which commences with Caesar’s invasion, and ends with torum episcopus. In 1471 it was erected into an arch- the deposition and death of Richard II., was published in bishopric by Sextus IV. at the intercession of James III. 1794 in 4to. A second volume, in which the history is In 1606 the priory was suppressed; and in 1617 the continued from the deposition and death of Richard II. to power of election was transferred to eight bishops, the the accession of Edward VI., appeared in 1795. The plan principal of St Leonard’s College, the archdeacon, the of this work is new, and in some respects singular; a cervicars of St Andrews, Leuchars, and Cupar. This see tain portion of the history of England is given on one contained the greater part of the shire of Fife, with a page, and a corresponding portion of the contemporaneous part of the counties of Perth, Forfar, and Kincardine, and history of Europe on the one opposite. The notes consist a great number of parishes, churches, and chapels in other of a variety of curious and amusing particulars, not immediately connected with the main story. Appendixes are dioceses. The town of St Andrews was erected into a royal bo- also added at proper intervals, containing an account 11ol rough by David I. in the year 1140, and its privileges af- the state of literature, science, religion, government, ma ’

AND tew ners, &c. at different periods. The author, however, did | not live to complete this curious and extensive work, no Uro- more of it having appeared than the two volumes above nes * mentioned. In 1796 he published a continuation of /^Henry’s History of Britain, in one volume 4to and two volumes 8vo. „ 1. t The other productions of this author are, An Account oj Saxon Coins found in Kintbury Churchyard, Berks, printed in the seventh volume of the Archceologia; the Account of Shaw, in Mr Mores’s Berkshire Collections; The Savages of Europe, a popular French novel, which he translated, and illustrated by prints from his own designs. Mr Andrews was also a frequent contributor to the Gentlemans Magazine. See the Gen. Biog. Diet, by Chalmers; Introduction to Poems by the Rev. Thomas Penrose, 1781; Gent. Mag. for 1797 and 1801; and Lysons’ Supplement to Environs of London, 1811. (k.) Andrews, Lancelot, bishop of Winchester, was born at London in 1555, and educated at Cambridge. After several preferments he was made bishop, first of Chichester, then of Ely, and in 1610 was raised to the see of Winchester. This very learned prelate, who was distinguished by his piety, charity, and integrity, may be justly ranked with the best preachers and scholars of his age. He appeared, however, to much greater advantage in the pulpit than he does now in his works, which abound with Latin quotations and trivial witticisms. He died at Winchester House in Southwark, September 27, 1626, in the 71st year of his age, and was buried in the parish church of St Saviour’s, where his executors erected to him a very fair monument of marble and alabaster, on which is an elegant inscription in Latin, written by one of his chaplains. His most popular works are, his Sermons, his Lectures on the Ten Commandments, and his Orphan Lectures, each forming a folio volume. There is a collection by Felix Kyngston, of some other pieces written by him, which was published in 4to in 1629. ANDRIA, in Grecian Antiquity, public entertainments first instituted by Minos of Crete, and, after his example, appointed by Lycurgus at Sparta, at which a whole city or a tribe assisted. They were managed with the utmost frugality, and persons of all ages were admitted. Andria, a city and a bishop’s see in the territory of Bari, in the kingdom of Naples. It is pretty large, well peopled, and seated in a spacious plain, four miles from the Adriatic coast. Long. 17. 4. E. Lat. 41. 15. N. ANDRISCUS, a man of mean extraction, who, pretending to be the son of Perseus, last king of Macedonia, took upon him the name of Philip, for which reason he was called Pseudo-Philippus, the False Philip. After a complete victory over Juventus, the Roman pretor who was sent against him, he assumed kingly power, but exercised it with vast cruelty. At last the Romans obliged him to fly into Thrace, where he was betrayed and delivered into the hands of Metellus. This victory placed Macedonia once more in the power of the Romans, and gained for Metellus the name of Macedonicus, but cost the Romans 25,000 men. Andriscus adorned the triumph of Metellus, walking in chains before the general’s chariot. ANDROGEUS, in Fabulous History, the son of Minos, king of Crete, was murdered by the Athenian youth and those of Megara, who envied his being always victor at the Attic games. But Minos having taken Athens and Megara, obliged the inhabitants to send him an annual tribute of seven young men and as many virgins, to be devoured by the Minotaur. From this tribute they were delivered by Theseus. androgynes, in Ancient Mythology, creatures of whom, according to the fable, each individual possessed the powers and characters of both sexes, having two heads,

AND 123 four arms, and two feet. The word itself is compounded Androof two Greek radical words ; oo^g, in the genitive avSgog, a gynes male; and yuvTj, & female. Many of the rabbinical writers pretend that Adam was created double, one body being male, the other female, which in their origin not being essentially joined, God afterwards did nothing but separate them. Androgynes, in Natural History, a name given to those living creatures which, by a monstrous formation of their generative parts, seem (for it is only seeming) to unite in themselves the two sexes, that of the male and of the female. See Hermaphrodite. ANDROIDES, in Mechanics, a human figure, which, by certain springs or other movements, is capable of performing some of the natural motions of a living man. The motions of the human body are more complicated, and consequently more difficult to be imitated, than those of any other creature; whence the construction of an androides, in such a manner as to imitate any of these actions with tolerable exactness, is justly supposed to indicate a greater skill in mechanics than any other piece of workmanship whatever. A very remarkable figure of this kind appeared in Parisr in the year 1738. It represented a flute-player, and w as capable of performing different pieces of music on the German flute; which, considering the difficulty of blowing that instrument, the different contractions of the lips necessary to produce the distinctions between the high and low notes, and the complicated motions of the fingers, must appear truly wonderful. This machine was the invention of M. Yaucanson, member of the Royal Academy of Sciences; and a particular description of it was published in the Memoirs of the Academy for that year. The figure itself was about 51 feet in height, situated at the end of an artificial rock, and placed upon a square pedestal 41 feet high and 31 broad. The air entered the body by three pipes separated one from the other. It was conveyed to them by nine pairs of bellows, three of which were placed above and six below. These were made to expand and contract regularly in succession by means of an axis of steel turned round by some clockwork. On this axis were different protuberances at proper distances, to which were fixed cords thrown over pulleys, and terminating in the upper boards of the bellows, so that, as the axis turned, these boards were alternately raised and let down. A contrivance was also used to prevent the disagreeable hissing fluttering noise usually attending the motion of bellows. This was by making the cord by which the bellows was moved press, in its descent, upon one end of a smaller lever, the other end of which ascending, forced open the small leathern valve that admitted the air, and kept it so till, the cord being relaxed by the descent of the upper board, the lever fell, and the air was forced out. Thus the bellows performed their functions constantly without the least hissing, or other noise by which it could be judged in what manner the air was conveyed to the machine. The upper boards of three of the pairs of bellows were pressed down by a weight of 41bs., those of three others by a weight of 21bs., and those of the three remaining ones by nothing but their own weight. The three tubes by which the air entered terminated in three small reservoirs in the trunk of the figure. There they united, and, ascending towards the throat, formed the cavity of the mouth, which terminated in two small lips adapted in some measure to perform their proper functions. Within this cavity also was a small movable tongue, which, by its play, at proper periods admitted the air, or intercepted its passage to the flute.

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AND The fingers, lips, and tongue, received their proper directions by means of a steel cylinder turned by clockwork. It was divided into 15 equal parts, which, by means of pegs pressing upon the ends of 15 different levers, caused the other extremities to ascend. Seven of these levers directed the fingers, having wires and chains affixed to their ascending extremities, which being attached to the fingers, caused them to ascend in proportion as the other extremity was pressed down by the motion of the cylinder, and vice versa. Thus the ascent or descent of one end of a lever produced a similar ascent or descent in the corresponding finger, by which one of the holes of the flute was occasionally opened or stopped, as by a living performer. Three of the levers served to regulate the ingress of the air, being contrived so as to open and shut, by means of valves, the three reservoirs of air above mentioned, so that more or less strength might be given, and a higher or lower note produced, as occasion required. The lips were, by a similar mechanism, directed by four levers, one of which opened them, to give the air a freer passage; the other contracted them; the third drew them backward; and the fourth pushed them forward. The lips were projected upon that part of the flute which receives the air; and, by the different motions already mentioned, modified the tone in a proper manner. The remaining lever was employed in the direction of the tongue, which it easily moved so as to shut or open the mouth of the flute. Thus we see how all the motions necessary for a fluteplayer could be performed by this machine; but a considerable difficulty still remains, namely, how to regulate these motions properly, and make each of them follow in just succession. This, however, was effected by the following simple method: the extremity of the axis of the cylinder was terminated on the right side by an endless screw, consisting of twelve threads, each placed at the distance of a line and a half from the other. Above this screw was fixed a piece of copper, and in it a steel pivot, which, falling in between the threads of the screw, obliged the cylinder to follow the threads, and instead of turning directly round, it was continually pushed to one side. Hence, if a lever was moved by a peg placed on the cylinder in any one revolution, it could not be moved by the same peg in the succeeding revolution, because the peg would be moved a line and a half beyond it by the lateral motion of the cylinder. Thus, by an artificial disposition of those pegs in different parts of the cylinder, the statue was made, by the successive elevation of the proper levers, to exhibit all the different motions of a flute-player, to the admiration of every one who saw it. The construction of machines capable of imitating even the mechanical actions of the human body shows exquisite skill; but what shall we say of one capable, not only of imitating actions of this kind, but of acting as external circumstances require, as though it were endued with life and reason ? This, nevertheless, has been done. M. de Kempelen, a gentleman of Presburg in Hungary, excited by the performances of M. de Vaucanson, at first endeavoured to imitate them, and at last far excelled them. This gentleman constructed an androides capable of playing at chess ! Every one who is in the least acquainted with this game must know that it is so far from being mechanically performed, as to require a greater exertion of the judgment and rational faculties than is sufficient to accomplish many matters of greater importance. That this machine really was made, however, the public have had ocular demonstration. The inventor came over to Britain in 1783, where he remained above a year with his automaton. It is a figure as large as life, in a Turkish dress, sitting

AND behind a table, with doors of three feet and a half in length, two in depth, and two and a half in height. The chair on which it sits is fixed to the table, which runs i on four wheels. The automaton leans its right arm on ^1 the table, and in its left hand holds a pipe: with this^ hand it plays after the pipe is removed. A chess-board of 18 inches is fixed before it. This table, or rather cup. board, contains wheels, levers, cylinders, and other pieces of mechanism, all which are publicly displayed. The vestments of the automaton are then lifted over its head, and the body is seen full of similar wheels and levers. There is a little door in its thigh, which is likewise opened; and with this, and the table also open, and the automaton uncovered, the whole is wheeled about the room. The doors are then shut, and the automaton is ready to play; and it always takes the first move. At every motion the wheels are heard; the image moves its head, and looks over every part of the chessboard. When it checks the queen it shakes its head twice, and thrice in giving check to the king. It likewise shakes its head when a false move is made, replaces the piece, and makes its own move ; by which means the adversary loses one. M. de Kempelen remarks as the most surprising circumstance attending his automaton, that it had been exhibited at Presburg, Vienna, Paris, and London, to thousands, many of whom were mathematicians and chessplayers, and yet the secret by which he governed the motion of its arm was never discovered. He prided himself solely in the construction of the mechanical powers, by which the arm could perform ten or twelve moves. It then required to be wound up like a watch, after which it was capable of continuing the same number of motions. The automaton could not play unless M. de Kempelen or his substitute was near it to direct its moves. A small square box, during the game, was frequently consulted by the exhibiter; and herein consisted the secret, which he said he could in a moment communicate. He who could beat M. de Kempelen was, of course, certain of conquering the automaton. It was made in 1769. His own account of it was, “ (Test une bagatelle qui n’est pas sans merite du cote du mechanisme; mais les effets n’en pa* roissent si merveilleux que par la hardiesse de 1’idee, et par I’heureux choix des moyens employes pour faire illusion.” See Automaton. ANDROLEPSY, in Grecian Antiquity, an action allowed by the Athenians against such as protected persons guilty of murder. The relations of the deceased were empowered to seize three men in the city or house whither the malefactor had fled, till he should be either surrendered, or satisfaction made some way or other for the murder. ANDROMACHE, the wife of Hector, the mother of Astyanax, and daughter of Eetion king of Thebes in Cilicia. After the death of Hector and the destruction of Troy she married Pyrrhus, and afterwards Helenus the son of Priam, with whom she reigned over part of Epirus. ANDROMEDA, in Astronomy, a northern constellation, behind Pegasus, Cassiopeia, and Perseus. It represents the figure of a woman chained, and is fabled to have been formed in memory of Andromeda, daughter of Cepheus and Cassiopeia, and wife of Perseus, by whom she had been delivered from a sea monster, to which she had been exposed to be devoured for her mother’s pride. Minerva translated her into the heavens. ANDRON, in Grecian Antiquity, denotes the apartment in houses designed for the use of men; in which sense it stands opposed to Gynceceum.—The Greeks also gave their dining-rooms the title of andron, because the women had no admittance to feasts with the men.

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AND flilr a ANDRONA, in ancient writers, denotes a street or and she became the third victim to his artful seduction, T|| public place where people met and conversed together, and lived publicly as his concubine. Still pursued by the udrc- jn some writers androna is more expressly used for the emperor with unabating resentment, he was forced to take '^ J space between two houses; in which sense the Greeks refuge in Damascus, and then in several other places in *v"" alSo use the term for the way or passage between the east, till at length he settled in Asia Minor. While residing here he made frequent incursions into the protwo apartments. Androna is also used, in ecclesiastical writers, for that vince of Trebizond, and seldom returned without success. part in churches destined for the men. Anciently it was After several occurrences Theodora was made captive by the custom for the men and women to have separate apart- the governor of Trebizond, along with her two children, ments in places of worship, where they performed their and sent to Constantinople; upon which Andronicus imdevotions asunder; which method is still religiously ob- plored and obtained pardon. He acted the affected peniserved in the Greek church. The avdguv, or androna, was tent in such a manner, that he again ingratiated himself in the southern side of the church, and the women’s apart- into the favour both of the church and state; but was sent to dwell at G£noe, a town situated on the Euxine ment on the northern. ANDRONICUS I. Comnenus, emperor of the East, coast. In the year 1177 Manuel died, and was succeeded by was the son of Isaac, and grandson of Alexius Comnenus. Naturally active, martial, and eloquent, he shines as one of his son Alexius II., a youth about twelve or fourteen the most conspicuous characters of his age. Following the years of age, without wisdom or experience, by which the bent of his inclination, he attended the Roman army in ambition of Andronicus was again called into action. A their retreat; but in their march through Asia Minor, wan- civil war having been occasioned by the misconduct of dering into the mountains, he fell into the hands of some the empress in Constantinople, the public mind was diTurkish huntsmen, was carried to the sultan, and remained rected towards Andronicus, as the only person whose rank his prisoner; but regaining his liberty, both his virtues and accomplishments could restore the public tranquillity. and vices soon recommended him to the favour of his Incited by the patriarchs and patricians, he marched tocousin Manuel, the reigning emperor. The vicious heart wards Constantinople, which he entered, took possession of Andronicus manifested itself clearly in maintaining a of the palace, confined the empress, consigned her minislicentious correspondence with Eudocia, the emperor’s ter to death, assumed the office of protector, put to death niece, while the emperor himself lived in public incest many persons of distinction, tried and executed the queen with her sister Theodora. His martial spirit gained him on a charge of corresponding with the king of Hungary, a considerable command in Cilicia, where he laid siege to and vowed fidelity to the young emperor upon his coronaMopsuestia; but by a successful sally of the enemy he tion, at the same time teaching the necessity of an expewas obliged to raise the siege, and retire in considerable rienced ruler, to assuage the evils that threatened the emdisorder. Inflamed with a desire of revenging the infamy pire ; upon which his adherents called out, “ Long live of their sister in his blood, the brothers of Eudocia made Alexius and Andronicus, Roman emperors.” While he afan unsuccessful attempt to assassinate Andronicus at mid- fected reluctance, he was elevated to a partnership in the night in his tent; but being awakened, he defended him- empire. This conjunction of the royal power was soon self with surprising bravery, forced his way through his dissolved by the murder of the unfortunate Alexius. The enemies, and escaped in safety. Afterwards engaging in body of the deceased being brought into his presence, a treasonable correspondence with the emperor of Ger- striking it with his foot, he said, “ Thy father was a many and the king of Hungary, he was arrested and knave, thy mother a whore, and thyself a fool.” Having thrown into confinement. He remained in this state arrived at the dignity of sole emperor, a. d. 1183, he conabout twelve years, and after several repeated attempts tinued to sway the sceptre with a mixture of justice and to escape, he at last effected his purpose, and fled for re- bounty towards his subjects at large; but those whom he fuge to the court of the great duke of Russia. The cun- feared or hated he governed with the most cruel tyranny. ning of Andronicus soon found means to regain his favour The noble families that were either cut off or exiled by with the emperor Manuel; for having exerted all his in- him were all allied to the Comneni. Some of these were fluence, he succeeded in obtaining the Russian prince to engaged in revolt; and the public calamity was heightengage to join his troops with those of Manuel, in the ened by an invasion of the Sicilians, in which they took invasion of Hungary. Accordingly, on account of his and sacked Thessalonica. A rival without merit, and a important service, he obtained a free pardon from the em- people without arms, at last overturned his throne. A peror, and after an expedition to the Danube returned descendant from the first Alexius in the female line, with him to Constantinople. He again fell under the dis- named Isaac Angelus, being singled out by Andronicus pleasure of the emperor, by refusing to take an oath of as a victim to his cruelty, he with courage and resolution allegiance to the prince of Hungary, his intended son-in- defended his life and liberty, slew his executioner, fled to law, and consequently presumptive heir to the crown, and the church of St Sophia, and there took refuge with sewas thereupon returned to his former command in Cilicia. veral of his friends. Isaac was instantly raised by the poW Idle residing here, his powerful address captivated the pulace from a sanctuary to a throne. When this event heart of Philippa, daughter of the Latin prince of Antioch, took place Andronicus was absent from Constantinople; and sister to the empress Maria; and in her company he but he no sooner heard of it than he with the utmost spent his time in all the amusements that country could speed returned. Upon his arrival there he found himself afford, till the emperor’s resentment put a stop to their deserted by all, and was seized and dragged in chains becorrespondence. Thus circumstanced, he collected a fore the new emperor. All the eloquence he displayed hand of adventurers, and undertook a pilgrimage to the was of no avail; for Isaac delivered him into the hands of Holy Land, where, by his insinuating turn of mind, he so those whom he had injured, and for the space of three far succeeded in gaining the favour of the king and clergy, days he endured with uncommon patience all the insults as to be invested with the lordship of Berytus, on the coast and torments that were inflicted upon him. At last two of Phoenicia. In this neighbourhood Theodora, the beau- friendly or furious Italians, plunging their swords into his tiful widow of Baldwin, king of Jerusalem, and nearly body, put a period to his life. His death, in the 73d year allied in blood to him, resided. The personal accomplish- of his age, terminated the dynasty of the Comneni. ments and address of Andronicus captivated her heart, Andhonicus of Cyrrhus, an Athenian astronomer, built

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126 AND Andro- at Athens an octagon tower, with figures carved on each phagi side, representing the eight principal winds. A brazen li Triton at the summit, with a rod in its hand, turned round Andryt]ie w[n^ pointed to the quarter from whence it blew. this model is derived the custom of placing weathercocks on steeples. ANDROPHAGI, in Ancient Geography, the name of a nation whose country, according to Herodotus, was adjacent to Scythia. Their name, compounded of two Greek words, signifies man-eaters. See Anthropophagi. ANDROS, one of the ancient Cyclades, lying between Tenos and Euboea, being one mile distant from the former, and ten from the latter. The ancients gave it various names, viz. Cauros, Lasia, Nonagria, Epagris, Antandros, and Hydrusia. The name of Andros it received from one Andreus, appointed, according to Diodorus Siculus, by Rhadamanthus, one of the generals, to govern the Cyclades after they had of their own accord submitted to him. It had formerly a city of great note, bearing the same name, and situated very advantageously on the brow of a hill which commanded the whole coast. In this city, according to Strabo and Pliny, stood a famous temple dedicated to Bacchus. Near this temple Mutianus, as quoted by Pliny, tells us there was a spring called the gift of Jupiter, the water of which had the taste of wine in the month of January, during the feast of Bacchus, which lasted seven days. The Andrians were the first of all the islanders who joined the Persians when Xerxes invaded Greece; and therefore Themistocles, after the victory at Salamis, resolved to attack the city of Andros, and oblige the inhabitants to pay large contributions for the maintenance of his fleet. Having landed his men on the island, he sent heralds to the magistrates, acquainting them that the Athenians were coming against them with two powerful divinities, Persuasion and Force, and therefore they must part with their money by fair means or foul. The Andrians replied that they likewise had two mighty deities, who were very fond of their island, viz. Poverty and Impossibility, and therefore could give no money. Themistocles, not satisfied with this answer, laid siege to the town, which he probably made himself master of and destroyed, as we are informed by Plutarch that Pericles, a few years after, sent thither a colony of 250 Athenians. It was, however, soon retaken by the Persians, and, on the overthrow of that empire by Alexander the Great, submitted to him, along with the other islands. On his death it sided with Antigonus, who was driven out by Ptolemy. The successors of the last-mentioned prince held it till the time of the Romans, when Attalus, king of Pergamus, besieged the metropolis at the head of a Roman army, and, having taken it, was by them put in possession of the whole island. Upon the death of Attains the republic claimed this island, as well as his other dominions, in virtue of his last will. Andros is now subject to the Turks, and contains a town of the same name, with a great many villages. It is the most fruitful island in the Archipelago, and yields a great quantity of silk. Andros, when visited by Tournefort, contained about 4000 inhabitants. There were seven monasteries, a great number of churches, and a cathedral for the bishops of the Roman Catholic persuasion; but most of the inhabitants were of the Greek communion. It forms a part of the new Greek republic. It is about 23 miles long and 6 broad. Long. 24.50. E. Lat. 37.50. N. ANDRUM, a kind of hydrocele, to which the people of Malabar are very subject. It is said to be derived from the bad quality of the country waters, impregnated with certain salts. ANDRYCHOW, a city in the circle of Myslenicze, in the Austrian province of Galizia, on the river Wieprzow-

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ka, with a castle, and 2805 inhabitants, amongst whom Ar. are several manufacturers of fine damask and other tablelinen, who produce annually about 30,000 pieces. ANDUJAN, a city of Spain, in the province of Jaen, | in Andalusia. It is situated on the south side of the Sierra Morena, which defends it from the cold winds of the north, near the sources of the Jandula. There is a very fine bridge over the Guadalquivir at this place. The surrounding country is well watered, and yields abundant harvests of wheat, barley, oil, and wine; and numerous hives of bees furnish abundant supplies of honey and wax. From a whitish clay found here there are manufactured a vast quantity of jars called alcarrasas, which are highly esteemed for their property of keeping water cool in the hottest summer weather. It contains a castle, six churches, nine monasteries, a theatre, and 14,000 inhabitants. Long. 3. 28. 25. W. Lat. 38. 1. 32. N. ANDUZE, a town of France, in the department of the Gard, seated on the river Gardon. It carries on a considerable trade in serges and woollen cloth. Long. 3. 42. E. Lat. 43. 39. N. ANECDOTES (Anecdota), a term used by some authors for the titles of Secret Histories ; but it more properly denotes a relation of detached and interesting particulars. The word is Greek, avwdora,, signifying things not yet known or hitherto kept secret. Procopius gives this title to a book which he published against Justinian and his wife Theodora. Anecdotes is also an appellation given to such works of the ancients as have not yet been published; in which sense Muratori gives the name Anecdota Grceca to several writings of the Greek fathers, found in the libraries, and first published by him. Martene and Durand have given a Thesaurus novus Anecdotorum, in 5 vols. folio. ANEMOMETER, or Anemoscope, machines for measuring the force, and indicating the course, of the wind. See Wind-gage. ANEMUR, the most southern point of Asia Minor, on the south coast of Caramania. The castle of Anemur stands six miles east of the cape, on the edge of the sea, and extends about 800 feet by 300. Its citadel is placed on a small rocky eminence, and is in a ruinous state. Long. 32. 30. E. Lat. 36. 15. N. ANGAR, Angan, or Hindsham, a barren and uninhabited island on the Arabian shore of the Persian Gulf, on the south side of the island of Kishma, about 12 miles in circuit. It must have been formerly inhabited, as it contains the ruins of a considerable town, and many reservoirs of water. It has also two wells, and a stream of good water, which unfortunately become dry in the hot wreather. It is covered with pits of salt and metallic ores, and a soft rocky substance resembling lava. The hills, which are overspread with shells of oysters and other fish, abound in wild goats, rabbits, and partridges. ANGARA, a river of Siberia, which has its rise in the Lake Baikal. It passes the town of Irkutsk with a rapid course, and receiving the Oka, it changes its name to Toungooska, and falls into the Yeneseior Jenesei after a course of 700 miles. It is navigable, and is noted for the clearness of its waters. ANGARI, or Angarii, in Antiquity, public couriers, appointed for the carrying of messages. The ancient Persians, Budaeus observes, had their ayyugeiov tyoyriya, which was a set of couriers on horseback, posted at certain stages or distances, always in readiness to receive the dispatches from one, and forward them to another, with wonderful celerity, answering to what the moderns call posts (positi), r as being posted at certain places or stages. The angari w ere also called by the Persians astandce; by the Greeks on account of the long journeys

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they made in one day, which, according to Suidas, amounted to not less than 1500 stadia. ANGARIA, in Homan Antiquity, a kind of public service imposed on the provincials, which consisted in providing horses and carriages for the conveyance of military stores and other public burdens. It is sometimes also used for a guard of soldiers, posted for the defence of a place. In a more general sense it is used for any kind of oppression, or services performed through compulsion. 1 ANGAZYA, one of the Comora Islands, lying between the north end of Madagascar and the coast of Zanguebar in Africa, from lat. 10. to 15. S. It is inhabited by Moors, who trade with divers parts of the continent, in cattle, fruits, and other commodities of the island, which they exchange for calicoes and other cotton cloths. ANGEIOTOMY, in Surgery, implies the opening of a vein or artery, as in bleeding; and consequently includes both arteriotomy and phlebotomy. ANGEL, a spiritual intelligent substance, the first in rank and dignity among created beings. The word angel is Greek, and signifies a messenger: the Hebrew “ixbn signifies the same thing. The angels are in Daniel, chap, iv. ver. 13, &c. called ow-, or watchers, from their vigilance : for the same reason they are, in the remains we have of the prophecy attributed to Enoch, named/fyrcyon; which word imports the same in Greek. The term Angel, therefore, in the proper signification of the word, does not import the nature of any being, but only an office; in which sense angels are called the ministers of God, and ministering spirits. That there are such beings, invisible and imperceptible to our senses, endued with understanding and power superior to those of human nature, created by God, and subject to him,—ministering to his divine providence in the government of the world,— are truths fully attested by Scripture. Nay, the existence of such invisible beings was generally acknowledged by the heathens, though under different appellations : the Greeks called them demons, and the Romans genii or lares. Epicurus seems to have been the only one among the ancient philosophers who absolutely rejected them. As to the nature of these beings, we are told that they are spirits; but whether pure spirits divested of all matter*, or united to some corporeal vehicles, has been a controversy of long standing. Not only the ancient philosophers, but some of the Christian fathers, were of opinion that angels were clothed with ethereal or fiery bodies, of the same nature with those which we shall one day have when we come to be equal to them. But the more general opinion, especially of later times, has been, that they are substances entirely spiritual, though they can at any time assume bodies, and appear in human or other shapes. Besides their attendance on God, and their waiting and executing his commands, they are also presumed to be employed in taking care of mankind and their concerns: and that every man had such a tutelar or guardian angel, even from his birth, was a firm belief and tradition among the Jews; and our Saviour himself seems to have been of the same sentiment. The heathens were also of that persuasion, and thought it a crime to neglect the admonitions of so divine a guide. The Romans thought the tutelar genii of those who attained the empire to be of an eminent order, on which account they had great honours shown them. Nations and cities also had their several genii. Ihe ancient Persians so firmly believed the ministry of angels, and their superintendence over human affairs, that they gave their names to their months, and the days of their months, and assigned them distinct offices and provinces : and it is from them the Jews confess to have received the names of the months and angels, which they brought with them when they returned from the Babylo-

A N G 127 nish captivity; after which, we find they also assigned Angelics charges to the angels, and in particular the patronage of nII er empires and nations; Michael being the prince of the Jews, ^ g * as Raphael is supposed to have been of the Persians. Although the angels were originally created perfect, Of the falgood, and obedient to their Master’s will, yet some of themlen angels, sinned and kept not their first estate, but left their habitation, and so, from the most blessed and glorious, became the most vile and miserable, of all God’s creatures. They were expelled the regions of light, and cast down to hell, to be reserved in everlasting chains under darkness, until the day of judgment. With heaven they lost their heavenly disposition, which delighted once in doing good and praising God ; and fell into a settled rancour against the Deity, and malice against men. Their inward peace was gone ; all desire of doing good departed from them, and instead thereof, revengeful thoughts and despair took possession of them, and created an eternal hell within them. ANGELICS, Angelici, in Ecclesiastical History, an ancient sect of heretics, supposed by some to have got this appellation from their excessive veneration of angels; and by others, from their maintaining that the world was created by angels. Angelics is the name of an order of knights, instituted in 1191, by Angelus Flavius Comnenus, emperor of Constantinople : also of a congregation of nuns, founded at Milan in 1534, by Louisa Torelli, countess of Guastalla. They observe the rule of St Augustin. ANGELITES, in Ecclesiastical History, a sect of Christian heretics in the reign of the emperor Anastasius, and the pontificate of Symmachus, about the year 494 ; so called from Angelium, a place in the city of Alexandria where they held their first meetings. They were called likewise Severites, from one Severus, who was the head of their sect; as also Theodosians, from one among them named Theodosius, whom they made pope at Alexandria. They held that the persons of the Trinity are not the same ; that none of them exists of himself, and of his own nature, but that there is a common god or deity existing in them all, and that each is God, by a participation of this deity. ANGELO, Michael. See Buonaroti, Michael Angelo. Angelo, St, a small but strong town of Italy, in the Capitanata. There are several other towns and castles of the same name in Italy, and particularly the castle of St Angelo at Rome. Long. 15. 56. E. Lat. 41. 43. N. ANGELOT, an ancient English gold coin, struck at Paris while under subjection to the English. It was thus called from the figure of an angel supporting the scutcheon of the arms of England and France. There was another coin of the same denomination struck under Philip de Valois. Angelot is also used in Commerce to denote a small, fat, rich sort of cheese brought from Normandy. Skinner supposes it to have been thus called from the name of the person who first made it up in that form, and perhaps stamped it with his own name. Menage supposes it to have been denominated from the resemblance it bears to the English coin called angelot. It is made chiefly in the Pays de Bray, whence it is also denominated angelot de Bray. It is commonly made in vats, either square or shaped like a heart. ANGER, a painful feeling of the mind, excited by the receipt of an injury or affront, and accompanied with a disposition to retaliate on the author of the injury. Bishop Butler observes that anger is far from being a selfish passion, since it is produced by injuries offered to others as well as to ourselves, and was designed by the Author of nature not only to excite us to act vigorously in defending ourselves from evil, but to interest us in the defence or

128 A N G Angerburgrescue of the injured and helpless, and to raise us above H the fear of the proud and mighty oppressor. Angers. The same author makes an important distinction, as Dr Reid observes (Active Powers, Essay 3), “ between sudden anger or resentment, which is a blind impulse arising from our constitution, and that which is deliberate. The first may be raised by hurt of any kind; but the last can only be raised by injury, real or conceived. Both these kinds of anger or resentment are raised whether the hurt or injury be done to ourselves or to those we are interested in.” Physicians and naturalists have recorded instances of extraordinary cases produced by anger. Borrichius cured a woman of an inveterate tertian ague, which had baffled the art of physic, by putting the patient in a furious fit of anger. Valeriola made use of the same means, with the like success, in a quartan ague. The same passion has been equally salutary to paralytic, gouty, and even dumb persons ; to which last it has sometimes given the use of speech. Etmuller gives divers instances of very singular cures wrought by anger: among others, he mentions a person laid up by the gout, who being provoked by his physician, flew upon him, and was cured. It has often, on the other hand, been productive of fatal effects. We meet with several instances of princes to whom it has proved mortal, e. g. Valentinian the First, Wenceslaus, Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, and others. There are also instances where it produced epilepsy, jaundice, cholera morbus, diarrhoea, &c. ANGERBURG, a circle in the government of Gumbinnen, or province of East Prussia, formerly a part of Poland. It extends over 374 square miles, or 239,360 acres. It is watered by the Angerap, which rises in several lakes, with which the district abounds. The inhabitants are 21,172, who produce some corn and flax, and much fresh-water fish and fire-wood. The females are all employed in spinning linen yarn. The capital is of the same name, and contains 250 houses and 2619 inhabitants. ANGERMANLANDS-LAPMARK, or ^Esle-Lapmark, a province in the northern part of Sweden, of the vast extent of 6560 square miles. The inhabitants are only 1200, partly Laplanders, with a few Swedes denominated colonists. The chief productions to spare are butter and some iron wares. Aisle is the chief place, and besides it there are two parishes with churches. ANGERMUNDE, a circle in the government of Potsdam, and province of Brandenburg, in Prussia. It extends over 503 square miles, or 321,920 acres ; and comprehends six cities, three market-towns, 109 villages, and 4201 dwellings, with 34,896 inhabitants. The river Oder washes its eastern boundary, and receives the several smaller streams by which it is watered. The borders of the rivers present some excellent meadow-land, on which many cattle are pastured. It produces good corn, tobacco, flax, and abundance of garden fruit. There is much wood land, and several lakes which yield fish in great plenty. The capital, of the same name, contains three churches, 291 houses, and 2654 inhabitants, whose chief occupation is making snuff and tobacco. ANGERONA, in Mythology, the name of a pagan deity whom the Romans prayed to for the cure of the quinsy, in Latin angina. Pliny calls her the goddess of silence and calmness of mind, who banishes all uneasiness and melancholy. She is represented with her mouth covered, to denote patience and refraining from complaints. Her statue was set up and sacrificed to in the temple of the goddess Volupia, to show that a patient enduring of affliction leads to pleasure. ANGERS, an arrondissement in the department of the Mayenne and Loire, in France, extending over 436 square

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miles, or 279,040 acres. It is divided into seven cantons, and those again into 59 communes, containing 92,810 I' inhabitants. The chief city, of the same name, contains i| 33,100 inhabitants. M ANGHIERA, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Milan, and capital of a county of the same name. It is seated on the eastern side of the lake Maggiore, in lat. 45. 42. N. long. 8. 40. E. ANGLE. This term is, owing to the poverty of language, employed to signify very different things. In Plane Geometry, it means the opening or separation of two straight lines which meet in a point; but in Solid Geometry, it variously denotes the deviation of a straight line from a plane, the divergence of one plane from another at their line of junction, or even a cluster of plane angles terminating in a common summit. This diversified application of the same word is not likely, however, among mathematicians, to occasion any misconception. But it would be more perspicuous, and certainly more philosophical, to imitate the practice of naturalists in framing a set of cognate words to express the several transitions of meaning. The word angle was drawn from common discourse into the vocabulary of science. Its primitive sense, in all the languages in which it can be traced, is merely a nook or corner ; but it has acquired a more precise and extensive application in its transfer to geometry. In its simplest form, it now denotes generally the divergence or difference of direction between two concurring straight lines. Yet a learner still experiences some difficulty in seizing the correct idea of its nature, which has always baffled the attempts of authors to reduce to the terms of a strict definition. Apollonius, at once the most elegant and inventive of the Greek geometers, was satisfied with representing an angle as a collection of space about a point,—a description which is not only extremely loose, but which intimates quite a different conception. Euclid, the great compiler of the Elements, has defined an angle to be the xX/ less generally admired and practised than the ance in summer there is no better or more killing bait

ANGLING. 142 Angling, than a small reddish beetle called the bracken clock in the mouth and out at his gill; then having drawn your hook two A n —north of England, the Melolontha horticola of naturalists. or three inches beyond or through his gill, put it againO Salmon roe is greatly lauded by Barker, who appears to into his mouth, and the point and beard out at his tail, ^ have been the first to discover its merits. “ I have found and then tie the hook and his tail about very neatly with an experience of late which you may angle with, and take a white thread, which will make it the apter to turn quick great store of this kind of fish. First, it is the best bait in the water : that done, pull back that part of your line for trout that I have seen in all my time, and will take which was slack when you did put your hook into the great store, and not fail if they be there. Secondly, it is minnow the second time; I say, says Walton, pull that a special bait for dace or dare, good for chub, or bottlin, part of your line back so that it shall fasten the head, so or grayling. The bait is a roe of a salmon or trout. If it that the body of the minnow shall be almost straight on be a large trout, that the spawns be any thing great, you your hook : this done, try how it will turn by drawing it must angle for the trout with this bait as you angle with across the water or against a stream ; and if it do not turn the brandling, taking a pair of scissors and cut so much nimbly, then turn the tail a little to the right or left hand, as a large hazel-nut, and bait your hook; so fall to your and try again, till it turn quick. We may add, that the sport,—there is no doubt of pleasure. If I had known it practice of fishing with the artificial minnow is justly disbut twenty years ago, I would have gained a hundred carded by all judicious anglers. For representations of pounds only with that bait: I am bound in duty to di- the minnow tackle, and hooks baited, see Plate XLV., vulge it to your honour, and not to carry it to my grave fig. 12, 13, and 19. with me. I do desire that men of quality should have it, The Great Lake Trout. (Salmo Ferox.'f that delight in that pleasure. The greedy angler will It appears that the gray or great trout of the British murmur at me, but for that I care not.” Many kinds of pastes are prized by the bait-fisher. fresh-water lakes, though never described or characterized They may be used for chub, carp, and bream in Septem- as a distinct species, has at various times excited the atber and during all the winter months, and may be made tention of ichthyologists. Trout of enormous dimensions up about the size of a hazel-nut; if foj1 roach and dace, are mentioned by Pennant as occurring in the Welsh the bigness of a pea will suffice. All pastes are improved lakes; and Donovan gives Loch Neagh in Ireland as anby being mixed up in the making with a little cotton other locality. Very large trout have been killed in Ullswool, which makes them firmer and more tenacious, and water in Cumberland, and still larger in Loch Awe in hang better on the hook. They suit well for fishing in Argyllshire. The late Mr Morrison of Glasgow claimed quiet places, with a small hook and quill float. We shall the merit of discovering these fish in the last-named lohere subjoin a few recipes for the making of fishing pastes, cality about 40 years ago; and the largest recorded to which, although we introduce them under the head of the have been killed there weighed 25 pounds. Mr Lascelles, river-trout, may be regarded 1as equally efficacious in the a Liverpool gentleman, has also of late years been equally capture of other kinds of fish. assiduous and successful in their capture; and it appears Minnow-fishing for trout is a favourite pastime with that any persevering sportsman is almost certain, with the many anglers, and the process is one by which very large proper tackle, to obtain specimens in Loch Awe, of this fish are frequently captured. The tackle used resembles gi'eat fish, weighing from 10 to 20 pounds. The largest that for salmon, but is lighter and finer, with a single line of we have lately heard of weighed 191 pounds. It is said gut at the bottom. The hooks vary in size according to the to be by far the most powerful of our fresh-water fishes, general dimensions of the trout angled tor; and the middle- exceeding the salmon in actual strength, though not in sized and whitest minnows are the most esteemed. The activity. The most general size caught by trolling ranges following were Walton’s directions for baiting, with a view from 3 to 15 pounds: beyond that weight they are of to this department of the sport. Put your hook in at his uncommon occurrence. If hooked upon tackle of mode1 Red paste may be made with a large spoonful of fine wheat-flour, moistened with the white of an egg, and worked with the hands until tough. A small quantity of honey or loaf-sugar finely powdered must be added, together with some cotton-wool spread equally over the paste when pressed flat in the hand; it must be well kneaded, to mix the cotton thoroughly; colour it with a little vermilion. A small piece ot fresh butter will prevent it from becoming hard, and it will keep good a week. White paste may be composed of the same ingredients, omitting the vermilion; and yellow paste in like manner, with the addition of turmeric. Salmon paste.— lake one pound of salmon-spawn in September or October; boil it about 15 minutes, then beat it in a mortar until sufficiently mixed, with an ounce of salt and a quarter of an ounce of saltpetre; carefully pick out the membrane in which the spawn is contained, as it is disengaged from it; when beat to a proper consistence, put it into gallipots, and cover it over with bladders tied down close, and it will keep good for many months. Various oils were formerly in great repute among anglers for rubbing over their baits, but as we believe their beneficial effects were entirely imaginary, we shall not occupy our pages by their repetition. A single extract from Izaak Walton will suffice. “ And now I shall tell you that which may be called a secret: I have been a-fishing with old Oliver Henley, now with God, a noted fisher both for trout and salmon, and have observed that he would usually take three or four worms out of his bag, and put them into a little box in his pocket, where he would usually let them continue half an hour or more before he would bait his hook with them. I have asked him his reason, and he has replied, ‘ he did but pick the best out, to be in readiness against he baited his hook the next time. But he has been observed, both by others and myself, to catch more fish than I or any other body that has ever gone a-fishing With him could do, and especially salmons; and I have been told lately, by one of his most intimate and secret friends, that the box in which he put those worms was anointed with a drop, or two or three, of the oil of ivy-herries made by expression or infusion; and told that by the worms remaining in that box an hour, or a like time, they had incorporated a kind of smell, that was irresistibly attractive, enough to force any fish within the smell of them to bite.” We need scarcely remind the reader of the “ Complete Angler,” that that admirable work is of higher value for the manner in which the subject is discussed, and the beautiful accessories of pure style, poetical sentiment, and picturesque illustration, than for the amount of direct practical information which it conveys. The simplicity and goodness of Izaak alton’s nature seem to have induced a greater degree of credulity than was always consistent with an accurate perception of the truth, and hence every chapter abounds with statements which could not pass current in these more critical days. As a useful work in relation to the mere angler, it cannot be said to hold a high rank, although it must ever delight the2 general reader, and all who desire to refresh themselves by “ the pure well of English undefiled ” We are indebted for the principal materials of the following account of this interesting fish to a manuscript of Sir William Jardine s, with which we have been kindly favoured by the author. It forms part of a series of Memoirs on British Fishes, which that assiduous naturalist has been for some time past preparing for the press.

ANGLING. 143 ling,irate strength, they afford excellent sport; but the gene] Sir WiUiam Jardine has named the s e /■^■ral method of fishing for them is almost as well adapted mlmofoTx P cies Angling. for catching sharks as trout; the angler being apparently When in perfect season, and full-grown, it is a very more anxious to have it in his power to state that he had handsome fish, though the head is always too large and ^ught a fish of such a size, than to enjoy the pleasure of long to be in accordance with our ideas of perfect symdie sport itself. However, to the credit of both parties, it metry in a trout. The body is deep and thickly formed, nay be stated, that the very strongest tackle is sometimes and all the members seem conducive to the exercise of mapped in two by its first tremendous springs. The or- great strength. The colours are deep purplish brown on linary method of fishing for this king of trouts is with a the upper parts, changing into reddish gray, and thence powerful rod, from a boat rowing at the rate of from three into fine orange-yellow on the breast and belly. The ;o four miles an hour, the lure a common trout from three whole body, when the fish is newly caught, appears as if ;o ten inches in length, baited upon six or eight salmon glazed over with a thin tint of rich lake-colour, which looks, tied back to back upon strong gimp, assisted by fades away as the fish dies, and so rapidly, that the prowo swivels, and the wheel-line strong whip-cord. Yet gressive changes of colour are easily perceived by an atill this, in the first impetuous efforts of the fish to regain tentive eye. The gill-covers are marked with large dark ts liberty, is frequently carried away for ever into the spots; and the whole body is covered with markings of crystal depths of Loch Awe ! different sizes, and varying in amount in different indiviWhen in their highest health and condition, and in- duals. In some these markings are few, scattered, and of leed during the whole of the time in which they are not a laige size ; in others they are thickly set, and of small•mployed in the operation of spawning, these fish will er dimensions. Each spot is surrounded byr a paler rin0-, carcely ever rise at a fly. At these periods they appear which sometimes assumes a reddish hue; and the spots o be almost entirely piscivorous; so, with the exception of become more distant from each other as they descend light lines, baited also with trout, trolling is the only ad- beneath the lateral line. The lower parts of these fish isable mode of angling for them. The young, however, are spotless. All the fins are broad, muscular, and exise very freely at ordinary lake-trout flies, and are general- tremely powerful; and it is from the number of their Y caught in this way from one to one and a half pound bony rays that the specific characters which distinguish /eight. They occur abundantly near the outlet of the lake. this species from the common trout (salmofario) are the About the middle of August, and during the three fol- most easily and accurately evolved. The dorsal fin is of ding months, the parent fish retire, for the purpose of the same colour with the upper part of the fish; it is pawning, to the deep banks of the lake in the neighbour- marked with large dark spots, and contains fifteen rays, ood of the gorge, and into the gorge of the lake itself, which number exceeds by three that which characterizes /here it empties its immense waters, forming the river Awe. the common trout. The caudal fin is much larger and "hey arc said to remain engaged in this operation for two more fleshy. The pectoral, ventral, and anal fins, are r three months, and at this time their instinctive tenden- very muscular on their anterior edges, and of a rich yelies are so far changed, that they will rise eagerly at lowish-green colour, darker towards their extremities. irge and gaudily dressed salmon-flies, and may be either They contain respectively 14, 10, and 12 rays, whereas ngled for from the banks, or trolled with a cross line, the numbers in the corresponding fins of the common 'here the outlet of the lake is narrow. They do not ap- trout are 13, 9, and 11. The tail is remarkable for its ear either to ascend the rivers which enter the loch, or breadth and consequent power. In adults it is perfectly ) descend the Awe to any extent, though an occasional square, or might even be described as slightly rounded traggler has been taken some way down the river. Their at its extremity: in the young it is slightly forked, and I pawning places are exclusively on the banks, or at appears to fill up gradually as the fish advances in age. . ie gorge of the loch, and they never attempt to seek In the common trout, on the contrary, the forked shape ie salt-water.. When in good season, and in their of the tail is a permanent characteristic. rongest condition, they appear to roam indiscriminately The flavour of this great lacustrine species is coarse nough every part of the loch, though there are certain and indifferent. The colour of the flesh is orange-yellow, >ots which may be more depended upon than others, not the rich salmon-colour of a fine common trout in good ■ ipd where an experienced angler will have little difficulty season. The stomach is very capacious, and on disseci hooking one of these fine fish. To their great strength tion (differing singularly in this respect from the salmon) o may observe that they add unequalled rapacity; and is almost always found gorged with fish. tor attaining to the weight of three or four pounds, they e have bestowed a somewhat lengthened notice on fj ipear to feed almost exclusively on smaller fish, and do theWspecies above described ; but we doubt not that the | at spare even their own young. A small trout of this novelty of the subject will not only plead our excuse, but >ecies, not weighing more than 11 pound, will often dash the information now given highly acceptable both ■ ; a, bait not much inferior to itself in size ; and instances render e recorded of larger fish following with eager eye, and to the sportsman and the naturalist. It is certain that a - tempting to seize upon others of their own kind after more attentive examination of the finny tribes which inhabit our lakes and rivers would bring to light several l'ey Had been hooked and were in the act of being land- new species, and more clearly illustrate the history of y t ie angler. It is probably on account of this others which are still involved in obscurity.1 ng manifestation of a more than usually" predaceous The gigantic species of the Swiss lakes, one of which, ith the great troits of Loch Awe In , r T " ' '^'7 ,12, Poundf. each* These were probably of the same species -xles Grassmere and Rvdal we HdnWl PmeS chain of English lakes of which Windermere is the chief, and which inHed, of these beautiful 2ers when f t /^"onymous with t0 threethe t0 salmo ferox of Jardine. The lake trouts, properly so ken of the weight of ^ ^pounds, and have in one or two rare instances been P n S 08 0 indermere chain corresnond more i • •' l ?,ther * ^characters hwater, again, which does not belong to what we have denominated the e would particularly reifommend t fu attentl on of ° 01 tsmcn the reat with the species found in the lakes of the Scotish Highlands, nietiines called This is rl a i u 16 , s asTan 'a ed g fresh-water river trout, or bull trout as we believe it is 8 16 an le hers, especially when fmimHn Z, ?" S r g overgrown individual of the ordinary kind (mlmo fario); and by t utuml as a curacy of the latter onininn ; i h lake trout which had left its more usualofhaunts for the inpurpose of spawning. situaThe p mon is, however, interfered with by the occasional occurrence this variety such unambiguous

ANGLING. 144 The Grayling. (Salmo Thymdllns.) Angling, killed in the lake of Geneva, weighed 67 pounds, are probably identical with those of Loch Awe, Ullswater, This fish loves the clear streams of mountainous coun&c. Though equal to salmon, both in size and strength, tries. al it is whereifno ia common . its .intestine „ i , I.in Lapland, !„r-;A wiillr Tnrma +is.inr*usod they differ in their habits from those fish, and do not as rennet, along with rein-deer milk, in the formation of appear at any time to seek the waters of the ocean. In- cheese. It is a bold and sportive fish, but more tender in deed their existence in the lake of Constance, the avail- the mouth than the trout. It rises well to the camlet fly, able communication of which with the sea is cut oft by and to several of the other small-sized trout-flies. We the falls of Schaffhausen, demonstrates their independence killed it readily in Switzerland with a moorfowl wing and of saline waters. It does not appear, from any informa- hare-ear body. They may also be taken with the caddis tion which has reached us on the subject, that these great worm and other ground baits. According to the Rev. continental lake-trouts ever rise at the artificial fly. Mr Low, the grayling is frequent in the streams of the In Loch Ard there is a finely formed and beautiful va- Orkney Islands, though very rare in the rivers of the riety of the common trout, varying in its matured condi- mainland of Scotland. tion from one and a half to three pounds in weight. It The Pike. (Esox Lucius.) affords excellent sport to the angler fishing from a boat about 50 yards off the deeper parts of the shores. Ihey This “ fell tyrant of the liquid plain” is not regarded rise freely to small salmon or sea-trout flies, dressed after as indigenous to the waters of Britain, but is said to have the model of a gray or green drake. been introduced in the time of Henry VIII. That it The rich and varied supply of all kinds of tackle, which was well known in England at an earlier period is howevident, both from the book of St Alban’s, printed by may be obtained in the shops of the principal dealers m ever our larger cities, induces us to abstain from any descrip- Wynken de Worde in 1496, and from the account of the tion of "the different hooks employed in minnow and other great feast given by George Nevil, archbishop of York, bait-fishing, as such details are not very intelligible with- in the year 1466. There is in truth no evidence either of out the aid of numerous engravings. More knowledge its non-existence in this country at a remote peiiod, or of importation during comparatively recent times. will be gained by a few minutes inspection of the articles its The voracity of this fish is almost unexampled, even themselves in the hands of an intelligent workman, than a class remarkable for their omnivorous propensities. can be conveyed by the most elaborate treatise on the in Goslings, young ducks, and coots, water-rats, kittens, and Aaving described the characteristic modes of angling the young of its own species, besides every kind of freshwater fish, have been found in the stomach of the pike. surpasfaU the^others yielded to’lhe ftTslidlo contend with the otter for its prey, and h> amder we shall now proceed to a briefer consideration of been known to pull a mule into die water by t e no e. Lme of tne the remaning remaking subjects of our sport. Thisbyfish is ng in season May to February, is angled some ot j with a from strong-topped rod. Iand he hooks are for trolU The Char or Case Char. (Salmo Alpinus.) generally fastened to a bit of brass wire for a few inches The Torgoch or Bed Char. (Sahno Salvelinus.) from the shaft, to prevent the line from being snapped. These fish which in a culinary point of view, are deserv- Different methods are used in angling for pike. Trolledly the most highly prized of all the permanently fresh- ing, in the more limited sense of the word, signifies ca.c imiter species, ar? scarcely attainable by the angler's skill, ing fish with the gorge hook which .s com^o edof Of late Tears they have risen more freely than m former or what is called * times in the meres of the north of England ; but the cap- practised with the aid of a floated hne mid tore of a char by rod and line is still regarded as an uncom- consists in the use ot large hooks, so baited as . mon occurrence. They appear to retire during the warmer the angler to strike the fish the moment he feels it bite, he d months to the deepest of the still waters, as the fisher- immediately after which ™f ® men engaged in throwing their nets for pike, perch, and Trolling for pike may be practised during the want trout, over the very grounds where, during the colder months, when trout fishing has ceased, and t e season of the year, the char abound, never catch any of season of the year is in fact more convenient for the sp these fish in summer. Although a good deal has been owing to the decay or diminution of the weeds wh ch written upon the subject, it does not appear that the dis- usually surround their favourite ^aunts; ^1^ t^ ^ tinctive history of the two species above named has been tion of chub and dace, which bite pretty flee y as yet made out. Both the case char and the red char bottom all winter, scarcely any other fish can be are1 found in Windermere; and the principal distinc- upon for sport during the more inclement portion tion in their habits and history consists in this, that the year. To bait a gorge hook take a baiting needle, and ho former ascends the rivers, where it spawns about Michael- the curved end to the loop of the gimp, to which the hook, mas; whereas the latter deposits its ova along the shores tied; see Plate XL V. fig. 20; then introduce the point oDh of the lake, and not till the end of December or the be- needle into a dead bait s mouth, and bring it out at the miu sinning of the year. In angling for char the same flies may die of the fork of the tail, by which means the piece o be used as those best adapted for the smaller-sized lake- which covers the shank of the hook, and partof the conne trouts; and as the latter occur wherever the former is found, ing wire, will lie concealed m the interior ot the bait. ' the sportsman has the better chance of making amends shank will be in the inside of its mouth, and the ha for the probable disappointment which will attend his pur- the outside, turning upwards. See 1 late L^ V. hg. suit of the one, by a more successful capture of the other, keep the bait steady on the hook, fasten the tai pa J lions as the Clyde above the falls, the waters of which have no communication with any lake. Ihis species sometimes attains weight of 8, 10, or even 12 pounds; hut it differs from the Loch Awe trout n being generally, it not exclusively, tound i Those of many of the lesser Highland lakes, such as Loch Ard and Loch Chon, ascend the mountain streams in the autumn to p and in the ordinary practice of angling (with the. artificial fly) are rarely caught above the weight of three pounds. W e lastyeart ^ received some very singular trouts from a small loch called Lochdow, near Pit main, in Inverness-shire. Their heads were si round and their upper jaws were truncated like that of a bull-dog. They do not occur in any of the neighbouring lochs, an not been observed above the weight of half a pound. Trouts of the ordinary shape likewise occur in Lochdow.

ANGLING. the water, and then you may certainly conclude he hath Angl' : linn above the fork to the gimp, with a silk or cotton thread; pouched bait, and rangeth about for more; then^-^v5^.0r a neater method is, to pass the needle and thread with youryour trowl wind up your line till you think you have through the side of the bait, about half an inch above the tail so as to encircle the gimp in the interior. The baits it almost streight, then with a smart 2jerk hook him, and used vary in weight from one to four ounces, and the hooks make your pleasure to your content.” The fresher and cleaner the bait is kept, whether for must be proportioned to the size of the fish with which trolling, live-bait, or snap-fishing, the greater is the they are baited. The barbs of the hook ought not to project much beyond the sides of the mouth, because, as the chance of success. As pike, notwithstanding their usual voracity, are somepike generally seizes his prey crosswise, and turns it before it is pouched or swallowed, if he feels the points of times, as the anglers phrase it, more on the play than the feed, they will occasionally seize the bait across the the hook he may cast it out entirely. In trolling for pike, it is advised to keep as far from the body, and, instead of swallowing it, blow it from them rewater as possible, and to commence casting close by the peatedly and then take no further notice of it. The skilnear shore, with the wind blowing from behind. When ful and wily angler must instantly convert his gorge into the water is clear and the weather bright, some prefer to a snap, and strike him in the lips or jaws when he next fish against the wind. “ After trying closely,” says Mr attempts such dangerous amusement. The dead snap Salter, “ make your next throw further in the water, and may be made either with two or four hooks. (See Plate draw and sink the baited hook, drawing it straight up- XLV. fig. 21.) Take about twelve inches of stout gimp, wards near to the surface of the water, and also to right make a loop at one end, at the other tie a hook (size No. and left, searching carefully every foot of water; and draw 2), and about an inch farther up the gimp tie another your bait with the stream, because you must know that hook of the same dimensions; then pass the loop of the jack and pike lay in wait for food with their heads and gimp into the gill of a dead bait-fish, and out at its mouth, eyes pointing up the stream, to catch what may be com- and draw the gimp till the hook at the bottom comes just ing down; therefore experienced trollers fish a river or behind the back fin of the bait, and the point and barb stream down, or obliquely across ; but the inconsiderate are made to pierce slightly through its skin, which keeps as frequently troll against the stream, which is improper, the whole steady; now pass the ring of a drop-bead lead because they then draw their baited hook behind either over theloop of the gimp,fix the leadinsidethebait’smouth, I jack or pike when they are stationary, instead of bringing and sew the mouth up. (See Plate XLV. fig. 22.) This will it before his eyes and mouth to tempt him. Note—Be suffice for the snap with a couple of hooks. If the fourparticularly careful, in drawing up or taking the baited hooked snap is desired (and it is very killing), take a piece hook out of the water, not to do it too hastily, because you of stout gimp about four inches long, and making a loop at will find by experience that the jack and pike strike or one end, tie a couple of hooks of the same size, and in the seize your bait more frequently when you are drawing it same manner as those before described. After the first two upwards than when it is sinking. And also further observe, and the lead are in their places, and previous to the sewing that when drawing your bait upwards, if you occasionally up of the mouth, pass the loop of the shorter gimp through the opposite gill, and out at the mouth of the bait; then shake the rod, it will cause the bait to spin and twist about, which is very likely to attract either jack or pike.”1 draw up the hooks till they occupy a position correspondThese fish are partial to the bends of rivers and the ing to those of the other side: next pass the loop of the bays of lakes, where the water is shallow, and abounding longer piece of gimp through that of the shorter, and pull in weeds, reeds, water lilies, &c. In fishing with the gorge all straight: finally, tie the two pieces of gimp together hook, and the angler feels a run, he ought not to strike close to the fish’s mouth, and sew the latter up. Some anglers prefer fishing for pike with a floated line for several minutes after the fish has become stationary, lest he pull the bait away before it is fairly pouched. If and a live bait. When a single hook is used for this pura pike makes a very short run, then remains stationary for pose, it is baited in one or other of the two following ways: about a minute, and again makes one or two short runs, Either pass the point and barb of the hook through the he is probably merely retiring to some quiet haunt before lips of the bait, towards the side of the mouth, or through he swallows the bait; but if, after remaining still for three beneath the base of the anterior portion of the dorsal fin. or four minutes, he begins to shake the line and move (See Plate XLV. fig. 25.) W’hen a double hook is used about, the inference is that he has pouched the bait, and take a baiting needle, hook its curved end into the loop of feels some annoyance from the hook within, then such the gimp, and pass its point beneath the skin of the bait part of the line as has been slackened may be wound up, from behind the gills upwards in a sloping direction, bringand the fish struck. It is an unsafe practice to lay down ing it out behind the extremity of the dorsal fin; then the rod during the interval between a run and the sup- draw the gimp till the bend of the hooks are brought to posed pouching of the bait, because it not unfrequently the place where the needle entered, and attach the loop happens that a heavy fish, when he first feels the hooks in to the trolling line. (See Plate XLV. fig. 23.) Unless a his interior, will make a sudden and most violent rush up kind of snap-fishing is intended, the hooks for the above the river or along the lake, and the line is either instantly purpose should be of such a size as that neither the points broken, or is carried, together with both the rod and reel, nor the barbs project beyond either the shoulder or the for ever beyond the angler’s reach. “ When the pike belly of the bait. cometh,” says Colonel Venables, “ you may see the water . Snap-fishing is certainly a less scientific method of angmove, at least you may feel him; then slack your line ling for pike than that with the gorge or live bait; for and give him length enough to run away to his hould, when the hooks are baited the angler casts in search, whither he will go directly, and there pouch it, ever be- draws, raises, and sinks his bait, until he feels a bite. He ginning (as you may observe) with the head, swallowing then strikes with violence, and drags or throws his victim that first. Thus let him lye untill you see the line move in on shore; for there is little fear of his tackle giving way, 1 The Troller'i Guide, by T. F. Salter, Lond. 1820. In the work above quoted will be found a full account of the necessary implements, and the most approved practice, in this department of the art. The Experienced Angler, p. 36. Third edit. Lond. 1668. T VOL. III.

14G A N G LING. Angling, as that used in snap-fishing is of the largest and strongest rods,” says Daniel, “ may be employed; one with the baiti kind. “This hurried and unsportsman-like way of taking at mid-water, another a foot or less from the bottom, and® fish,” it is observed in the Trailers Guide, “ can only the third to lie upon it when the line and lead are not * please those who value the game more than the sport af- discovered, as in the two former ; the places intended to forded by killing a jack or pike with tackle which gives be fished in should, the night before, be ground-baited with the fish a chance of escaping, and excites the angler’s grains, blood, and broken worms, incorporated together skill and patience, mixed with a certain pleasing anxiety, with clay, the hook baits should be red worms taken out and the reward of his hopes. Neither has the snap-fisher of tan, flag or marsh-worms, green peas so boiled as to so good a chance of success, unless he angles in a pond or soften, but not to break the skin, and throwing some in now piece of water where the jack or pike are very numerous and then. When this bait is used (which should be with or half starved, and will hazard their lives for almost any one on the hook to swim a foot from the ground), in case thing that comes in their way. But in rivers where they of a bite, strike immediately; a large carp, upon taking are well fed, worth killing, and rather scarce, the coarse the bait, 2directly steers for the opposite side of the river snap-tackle, large hooks, &c. generally alarm them. On or pond.” During hot weather, when these fish are about the whole, I think it is two to one against the snap in most to spawn, and whilst lying among the weeds near the surrivers; and if there are many weeds in the water, the face, they may be angled for with a fine line, without large hooks of the snap, by standing rank, are continu- either sink or float. The hook may be baited with a red ally getting foul, damaging the bait, and causing much worm, a pair of gentles, a caterpillar, or a cad bait, and thrown lightly as in fly-fishing, and then drawn towards trouble and loss of time.” Pike sometimes rise at an artificial fly, especially in the angler. If it can be made to fall first upon the leaf of! dark, windy days. The fly ought to be dressed upon some water plant, and then dropped upon the surface, the a double hook, and composed of very gaudy materials. chance of success will be increased. The best months are The head is formed of a little fur, some gold twist, and May, June, and July, and the most advisable times of the (if the angler’s taste inclines that way, for it is probably day are from sunrise to eight in the morning, and from a matter of indifference to the fish) two small black or sunset during the continuance of twilight, and onwards blue beads for eyes. The body is framed rough, full, and through the night. It is the opinion of many, though we round, the wings not parted, but made to stand upright cannot trace the origin of the idea, no doubt an erroneous on the back, with some small feathers continued down one, that the 10th of April is a fatal day for carp. the back to the end of the tail, so that when finished they The Bream. {Cyprinus Brama.) may exceed the length of the hook. The whole should be about the bulk of a wren. The largest pike ever killed This fish breeds both in deep, slow-running rivers, and in Britain was taken with a peacock-feather fly in1 Loch in ponds. It prefers the latter. The most enticing bait Ken, near New Galloway. r It weighed 72 pounds. is a well-conditioned earthworm, although the angler also During clear and calm w eather in summer and autumn, uses paste made of bread and honey, wasp grubs, grasspike take most freely about three in the afternoon: in hoppers, &c. Boiled wheat serves well for ground-baiting winter they may be angled for with equal chances of suc- the spot on the preceding nights, and some fasten a numcess during the whole day: early in the morning and late ber of worms to a piece of turf, and sink it to the bottom. in the evening are the periods best adapted for the spring. When the ground has been thus prepared, and the tackle put in order, the angler should commence his labours by The Carp. (Cyprinus Carpio.') three or four in the morning. Let him approach the This fish, like the preceding, is asserted to have been place with caution, so as not to be perceived by the introduced into England by Leonard Mascal, a gentleman fish, and cast his hook neatly baited with a live and movof Sussex, early in the 16th century; and in good com- ing worm, in such manner that the lead may lie about pany, if there is truth in the old distich, the centre of the prepared ground. The bream is a strong Turkies, carps, hops, pickerell, and beer, fish, and runs smartly wdien first struck; but after a few Came into England all in one year. turns he falls over on his side, and allows the angler to The carp is, however, mentioned as a dayntous fysshe, land him without much trouble. He is by no means so though scarce, by Juliana Barnes, in the year 1496. It lively as the carp. The best hours for bream are from attains to a prodigious size in the waters of the south of four till eight in the morning, and from four in the afterEurope, and in the Lake of Como is said sometimes to noon till eight in the evening. In the river Trent, near weigh 200 pounds. It breeds more freely in ponds than Newark, there are two kinds of bream. The common in rivers, although those of the latter are more esteemed. species is that called the carp bream, from its yellow Angling for carp requires, according to Walton, “ a very colour; and it sometimes attains the weight of eight pounds. large measure of patience.” The haunts of this fish in The other species or variety, regarded by Mr Revett the winter months are the broadest and least disturbed Shepherd as a nondescript, never exceeds a pound in parts of rivers, where the bottom is soft and muddy; but weight. It is of a silvery hue, and is known by the name in summer it usually lies in deep holes, near some scour, of white bream.3 The bream, though rare in Scotland, under roots of trees, and beneath hollow banks, or in the occurs in Loch Maben. neighbourhood of beds of aquatic weeds. In ponds they The Tench. {Cyprinus Tinea.) thrive best in a rich marl or clayey soil, where they have the benefit of shade from an overhanging grove of trees. This species is a lover of still waters, and his haunts Small carp hite eagerly, but the larger and more experi- in rivers are among weeds, or pools well screened by enced fish are deceived with difficulty. The rod should bushes. Tench are found spawning from June till Septembe of good length, the line strong, furnished with a quill ber, and they are in the best condition from the latter float, and ending in a few lengths of the best silk-worm month till the end of May. The tackle should be strong, gut. The hook is proportioned to the size of the bait, and with a swan or goose-quill float for ponds, and a piece of a single shot is fixed about 12 inches above it. “ Three cork for rivers. The hook (in size from No. 4 to 6) should 1

Daniel’s Rural Sports, vol. ii. p. 270.

“ Ibid. p. 257*

3

Linn. Trans, vol. xiv. p. 037*

A N G I. I N G. 147 The Dace. (Cyprinus Leuciscus.) Angling. ,r be whint to sound silk-worm gut, with two or three shot This fish is of gregarious habits, and haunts the deeper «^xed to it at the distance of a foot. The bait should float about a couple of feet from the surface, and should be waters near the piles of bridges, shady pools, and beneath drawn occasionally gently upwards, and allowed slowly to the masses of collected foam caused by eddies. In the sink again. Small marsh worms, middle-sized lobs, or the warmer months of the year they also congregate in the red species found in rotten tan, are to be recommended. shallows. They rise at a variety of flies, and are likewise « He will bite,” says Walton, “ at a paste made of brown angled for with red worms, brandlings, &c. Above Richbread and honey, or at a marsh-worm, or a lob-worm : he mond, as soon as the weeds begin to rot, a grasshopper inclines very much to any paste with which tan is mixed, used as an artificial fly is found very successful in hot and he will bite also at a smaller worm with his head weather among the shallows. This mode can only be nipped off, and a sod-worm put on the hook before that practised in a boat, with a heavy stone to serve as an anworm ; and I doubt not but that he will also in the three chor, fastened to a few yards of rope. The boat drifts hot months, for in the nine colder he stirs not much, bite gently down the stream, and the stone is dropped whenat a flag-worm, or at a green gentle: but can positively ever the angler considers himself in the neighbourhood say no more of the tench, he being a fish that I have not of a likely place. Standing in the stern, he first throws often angled for; but I wish my honest scholar may, and directly down the stream, and then to the right and left; be ever fortunate when he fishes.” and after trying for about a quarter of an hour in one spot, he again weighs anchor, and proceeds to another The Barbel. ( Cyprinus Barbus.) station. In a culinary point of view this is one of the worst of The Roach. ( Cyprinus Rutilus.) the fresh-water fishes. It is gregarious, and roots among the soft banks with its nose, like a sow. The angling The carp has been named the “ water-fox” on account season commences in May, and continues till September. of his subtlety, and the roach the “ water-sheep,” by reaThe most approved hours are from daylight till ten in the son of his silliness. This fish makes good soup, though morning, and from four in the afternoon till about sunset. very bony, and otherwise not much esteemed. The seaThe line should be strong and rather heavily leaded, so son for roach fishing in the Thames, where it attains to a that the bait may float about half an inch from the ground. larger size than elsewhere, commences about the end of Considerable caution is required in playing this fish, as August. “ Next let me tell you,” says Walton, “ you he is apt to run off when struck, with great violence, to- shall fish for this roach in winter with paste or gentles, in wards some stronghold, and in so doing sometimes breaks April with worms or caddis, in the very hot months with both rod and line. He is rather nice in his baits, which little white snails, or with flies under water; for he selmust be kept clean and sweet, and untainted by musty dom takes them at the top, though the dace will. In moss. “ One caution,” says Mr Daniel, “ in angling for many of the hot months roaches may be also caught barbel, will bear repetition: never throw in the bait far- thus :—Take a May-fly or ant-fly; sink him with a little ther than enabled by a gentle cast of the rod, letting the lead to the bottom, near the piles or posts of a bridge, or plumb fall into the water with the least possible noise. It near to any posts of a wear—I mean any deep place is an error to think that large fish are in the middle of the where roaches lie quietly—and then pull your fly up very river: experience teaches the fallacy of this opinion : they leisurely, and usually a roach will follow your bait to the naturally seek their food near the banks, and agitating very top of the water, and gaze on it there, and run at it, the waters by an injudicious management of the plumb and take it, lest the fly should fly away from him.”1 Vast will certainly drive them away. It is incredible the quan- shoals of this species ascend the streams in the parish of tities of barbel sometimes caught by this method. Per- Killearn, from Loch Lomond, and are caught by nets in sons of great veracity have asserted that upwards of one thousands. Their emigration from the loch, however, hundredweight have been taken in one morning.” continues only for the space of three or four days towards the end of May.2 The Chub. (Cyprinus Cephalus.) The rivers of England are stored with a much finer The Bleak. ( Cyprinus Alburnus.) variety of fresh-water fish than those of Scotland. The This small and active fish may be angled for with what chub occurs in the Annan. It is however a fish but lightly esteemed, either for sport or the table. He is a is called a pater noster line, which consists of half a dozen dull fish on the hook, bites eagerly, and is soon tired. fine hooks fastened about 6 or 8 inches from each other. Caution is requisite on the part of the angler, as the chub These may be baited with gentles, or more variously, to is naturally fearful, and sinks towards the bottom of the increase the temptation, with a gentle, a small red woi'm, stream on the slightest alarm. The baits used are mag- a fly, &c. and thus several fish may be hooked at the same gots, beetles, grasshoppers, salmon-roe, &c. Black and time. In angling for bleak the tackle must be very fine. dun flies gaudily dressed, and ribbed with gold or silver In fresh streams they rise well at the black gnat, or any twist, are well adapted to take them in streams. They other small sad-coloured fly. likewise rise at the red-spinner. But perhaps the best The Gudgeon. (Cyprinus Gobio.) way to secure this fish is by dibbing with a grasshopper. Gudgeons are angled for near the ground with a small red As chub are often seen in some favourite haunt lying near the surface of the pool, the angler, concealing himself as worm. They frequent the shallows during the hot months, much as possible, ought to move his rod cautiously over and retire before winter to the stiller and deeper waters. the spot, and drop his bait gently upon the water, a few As an article of food they are highly esteemed. inches in advance of the fish’s head. The landing net is The Minnow. ( Cyprinus Phoxinus.) particularly necessary in angling for chub, as the best spots are generally encumbered by trees or bushes, which This is the fish by means of which most youthful angprevent the fish from being drawn to hand, or pulled lers commence their experience of the art. “ He is a ashore. sharp biter,” says Walton, “ at a small worm, and in hot 1

Complete Angler, p. 218.

2

Statistical Account of Scotland, vol. xvi. p. 100.

ANGLING. 148 Angling, weather makes excellent sport for young anglers, or boys, directions of the “ religious sportswoman” Juliana Barnes. or women that love that recreation; and in the spring L. M. signifies Leonard Mascall. A Neu Book of good they make of them excellent minnow-tansies ; for being Husbandry, very pleasaunt, and of great profite, both for washed well in salt, and their heads and tails cut olf, and gentlemen and yeomen ; conteining the Order and Maner their guts taken out, and not washed after, they prove of Making of Fish-pondes, with the Breeding, Preseruing, excellent for that use; that is, being fried with yolks of and Multiplyinge of the Carpe, 1 ench, Pike, and Troute, eggs, the flower of cowslips and of primroses, and a little and diverse kindes of other Fresh Fish. Written in Latine by Janus Dubrauius, and translated into English at tansie. Thus used, they make a dainty dish of meat.” the speciale request of George Churchey, Fellow of Lion’s The Loach. ( Cobitis Barbatula.) Inne, the 9th Februarie 1599. 4to, Lond. 1599. Certain The loach is entirely a ground fish,living in clear and gra- Experiments concerning Fish and Fruit, practised by velly streams. It is an excellent bait for eels, and is also John Taverner, Gentleman, and by him published for the a nutritious food for man, though of a slimy and somewhat benefit of others. 4to, Lond. 1600. The Secrets of Angling; teaching the Choicest Tooles, Baytes, and.Seasons forbidding aspect. for the taking of any Fish in Pond or River: practised The Eel. (Anguilla Vulgaris.) and 'familiarly opened in Three Bookes. By J. D., Esquire. This well-known and snake-like species has its favourite 8vo, Lond. 1613. The author of this work is named in haunts in the muddy bottom of the bays of lakes, among the third edition of Walton’s Angler as one Jo. Davors; weeds, under large stones, and in the clefts of the banks but, from an entry in the books of Stationers Hall, as given of rivers. The habits of the eel are nocturnal, and the in the second volume of “ British Bibliography,” p. 355, largest and finest are usually caught with night-lines. he is mentioned as John Dennys, Esquire. Large exThey are troublesome fish, from their great tenacity of tracts from this work are given by Sir Egerton Bridges, in life, and the tortuous motions by which, in their endea- the last volume of his Censura Literaria. The poetry, of vours to disengage themselves, they entangle or destroy which several passages are quoted by Walton, is remarkthe angler’s tackle. They afford little amusement to those able for its beauty. As the volume is rare, we shall here present the reader with a few stanzas. accustomed to the more elegant branches of the art. The isle of Ely, according to some authorities, was so You nymphs that in the springs and waters sweet called in consequence of its being the place from whence Your dwelling have, of every hill and dale, the kings of England were anciently supplied with1 eels. And oft amid the meadows green do meet To sport and play, and hear the nightingale, Indeed Cambridgeshire is still famous for this fish. And in the rivers fresh do wash your feet, While Progne’s sister tells her wofull tale ; The Perch. (Perea Fluviatilis.) Such ayd and power unto my verses lend This gregarious fish is angled for with a worm or minAs may suffice this little work to end. now. It is a bold biter during the warm months of the And thou, sweet Boyd, that with thy wat’ry sway year, though very abstemious in the winter season. When Dost wash the cliffes of Deignton and of Week, a shoal is met with, great sport is frequently obtained. A And through their rocks with crooked winding way small cork float is used, and the bait is hung at various Thy mother Avon runnest soft to seek; depths, according to circumstances, a knowledge of which In whose fair streams the speckled trout doth play, The roach, the dace, the gudgin, and the bleike; can only be obtained by practice. In angling near the Teach me the skill, with slender line and hook, bottom, the bait should be frequently raised nearly to the To take each fish of river, pond, and brook. surface, and then allowed gently to sink again. When the weather is cool and cloudy, with a ruffling breeze In comparing the amusement of angling with the exfrom the south, perch will bite during the whole day. citement to be derived from gaming and other pleasures, The best hours towards the end of spring are from seven he adds— to eleven in the morning, and from two to six in the afO let me rather on the pleasant brinke ternoon. In warm and bright summer weather, excellent Of Tyne and Trent possess some dwelling place, times are from sunrise till six or seven in the morning, Where I may see my quill and corke down sinke. and from six in the evening till sunset. With eager bite of barbel, bleike, or dace ; And on the world and his Creatour thinke. The first printed work on angling in the English lanWhile they proud Thais painted sheet embrace ; And with the fume of strong tobacco smoke guage is by Dame Juliana Barnes or Berners ( The TreaAnd quaffing round are ready for to choke. tyse of Fgsshinge with an Angle), and forms part of the JBooh of St Albans, emprented at Westmestre by Wynken Let them that list these pastimes then pursue, And on their pleasing fancies feed their fill; de Worde, in 1496. Of this book there are various old So I the fields and meadows green may view, editions, and it has, we believe, been twice reprinted in And by the rivers fresh may walke at wille, modern times. It is less useful to the angler than curious Among the dazies and the violets blue, in the eyes of the bibliographer. Hawking, Hunting, Bed hyacinth and yellow daffodil, Fouling, and Fishing, with the true measures of Blowing, Purple narcissus like the morning rayes, &c. now newly collected by W. G. Faukener. 4to, Lond. Pale ganderglas, and azore culverkayes. 1596. A Book of Fishing with Hooke and Line, and of all I count it better pleasure to behold other Instruments thereunto belonginge, made by L. M. The goodly compasse of the lofty skie; 4to, Lond. 1590. This work contains remarks on the preAnd in the midst thereof, like burning gold. servation of fish in pools, and some improvements on the The flaming chariot of the world’s great eye; 1 “ Here I hope I shall not tresspass upon gravity, in mentioning a passage observed by the reverend professor of Oxford, Doc*®1 Prideaux, referring the reader to him for the author’s attesting the same. When the priests in this part of the country would st retain their wives, in despight of whatever the pope or monks would doe to the contrary, their wives and children were miraculous} turned all into eels (surely the great into Congers, the less into Greggs), whence it had the name of Eely. I understand him, a Li of Eels.” (Fuller’s Worthies. Cambridgeshire.)

ANGLING. 149 introductory essay and illustrative notes. 8vo, Lond. Angling. The wat’ry clouds that in the ayre uproPd With sundry kinds of painted colours flie ; 1823. The third edition of the Compleat Gentleman, by'^v^. And faire Aurora lifting up her head, Henry Peacham, 4to, Lond. 1661, contains a chapter All blushing rise from old Tithonus bed. concerning Fishing. The Experienced Angler, or AngThe hills and mountains raised from the plains, ling Improved ; being a general discourse of Angling. The plains extended levell with the ground, 8vo, Lond. 1662. This work, of which there are seveThe ground divided into sundry vains, ral editions, is by Colonel Robert Venables. Its fourth The vains enclos’d with running rivers round, edition forms the third part of the Universal Angler. The rivers making way thro’ nature’s chains, With headlong course into the sea profound; Angling Improved to Spiritual Uses, forms part of an The surging sea beneath the vallies low, octavo volume entitled Occasional Reflections upon seThe vallies sweet, and lakes that lovely flow. veral Subjects, by the Hon. Robert Boyle. 8vo, Lond. Then follow the two stanzas quoted at the beginning of 1665. In a volume called The Epitome of the Art this article. Our next work on angling is The Pleasures of Husbandry, by J. B. Gent. 12mo, Lond. 1669, are of Princes, or Good Men’s Recreations; containing a Dis- brief experimental directions for the right use of the course of the General Art of Fishing with the Angle, or angle. The author’s name was Blagrave. The Angler’s otherwise, and of all the hidden secrets belonging tfiere- Delight; containing the whole Art of Neat and Clean unto; together with the Choyce, Ordering, Breeding, and Angling; wherein is taught the readiest way to take all Dyetting of the Fighting Cocke ; being a worke never in sorts of Fish, from the Pike to the Minnow, together with that nature handled by any former author. Lond. 1614, their proper baits, haunts, and time of fishing for them, 4to. This work forms part of the second book of the whether in mere, pond, or river. As also the method of English Husbandman, by G. M. (Gervais Markham.) A fishing in Hackney River, and the names of all the best Briefe Treatise of Fishing; with the Art of Angling. stands there; with the manner of making all sorts of good „ Lond. 1614, 4to. This work is little else than a reprint tackle fit for any water whatsoever. The like never befrom a portion of the Book of St Alban’s, and forms part fore in print. By William Gilbert, Gent. 12mo, Lond. of the Jewell for Gentrie, by T. S. Cheap and Good 1676. The Compleat Troller, or the Art of Trolling, by Husbandry, by Gervais Markham. 4to, Lond. 1616. This Robert Nobbes. 8vo, Lond. 1682. There are several work contains a chapter on Fish and Fish-Ponds. Country editions of this work, of which the third and fourth are Contentments; or the Husbandman’s Recreations, bjr J. M. appended to the Angler’s Pocket-Book. Gentleman’s In the fifth and sixth editions of this volume (4to, Lond. Recreations ; treating of the Art of Horsemanship, Hunt1633 and 1639), will be found, the Whole Art of Angling, ing, Fowling, Fishing, and Agriculture. Fol. Lond. 1686. as it was written in a small treatise in rime, and now, for The Gentleman’s Recreation, in four parts, viz. Hunting, the better understanding of the reader, put into prose, and Hawking, Fowling, Fishing. 8vo, Lond. 1674. (By Niadorned and enlarged. This work is a prose version, with cholas Cox.) The Angler’s Vade Mecum, or a compenadditions, of Davors’ Secrets of Angling. The Country dious yet full Discourse of Angling. By T. Cheetham. Gentleman’s Companion, 2 vols. 12mo, Lond. 1753, is a 8vo, Lond. 1681. Northern Memoirs, calculated for the reprint, without acknowledgement, of Markham’s work. meridian of Scotland; wherein most or all of the Cities, The Art of Angling ; wherein are discovered many rare Citadels, Seaports, Castles, Forts, Fortresses, Rivers, and secrets very necessary to be known by all that delight in Rivulets, are compendiously described; to which is added, that recreation, written by Thomas Barker, an antient the Contemplative and Practical Angler, by way of diverpractitioner in the said art. 12mo, Lond. 1651. In an sion ; with a Narrative of that dextrous and mysterious epistle to the reader, prefixed to the first edition, and in Art experimented in England, and perfected in more the dedication of the two last to Edward Lord Montague, remote and solitary parts of Scotland; by way of DiaBarker speaks of himself as having practised angling logue : writ in the year 1658, but not till now made for more than half a century. He also says he was publick. By Richard Franck, Philanthropus. 8vo, Lond. born and educated at Bracemeall, in the liberty of Sa- 1694. Of this curious volume a reprint was published of lop, being a freeman and burgesse of the same city; late years. The Gentleman Fisher; or the Whole Art of adding, “ if any noble or gentle angler, of whatever de- Angling. 8vo, Lond., second edition, 1727. The True Art of gree soever he be, have a mind to discourse of any of Angling, by J. S. 24to, Lond. 1696. The Compleat Fisher, these wayes and experiments, I live in Henry the 7th’s or the True Art of Angling, by J. S., third edition, 1704. Gifts, the next doore to the Gatehouse, in Westm. My The preceding work, revised and corrected by W. Wright name is Barker, where I shall be ready, as long as please and other experienced anglers, was republished in 1740. God, to satisfye them, and maintain my art during life, The Compleat Fisherman; being a large and particular which is not like to be long.” See British Bibliography, account of all the several ways of Fishing now practised by Sir Eg. Bridges and Joseph Haselwood, vol. ii. p. 356. in Europe ; by James Saunders, Esq. of Newton-Awbery, I he Compleat Angler, or the Contemplative Man’s Recrea- upon Trent. 12mo, Lond. 1724. The Genteel Recreation ; being a discourse of Fish and Fishing, not unworthy tion, or the Pleasure of Angling; a Poem: with a diathe perusal of most anglers. 12mo, Lond. 1653. This is logue between Piscator and Corydon. By John Whitney, the first edition of Izaak Walton’s celebrated work. It a lover of the Angle. 8vo, Lond. 1700. The School of werrt through five editions during the author’s lifetime; Recreation, or a Guide to the most ingenious Exercises; and in the course of its republication was enlarged and by R. H. 8vo, Lond. 1701. The Secrets of Angling, by improved. I he fifth edition forms the first part of the C. G. 12mo, Lond. 1705. The Angler’s Sure Guide, or niversal Angler, by Walton, Cotton, and Venables, 12mo, Angling Improved and Methodically Digested, by R. H. °nd. 1676 ; and is accompanied hy & second part (written Esq. 8vo, Lond. 1706. The Innocent Epicure, or the J Gotten), which treats more fully of fly-fishing. The Art of Angling; a Poem. 8vo, Lond. 1697. The whole I'- Ji' an(^ seventh editions were published in 1750 and Art of Fishing, being a Collection and Improvement of all ‘J' ’ Moses Browne, author of the Piscatory Eclogues that has been written on this subject; with many new exer M ° i\ " ?r^sin ; 1760, The eighth edition published Sir periments. 12mo, Lond. 1714. The second edition of ‘Oin Hawkins and has been was succeeded by by many this work is entitled The Gentleman Fisher, or the whole er 81nc ® e that period, of which the most recent and Art of Angling. 8vo, Lond. 1727. A Discourse of Fish °s eautifully adorned is that by John Major, with an and Fish-Ponds-, by a Person of Honour. 8vo, London.

ANGLING. The author of this work was the Hon. Roger North. A Man his own Fisherman, by Thomas Smith. 24to, Lon- Atj subsequent edition (of which there were more than one} don. The Driffield Angler, in two parts, by Alexander^, A bears the date of 1713. It was also published as an ap- Mackintosh of Great Driffield, Yorkshire. 8vo, Gainspendage to the Gentleman Farmer. 8vo, Lond. 1 /26. borough. The Angler’s Pocket Book; to which is pre- Jif The Country Gentleman’s Vade Mecum, by G. Jacob, fixed, Nobbes’ celebrated Treatise on the Art of Trolling. Gent. 8vo, Lond. 1717; and the Compleat Sportsman, by 8vo, Norw. The New and Complete Angler, or Univerthe same author (1718), of which the 3d part relates to sal Fisherman, by Richard Pollard, Esq. of Clapton, MidFish and Fishing. England’s Interest, or the Gentleman dlesex. 8vo, Lond. 1802. Rural Sports, by W. B. Daand Farmer’s Friend, by Sir John Moore. 8vo, Lond. 1721. niel. 4to, Lond. 1802. Part of vol. ii. relates to fly-fishThe Gentleman Angler, Lond. 1726. Piscatory Eclogues ing, and the other kinds of angling. The Kentish Ang(by Moses Browne). 8vo, Lond. 1729. Of this work there ler, or the Young Fisherman’s Instructor; showing the are several editions. Sportsman’s Dictionary, or the Gentle- nature and properties of Fish which are angled for in Kent. man’s Companion in all Rural Recreations. 2 vols. 8vo, 12mo, Canterb. 1804. The Complete Angler’s Vade Me1735. The British Angler, or a Pocket Companion for Gen- cum, being a perfect Code of Instruction on the above tlemenFisherSjby John Williamson, Gent. 8vo,Lond. 1740. pleasing Science, &c., by Captain T. Williamson. 8vo, The Art of Angling, Rock and Sea Fishing, with a Natu- London, 1808. The Angler’s Manual, or concise Lesral History of River, Pond, and Sea Fish, by R. Brookes. sons of Experience, which the proficient in the delightful 8vo, Lond. 1740. Of this treatise there have been various recreation of Angling will not despise, and the Learners reprints, at different periods, up to the year 1807. Ang- will find the advantage of practising; containing useful ling, a Poem. 12mo, Lond. 1741, 2d edit. The Art of Instructions on every approved method of Angling, and Angling improved in all its Parts, especially Fly-fishing, particularly on the management of the Hand and Rodin by Richard Bowlker. 12mo, Worcester. Published some each method. 4to, Liverpool, 1808. The Fisher s Boy, time preceding the year 1759. There is a recent edition a Poem, by W. H. Ireland. 8vo, 1808. The Angler’s (1806) by Charles Bowlker, Ludlow. The Angler’s Ma- Manual, or concise Lessons of Experience, &c. 8vo, 1809. gazine, or Necessary and Delightful Store House ; where- Practical Observations on Angling in the River Trent. in every thing proper to be known relating to his art is 12mo, 1812. Daniel’s Rural Sports. Royal 8vo, 1812. digested in such a method as to assist his knowledge and Howitt’s Foreign Field Sports, Fisheries, &c. 4to, 1814. practice upon bare inspection; being the completest The Secrets of Angling, by J. D. (Davors); augmented manual ever published upon the subject, largely treating by W. Lawson. 8vo, 1814. The Angler’s Guide, by T. of all things relating to Fish and Fishing, and whereby F. Salter. 8vo, 1815. Art of Angling, by Charles Bowlthe angler may acquire his experience without the help ker. 12mo, 1815. The Fly-Fisher’s Guide, by G. C. of a master. By a Lover of that innocent and healthful Bainbridge. 8vo, 1816. W. H. Scot’s British Field diversion. 12mo, Lond. 1754. The Angler’s Eight Dia- Sports. Royal 8vo, 1818. The Angler’s Vade Mecum, logues, in Verse. 8vo, Lond. 1758. The Art of Angling, by W. Carroll. 12mo, 1818. Sportsman’s Repository, eight Dialogues, in Verse. 8vo. The Universal Angler, or by J. Scott, 1820. The Troller’s Guide, a new and comthat art Improved in all its Parts, especially in Fly-fishing. plete Practical Treatise on the Art of Trolling for Jack 8vo, Lond. 1766. The Complete Sportsman, or Country and Pike ; to which is added, the Best Method of Baiting Gentleman’s Recreation, by Thomas Fairfax. 8vo, London. and Laying Lines for large Eels. By T. F. Salter, author The Complete Fisherman, or Universal Angler. 8vo, of the Angler’s Guide. Small 8vo, Lond. 1820. InstrucLond. (2d edit.) Lond. 1778. The Angler’s Complete tions to Young Sportsmen, by Lieutenant-Colonel HawAssistant, being an Epitome of the whole Art of Angling. ker. Royal 8vo, 1824. Salmonia, or Days of Fly-Fishing. 4th edit. 4to, London. The True Art of Angling. 12mo, By an Angler (the late Sir Humphry Davy). 12mo, Lond. 1770. Translation of a Letter from the Hanover Lond. 1828. The preceding extensive list will probably suffice for Magazine, No. 23, March 21, 1763; giving an account of a method to breed fish to advantage. 8vo, Lond. 1778. the instruction and guidance of the most studious angler. The Angler’s Museum, or the whole Art of Float and Fly Those who are curious in regard to bibliographical deFishing, by Thomas Shirley. 12mo, Lond. 1784. The tails concerning the different editions of the earlier works Fisherman, or Art of Angling made Easy, by Guiniad may consult a Catalogue of Books on Angling, 8vo, 1811, Charfey, Esq. 8vo, London. The North Country Ang- published by Mr Ellis of the British Museum, and ori(t.) ler, or the Art of Angling as practised in the Northern ginally printed in the British Bibliographer, Counties of England. 8vo, Lond. 1786. A Concise Treatise on the Art of Angling, by Thomas Best, Gent. 8vo, Explanation of Plate XLVLond. 1787. Of this work there have been published many editions, of which the 9th is dated 1810. An Essay on the Right of Angling in the River Thames, and in all the Fig. 1. Salmon-fly for spring. Fig. 17. Ant fly. 18. Hawthorn fly. 2. Ditto ditto. other public Navigable Rivers. 8vo, Reading. A Letter 19. Minnow-tackle. 3. Ditto ditto. to a Proprietor of a Fishery in the River Thames; in 20. Gorge hook andbait* 4. Ditto for summer. which an attempt is made to show in whom the right of ing-needle. 5. Ditto ditto. Fishing in public streams now resides. 2d edit. 8vo, 21. Dead-snap with four 6. Ditto for spring. Reading, 1787. The Natural History of Fishes and Serhooks. 7. May fly. pents, by R. Brookes; to which is added, an Appendix, 22. Dead-snap with two 8. Red-brown fly. containing the whole Art of Float and Fly Fishing. 8vo, hooks, baited. 9. Green-drake fly. Lond. 1790. The Young Angler’s Pocket Companion, 23. Live bait double 10. Ditto. by Ralph Cole, Gent. 12mo, Lond. 1795. The Modern hook, baited. 11. Dun cut fly. Angler, being a practical Treatise on the Art of Fishing, 24. Gorge hook, baited. 12.1 Minnow-tackle &c., in a series of Letters to a Friend; by Robert Salter, 13. J hooks, baited. 25. Live bait singlehook, Esq. 12mo, London. Angling in all its branches reduced baited accordingto 14. Moth fly. to a complete Science, in three parts, by Samuel Taylor, two different me15. Palmer fly, Gent. 8vo, London, 1800. Practical Observations on thods. 16. Ditto. Angling in the River Trent. 8vo, Newark, 1801. Every

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to. ANGLO-CALVINISTS, a name given by some writers Ipujo the members of the church of England, as agreeing 'B pith the other Calvinists in most points except church fP’ 'overnment. AxGLO-Saxon, an appellation given to the language * % poken by the English Saxons, in contradistinction to the 11 rue Saxon, as well as to the modern English. ANGLUS, Thomas. See White, Thomas. ANGOLA, an extensive coast and territory of Western Vfrica, extending to the south oi the river Congo or 1R iaire. According to Degrandpre, the name is given to he whole coast, from Cape Lopez Gonsalvo, in 0. 44. to St f I Felipe de Benguela, in lat. 12. 14. S., a range of nearly 12 l|| agrees, or about 800 miles. The country strictly called 4 Angola, however, occupies only the middle part of this !;( § pace between Congo on the north and Benguela on the 5 outh, being watered by the large rivers Coanza and E)ando, to the former of which especially, the Portuguese n iaps assign a very long course through the interior; but 1,1 • either of these rivers has been ascended to any consi•1' | erable height. From the early Portuguese accounts, it would appear hat Angola or Ngola was a title assumed by the kings, !■ nd transmitted by one to another from the original T )under of their dynasty. The first Ngola was reported tySti y tradition to have been raised to distinction by the skill if i; dth which he exercised the occupation of a smith ; and til hough this mode of elevation may be somewhat foreign to It 3 our ideas, yet this trade is in its products so important tup .3 a warlike people, and in the infancy of art is attended w it dth such difficulty, that among the nations of Africa geerally it is held in peculiar honour. Ngola seems also top 3 have secured the attachment of his countrymen by vamf ious benefits, particularly by forming a store of grain, •om which, during periods of scarcity, he supplied their Kfl ecessities. Among his successors, several were fierce aiif; nd warlike; one, in particular, named Chilivagni Angola, ready extended the boundaries of the kingdom, making it p . comprehend Matamba and great part of Benguela. His uccessor Bandi Angola, however, being hard pressed 1 y the Giagas, a fierce and wandering tribe from the ill iterior, applied for aid to the king of Congo, and was n ^ ided by a body of Portuguese, who were then established in | i that territory. Through their valour and discipline i iandi was enabled to repel the invaders, and was thus iif iduced for some time to lavish on the strangers the li lighest honours. Becoming, however, jealous of their Pp ower, and perhaps disgusted with their haughty deporti| lent, he formed a scheme to cut them off, which they scaped only partially, and by a very hasty flight. Retil li ning to Portugal, they recommended very strongly Anw ola as a theatre both of commerce and conquest,—an n| tlvice highly accordant with the enterprising and ambious views by which that court was then actuated. Ihe river Congo had in 1484 been discovered, and in ; ime degree explored, by Diego Cam ; but his successors, i artholomew Diaz and Vasco de Gama, when sailing J long the coast to the southward, were solely intent on ' B 'aching and passing the dangerous cape which formed l ie utmost boundary of the African continent. After the ilendid discoveries and settlements attempted to be •rmed on the coast of India, the Almeidas and the Alaquerques pushed onwards to that region without allow*g themselves to be detained by undertaking any settleicnts on this barbarous coast. The king, however, lout the middle of the 16th century, sent out an armaicnt under Paulo de Diaz, a descendant of Bartholoicvv, constituting him viceroy of all the territories which e should conquer in this part of Africa. Diaz landed, K est ablished the Portuguese headquarters at a place

A N G which he called Loando St Paul, near the mouth of the Coanza; then proceeded with an armament up that river, and erected a fort on its banks, whence his troops began to spread over the surrounding country. The king, unable to brook such rivals to his power, assembled an army, which, with absurd exaggeration, is represented as exceeding 100,000 men. It was probalbly, indeed, much superior in numbers to the handful which the Portuguese could oppose to it; but such was their superiority in arms and discipline, that both the king, and his son, who soon succeeded him, were beaten in successive encounters. At length there arrived, as ambassadress at the camp of the Portuguese, no less a person than the king’s sister, Zingha Bandi, whose manners and address struck them with surprise and a sort of admiration. They relate, that on being introduced to Don John, who had succeeded to the rank of viceroy, and seeing no chair provided for her, without making any complaint, she caused her attendant to bend down on her hands and knees, and made use of her back as a seat. A demand being made of vassalage and tribute, she rejected it with indignation; and it was finally agreed that both parties should remain in their present position, and a mutual exchange of prisoners take place,—terms which leave much room to doubt if the successes of the Portuguese were so decided as they chose to represent. Zingha, on the whole highly pleased with her reception, remained with them a considerable time, during which she became a convert to Christianity, and finally parted on the most friendly terms. The Portuguese were not long in receiving very unfavourable tidings of their new convert. By the murder of her brother and his son, she paved her way to the sovereignty; and then began, equally with her predecessors, to feel deep dissatisfaction at the great extent of valuable territory possessed by this foreign nation. Unable to hope for its recovery by fair means, she formed alliances with the neighbouring states, and even with the ferocious and formerly hostile tribe of Giagas; after which she commenced war, and for many years carried it on with the utmost fury, putting to death, amid the most cruel tortures, all Europeans who fell into her hands. The Portuguese boast of their numerous victories over Zingha; yet admit that they were often very hard pressed, and had at one time their whole force cooped up and closely besieged on an island in the Coanza. They were at the same time involved in war with the Dutch, who in 1641 took their principal settlement of St Paul de Loando, which was recovered, however, by an expedition sent thither on the 15th August 1648. As Zingha rejected all terms of peace which did not include the entire restoration of the conquered country, the Portuguese endeavoured to set up in opposition to her two successive members of the royal family, whom they called John I. and II.; but these phantom monarchs never enjoyed any weight with the people in general. At length the queen, having attained to an advanced age, being no longer seconded by the Dutch, and finding all her efforts to expel the Portuguese abortive, listened to overtures of peace. She indignantly rejected any demand of homage, or of the most trifling tribute; and the treaty was concluded altogether on equal terms, except that she paid a high ransom for one of her sisters, who had fallen into the hands of the Portuguese. Permission was then obtained to send missionaries to her coast, who persuaded her to resume the profession of Christianity, which she had renounced during her long period of enmity; and, on the 15th July 1662, her union with the church of Rome was celebrated with extraordinary pomp. Zingha died at the age of eighty, and the crown then devolved on her sister’s husband Mona Zingha, who com-

152 A N G Angola, menced a violent war against the Europeans, which was in a few years terminated by his death. Since that time the affairs of the Portuguese have been involved in that mystery which they studiously throw over all their colonial transactions ; but it is not believed that they now occupy more than a very limited range of territory around their ports of St Paul de Loando and St Phelipe de. Benguela, which they maintain for the purpose of carrying on the slave-trade. The whole of this coast, according to Degrandpre, to whom we are indebted for the only recent account of. it, has been singularly favoured by nature. 1 he soil consists generally of a rich black loam, fitted for yielding.in the utmost luxuriance all the productions of tropical climates. In its present uncultivated state, it is covered with dense and varied vegetation. The forests reach to the top of the hills, and their trunks are often washed by the waves. This vegetation bears generally the same character as in other parts of tropical Africa. Some of the trees, under the influence of heat and moisture on a rich soil, arrive at the most extraordinary dimensions. Mention is made of the mapou, which seems to be the same species with the calabash of Adanson, and whose trunk it has required a boat’s crew, with arms extended, to embrace. This huge production of nature is unfortunately incapable of being applied to any use whatever : the wood, moist and spongy, is fitted neither for carpentry nor even fuel; the fruit is small and unpalatable ; the foliage too scanty to afford any grateful shade. On the other hand, the family of the palms are profusely distributed, and minister to the most important uses of human life. The cocoa-palm, in particular, serves almost every economical purpose.. Its juices afford both food and drink ; its wood is hard and durable ; its filaments form strong ropes; the leaves afford a roofing which resists the rain ; even the rind of the fruit is made into vessels for domestic purposes. The datepalm exists, but the soil is too moist to produce it in abundance. The culinary vegetables of Europe, when planted, grow to an extraordinary size, but soon degenerate in a soil which appears foreign to their nature. Cultivation is confined to small spots resembling gardens, in the immediate vicinity of the towns and villages, leaving all the open country in a state of nature. Its efforts are chiefly bestowed on the manioc, plantations of which surround all the villages; and the root, ground down by a species of mill, and then dried in little furnaces, affords the bread generally used in the country. The animal races are numerous, all wild, and of the same species which generally prevail throughout Africa. Elephants are less numerous than in some other quarters; but hyaenas, ounces, and tiger-cats people the forests; and there are all the various species of antelope. Apes and monkeys of various and often peculiar species fill all the woods; and some are distinguished by a remarkable share of intelligence. It seems chiefly in this quarter of the continent that the orang-outang, called by the natives kimpezey, sometimes, though rarely, makes his appearance. Degrandpre saw one on board a slave-vessel four feet two inches high, of a mixed red and black colour, and which seemed almost to make an approach to the intellect as well as the form of humanity. It assisted the sailors in drawing the ropes, and was employed to heat the oven, giving notice to the baker exactly at the time when it was fit to receive the bread. Here also are found in great numbers those remarkable insects, the termites or white ants, with their conical structures raised three feet from the ground, and which often destroy in a short time the slight habitations of the natives, with every thing they contain. The inhabitants of this coast rank below those of the rest of the continent, in not having succeeded in

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taming any description of domestic animals. They have W neither horses, asses, oxen, nor sheep, of which last two'J [ species such large herds are in the possession of the most ! barbarous among the other African tribes. The Portuguese reared them in great numbers round their settlement of Loando, whence individuals occasionally strayed into the bordering districts; but no care having been taken to preserve them, they were soon either killed by the natives, or devoured by wild beasts. The mineral character of this region seems not without interest, though very little explored. Little scope is indeed afforded for geological observation, the surface being everywhere covered with a deep stratum of clay, from beneath which, even on the highest hills, no trace of rock is discoverable; nor have petrifactions or marine remains been anywhere observed. The metallic products, however, are supposed to be of importance, though neither examined nor turned to account. The indications of iron are very widely diffused; but the Angolans are supplied by European powers with all they require. Copper, to the utmost extent of their wants, is found on the surface of the ground. The Portuguese are said to work goldmines of considerable value in the vicinity of Loando; but the nature and amount of these is studiously concealed, and perhaps exaggerated. The nations on the coast of Angola seem to rank lower in the scale of improvement than almost any other native African race, except the Hottentots. Their habitations are formed merely of straw, or rather dried leafy plants, cemented by a frame-work of wooden stakes. Containing no aperture for the admission of light, they form not so properly houses, as dark dens for sleeping in, while the tenants spend the clay and receive company in an open space in front, covered with a slight roof. The abodes of the grandees are in no respect superior, except that they consist of a number of these hovels grouped together, and inclosed by a hedge or earthen wall. A village or town consists merely of a cluster of these inclosures, separated by narrow and winding footpaths, and leaving extensive open spaces, which serve for markets or for scenes of recreation. Loango, which seems to be the largest native town, though four leagues in circuit, is not supposed to contain above 15,000 inhabitants. A town in this country at a little distance resembles a wood, from the multitude of trees with which it is filled; but on a near approach its nature is soon detected by the fetid odour exhaling from its precincts. The people on this coast, like most rude nations in a tropical climate, wear scarcely any clothes, yet studiously load their persons with ornaments. Even the rich wear only a cotton cloth round the middle, hanging down to the knee ; but their legs and arms are profusely covered with rings of iron or copper, while strings of beads or coral are fastened round the neck, or hang down the breast. Peculiar pride is felt when they can procure a cast-off European suit, covered with gaudy colours and tarnished embroidery. This they display in triumph for several days, when, becoming tired, they bestow it on one of their inferiors. The natives here, like other unenlightened tribes, are deeply addicted to superstition; and it is remarked as a singular circumstance, that their idols do not present at all the negro visage, but one more nearly approaching to the European. From the slight description that is given, we should suspect the face to be Copt; nor does it seem improbable that the superstitions of Egypt may have found their way throughout the continent. The priests pretend to bestow rain, favourable winds, and various other blessings, upon those who have propitiated them by libera gifts. Much use is made in criminal cases, of what our

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A N G 153 ancestors called “ the judgments of God.” The accused causewayed with large blocks of granite, but have no Angot II is made to swallow poison, to plunge into water, or to take footpaths. Its position is lofty and imposing, surrounded by mountains, with numerous gardens which yield the in his hand burning coals, and, unless he escapes unhurt ';from these trials, is at once pronounced guilty. It seems finest fruits. The city was celebrated in the ancient reasonably concluded, that the priests who administer world for its fine edifices; and it still contains the remains these tests contrive to secure immunity to their favourites, of its former, grandeur. In its streets are to be seen pilor to those who bestow upon them liberal donations. M. lars, some of porphyry, and jasper, and fine marbles. The Deorandpre considers it as marvellous that such a coin- city has been encompassed by a substantial wall, appacidence should exist between the customs of Africa and rently double in some places, formed of durable stone. those of Europe during the middle ages ; but both are de- Some of the gates exhibit Greek inscriptions, and the rived from the same principle in human nature; and in- masonry is intermixed with pillars, architraves, capitals, and deed nothing can appear more probable to the uncultivat- other ancient ornaments. The vestiges of an amphitheatre ed mind, which has made little observation on the actual are still to be seen, and the ruins of a magnificent coria or course of nature, than the idea that a special interposi- senate-house, of Corinthian architecture, with inscriptions complimentary to Augustus, in whose reign Angora was tion will take place in favour of innocence. The government of these countries seems established built. The inhabitants are distinguished in Natolia for oh a species of feudal polity. Each towm or village has a their polished manners: they consist of Mahometans sovereign of its own, in whose family the dignity is here- and Christians, there being 9000 of the latter, who are ditary; but a number of these princes pay homage and subjected to grievous tyranny and exactions from the forperform certain services to a general head of the nation. mer. The Christians have a Greek and an Arminian Most of the great capitals are situated at some distance archbishop, and seven churches. Although the trade and in the interior. The succession is transmitted exclusively population of this place have declined, a great quantity in the female line. The son of a prince has no dignity of yarn, Angora stuffs, and shawls, are still manufactured. above the rest of the nation. The son of a princess alone The shawls, which rival those of Cashmere, are fabricatis a prince by birth, or capable of succeeding to the crown. ed from the hair of the Angora goat, which is of a fine This is a custom not without example in rude states; and silken texture. The soil of the adjacent territory is enthe dissolute manners prevalent and sanctioned in this tirely employed in rearing these animals; and the city is country seem to afford otherwise no security that the off- supplied with grain from a distance. This city was conspring will be of royal blood. stituted the capital of Galatia by Nero. It was taken by The only employment carried on with any activity the Saracens, and afterwards by Tamerlane in 1402, after throughout these countries seems to be the trade in slaves. the battle in which Bajazet was overthrown. The popuThe personage next in dignity to the sovereign is the lation, which was formerly 80,000, does not now exceed Masook, who conducts all the royal sales, levies the du- 20,000. 212 miles E. S. E. of Constantinople. Long. 33. ties, and regulates all the transactions of the private mer- 18. E. Lat. 40. 4. N. chants. The engagement entered into by Portugal not ANGOT, a considerable province in the southern part to practise this odious traffic to the north of the line of the kingdom of Abyssinia, which Alvarez, who visited does not extend to this coast, where it appears to be car- it in the sixteenth century, describes as an extremely ried on still on an immense scale. The slaves imported rich and beautiful territory. It has not since been reachinto Brazil in the year 1828 are said to have amounted to ed by any European traveller, and is entirely in the pos46,000, who, with the exception of 3000 or 4000 from session of the Galla, who have overrun all the central Mosambique, must all have been drawn from Angola. St provinces of Abyssinia. The tribe now in possession of Paul de Loando is supposed by Malte-Brun to contain Angot is called the Betzuma Galla. 3000 white inhabitants, besides a much greater number ANGOU, a small province in the kingdom of Congo, of negroes. An abundant supply of provisions is drawn of which, nearly two centuries ago, it rendered itself indefrom the surrounding country, but the water is bad. The pendent. It extends along the northern bank of the Congo Portuguese hold also St Phelipe de Benguela. or Zaire, from its junction with the sea upwards. A great Vessels destined for the coast of Angola, after reaching proportion of the surface is covered with forests and Cape Verde, have two routes by which they may proceed. swamps: cultivation has made little progress, and the po1 hey may take the short route by steering directly along pulation is thin. Captain Tuckey’s expedition must have the African coast, through the Gulf of Benin. If favoured sailed along the coast of Angou, though it did not recogby winds and currents, they may make this voyage very nise it under that name, which was given by the old Porspeedily; but in the event of these circumstances proving tuguese writers. Bomangoi, in the interior, is stated to adverse, they are liable to great detention; and the na- be the capital; but Cabenda, near the mouth of the Zaire, vigation has even occupied eleven months. The other, is the seat of trade, which consists chiefly in slaves, and called the long route, is performed by proceeding due was considerable previous to the prohibition of that trafsouth, and even south-west, till they pass the 20th degree fic by the British government. See Congo. ot latitude, when a favourable wind and tide carries them ANGOULEME, an arrondissement in the department directly eastward to the African coast. This route neces- of the Charente in France, extending over 556 square sarily occupies a considerable time; but it is liable to no miles, or 355,840 acres. It is divided into nine cantons, vicissitude, and the period may be calculated almost to a and these again into 144 communes, with 118,871 inhabiday. tants. The chief city, of the same name, contains 2101 ANGON, in the ancient military art, a kind of javelin houses, 15,011 inhabitants, a cathedral, an hospital, and used by the^ French. They darted it at a considerable seven churches. distance. I he iron head of this weapon resembled a ANGOUMOIS, formerly a province of France, now a eur-de-luce. It is the opinion of some writers that the district, bounded on the north by Poitou, on the east by aims of France are not fleurs-de-luce, but the iron point Limosin and Marche, on the south by Perigord, and on the west by Saintonge. Through this province run the ° A NGORA, \ ?n^on orAngura, jave^n °fortheAnkora, ancient French. a city of Asia in rivers Touvre and Charente. This last is full of excelnatoha, the ancient Ancyra, situated on a stream called lent fish ; and though it often overflows its banks, it is so t a una. It is large and neatly built, and its streets are far from doing any damage, that it greatly enriches the J vol. in. v

154 Angra II AnhaltBernburg.

A N H soil. The Touvre is full of trouts. The air is generally warmer than at Paris, though the country is hilly, 'live soil produces plenty of wheat, rye, oats, Spanish corn, saffron, grapes, and all sorts of fruits. Here are several iron mines, which yield a very good sort of iron. ANGRA, a city of Tercera, one of the Azores; the capital, not only of that island, but of all the group, and the residence of the governor. It is seated on the southern shore, and the harbour is the only tolerable one in the whole island. It is in the form of a crescent, the extremities of which are defended by two high rocks, that run so far into the sea as to render the entrance narrow, and easily covered by the batteries on each side. From this harbour the town is said to derive its name, the word Angra signifying a creek, bay, or station for ships. Here ships may ride in great safety during the summer; but as soon as the winter begins, the storms are so furious, that the only safety is in putting to sea with all possible expedition. Happily these storms are preceded by infallible signs, with which experience has made the inhabitants perfectly acquainted. The town is well built and populous, and forms the see of a bishop, under the jurisdiction of the archbishop of Lisbon. It contains five parishes, a cathedral, four monasteries, as many nunneries, besides a bishop’s court, which extends its jurisdiction over all the Azores. The fortifications are strong, but not in good repair. At Angra are kept the royal magazines for anchors, cables, sails, and other stores for the royal navy, and occasionally for merchant vessels in great distress. All maritime affairs are under the inspection of an officer, Desembergrador, who has subordinate officers and pilots for conducting ships into the harbour, or to proper watering places. The English, French, and Dutch, have each a consul residing at Angra, though the commerce of any of these nations with the Azores is very inconsiderable. Long. 27. 14. W. Lat. 38. 38. N. ANGRI, a town with 4426 inhabitants, in the province of Principato Citeriore, in the kingdom of Naples. ANGUILLIFORM, an appellation given by zoologists, not only to the different species of eels, but to other animals resembling them in shape. ANGUINUM Ovum, a fabulous kind of egg, said to be produced by the saliva of a cluster of serpents, and possessed of certain magical virtues. The superstition in respect to these was very prevalent among the ancient Britons, and there still remains a strong tradition of it in Wales. This wondrous egg seems to be nothing more than a bead of glass, used by the Druids as a charm to impose on the vulgar, whom they taught to believe that the possessor would be fortunate in all his attempts, and that it would gain the favour of the great. ANGUS, a district of the county of Forfar, in Scotland. It was an earldom belonging to the Douglases, now extinct. ANGUSTICLAVIA, in Raman Antiquity, a tunica embroidered with little purple studs. It was worn by the Roman knights, as the laticlavia was by the senators. ANHALT-BERNBURG, one of those small independent sovereignties still left in Germany, and one of the monuments of its ancient state. The sovereign bears the title of duke. His territories are much scattered between the Hartz forest and the rivers Saale and Elbe. Their whole extent is nearly 242 square miles, or 154,880 English acres. It is divided into two parts, each of which is denominated a duchy. The upper duchy lies on the side and at the foot of the Hartz Mountains, and, though hilly and woody, has in it some beautiful valleys. The lower duchy, on the Elbe, is a flat marshy district, but the part which touches the Saale is dry and healthy. In the lower duchy the climate is temperate and mild> but in

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the upper it is cold and raw, the harvests are late, and the ^ fruits rarely come to perfect ripeness. The principal pro- I, 1 ducts are corn, flax, rapeseed, tobacco, garden fruits, and i some wine. The country abounds with game, and the ^ lakes and rivers with fish. There are some mines, which J)' I yield silver, copper, iron, sulphur, alum, and gypsum. The inhabitants in 1817 were 37,046, in 7 cities, 54 villages, and 33 hamlets, and are all of the Protestant profession. The chief employment is agriculture, the next is mining, and preparing the metals; but some little woollen cloth and paper are manufactured. The sovereign rules without limitation. The revenue of the state is about L.45,000 annually, of which L.9000 is derived from the royalties of the forests and mines. The remainder is chiefly derived from the patrimonial lands of the prince, and a part from taxes imposed on the subjects, who are mostly in poor circumstances. The military force required for the contingent is 370 men, of whom 120 are kept up, but the landsturm, a kind of militia, including every man between 20 and 30, amounts to 7000, only 30 of whomGhave fire-arms. ( -) ANHALT-DESSAU, an independent sovereignty in Germany, with the title of duchy. It takes the first name from the family that governs it, and the second from the chief place in the territory. The greater part lies in a compact manner on the left bank of the Elbe, and on both sides of the Mulde. The other parts are scattered and separated from each other by the dominions of other princes. It is in general a level country, and the compact part on the left bank of the Elbe is cultivated with great care, and yields abundant produce; and though, in the scattered parts on the right bank of that river, there are some heaths and a poorer soil, yet the whole produces sufficient necessaries for its dense population. The whole duchy is divided into 15 amts or bailiwicks. Its extent is 363 square miles, or 232,320 English acres. The number of inhabitants in 1817 amounted to 52,947, living in 8 cities, 2 markettowns, and 115 villages and hamlets. The almost exclusive employment is husbandry, except that the females spin both linen and woollen yarn. All kinds of grain are raised. Flax, rapeseed and its oil, hops, madder, fruit, especially apples, wood, butter, cheese, game, and fish, are conveyed to the great markets of Berlin and Leipsic, and constitute the external trade. With the exception of 1200 Jews and two Catholic congregations, the whole of the inhabitants are Protestants, with 32 reformed and 21 Lutheran churches. The revenue of the state amounts to L.70,000 annually, of which the personal domains of the duke produce L.20,000; the remainder arises from his feudal dues, and from some moderate taxes; It has no debt, and is the most favoured part of Germany. Though it suffered dreadfully by the war in the year 1813, it was enabled very speedily to recover from its losses, by the productive qualities of its soil, and the parsimonious industry of its cultivators. The whole military force is nominally 600 men, but scarcely an eighth are mustered at anyG one time. - yiov’S n ( -) ANHALT-KOTHEN, an independent duchy in Germany. It consists of four fragments, intermingled with the territories of surrounding princes. The most compact portion are the three bailiwicks around the capital. The duchy is on both sides of the river Elbe, though only one of its towns, Roslau, comes in contact with that stream, the others reaching it by the rivers Ziethe, the Saale, the Ruthe, or the Wipper. The land is generally a level pla®j in some parts with a sandy soil, but for the most part cultivated, especially on the left side of the Elbe, and very productive. The extent of the dominion is 324 square miles, or 140,800 acres. It is divided into nine amts or bailiwicks, and comprehends four;cities, one market-town,

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and 106 villages and hamlets. The inhabitants in 1817 were 32,454, nearly all Protestants, the Lutherans having 19, and the reformed 28 churches. Husbandry is almost the exclusive occupation, and there is no other trade than that of exchanging its surplus productions for foreign commodities. The chief of that surplus consists of corn, wool, and fruit, especially apples, with which the duchy supplies Berlin to a great extent. The revenue amounts to about L.23,000 sterling, of which the ducal patrimony in Silesia forms L.9000. The state has a debt which in 1816 amounted to L.160,000; but, by means of a sinking fund, which was then established, it has been regularly diminishing. There are no military beyond a small bodyguard. A militia is established, but not called out. The duke, besides this land, is also in possession of the principality of Plesse, in the Prussian province of Silesia, and, in right of it, is a member of the states of that country, (g.) ANHOLT, a Danish island in the Cattegat, 32 miles north-east of Greenae, and 36 south-west from Lassoe. It is a barren spot, scarcely affording subsistence to 100 inhabitants, who from their language, which is Erse mixed with a few Danish words, are supposed to be emigrants from the Highlands of Scotland. Their chief pursuit is fishing. It is surrounded by dangerous banks of sand, for which reason a light-house is built on it, the occupation of which was a subject of contest with England during the war. It is in lat. 56. 32. 2. N. and long. 11. 49. 17. E. ANJAR, a fortified town of Hindostan, and capital of a district of the same name, in the province of Cutch, which was ceded to the British government in 1816. The country is dry and sandy, and depends entirely on irriga-

A N I 155 tion by means of wells, the expense of sinking which is Anjengo great. The town is situated nearly 10 miles from the nil.11 a gulf of Cutch. In 1816 it surrendered to the British. T^ ? V It suffered severely from an earthquake in 1819, about 3000 houses being either destroyed or rendered uninhabitable, and 165 persons having lost their lives; while the other half of the town, situated on low rocky ridges, suffered comparatively nothing. In 1820 the population was estimated at 10,000. The port named Toonea is fronted by a creek from the gulf. Long. 70. 11. E. Lat. 23. 3. N. ANIELLO. See Massaniello. ANJENGO, a small seaport town and fortress of Hindostan, in Travancore, nearly encircled by a deep and broad river, at the mouth of which it is situated. The fort was built by the English in 1684, and it was retained till 1813, when the factory was abolished on account of the useless expense attending it. Anjengo is infested with snakes, scorpions, and centipedes; those animals finding shelter in the matted leaves of the cocoa-tree, with which the houses are mostly thatched. Here and at Cochin are manufactured, of the fibres of the Lucadine cocoa-nut, the best coir cables on the Malabar coast. The exports are pepper, coarse piece goods, coir, and some drugs. ANIMAL. See Animal Kingdom. Animal-Flower, a name applied to certain species of the genus Actinia, remarkable for the brilliant colours which ornament their tentacula, and which produce an appearance resembling the variegated corolla of a plant. The name is of vicious construction, and is falling into disuse. See Zoophytes.

ANIMAL KINGDOM. We embrace the earliest opportunity afforded by our alphabetical arrangement to present a few introductory observations in illustration of a science unrivalled in interest, and not greatly surpassed in importance by any department of human knowledge. Zoology, or the science which treats of the nature and history of animals (from odies that increase of bulk which inorganic or disorganzed substances can only attain through the medium of an dfinity of particles, or by mechanical aggregation. The unctions of nutrition, however, as manifested in the aninal and vegetable kingdoms, are very differently perform•d in each, fixed for ever to the soil which gave them >11 th, plants are rendered incapable of* searching after lounshment by a voluntary change of place, but derive len chief support from roots, the pores of which absorb ic nutritive portions from the humid soil, and by a uniorin and continuous action, which is only interrupted by m absence of the necessary moisture. The generality of aninals, on the contrary, being possessed of the power of ocomotion, are also endowed with the capacity of transxji ting with themselves a supply of necessary nourishiitnt, for which purpose they are provided with an inciua cavity or stomach, the inward surfaces of which ire provided with absorbing pores, which Boerhaave ex•ressive y named internal roots. “ The magnitude of this the facts of nature. “ It is certain by revelation,” says constitutes them ; for a being which existed for ever would Buffon, “ that all creatures have equally participated in not be a species. “ Species then is an abstract and gethe favours of creation; that the first two of each species neral term, the meaning of which can only be determined were formed by the hands of the Creator; and we ought by considering nature in the succession of time, and in to believe that they were then nearly such as they appear the constant destruction and renewal of beings;” and it at present in their descendants. We must also consider, is by comparing the present state of nature with the past, that although nature proceeds by gradual, and frequently and actual individuals with their predecessors in kind, by imperceptible degrees, the intervals are not always the that we come to attain a clear idea of what is called spesame. The more exalted the species, the fewer they are cies ; for a comparison of the number or resemblance of in number; and the shades by which they are separated individuals is only an accessory idea, and frequently indeare more conspicuous. The smaller species, on the con- pendent of the first. The ass resembles the horse more trary, are very numerous, and have more affinity to each than the barbet the greyhound; yet the latter are but one other, so that we are the more tempted to confound them species, since they produce a fertile progeny; but the together in the same family. But we should not forget horse and the ass are certainly of different species, “ since that these families are our own works; that we have they produce together vicious and unfertile young.” It is indeed difficult to define the term species, othermade them for the ease of our memories; and that if we cannot comprehend the real relations of all beings, it is wise than as an assemblage of individuals descended from ourselves, not nature, that are in fault; for she in truth common parents, which bear as great a resemblance to knows not our pretended families, and recognises indivi- them as they do to each other. Species then are distinguished by fixed forms, which, though to a certain extent duals alone.” Omnipotence, the first, the greatest, and indeed the alterable, and for a limited time, by external or accidental only truly creative powder, formed the species of animals ; causes, are yet handed down unimpaired from generation and the influence of man and of physical agents has pro- to generation ; and although certain species seem to have duced the varieties. But it is only superficial characters disappeared entirely from the earth, in consequence of the which either the one or the other of these ulterior causes great natural catastrophes which have taken place in anhas the power of modifying. The basis of organization, cient times, and the local distribution of many still existor real specific mould, remains unalterable, though a ing races has been modified or changed by the influence thousand circumstances constantly tend to produce varia- of man no less than by the accidents of nature, there is no tions in the external forms. Of these circumstances the reason to believe that any one species has sprung from the most powerful is no doubt climate; under which name it gradual alteration of another, or that the circumstances is necessary to comprehend the differences of local situa- under which an individual may have been at first casually tion and temperature, the nature of the soil and its pro- placed were sufficient to develope both form and function, ductions. It is climate, in the first place, which chiefly de- without an impress from a higher and more powerful hand, termines the geographical position of animals, and thus by which it was fitted to perform its part (pre-ordained) commences the action of the modifying powers. The na- in the great theatre of the world. ture of their food is also highly influential; and as it deAnimals which by their union produce^/erft’/e individuals, pends so immediately on the qualities of temperature and are generally reputed of the same species. This law of soil, the climate is still the modifying cause. If the same nature, as it was formerly called, having been found to animals usually accompany the same vegetables, it is be- admit of certain though rare exceptions, is not now so cause the constitution of both demands similar influences, broadly insisted on as a test of specific identity as it was ' and because through each other they are both dependent in preceding times. But it appears, from the result of nuupon the same support. Certain animals are leagued with merous experiments, that the generality of animals procertain plants, and these again with certain soils and cli- duced from a cross between even the most nearly allied mates ; and a careful observance of these mutual depend- species, are either altogether incapable of reproduction, encies exhibits one of the finest and most beautiful har- or fertile in so imperfect a degree, that their descendants monies of nature. This, howrever, is not the place in speedily become entirely sterile. It has been said that which to discuss the intricate and important subject of birds alone were unsubjected to this rule, and that hence the geographical distribution of animals. has arisen the wonderful variety which that beautiful class Certain original forms have been continued since the exhibits. There is no doubt of the occasional fertility of creation ot organized beings, and all the individuals which their hybrids, as in the case of those mule birds produced represent or belong to one of these forms constitute what between the goldfinch and canary ; but as it has not been is called a species. The slighter differences which occa- proved that such unions of distinct kinds ever take place sionally prevail among the individuals themselves, inde- when uncontrolled by the depraving influence of domestipendent ot the customary distinctions of age and sex, are cation, there is no reason to attribute the origin of any of railed varieties. Such varieties are seldom permanent, those species or varieties which are known to exist in a nid are usually lost by the progeny re-assuming the ordi- wild state to any such improbable alliance. mry and characteristic form or colour, except in some It is known that a productive union may take place beemarkable instances, such as the horse, dog, and other tween animals of a different species, provided such species ong-domesticated species, of which man has so thorough- belong to what naturalists call the same natural family. y altered the original condition, as to have impressed Thus the ass and the mare, or the horse and the female lem with a second and more pliant nature. An indivi- ass, produce the well-known animals called mules: the ' I ’ according to Buffon, is a separate detached being, zebra also produces both with the horse and the ass; but i . nothing in common with other beings, excepting in order to deceive the female zebra, it is said to be neces. )at it resembles, or rather differs from them. All simi- sary to paint the hides of the former with those bizarre ai individuals which exist on the earth are considered as colours which adorn her accustomed mate.1 It is probable, 1

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ANIMAL KINGDOM. 162 Animal however, that all these unions are so far forced and unnatu- duction, there has existed some minute or imperceptible a Kingdom. ral, that they never take place except through the influence germs, which deceive us by their sudden development Kin ,1 of man, when domestication, and the numerous changes when placed under favourable circumstances. “ In fact,”^ consequent upon it, have altered or impaired their natui'al says Cuvier, “ however feeble and minute the parts of an /f instincts; for it has been observed that, however educa- embryo or the seed of a plant may be at the moment we tion may perfect certain special qualities, which man has are first capable of perceiving them, they then enjoy a the art to render subservient to his own convenience, yet real life, and possess the germ of all the phenomena which a more extended view of the effects of domestication will that life may afterwards develope. These observations, convince us, that it is almost always to the disadvantage extended to all the classes of living bodies, lead to this geof their natural capacities that the brute creation are neral fact, that there are none of those bodies which have not heretofore formed part of a body similar to itself, from made to borrow the mask of human intelligence. Buffon appears to have adopted from Ray a rule which which it has been detached.” “ It is from them (their many now regard as inaccurate and artificial, but which he parents) they have received the vital impulse ; and hence made use of to determine the identity of animal species, it is evident that, in the actual state of things, life proviz. “ any two animals that can procreate together, and ceeds only from life, and that there exists no other, except whose issue can also procreate, are specifically the same.” that which has been transmitted from one living body to In this, however, it has been observed that he contradicts another by an uninterrupted succession.” “ Origin by ' himself by afterwards admitting that the sheep and goat generation, growth by nutrition, termination by death, are and common characteristics of all organized are of difl'erent species, at the same time that he asserts the general 1 that the he-goat and the ewe produce a mixed breed beings. ” At the same time it must be admitted, that the origin which continue fertile for ever. Dr John Hunter (a great authority) was also of opinion that the true distinction of many infusory and intestinal animals is sufficiently obbetween different species of animals must ultimately be scure. Of the latter class, one of the most extraordinary gathered from their incapacity of propagating with each is a monstrous worm, as it may be called, which at distant other an offspring capable of again continuing the kind. intervals, and in parts of the world far removed from each Thus the horse and ass beget a mule capable of copulation, other, has been found to inhabit the liver of the human but incapable of begetting or producing offspring. The acci- race. The means by which it is bred, or the circumstances dent of a mule breeding, according to the same authority, favourable to its production, are quite unknown; and some even if it were proved, would only show that as many per- of the most philosophical inquirers of the present day fect animals of true species and distinct sexes are incapable have been unable to account for its origin, otherwise than of breeding at all,—(thus showing that nature, even in her by supposing that the viscus called the liver becomes, greatest perfection, sometimes deviates from general prin- under certain circumstances, endowed with the power of . ciples),—so it may occasionally happen that a mule shall actually secreting a substance capable of assuming and breed from the circumstance of its being “ a monster re- presenting the phenomena of distinct animal existence, and which, prior to the period of its being observed, had specting mules.” The doctrine of equivocal generation has received no in fact become a specific animal;—at least its existence, support from any recent investigations. All that is known unlike that of mites, flies, &c. which so often misled the decidedly leads to the opposite conclusion ; and if certain ancient naturalists (though “in limo non ex limo” is Ovid’s mysterious or unaccountable phenomena have perplexed more accurate expression), cannot be accounted for in any the physiologist, the only legitimate deduction is, that he other way. “ There are,” Mr W. S. Macleay observes, in has met with something which he cannot comprehend; for his excellent and ingenious Horce Entomologies, “ many those aberrations (if such they really are) from the usual circumstances which might be adduced to support the laws of nature are not so much exceptions to the general belief that, whether from disease or other causes, there rule, as additional instances of effects in nature, the re- are periods when other parts of a body besides the ovagulating causes of which we are as yet incapable of de- rium may produce living germs, and demonstrate thus the monstrating. The rules of philosophizing lead us to reject polype nature of the cellular substance.” A polypus has been sometimes described as an animathe admission of more causes than are sufficient for the explanation of phenomena ; and if, for example, mites, and lized tube, capable of digestion, and possessed of a certain “ such small deer,” derived their origin solely from the power of motion and reproduction; and these few words caseous and other substances in which they are generally may be said to contain almost all that we know of its esfound, the sexual distinctions which prevail among other sential nature and attributes. As we advance in the scale animals would in them be unnecessary, and would not of creation, we find a more complicated system of organs, therefore be observable. But we know that distinct sexes with more varied powers of action, and a higher developdo exist among these minute creatures—that they propa- ment of those accommodating instincts which, though gate their kinds after the accustomed mode—and we hence circumscribed within certain impassable boundaries, yet fairly infer that fortuitous generation does not take place seem at times to form such an approach to reason, as to among them. May we not therefore conclude that the connect the unvarying mechanical actions of the most origin of those first observed is similar to that of the simple zoophytical tribes with the conscious self-regulatthousands which we afterwards see 'produced according to ing power which has its final and most perfect developthe usual process ? Nature does nothing in vain, and it is ment in the human race. The excellence of man, hownot consonant with her usual practice to suppose that she ever, physically considered, consists more in the balance would authorize two distinct modes of creation in the same of various powers than in any one bodily superiority; for animal, where one of these is evidently perfect and self- there is in fact no single sense in which he is not excelled sufficing. It may therefore be laid down as a general rule, by one or other of the brute creation. Materialists, who that all living beings proceed from others of a similar na- regard the intellectual superiority of man as the result ot ture, either by generation, offset, or some other means; hisphysical structure, must also, for the sake of consistency,e and that, in all instances of apparently spontaneous pro- maintain his excellence as a machine to be infinitely h ‘ 1

Lectures on Qomp. Amt. voi. i.

ANIMAL U1

ore that of every other’animal. But as his indubitable m superiority depends on something totally immaterial, which ,< tiirows him out of the group of animals, and makes him in insulated being,” there is the less necessity for either laturalists or metaphysical inquirers endeavouring to denonstrate the superexcellence of his physical condition. Vlan is in all cases “ wonderfully,” and in many cases < fearfully made;” but in the powers of sight, touch, heariv, and smell, he is greatly surpassed by many animals ; aid even in the sense of taste, in which his practice is nore varied and extensive, he is at least equalled by the Teat majority. It is indeed somewhat remarkable that lie last-named sense, the only one in regard to which the mman race can lay claim to the possession of equal excelence with the brutes that perish, should be the grossest md least intellectual of the whole. Although it is by no means strictly true that the brain, ■onsidered in relation to the size of the body, decreases as ve descend from man to the lower tribes, because in many mail birds, such as sparrows and finches, the brain is reatively much larger than in the human race, yet, exclude of some such exceptions, it may be asserted that that Important organ becomes less as we descend from mamniferous animals and birds, to reptiles, fishes, and other ower forms. Yet no very accurate conclusion can be deluced regarding the degrees of intelligence in different inimals, from the proportion which the quantity of brain iears to the mass of the whole body, particularly when we :ome to compare animals of the same class with each ither. It is in fact by no means easy to ascertain with :ccuracy what that proportion really is, because the weight if the brain is supposed to remain the same, while that if the animal varies according to its temporary condition, n this way only can we account for the contradictions rhich appear in the tabular views which have been given if these proportions by physiologists. Upon the whole, he smaller animals pertaining to the higher classes apiear to have proportionally the largest brain, though man s in this respect seldom surpassed. The proportional veight of the brain to the body of man varies from l-22d o l-35th part, that of the gibbon or long-armed ape is is 1 to 40, that of the young malbrouk (Simia Faunus) as l to 24, that of the fox as 1 to 205, that of the beaver as 1 to 290, that of the field-mouse as 1 to 31, that of the dephant as 1 to 500, that of the horse as 1 to 400, that >f the eagle as 1 to 160, that of the sparrow as 1 to 25, hat of the canary-bird as 1 to 14, that of the cock as 1 o 25, that of the goose as 1 to 360, that of the landortoise as 1 to 2240, and that of the sea-tortoise as 1 to >688. Soemmering, Ebell, Vicq-d’Azir, Gall, and Tiedemann, upposed that every thing depended on the volume of the irain. But as Button and Daubenton had proved that the sapajous have the brain proportionally larger than man, without surpassing their congeners in intelligence, it has >een maintained by others that the volume alone was not i condition of superiority. Now the Sapajous in question lave no convolutions to the brain, so that the surface of hat organ is represented by that of the interior of the iramum, and exceeds it in other cases in proportion as its olds are numerous and profound; and as there appears o be a constant relation among mammiferous animals beween the diminution of the cerebral surfaces and their ineffectual degradation, whilst no such relation can be traced ictween the degrees of degradation and the variations of he brain in respect to size, it has hence been inferred by >ome that the extent of surface, and not the volume of 1

KINGDOM. 163 the brain, ought to 1be regarded as co-relative with the in- Animal tellectual faculties. Kingdom. In proportion, however, as the superior portion called the brain decreases in size, the medullary matter appears to collect in other parts of the body, or in the cords which emanate from the brain; so that many animals with much smaller brains have nerves more voluminous in proportion to their bodies than those of man. This medullary substance, the medium of sensation^is, in the human race especially, collected into one principal mass as the engine of thought and reflection, the intellectual attributes by which man is characterized ; but it becomes dispersed in the inferior animals, or ramified over the whole body in the form of ganglions or nervous chords, without any preponderating superior brain. It is owing to this dispersion of the nervous system into these small separate centres in the polypus and other tribes, that almost every portion of the body, wdien separated from the rest, is capable of becoming a distinct animal, and of assuming an independent existence. In the lowest tribes of all, in which the nervous system has not yet been demonstrated, it probably consists of molecules of inconceivable minuteness, disseminated through the pulpy or gelatinous masses of which the bodies of many radiated and infusory animals are composed. Singular effects result from the dispersion of the brain into so many small and separate centres; and this class of phenomena also illustrates the analogy wrhich exists between the lower animals and the vegetable world. Among the superior creatures no reproduction takes place except of the fluids, and of whatever partakes of the nature of the epidermis. Injury is repaired and superficial parts renewed, but nothing resembling regeneration of important organs ever takes place. But it is otherwise with the inferior orders. The tentacula of the polypus and of many molluscous animals, the rays of the star-fish, the external members of the salamander, and the entire head, with the eyes and antennae of the snail, when cut off, are speedily renewed. There are also animals, such as the planaria, which reproduce by offsets after the manner of plants; and a polypus may be divided into many portions, each of which becomes perfect according to its kind;—thus in a manner realizing what the ancient poets have feigned regarding the hydi’a of the Lernean marshes. If the head of a mammiferous quadruped, or of a bird, is cut off, the consequences are of course fatal. But the most dreadful wounds that imagination can figure or cruelty inflict have scarcely any destructive influence on the vital functions of many of the inferior creatures. Riboud stuck different beetles through with pins, and cut and lacerated others in the severest manner, without greatly accelerating death. Leeuwenhoeck had a mite which lived eleven weeks transfixed on a point for microscopical investigation. Vaillant caught a locust at the Cape of Good Hope, and after excavating the intestines, he filled the abdomen with cotton, and stuck a stout pin through the thorax, yet the feet and antennae were in full play after the lapse of five months. In the beginning of November, Redi opened the scull of a land-tortoise, and removed the entire brain. A fleshy integument was observed to form over the opening, and the animal lived for six months. Spallanzani cut the heart out of three newts, which immediately took to flight, leapt, swam, and executed their usual functions for 48 hours. M. Virey informs us, “ Nous avons vu une salamandre vivant depuis deux mois, quoique decapitee au moyen d’une ligature serree du cou.” A decapitated beetle will advance over a table, and recognise

See Desmoulins, Rcch. Anat. ct Phys., and the Journ. Compt. du Diet, des Sciences Med. Septembre 1822.

ANIMAL KINGDOM. 164 Animal a precipice on approaching the edge. Redi cut off the sects destroyed in the usual mode. With respect to utiKingdom, head of a tortoise, which survived 18 days. Colonel lity, the sportsman, who, though he adds indeed to the Pringle decapitated several libellulse or dragonflies, one general stock of food, makes amusement his primary ob. of which afterwards lived for four months, and another ject, must surely yield the palm to the entomologist, who for six ; and, which seems rather odd, he could never keep adds to the general stock of mental food, often supplies hints for useful improvement in the arts and sciences, alive those with their heads on above a few days.1 Some curious particulars connected with the great te- and the objects of whose pursuit, unlike that of the for! nacity of life in the lower animals are mentioned by Mr mer, are preserved, and may be applied to use for many Fothergill.2 A friend being employed one day in the pur- years. But in the view of those even who think inhumasuit of insects, caught a large yellow dragonfly (Libellula nity chargeable upon the sportsman, it will be easy to varia), and had actually fastened it down in his insect box, place considerations which may secure the entomologist by thrusting a pin through the thorax, before he perceiv- from such reproof. It is well known, that in proportion as ed that the voracious creature held a small fly, which still we descend in the scale of being, the sensibility of the struggled for liberty, in its jaws. The dragonfly continu- objects that constitute it diminishes. The tortoise walks ed devouring its victim with great deliberation, and with- about after losing its head ; and the polypus, so far from out expressing either pain or constraint, and seemed total- being injured by the application of the knife, thereby acly unconscious of being pinned down to the cork, till its quires an extension of existence. Insensibility almost prey was devoured, after which it made several desperate equally great may be found in the insect world. This, efforts to regain its liberty. A common flesh-fly was then indeed, might be inferred a priori, since providence seems presented to it, when it immediately became quiet, and to have been more prodigal of insect life than of that of ate the fly with greediness: when its repast was over it any other order of creatures, animalcula perhaps alone renewed its efforts to escape. This fact being mentioned excepted. No part of the creation is exposed to the atto Mr Haworth, the well-known English entomologist, he tack of so many enemies, or subject to so many disasters; confirmed the truth of the remarkable insensibility to so that the few individuals of each kind which enrich the pain manifested by insects, by narrating an additional cir- valued museum of the entomologist, many of which are cumstance. Being in a garden with a friend who firmly dearer to him than gold or gems, are snatched from the believed in the delicate susceptibility of these creatures, ravenous maw of some bird or fish, or rapacious insect, he struck down a large dragonfly, and in so doing unfor- would have been driven by the winds into the waters and tunately severed its long abdomen from the rest of the drowned, or trodden under foot by man or beasts; for it body. He caught a small fly, which he presented to the is not easy in some parts of the year to set foot to the mutilated insect, by which it was instantly seized and de- ground without crushing these minute animals ; and thus voured ; and a second was treated in the same manner. also, instead of being buried in oblivion, they have a kind Mr Haworth then contrived to form a false abdomen, by of immortality conferred upon them. Can it be believed means of a slender portion of a geranium; and after this that the beneficent Creator, whose tender mercies are beings to operation was performed the dragonfly devoured another over all his works, would expose these helpless T small insect as greedily as before. When set at liberty, it such innumerable enemies and injuries, w ere they endued flew away with as much apparent glee as if it had received with the same sense of pain and 3irritability of nerve with no injury. It is a fact well known to practical entomolo- the higher orders of animals?” Instead, therefore, of gists, that lai'ge moths found asleep during the daytime believing, and being grieved by the belief, that the insect may be pinned to the trunks of trees without their appear- we tread upon, In corporal sufferance finds a pang as great ing to suffer such a degree of pain as even to awake them. As when a giant dies, It is only on the approach of the evening twilight that they seek to free themselves from what they must no the very converse is nearer the truth. “ Had a giant lost an arm or a leg,” continue the authors just quoted, “or doubt regard as an inconvenient situation. The cruelty of zoological, especially of entomological were a sword or spear run through his body, he would pursuits, has too often been stated as an objection to the feel no great inclination for running about, dancing, or practical parts of the study of natural history. When a eating. Yet a tipula will leave half its legs in the hands noble aristocrat (who thinks it sport to shoot a shep- of an unlucky boy who has endeavoured to catch it, and herd’s dog) slaughters 100 brace of grouse in a single day, will fly here and there with as much agility and unconwe hear nothing of such an objection, possibly because the cern as if nothing had happened to it; and an insect imflavour of moor-game is very exquisite ; and the reason paled upon a pin will often devour its prey with as much of defence is good. But the tastes of men differ, and avidity as when at liberty. Were a giant eviscerated, his fortunately, as all have not the means of an equal gratifi- body divided in the middle, or his head cut off, it would cation from the same source. “ Cruelty,” say Messrs Kirby be all over with him ; he would move no more ; he would and Spence, “ is an unnecessary infliction of suffering, be dead to the calls of hunger, or the emotions of fear, when a person is fond of torturing or destroying God’s anger, or love. Not so our insects : I have seen the comcreatures from mere wantonness, with no useful end in mon cockchafer walk about with apparent indifference view; or when, if their death be useful and lawful, he has after some bird had nearly emptied its body of its visrecourse to circuitous modes of killing them, where direct cera ; a humble bee will eat honey with greediness though ones would answer equally well. This is cruelty, and deprived of its abdomen; and I myself lately saw an ant, this with you we abominate; but not the infliction of which had been brought out of the nest by its comrades, death when a just occasion calls for it. They who see no walk when deprived of its head. The head of a wasp cruelty in the sports of the field, as they are called, can will attempt to bite after it is separated from the rest of never, of course, consistently allege such a charge against the body ; and the abdomen, under similar circumstances, the entomologist; the tortures of wounded birds, of fish if the finger be moved to it, will attempt to sting.” Query, that swallow the hook and break the line, or of the hunted which part felt conscious of being the original wasp? hare, being beyond comparison greater than those of inThat the acuteness of bodily suffering, even among the 1 See the observations prefixed to the translation of Sj/allanzani's Tracts, by John Graham Dalyell, Esq. * Essay on Natural History. a Introduction to Entomology, vol. L p. 56.

165 KINGDOM. their place by a voluntary act; their sexes are Animal i Ml lirfier classes of the brute creation, is in some manner change f En. .rovidentially subdued, and rendered so much less acute distinct, and separately incapable of continuing the spe- Kingdom, pkL,.s not to be a fit subject of comparison with the suffering cies; they are provided with five senses, and endowed ,f the human race, is indeed evident from various pheno- with the perception of pleasure and of pain. The inferior aena, whatever the cause may be. The writer of this tribes, on the contrary, which present so many analogies rticle has seen a turtle-dove (Columba risoria) which to the vegetable kingdom, have no distinct head, or single ^as so severely lacerated by a cat, that the contents of organ of life; they are not symmetrical or composed exMl ts stomach were torn out. The painfully excited sym- actly of two equal parts, but rather affect the circular or I ,athy of those who had long cherished the gentle crea- radiated form; and for the most part they either remain f ure was, however, in a great measure allayed by see- fixed to the place which gave them birth, or with difficul' il ng the bird immediately afterwards proceed to pick up ty change their places of abode. The sexes are frequentlj5 he fresh grains of barley which (till the aid of the sur- ly united in the same individual, and their senses are | eon was called in) continued to fall from its wounded limited to such as are necessary to a very confined and I aunch. , , . . , almost vegetative existence. Though no animal has more than five senses, a great Considerations of the nature glanced at in the precedi >i .igD paragraphs can never, of course, be so misconstrued many are much more sparingly endowed. The only unii s to afford any palliation to wanton or inconsiderate versal sense seems that of touch. The next to be deveM| ruelty to the brute creation. The judges of the Areo- loped is probably that of taste, then sight, hearing, and, [ iagus who condemned to death the child whose amuse- lastly, smell. In the human race the senses are more i tient it had been to pluck out the eyes of quails, were equally balanced than in the brute creation, among the i egulated in their determination by the motives imput- different tribes of which we find many animals as remark( d to the young criminal, and which they deemed ex- able for their extreme acuteness in certain senses, as for [ iressive of so cruel and pernicious a character, that in their obtuseness in respect to others. The sense of smell «5f, fter-times he would assuredly offend the state. “ Nec in the dog, excepting some artificial varieties, such as the i nihi videntur Areopagitae,” says Quintilian, “ cum dam- greyhound, prevails over every other; birds of prey are retaverunt puerum coturnicum oculos eruentem, aliud ju- markable for their keenness of sight; the sense of hearing r lecessity of having recourse to a somewhat similar opera- that its eyes must be almost useless, but trusting to its ion, the case would have assumed another character, and quicker ears, which warn it of an approaching foe; that hi he most sentimental philanthropist must have applauded the elephant examines the exact nature of all objects by i W he practice of the philosopher. So it is in a great mea- touching them with the fleshy finger of its proboscis; and il are with the pursuits of the naturalist. If the wonderful that Mrs Rundell’s work on cookery has run through ninetructure of the lower orders of creation cannot be studied teen editions. All insects in the perfect state, and the ir understood, or their infinitely varied forms held in re- greater proportion of their larvae, a part only of the mollusnembrance, without hastening by a few days or hours the cous tribes (such as the inhabitants of univalve shells), ennination of that brief career which in truth scarcely crustaceous animals, such as crabs and lobsters, and all wer meets with a strictly natural end, then is the student fishes, reptiles, birds, and quadrupeds, enjoy the sense of >f nature, following out the principles of an elevating and sight; and all these classes (with the exception of inntellectual pursuit, as well entitled to command a por- sects and many of the mollusca) are also furnished with ion of animal life as he who, to pamper the refined gross- the organs of hearing. That the latter sense, however, less of a sensual appetite, bleeds his turkeys to death also exists in insects, may be fairly inferred from the fre)y cutting the roots of their tongues, boils crabs and quent and varied sounds which they are capable of proobsters alive, and swallows unsuspecting oysters by the ducing, although the seat of the faculty has not yet been ascertained. Many zoophytical tribes, which have no >core. The more perfect the nervous system, the greater is the special organs of sight, appear to become sensible to the legree of intelligence. Indeed, were it not that no trace presence and action of light, through a delicate perception >f that system has yet been discovered in many zoophytes, of the sense of touch. According to Buffon, the sense ve might almost assert that the presence of nerves con- which has the strongest affinity to thought is that of touch ; stitutes animal life, and that their absence in organized and he regards it as being enjoyed by man in greater pernatter reduces it to the vegetable state. The greater fection than by animals. That which has the strongest ffie extent of brain in proportion to the size of the body, affinity to instinct and appetite is smell,—a sense in which tlie greater in general the degree of sensibility. A French man must acknowledge an infinite inferiority. Hence, matomist, in dissecting a horse of which he had admired according to the Frenchman, man has the greatest tenthe noble qualities, exclaimed, “ J’ai long temps doute si dency to knowledge, and the brute to appetite. There is nous avions le droit de monter sur ton dos ; mais en voyant no doubt that in man and the different species of monkeys la petite capacite de ton cerveau, je n’en doute plus main- the sense of touch is highly discriminating; but it is astenant ; tu n’est qu’une bete.” The most perfect animals suredly a false view of the subject which has led Helveire such as are provided with a head which serves as tius and others to attach such an extraordinary degree of the centre of their sentiments and sensations, and with a importance to the hand, as the medium of intellectual sumouth for the reception of their nourishment. Their forms periority in the human race. lire symmetrical, or composed of two equal parts; they Whatever exhibits the phenomena of either animal or ANIMAL

1

Dc Inst. Of at. lib. v. cap. ix. de Signis.

ANIMAL KINGDOM. 166 Animal vegetable life, advances towards the perfect development liar modification of brute matter acted upon by the vital 1 .«4 Kingdom. 0f its parts through the medium of aliment. This name principle ; but this form of expression probably throws 1? 5C appiie(i to the numerous and diversified substances no new light upon the subject. 0 /'* We may here present a remark not unworthy of attenwhich, when introduced into the system of an organized body, have the power of identifying themselves in part with tion regarding the nature of the flesh in the different that system, in such a manner as to effect its nourishment, classes of the animal kingdom. Considered as a viand, the reparation, and increase. “ Nourishment,” says Bacon, flesh of animals becomes less substantially nourishing as “ ought to bee of an inferior nature and more simple sub- we descend in the scale. For example, the flesh of a stance than the thing nourished. Plants are nourished with quadruped contains a greater quantity of nourishment in the earth and water, living creatures with plants, man with proportion to size and weight than that of a bird, while living creatures. There are also certain creatures feeding the latter exceeds in that respect both reptiles and fishes. upon flesh ; and man himself takes plants into a part of his Hence in catholic countries the latter are justly regarded nourishment: but man and creatures feeding upon flesh as meagre, and form an exclusive food during the frequent * are scarcely nourished with plants alone. Perhaps fruits days of abstinence by which it is sought to mortify the or graines, baked or boyled, may with long use nourish flesh. Shell-fish and Crustacea, and a fortiori the zoothem, but leaves of plants or herbs will not doe it; as phytical tribes, yield a still smaller proportion of nutritious the order of the Foliatanes showed by experience living matter. A revolting conclusion has been drawn from creatures are nourished by the mouth; plants by the this alleged relation between the flesh of a highly organroot; young ones in the womb by the navill; birds for a ized animal and the power and excellence of its nutritive while are nourished with the yolke in the egge, whereof qualities; viz. that cannibalism, or the habit of anthropophasome is found in their crops after they are hatched. All gous nations, opens up to those unnatural tribes a pleasure nourishment moveth from the centre to the circumference, connected w ith the indulgence of the sense of taste greatly or from the inward to the outward: yet it is to be noted, surpassing what is enjoyed by those who confine their that in trees and plants the nourishment passeth rather mastication to the brute creation; because, in accordance by the barke and outward parts than by the pith and in- with the rule supposed, the organic perfection and highly ward parts ; for if the barke be pilled off, though but for animalized nature of man is productive of a higher degree a small bredth round, they live no more : and the blood in of nutrition, and of a greater capability of direct assimilathe veines of living creatures doth no lesse nourish the tion, when the substance of which he is composed is used flesh beneath it than the flesh above it. Vegetables as- as food by his fellow-mortals. But the scale of alimentary similate their nourishment simply without excerning; for substances may rather be said to commence with air and gums and teares of trees are rather exuberances than ex- water, and to terminate with the herbivorous animals; for crements ; and knots or knobs are nothing but diseases. the flesh of carnivorous kinds is, with very few exceptions, But the substance of living creatures is more perceptible of a nature inadequate to the healthy sustenance of life. of the like; and therefore it is conjoyned with a kinde of It is of a quality too putrescent, and decomposes with too disdaine, whereby it rejecteth the bad and assimilateth great rapidity, as if the organization of matter could make the good. It is a strange thing of the stalkes of fruits, no further progress, but passing rapidly from one extreme that all the nourishment which produceth sometimes such to another, hastened to throw off even the semblance great fruits should be forced to passe thorow so narrow of life, to assume again the simplest elementary form. necks, for the fruit is never joyn’d to the stock without “ Over-great affinity,” says Bacon, “ or consubstantiality some stalkes. It is to be noted, that the seeds of living of the nourishment to the thing nourished, proveth not creatures will not be fruitful but when they are new; well; for creatures feeding upon herbs touch no flesh; but the seeds of plants will be fruitful a long time after and of creatures feeding upon flesh few of them eat their they are gathered ; yet the slips or cions of trees will not owne kinde. As for men which are cannibals, they feed grow unlesse they be grafted green, neither will the roots not ordinarily upon men’s flesh, but reserve it as a dainty keepe long fresh unlesse they be covered with earth.”1 either to serve their revenge upon their enemies, or tosaNutritive substances of course vary according to the tisfie their appetite at some times. So the ground is nature of the bodies which consume or absorb them. best sowne with seed growing elsewhere; and men do not Plants derive their chief nourishment from air and water, use to graft or innoculate upon the same stocke.” the former of which must contain carbonic acid gas, the Mineral bodies are still more unfit for the purposes of latter the dissolved remains of animal or vegetable sub- nutrition. They furnish both medicines and poisons in stances. It is, however, possible to produce vegetable abundance, but never aliments. The difference between growth from pure wTater, assisted by warmth and air. these objects may be shortly stated as follows: Aliments Vegetables, again, serve as food to the greater proportion are substances alterable by the action of the organs which of animals, and these in their turn are devoured by the appropriate them; medicines act on the organs, of which carnivorous few. It is thus that the productions of na- they alter or modify the action; poisons attack and exture are connected together in one great circle, and are tinguish life itself. But according to the specific nature reciprocally dependent on each other. Without water of different animals, and various other circumstances, the there could be neither plants nor herbivorous animals, qualities of these agents are convertible, so that aliments and without herbivorous animals there could be no carni- become poisonous, and poisons alimentary. Thus opium, vorous ones; therefore, without water there could be no which among European nations is a medicine, and too life. Inorganic matter furnishes the first and most sim- frequently a poison, has become, according to the pracple materials of existence ; organic bodies perish and be- tice of several eastern nations, an alimentary substance. come decomposed, and thus adding to the mass of inor- Aloes, which are simply^ medicinal for the human race, are ganic matter which they had for a short period abandon- a destructive poison to many carnivorous animals. On ed, they enter again as elements into the composition of the other hand, according to Pallas, hedgehogs eat abunother and more complex forms. Indeed, according to Mr dantly of cantharides without being in the slightest deW. S. Macleay, organized matter is nothing but a pecu- gree incommoded by them; and bees are known to feed History, Naturall and Experimental, of Life and Death. English translation, 1638.

ANIMAL

KINGDOM. 167 where the temperature is milder than that of the open Animal pon and form their honey from the secretions of many iernicious and even poisonous plants. The caterpillar of air; and, contrary to the usual practice, it suspends it- Kingdom, v s t - certain sphinx moth is highly delighted with the acrid self by the hooked claws of its binder extremities. It'^^ ^ ^ is the practice of other hybernating animals to contract nd venomous fluid of a tithymalis. The more that animals enjoy the qualities of youth, themselves into a ball, in such a manner as to expose the trength, and activity, the greater is the increase and de- smallest possible surface to the action of the air. When elopment of their parts, and the greater the necessity for discovered in their retreats they are generally thus rolled n abundant supply of food. Of many individuals exposed up, cold to the touch, their limbs stiffened, their eyes 3 an absolute abstinence of many days, the young are closed, their respiration slow, interrupted, sometimes even [ways the first to perish. Of this the history of war and imperceptible, and their insensibility so great that they bipwreck offers in all ages too many frightful examples, may be removed, rolled about, and otherwise maltreated, 'here are several instances on record of an almost total without showing any further signs of life. It has been observed that the temperature of these anibstinence from food for an extraordinary length of time, laptain Bligh, of the Bounty, sailed nearly 4-000 miles in mals gradually lowers itself as the season declines. Their a open boat, with occasionally a single small bird not respiration also becomes slower, their motions less lively, lany ounces in weight for the daily sustenance of 17 and their appetite diminishes; but sensation and the eople; and it is even alleged, that 14 men and women of power of locomotion still continue. This intermediate ic Juno, having suffered shipwreck on the coast of Arra- state between the perfect performance of the vital funcan, lived 23 days without any food. Two people first tions and confirmed torpidity endures for several weeks; ied of want on the fifth day. In the opinion of Rhedi, the degree of temperature at which different animals benimals support want much longer than is generally be- come entirely overpowered varying, of course, according eved. A civet cat lived 10 days without food, an ante- to the species. The propensity has been observed, in the >pe 20, and a very large wild cat also 20; an eagle sur- following well-known animals, to correspond to a scale of ived 28 days, a badger one month, and several dogs 36 descending temperature, according to the following orays. In the memoirs of the Academy of Sciences there der:—Is#, The bat; 2dly, the hedgehog; Mly, the doran account of a bitch, which having been accidentally mouse ; ^thly, the marmot; othly, the hamster. Although nit up alone in a country-house, existed for 40 days many other animals are subject to the same law, it is only ithout any other nourishment than the stuff on the wool among those just enumerated that an exact comparison :'a mattress which she had torn to pieces. A crocodile has been instituted. ill live two months without food, a scorpion three, a bear A complete state of hybernation consists in the susx, a chameleon eight, and aviper ten. Vaillant had aspider pension of sensation and voluntary motion, in addition to lat lived nearly a year without food, and was so far from a great decrease in the temperature of the body, and in eing weakened by abstinence, that it immediately killed the frequency of respiration. Its different degrees of inlother large spider, equally vigorous but not so hungry, tensity are well ascertained by the number of respirations Inch was put in along with it. John Hunter inclosed a in a given time, or, in its most perfect state, by the total >ad between two stone flower-pots, and found it as lively suspension of all respiratory movements. The different > ever after 14 months. Land-tortoises have lived with- species of the bat tribe are those of which the torpidity is it food for 18 months; and Baker is known to have kept a the least profound; and the marmot probably experiences aetle in a state of total abstinence for three years. It af- the greatest degree of vital suspension. The temperature i’wards made its escape.1 Dr Shaw gives an account of of these animals during their lethargy depends in a great vo serpents which lived in a bottle without any food for measure upon that of the external air, and is consequentve years. ly variable. It is in general, however, superior to it by The necessity of aliment becomes less vividly felt du- several degrees. It may descend to within a few degrees ng sleep, and certain other periods of prolonged repose, of the freezing point, but is not susceptible of reduction here are several animals which hybernate, or go into win- to that point, without producing either re-action of the r quarters for six months in the year, during which period vital functions or death. There is, therefore, contrary to the any of them require no food, but are maintained solely opinion of some of the older naturalists, a degree of external / that excellence of bodily condition which they had ac- cold incompatible with the torpidity or existence of these tired during a prior period of activity and good cheer, animals. The species most easily rendered torpid, such his leads us naturally to consider what is called the hy- as the bat, the hedgehog, the dormouse, the lerot, and the rnation of animals. muscardine, cannot support a cold of 14° of Fahrenheit. Many creatures are so constituted that the activity of A warmth of from 50° to 53° brings them again to life. eir functions is greatly impaired by a comparatively Sundry mechanical means, such as different degrees of ight reduction of temperature. Naturalists and anato- motion, serve to restore several of the last-named species ists have alike sought in vain for either external or in- without any increase of temperature; but to preserve nial characters of general application, by which they them in a state of prolonged activity, a gentle warmth ight distinguish, a priori, the species subjected to this must be applied and continued. range though well-ordered lethargy. They belong to It is evident, from these and other obseiwations, that rious genera and tribes, many of which have few cha- the sleep of mammiferous animals is not characterized by cters in common, as will be perceived when we name a uniform and constant duration. As it is dependent on well-known instances the dormouse, the hedgehog, the variations of the atmosphere, it will commence at an 'd the bat. It influences both warm and cold-blooded earlier, continue a longer, or be interrupted after a shorter mnals. I he former of these, at certain advanced periods period, according to the difference in the seasons of parthe autumn, according to the species, seek out places ticular years, the skill which the animals may have exhibitrepose, either in the earth, among old walls, in caverns, ed in the choice of a protecting habitation, or the pecuunks of trees, or bushes; which retreats they usually liar constitution of the species, or even of the individuals. ie with dried herbs, grasses, leaves, or moss. The bat The habit of storing up a supply of winter provisions also tno»es caverns, churches, barns, and other situations depends upon their greater or less degree of exposure to 1

See the observations prefixed to the translation of Spallanzani's Tracts, before referred to.

ANIMAL KINGDOM. 168 Animal the power of awakening influences. The hedgehog, for the cares of the family. This is usually the case among i Kingdom, example, has been observed to form several separate ma- the various tribes of birds, and also among carnivorous Kj quadrupeds; whilst the males of such as feed on vege.'gazines, to which it has recourse during the winter season ; tables, and which consequently find almost everywhere I and the marks of its little feet have sometimes been an abundant and easy nourishment, abandon to the mo. traced on the surface of the surrounding snow Thei • 'hybernatlon"'of the” V*/-»/-»tv swallow isnlrrn a point on which also then been the rearing of their I, liv. observed,and thateducation among such birdsyoung. as feed on • *1 opinions *i have 1"Pfl. T1 very dissimilar been promulgated. It HOW now ap ing prey, the male is very assiduous in assisting hig mate pears to be the prevailing belief that these birds migrate to procure a sufficient supply. But naturalists have erred on the approach of winter to other and more genial climes, in assigning the polygamous habit as a general characbut that cases do occur in which such individuals as are teristic of the gallinaceous kinds. The instinct to pair, or prevented by circumstances from joining the “ marshalled habit of monogamy, is no doubt only bestowed on array,” are enabled to survive the rigours of our northern the species to which it is necessary for the rearing of winters by the power which their constitution possesses those their offspring, and differs considerably in the nature and of assuming the torpid state; at least the occunence of permanence of the attachment, according to the position torpid swallows, however rare, is too well authenticated to of the nest, i. e. whether it is built upon or above the surbe a matter of doubt. It is said that the tanrec, a species of hedgehog found face of the ground. All birds which build on trees, as in Madagascar, becomes torpid for some months in the was long ago remarked by Lord Kames, are hatched blind, year. If this assertion is well founded, it affords the only and almost without feathers, and consequently require the know n instance of torpidity in a mammiferous quadruped sedulous care of both parents. But the generality even of gallinaceous birds, which breed upon the ground, do of a warm climate. Many cold-blooded animals may be regarded as of the likewise pair, though the hatching of the eggs is entirely hybernating kind. Indeed the greater proportion of rep- confined to the female, who completes her task by leading tiltes, insects, molluscous animals, &c. inhabiting cold the young to their proper food, which they are able imcountries, are very lethargic during the winter season, mediately to pick up for themselves, being active and well which they usually pass without food. They appear sub- feathered from their birth. The male, at the same time, ject to the influence of this feeling even in warm cli- continues to manifest a certain degree of paternal solicitude, mates; at least Humboldt describes certain reptiles in by uttering the alarm-note on the approach of birds of South America which pass a portion of the year buried prey, or other dangerous foes. Black game and woodin the earth, and which are only aroused by the occur- grouse, however, do not appear to pair at all; but in the rence of rainy weather or the excitement of violent means. spring a male bird assembles a certain number of females “ The manners of animals,” says this enlightened ob- about him, which afterwards deposit their eggs, and rear server, “ vary in the same species, according to local cir- their young altogether independent of the male parent cumstances difficult to investigate. We were shown a They are therefore polygamous in the proper acceptatiqn hut, or rather a kind of shed, in which our host ol Cala- of tire term. Even among herbivorous quadrupeds pairbozo, Don Miguel Cousin, had witnessed a very extraor- ing is rare, because the female can suckle her young while dinary scene. Sleeping with one of his friends on a bench she herself is feeding ; but the monogamous habit probacovered with leather, Don Miguel was awakened early in bly obtains among most carnivorous quadrupeds, and cerall carnivorous birds, because incubation the morning by violent shakes and a horrible noise. tainly among 1 -* y-v -ffemale 1 y. noyi y,sufficient i ■» v-» 4“ 4"time 1 vv% 4"to/"\ hunt V ITA 4” 1for /A A* 1food, /A /A rl ^5 Clods of earth were thrown into the middle of the hut. leaves the Presently a young crocodile, two or three feet long, issued because young birds cannot bear a long fast, and therefore from under the bed, darted at a dog that lay on the thresh- require the assistance of both parents, while unable to proold of the door, and, missing him in the impetuosity of vide for themselves. The association or fellowship of his spring, ran toward the beach to attain the river. On birds is either annual or for life; the former bond is the examining the spot where the barbacon or bedstead was more usual, though eagles, crows, and several other species placed, the cause of this strange adventure’was easily dis- afford examples of a long-continued attachment. Many birds assemble in autumn, winter, and early covered. The ground wras disturbed to a considerable y depth. It w as dried mud, that had covered the crocodile spring, into flocks, but as soon as the pairing season has in that state of lethargy, or summer sleep, in which many commenced they again separate into pairs. Others again of the species lie, during the absence of the rains, amid appear to be more gregarious during the breeding season the llanos. The noise of men and horses, perhaps the than at any other period of the year, for example the gansmell of the dog, had awakened the crocodile. The hut net or soland-goose (P. bassanus) ; but this arises not so being placed at the edge of the pool, and inundated during much from a love of fellowship with their kind, as from part of the year, the crocodile had no doubt entered, at the accident of there being few places fitted for the purthe time of the inundation of the savannahs, by the same poses of nidification and the rearing of the young. opening by which Mr Pozo saw it go out. The Indians We have said that pairing is rare among such quadoften find enormous boas, which they call ttji, or water- rupeds as feed on grass, because the female can feed herserpents, in the same lethargic state. To re-animate them, self at the same time that she is suckling her young. they must be irritated, or wetted with water.”1 The roe-deer, however, among herbivorous quadrupeds. Upon the whole, naturalists seem to be of opinion that forms an exception to the general rule. On the other no species of animal is condemned to torpidity by any in- hand, there are several carnivorous quadrupeds which do herent property of its nature. It is a provisional faculty, not pair, but the young of which are left entirely dependependent on external circumstances, and may be inter- dent on the mother; that is to say, the latter is obliged rupted, postponed, or altogether prevented, by regulating both to capture her own food and to suckle her offspringthe conditions under which the animal is placed. Among gregarious quadrupeds which usually store up The disposition of animals in relation to other indivi- food for winter, pairing is probably necessary to prevent duals of the same species differs considerably. There discord, and in this respect beavers are said to resemble are some which unite in couples and divide between them those birds which place their nests upon the ground As 1

Personal Narrative, vol. iv. p. 300.

3

See Karnes’s Sketches.

ANIMAL KINGDOM. 169 I ,oon as the young are produced, the males abandon their more properly speaking, their natural assumption of those Animal Honjstock of food to their mates, and live at large, but return peculiar attributes which fit them for the inclemencies of Kingdom, ^-frequently to visit them while they are suckling their climates uncongenial to their original nature. A Lap-' young. Hedgehogs and most of the monkey kind pair. lander is no more a deteriorated Asiatic of the Mongolian Seals are polygamous, and turtles leave their young to be or Caucasian line, than a Georgian or Circassian is a hatched by the heated sand. Earwigs, spiders, bees, and highly refined Laplander; neither is the Shetland pony a ivoodlice (onisci), are amongst the few of the insect tribes deteriorated Arabian courser, any more than the steed of which pay any attention either to their eggs or offspring. Araby is a thorough-bred shelty. Each has been enabled The young of the greater proportion of animals is produced by a wise provision of nature to assimilate its character in spring, when the supply of food is the most abundant, and constitution to the qualities of the climate in which it and when the long period which intervenes before the ap- was destined to exist; and had it been incompetent to proach of winter enables them to acquire strength to sup- effect or undergo such assimilation, it would then indeed have deteriorated—that is to say, it would have died. If port the rigours of that inclement season. Though the period of gestation varies considerably in the we admire the slim smooth elegance of the Italian greyEfferent quadrupeds which feed on grass, yet the females hound, and regard the rough shaggy coat of the dog of ire regularly delivered in spring, or early in summer, when Nova-Zembla as a deterioration, let us remember that the herbage is nutritive and abundant. The mare com that which is the beauty of the one would be the bane of :eives in summer, carries 11 months, and brings forth in the other; and what would then become of that forlorn May. The same is nearly the case with the cow. The agriculturist, whose business it is to drill the ice and to dieep and the goat are usually in season in November; furrow the snow ? The small stature and peculiar habits they carry five months, and produce when grass has begun of the northern pony would have been as little fitted to to spring. They love short, close herbage, upon which a sustain the fiery breath or the shifting sands of an eastern horse or cow would barely thrive. The ass is in season desert, as the graceful Arabian to withstand the cold and iboutthebeginningof summer, but she bears twelvemonths, cloudy clime, and the rugged and precipitous mountains, md consequently brings forth likewise early in summer. of Lapland or Thule. Therefore, instead of being deteWolves and foxes copulate in December, but as they only riorated, each ought rather to be said to exist in the best bear five months, they bring forth in April, when the sea- and most improved condition, according to the nature of ion has assumed a genial aspect, and animal food is as its particular calling. Using the word, however, in its abundant as at any other season. If we were to guess more usual acceptation, it may be stated that an animal what would probably be the rutting season of animals, we seldom degenerates in its native country, but more frewould say summer, especially in a northern country; and quently in those for the climate of which its constitution yet, to quadrupeds which carry their young only for four is not adapted. Each species appears to have a certain or five months, such economy would be injurious and im- extent or circle of natural distribution, in the centre of provident, as it would bring the time of1 delivery at an un- which it not only most abounds, but also there shows itdue season, both for warmth and food. There are a few self in its finest and most characteristic proportions. As exceptions to the above rule, which, however, in them- the places of its occurrence diverge from this centre of selves, belong to an equally beautiful system of providen- dominion, it becomes rarer, and exhibits a variation or tial ordinances. Some gregarious and stoi'e-collecting considerable departure, at least in its external characters, animals, for example, bring forth in January, when their from the primitive model. Thus the horses of Arabia granary of provisions is still abundantly filled. and Barbary degenerate in Britain; and, to preserve the The season of pairing, or of production, among wild ani- breed in purity, they must be frequently crossed by the mals, usually takes place only once a year, and at a fixed original; but the Arabs themselves are very careful to preperiod; but those which man has rendered domestic are vent any mixture in the blood of their native and noble observed to couple at all seasons. The species of warmer kinds, and would deem them deteriorated by such alliance. climates, when transported into colder regions, usually cease to pair, or at least their union is unproductive; and In the tabular or abridged views of classification which the same consequence generally follows a state of capti- we here present, it is our intention merely to exhibit the vity. Among such species, however, as man has fairly great primary divisions of the animal kingdom called reduced to a state of satisfied domestication, the indivi- classes. The secondary divisions into orders, and the furduals become much more prolific than in the wild state. ther dismemberment of these into minor groups called fafhe season of love varies greatly among mammiferous milies, genera, &c., will be illustrated when we come to animals. The greater proportion pair in spring and sum- treat of each class in particular under its proper head. mer ; but the wolf pairs in winter, the stag in autumn, Neither do we intend to trace the progress of classificaand many domesticated animals at diversified periods tion from the earliest ages of sciehtific record; because, throughout the year. Prolific union takes place among as the object of the naturalist is rather to ascertain the varieties of the same species; and it is by paying attention nature and relationship of things as they are, than as they to these that the finer races of our domestic animals are were supposed to be, there is the less necessity for leaving maintained and continued. As the climate of northern our direct x’oute, to trace either the origin or the progress countries causes several of our most valuable animals to of error. We shall proceed, after a few observations, at degenerate (as it is called), it has been customary to ob- once to the system of Linnaeus, which is in fact the basis tain from time to time a male animal of a pure and noble of all that have succeeded, and without a knowledge of lace, which, when paired with an ordinary female, produces which it is impossible to understand either the merits or a breed scarcely inferior to the male parent; for it has defects of more recent systems. Indeed, with the excepbeen observed that, with few exceptions, the new produce tion of the purely artificial classification of Klein, and the assumes the characteristics of the father. Thus, in uniting multiplied orders of Brisson and Vicq-d’Azir, all the sysa . £CP °* an ordinary kind with a ram of the Merino race, tems which have appeared since the middle of last cent e first generation almost equals the father in beauty, tury are indebted more or less to the labours of the imhat is frequently called deterioration in animals is, mortal Swede, and may be valued almost exactly in provol. in.

Karnes’s Sketches.

170 ANIMAL KINGDOM. Animal portion to their share in the lucidus ordo of the Linnaean tion in asserting, that as the writers first mentioned owe Kingdom. SyStem. For example, the Systerna Regni Animalis of much of the success which has attended their labours to Kit Erxleben (1777) is nothing more than a revised edition their having judiciously engrafted their own improvements^ of the Systema Naturae, in which are engrafted, with no on the original stock of the Linnaean system, so the aulack of skill, many additions both of species and genera; thors last named, though not less highly gifted, have in a the whole being presented in a consecutive series, without great measure sacrificed the utility of many original and the accustomed subdivision into the primary groups called enlightened views to the fond conceit of a new, and in orders. The Prodromus Methodi Animalium of Storr some instances an incomprehensible, nomenclature. The skill of Fabricius as an entomologist has never been (1780) does not differ radically from the Linnaean system. The Elenchus Animalium of Bodaert (1787) is allied to it surpassed, and it is therefore the more to be regretted still more closely in every thing except its accuracy. Of that he should have been influenced in the formation of Gmelin’s work (1789) we need not speak, as it is a pro- his system by other motives than a desire to perceive and fessed revisal (being the 13th) of the Systema Naturae. point out the truth. But it is known that he was swayed And although no one will deny the merit of profound and as much by the ambitious hope of founding a new docoriginal inquiry to the investigations of Blumenbach, most trine, of which he destined himself to be the oracle, as by readily will those who are best acquainted with his la- the desire of proceeding directly in the path of nature. bours admit, that in zoology he has wisely followed the Hence his avowed enmity to the eclectic system of Lafootsteps of Linnaeus. The six classes into which the treille, which, during the opening career of that celebrated German naturalist divides the animated creation, viz. entomologist, he declared it to be his intention utterly to Mammalia, Aves, Amphibia, Pisces, Insecta, and Vermes, destroy. Yet the system of Latreille not only stands, but, correspond with those of the Linnaean arrangement, al- when viewed in relation to the application of its general though their orders and genera are in some respects dif- principles, has in a great measure superseded that of Faferently combined. His motto appears to have been bricius. At the same time, the accurate discrimination and extensive knowledge of the latter, and the wide circle Malta jiunt eadem, sed aliter. (Quintilian.) The signal benefits conferred on natural history, in all which his system embraces in detail, render it still indisits branches, by the learning and genius of Baron Cuvier, pensable for a knowledge of the species. Illiger died young. Flis talents were such as to raise are known wherever the science has obtained a zealous and successful cultivator; and it cannot have escaped among his compatriots the highest hopes of his future the notice of the critical observer, that after 30 years of eminence, and his death was a subject of just regret to all profound and philosophical research into the mysteries of who knew what he had achieved so well at an early age, the animal kingdom, the most enlightened zoologist of the and who the more gladly lent themselves to the anticipaage should have finally reverted to a closer approximation tion of what he would afterwards have accomplished had to the Linnaean system, than had characterized his views his life been prolonged. Of his classification it has been at any former period of his brilliant career. When he written by a competent judge : “ Neque apud veterem, first made known (in 1797), conjointly with M. Geoffrey, neque apud recentiorem quendam auctorem ullum systema his new classification of mammiferous animals, his nume- inyenerim, quod, tam sua perspicuitate, quam accuratione, rous genera were contained under no less than 14 differ- Illigeriano magis commendari mihi videatur.” Many of ent orders. Thirty years afterwards (in 1817) he pub- his genera are indeed remarkable for their felicitous conlished his Regne Animal, with many improvements in the struction and consonance with the natural arrangement. composition and arrangement of the minor divisions, and They have in consequence been readily adopted by his with the addition of the order of which he is himself so more fortunate fellow-labourers in the same field, in whose bright an ornament, but otherwise composed (we speak at works they will remain, and be handed down in ample atpresent of the mammalia alone) of primary divisions ex- testation of the author’s genius; but the system itself will actly the same in number, and nearly the same in nature, suffer a partition, and ere long cease to be practically as those finally divulged and established by Linnaeus him- known under the form in which it was originally promulself just 60 years before. gated, and this mainly in consequence of his having adoptLatreille, Dumeril, Desmarest, and Frederick Cuvier, are ed so many new names. followers or coadjutors of the Baron, and with him are M. de Blainville is still alive, and the longer he lives partakers in the modification and amendment of the Lin- the better for the sciences ef anatomy and physiology, naean system. I he venerable Lamarck has greatly signa- neither of which contains in its modern annals the name lized himself in a field which, it must be confessed, was of a more accomplished or enlightened expounder of its obscure to the eye of Linnaeus—that of the molluscous mysteries than his own ; but in the character of a naturalanimals—which, under the name of Vermes Testacea, ist, and in connection with the subject of nomenclature, were but indifferently treated in the Systema Naturae. he unfortunately sins more than all his predecessors. He The error appears to have lain in the greater attention really miscalls the objects of zoology most sadly, yet his which was bestowed on the shells themselves, or testace- knowledge of the essential bases of the science is no ous coverings, than on the animal inhabitants ; and the con- doubt too profound to admit of his applying it without new sequence has been, that the conchologist of the old school and important results. Hence the pity that these should ranks with the collector of china, whether old or new. not at all times be stated in such terms as not only to The names above enumerated are certainly among the more closely with the kindred labours of his foremost in the annals of modern science; and although, in amalgamate but to fall rather more clearly within the addition to these, many more might be mentioned with contemporaries, comprehension of ordinary minds. honour as having contributed, by monographs or other parAs it is not our intention in the present rapid sketch to tial though highly prized contributions, to the increase of enter into the distribution of the animal kingdom beyond knowledge, yet we are not aware that more than three the greater called classes, we shall not exhibit systematists of acknowledged and wide-spread influence, the systems divisions of the two authors further than or of what may be termed universal celebrity, remain to say, that the former first-named attended almost exclusively to unnoticed, of those who have essentially influenced the entomology, the latter chiefly to the mammalia and birds. present condition of zoological science ; we mean Fa- W hen we come to the divisions our subject under biicius, Illiger, and iVl. de Blainville. We have no hesita- their separate heads, tabular views of or more detailed ana-

ANIMAL

KINGDOM. 171 ai lyses will be presented of the labours of these and other together as many groups of natural genera as occur in Animal most systems that have been promulgated, especially if Kingdom, >m ingenious inquirers of the past and present times. _ v-> We have said that we regarded the system of Linnmus we take into consideration the period at which it was'^^ ^' is the basis of all those by which it has been succeeded, composed, and the comparatively scanty materials within ind that without a knowledge of his classification it his reach. Linnaeus was probably aware of the extreme •vould be impossible to understand either the merits or difficulty, we might say at once of the utter impossibility, lefects of more recent systems. We shall therefore here of a perfectly natural arrangement; for he confesses, in iresent the classes into which the great Swedish natural- his Philosophia Botanica, his inability to define the great divisions called orders, on account of their being so const divides the animal kingdom. nected with each other by various points of affinity, as to Division I. form a map rather than a linear series; and the observamay be applied with equal truth to the subjects of 4 heart with two auricles and two ventricles ; blood warm tion the animal kingdom. In regard to the excellence of his and red. genera themselves, their consonance with nature is ren^lass I.—Viviparous animals, or such as dered still more evident, by the great proportion of those suckle their young; commonly which Cuvier and Latreille have retained as leading gecalled quadrupeds, but includneric divisions in their recent works,—certainly the most ing also the cetacea or whales, Mammalia. skilful approaches which have yet been made in the establishment of a natural system. It has been asserted, 3lass II.—Oviparous animals, or birds Ayes. and we believe with truth, that such naturalists as are Division II. perpetually intent on the abstract theory of classification, 4 heart with one auricle and one ventricle ; blood cold and rarely attain the highest excellence in the discrimination or definition of the species,—the only distinctions possibly red. which have a real foundation in nature, and upon an ac’^lass III.—Animals breathing arbitrarily through lungs Amphibia. curate and extensive knowledge of which alone their theoretical systems can be substantially and permanently Hlass IV.—Fishes, or animals with gills... Pisces. built. At all events, it is admitted that Linnaeus is a guide almost infallible, in as far as concerns his wonderful Division III. facility in discovering the minor natural groups. If he 4 heart with one ventricle, no auricle; blood cold and white. could have combined these as well as he has defined them, his possession of the sceptre would have been still Aass V.—With antennae ; undergoing transformations. Insects Insecta. undoubted.1 M. Virey, in the first edition (1803) of the Nouveau Hlass VI.—With tentacula, and undergoDictionnaire d’Histoire Naturelle, divides the animal kingingno transformations. Worms, Vermes. dom into three great tribes, in accordance with the nature It may be observed, that the deservedly popular system and distribution of the nervous system. As he appears to >f Linnaeus, though it does not profess to be a natural have been among the first to attribute a due degree of nethod of classification, actually is so in many of its parts; importance to that system in the classification of animals, lor can it be denied that, on the whole, it usually brings we shall here exhibit a view of his general arrangement. Tribe Vertebrata. Heart with two ventricles and two auricles; JMan and Mammalia. Wimals possessed of two nervous blood warm, lungs cellular | Birds. systems, the cerebro-spinal and Heart with one ventricle and one auricle ; the ganglionic \ Reptiles and Fishes. blood cold Tribe Invertebrata. A heart; branchiae for respiration, mostly f Mollusca. J Cirrhipedes. \nimals possessed of a single nervaquatic f Crustacea. ous system surrounding the (Esof Arachnides and Aptera. phagus, with ganglia and branchNo heart; some vessels; tracheae for air or ) Insects, winged, hexapod, es ; the sympathetic water y Annelides and Helminthides. C Intestinal worms. Tribe Zoophyta. Ascidia, inclosed in a tunic Botrylli, &c. Nervous system composed of mo- Radiated animals ; composed of rays parting Echinodermata. from a centre Hydra and Polypus. lecules more or less perceptible ; United in Polypiers, or stony masses ; coral- Corals and Ceratophytes. no distinction of sexes ligenous Madrepores and Sponges. Microscopical Infusory Animals. ... ^16 following summary will serve to illustrate M. its muscular fibres. Its fundamental character consists in neys views of the nature and characteristics of these the extreme division of its nervous molecules throughout .ree groat divisions. We commence with the zoophythe flesh of these animals. Except in the Echinodermata 1 J ical tribe. some other radiated classes, we can scarcely assert 1st, Zoophytes are distinguished by an organic tissue of and the existence of a nervous system amongst them (on which | ' cry soft and pulpy nature, more or less diaphanous, account they are named apathiques by Lamarck). Each n very contractile, though we cannot readily perceive portion of the body having its nervous molecule and its par1

Horce Entumologicw, part ii. p. 428.

ANIMAL KINGDOM. 172 Animal ticular source of vitality, there is no common centre of culated members, feet, wings, pincers, palpi, &c. Many j Kingdom. ■ sensation ; thus division and generation are almost syno- of these animals have closed vessels; and the Crustacea Kij a heart and branchiae. Others, according to Cuvier,^ ^ nymous, and when individual parts are mutilated they ai e have nourished by simple imbibition. Those insects which speedily reproduced. With these tribes the production are undergo metamorphoses are furnished with tracheae or of the species is in fact nothing more than a simple air-vessels for respiration, dispersed over their bodies. sprouting of a bud or offset, which separates itself from of the sense of hearing are not discernible the maternal stalk. Zoophytical animals are of no sex, The organs among the Crustacea; taste is universal, and also and thus resemble the agamous vegetables. Ihe mouth except sight, except among the worms. Their jaws always ply is usually placed in the centre of the body, and is fre- laterally. The sexual organs are usually separate. quently surrounded by a species of unarticulated arms, 3£%, The Vertebrata comprehend all those animals which x'adiating from a centre like the petals of many flowers. have a nervous system composed of ganglia, called syraSeveral genera have only a single opening for the recep- pathetic, for the functions of the internal life ; and another tion and rejection of the aliment, f hey have no visceia symmetrical nervous system, of which the principal por(excepting ccBca in certain species) ; no heart, not aiterial nor venous vessels; no true circulation; no apparent tions are inclosed in the cranium and spinal column, and organs of respiration. They are all aquatic, and water which sends off chords for the functions of the external seems indeed the only fluid which pervades their economy. life. These are the most perfect and most highly enThey may be called the cryptogamia of the animal king- dowed of all animals ; they are named intelligens by Ladom. The sense of touch, and perhaps that of taste, marck, and they are always endowed with five senses, of which never fewer than four are situated in the head. seem the only ones enjoyed by these animals. 2 solidity shall run no risk of being enfeebled by the artrary nature of opinion, it is necessary first of all to as1 mble our species according to well-determined affinities ; toi which we may, without inconvenience, trace out the ics of demarcation which separate the groups called isses, and those other subordinate groups of which the tablishment is so advantageous, provided the natural unions are in nowise compromised by their formation, may perhaps be proper shortly to inquire into the nare ^lese relations, their different degrees, and the act uses which it becomes us to make of such as we certain and acknowledge. We shall then be enabled ' greater facility to determine the principles which it ht to establish. delations, according to Lamarck, are those traits of tm dnce or analogy which nature has bestowed, as

KINGDOM. 173 well on her different productions when compared among Animal themselves, as on the different parts of those same pro- Kingdom, ductions when compared with each other. These traitsv ’ of resemblance and affinity are so necessary to be known and understood, that no methodical distribution can be established on a sure foundation, if the objects which it embraces are not arranged according to the law which they prescribe. Relations are of different orders, some being very general, others less so, and many altogether special or particular. Moreover, although, in general, relations belong to nature, all are not the direct result of her operations in regard to her productions ; for among the relations which we perceive between the compared parts of different beings, there are many which result merely from a modifying cause. Thus the relations of exterior form, which are so apparent between the cetacea and fishes, can only be attributed to a property resulting from the dense medium which each inhabits, and not to any direct plan in the operations of nature in regard to both. It is necessary then carefully to distinguish those obvious and acknowledged relations which pertain to the direct operations of nature in the progressive organization of animal life, from certain others, equally obvious and acknowledged, which result from the influence of local circumstances, or from the peculiar habits which different races have in some instances been forced to acquire. Relations of the last-named nature, though certainly of greatly inferior value to the former, are by no means limited in their influence and exhibition to external characters alone ; for it may be demonstrated that the external cause which possesses the power to modify the direct operations of nature frequently exercises an obvious influence on several internal organs. It becomes the more necessary then to establish certain rules, devoid of arbitrary qualities, to enable us justly to appreciate the nature and value of these relations; and it may be established as a principle in zoology, that it is from the interior organization that the most essential are to be obtained. This principle is well founded if it expresses the pre-eminence which ought to be accorded to general considerations, gathered from the interior organization, over those derived from external parts. But if, instead of using it in this manner, we apply it to particular cases of our own choosing, and without pre-established rule, it is capable of great abuse; and we shall arbitrarily assign to relations presented by such or such system of internal organs, a preference over certain others, although the relations of the latter may in reality be of greater importance. By this means, sufficiently convenient for the changeable views of individual authors, we admit into various parts of our distribution inversions in every way contrary to the order of nature. It is true, as has been already observed, that a cause which modifies organization not only acts on the exterior parts of animals, but also produces various modifications in their internal structure. It follows, that it is incorrect to suppose that the relations which exist between the races, and especially between the genera, the families, the orders, or even in certain cases the classes of animals, can always be decided merely from the isolated consideration of any internal organ, arbitrarily selected. On the contrary, Lamarck is of opinion that the relations of which we speak cannot be suitably determined except by a consideration and comparison of the whole of the interior organization, and, auxiliarly, by that of certain special internal organs which assured principles have demonstrated to be the most preferable and important. The second question proposed by M. Lamarck is the following: What are the principles by which we ought to be guided in our operations, so as to exclude from these

ANIMAL KING I) o M. 174 diverse combinations for establishing and distinguishing Animal whatever is arbitrary ? Our author is of opinion that it is these masses. # & Kingdom, by the precise discrimination of each sort ot relations up, From the consideration of these relations, the two folA|A '^^’^and by aid of a determination, substantial and explained, lowing principles may be deduced. of the preference which ought to be accorded to one kind First principle.—The general relations of the second over another, that we shall discover principles proper to kind do not require a perfect resemblance in the interior regulate all the parts of our general distribution of ani- organization of the compared animals. “ Ils exigent seulemals. It is necessary then to determine the principal ment que les masses rapprochees se ressemblent plug kinds of relations which ought to be employed to attain entr’elles, sous ce point de vue, qu’elles ne le pourraient this end, and then to fix the superiority in value which avec aucune autre.” (Anim. sans Vert, tome i. p. 355.) one kind possesses over another. The following is the Second principle.—The greater and more general the classification of Lamarck in further illustration of this sub- compared masses, the more will such masses differ in ject. their internal structure. Thus the families present a less * Relations between Comparative Organizations, deduced difference in the interior organization of the animals by which they are constituted, than the orders or classes. from the whole of their parts. Third hind of general relations.—We may denominate These relations, though general, manifest themselves relations of rank those which serve to determine the posiin different degrees, according as we seek for them among tion in the great series, and which, proceeding from a races compared in themselves, or among groups of ani- fixed point of comparison, effectively show among the mals of different races compared with each other. It is compared objects a relation, whether great or small, in necessary then to distinguish several kinds. First kind of general relations.—These seem immedi- the composition or perfection of the organization. This ately to connect races or species with each other. I hey kind is obtained by comparing any organization whatever, are of necessity the first, because it is they which furnish taken in the totality of its parts, with any other given orthe greatest of the relations between animals which differ ganization which may be presented as a point of deparfrom each other. The zoologist who determines it, taking ture or of comparison. It is then determined, by the reinto consideration all the parts of organization, as well in- semblance, greater or less, which is found between the two terior as exterior, admits not of this sort of relation, un- compared structures, to what extent that which we comless when it presents the smallest and least important pare departs from or approaches to that which is given as a difference. We know that animals which resemble each point of comparison. \V e shall see that this sort of relaother perfectly, both in their internal and external organi- tion is the only one which ought to serve for regulating zation, can be nothing more than individuals of the same the rank of all those important primary masses into which species. In this case the relation is not considered, as we divide the animal kingdom. If we consider the question concerning the choice of such animals offer no distinction. But those which present among themselves a difference, tangible, constant, and at a particular organization, from or towards which to remove the same time the smallest possible, are connected by or approximate other organizations successively, accordthe greatest and most immediate of relations, if they pre- ing to their greater or less resemblance, it becomes evisent elsewhere a great resemblance in all the parts of dent that the selection ought to fall on one or other extheir interior organization, as well as in the greater pro- tremity of the animal kingdom (as in that case there portion of their external features. And this sort of rela- would be no uncertain balancing), and the best known tion does not demand a consideration of the degree of extremity should have the preference. Thus, in setting composition or relative perfection of the animal organiza- out from the most perfect and highly finished structure, tion, for it determines itself in all the ranks of the scale. we should, in the determination of all the ranks, proceed It is so easy to seize, that every one acknowledges it at from the most composite to the most simple, and should first sight; and it is by employing it that naturalists have close the series by the most imperfect and least organized formed those smaller portions of the general series called of the whole. Of all forms of structure, that of man, considered in genera, notwithstanding the arbitrary nature of their limits. Thus, in this first kind of relation, which may be its totality, is at once the most composite and complete. called the relation of species, the difference between the From this M. Lamarck concludes that the more any aniobjects compared is the smallest possible, and need only mal organization approaches that of the human race, the be sought for in the particularities of form or of the ex- more it advances towards comparative perfection and ternal parts of individuals. its own completion. This being the case, the organizaSecond hind of general relations.—This embraces the tion of man is with that author the point of comparison agreements which exist between groups of different ani- and departure from which to judge of the relation, whemals when compared together. It may be named the re- ther near or distant, of every form of animal structure, lation of groups; and, to acquire a knowledge of its nature, and by which we are to determine the rank which those we must no longer occupy ourselves essentially with the forms, or the groups which they constitute, ought to ocparticulars of the general form, nor with those of the ex- cupy in the general series. The organization alluded to, ternal parts, but almost solely with the interior organiza- considered in the totality of its parts, furnishes the means tion, considered in all its parts. It is this kind chiefly by which to judge of the degree of composition and perwhich ought to furnish the differences by which we dis- fection of other animal structures also regarded in their tinguish the groups from each other; and it is inferior in totality. And in doubtful cases it is not difficult to rid one or more degrees to the first kind in the quantity of ourselves of uncertainty and embarrassment, by having reresemblances which exist between the compared objects. course to the fourth kind of relations, or to those princiIt serves to form the families, by connecting the genera ples which concern the comparison of the different organs with each other; to institute the orders, or the sections of separately considered, and establish a predominating value the orders, by uniting several families ; and, lastly, it deter- and influence among certain of those organs when commines the classical groups into which we ought to parti- pared with others. Thus, our point of departure or comtion the general series. The relations of which we now parison being found, the rank of all the divisions may be speak cannot, however, be employed to determine the assigned with facility by the aid of the principles which rank of the great masses of that series, but only to form follow.

ANIMAL

KINGDOM. 175 pared, that of which nature has made the most general Animal Fint principle.—For the determination of the rank of £ , ach mass in the series,—the most complicated and com- employment ought to have the pre-eminence assigned itvKingdom, v 1 ■lete of animal organizations being selected as the point in the value of the relations which it presents. Accord- -^ ^^ f comparison,—the more another form of animal struc- ing to this principle, the following is the order of importjre considered in the whole of its parts, resembles that ance which we ought to attribute to the particular organs f the fore-chosen, the more it will approximate towards which nature has employed in the interior organization of by its relations; and reciprocally in the converse cases. animals The organs of production; Second principle.—Among the organizations of which The organs of digestion ; ie plans are different from that which comprehends the The organs of respiration ; The organs of sensation ; articular structure selected as the point of comparison, The organs of movement; The organs of circulation. Thiis, when we take into view the greatest generality lose which offer one or more systems of organs similar r analogous to such as form a portion of that with which of employment of the particular organs of which nature ley are compared, shall rank superior to those possessed makes use in the interior organization of animals, we perfa smaller number of these organs, and, a fortiori, to those ceive that the organs of digestion occupy the foremost rank,—those of circulation the last. We have thus an ori which they are wanting. With the assistance of the three kinds of relations above der of value or precedence, in regard to these important idicated, and the principles deducible from them, M. La- organs, capable of regulating, in doubtful cases, the prelarck regards it as easy to determine the distinctions ference which one relation merits over another. Second principle.—Between two different modes of the f species, and those of the various larger groups which iccies form ; and to decide, in a manner by no means ar- same organ, or system of organs, that which is most anaitrary, the rank and station of each group in the great logous to the mode employed in a superior or more comiries. If this be true, the science will cease to be as va- posite and complete organization, merits the preference in the relations which it exhibits. If, for example, we desire jillating in its onward march as it has hitherto proved. But our efforts would be incomplete, and would still to employ a relation afforded by the organs of respiration,— ■ave too large a field for the exercise of arbitrary opi- to judge of the preference which it deserves over that ofions, if no attempt were made to establish and define the fered by other organs,—we are obliged, according to the due of particular relations,—that is to say, of those which principle above established, to keep in view the following ;-e obtained by the comparison of particular internal Gr- consideration:—Although the system of organs provided ins, considered in an isolated manner in different animals. for respiration is very widely employed in the organization of animals, since, with the exception of the polyped and * Relations between similar or analogous parts talien se- infusorial classes, all the rest possess a respiratory sysparately in the organization of dijf h'ent animals, and tem, yet the mode of that system not being the same in compared ivith each other. all the classes by which it is exercised, we assign a higher The fourth hind of general relations merely embraces value to the true lung than to the branchia, to the latter irticular relations between unmodified parts. It is drawn than to the aeriferous tracheae, and to these than to the om the comparison of parts separately considered, and aquiferous tracheae. According to this view, we may judge liich, in the system of organization to which they belong, whether the mode of respiratory organs of which we wish fer no real anomaly. The consideration of this kind is to employ the relation, is sufficiently high in value to per imetimes of great consequence in assisting to decide in mit our yielding to it a preference over a relation deduced Dubtful cases, when we are anxious to determine, among from some other kind of organs. Ttain compared groups, to which the superiority' of rank The fifth hind of relations embraces the particidar relaight to be assigned. Such cases sometimesi occur where tions observable between the modified parts. It requires ic whole of the parts of the interior organization present that, among the parts compared, we should discriminate ) means of deciding, in an unarbitrary manner, to which between that which is due to the real plan of nature, and ' two organizations the superiority belongs. It is espe- that which pertains to the modifications which that plan ally in the formation and position of the orders, sections, has experienced from accidental causes. Thus this class milies, and even genera, of each class, and consequently of relations is derived from parts which, considered sepathe assignment of the rank of all these inferior groups, rately in different animals, are not in the state in which lat the employment of this fourth kind of relations is of they ought to be, according to the plan of organization to Ivantage; because, in regard to such groups, the prin- which they belong. To judge of the degree of importple of the third sort of relations is frequently very diffi- ance which ought to be accorded to a relation, and the ilt of application ; and thus arbitrary modes of arrange- preference which it deserves over another, it is a matter ent are introduced, most baneful to the science, by ex- of no slight consequence to distinguish if the form, the inising the works of naturalists to a continual variation in creased or diminished development, or even the entire ie determination of the relations which ought to fix the disappearance of the particular organs under consideration, imposition of the groups, and their order of position, belongs to the plan of organization of the animals subjecti fact, as many animals, really connected by the general ed to such modifications; or whether the state of these I unacters of their class, present remarkable differences in organs is not rather produced by a modifying and deterTtain of their interior organs, and yet at the same time minable cause, which has altered or annihilated that which dlibit equally striking resemblances in others, we feel nature had executed, and would have maintained, but for lat, in order to appreciate the degree of importance pos- the influence of that later cause. “ For example,” says' issed by the relations which exist between particular or- Lamarck, “ it would have been impossible for nature to ms, we must have recourse to certain regulating prin- furnish a head to the infusoria, the polypi, or the radiata, ples in our determinations, to avoid arbitrary conclusions, &c.; for the condition of these bodies, and the degree of be two following principles are proposed by Lamarck, to their organization, did not permit it; and it was only on nible us to appreciate the relations observable between arriving at the class of insects that a genuine head could irticular internal organs in different animals compared be supplied.” Now, as nature never retrogrades in her ith each other. operations, we naturally expect, that when once arrived First principle.—Between two internal organs, or syrs- at the formation of insects, and consequently of heads, the s m of internal organs, separately considered and com- recipients of the special senses, all animal organizations

ANIMAL KINGDOM. 176 montre,” says Lamarck, “ dans ma Philosophic Zoology j Animal superior in composition to that of insects will also exhibit Kingdom, these organs. This, however, is not universally the case; (tome i. p. 269), que, pour rendre la distribution generaje K des animaux conforme a fordre qua suivi la mature en^ because no distinct head is observable among the annehdes, produisant toutes les races qui existent, d fallait proceder the cirrhipedes, and many mollusca, all of which are gene- du plus simple vers le plus compose,—e’est-a-dire, qu’il rally regarded as superior to the class of insects. Une etait necessaire de commencer cette distribution par les cause etrangere a la nature, en un mot, une cause modih- plus imparfaits des animaux, et les plus simples en orgaante et determinable, s’est done opposee a ce que les am- nisation, afin de la terminer par les plus parfaits, par ceux maux cites soient pourvus d une veritable tetc. ( nun. qui ont 1’organisation la plus composee.” He further obsans Vert, tome i. p. 363.) And that cause appears to have serves, in his Anim. sans Vert. “ Get ordre est le seul qui operated sometimes by hindering to a greater or less ex- soit naturel, instructif pour nous, favorable a nos etudes tent the development of that part of the body, and at de la nature; et qui puisse, en outre, nous faire connoitre other times by effecting its complete destiuction. e marche de cette derniere, ses moyens, et les lois qui find the same thing in regard to eyes and teeth, and to la various other parts both of the internal and external struc- regissent ses operations a leur egard.” Although we find it less pleasant or conformable to our habitual ture; because a modifying cause has had the power to alter, may enlarge, diminish, or even to effect the total disappeai- taste to present at the head of the animal kingdom creaance of these organs. We may perceive, then, that the tures of the most limited perceptions, excessively minute relations obtained from the consideration of changed or in size, and of scarcely any consistence in their parts,modified parts must be of very inferior value to those yet as in all things it is necessary to consider the end in furnished by the same parts existing in a state conform- view, and the means which conduct towards it, Lamarck able to the plan of nature. Hence results the following is of opinion that the arrangement established by usage Principle.—Whatever nature has directly formed de- in the distribution of animals is precisely that which serves a pre-eminence in value over that produced by a leads us away from the point in view, as well as the least fortuitous cause, which has modified the work of nature; favourable for our instruction, and that it opposes the and in the choice of a relation to be employed, we should greatest number of obstacles in the way of our perceiving assign the preference to every organ, or system of organs, the plan, the order, and the means employed by nature in which we find existing as it ought to do according to the her operations concerning the animal world. If in the study and examination of living bodies we had plan of organization of which it forms a part, over that organ, or that system of organs, of which either the condi- no other object in view than to distinguish the one from tion or existence has resulted from a modifying cause, ex- the other by characters deduced from their external forms—and if we were not desirous to regard their various traneous to original nature. When two different organs, between which a choice is and wonderful faculties otherwise than as simple matters to be made, are both found to be changed or altered by a of amusement, not altogether unfitted to excite the cumodifying cause, the preference should be given to that riosity of a leisure hour—then the most ordinary and artiwhich is least removed by such a modification from the ficial system would suffice ; for in that case it would be condition in which it would have existed according to the useless to occupy ourselves with researches concerning the affinities of animals, or to study their internal structure. plan of organization of which it formed a part. The third question proposed by M. Lamarck is as fol- But all naturalists are now agreed regarding the high imlows :—What disposition or mode of arrangement should portance of these affinities, and the necessity of holding be given to the general distribution of animals, so as to them ever in view in our general arrangement of the anirender it conformable to the order followed by nature in mal kingdom. The bat is no longer classed with birds the production of these beings ? To resolve this question, merely because, like them, it wings its way -through the we must also endeavour to deduce some principle from air; nor are seals or whales regarded as fishes because nature herself, with a view to such conformity; for if we the dense nature of the medium which they inhabit rewere to determine the general distribution of animals ac- quires a somewhat analogous form; neither are cuttlecording to the progression which exists in the animal or- fish and polypi confounded together, though the mouth of ganization, it appears that we might, in that progression, each is surrounded by numerous arms. proceed with as much reason from the most composite to We have dwelt at greater length than we intended on the most simple, as from the most simple to the most com- the system of Lamarck, or rather on the views by which posite. Such a proceeding, however, could not rest on a he seeks to illustrate the principles on which his system proper basis; for we shall find that nature, consulted in professes to be built. Though occasionally prolix, and the order of her operations in regard to animals, indicates sometimes rather obscure, his observations, on the whole, the following principle, which excludes all arbitrary se- are well deserving of an attentive consideration. Like lection :—Nature always operating in a gradual manner, and most of his countrymen, he is unfortunately more reconsequently never producing animals otherwise than suc- gardful of secondary causes, and more anxious to illuscessively, has obviously proceeded in such a production from trate their fitness and sufficiency, than he is ready to acthe most simple towards the most complex. We ought, knowledge the source from which they spring, or to adtherefore, in our general distribution, to imitate the order mire the wisdom and beneficence of their providential inwhich nature herself has followed. “ J’ai, en effet, stitution.1 1 ,U The doctrine of Epicurus, that the Deity concerns not himself with the affairs of the world or its inhabitants, which, as Cicero has judiciously observed (De Nat. Dear. lib. i. ad calcem), while it acknowledges a God in words, denies him in reality, has furnished the original stock upon which most of these bitter fruits of modern infidelity are grafted. Nature, in the eyes of a large proportion of the enemies of revelation, occupies the place, and does the work, of its great Author. Thus Hume, when he writes against miracles, appears to think that the Deity has delegated some or all of his powers to nature, and will not interfere with that trust (Essays, xi. 75); and, to name^ no more, Lamarck, treading in some measure in the steps of Robinet (who supposes that all theh ^ of the animal kingdom, in which nature gradually ascends from low to high, were experiments in her progress towards her great am ultimate aim, the foimation of man—Darclay cm Organization, &c» 263), thus states his opinion:—u La nature, dans toutes ses opeft* tions, ne pouvant proceder que graduellement, n’a pu produire tous les animaux a la fois ; elle d’abord n’a forme que les plus simple*' et passant de ceux-ci jusques aux plus composes, elle a etabli successivement en eux differens systemes d’organes particuliers, k5,i

ANIMAL

KINGDOM.

177 We shall now proceed to the system of another natu™ collection of the oral demonstrations of his great master Animal jom. alist, also highly accomplished in the science, M. Du- we were originally indebted for the publication of the Kingdom. * .Ticri]} the friend and pupil of Baron Cuvier, and to whose Lemons d’Anatomic Comparee. al

Table of the Classification of Animals, according to the System of Dumeril. 'with mammae ; viviparous nternally articulated; 1 without mammae ; filings; /feathers, wings ’ & ^neither leathers nor wings vertebrated; oviparous; no lungs; branchiae /tracheae •Ixternally articulated; articulated members /branchiae invertebrated; ^no articulated members distinct respiratory organs ; vessels \Tot articulated; no respiratory organs; no vessels The ensuing tabular view exhibits the classification imposed by M. de Blainville. We shall leave the reader o judge for himself of the propriety of introducing so uany new appellations for groups constructed long ago.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Mammifeile. Birds. Reptiles Fishes. Insects. Crustacea. Worms. Mollusc a. Zoophytes.

His nomenclature is no doubt intimately connected with his views of the structure and physiology of animals, and is highly approved of and adopted by many competent judges of the science.

Synoptical Table of the Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary Divisions of the Animal Kingdom, denominated Sub-Kingdoms, Types, Sub-Types, and Classes, by M. de Blainville. From the Principes dAnatomic Comparee of that author. ANIMAL KINGDOM.

Type /. interiorly. OSTEOZO AIRES.

articulated.

/. Sub-Kingdom. tegular or Autiomorfhous Animals. Art i ozo aires. sub-articulated..

I. Sub- Type. ’ Provided with mammae and ...hairs.. Viviparous.

Classes. I. Piliferes or Mammalia.

- II. Sub-Type. Without mammae. Oviparous, ffeathers Provided with j naked skin..!' ffins Type II. f 3 pair exteriorly. 4 pair..... Entomozoaires, f articulated to 5 pair. or articulated ani- 1 the number of variable mals. 7 pair With appendages, = the segments I not articulated [none Type III. Malentozoaires or Molluscarticules.

Type IV. Malacozoaires The head -f( fnot ‘*s/1distinct... li1.ch" Molluscous animals. sub-radiated II Sub-Kingdom. Radiated or Actinomorphous Animals. Actinozoaires. not articulated

normal or true.. | II/. Sub-Kingdom. • Irregular or Heteromorpiious Animals. Heterozoaires.

2. Penxiferes or Birds. 3. Squammiferes or Reptiles. 4. Nudipelliferes—Amphibia. 5. PlNNIFERES or FlSHES. 6. Hexapodes. 7. OcTOPODES. 8. Decapodes. 9. Heteropodes. 10. Tetradecapodes. 11. Myriapodes. 12. Chitopodes. 13. Apodes.

j 14. Nematopodes. (15. Polyplaxiphores. IfJ. 1718. '19. 20. - 21. 22. ^23. , „, « 24. 25. I 26.

Cephalopiiores. Acephalophores. Annelidaires. Ceratodermaires Arachnodermaires. XoANTHAIRES. Poi.YPIAIRES. ZoOPlIYTAIRES. _ Sfongiaires. Monadaires or Moleculaires. Dendrolitiiaxres.

multiplies, en a augmente de plus en plus I’energie, et les cumulant dans les plus parfaits, elle a fait exister tous les animaux connus ivec 1 organisation et les facultes que nous leur observons.” (Anim. sans Vertebr. i. 123.) Thus denying to the Creator the glory of omung those works of creation, the animal and vegetable kingdom (for he assigns to both the same origin, ibid. 83), in which his glonous attributes are most conspicuously manifested; and ascribing them to nature, or a certain order of things, as he defines it (214)—■ s urnd power, that operates necessarily (311), which he admits, however, to be the product of the will of the Supreme Being (216). ^remarkable, that in his earlier works, in which he broaches a similar opinion, we find no mention of a Supreme Being. (See his . ys unc des Animaux sans Vertebra^ Discours d'Ouvcrturc.) Thus we may say, that, like his forerunner Epicurus, Re tollit, dum oralkme rttnquit Dcum. But though he ascribes all to nature, yet, as the immediate cause of all the animal forms, he refers to the local circums .Hues, wants, and habits of individual animals themselves : these he regards as the modifiers of their organization and structure (162). VOL. HI. 2

kingdoms, viz. 1. Acrita, composed of the infusoria, the “polypi, the corallines, the tcenice, and the least organized of the intestinal worms. 2. Radiata, containing medusa:, star-fish, sea-urchins or echini, and others. 3. Annulosa, consisting of insecta, arachnida, and Crustacea.

scripture. Metaphysicians enumerate seven principal operations of the mind, musicians seven principal tones, and opticians seven primary colours. In scripture, the abstract idea of this number is, completion, fullness, perfection. Mr Kirby seems to think that Mr Macleay’s quinaries maybe found resolvable into septenaries, in consequence of future investigations.2 We shall enter at greater length into a detailed expo-

Fo show the absurd nonplus to which this his favourite theory has reduced him, it will onlv he necessary to mention the individual instances which, in different works, he adduces to exemplify it. In his Systeme he supposes that the webfooted birds (Anseres) acquired their natatory feet by frequently separating their toes as far as possible from each other in their efforts to swim. Thus the skin that unites these toes at their base contracted a habit of stretching itself; and thus in time the web-foot of the duck and the goose was produced. I he waders (Grallce), which, in order to procure their food, must stand in the water, but do not love to swim, from their constant efforts to keep their bodies from submersion, were in the habit of always stretching their legs with this view, till they giew Ion" enough to spare them the trouble! ! ! (13). How the poor birds escaped drowning before they had got their web-feet a ( *) long legs the author does not inform us. In another work, which I have not now by me, I recollect he attributes the long neck of the camelopard to its efforts to reach the boughs of the mimosa, which, after the lapse of a few thousand years, it at length accomplished ... In Ins last work he selects as an example one of the Moluscac, which, as it moved along, felt an inclination to explore by means of touch the bodies in its path : for this purpose it caused the nervous and other fluids to move in masses successively to certain points of its head, and thus in process of time it acquired its horns or tentacula ! ! (A nim. sans Verte.br. i. 188.) Hb grievous that this eminent zoologist, who in other respects stands at the head of his science, should patronize notions so confessedly absurd and childish. (Introduction to Entomology, by Kirby and Spence, vol. iii. p. 349 ) 1 See Horae Entomologies, and Kirby & Spence’s Introduction to Entomology vol iii p 12 - Introduction to Entomology, vol. iii. p. 15. The quinary system, in its application 'to insects and other annulose animals, is pretty fully developed by its ingenious author in his Horae Entomologicas, already more than once referred to. An excellent paper by Mr Vigors, on the classification of birds, m accordance with the same system, will be found in the 14th volume of tlie Transactions of the Juiiuicbcm society.

ANIMAL

KINGDOM. 179 Class 2d. Pteropoda. Genus Clio, &c. Animal i : jaal jition of the quinary system, of arrangement under the Class 3d. Gasteropoda. Slugs, snails, and numerous Kingdom, f »irarticles Entomology and Ornithology. groups of turbinated shells. Class kth. Acephala. Oysters, mussels, and other biCuvier divides the animal kingdom into four principal valve shells, &c. tranches. Setting aside all accessory and artificial chaClass 5th. Brachiopoda. Terebratulae, &c. •acters, he proceeds upon the consideration of the essenClass &th. Cirrhopodes. Barnacle shells, &c. Lepas ial structure of animals, and thus deduces four great and Triton. (Linnaeus.) groups or separate types of form, to one or other of which ill the minor divisions may be ultimately referred. The third great preponderating form is represented by In the first of these forms the brain, and the great cen- insects and other analogous classes. Their nervous sysral trunk of the nervous system called the spinal marrow, tem consists of two long ventral or sublateral chords, which ire protected by strong bony coverings—the cranium and swell out at intervals into knots or ganglia. The first of /ertebral column. To the sides of that column are at- these ganglia, placed above the oesophagus, is analogous ached the ribs and the bones of the anterior and poste- to the brain, although it does not exceed in size and •ior members. All the classes of this primary division are scarcely in importance the ganglia of the lengthened cords, irovided with red blood, a muscular heart, a mouth with with which it communicates by means of a ring which wo horizontal jaws, and special organs of vision, hearing, embraces the oesophagus like a collar. The general aste, and smell, placed in the head or upper and anterior covering of the body in this division is sometimes hard, portion. They have never more than four members ; their sometimes soft, and is divided into segments by a certain sexes are always separate; and they nearly resemble each number of transverse incisions. The muscles are always >ther in the distribution of their medullary masses, and attached to the interior, and the body is usually, though he principal branches of their nervous system. On ex- not universally, provided with articulated members. It is tmining more narrowly the constituent parts of the classes among the classes of this form that we begin to perceive vhich compose this great assemblage, it is easy to disco- the passage from a system of circulation in closed vessels /er many striking analogies both of form and structure, called arteries and veins, to nutrition derived from imbibi;ven in those groups which are most distantly related to tion ; and a corresponding passage from respiration in cir;ach other; and from the human species to the last of cumscribed organs to that performed by tracheae or air;he fishes there exists an obvious conformity to the same vessels, distributed over the whole body, is likewise obgeneral plan. The name of Vertebrated Animals is servable. The organs of taste and sight are the most lestowed on this division, on account of their being pos- distinct in this branch ; the organ of hearing is apparent sessed of a vertebral column or back-bone. The following only in a single family, although we can scarcely doubt ire the principal groups or classes into which it is further that the sense exists in others in which the organ has not been ascertained. The following classes are ranked under livisible. this great form. FIRST PRIMARY DIVISION: ANIMALIA VERTEBRATA. Class ls£. Man, mammiferous land-animals, and ceTHIRD PRIMARY DIVISION: ANIMALIA ARTICULATA. 'tacea. Class 1st. Annelides. Serpulse, nereids, leeches, earthClass 2d. Birds. worms, the hair-eel, &c. Class 3r?. Reptiles. Class 2d. Crustacea. Crabs, lobsters, shrimps, &c. Class kth. Fishes. Class 3d. Arachnides. Spiders, scorpions, mites, &c. Class Uh. Insecta. Beetles, flies, butterflies, &c. The second great division possesses no skeleton. The nuscles are attached to the skin, which forms a soft conIn the three preceding divisions, the organs of moveractile envelope; and many of the species are protected ment and of sensation are disposed symmetrically on both iy hard coverings, commonly called shells, which are sup- sides of an axis, with an anterior and posterior portion difposed to occupy in the cutaneous system of this form of from each other. Among the zoophytes, which form animal life the same station as the mucous membrane of fering the preceding division. The nervous system is contained the last great division, the organs are usually disposed in along with the viscera within this general envelope, and a radiated form. They approach the nature of plants in is composed of many dispersed portions, of which the the extreme simplicity of their structure. They have no distinct nervous system, nor organs of the special senses; principal, placed above the oesophagus, may be regarded and it is barely possible to detect in a few of the species as representing the brain. Of the four special senses it is slight vestige of the circulating system. Their resimpossible to discover the organs of more than two, taste some and sight; and even of these the last is frequently want- piratory organs are almost always on the surface of their ing. The organs of hearing are visible only in one family. bodies. The greater proportion of the classes exhibit no The system of circulation is however complete; there are other intestine than a sack or caecum, and the composition particular organs for the performance of respiration ; and of the last groups of all presents only a homogeneous the functions of digestion and secretion are almost as pulpy mass, sensible, and endowed with motion. From a complicated as in the vertebrated classes. The subdivi- consideration of their most usual forms, the classes of this sions of this second form are called Molluscous Ani- order are named Radiated Animals. They are as mals ; and although the external configuration of their follows:— parts does not exhibit the same agreement as that of the FOURTH PRIMARY DIVISION: ANIMALIA RADI AT A. vertebrated classes, there is always a corresponding reClass ls£. Echinodermata. Star-fish, sea-urchins, &c. semblance in their essential structure and functions. The Class 2d. Entozoa. Intestinal worms. following are the classes of this branch of the animal Class 3d. Acalephae. Sea-nettles, actiniae, medusae, kingdom. &c. SECOND PRIMARY DIVISION: ANIMALIA MOLLUSCA. Class \th. Polypi. Corals, madrepores, sponges, &c. Class Itf. Cephalopoda, e. g. cuttle-fish, nautili, belemClass 5th. Infusoria. Infusory and other microscopinites, argonauts, &c. cal animals.

ANIMAL KINGDOM. 180 Animal Such are the great outlines of a system which, consi- heads, in the alphabetical order, of the following terms Kingdom dered in its generality, is certainly the most satisfactory Crustacea, Arachnides, and Entomology. In regard to the fourth primary division, that of the radiated aniII which vet . appeared. Particular departments may 1 1 Animal-have been - has filled • ’ mals, commonly called Zoophytes, the first class, named up, modified, and perhaps improved by Echinodermata, will be treated of separately under its cule. , ingenious observers, sedulous within a limited sphere (and own title; the second class, Entozoa, which contains the of these ameliorations we shall be careful to avail our- intestinal worms, will be grouped with the Annelides or selves when we come to enter upon a detailed view o red-blooded worms (as above from the third each of the classes of the animal kingdom) ; but the con- primary division) ; and these twoexcepted classes will be treated of struction and position of the principal groups, their leal as together under the article Helminthology. rewell as relative characters, are developed in the system of maining classes of the Animalia Radiata, that is to The say, the the great French anatomist, in a manner more clear and accordant with nature than in any other yet promulgated. Acalephae, the Polypi, and part of the Infusoria, as they We shall therefore in the course of this work adhere, form the last links of the animal kingdom, will come to be with some slight transpositions, the reasons for which will discussed with greater propriety at the concluding stage be stated in their proper place, to the classes of Baron of this work, under the head of Zoophytes. Finally, that Cuvier. The greater extent and importance of some of portion of the infusorial class which we have excepted in these, in comparison with others, will induce us to bestow the above distribution will be found described in the premore attention and a larger space to their illustration; sent volume under the word Animalcule. This comand as certain of the primary divisions, such as the Mol- pletes the exposition of our zoological system. The following enumeration exhibits a view of the terms lusca and Radiata, contain a greater number of classes, if not of less importance, at least by no means so strongly under which the principal subjects of zoology will be excharacterized or contradistinguished from each other as plained and illustrated in the course of this work. are those of the vertebrated tribes, we shall, in presenting Systematic Arrangement. Alphabetical Arrangement the history and nomenclature of such classes, group them Animalcules. Mammalia. together in such a manner as to exhibit them to the Arachnides. Ornithology. reader either under one of the great primary divisions, or Crustacea. Reptilia. as an intermediate subdivision, containing one or more Echinodermata. Ichthyology. classes. For example, the article Mollusca of this work Entomology. Mollusca. will present consecutively under a single head the history Helminthology. Crustacea. and classification of the six classes contained in the seIchthyology. Arachnides. cond primary division so named;—but the four classes of Mammalia. Entomology. vertebrated animals will be each discussed in a separate Mollusca. Echinodermata. treatise. Thus mammiferous animals, birds, reptiles, and Ornithology. Helminthology. fishes, will form the articles Mammalia, Ornithology, Reptilia. Zoophytes. Reptilia, and Ichthyology. The Classes of the third (t.) Zoophytes. Animalcules. primary division, viz. Annelides, Crustacea, Arachnides, and Insecta, will (with the exception of the first, referred Animal Magnetism. See Magnetism, Animal. to Helminthology) likewise be treated of under distinct ANIMALCULE. Animalcule, a diminutive term (from the word animal), applied by naturalists to those minute beings which become apparent in various fluids when subjected to the microscope. They were named infusory animals {Infusoria) by Muller, one of the most celebrated observers in this department of zoology; and the appellation, however inapplicable, now occurs in the majority of scientific publications. Of course it applies with propriety only to such species as are developed through the medium of infused substances. Now we know, that of 400 species of Infusoria (commonly so called) described by Muller himself, not a sixth part were observed in any kind of infusions ; whilst the remainder inhabited the most translucent waters, and speedily died when placed in impure or corrupted liquids. Even the word animalcule (or little animal) does not convey a positive or sufficiently restricted idea in relation to this particular class; because mites and certain polypi are extremely minute in their dimensions, and equally require the aid of microscopical investigation; and thus the term microscopies {microscopiques), recently proposed by M. Bory de St Vincent, is not less faulty than its predecessors. The size of an animal, in fact, bears no essential relation to the other conditions of its organization; and therefore we cannot infer its nature with any certainty 1

from a knowledge of its dimensions. At the same time it must be admitted, that the most simply organized, both of plants and animals, are also the most minute; and thus the Infusoria may be regarded as possessed of certain characters in common. We here adopt the word Animalcule, chiefly because it is the most familiar to the English reader. The subjects of our present observations may be thus defined :—Animals invisible to the naked eye ;1 more or less translucent; unprovided with members (the caudal, and other appendices, with which certain species are furnished, being scarcely regardable as such); no perceptible eyes; contractile in whole or in part; endowed with the sense of touch ; deriving nourishment by absorption; generation (when not apparently spontaneous, and consequently incomprehensible) effected by division, or by the emissim oj gemmules or oviform bodies ; inhabitants of liquids. They are the smallest and most simple of living creatures, but not less perfect than the other tribes; for though they possess the fewest faculties, their means are in every way adequate to their wants, and their vital energies proportioned to their sphere of enjoyment. Among microscopical animals we find many species which, in their aspect and structure, present no analogy

Hie Volvox gldbator, and a few others, which are just discernible without the aid of a microscope, form exceptions to the above character. ' ’

ANIMALCULE. 181 divides the Class of Animalcula Infusoria as folAnimal0 other forms of animal life: they are merely moving cule. mlecules of the simplest organization, the exact nature of lows : vhich it is sometimes difficult to determine, and which Order I.—No External Organs. ivolve in deeper obscurity the mysterious line of demar* Thickened. ation by which we so often seek in vain to separate the nimal from the vegetable kingdom. If, however^ the Genus 1. Monas; body punctiform. 10 species. •ue distinction between plants and animals consists chiefly 2. Proteus; body variable. 2 species. i the irritability and power of contraction possessed by 3. Volvox; body spherical. 12 species. he latter, then the Infusoria, which are strongly endowed 4. Enchelis; body cylindrical. 27 species. -ith these attributes, are indeed so far removed from the 5. Vibrio; body elongated. 31 species. e^etable kingdom, that the name of Zoophytes, or animal * * Membranous. lants, is inapplicable to the class to which they belong, a the extreme simplicity of their structure, they no doubt 6. Cyclidium; body oval. 10 species. resent some analogy to the least complicated tribes of 7. Paramccdum; body oblong. 5 species. lants, such as the algae and others; but it is a mere ana8. Kolpoda; body sinuous. 16 species. )e not now classed among the animalcular tribes. He former of which correspond to the ciliated polypi of La-

[g2 A N I M A Animal- marck, the latter to the Infusoria properly so called of cule. that author. , T „ According to M. de Blainville, the class Infusoria can scarcely be regarded as established upon a natural foundation. The organization of its component tribes is so various as to lead to the belief that a more precise knowledge would show that several of those tribes belong to different types of the animal kingdom. Some, as the genus Brachionus, are symmetrically formed both as regards their bodies and appendages, and are protected by a horny or crustaceous covering. Others, as Vibno, 1 arammeium, &c. have the body elongated,^ depressed, vei miform, and without appendages. A third division exhibit a radiated structure, as for example the Vorticellae, which, however, we have already stated, are now seldom classed among the Infusoria. Many genera, such as Pioteus, Volvox, Monas, are amorphous, or without determinate form, and cannot be referred to any other known type of the animal kingdom. They are regarded by many as the elementary molecules of all animal life, and in their structure no other than the cellular tissue is observable. They may be said to be dependent on external circumstances, instead of being able, like, other animals, to modify or control them ; and their usually spherical form is the necessary result of an equal pressure of w'ater on all sides of a frail and yielding texture. M. de Blainville considers the genera Brachionus, Urcelaria, Cercaria, Furcularia, Kerona, Trichocerca, and Himantopus, as belonging to the type of Enlomozoaires or articulated animals, and especially to the class Heteropoda, order Entomostraca. Many species of Vibrio he regards as Apodes, as well as ParamcEcium and Kolpoda. Other species of the genera Vibrio and Cyclidium ought rather to be ranged with the Blanaria; and in the genus Leucophra there is even a species which M. de Blainville is inclined to look upon as an Ascidia ! Finally, the genera Gonium, Proteus, Volvox, and Monas, if they are really animals, appear to form a distinct type, which may be called Amorphes or Agastraires; so named from the circumstance of their having neither determinate form nor reduplication of the external envelope for the formation of a stomach, as in all other true animals. Such is a brief exposition of the views of one of the most distinguished physiological inquirers of the present day. It may serve, if for nothing more, at least to show the unsettled state of opinion concerning these extraordinary creatures. In regard to this, however, we may rest assured that, in the future progress of science, the class Infusoria, as at present constituted, will suffer an entire dismemberment, and its component parts will be referred to various groups of the animal kingdom, some of them widely distant from each other. In the year 1826 a full and most elaborate classification of microscopical animals was given to the world by M. Bory de St Vincent. As it is the singular mode of existence of animalcular beings, their general economy in the field of nature, the actual conditions of their organization, and the state of their limited faculties so far as these can be ascertained, with which we are chiefly interested—so, in our systematic view of this extraordinary class, we shall merely present to our readers the characters of the principal genera, and of a few of the most remarkable species which they contain. But, as some may be desirous to possess at least a sketch of the full extent and condition of this intricate subject, we have constructed the accompanying tabular scheme of the orders, families, and genera of microscopical animals, according to the views of M. Bory de St Vincent, the latest and most assiduous writer on this department wuth whose labours we are acquainted. We have thought it advisable to retain the

L c u L E. terms of the original language, lest, by inadvertence or misconception on the part of the translator, any additional obscurity should rise around a subject already sufficiently^encumbered. {See Tabular View on the opposite page.) The order Gymnodes of Bory de St Vincent nearly con responds to the entire class Infusoria of Lamarck; and although the observations by which he illustrates his arrangement partake of the accustomed defects of the French philosophy, the facts which he details, if not the theoretical views which he inculcates, are worthy of an attentive consideration. These mysterious creatures are observed to swim with astonishing rapidity; and although their bodies are usually diaphanous, it has hitherto proved impossible, even by the aid of the most powerful glasses, to ascertain by what natural mechanism these movements are effected. They direct their courses by a discretionary power, in one direction rather than another, avoiding and turning round opposing obstacles, according to the necessities of the case—discerning, as the process of evaporation proceeds, the points in which they may prolong their existence, and flocking in crowds to those places where they are best screened from the overpowering brilliancy of the reflecting mirror. They thus appear to possess volition, which we are accustomed to regard as a result dependent on the faculties of perception and comparison. The principal obstacle to our understanding the essential nature of animalcules results from their want of a nervous system, which, in ourselves, and in all the intermediate classes of the nature of whose' consciousness we have even a vague idea, we regard as the sine qua non of sensation and intelligence. Voluntary motion without muscular action is also a circumstance which we cannot very clearly comprehend. But as there may be “ more things in heaven and earth than are dream’t of in our philosophy,” we must not reject facts, that is to say appearances which present themselves under the same determinate and uniform aspect to various unprejudiced observers, merely because they do not coincide, or may possibly controvert or interfere, with a previous hypothesis. On the other hand, the extreme softness of texture, and excessive minuteness, of most of the animalcular species, render anatomical investigation almost impossible; and naturalists may have erred in supposing the absence of what they are merely unable to perceive and demonstrate. It is in truth impossible to discover any traces of the nervous system, even among several tribes of animals in other respects much more highly organized than the subjects of our present inquiry. Trembley’s examination of the Polypus threw no positive light upon the matter;nor did Gade’s dissections of the larger Medusae enable him to discover either muscular or nervous fibres. According to M. Bory de St Vincent, the nervous system is one of the last to be developed. To the perfect simplicity of the Monads, the first perceptible addition is that of a central cavity, or rudimentary intestinal sac, which we find to occur even before the existence of a mouth. Next appears an opening to this canal, which serves both for the reception of nourishment, and the rejection of excrementitious parts where such exist. The hairs andcirrated appendages which ensue in still more complicated species have been regarded as the early rudiments of the respiratory system; and even a heart, or central organ of a circulating fluid, is partly developed before the appearance of any nervous chords. The earliest, most general, and perhaps the only indispensable function of animal life, is that of nutrition. But the materials of nutrition are so different, and thejf modes of reception so various, that the exercise of this

animalcule. 184 almost reverential admiration, is it not to be deplored that A Animal- function by no means necessitates the existence of a those whose labours might be carried on under the infl . I u cule. mouth, a stomach, or an alimentary canal; for an increase ence of a purer light, seem as often degraded as exalted^' ’ of parts may be effected even through the medium ot by the contemplation of their Creator’s works; and, reimponderable or elastic fluids, and by imperceptible and ferring all to the powers of nature, or some other indesuperficial pores. . finite abstraction, refuse to recognise, amid so many wonThe exterior of an infusory animal may be compared to ders, the “ Good Supreme” from whorn these and other the interior of one of the higher classes, in which nutri- mightier wonders have proceeded? It is in the study of tion is carried on by the reception of the chyle by the the subject with which we are now engaged, and the anaabsorbent pores. These pores are external among t le logous pursuits of physiology, where the completion of Infusoria, and the process of absorption is with them ana- the most perfect design and the happiest results of superlogous to that of plants, in which there is a direct reception human forethought are so constantly manifested, that we and appropriation of fluids from the earth and air, wit i- frequently where we should least expect it, with the out any previous preparation in a central cavity or sto- sneer of themeet, or the impious ridicule of the unbemach. Zoophytes in general have indeed been called the liever. ‘ Howsceptic, different are the sentiments -of one who cryptogamia of the animal kingdom. According to Cams, the Infusoria ought to be regarded merely as little cells, combines the piety of the Christian with the genius of the poet and philosopher. “ But about the time of its partially filled with lymph, and possessed of the powers invention (the invention of the telescope), another instruof nutrition and locomotion; and thus the infinite changes ment was formed, which laid open a scene no less wonderand variations perceptible in their forms may be supposed to be produced by the various degrees in which this fluid ful, and rewarded the inquisitive spirit of man with a disis collected at one or other of the points of theii bodies. covery which serves to neutralize the whole of this arguIn the opinion of that anatomist, a more complete deve- ment. This was the microscope. The one led me to see lopment of the organs of motion, and indeed of the whole a system in every star ; the other leads me to see a world organization, is inseparably united with the appearance of in every atom. The one taught me that this mighty a distinct nervous system. This may be true as a gene- globe, with the whole burden of its people and of its counral rule, but not as a universal principle ; for the Medusa tries, is but a grain of sand on the high field of immensity; has more apparent voluntary motion than the Asterias, the other teaches me that every grain of sand may harthough the former is destitute of those nerves which in bour within it the tribes and the families of a busy poputhe latter make their first appearance in the shape of a lation. The one told me of the insignificance of the pale thread-like ring surrounding the oesophagus. It is world I tread upon; the other redeems it from all its inthis ring around the upper extremity of the alimentary significance ; for it tells me, that in the leaves of every canal which, in the molluscous and articulated classes, we forest, and in the flowers of every garden, and in the washall afterwards find to constitute the most uniform and ters of every rivulet, there are worlds teeming with life, most essential portion of the nervous system. The Me- and numberless as are the glories of the firmament. The dusae, just referred to, being almost of the same specific one has suggested to me, that beyond and above all that gravity with water, are easily carried by currents, and is visible to man, there may lie fields of creation which moved about from place to place by the action of the sweep immeasurably along, and carry the impress of the waves, or even (as in the case of Holothuria physalis) by Almighty’s hand to the remotest scenes of the universe; the winds; but Carus and other writers have assuredly the other suggests to me, that within and beneath all that erred in doubting that they execute a voluntary locomo- minuteness which the aided eye of man has been able to tion ; for that they do so in a very decided and graceful explore, there may be a region of invisibles; and that, manner must be obvious to all who have attended to these could we draw aside the mysterious curtain which shrouds animals in their native haunts along the shores, or among it from our senses, we might then see a theatre of as the land-locked waters of the beautiful firths of Scotland. many wonders as astronomy has unfolded, a universe The mysteries revealed by the glasses of Leeuwenhoeck within the compass of a point so small as to elude all the were at first regarded as beyond belief. The uncertainty powers of the microscope, but where the wonder-working of microscopical investigations, in consequence of which God finds room for the exercise of all his attributes, so much was supposed to depend on the imagination of where he can raise another mechanism of worlds, and1 the beholder, was alleged against them; and even at an fill and animate them all wdth the evidence of his glory. after-period, when men of sober judgment and the most Although we cannot hope to derive the same amuseindustrious application had confirmed the experience of ment or advantage from the study of each of the animalthe indefatigable Dutchman, the wit of Voltaire did not cular species considered separately, as we do from the disdain to throw its cutting sarcasm over the disciples of consideration of the history of many of the higher animals, the “ anguilles de la pate et du vinaigre.” We hope it yet, in a philosophical point of view, a knowledge of the is now admitted, that however frequently those who en- general attributes of the class presents several highly irodeavour to expound the mysteries of nature may fail in portant objects; and their obscure origin, their singular their attempts at elucidation, yet that there is nothing in organization, and more singular mode of existence, cannot the manifold works of Omnipotent Wisdom which, if duly fail to excite our unfeigned wonder and admiration. They studied and rightly understood, would not conduce to our can scarcely be described otherwise than by a negation of wellbeing and happiness; and that a single square inch all those characters which constitute the life, power, and of water, with its many millions of animalcular atoms, is activity of other beings ; they have no head, no eyes, no in truth as wonderful a work of divine intelligence, and as muscles, no blood-vessels, no nerves, no determinate orinteresting a field for human investigation, as the starry gans for respiration, generation, or digestion—and yd galaxy of heaven. they are endowed with life. In his tam parvis, atque tam nullis, qua> ratio ! The animal nature of the Infusoria has indeed been deQuanta vis ! quam inextricabilis perfectio ! nied by many; but such is the regular gradation from the And if a heathen philosopher (Pliny) has so expressed his most simply organized of the monadal forms to the muc 1

Washnexs's Astronomical Discourses, V). 112.

ANIMALCULE. 185 Hi. .more complicated structure of the Polypi, which present, have sought to establish as the indispensable bases of Animal^ under a remarkable aspect, such unequivocal characters animal life. They truly show how confined a knowledge cule. ■of animality, that it is impossible to draw the line of de- our limited faculties enable us to gain of His unlimited marcation ; and if we admit the life of the one we can powder ; for they not only present no analogy to other more scarcely doubt that of the other. Yet many of the Infu- accustomed forms of life, but almost seem to exist in disoria appear to present the very lowest conceivable point rect opposition to those laws in accordance with which we “ live, move, and have our being.” to which animal life can be reduced. Infusory animals, commonly so called, are found in the The structure of an animal, the individual existence of vhich is preserved by the absorption of a circumambient fresh and saline waters of all countries. They occur both luid, and the continuance of whose species is effected by naturally, if we may use the term in a contradistinctive he division or separation of a part of its own body, might, sense, and as the apparent result of infused animal and i priori, be supposed to be of the most simple kind. “ We vegetable substances. According to Leeuwenhoeck, the nay rest assured,” observes Lamarck, “ that whenever milt of a cod-fish contains more animalcules than there m organic function is itself unnecessary, the special or- are individuals of the human race existing on the face of ran by which it is usually performed will not be found to the earth ; and he calculated that 10,000 might be held :xist.” It is indeed by considering the nature of the Infu- within the bulk of a grain of sand. The size of many soria that we are enabled to form a proper idea of the bears the same relation to that of a mite as the dimenamplest condition of animal life; and the invention of sions of a bee do to those of an elephant; and the most he telescope was not of higher importance to the astro- powerful microscopes frequently discover nothing more lomer, than that of the microscope to the physiological than merely perceptible points in motion. Flour and laturalist. There are few subjects of reflection more in- water made to the consistence of book-binders’ paste, exeresting than the uses which philosophers of an enlight- posed in an open vessel, and frequently stirred to prevent -ned age have deduced and matured from the scanty the surface from growing hard, will in a few days be snowledge of a barbarous people. Glass, a material known found to contain millions of animalcules. The thin pelit an early period to the Asiatic nations, and once esti- licle which grows on the surface of an infusion of comnated at its weight in gold, has become in the hands of mon black pepper also produces an innumerable congreEuropeans of more value than the finest gold. Whoever gation of minute beings. Of these and others the real jolished the first lens may be said to have laid the foun- origin is still exceedingly obscure; and both Muller and lation of an instrument destined to discover thousands of Spallanzani maintained the improbable opinion that they :elestial worlds above and around us, and an unseen world fell from the air. Their subsequent increase or multi>f! wonders beneath our feet. “ Indeed,” says Cuvier, plication is obviously effected in different and very sinit could not be expected that those Phoenician sailors gular ways. Such as are spherical are usually propavho saw the sand of the shores of Boetica transformed by gated by minute portions, which, though they burst ire into a transparent glass, should have at once foreseen from the anterior of the animalcule itself, cannot be hat this new substance would prolong the pleasures of called eggs; and such as are of a depressed or flattenight to the old; that it would one day assist the astro- ed form continue their race by cuttings or divisions of lomer in penetrating the depths of the heavens, and in their own bodies. We first observe a line or groove, lumbering the stars of the milky way; that it would lay longitudinal or transverse, according to the species; and •pen to the naturalist a miniature world as populous, as ere long a notch or incision is perceptible at one or other ich in wonders, as that which alone seemed to have been or both of the ends of that apparent line. This notch ganted to his senses and his contemplation; in fine, that increases across or longitudinally, till at last a portion is he most simple and direct use of it would enable the in- separated or cut off, or the original animal is divided into labitants of the coast of the Baltic Sea to build palaces two, and each assumes the form and nature of their munore magnificent than those of Tyre and Memphis, and tual predecessor. These new objects retain for some o cultivate, almost under the frost of the polar circle, the time their natural shape, and then in their turn give rise nost delicious fruits of the torrid zone.”1 to one or more individuals by a similar separation of The faculties of the most simple infusory animals, it parts. Lamarck seems to be of opinion (Philosophic las been observed, are reduced to such as are common to Zoologique, tome ii. p. 120 and 150) that this multiplicaill living beings, and to that irritability which results tion by division, and that by the emission of gemmules or i'om their animal nature; and their bodies are destitute oviform portions, are modifications of one and the same •1 special organs, precisely because their extremely limit- natural process ;—that substantially each is the result of 'd faculties neither require nor admit of such organs an extension and separation of parts, which take place •eing exercised. The chief interest to be derived from when the parent individual has reached the final term of he study ot this class of beings results, according to La- its increase. It is in fact the same excess of nourishment narck, from the view with which such study presents us and growth of particular parts that, even in the higher •1 the ultimate point to which the organization of an ani- classes, give rise to the germ of separate life, physically nal is capable of being reduced; and, among all the considered, although in regard to these the additional renders of the creation, he regards as the most surpris- process of fecundation is required. It is the new light ng the existence of animal life in such inconceivably which may be gathered from the observation of the mifail and simple bodies as the least complicated of the nutest of the animalcular tribes that renders their study inimalcular species. It is not, however, to be said that both interesting and important to the physiologist; and nature was incapable of forming special organs from the it is the belief of some, that a persevering study of the materials of these frail gelatinous bodies,” but rather that history of microscopical animals will one day enable us to ie all-wise Author and Ruler of Nature has seen fit to withdraw the mysterious veil which still conceals from orm them in what to us may appear a destitute and in- our view the most important secrets of nature. -omplete condition, merely because their structure does The systematic arrangement of animalcules which we >ot fulfil those other conditions which, erroneously, we propose to follow in this place is nearly that of Lamarck, 1

vox., in.

Reflexions sur la Marche actuclle des Sciences, &c. read to the Institute of France in April 181C. 2A

A N I M A L C u L E. 186 eye, to such as resist the force of the microscope, as the k Animal- which is itself founded on the systems of Muller and fixed stars do that of the telescope, and, with the greatest t! cule. Bruguiere. The French naturalist includes in his system powers hitherto invented, appear only as so many movingG only such species of the same class described by Muller as points.” are destitute of a mouth. Genus Volvox.—Body very, simple, transparent, sphe. Order I.—Naked Infusoria. rfcal or ovoid, revolving on itself as on an axis. Body extremely simple, apparently homogeneous, unprovided With the exception of one species ( V. globator) the volwith organs or external appendages. voces are to the naked eye. Under the microThe naked Infusoria are the smallest and simplest of scope theyinvisible assume the aspect of small gelatinous masses, those animals which are cognizable by the senses of uian. which sometimes present an oval form. In some the When we expose w^ater to air and light, especially ir it body seems composed of numerous smaller globules united contains an infusion of animal or vegetable remains, we speedily perceive, by the assistance of the microscope, a in one common mass. I here is reason to suppose that variety of animalcules. These are divided into two sec- these interior bodies are afterwards propelled outwardly, and become separate individuals. The species occur both tions. in fresh and salt waters, and in vegetable infusions. They Section I.—Body Thick. derive their generic name from the manner in which they or revolve upon their axis. Leeuwenhoeck describes Of this section the bodies present such a perceptible degree of turn an animalcule “ a thousand times smaller than a louse’s thickness as removes them from the simply membranous eye, which exceeded all the rest in briskness,” and turned state. itself round as it were upon a point, with the celerity of a Genus Monas.—Body extremely small, of the simplest spinning-top. The genus is divisible into two sections. construction, transparent, punctiform. * Interior of the body apparently simple and homogeneous. The Monads are the smallest and least organized of livSp. 1. Volvox punctum.—Spherical, blackish, with a ing creatures. We have indeed scarcely any proof of their animal life, except that they are moving corpuscles, central lucid point. Of this species many are sometimes allied to the genus Volvox, the animality of which is un- seen together in their passage through the water. They doubted. They have neither mouth nor alimentary canal, occasionally move as if subjected to the influence of a nor any apparent organs. They live by absorption, and whirlpool, and then separate. Numerous in fetid seaare found in tranquil, but rarely in limpid waters. They water. Sp. 2. Volvox granulum.—Spherical, green, periphery are produced in infusions of animal and vegetable subhyaline. Dwells in the water of marshes. stances. Sp. 3. Volvox globulus.—Globular, sub-obscure behind. Sp. 1. Monas termo.—An extremely minute gelatinous point, scarcely perceptible even with the aid of a power- This species is ten times larger than the Monas lens. ful lens, and frequently disappearing under a strong light It occurs in most vegetable infusions, and moves with a in consequence of its perfect transparency. This species slow fluttering motion. Plate XLVI. fig. 4. is common in ditch-water, and in numerous infusions. * * Interior of the body exhibiting smaller corpuscles. See Plate XLVI. fig. 1. These minute creatures being Sp. 4. Volvox pilula.—Spherical, with greenish interthe earliest discernible evidence of animal life, and the last result to which the higher and more perfect forms nal globules. In those pure waters which nourish the can be reduced by infusion, have been called the alpha Lenina minor. Plate XLVI. fig. 5. Sp. 5. Volvox lunula.—Roundish and transparent, and and omega of all organized existence. Their history has given rise to many curious views, and more absurd spe- composed of an innumerable assemblage of homogeneous crescent-shaped molecules, without any common margin. culations. Sp. 2. Monas atomus.—White, with a variable dark- Its movements are of two kinds, that of the molecules coloured spot, which appears to change its position. This among themselves, and that of the whole revolving mass. species was found in sea-water wdiich had been kept an It occurs in marshy places in the early spring. Plate entire winter, but was not very fetid. See Plate XLVI. XLVI. fig. 6. fig. 2 and 3. Sp. 6. Volvox globator.—Commonly called the globeSp. 3. Monas punctum.—Nearly black, of a sub-cy- animal. Spherical, membranous, the internal globules dislindrical form. Found in the infusion of the pulp of a tant or scattered. Abundant in the infusions of hemp and pear. tremella, and in stagnant pools during spring and summer. Sp. 4. Monas lens.—Hyaline, of an ovoid form. Found The following is an account of it by Mr Baker. “ There in all kinds of waters. Multiplies by spontaneous incision. is no appearance of either head, tail, or fins, and yet it Sp. 5. Monas pulvisculus.—Hyaline, with a greenish moves in every direction, backwards, forwards, up or down, margin. Found in the waters of marshes. This species rolling over and over like a bowl, spinning horizontally has been lately regarded as an enchelis. Indeed, so great like a top, or gliding along smoothly without turning itself is the difficulty of microscopical investigation, and such at all; sometimes its motions are very slow, sometimes indefatigable patience is required in order to see things as very swift; and, when it pleases, it can turn round as they really are, that the species and genera of this class upon an axis very nimbly, without moving out of its placeof beings are frequently transposed and altered in their The body is transparent, except ■where the circular spots relative position and arrangement, in consequence of the are placed, which are probably its young.” Another auvery dissimilar views which different observers have taken thority states that this species is at first very small, but of the same object. increases to such a size that it may be discerned by the As it would be inconsistent with our present limits to naked eye, and that its interior is filled with small glodescribe more than a few species of each genus, we shall bules, which are smaller animalcules, each of which concontent ourselves with the preceding Monads. “ How tains within itself a still smaller generation, all percepmany kinds,” observes Mr Adams, “ there may be of these tible by means of powerful glasses. The lesser globules invisibles, is yet unknown, as they are discerned of all may be seen escaping from the parent, and increasing w sizes, from those which are barely invisible to the naked size.

187 A N I M A L C U L E. the more slender end foremost. Two individuals are Animaii m\ Jen-us Proteus.—Body very small, simple, transparent, sometimes observed to unite and form one animal, of a cule| | of varying form, changing itself instantaneously into perfectly spherical form, and similar in aspect to a Volvox. f different lobated shapes. Sp. 5. Enchelis tiresias.—This species was also discoThis genus is more obviously contractile than the pre- vered by the above-named writer, and led to his peculiar b I e(]ing. it is seldom seen above a minute under the same views regarding those apparently animated seeds which *? mn, but is continually passing from a simple oval or ob- he has named Zoocarpes. He asserts that he has seen m-r’to an irregular or sinuated shape, and vice versa. this animalcule formed in the articulations of a true conL species described by Iloesel is so remarkable for this ferva ; that it burst from its vegetable envelope with a gyiculty, that it has been compared to a drop of water ration or circular movement; that it soon produced a : iroWn upon oil. Hence also the generic name. translucent prolongation of its body, which may be called Sp. 1. Proteus diffluens.—Body diverging into branches. anterior, as it then swam in the direction of that new W tccurs in the water of marshes. Plate XLVI. fig. 7, 8, organ, which, with the body itself, became visibly longer, lind9. , till the creature finally acquired the exact form of the Sp. 2. Proteus tenax.—Body prolonged to a fine point. Enchelis deses of Muller. The chief difference seemed | iccurs in rivers and in sea-water. There are only two to be that it always moved with the slender end foremost, hi lecies described as belonging to this genus. whereas the species just mentioned swims with its blunt end in advance. It is described by recent French writers hi Ienus Enchelis.—Body very small, simple, oblong, as an “ animal extraordinaire qui n’est certainement que cylindrical, slightly variable. la grain vivante d’un vegetal.” (See Diet. Class, d'Hist. There is a marked analogy between this genus and the Nat. tome vi. p. 156.) Sp. 6. Enchelis deses.—This species is of an obscure | nb’ after and still more particularly by Muller, and very re- them on a micrometer divided to five thousandths of an cently by Dr Milne Edwards, who has revived the doc- inch, the lines of which were very distinct; or, more rare-

A

N

J

A

N

K

■ on one divided to ten thousandths, with fainter lines,not ■adily visible without the application of plumbago, as emoyed by Dr Wollaston, but which in this case was inadissible. The results can only be regarded as approxiate, but Mr Brown is disposed to believe that the mole-

193 ctile is of uniform size, though, as existing in various sub- Anker stances, and examined in circumstances more or less favourable, he regards it necessary to state that its dia-( Anklam. meter appeared to vary from -jy^oth to 20000th of an' (t.) inch.1

ANIMATED, or Animate, in a general sense, denotes tmething endowed with animal life. ANIMATION signifies the communication of life to an limal body. The different hypotheses of physicians and lilosophers concerning die time of animation have had ieir influence on the penal laws made against artificial >ortions; it having been made capital to procure mi scarage in the one state, while in the other it was only deem1 a venial crime. The emperor Charles V., by a constiition published in 1532, put the matter on another footg : instead of the distinction of an animated and unaniated foetus, he introduced that of a vital and non-vital ;tus, as a thing of more obvious and easy decision, and it depending on any system either of creation, traducpn, or infusion. Accordingly a foetus was formerly said, a legal sense, to be animated when it was perceived to ir in the womb ; but this doctrine is exploded, animation }ing now dated from the moment of conception. ANIME, in Heraldry, a term used when the eyes of a pacious creature are borne of a different tincture from ie creature itself. Anime, a resin exuding from the trunk of a large Amecan tree, called by the Indians courbaril (a species of ymen;ea). This resin is of a transparent amber colour, light agreeable smell, and little or no taste. It disilves entirely, but not very readily, in rectified spirit ' wine; the impurities, which are very often in large lantity, remaining behind. The Brazilians are said to nploy anime in fumigations for pains and aches proceedig from cold: with us, it is rarely, if ever, made use of r any medicinal purpose. ANIMETTA, among ecclesiastical writers, denotes the oth wherewith the cup of the eucharist is covered. ANINGA, in Commerce, a root which grows in the ntilles Islands, and is pretty much like the China plant. . is used by sugar-bakers for refining the sugar. ANJOU, a province and duchy of France before the evolution, bounded on the east by Touraine, on the south y Poitou, on the west by Bretagne, and on the north by

Maine. It is now included under the Maine and Loire and the Sarthe and Mayenne. It is 70 miles in length, and in breadth 60. Through this province run five navigable rivers; the Loire, which divides it into two parts; the Vienne, the Toue, the Mayenne, and the Sarthe. The air is temperate, and the country agreeably diversified with hills and meadows. There are 33 forests of oak-trees mixed with beech. The country produces white wine, wheat, barley, rye, oats, peas, beans, flax, hemp, walnuts, and some chesnuts. In Lower Anjou they make cider. There are fruit-trees of all kinds, and pasture proper for horses. The greatest riches of the province consist in cows, oxen, and sheep. There are several coal and iron mines, and yet there are but two forges in the whole province. There are quarries of marble and of slate, as well as quarries of white stone, proper for building, on the side of the river Loire. Here are also several saltpetre works, and some glass-houses. The principal towns, besides Angers the capital, are, Saumur, Brisac, Pont de Ce, La Fleche, and Beaufort. ANKER, a liquid measure at Amsterdam. It contains about 32 gallons English measure. ANKLAM, a circle in the government of Stettin and the Prussian province of Pomerania. It extends over 566 square miles, or 363,240 English acres. There are within it 4 cities, 6 towns, and 20l villages. The inhabitants are 30,856. The land is a plain, with extensive woods, and about twenty fresh-water lakes, the largest of which is the Ahlbeckr. The feeding of cattle and growing of corn are the chief objects of agriculture ; besides which, some hops and tobacco, and much flax, are grown. The woods afford much profitable employment, and furnish charcoal to the iron-works in Pomerania. The capital of the circle is of the same name. It is situated on the river Peene, and is now without fortifications. It contains 3 churches, 3 hospitals, 599 houses, and 5833 inhabitants. By means of the river, which is navigable, it carries on some trade; and it has manufactures of cloth, hosiery, tobacco, snuff, and leather. It is in long. 24. 1. 59. E. lat. 53. 49. 15. N.

1 The following summary from the pen of Mr Brown contains the renewed expression of that gentleman’s opinion, matured by >me recent experiments on the subject of active molecules. “ That extremely minute particles of solid matter, whether obtained om organic or inorganic substances, when suspended in pure water or in some other aqueous fluids, exhibit motions for which I am nable to account, and which, from their irregularity and seeming independence, resemble in a remarkable degree the less rapid moons of some of the simplest animalcules of infusions. That the smallest moving particles observed, and which I have termed Acve Molecules, appear to be spherical, or nearly so, and to be between EC5S5th and 3550 oth of an inch in diameter; and that other irticles of considerably greater and various size, and either of similar or of very different figure, also present analogous moi ons in like circumstances. I have formerly stated my belief that these motions of the particles neither arose from currents in the uid containing them, nor depended on that intestine motion which may be supposed to accompany its evaporation. These causes j motion, however, either singly or combined with others,—as the attractions and repulsions among the particles themselves, their nstable equilibrium in the fluid in which they are suspended, their hygrometrical or capillary action, and in some cases the disengageicnt of volatile matter, or of minute air-bubbles,—have been considered by several writers as sufficiently accounting for the appearices. Some of the alleged causes here stated, with others which I have considered it unnecessary to mention, are not likely to be cerlooked, or to deceive observers of any experience in microscopical researches ; and the insufficiency of those enumerated may, I nnk, be satisfactorily shown by means of a very simple experiment. This experiment consists in reducing the drop of water conumng the particles to microscopic minuteness, and prolonging its existence by immersing it in a transparent fluid of inferior specific ravity, with which it is not miscible, and in which evaporation is extremely slow. If to almond oil, which is a fluid having these roperties, a considerably smaller proportion of water, duly impregnated with particles, be added, and the two fluids shaken or trituited together, drops of water of various sizes, from j’^th to S!jl55th of an inch in diameter, will be immediately produced. Of these, ie most minute necessarily contain but few particles, and some may be occasionally observed with one particle only. In this maner minute drops, which, if exposed to the air, would be dissipated in less than a minute, may be retained for more than an hour. ’Ut in all the drops thus formed and protected, the motion of the particles takes place with undiminished activity, while the nncipal causes assigned for that motion, namely, evaporation and their mutual attraction and repulsion, are either materially re■iced or absolutely null.” VOL. in. 2B

194 Ann

ANN

ANN

that her history contains many valuable facts and obser-, ANN, or Annat, in Scotish Law, is half a year’s stipend, vations. , which the act 1672, c. 13, gives to the executors of miANNABERG, a city on the mountains m the bailiwick Am ^ Anna. nisters of the church of Scotland, oyer and above what of Wolkenstein, in the circle of Erzgebirg, in the kingdom^' i/'J ; was due to the minister himself for his incumbency. s of Saxony. It is 2820 feet above the level of the sea, in it is a mere gratuity given by the law to those whom, it is the midst of a mining district, which yields silver, tin, and presumed, the deceased could not sufficiently provide for, cobalt. It contains 592 houses, and 4500 inhabitants, who so it is neither assignable by him during his life, nor a - are employed in manufacturing tapes, lace, sewing-silk, tachable by his creditors after his death. and many other articles. It is in latitude 50. 35.8. N. The ANNA, Ana, or Anah, a town of Arabian Iiac, longitude is not exactly ascertained. pachalic of Bagdad, which extends five or six miles along ANNACHNAN, a small island of Ireland, on the souththe western bank of the Euphrates. It consists of a single west coast of the county of Galway, 22 miles from Galway, street built on both sides. The houses are of stone, two ANNAGH, an island about 5 miles in circumference, stories high, and separated from each other, as m other on the west coast of Ireland, between the isle of Achil eastern towns, by beautiful gardens, filled with fruit-trees, and the mainland of the county of Mayo. Long. 9.39. bearing lemons, oranges, citrons, quinces, figs, dates, pome- W. Lat. 53. 58. N. There is a small village of the same granates, and olives. It is an open and defenceless place; name in the county of Cork, 5 miles from Charleville. and in 1807 it was attacked by the Wahabees, who gave ANNALS, in matters of literature, a species of history it up to plunder, and perpetrated the most horrible cruel- which relates events in the chronological order wherein ties, massacring the greater part of the inhabitants, and they happened. They differ from perfect history in this, setting the town on fire; after which they retreated with that annals are but a bare relation of what passes every their plunder, carrying into captivity many women and year, as a journal is of what passes every day: whereas children. The inhabitants are said, previous to this ca- history relates not only the transactions themselves, but lamity, to have been more polished than those in the also the causes, motives, and springs of actions. Annals neighbourhood, and to have consisted chiefly of Arabians, require nothing but brevity; history demands ornament. who were, however, addicted to their usual^ vocation ot Cicero gives the following account of the origin of annals, robbery when any opportunity offered. Population about To preserve the memory of events, the Pontifex Maximus, 3000. 260 miles east of Damascus; 220 south-east ot says he, wrote what passed each year, and exposed it on Aleppo. Long. 41. 15. E. Eat. 34. N. . Anna Comnena, daughter of the emperor Alexius Lom- tables in his own house, where every one was at liberty to read: this they called annales maximi ; and hence the nenus I., was not less distinguished by her elevated rank writers who imitated this simple method of narrating facts than by her mental qualifications. Her superiority of called annalists. mind began early to display itself. Despising the effemi- were ANNAN, a royal borough and parish of Scotland, in nacy and voluptuousness of the court in which she was the county of Dumfries, situated on the river of the same educated, she directed her attention to literary pursuits. Indulging her favourite studies, she solicited the acquaint- name, about two miles above its junction with the Solway Frith. An elegant new bridge of three arches has been ance of the more eminent philosophers of that period. built within these three years. It has a good harbour; But the pursuits of literature did not induce her entirely to abandon society; she gave her hand to Nicepho- the highest tides rise 21 feet; 23 vessels belonged to the rus Briennius, a young nobleman of a respectable family. port in 1818, registering 1025 tons; at present (1830) This accomplished woman was, however, actuated with there are 39 vessels, registering 3054 tons. These vessels unjustifiable ambition; and, during the last illness of her are chiefly employed in the coasting trade. A cotton spinfather, she united with the empress Irene in attempting ning manufactory has been long established in the town, to prevail upon that monarch to disinherit his own son, and giving employment to between 80 and 100 persons of give the crown to her husband. The affection and virtue different ages. The salmon fishery, which in former years of the father prevailed over female address and intrigue. was so very productive, has fallen off very considerably. But the ambition of Comnena was not diminished ; for The town has recently been much improved by the addition she entered into a conspiracy to depose her brother ; and of several new streets and public buildings: among the w*hen her husband displayed a timidity and hesitation in latter is a handsome new academy, built and endowed by this unjust enterprise, she exclaimed that “ nature had the heritors and borough-council; it is conducted by a recmistaken their sexes, for he ought to have been the tor and two masters, and is in a very flourishing state. The town unites with Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, Sanquhar, and woman.” Either through the vigilance of her brother, or the ti- Lochmaben, in sending a representative to parliament. midity of her husband, the treasonable plot was discover- The environs are very inviting; and few places are more ed, and Anna punished with the confiscation of all her beautiful than the river and its finely wooded banks, for property. But generosity has an opportunity of display- eight or ten miles above the town. There was formerly ing its real nature when an enemy is vanquished; thus a castle, built by the Bruces after they became lords ot was the -generosity of her brother displayed on the pre- Annandale. The population of the parish is 4500, of the sent occasion, by returning all her property. Ashamed, town 3000. The latter is 16 miles from Dumfries, and . . however, of her base conduct, she retired from court, and 78 from Edinburgh. The river Annan, on which the town stands, rises in never more possessed any influence there. Disappointed ambition took shelter among the walks of literature, and the county of Peebles, and flowing through Dumfriesshire, she employed herself in her solitude in writing the his- falls into the Solway Frith after a course of 30 miles, tory of her father’s reign. This production of her pen is abounds with trout and salmon. The stewartry or disstill extant, and composes a part of the celebrated collec- trict of Annandale, of which Lochmaben castle was t e tion of the Byzantine Historians. The stores of rhetoric chief fortalice, is a fertile vale, 24 miles long and abou are ransacked to embellish this work, and every effort 14 miles broad. From its vicinity to England, and t e made to enrich it with science; but the general com- continual incursions and predatory wars of the borderers,u plexion of it is rather like an apology than an impartial the greater part of it was uncultivated and common; narrative. It must, however, be acknowledged that she since the beginning of the last century all these was is not more partial than many other Latin historians, and and commons have been subdivided and brought in

ANN nd jlture, and the country has assumed a new appearance, hich may be ascribed not only to the division of the com' oils • ions, but likewise to the improvement made on the roads. ' Annandale formed a part of the Roman province of Vamtia; and Severus’s wall ending at Bowness on the oposite coast of the Solway, it abounds with Roman staons and antiquities. The RdVnan camps at Birrens in Middlebie, on the hill of irrenswark, and at Torwood Muir in Dryfesdale, are still early entire, and their form is preserved; and the traces id remains of a military road are yet visible in different irts of the country. The ruins of the house or castle of uchincass, in the neighbourhood of Moffat, once the :at of that potent baron Thomas Randolph, earl of lurray, lord of Annandale, and regent of Scotland durg the minority of David II., covers above an acre of •ound, and even now conveys an idea of the plan and rength of the building. The ancient castle of Comngan, formerly belonging to the Murrays, earls of Anindale, and now to the earl of Mansfield, is still in a toleible state of preservation ; but except this castle, and that ■ Hoddam, most of the other old fortalices and towers are dw taken down or in ruins. ANNAND, William, dean of Edinburgh, the son of Villiam Annand, minister of Ayr, was born at Ayr in 333. Five years after, his father was obliged to quit cotland with his family, on account of their loyalty to ic king, and adherence to the episcopal government itablished by law in that country. In 1651 young Anind was admitted a scholar in University College, Oxrd; and though he was put under the care of a presjterian tutor, yet he took all occasions to be present I; the sermons preached by the loyal divines in and jar Oxford. In 1656, being then bachelor of arts, j received holy orders from the hands of Dr Thomas ulwar, bishop of Ardfert or Kerry in Ireland, and was ipointed preacher at Weston on the Green, near Bicesr in Oxfordshire. After he had taken the degree of aster of arts, he was presented to the vicarage of eighton-Buzzard in Bedfordshire, where he distinguished imself by his edifying manner of preaching till 1662, hen he went into Scotland in quality of chaplain to )hn earl of Middleton, the king’s high commissioner to le church of that kingdom. In the latter end of the sar 1663 he was instituted to the Tolbooth Church at dinburgh, and from thence was removed, some years ifter, to the Tron Church of that city. In April 1676 e was nominated by the king to the deanery of Edinurgh; and in 1685 he commenced doctor of divinity in le university of St Andrews. He wrote, 1. Fides Cadica, or the Doctrine of the Catholic Church. Lond. 561-2, 4to. 2. Solutions of many proper and profitable uestions; printed with the Fides Catholica. 3. Panem }mtidianum, or a short Discourse tending to prove ie legality, decency, and expediency of set forms of rayers in the churches of Christ; with a particular Dence of the Book of Common Prayer of the Church of ngland. Lond. 1661, 4to. 4. Pater Noster, or the ord’s Prayer explained. Lond. 1670, 8vo. 5. Mysteum Pietatis, or the Mystery of Godliness. Lond. 1672, \ro. 6. Doxologia, or Glory to the Father, the Church’s lymn, reduced to glorifying the Trinity. Lond. 1672, vo. 7. Dualitas, or a twofold subject displayed and pened, conducible to godliness and peace in order: irst, Lex Loquens, the honour and dignity of magistracy; econdly, Duorum Unitas, or the agreement of magisacy and ministry. Edinb. 1674, 4to. Dr Annand died n the 13th of June 1689, and was interred in the Grey"lars Church, Edinburgh. ANNAPOLIS, the chief town in Maryland, in North

ANN 195 America. It stands upon a sort of peninsula on the west Anne side of the Chesapeak, and is a small town, but well built. St Anne’s It contained 2260 inhabitants in 1820. ANNE, queen of Great Britain, second daughter of Day. King James II. by his first wife, Anne Hyde, was born in 1664. In 1683 she married George prince of Denmark, by whom she had several children, but none of them arrived at the age of maturity. On the death of King William she ascended the throne, a. d. 1702, and her reign comprehends one of the most illustrious periods of English history. Possessed, however, of a very feeble character, which did not permit her to act for herself, this period is the reign of her counsellors and favourites; and she exhibited no decided inclination which could influence state affairs, except a strong passion for tory principles, both in church and state. She died in August 1714, of a dropsy, in the 50th year of her age and 13th of her reign. ANNE Boleyn, queen of Henry VIII. king of England, daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn, a nobleman of a powerful family and numerous alliances. The daughter of the duke of Norfolk was her mother, and during the reign of the former king her father had been honoured with several embassies. Mary, the king’s sister, who married Louis XII. king of France, carried over this lady with her at an early age, where she imbibed the freedom, the vivacity, and the openness of manners of that nation. After the death of Louis, that queen returned to England, and Anne continued to attend her royal mistress. Having some time after left her service, she was introduced into the family of the duchess of Alen^on. In addition to all her acquired accomplishments, she possessed the greatest personal elegance, and was highly famed in that age. History does not explicitly mention whether or not it was on her account, but upon her return to England the king expressed his scruples concerning his union with Catharine of Arragon. Enamoured, however, of Anne, he expressed his attachment to her ; but she was possessed of too much virtue and policy to confer any improper favours. This prudent and virtuous restraint only increased the passion of Henry; and placing her at court, he distinguished her by many marks of royal favour. The impetuous king at length came to the resolution to divorce his queen, to make way for his favourite Anne. In this instance the injury done to that queen proved the cause of the final separation of England from the dominion of the pope. Various delays and difficulties occurring to the divorce, Henry privately married Anne during the month of November 1532; and in April following he publicly declared her queen of England. The famous Queen Elizabeth was the first-fruits of this marriage, who was born in September following. For some time Anne enjoyed a considerable share of the royal favour, and she made use of that influence in subduing the haughty prelate Wolsey, and widening the breach between the king and the pope. But this favour was not of long continuance; for the king, ever varying in his temper, allowed jealousy to enter his bosom, which her thoughtless demeanour tended in some measure to excuse. She was accused of adultery with several of the household officers, and even with her own brother Lord Rochford; and having been tried on a charge of high treason, was condemned on very scanty proof to be beheaded ; which sentence was executed in May 1536. She to the last resolutely denied any serious guilt. St Anne’s Day, a festival of the Christian church, celebrated by the Latins on the 26th of July, but by the Greeks on the 9th of December. It is kept in honour of Anne or Anna, mother of the Virgin Mary.

196 Annealing. Glass.

ANN

ANN

ANNEALING, by the workmen called nealing, is a the bulk of the crystallized part, and renders it so soften, that the internal parts have the opportunity of expanding J process used in glass-making, and in the manufactui e of and forming a regular crystallization. certain metals. In glass-making it consists in placing the In the manufactures in which the malleable metals are j, bottles, &c. whilst hot, in a kind of oven or furnace, where employed, annealing is used to soften a metal after it has they are suffered to cool gradually. They would otherrendered hard by the hammer; and also to soften wise be too brittle for use. dhe difference between un- been annealed and annealed glass, with respect to brittleness, cast-iron, which is rendered very hard and brittle by rais very remarkable. When an unannealed glass vessel is pidIncooling. the manufacture of steel goods, which are first formbroken, it often flies into a small powder, with a violence by the hammer, and require to be filed or otherwise seemingly very unproportioned to the stroke it has re- ed ceived. In general it is in greater danger of breaking treated, and in which softness and flexibility are essential the change, annealing is absolutely necessary. This is from a very slight stroke than from one of some consider- to able force. One of these vessels will often resist the ef- particularly the case in making files and scissors, that the fects of a pistol bullet dropt into it from the height of two metal may be left sufficiently soft for cutting the teeth, or three feet; yet a grain of sand falling into it will make and for filing off those parts which cannot be ground. Anit burst into small fragments. This takes place sometimes nealing is not less necessary in the drawing of wire, wheimmediately on dropping the sand into it; but often the ther iron, copper, brass, silver, or gold. The operation vessel will stand for several minutes after, seemingly se- of drawing soon gives the wire a degree of hardness and cure ; and then, without any new injury, it will fly to pieces. elasticity which, if not removed from time to time by anIf the vessel be very thin, it does not break in this manner, nealing, would prevent the extension of the wire, and renbut seems to possess all the properties of annealed glass. der it extremely brittle. The same operation is also neThe same phenomena are still more strikingly seen in cessary in rolling or flatting those metals which are in a glass drops or tears. They are globular at one end, and cold state, such as brass, silver, gold, &c. The brazier taper to a small tail at the other. They are the drops who forms vessels of copper and brass by the hammer, can which fall from the melted mass of glass on the rods on work upon it only for a little time before he is obliged which the bottles are made. They drop into the tubs of to anneal it. The common methods employed for annealing iron and water which are used in the work; the greater part of them burst immediately in the water. When those that steel are very injudicious, and materially injure the latter remain entire are examined, they discover all the proper- when it is used for making cutting instruments. After ties of unannealed glass in the highest degree. They will they have been formed by the hammer, they are generally bear a smart stroke on the thick end without breaking; piled up in an open fire, slowly raised to red heat, and then but if the small tail be broken, they burst into small allowed as gradually to cool. By this method the surface powder with a loud explosion. They appear to burst with of the steel will be found considerably scaled, from the more violence, and the powder is smaller, in an exhausted action of the oxygen of the atmosphere. When it is rereceiver, than in the open air. When they are annealed membered that steel consists of iron joined to carbon, it will be evident that the steel immediately under the scaly they lose these properties. Glass is one of those bodies which increase in bulk oxide will be deprived of its carbon, which has been carwhen passing from a fluid to a solid state. W hen it is al- ried off by the attraction of the oxygen; and, in conselowed to crystallize regularly, the particles are so arranged quence, will lose the property of acquiring that degree of that it has a fibrous texture. It is elastic, and suscep- hardness necessary to a cutting instrument. Nothing, therefore, can be more obvious, than that steel tible of long-continued vibrations; but when a mass of melted glass is suddenly exposed to the cold, the surface particularly should be annealed in close vessels, to prevent crystallizes, and forms a solid shell round the interior fluid that effect. For this purpose the goods should be placed parts. This prevents them from expanding when they in a trough or recess made of fire-stone or fire-brick, and become solid. They therefore have not the opportunity stratified with ashes or clean sand, and finally covered of a regular crystallization, but are compressed together with a thick stratum of the same; but if the size of the with little mutual cohesion. On the contrary, they press vessel be small, it may have a cover of its own materials. outward to occupy more space, but are prevented by the This oven or trough must now be heated by the flame of external crust. In consequence of the effort of expansion a furnace passing under and round it, till the whole is of in the internal parts, the greater number of glass drops a red heat. It must then be suffered to cool, without letburst in cooling; and those which remain entire are not ting in the air. The goods so treated will be much softer regularly crystallized. A smart stroke upon them com- than by the common method. The surface, instead of municates a vibration to the whole mass, which is nearly becoming scaled, will have acquired a metallic whiteness, synchronous in every part; and therefore the effort of ex- from the presence of a small quantity of carbonaceous pansion has little more effect than if the body were at matter contained in the ashes in which they were imbedrest; but the small tail and the surface only are regularly ded. They will become so flexible also, as to allow them crystallized. If the tail be broken, this communicates a to bend considerably without breaking, which is very far vibration along the crystallized surface, without reaching from being the case before the operation. The fracture, the internal parts. By this they are allowed some ex- before annealing, will be smooth and short; but afterwards pansion ; and overcoming the cohesion of the thin outer it will be rough, exhibiting bright parts, of a crystalline apshell, they burst it, and are dispersed in powder. pearance. Wire, especially that of iron and steel, should In an unannealed glass vessel the same thing takes be treated in a similar way when it is annealed, h’6 place. Sometimes the vibration may continue for a con- wire used for some purposes requires to be soft, and is siderable time before the internal parts overcome the re- sold in that state. If the wire, after finishing, when it i> sistance. If the vessel be very thin, the regular crystal- bright and clean, were to be annealed in contact with oxylization extends through the whole thickness; or at least the gen, it would not only lose all its lustre and smoothness, quantity of compressed matter in the middle is so incon- but much of its tenacity. The process above mentione siderable as to be incapable of bursting the external plate. will therefore be particularly necessary in annealing nms * By the process of annealing the glass is kept for some ed wire, as well as in softening it from time to time during time in a state approaching to fluidity; the heat increases the drawing.

ANN ey.

Conner and brass suffer much less than iron and steel ' om annealing in the open air and do not require to be noted above a low red heat. If, however, the lustre is to „ preserved, a close vessel would be desirable. The lat>r metals, after annealing, although much discoloured v the oxygen of the atmosphere, may be cleansed by nmersion in a hot liquor composed of water and a small uantity of sulphuric or nitric acid. Very small brass or inper wire is frequently annealed by exposing it to the ame of hay or straw. In casting minute pieces of pigon, which is generally done in wet sand, the metal pos>sses the property of steel to such a degree as to assume, y the rapid cooling, a degree of hardness equal to hardled steel; at the same time that the articles are so brittle ; to break by falling on the ground. When, however, icse goods are treated in the way above directed, they -.quire a degree of softness which renders them peneable by the file, and at the same time capable of bendig. In this state they are much less tenacious than steel, ut still so much so as to have been sold in the form of jtlery for steel. The change which metals undergo by annealing is not ct thoroughly understood. Most of the malleable metals »re susceptible of two distinct forms, one called the crysilline form, which they assume by slow cooling; and the ther the fibrous, which is acquired by hammering or rollig. When this, however, is carried beyond a certain oint, the metal becomes so hard that it is not capable of eing bent far without breaking. All the malleable metis in the ingot or in their cast state are brittle, and exibit a crystalline fracture. By hammering or rolling icy become more tenacious, and break with difficulty, xhibiting what is called a fibrous fracture. At the same me they become stiffer and more elastic. They lose the itter properties by annealing, but become more malleable. . f the annealing, however, be long continued, the mal;ability diminishes, and they again have a crystalline •acture. Zinc by wire-drawing becomes very flexible, nd possesses a degree of tenacity not inferior to that of opper; but, if it be kept in boiling water for a length of me, it will resume its original brittleness, and show a rystalline appearance when broken. This proves that ie particles of metals can change their arrangement 'ithout losing their solid form ; which is still more strongf confirmed by the fact, that brass wire loses its tenacity y exposure to the fumes of acids, and even by the preence of a damp atmosphere. This is not caused by the noisture, but by the action of air upon the moistened surace. The manufacturers of common pins are obliged to eep their wire in a dry atmosphere, or immersed in /ater. If the wire be first moistened, and then exposed o the air, it will assume the brittle state much sooner, n this condition it breaks with a crystalline fracture, siailar to that exhibited by an ingot. When a steel plate, uch as a watch-spring, has been once tempered, the opeation of simply rubbing it bright will render it soft and lastic. The same change is brought about by slightly lamrnering it. It, however, resumes its elastic state by icing carefully heated till it becomes of a blue colour, f the heat be continued to redness, particularly in a close 'essel, it becomes perfectly annealed. ANNECY, a city in the kingdom of Sardinia, the capial of the province of Genevois, in the duchy of Savoy. It is •t the foot of the mountain Semina, on the banks of the ake of that name. It is the most industrious place in iavoy, having manufactures of cotton goods, of hats, glass, aid earthenware, and several distilleries and tanneries, aid near it some iron-works. It contains a cathedral, a diurch, five monasteries, and the same number of nunicries. The relics of St Francis de Sales, preserved in

ANN 197 St Mary’s Church, draw a vast number of pilgrims annu- Annesley ally to the city. The population in 1816 amounted to II 5467 persons. It is in long. 5. 9. E. and lat. 45. 53. N. Annobon. ANNESLEY, Arthur, earl of Anglesea, and lord privy seal in the reign of King Charles II., was the son of Sir Francis Annesley, baronet, Lord Mount-Norris, and Viscount Valentia, in Ireland, and was born at Dublin on the 10th of July 1614. He was for some time at the university of Oxford, and afterwards studied the law at Lincoln’s Inn. He had a considerable share in public transactions, for in the beginning of the civil war he sat in the parliament held at Oxford; but afterwards became reconciled to the opposite party, and was sent commissioner to Ulster, to oppose the designs of the rebel Owen Roe O’Neal. He engaged in several other affairs with great success. He was president of the council of state after the death of Oliver, and was principally concerned in bringing about the Restoration, soon after which King Charles II. raised him to the dignity of a baron, by the title of Lord Annesley of Newport-Pagnel, Bucks; and a short time after he was made earl of Anglesea. During that reign he was employed in some very important affairs, was made treasurer of the navy, and for some time held the office of lord privy seal. He was a person of great abilities, of very extensive learning, and was well acquainted with the constitution and laws of England. He died in April 1686, in the 73d year of his age. In his lifetime he published the following pieces:—1. Truth unveiled, in behalf of the Church of England; being a Vindication of Mr John Standish’s Sermon, preached before the king, and published by his Majesty’s command. 1676, 4to. To which is added, A short Treatise on the subject of Transubstantiation. 2. A Letter from a Person of Honour in the Country, written to the Earl of Castlehaven ; being observations and reflections on his Lordship’s Memoirs concerning the Wars of Ireland. 1681, 8vo. 3. A true Account of the whole Proceedings between James Duke of Ormond and Arthur Earl of Anglesea, before the king and his council, &c. 1682, folio. 4. A Letter of Remarks upon Jovian. 1683, 4to. Besides these, he wrote several other works, some of which were published after his decease ; as, 5. The Privileges of the House of Lords and Commons, argued and stated in two conferences be-r tween both Houses, April 19 and 22, 1671: To which is added, A Discourse, wherein the Rights of the House of Lords are truly asserted; with remarks on the seeming arguments and pretended precedents offered at that time against their lordships. 6. The King’s Right of Indulgence in Spiritual Matters, with the Equity thereof, asserted. 1688, 4to. 7. Memoirs, intermixt with moral, political, and historical observations, by way of discourse, in a letter to Sir Peter Pett. 1693, 8vo. ANNIVERSARY, the annual return of any remarkable day. Anniversary days, in old times, more particularly denoted those days in which an office was yearly performed for the souls of the deceased, or the martyrdom of the saints was yearly celebrated in the church. ANNOBON, a small island in Africa, on the east coast of Loango, belonging to the Portuguese. It lies in long. 5. 30. E. lat. 1. 32. S., and receives its name from being discovered on the new year’s day. According to Pyrard, it is about five or six French leagues in circuit; Braudraud makes it ten leagues. It contains two high mountains, having their tops continually enveloped in clouds, and thus occasioning frequent rains. Off the south-east of the island are two rocks, one of which is low, and upon a level with the surface of the sea; the other higher and larger, but both dangerous to shipping in the night: between them the channel is deep and clear. On the same side of the island is a convenient watering place; but the road

198 ANN Annobon to the north-west side is difficult and dangerous, though II the one most frequented by ships that have no intention Annuities. touching upon the continent. In either place it is difficult to take in a sufficient quantity of water, on account of the violent surf. The best road for ships lies on the north-east side, where they may anchor in 7, 10, 13, or 16 fathoms, on a fine sand, opposite to the Negro village. The climate is wholesome, and the air clear and serene for the greater part of the year. The island contains a number of fertile valleys, which produce Turkey corn, rice, millets, yams, potatoes, and afford pasture for abundance of cattle and sheep. Poultry and fish also abound; but the only mercantile production is cotton, in small quantity, but esteemed equal in quality to any produced in India. In the year 1605 the Dutch admiral Matelief found 200 negroes and two Portuguese on Annobon, most of them able to bear arms. The inhabitants are subject to the Portuguese governor, who is the chief person in the island; at the same time the negroes have their own chief, subordinate to him. They are all rigid catholics, having been either compelled or persuaded by the Portuguese to embrace that religion; and, like all other converts, they are bigoted in proportion to their ignorance.

ANN ANNONA, in Roman Antiquity, denotes provision for a year of all sorts, as of flesh, wine, &c. but especially 0f \ corn. Annona is likewise the allowance of oil, salt, bread M flesh, corn, wine, hay, and straw, which was annually pr0\ vided by the contractors for the maintenance of an army, ANNONiE Pr^fectus, in Antiquity, an extraordinary magistrate, whose business it was to prevent a scarcity of provisions, and to regulate the weight and fineness of bread. ANNONAY, a small town of France, in the department of Ardeche, formerly Upper Vivarais, seated on the river Deume. Long. 4. 52. E. Lat. 45. 15. N. ANNOT, a small city on the mountains of Provence in France. Long. 7. 0. E. Lat. 44. 4. N. ANNOVER, a Spanish town not far from the Tagus, in the province of Toledo, containing 400 houses, 2000 inhabitants, and a saltpetre manufactory. ANNUALRENT, in Scotish Law, denotes the yearly interest or profit due by a debtor in a sum of money to a creditor for the use of it.—A Right of Annualrent was the original method in Scotland of burdening lands with a yearly payment for the loan of money, before the tahimr of interest was allowed.

ANNUITIES.1 The doctrine of Compound Interest and Annuities-certain is too simple ever to have occupied much of the attention of mathematicians : inquiries into the values of interests dependent upon the continuance or the failure of human life, being more interesting and difficult, have occupied them more, but yet not so much as their importance would seem to demand ; the discoveries both in Pure Mathematics and Physics, especially those of Newton, which distinguished the close of the seventeenth century, having provided them with ample employment of a more interesting kind, ever since the subjects of this article were submitted to calculation. Fermat, Pascal, and Huygens, by laying the foundation of the doctrine of probabilities, about the middle of that century, first opened the way to the solution of problems of this kind. The earliest mathematical publication on probabilities, the little tract of Huygens, De Ratiociniis in Ludo Alecs, appeared in 1658; and in 1671 his celebrated countryman John de Witt published a treatise on LifeAnnuities in Dutch. (Montucla, Hist, des Math, tome iii. p. 407.) This, however, appears to have been very little known or read, and to have had no sensible influence on the subsequent progress of the science, the origin of which may be properly dated from the publication of Dr Halley’s paper on the subject, in the Philosophical Transactions for the year 1693 (No. 196). That celebrated mathemati-

cian there first gave a table of mortality, which he had constructed from observations made at Breslaw, and showed how the probabilities of life and death, and the values of annuities and assurances on lives, might be determined by such tables; which, he informs us, had till then been only done by an imaginary valuation. Besides his algebraical reasonings, he illustrated the subject by the properties of parallelograms and parallelopipedons: there are, perhaps, no other mathematical inquiries, in the prosecution of which algebra is entitled to so decided a preference to the elementary geometry as in these, and this example of the application of geometry has not been followed by any of the succeeding writers. In the year 1724 M. de Moivre published the first edition of his tract entitled Annuities on Lives. In order to shorten the calculation of the values of such annuities, he assumed the annual decrements of life to be equal; that is, that out of a given number of persons living at any age, an equal number die every year until they are all extinct; and upon that hypothesis he gave a general theorem, by which the values of annuities on single lives might be easily determined. This approximation, when the utmost limit of life was supposed to be 86 years, agreed very well with the true values between 30 and 70 years of age, as deduced from Dr Halley’s table; and the method was of great use at the time, as no tables of the true values of

i-PirW 'lionirfV ernis ^etre .maC^e usean°fIn article which may properly be considered technical. But since it is desirable that the the hi«tnnVnl u‘ ^.mwethfl*defined ideas of the terms that are employed, in the demonstrative part, which follow4 6 ara ra order with thp nn^; of th i? Pin which ff Pbstheir where they are are firstgiven introduced; and we here give those terms in al"^ !. cal order, the numbers the paragraphs definitions Term. Paragraph. Annuity 3 Annuity, Certain **. 4 Annuity, Deferred 20 Annuity, Life 31 Annuity, Temporary Life 58 Annuity on any Life or Lives. 62 Assurance on any Life or Lives 77 Mortality, Table of. 32 Years Purchase, N o. of, that an Annuity is worth. 6

ANNUITIES. 199 a nuities had then been calculated, except a very con- produced, how little M. d’Alembert and the principal ma- History, Ot cted one inserted by Dr Halley in the paper mentioned thematicians his contemporaries attended to the subject, In the year 1752 Mr Simpson published, in his Select a ive. But, upon the whole, this hypothesis of De Moivre fejhs probably contributed to retard the progress of the Exercises, a supplement to his doctrine of Annuities; sc. sence, by turning the attention of mathematicians from wherein he gave new tables of the values of annuities on f t ■ investigation of the true law of mortality, and the best two joint lives, and on the survivor of two lives, much jif mthods of constructing tables of the real values of an- more copious than those he had inserted in the principal work; but these also were calculated from his London ca rtities. The same distinguished analyst also endeavoured to ap- table of mortality. The celebrated Euler, in a paper inserted in the Mefl piximate the values of joint lives; but it has since been i f end that the formulae he gave for that purpose are too moirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin for ■. iuorrect for use. Mr Thomas Simpson published his the year 1760, gave a formula by which the value of an Pi l.idrine of Annuities and Reversions in the year 1742, in annuity on a single life of any age may be derived from wich the subject is treated in a manner much more ge- that of an annuity on a life one year older; which formula nial and perspicuous than it had been previously. His was included in that given by Mr Simpson 18 years befctnulae are adapted to any table of mortality; and, in the fore for effecting the same purpose in the case of any scenth corollary to his first problem, he gave the theorem number of joint lives; and by this compendious method l fl d nonstrated in the 149th number of this article, to which M. Euler calculated a table of the values of single lives n w owe all the best tables of the values of life-annuities from M. Kersseboom’s table of mortality. tki tli t have since been published. The first edition of Dr Price’s Observations on Revern the same work he also gave a table of mortality de- sionary Payments was published in 1770, and its chief tici deed from the London observations, and four others cal- object was, to give information to persons desirous of forma: cjited from it, of the values of annuities on lives, each at ing themselves into societies for the purpose of making t;: tliee rates of interest; the first for single lives, the three provision for themselves in old age, or for their widows. o ers for two and three equal joint lives, and for the When tables of the values of single lives, and of two joint kgest of two or of three lives. lives, are given, the methods of determining the terms on These were the first tables of the values of joint lives which such provisions can be made with safety to all the tit had been calculated; for although Dr Halley had parties concerned are very simple, and were at that time sl wn, half a century before, how such tables might be well understood in theory by the mathematicians who had O'! onputed, and had taken considerable pains to facili- studied the subject; but, for want of the requisite tables, ty! the work, the necessary calculations by the methods the algebraical formulae had till then been of little practjl k wn previous to the publication of Mr Simpson’s treatise tical utility. ' • we so very laborious that no one had had the courage In the prosecution of this laudable design, Dr Price til ^undertake them. And unfortunately the mortality ac- was obliged to have recourse to approximations. He inO'! c ding to the London table was so much above the com- forms us, that by following M. de Moivre too implicitly in r n:i average, that the values of annuities in Mr Simpson’s his rules for determining the value of two joint lives, he til f iles were much too small for general use. was led into difficulties which convinced him that they n the year 1746 M. Deparcieux published his Essai sur were not only useless but dangerous: he therefore calcuh letProbabilites de la Duree de la Vie Humaine, in which lated a table of these values upon M. de Moivre’s hypole h igave several valuable tables of mortality deduced from thesis of the decrements of life being equal, and its utmost tie tl mortuary registers of different religious houses, and limit 86 years, from a correct formula given by Mr Simpi: fin the lists of the nominees in the French tontines; son in his doctrine of Annuities (Cor. 5, Prob. 1). By this, a t a table of the values of annuities on single lives, at a table of the values of single lives, calculated by Mr |!;r the rates of interest, calculated from his table of morta- and lil, li for the tontine annuitants. These tables were a great Dodson on M. de Moivre’s hypothesis, he was enabled to give answers tolerably near the truth, to some of the most ai uisition to the science, as, before their publication, interesting questions of this kind, and to show that the tk tl re were only two extant that gave tolerably exact re- plans of several of the societies then recently established, p )) mentations of the true law of mortality—Dr Halley’s were quite inadequate; and instead of the benefits they fuBreslaw, and one constructed but a short time before promised, could only, in the end, produce disappointment k h iM. Kersseboom, principally from registers of Dutch and distress, unless they either dissolved or reformed anuitants. Those of M. Deparcieux for the monks and : n s were the first ever constructed for the two sexes themselves. The work also contained instructive dissertations on the se irately; and by them the greater longevity of females probabilities and expectations of life, and on the mean 1R w made evident. duration of marriage and of widowhood; besides accounts he work commences with an algebraical theory of an- of some of the principal societies which had then been l! 11 -ies-certain; but the principal essay, On the Probabili- formed for the benefit of old age and of widows, with ob(‘ tb of the Duration of Human Life, is perfectly intelligible servations on the method of forming tables of mortality 1 tf hose who have not studied mathematics. It is written for towns, and two new tables of that kind constructed from *'1 i great judgment and perspicuity, but contains very registers kept at Norwich and Northampton. Mr Morgan’s i e more than the explanation of the construction of his Doctrine of Annuities and Assurances was published in 1 rfff’. s°me °f which relate to tontines; and he did not 1779, containing tables of the values of single lives, of in il himself to the extent he might have done, of the ex- two equal joint lives, and of two lives differing in age by rl c< tract of Thomas Simpson. 60 years, calculated from the Northampton table of morhis work, however, appears to have been more read tality. And in the same year M. de Saint-Cyran pub11 e J| ^t . Continent, and to have contributed more to the lished his Calcul des Rentes Viageres sur Une et sur Plui ision of this kind of information there, than all the other sieurs Tetes, wherein the valuation of annuities on lives is F P ne i Encyclopedic ^le su^jecj*is acknowledged The article to have Viagercs the treated algebraically, but in a manner much inferior in all been in taken to that of Mr Simpson; and six tables are given m rely from it, as was also the article Vie, duree de la ; respects of the values of annuities—on single lives, on the survivor ‘ ai* t icse are proofs, among many others that might be of two lives, and on the last survivor of three, calculated

annuities. 200 in his Doctrine of Annuities; but the latter gentleman first History. from M. Kersseboom’s table of mortality. Although the gave accurate solutions of problems of this kind, in theGi& jit’l' values in the cases of two and of three lives were only de- Philosophical Transactions for the years 1788,1789,1791 termined by approximation, these tables were, just then, 1794, and 1799. a valuable acquisition to the science; but their use was Mr Baily’s Doctrine of Life Annuities and Assurances entirely superseded only four years after, y p was published in 1810. In it the whole subject is treated, tion of others much more valuable. The fourth edition of Dr Price’s Observations on Rever- except the construction of tables of mortality, on which the practical application of all the rest depends. In consionary Payments appeared m 1783. One of the best the sequence of the author having adopted Mr Simpson’s noeffects of the preceding editions on theatten progress of tation, this work presented a more perspicuous exposition science had been, to direct the public .tlonh‘° ^ of the whole theory, especially of the improvements made innuiries bv showing their important uses in the attairs in it between the time when Mr Simpson wrote and the oflife; amHo procure the requisite for forming tables date of its publication, than had previously appeared. of mortality, that should illustrate the laws according to And in an appendix to it, published in 1813, principally which human life wastes under different circumstances, by for the purpose of explaining the construction and uses of exciting the curiosity of intelligent men who had the ne- tables for determining the values of life-annuities, calcessary leisure and means of information. The ingenious culated at a vast ‘sacrifice of time and labour by Mr author had accordingly been furnished with the neces- George Barrett, since deceased, formulae were given for sary abstracts of mortuary registers which had been kept calculating from tables of that kind the values of tempowith these views, by Dr Haygarth at Chester, Dr Aikin rary and deferred life-annuities and assurances, and also at Warrington, and the Rev. Mr Gorsuch at Holy-Cross, for determining the values of annuities and assurances near Shrewsbury, since the publication of the first edition; when the annuity or the sum assured, instead of remainalso by Mr Wargentin, with the mean numbers both ot always the same, increases or decreases from year to the living and the annual deaths in all Sweden and 1 in- ing year by equal differences, with considerably greater faland for 21 successive years; in all of which the sexes cility and expedition than the same things could have been were distinguished; and from these data he constructe effected with tables of mortality that threw great light on the subject. previous use. by the tables and methods of calculation in He also inserted in this edition an improved table of morExcept by these improvements, and the solution of the tality for Northampton; and, what had been so long want- problems above stated to have been first given by Mr ed, a complete set of tables of the values of annuities on Morgan, which were severely criticised and given anew, single lives at six rates of interest, and on two joint lives at four, all calculated from the new Northampton table. with some amendments besides the important one of the The combinations of joint lives were sufficiently numerous notation in Mr Baily’s work, the science had not been to admit of all the values not included being easily inter- materially advanced, during a period of more than 30 polated. Besides these, he also gave tables of the values years, which had elapsed since the appearance of the of annuities on single lives from the Swedish observations, fourth edition of Dr Price’s observations, when Mr Milne both with and without distinction of the sexes, and on two published his Treatise on the Valuation of Annuities ad Assurances on Lives and Survivorships, in the year 1815, joint lives without that distinction. The work consists of two volumes ; the first is matheThe values given in these tables are too low for the general average of lives at all ages under 60; but in the matical, the second entirely popular, except the notes treatise of Mr Baron Maseres on the Principles of the Doc- and a few of the tables. Ihe algebraical part of this trine of Life Annuities, which was published in the same article is merely a short abstract ot the first volume, and year (1783), others were given, calculated from the table may serve as a specimen of the manner in which the subof mortality which M. Deparcieux constructed from the ject has been treated there ; but the construction of tables lists of the nominees in the French tontines. The tables of mortality, which forms the subject ot the third chapfor single lives are calculated at twelve different rates of ter, has not been noticed here; neither is the valuation interest from 2 to 10 per cent, but those for joint lives of reversionary sums or annuities depending upon assigned only at 31 and 41 per cent.; and the combinations they orders of survivorship treated in the present article; and include are only those of ages that are equal, or that differ these are parts of the work which will not be found the least interesting to mathematicians. by 5 or 10 years, and the multiples of 10. The second volume contains upwards of 50 new tables, There is reason to believe that the values in these tables, at all ages under 75 or 80 years, are nearer the with a few others that had been published before, hut truth, for the average of this country, than any others then have been reprinted either on account of their value or extant; but certainly for the average of lives on which scarcity, or both. Four of the new ones are tables oi annuities and reversions depend. After that period of mortality constructed by the author, from registers ep life, however, they are too small; and, in most cases, it is at Carlisle and Montpellier, and in all Sweden and tindifficult to derive the values of joint lives from them with land, since the period of the observations Dr Price ma e sufficient accuracy, on account of the contracted scale they use of: the sexes are distinguished in the tables foi 115 den and Montpellier, but not in that for Carlisle. have been calculated upon. It was not Dr Price’s object to deliver the elements of last is the only table, besides those for Sweden and tinthe science systematically ; but he treated most parts of land, applicable to the mass of the people, that ^as it with great judgment, enriched it with a vast collection formed from the necessary data,—enumerations o of valuable facts and observations, and corrected several living, as well as registers of the deaths, in every in e errors into which some of the most eminent writers upon val of age. , t it had fallen. The mathematical demonstrations (which Twenty-one of these tables, being the seventeen ^ are given in the notes) are much inferior to the rest of the thirty-seventh inclusive, in the collection at the work. of the work, render it easy to apply the algebraical or The values of reversionary sums and annuities, which lae to practical purposes, and numerous examples o s depend upon some of the lives involved failing according applications are given. They have all been ca‘cUlj ; to assigned orders of precedency, had been approximated from the Carlisle table of mortality; those of .^VU by Mr Simpson in his Select Exercises, and by Mr Morgan of life-annuities on the same extensive scale with

ANNU L , jici! Dr Price derived from the Northampton table. It Hw i the author’s opinion that the values of interests de|'W indent upon the continuance or the failure of life may ;1> I 1 derived from them more correctly than from any others tl| ten extant, and he has taken considerable pains to assist l» h readers in judging of this for themselves. Besides the tables, the principal contents of the second ',(1 \ lume are explanations of their construction and uses. Ill jany of them relate to the progress of population,—the pi v-^the general average of those persons upon whose lives payable during 69^ years. And in order that those who — leases or annuities, and reversions or assurances, depend, had taken shares, and fixed upon their nominees in the they being generally in the higher and middle classes. tontine, might be placed in the same situation with regard Neither do they produce much effect among the more de- to the benefit of survivorship as if the scheme had comserving persons in the lower class, such as the members pletely succeeded, this act empowered the commissioners of friendly societies, and others who are both industrious of the treasury to select tontine nominees for the exand frugal enough to live within their incomes; nor in- changed shares, from the Peers of Great Britain and Ireland, their children or grandchildren ; baronets, lords of manors, deed upon any who are in comfortable circumstances. Hence it follows that the values of life-annuities, and, justices of the peace in England and Wales, or their chilconsequently, those of any pecuniary interests dependent dren ; the dignitaries of the church or beneficed clergy, felupon the continuance or the failure of human life, cannot loios of colleges, the governors of the Charter House, the be correctly determined from observations made on a Foundling Hospital, or Christ's Hospital, and those who whole population similar to those of the places these were registered in the books of the Amicable Life Assurance Society. tables were constructed from. The commissioners of the treasury were to distribute But this was not distinctly seen till of late years, and appears to be very imperfectly understood at present (in their nominees into six classes according to their ages, in the year 1830), even by some who might be expected to proportion to the nominees of the contributors in the same classes. Tickets with the names of the nominees were possess correct information on the subject. The tables constructed by Dr Price, both from the then to be put into six boxes, set apart for the respective Swedish observations, and those made by Dr Haygorth at classes, and drawn out till a sufficient number to complete Chester, threw valuable light on this subject. But defi- the tontine was obtained for each class. All of which was cient crops in Sweden operate powerfully in raising the performed accordingly. The values of annuities on the lives chosen by the conmortality there, in comparison with the more fruitful parts of Europe; therefore, the values of annuities copied into tributors are given in col. d, on those thus drawn by lot table B, and col. h of table A, from Dr Price’s work, must in col. e, and the two combined in col.^i Thus it appears that, of the lives in col. e, there was no only be understood as sufficiently correct for the period and place in which the observations were made. And the selection except their being taken from the descriptions Chester table is in some degree liable to the same objec- of persons above mentioned, who were all in the upper or middle classes of society. But, as might have been antitions as the others above mentioned. cipated, a considerable majority of female lives were chosen On Table A. by the contributors, and a considerable majority of males For nearly 70 years after its publication, M. Depar- were drawn by the commissioners of the treasury, the cieux’s table, from which the values given in col. a of descriptions of persons they were restricted to, consisting table A were derived, was the only one from fthich the principally of males. It will be observed that the values in columns d and e values of life-interests and of reversions depending upon lives could be determined with considerable accuracy. agree very nearly:—they would probably have agreed But the comparatively high values of annuities according better still had the proportion of the two sexes been the to that table were always supposed to arise from the care- same in both. And this shows how little advantage the contributors ful selection of the lives ; notwithstanding that 1they were almost all inhabitants of Paris and its environs. At that derived from choosing their nominees, beyond what was time (1689-1696) the Parisians were much worse lives secured to them by the classes of society they were sethan during the last 50 years, and a judicious selection lected from. The values of annuities in column i are much less than was much less likely to be made then than now. It is to be regretted that the Carlisle observations were in any other of table A; they are even less than those deonly continued nine years, commencing with 1779; but rived from the Northampton table of mortality. But it would be equally precipitate and unphilosophical the less so since Mr Milne has shown in his work on annuities (p. 429), that during the term of 22 years com- to conclude from thence, without further investigation, mencing with 1779, the proportion of the annual average that the bulk of the people of England 100 years ago number of deaths to the mean number of the people was were so much shorter lived than they are now. That the prolongation of life among the bulk of the the same as in these first nine years, viz. that of 1 to 40. In comparing the values in column c of table A with the population, from and after every age, has been very conrest, it should be borne in mind that a great majority of siderable during the last century, no unprejudiced person insured lives are males, on which account the values are who has paid sufficient attention to the subject to qualify somewhat lower, especially from 15 to 55 years of age, himself for judging of it can entertain a doubt; or that than they would have been had there been nearly equal it has also been somewhat lengthened among the upper • numbers of both sexes. and middle classes of society; but not nearly to the extent Columns d and e are very instructive. In the session which a comparison of columns g and i of table A would of 1789, an act (29 Geo. III. cap. 41) was passed for raising seem to imply. the sum of L.1,002,500 by the sale of shares in a tontine; There is certainly no rational ground for supposing that but the scheme did not succeed, the persons who in the the physical constitution of man has altered: any change first instance had taken the whole of the shares with the that has taken place can only have been produced by expectation of selling them at a profit not having been able changes in the habits of the people, and the circumstances to dispose of half of them ; and to afford those persons re- in which they have been placed. lief, an act (30 Geo. III. cap. 45) was passed in the next All this might have been reasonably concluded in the session, allowing them, before the 20th September of that absence of further information; but an examination of year (1790), to exchange each of the tontine shares they the circumstances under which the tontine of 1693 was 1

As M. Deparcieux states in his Essai, p. 62.

ANNUITIES. 208 History- formed, and of the first observation in Mr Finlaison’s re- ations, and upon their moral conduct: all of which must His port, from which the values in col. i have been deduced, be very uncertain, and difficult to judge of at such early^ ages. will confirm it. It is not improbable, too, that, on account of their In that year, the same in which Dr Halley’s paper on the Breslaw Bills was published in the Philosophical beauty and healthy appearance, many children of scrofuTransactions, this branch of knowledge was in its infancy. lous constitutions were selected; and they, on an average, By the 22d section of the act (4 William and Mary, cap. would be short-lived. It is probable that a great majority of the contributors 3) for raising a million of money by the sale of shares in this tontine, it was enacted that, if the sale of the tontine and therefore of their nominees, resided in London or shares did not produce the whole sum wanted by the first other large and crowded towns, which have always been of May 1693, then between that day and the 29th Sep- peculiarly unfavourable to the health of children, but tember following, for any sum contributed towards the were much more so then than they are now. All circumstances considered, there appears sufficient completion of the million, the contributor should receive 14 per cent, per annum on such sum during the life of evidence to show that the mortality among these nomiany person he might choose to nominate; the common nees must have been much greater than among the general interest of money at that time being § per cent.per annum. average of selected lives, or the general average of the And by an act passed in the next session (5 William and people in comfortable circumstances at that time ; and that, Mary, cap. 5), the term for granting annuities on these if the nominees in the English tontine of 1693 had been terms, and for the same purpose, was extended to the 1st distributed into classes according to their ages, and a larger of May 1694. This was selling annuities at half their true annuity for the same purchase-money had been allowed value. to the older classes, always with benefit of survivorship, The age of a nominee is never mentioned in either of the lives would have been more judiciously chosen, and these acts, and those in the tontine were not distinguish- would not probably have differed materially from the noed into classes. These things were, at the same time, minees in the French tontines of 1689 and 1696, which managed better in France. M. Deparcieux’s observations were made upon,—they, it Even Dr Halley was not aware of the greater mortality has been shown, were but little inferior In goodness to our of males, and the consequent greater proportion of females present annuitants and insured lives. in the population, as appears by his paper above mentionThe values of annuities on single lives given in Mr Fined ; for after calculating from his table of mortality the laison’s report are only specimens at one rate of interest number of inhabitants in Breslaw between 18 and 56 of the results of calculations made at several rates. And years of age to be 18,053, he says, “ at least one half of extensive calculations have also been made at the Gothese are males.” vernment Life-Annuity Office, of the values of annuities The contributors to the tontine could not be expected on tw'o and on three joint lives, with distinction of the to be better informed on these subjects than the parlia- sexes. But none of these have been published, nor do ment and Dr Halley; and, with respect to ages and sexes, they now (in July 1830) at that office grant any annuity the following appears by Mr Finlaison’s statement to have depending upon more than one life, nor expect to do so been their selection of nominees. for two or three years to come. Aged. Under 6 Between 6 and 11. Under 11 Between 11 and 16. Under 16 Between 16 and 21. Under 21 Above that age, Total.

Males. 178 178 356 119 475 49 524 ' 70 594

Number of Females. Both. 113 291 118 296 231 587 96 215 327 802 39 88 366 890 42 112 408 1002

In the absence of better information, it would seem reasonable to conclude that the younger a life was, the longer it would be likely to last; and accordingly we find that more than half the lives were under 11 years of a^e at the time of their nomination. And as males are more robust than females, it was also natural to conclude that a less rate of mortality would prevail among them; and accordingly three fifths of the nominees were males. . But subsequent observations have shown that, in both instances, the contributors made a bad choice. Besides, of all the nominees, only one ninth had completed their 21st year at the time of their nomination. Not only the constitutions of these young nominees were not then fully formed or developed, but the mortality among them would depend greatly upon their destiny in after-life, or the circumstances of their respective situ-

In this country, cases are continually occurring, in which an equitable adjustment of the rights and interests of different parties in property depending upon the continuance or the failure of human life, is of great importance ; and in many cases it cannot be made with sufficient accuracy without tables of the values of all possible combinations of two and even of three joint lives of different ages and of both sexes. But not unfrequently, especially in cases of contingent reversions, we have been hitherto, and are still, obliged to use approximations to the values of all the possible combinations of the lives involved, not only with each other, but also of them with others one year younger than each of them respectively. In these cases it sometimes happens that the whole value sought, being but a small part of a year’s purchase, is less than the probable error of several of these approximations considered separately; and then it is very difficult to give with confidence even a near approximation to the value sought. But in a great many other cases of frequent occurrence and less difficulty, the want of a complete set of good tables of this kind is much felt. It is therefore highly desirable that, numerous calculations for them having been made at the expense of the public, they should be completed at the public expense, and rendered accessible to persons having occasion to use them; by printing, if the expense would not be too great; otherwise, by having several manuscript copies accurately made, and deposited in convenient places for inspection, upon payment ofa small fee. ’ 1 A few writers on these subjects, of late years, have employed the differential and integral calculus in their in-

ANN U f. vestigations. We have not yet seen.any fruits of this -^application of the calculus which appear to us of much value, nor are we at all sanguine in expecting any. Although Lambert and Duvillard had made some efforts in this way before, Laplace (in his Theor. Anal, des Probabilites, No. 40) was the principal writer who thus treated the subject, and that very shortly, merely touching upon the elements. He arrived in the usual manner at the same formulae that are given in the elementary algebraic method, and are here demonstrated by common arithmetic; only expressed in the manner of the higher calculus, in terms of the absciss and ordinate of the curve of mortality, both considered as variable quantities. He judiciously observed that the integral might be obtained in every case by calculating all its terms from a table of mortality, and taking their sum; and that in this manner tables of the values of annuities on single and joint lives might be calculated; which is only reverting to the usual method. But he also observed that the same thing might be effected by describing a parabolic curve through the vertices of the two extreme and several intermediate ordinates of the curve of mortality, and even that a few of these would be sufficient, since the differences between the different tables of mortality would justify us in considering that method to be equally exact with those tables themselves. And in this we should entirely concur with that profound mathematician, provided we could admit that those tables, or most of them, had equal titles to our confidence, which he appears tacitly to assume. But here it is that M. Laplace appears to us to have fallen into the same error as most others respecting those tables of mortality, from not having paid sufficient attention to the data they were constructed from, and the manner of their construction. After what has been advanced in this article, and in that on the Law of Mortality in this work, we think it quite

I T I E S. 209 unnecessary to say more here, than that we consider it an History, established truth, that tables of mortality well constructed from proper data,for determining the values of annuities and reversions, do not differ materially from each other. If imperfect data for constructing a table of mortality be obtained, and any one already constructed, or the mean of several of them, be taken as a pattern or standard, to which it is desired that the new table should approach, it will not be difficult, by the known methods of approximation and interpolation, so to construct such new table that it shall not differ much from the standard; but such new table, being in a certain degree hypothetical, can be of little or no value. According to the usual methods of treating these subjects, and constructing accurate tables, we never depart from the observations, but are supported by them at every step: our clear and simple methods of reasoning and calculation are much superior to the data we can obtain: proper data are alone wanting to further the science at present; government only can effectually supply them, and all who take any interest in these subjects must be grieved to find that there is little or no hope of assistance from that quarter. Even if a wiser course be adopted in future, 20 years more must elapse before we can reap the benefit of it. This is not the proper place to enter further into that part of the subject; but to those who take an interest in it, we would recommend the perusal of the minutes of evidence taken before the committee on the population bill, ordered by the House of Commons to be printed 11th May 1830 ; and the minutes of the committee on the recommitted bill, printed 26th May 1830; especially, in the latter, Mr Milne’s letter to Mr Davies Gilbert, the chairman, in answer to an application made to him for his opinion, with Mr Rickman’s marginal notes on that letter, and his observations on it in his letter to the chairman, which Mr Milne knew nothing of till the bill was passed.

NOTE REFERRED TO IN TWO PLACES ABOVE. According to Mr Morgan’s statements in the places here referred to, the number of members, or of assurances, or of policies, found to be in the Equitable Assurance Society, was— At the end of the year Reference to Mr Morgan’s Statement. 1768 564 Policies .View of Rise and Progress, &c. p. 10. 1770 490 Policies Ditto ditto. 1772 500 +p. Members... Ditto 27. 1773 734 p. Members.... Address of 7th March 1793 118.1 1776 913 Policies Ditto of 24th April 1800 p. 140. 1783 1608 Members..., .Ditto of 7th March 1793 p. 118. 1786 2100 -J- Members... .Ditto of 24th April 1800 p. 140. 1792 4640 Assurances. .View of Rise and Progress, &c. p. 24. 1799 5124 Members... .Ditto p. 26. From which we infer, that if, at the end of each year, will the number of members, for if a policy be granted to beginning with 1770, and ending with 1799, the number A for insurance on the life of B, A is the member of the had been taken, the sum of all the 30 would have been society, and not B, who is only the life assured, and several 75,664, and the mean number during these 30 years 2522. other members besides A may insure the life of B, while In a note on p. 443, vol. ii. of Dr Price’s Obs. on Rev. A may also hold more policies than one insuring B’s life. Paym. (7th edit.), Mr Morgan states, that during 33 years, As has been already observed, Mr Morgan has repeatedfrom January 1768 to January 1801, the number of as- ly stated that the rate of mortality in the Equitable Society surances on single lives had been 83,201; but this great has always continued the same. And by tables a and b it number can only be the sum of the 33 annual numbers as appears, that out of 91,512 living persons in a similar above mentioned, and the mean of these will be 2521. society above 20 years of age, 1489 would die annually ; What we wish to know is, the mean number of lives also, in the table at the end of Mr Morgan’s annuities insured on which policies were in force during the obser- (2d ed.), it is stated, that during the first 20 years of the vations ; but that Mr Morgan never mentions. As more 19th century, 1923 of the lives assured in the society died policies than one are not unfrequently granted for so many above 20 years of age; but 1489 :1923 :: 91,512:118,185, distinct assurances on the same life, neither the number of so that this last is the number of lives in a similar society, policies nor of assurances will answer our purpose; neither out of which these 1923 deaths would happen in one year. ' 1 hese addresses are printed at the end of the deed of settlement of the society, for the use of the members: the copy quoted from was printed in 1801. .n . rv i VOL. Ill, g jj

210 History.

A N N U I T I E S. On p. 61 of his pamphlet On the Rise and Progress of Hist Then supposing, what is probably near the truth, that under 10 years of age the number of policies was the same the Equitable Society, Mr Morgan states the proportion inW as that of the lives insured, we shall have, by the state- 1827 to have been that of 3 to 4 nearly; and from another statement of his in a note on p. 42 of the same ment last mentioned, of pamphlet, it would appear to have been that of 5 to 6 Number of Number Annual during the 12 years ending with 1827. The proportion Lives. Deaths. above stated is nearly a mean between these two. Taking the mean number of lives on which assurances 7 1,494 Between 10 and 20 years of age were in force in the Equitable Society during the last 30 1923 118,185 Above 20 years of the eighteenth century to have been 2522, as de119,679 1930 Above 10 years of age termined above ; since 119,679 : 2522 : : 1930 : 40*671, , 119,679 5984 is the mean number above 10. this last is the annual average number of deaths in the And 20 society during these 30 years; therefore the whole numThat is, a population falling short of 6000, instead of ex- ber of them must have been 1220, which being added to 5124, the greatest number living at any one time during ceeding 150,000, as stated by Mr Morgan. But by the table above mentioned in Mr Morgan’s work the term (that is, at the end of 1799, as stated above), the on annuities, and the explanations of it given above, it ap- sum is 6344. And the greatest number of lives on which Mr Morgan’s observations were made during that term pears that by 151,754 policies in force in the society, must have exceeded this, by the number who went out of 119,679 lives were insured ; and 119,679:151,754 :: 7 : 9 nearly (more nearly:: 11:14). the society by sale or forfeiture of the assurances, or by So that the number of lives was to that of the policies the expiration of the limited terms some of them were as 7 to 9 nearly, during the twenty years ending with granted for, and did not enter it again; wherefore the sign (+) is added as before in table A. 1820. In treating of Annuities, we think that, it maybe useful in a work of this kind to address ourselves as well to those readers who have not, as to those who have, an acquaintance with Algebra ; and we shall accordingly divide what follows into two Parts, corresponding to these two views of the subject. PART I. We shall in this Part demonstrate all that is most useful and important in the doctrine of annuities and assurances on lives, without using algebra or introducing the idea of probability ; but the reader is of course supposed to understand common arithmetic. In the first 30 numbers of this Part, compound interest and annuities-certain are treated of; from the 31st to the 76th the doctrine of annuities on lives is delivered ; and that of assurances on lives from thence to the 108th, where the popular view terminates. What is demonstrated in this Part will be sufficient to give the reader clear and scientific views of the subjects treated, and, with the assistance of the necessary tables, will enable him to solve the more common and simple problems respecting the values of annuities and assurances. He will also understand clearly the general principles on which problems of greater difficulty are resolved; but these he cannot undertake with propriety when the object is to make a fair valuation of any claims or interests, with a view to an equitable distribution of property, unless he has studied the subject carefully, wfith the assistance of algebra; for intricate problems of this kind can hardly be solved without it; and those who are not much exercised in such inquiries often think they have arrived at a complete solution, while they have overlooked some circumstance or event, or some possible combination of events or circumstances, which materially affects the value sought. Eminent mathematicians have in this way fallen into considerable errors, and it can hardly be doubted that those who are not mathematicians must (cceteris pa* ribus) be more liable to them. I.—On Annuities-Certain. No. 1. When the rate is 5 per cent., L.l improved at simple interest during one year will amount to L.H>5; which, improved in the same manner during the second year, will be augmented in the same ratio of 1 to 1*05: the amount then will therefore be 1*05 X 1*05, or VfPOhV7 2 - 1*1025. In the same manner it appears that this last amount,

improved at interest during the third year, vnll be increased to (1*05)3 =4 1*157625 ; at the end of the fourth year it will be (1*05) ; at the end of the fifth (1*05)5, and so on ; the amount at the end of any number of years being always determined by raising the number which expresses the amount at the end of the first year to the power of which the exponent is the number of years. So that when the rate of interest is 5 per cent., L.l improved at compound interest will in21 seven years amount to (1*05)7, and in 21 years to (1*05) . But if the rate of interest were only 3 per cent., these amounts would only be (1*03)7 and (1*03)21 respectively. 2. The present value of L.l to be received certainly at the end of any assigned term, is such a less sum as, being improved at compound interest during the term, will just amount to one pound. It must therefore be less than L.l, in the same ratio as L.l is less than its amount in that time; but in three years at 5 per cent. L.l will amount to L.(l*05)3 (1). And (1*05)3 : 1 :: 1 : 80 that

(1-05)3 = L157625 = 0‘863838 is the Present value of L.l to be received at the expiration of three years. In the same manner it appears that, at 4 per cent, interest, the present value of L.l to be received at the end of a year is 0*961538; and if it were not to be received until the expiration of 21 years, its present value WOUld be

(I-04)2i ~ (°'961538)21 = 0*438834. Hence it appears, that if unit be divided by the amount of L.l improved at compound interest during any number ol years, the quotient will be the present value of L.l to be received at the expiration of the term; which may also be obtained by raising the number which expresses the present value of L.l receivable at the expiration of a year, to the power of which the exponent is the number of years in the term.

211 ANNUITIES. Popular 10. The calculation must begin with Table III., the Popta- 3. When a certain sum of money is receivable annualVie ly, it is called an Annuity, and its quantum is expressed first number in which should evidently be 1*05, the View. ■^/w/by saying it is an annuity of so much; thus, according as amount of L.l improved at interest during one year, which' the annual payment is L.l, L.10, or L.100, it is called an being multiplied by 1*05, the product is L025, the second number. This second number being multiplied by 1-05, annuity of L.l, of L.10, or of L.100. 4. When the annual payment does not depend upon the product is 1*157625, the amount at the end of three any contingent event, but is to be made certainly, either years. And so the calculation proceeds throughout the in perpetuity or during an assigned term, it is called an whole of the column; each number after the first being the product of the multiplication of the preceding number, Annuity-certain. 5. In calculating the value of an annuity, the first pay- by the amount of L.l in a year. (1.) 11. The number against any year in Table I. is found ment is always considered to be made at the end of the first year from the time of the valuation, unless the con- by dividing unit by the number against the same year in Table III. (2); thus, the number against the term of six trary be expressly stated. 6. Tlie whole number, and part or parts of one annual Jyears in Table I. is = *746215. All the numbers payment of an annuity, which all the future payments are 1*340096 worth in present money, is called the number of years in that table after the first may also be found by multipurchase the annuity is worth, and, being the sum of the plying that first number continually into itself. (2.) present values of all the future payments, is also the sum 12. The number against any year in Table II., being the which, being put out and improved at compound interest, sum of the numbers against that and all the preceding will just suffice for the payment of the annuity. (2.) years in Table I., is found by adding the number against 7. Hence it follows, that when the annuity is L.l, the that year in Table I. to the number against the preceding number of years’ purchase and parts of a year is the same year in Table II.; thus, the number against four years in as the number of pounds and parts of a pound in its pre- Table II. being sent value. the sum of 0*822702 And throughout this article, whenever the quantum of and 2*723248 an annuity is not mentioned, it is to be understood to be L.l. is 3*545950. 8. The sum of which the simple interest for one year 13. If each payment of an annuity of L.l be put out as is L.l, is evidently that which, being put out at interest, it becomes due, and improved at compound interest duwill just suffice for the payment of L.l at the end of every ring the remainder of the term, it is evident that at the year, without any augmentation or diminution of the prin- expiration of the term the payment then due will be but cipal, and, being equivalent to the title to L.l per annum L.l, having received no improvement at interest. That for ever, is called the value of the perpetuity, or the num- received one year before will be augmented to the amount ber of years’ purchase the perpetuity is worth. of L.l in a year; that received two years before will be But while the rate remains the same, the annual inte- augmented to the amount of L.l in two years; that rerests produced by any two sums are to each other as ceived three years before to the amount of L.l in three the principals which produce them; therefore, since years; and so on until the first payment, which will be 100 5 : 1 :: 100 : 20, when the rate of interest is b per augmented to the amount of L.l in a term one year less “IT than that of the annuity. cent., the value of the perpetuity is 20 years’ purchase. In Hence it is manifest that the number against any year the same manner it appears, that according as the rate in Table IV. will be unit added to the sum of all those may be 3 or 6 per cent., the value of the perpetuity will be against the preceding years in Table III. And therefore that the number against any year in -g- = 33^, or =r 16§ years’ purchase; and may be Table IV. is the sum of those in Tables III. and IV. found in every case, by dividing any sum by its interest for against the next preceding year. Thus, the number against seven years in Table IV. bea year. 9. All the most common and useful questions in the ing the sum of 1*340096 doctrines of compound interest and annuities-certain may and 6*801913 be easily resolved by means of the first four tables at the end of this article. Their construction may be explained is 8*142009. by the following specimen, rate of interest 5 per cent. 14. The method of construction is obviously the same at any other rate of interest. CONSTRUCTION OF 15. All the amounts and values which are the objects Table IV. Table III. Table I. Table II. of this inquiry evidently depend upon the improvement of money at compound interest; it is therefore, that the Amount of Amount of Present Present vafirst, second, and fourth tables, all depend upon the third. L. 1 jtcr anL.l value of lue of L.l But every pound, and every part of a pound, when put num L.l to be per annum, out at interest, is improved in the same manner as any improved at Interest received at to be received until Term. single pound considered separately. Whence it is obTerm. until vious, that while the term and the rate of interest remain the Expiration of the Term. the same, both the amount and the present value, either of any sum or of any annuity, will be the same multiple, 1 yr. 1-000000 1*050000 •952381 0*952381 1 yr. 2 yrs, 2*050000 1*102500 •907029 1*859410 2 yrs. and part or parts of the amount or the present value found against the same term, and under the same rate of 3 3*152500 1*157625 •863838 2*723248 3 interest in these tables, as the sum or the annuity pro4 4*310125 1*215506 •822702 3*545950 4 posed is of L.L 5 4*329476 5 5*525631 1*276282 •783526 So that to find the amount or the present value of any 6 6*801913 1*340096 •746215 5*075691 6 sum or annuity for a given term and rate of interest, we 7 8*142009 1*407100 •710681 5*786372 7 have only to multiply the corresponding tabular value by

ANNUITIES. 212 Popular the sum or the annuity proposed; the product will be the tered upon 7 years hence ; the term of delay, therefore, is View, amount or the value sought, according as the case may be. 7 years, and that of the delay and continuance together 16. Example 1. To what sum will L.100 amount when 21 years. By Table II. it appears, that the present value of an improved at compound interest during 20 years, the rate annuity of interest being 4 per cent, per annum ? 12-8212^ By Table III. it appears that L.l so improved would, for 21 years, is 5,78(54 at the expiration of the term, amount to L.2'191123 ; for 7 J,ears’ > years’ purchase. therefore L.100 would amount to 100 times as much, that Value of the deferred annuity, 7-0348 J is, to L.219T123, or L.219. 2s. 3d. Multiply by 300 17. Ex. 2. What is the present value of L.400, which is not to be received until the expiration of 14 years, The product, L.2110-44, or L.2110. 8s. 9jd., when the rate of interest is 5 per cent. ? The present value of L.l to be received then will be is the price required. 24. Hitherto we have proceeded upon the supposition found by Table I. to be L.0’505068 : L.400 to be received at the same time will therefore be worth, in present of the annuity being payable, and the interest convertible money, 400 times as much, or L.202‘0272, that is, L.202. into principal, which shall reproduce interest, only once 0s. 6|d. a year. 18. Ex. 3. Required the present value of an annuity of But annuities are generally payable half yearly, and L.50 for 21 years, when the rate of interest is 5per cent. sometimes quarterly; and the same circumstances that Table II. shows the value of an annuity of L.l for the render it desirable for an annuitant to receive his annual same term to be L.12,8212; the required value must sum in equal half-yearly or quarterly portions, also give therefore be 50 times as much, or L.64L06, that is L.641. occasion to the interest of money being paid in the same Is. 2Jd. manner. 19. Ex. 4. What will an annuity of L.10. 10s. or L.10-5 But whatever has been advanced above concerning the for thirty years amount to, when each payment is put out present value or the amount of an annuity, when both as it becomes due, and improved at compound interest that and the interest of money were only payable once until the end of the term; the rate of interest being 4 a year, will evidently be true when applied to half the per cent. ? annuity and half the interest paid twice as often, on the The amount of an annuity of L.l so improved would be supposition of half-yearly payments; or to a quarter of L.56-084938, as appears by Table IV.; the amount requir- the annuity and a quarter of the interest paid four times ed will therefore be 10*5 times this, or L.588*89185, that as often, when the payments are made quarterly. is L.588. 17s. lOd. 25. Half-yearly payments are, however, by far the most 20. When the.interval between the time of the pur- common; and these four tables will also enable us to chase of an annuity and the first payment thereof exceeds answer the most useful questions concerning them. that which is interposed between each two immediately For we have only to extract the present value, or the successive payments, such annuity is said to be deferred amount, from the table, against twice the number of years for a time equal to that excess, and to be entered upon at in the term, at half the annual rate of interest, and, in the the expiration of that time. case of an annuity, to multiply the number so extracted 21. If two persons, A and B, purchase an annuity be- by half the annuity proposed. tween them, which A is to enter upon immediately, and 26. Ex. 1. To what sum will L.100 amount in 20 years, to enjoy during a certain part of the term, and B or his when the interest at the rate of 4 per cent, per annum is heirs or assigns for the remainder of it, the present value convertible into principal half-yearly? of B's interest will evidently be the excess of the value This being the amount in 40 half years at 2 per cent. of the annuity for the whole of the term from this time, interest for every half year, will be the same as the above the value of the interest of A. amount in 40 years at 2 per cent, per annum, which, by So that when the entrance on an annuity is deferred for Table III. will be found to be 220-804, or L.220. 16s. Id.; a certain term, its present value will be the excess of the and is only L.L 13s.TOd. more than it would amount to value of the annuity for the term of delay and continuance if the interest were not convertible more than once a year. together, above the value of an equal annuity for the term (iO.) of delay only. 27. Ex. 2. W hat is the present value of an annuity of 22. Example 1. Required the value of a perpetual an- L.50 for 21 years, receivable in equal half-yearly paynuity of L.120, which is not to be entered upon until the ments, when money yields an interest of 2\per cent, every expiration of 14 years from this time, reckoning interest half year ? at 3 per cent. By Table II. it appears, that an annuity of L.l for 42 The perpetuity, with immediate possession, would be years, when the interest of money is 21 per cent, per anworth 33t years’ purchase (8); and an annuity for the num, will be worth L.25-8206 (25) ; 25 times this sum, or term of delay is worth 11-2961 (Table II.) L.645. 10s. 3id., is therefore the required value, and exFrom 33-3333 ceeds the value when the interest and the annuity are subtract 11-2961, and multiply only payable once a year, by L.4. 9s. Id. (18.) 28. I he excess of an annuity-certain above the interest the remainder 22-0372 of the purchase-money, is the sum which, being put out by 120 at the time of each payment becoming due, and improved at compound interest until the expiration of the term, will the product, 2644-464 = L.2644. 9s. 34d., just amount to the purchase-money ox-iginally paid. is the required value. But, while every thing else remains the same, the longer 2^. Ex. 2. Allowing interest at 5 per cent., what sum the term of the annuity is, the less must its excess above should be paid down now, for the renewal of 14 years the interest of the purchase-money be, because a less anlapsed in a lease for 21 years of an estate producing L.300 nuity will suffice for raising the same sum within the term. per annum, clear of all deductions ? Therefore, the proportion of that excess to the annual inI his is the price of an annuity for 14 years, to be en- terest of the purchase-money continually diminishes as

!

ANNUITIES. 213 upon entering into it, be paid for the whole, the present Popular the term is extended; and when the annuity is a perpevalue of L.6047 to be received at the expiration of eleven View,. tuity, there is no such excess. (8.) 29. The reason why the value of an annuity is increas- years ; and for each life the -g^goth part of it, that is, the ed by that and the interest being both payable more than ffto^ Part t^ie Present value of L. 1, to be received then. But when the rate of interest is 5 per cent., the present once in the year, is, that the granter loses and the purL.l, to be received at the expiration of 11 years, chaser gains the interest produced by that part of each value of payment which is in excess above the interest then due is L.0 584679; therefore, at that rate of interest, there upon the purchase-money, from the time of such payment should be paid for each life 6047 X 0-584679 L.0-5473. being made until the expiration of the year. 6460 Hence it is obvious, that the less this excess is, that is, And the present value of L.100, to be received upon a the longer the term of the annuity is (28), the less must life now 10 years of age attaining to 21, will be L.54'73, the increase of value be. or L.54. 14s. 7d. And when the annuity is a perpetuity, its value will be In the same manner it will be found, that reckoning the same, whether it and the interest of money be both interest at 4/>er cent, the value would be L.60. 16s. Id. payable several times in the year, or once only. 35. This is the method of calculating the present values 30. When the annuity is not payable at the same inter- of endowments for children of given ages ; and the values vals at which the interest is convertible into principal, its of annuities on lives may be computed in the same manner. value will depend upon the frequencies both of payment For, from the above reasoning it is manifest, that if the and conversion; but its investigation without algebra present value of L.l, to be received certainly at the exwould be too long, and of too little use, to be worth pro- piration of a given term, be multiplied by the number in secuting here. the table of mortality against the age, greater than that of any proposed life by the number of years in the term, II.—Of Annuities on Lives. and the product be divided by the number in the same table, against the present age of that life; the quotient 31. When the payment of an annuity depends upon the will be the present value of L.l, to be received at the exexistence of some life or lives, it is called a Life-Annuity. piration of the term, provided that the life survive it. 32. The values of such annuities are calculated by And if, in this manner, the value be determined of L.l, means of tables of mortality, which show, out of a consi- to be received upon any proposed life, surviving each of derable number of individuals born, how many upon an the years in its greatest possible continuance, according average have lived to complete each year of their age, to the table of mortality adapted to it; that is, according and, consequently, what proportion of those who attained to the Carlisle table, upon its surviving every age greater to any one age have survived any greater age. than its present, to that of 104 years inclusive; then, the The fifth table at the end of this article is one of that sum of all these values will evidently be the present value kind which has been taken from Mr Milne’s Treatise on of an annuity on the proposed life. Annuities, and was constructed from accurate observations 36. If 5642 lives at 30 years of age be proposed, and made at Carlisle by Dr Heysham, during a period of nine 5075 at the age of 40; since each of the 5642 younger years, ending with 1787. lives may be combined with every one of the 5075 that 33. By this table it appears, that during the period in are 10 years older, the number of different pairs, or difwhich these observations were made, out of 10,000 chil- ferent combinations of two lives differing in age by 10 dren born, 3203 died under five years of age, and the re- years, that may be formed out of the proposed lives, is maining 6797 completed their fifth year. Also, that out 5642 times 5075. of 6797 children who attained to five years of age, 6460 But at the expiration of 15 years the survivors of the survived their tenth year. lives now 30 and 40 years of age, being then of the reBut the mortality under ten years of age has been great- spective ages of 45 and 55, will be reduced to the numly reduced since then by the practice of vaccination. bers of 4727 and 4073 respectively; and the number of This table also shows, that of 6460 individuals who pairs, or combinations of two, differing in age by 10 years, attained to 10 years of age, 6047 survived 21; and that of that can be formed out of them, will be reduced from 5075 who attained to 40, only 3643 survived their 60th year. 5642 X 5075 to 4727 X 4073. 34. There is good reason to believe (as has been shown So that L.l to be paid at the expiration of 15 years for in another place) that the general law of mortality, that each of these 5642 X 5075 pairs or combinations of two is, the average proportion of persons attaining to any one now existing, which may survive the term, will be of the age, who survive any greater age, remains much the same same value in present money as 4727 times L.4073 to now among the entire mass of the people throughout Eng- be received certainly at the same time. land, as it was found to be at Carlisle during the period of Now, let A be any one of these lives of 30 years of age, these observations, except among children under ten years and B any one of those aged 40; and, from what has been of age, as was noticed above. (33.) it will be evident that the present value of L.l, If this be so, it will follow, that of 6460 children now 10 advanced, to be received the two lives in this particular comyears of age, just 6047 will attain to 21; or rather, that bination jointly upon surviving the term, will be the same as that if any great number be taken in several instances, this L.4727X 4073 will be the average proportion of them that will of the sum 5642 X 5075 to be then received certainly. But, when the rate of interest is 5 per cent, L.l to be survive the period. And if 6460 children were to be taken indiscriminately received certainly at the expiration of 15 years, is equivafrom the general mass of the population at 10 years of lent to L.0-481017 in present money. (Table I.) Therefore, at that rate of interest, and according to the age, and an office or company were to engage to pay L.l eleven years hence for each of them that might then be Carlisle table of mortality, the present value of L.l to be living, this engagement would be equivalent to that which received upon A and B, now aged 30 and 40 years reshould bind them to pay L.6047 certainly at the expira- spectively, jointly surviving the term of 15 years, will be tion of the term. Therefore the office, in order that it 4727 X 4073 X L.0-481017 might neither gain nor lose by the engagement, should, 5642 X 5075

ANNUITIES. 214 41. By the method of No. 34, it' will be found that, Popular 37. Hence It Is sufficiently evident how the present View. value of L.l to be received upon the same two lives jointly reckoning interest at 5 per cent., the present value of V«l surviving any other year may be found. And if that value L.l to be received at the expiration of a year, provided'-^ for each year from this time until the eldest life attain to that a life, now 89 years of age, survived till then, is ^ ^ge 0f that jjf€ wjji tjlen ^ the limit of the table of mortality be calculated, the sum 142 X 0 95~38 ^ 181 of all these will be the present value of an annuity of L.l years, and the proprietor of an annuity of L.1 now dependdependent upon their joint continuance. In this manner, it is obvious that the value of an annuity ing upon it will, in that event, receive his annual payment on the joint continuance of any other two lives might be of L.l then due; therefore, if the value then of all the subsequent payments, that is, the value of an annuity on determined. 38. If, besides the 5642 lives at 30 years of age, and a life of 90, be 2‘339 years’ purchase, the present value of the 5075 at 40 (mentioned in No. 36), there be also pro- what the title to this annuity may produce to the proprieposed 3643 at 60 years of age, each of these 3643 at 60 tor at the end of the year will be the same as that of may be combined with every one of the 5642 X 5075 dif- L.3'339, to be received then, if the life be still subsisting, ferent combinations of a life of 30, with one of 40 years of X L.3 339 , wniclij tlicrcage; and, therefore, out of these three classes of lives or *•-—-■ lol 5642 X 5075 X 3643 different combinations may be formed, fore, will be the present value of an annuity of L.l on a each containing a life of 30 years of age, another of 40, life of 89 years of age. That is to say, an annuity on that and a third of 60. life will now be worth 2-495 years’ purchase. (7.) But at the expiration of 15 years the numbers of lives 42. In the same manner it appears generally, that if in these three classes will, according to the table of mor- unit be added to the number of years’ purchase that an tality, be reduced to 4727, 4073, and 1675 respectively; annuity on any life is worth, and the sum be multiplied by the respective ages of the survivors in the several classes the present value of L.l to be received at the end of a being then 45, 55, and 75 years; and the number of dif- year, provided that a life one year younger survive till ferent combinations of three lives (each of a different class then, the product will be the number of years’ purchase from either of the other two) that can be formed out of an annuity on that younger life is worth in present money. them, will be reduced to 4727 X 4073 X 1675. 43. But, according to the table of mortality, an annuity Hence, by reasoning as in No. 36, it will be found, that on the eldest life in it is worth nothing; therefore, the if A, B, and C be three such lives, now aged 30, 40, and present value of L.l to be received at the end of a year 60 years, the present value of L.l to be received upon provided that the eldest life but one in the table survive these three jointly surviving the term of 15 years from till then, is the total present value of an annuity of L.l on 4727 X 4073 X1675 XL.0'481017 : inte- that life; which being obtained, the value of an annuity this time, will be 5642 X 5075 X 3643 on a life one year younger than it may be found by the rest being reckoned at 5 per cent. preceding number; and so on for every younger life sucThus it is shown how the present value of an annuity cessively. dependent upon the joint continuance of these three lives might be calculated, that being the sum of the present Exemplification. values thus determined, of the rents for all the years Rate of Interest 5 per cent. which, according to the table of mortality, the eldest life can survive. be- Produces 39. But it is easy to see that the same method of reaValue of an Which ing multi- the value of Annuity on soning may be used in the case of four, five, or six lives, Age of that Life, plied bv an Annuity Its Age and so on without limit. Whence this inference is obvious. Life. increased 0-952381, on the next being and the The present value of L.l to be received at the expirayounger by Unit, Product by Life, tion of a given term, provided that any given number of lives all survive it, may be found by multiplying the pre1-000 0-317 103 104 sent value of L.l to be received certainly at the end of the term, by the continual product of the numbers in the 1-317 102 103 0-753 table of mortality against the ages greater respectively by 1101 102 T192 the number of years in the term than the ages of the 2100 101 1lives proposed, and dividing the last result of these ope299 100 2rations by the continual product of the numbers in the tV 399 98 2-278 table of mortality against the present ages of the proposed •H lives. 97 98 2-428 3-278 rt And by a series of similar operations, the present value 2-555 97 96 3-428 If of an annuity on the joint continuance of all these lives 2-596 95 96 3-555 might be determined. 2-569 95 94 3-596 But it should be observed, that, in calculating the value of a life-annuity in this way, the denominator of the frac44. Proceeding as in No. 36, it will be found that, at tions expressing the values of the several years’ rents, that is, the divisor used in each of the operations, remains al- 5 per cent, interest, and according to the Carlisle table ways the same: the division should, therefore, be left till of mortality, the present value of L.l to be received the sum of the numerators is determined; and one opera- at the expiration of a year provided that a person now 89 years of age, and another now 99, be then living, is tion of that kind will suffice. , 40. Enough has been said to show that these methods 142 X 9 X L.0-952381 t lere ore rsTxTI ’ * * > “ the present value ot of constructing tables of the values of annuities on lives are practicable, though excessively laborious; and, in fact, an annuity of L.l on the joint continuance of two lives, all the early tables of this kind were constructed in that now aged 90 and 100 years respectively, be L.0-950, by manner. We proceed now to show how such tables may reasoning as in No. 41, it will be found that the present be calculated with much greater facility. value of an annuity on the joint continuance of two lives,

ANNUITIES. 215 50. Prop. 2. The value of an annuity on the joint con- Popular ages of 89 and 99 years, will be worth ;j of the respective tinuance of the two last survivors out of three lives, A, View. ^142Xj9X0;952381 x 1.930_1.192 years’ purchase. B, and C, is equal to the excess of the sum of the values 45. In this manner, commencing with the two oldest of annuities on the three combinations of two lives {A lives in the table that differ in age by ten years, and pro- with B, A with C, and B with C) that can be formed ceeding according to No. 43, the values of annuities on all out of them, above twice the value of an annuity on the the other combinations of two lives of the same difference joint continuance of all the three lives. 51. Bern. If one annuity were granted to P on the joint of age may be determined. The method is exemplified in the following specimen. continuance of the two lives A and B, another on the joint continuance of A and £7, and a third on the joint continuance of B and C} during the joint continuance Produces of all the lives he would have three annuities. Value of an Which be- the value of Annuity on ing multi- an Annuity But if he were only to receive these upon condition Ages of two their joint plied bv on the two Their Ages that he should pay two annuities to Q during the joint being Lives. continuance, 0-952381, joint Lives continuance of all the three lives, then there would only increased and the Pro. one year remain to himself one annuity during the joint existence duct by younger reby Unit, of the last two survivors out of the three lives. And the spectively, truth of the proposition is manifest. 1X40 52. Prop. 3. The value of an annuity on the last sur0-235 93 & 103 vivor of three lives, A, B, and C, is equal to the excess 1-000 94 & 104 3X54 of the sum of the values of annuities on each of the three, 3X54 92 & 102 single lives, together with the value of an annuity on the 0-508 93 & 103 1-235 5X75 joint continuance of all the three, above the sum of the 5X75 91 & 101 values of three other annuities; the first dependent upon 0-733 92 & 102 1-508 7X 105 the joint continuance of A and B, the second on that of A and C, and the third on B and C. 7X105 90 & 100 0-950 1-733 91 & 101 53. Bern. If annuities on each of the three single lives 9X 142 were granted to R, during the joint continuance of all the 9X142 89 & 99 three he would have three annuities; and from the time 1-192 90 & 100 1950 11X181 of the extinction of the first life that failed, till the extinction of the second, he would have two. 11X181 1-280 88 & 98 192 89 & 99 2So that he would have two annuities during the joint 14X232 existence of the two last survivors out of the three lives; 46. Hence, and by what has been advanced in the 39th and besides these, a third annuity during the joint continumber of this article, it is sufficiently evident how a nuance of all the three. Therefore, if out of these R were to pay one annuity table may be computed of the values of annuities on the joint continuance of the lives in every combination of to P during the joint continuance of the last two survir three, or any greater number; the differences between vors out of the three lives, and another to Q during the the ages of the lives in each combination remaining al- joint continuance of all the three, he would only have ways the same in the same series of operations, while the left one annuity, which would be receivable during the calculation proceeds back from the combination in which life of the last survivor of the thx-ee. But in the demonstration of the last proposition (51) it the oldest life is the oldest in the table, to that in which was shown, that the value of what he paid to .P would the youngest is a child just born. 47. But when there are more than two lives in each fall short of the sum of the values of annuities dependent combination, the calculations are so very laborious, on ac- respectively on the joint continuance of A and B, of A count principally of the great number of combinations, and C, and of B and C, by two annuities on the joint that no tables of that kind have yet been published, ex- continuance of all the three lives. Whence it is evident that the value of the annuities he paid both to P and Q cept three or four for three lives. And in the books that contain tables of the values of would fall short of the sum of these three values of joint two joint lives, methods are given of approximating to- lives, only by the value of one annuity on the joint contiwards the values of such combinations of two and of three nuance of all the three lives. lives as have not yet been calculated. Wherefore, if from the sum of the values of all the Therefore, assuming the values of annuities on single three single lives, the sum of the values of the three comfives, and on the joint continuance of two or of three lives, binations of two that can be formed out of them were tato be given, we have next to show how the most useful ken, there would remain less than the value of an annuity problems respecting the values of any interests that de- on the last survivor, by that of an annuity on the joint pend upon the continuance or the failure of life may be continuance of the three lives. resolved by them. But if, to the sum of the values of the three single 48. Proposition 1. The value of an annuity on the lives A, B, and C, there be added that of an annuity on the survivor of two lives, A and J3, is equal to the excess of joint continuance of the three, and from the sum of these the sum of the values of annuities on the two single lives four values the sum of the values of the three combinaabove the value of an annuity on their joint continuance. tions A with B, A with C, and B with C be subtracted, 49. Demo?istration. If annuities on each of the two then the remainder will be the value of an annuity on the lives were granted to P, during their joint continuance last survivor of the three lives ^ which was to be demonhe would have two annuities; but if jP were only to re- strated. ceive these upon condition that, during the joint lives of 54. Prop. 4. Problem. The law of mortality and the A and B, he should pay one annuity to Q, then there values of single lives at all ages being given, to determine would only remain one to be enjoyed by him or his heirs the present value of an annuity on any proposed life, deor assigns, until the lives both of A and B were extinct; ferred for any assigned term. whence the truth of the proposition is manifest. 55. Solution. Find the present value of an annuity on

ANNU 216 Popular a life older than the proposed, by the number of years View. during which the other annuity is deferred; multiply this by the present value of L.l to be received upon the proposed life surviving the term, and the product will be the value sought. 56. Dem. Upon the proposed life surviving the term, the annuity dependent upon it will be worth the same sum that an annuity on a life so much older is now worth ; therefore it is evident that the deferred annuity is of the same present value as that sum to be received at the expiration of the term, provided the life survive it. 57. Corollary. In the same manner it appears, that the present value of an annuity on the joint continuance of any number of lives, deferred for a given term, may be found by multiplying the present value of an annuity on the joint continuance of the same number of lives, older respectively than the proposed by the number of years in the term, by the present value of L.l to be received upon the proposed lives all surviving it. 58. A temporary annuity on any single life, or on the joint continuance of any number of lives, that is, an annuity which is to be paid during a certain term, provided that the single life or the other lives jointly subsist so long, together with an annuity on the same life or lives deferred for the same term, is evidently equivalent to an annuity on the whole duration of the same life or lives. So that the value of an annuity on any life, or on the joint continuance of any number of lives, for an assigned term, is equal to the excess of the value of an annuity on their whole duration, with immediate possession, above the value of air annuity on them deferred for the term. 59. Whatever has been advanced from No. 48 to 53 inclusive, respecting the values of annuities for the whole duration of the lives whereon they depend, will apply equally to those which are either deferred or temporary; and therefore, to determine the value of any deferred or temporary annuity dependent upon the last survivor of two or of three lives, or upon the joint continuance of the last two survivors out of three lives, we have only to substitute temporary or deferred annuities, as the case may require, for annuities on the whole duration of the lives; and the result will accordingly be the value of a temporary or deferred annuity on the life of the last survivor, or on the joint lives of the two last survivors. 60. Prop. 5. A and B being any two proposed lives now in existence, the present value of an annuity to be payable only while A survives L?, is equal to the excess of the value of an annuity on the life of A above that of an annuity on the joint existence of both the lives. 61. Dem. If an annuity on the life of ^4, and to be entered upon immediately, were now granted to P upon condition that he should pay it to B during the joint lives of and _Z?, it is evident that there would only remain to P an annuity on the life of A after the decease of B; whence the truth of the proposition is manifest. When any thing is affirmed or demonstrated any y life or lives, it is to be understood as applying equally to any proposed single life, or to the joint continuance of the whole of any number of lives that may be proposed together, or to that of any assigned number of the last survivors of them, or to the last surviving life of the whole. 63. Prop. 6. The present value of the reversion of'a perpetual annuity after the failure of any life or lives, is equal.to the excess of the present value of the perpetuity, with immediate possession, above the present value of an annuity on the same life or lives. 64. Dem. If a perpetual annuity with immediate possession were granted to P, upon condition that he should pay the annual produce to another individual during the existence of the life or lives proposed, it is evident that

I T I E S. there would only remain to P the reversion after the Po failure of such life or lives; and the present value of that VI reversion would manifestly be as stated above. ^, 65. The 6th, 7th, and 8th tables at the end of this article, which have been extracted from the 19th, 21st, and 22d respectively, in Mr Milne’s Treatise on Annuities, will serve to illustrate the application of these propositions to the solution of questions in numbers. In all the following examples, we suppose the lives to be such as the general average of those from which the Carlisle table of mortality was constructed, and the rate of interest to be hper cent. 66. Ex. 1. What is the present value of an annuity on the joint lives, and the life of the survivor of two persons now aged 40 and 50 years respectively ? According to No. 48, the process is as follows: 40 13-390 Value of a single life of 50 11-660 | (by Table VI.) sum 25-050 Subtract the value of their | 9-984 (Table VIII.) joint lives, J remains 15-066 years’purchase, the required value. And if the annuity be L.200, its present value will be L.3013-2, or L.3013. 4s. 67. Ex. 2. The lives A, B, and C, being now aged 50, 55, and 60 years respectively, an annuity on the joint continuance of all the three is worth 6-289 years’ purchase, what is the value of an annuity on the joint existence of the last two survivors of them ? According to No. 50, the process is thus: Ages. Values. 50 & 55 55 & 60 50 & 60

mog} (Table VIL> 7-601 (Table VIII.)

sum 23-235 Subtract 2 X 6-289 =12-578 remains 10-657 years’ purchase, the required value. Therefore, if the annuity were L.300, it would be worth L.3197. 2s. in present money. 68. Ex. 3. Required the value of an annuity on the last survivor of the three lives in the last example. Proceeding according to No. 52, we have Ages. Values. 50 55 60 50, 55, & 60

11-660 ) 10-347 } (Table VI.) 8-940 ) 6-289 (No. 67).

sum 37-236 Subtract the sum of the values! of annuities on the three com- >- 23*235 (No. 67.) binations of two lives, J remains 14-001 years’ purchase, the required value. And if the annuity were L.300, it would now be worth L.4200. 6s. 69. Ex. 4. What is the present value of an annuity on a life now 45 years of age, which is not to be entered upon until the expiration of ten years ; the first payment thereof being to be made at the expiration of eleven years from this time, if the life survive till then ?

ANNUITIES. 217 75. Ex. 8. Let it be required to determine the present Popular 1 Solution. popu, value of the reversion of a perpetual annuity after the View, K Vie'* f " . The present value of an annuity on a life of 55 is 10-347 failure of a life now 50 years of age. (Table VI.), and the present value of L.l to be received Solution. upon the proposed life attaining to the age of 55, is The value of the perpetuity is 20 years’ purchase. (8.) X 0-613913 ; therefore, by No. 55, the required value is Subtract that of an annuity onl 4073 X 0-613913 X 10-347 -5.4,73 s> purciiase; so the life of 50, j 11-660 (Table VI.) 1 4727 ^ that if the annuity were L.200, its present value would be remains 8-34 years’ purchase, L.1094. 12s. the required value of the reversion. (63.) 70. Ex. 5. Required the present value of an annuity to So that if the annuity were L.300, its present value be received for the next ten years, provided that a person would be L.2502. now 45 years of age shall so long live. 76. In the same manner it will be found, by the 68th number and those referred to in the last example, that Solution. the reversion of a perpetuity, after the failure of the last The present value of an annuity on a life of 45, to survivor of three lives, now aged 50, 55, and 60 years rebe entered upon immediately, is 12-648 (Table VI.) spectively, is worth 5-999 years’purchase in present money; Subtract that of an annuity onl therefore, if it were L.100 per annum, its present value the same life deferred 10 years, j 5-473 ^ would be L.599. 18s. the remainder 7-175 is the required number of years’ purchase. And if the annuity were L.200, its present value would be L.1435. 71. Ex. 6. An annuity on a life of 45, deferred 10 years, was shown in No. 69 to be worth 5-473 years’ purchase in present money; let it be required to determine the equivalent annual payment for the same, to be made at the end of each of the next 10 years, but subject to failure upon the life failing in the term. Solution. The present value of L.l per annum on the proposed life for the next 10 years has just been shown to be L.7-175, and this, multiplied by the required annual payment, must produce L.5-473; that payment must, therefore, be 77^ = 0-76279. And since the annual payment for the deferred annuity of L.l per annum would be L.0-76279, that for an annuity of L.200 must be L.152. 11s. 2d. 72. Ex. 7. Let the present value be required of an annuity on a life now 40 years of age, to be payable only while that life survives another now of the age of 50 years. Fr nfo of40resent va'ue °f“113'390 (Table VL) Subtract that of the two joint | g): (1 — nc) • Ac. older than A. 140. Carol. 1. When there is only one life A, this Hence the number that are represented by the table to will be a. n die in n years from the age of A will be a — na, that is, 141. Carol. 2. When there are two lives A and B, it 14 in 14 years, a — a ; and, by the Carlisle table, in 14 years becomes a + — n(ab)n from the age of 21, that is, between 21 and 35, it will be 142. Carol. 3. When there are three lives A, B, and 6047 — 5362 = 685. C, it becomes na + n5 + nc — n(«5) — n(ac) — »(^c) + 135. Problem. To determine the probability that a pro- n(abc). posed life A will survive n years. 143. When three lives A, B, and C are proposed, that Solution, a being the number of lives in the table of at the expiration of n years there will be mortality attaining the age of that which is proposed, living dead the probability is conceive that number of lives to be so selected (of which A must be one), that they may each have the same pro- ABC none + n(abc) spect with regard to longevity as the proposed life and AB C .(ab) .(\ — nc)— n(ab) — n(abc) those in the table, or the average of those from which it AC B i(ac) . (1 —nb) = n(ac) — n(abc) was constructed; n then will the number of them that sur.(be) .(I — na) = n(bc) — n(abc) BC A vive the term be a. (134.) And the sum of these four n(«5) + n(ac) + n(^c) So that the number of ways all equally probable, or the 2n(abc), is the measure of the probability that some two number of equal chances for the happening of the event at the least out of these three lives will survive the term. in question, is na ; and the whole number for its either happening or failing is a ; therefore, according to the first III.—Of Annuities on Lives. principles of the doctrine of probabilities, the probability of nthe event happening, that is, of A surviving the term, 144. Let the number of years’ purchase that an an. a nuity on the life of A is worth, that is, the present value is —. a of L.l to be received at the end of every year during the If the age of A be 14, the probability of that life sur- continuance of that life, be denoted by a ; while the previving 7 years, or7 the age of 21, will, according to the sent value of an annuity on any number of joint lives A, By C, &c. that is, of an annuity which is to continue du„ , ,, , 0 6047 Carlisle table, be — = or 0’95454. ring the joint existence of all the lives, but to cease with a 6335 136. Since the number that die in n years from the age the first that fails, is denoted by abc, &c. Then will the value of an annuity-on the joint contiof J is a — na (134), it appears, in the same manner, that nuance of the three lives A, B, and C, be denoted by abc. d And on the joint continuance of the two A and B, the probability of that life failing in w years will be —— by ab. n a . : . \ '7 145. Also let fA and Af denote the values of annuities = 1 — ; which probability, when the life, term, and on lives respectively older and younger than A, by £ table of mortality are the same as in the last No., will be years; while ‘(abc, &c.) designates the value of an an0-04546. nuity on the joint continuance of lives t years older than 137. If two lives A and B be proposed, since the pro- A, B, C, &c. respectively; and (abc, &c.) that of an n f (Z bability of A surviving n years will be —, and that of B annuity on the same number of joint lives, as many years younger than these respectively. n b surviving the same term will be it appears from the 146. Let r—r—> the present value of L.l to be received 1+7n a b n(ab) .. certainly at the expiration of a year, be denoted by «?. doctrine of probabilities that r- or ■ / will be the Then will vn be the present value of that sum certain a b ab measure of the probability that these lives will both sur- to be received at the expiration of n years. But if its receipt at the end of that time be dependent vive n years. In the same manner it may be shown, that the proba- upon an assigned life A surviving the term, its present bility of the three lives A> B, and C all surviving n years, value will, by that condition, be reduced in the ratio of certainty to the probability of A surviving the term, that ... , rif. nU nr n1)r\ will be measured byJ — • —r • — or -—j-A. And, universal- is, in the ratio of unit to na, and will therefore be navn. a b c, abc In the same manner it appears, that if the receipt of ly, that any number of lives A, B, C, &c. will jointly surthe money at the expiration of the term be dependent upon any assigned lives, as A, B, C, &c. jointly surviving vive n years, the probability is ^ abc, &c. that period, its present value will be n(abc, &c.)vn.

ANNUITIES. 224 ■Ale Algebraical 147. Let us denote the sum of any series, as ^1^+ ning with the oldest in the table, and proceeding regular-Alg View. Q(abc)v'2 + 5(abc)v3 + &c. thus, Sn(abc)vn, by prefixing ly age by age to the youngest. Also a table of the values of any number of joint lives, the Italic capital S to the general term thereof. Then, the lives in each succeeding combination, in any one se A from what has just been advanced, it will be evident that ries of operations (according to the retrograde order of ABC, &c. = Sn(abc, &c.)vn. , „ ,. , When there are but nthree lives, A, B, and C, this be- the ages in which they are computed), being one year younger respectively than those in the preceding combicomes abc = Sn(abc)v . Whenn there are but two, A and B, it becomes ab = nation. And, if a table of single lives be computed first, then Sn(ab)v . . And in the same manner it appears, that tor a single of two joint lives, next of three joint lives, and so on, the calculations made for the preceding tables will be of life A, a — jSnavn. n 138 where the de_ great use for the succeeding. 148. n(abc, &C')v = ( )» 155. Having shown how to compute tables of the values nominator (abc, &c.) is constant, while the numerator va- of annuities on single and joint lives, we shall, in what ries with the variable exponent n. And the most obvious follows, always suppose those values to be given. 156. Let the value of an annuity on the joint continumethod of finding the value of an annuity on any assigned single or njoint lives, nis to calculate the numerical value of ance of any number of lives, A, B, C, &c. that is not to the term (abc, &c.)v for each value of n, and then to divide be entered upon until the expiration of t years, be denotSn(abc9 ed by —|t(ABC, &c.). the sum of all these values by abc, &c.; for — Then, if it were certain that all the lives would survive = Sn(abc, &c.)vn = abc, &c. the term, since the value of the annuity at the expiration In calculating a table of the values of annuities on lives of the term would be ‘(abc, &c.) (145), its present value in that manner, for every combination of joint lives it would be . ‘(abc, &c.) (146). would be necessary to calculate the term n(abc, &c.)vn for But the measure of the probability that all the lives will as many years as there might be between the age of the survive the term is t(abc, &c.), therefore —j*(abc, &c.) =; oldest life involved and the oldest in the table; and the t(abc, &c.) v*. ‘(abc, &c.). same number of the terms navn for any single life of the In the same manner, it appears, that for a single life same age. ^4, ■, a ,— ^av^n ‘a. But this labour may be greatly abridged as follows: 157. Let an annuity for the term of £ years only, depenProb. I. dent upon the joint continuance of any number of lives, 149. Given '(abc, &c.), the value of an annuity on any A, B, C, &c. be denoted by —(abc, &c.) ; and, since this number of joint lives, to determine abc, &c. that of an annuity on the same number of joint lives respectively temporary annuity, together with an annuity on the joint continuance of the same lives deferred for the same one year younger than they. term, will evidently be of the same value as an annuity Solution. to be entered upon immediately, and enjoyed during If it were certain that the lives abc, &c. would all sur- their whole joint continuance, we have —;(abc, &c.) + vive one year, the proprietor of an annuity of L.l depen^ (abc, &c.) = abc, &c.; whence, — ,(abc, &c.) = dent upon their joint continuance would, at the expiration of a year, be in possession of L.l (the first year’s ABC, &C. 1 (ABC, &C.). rent), and an annuity on the same number of lives one if A# And for a single life A, —A = A year older respectively than abc, &c. ; therefore, in that case, the required present value of the annuity would be r?[l +'(abc, &c.)]. (146.) Prob. II. But the probability of the lives A, B, C, &c. jointly 158. To determine the present value of an annuity on surviving one year is less than certainty in the ratio of the survivor of the two lives A and B (155) ; which we (abc, &c.) to unit; therefore abc, &c. = ^abc, &c.) t designate thus, ab. v[l + '(abc, &c.)]. Solution. 150. Corol. 1. When there are but three lives, A, B, and C, this becomes abc — t(abc)v\\ + '(abc)]. The probability that the survivor of these two lives will 151. Corol. 2. When there are only two, A and B, outlive the term of n years was shown in No. 141 to be — „(«&); therefore, reasoning as in No. 146, it ab == /(ai)tj[l + '(AB)]* Ma + 152. Corol. 3. And for a single life A, it appears, in will be found that the present value of the nth. year’s the same manner, that a =■ tav(\ + 'a). rent of this annuity is [wa +5 — „(«&)]v", and the 153. Hence, in logarithms, we have these equations, value of all the rents thereof will be + —n(a 'Ka~'Kv Xta + X(1 + 'a), or Snavn -(- Snbvn — iSn(ab) vn; so that ab = A -{- b X ab = Xr + X/z + X> + X [1 + '(ab)], — ab (147), agreeably to No. 48. X abc = Xv + X/«-j-X/5 + X/c + X[l + '(abc)], &c. &c. &c. Prob. III. Upon which it may be observed, that X v + X/z, the 159. To determine the present value of an annuity on sum of the first two logarithms that are employed in determining a from 'a, also enters the operation whereby the last survivor of three lives, A,B, and C (155); which ab is determined from '(ab). And that X v + X;a + XA we denote thus, abc. the sum of the first three logarithms that serve to deterSolution. mine ab from '(ab), is also required to determine abc ■' The present value of the nth year’s rent is from '(abc) ; which observation may be extended in a si- [n« + + „c — n(ab) —- n(ac) — n(bc) + n(afc)>B milar manner to any greater number of joint lives. (142. and 146); whence, it appears, as in the preceding 154. By these means it is easy to complete a table of number, that abc = a+ b + c-t-ab-— ac — bc + abc, the values of annuities on single lives of all ages, begin- agreeably to No, 52. . .

ANNUITIES. 225 and the sum of these being (ac) + 1 (bc) Prob. IV. (abc), Algebraical n n n i»l View. 160. To determine the present value of an annuity on the value of C’s interest is ac + ^ bc — abc. ie joint existence of the last two survivors out of three Prob. VII. J 2 t 167. An annuity, after the decease of A, is to be equallives, A, B, C, (155); which we denote thus, abc. ly divided between B and C during their joint lives, and Solution. is then to go entirely to the last survivor for his life ; it is The present value of the nth year’s rent is proposed to find the value of B's interest therein. n \_n(ab) + n(ac) + n(bc) — 2n{abc)~\v (143 and 146); Solution. whence, reasoning as in the two preceding numbers, we 2 That at the end ml jnferj that = ab + ac + bc — 2 abc, as was de- of the nth year ® monstrated otherwise in No. 51. there will be 161. Since the solutions of the last three problems were the probability, multiplied by li's proportion of all obtained by showing each year’s rent (as for instance dead living the annuity in that circumstance, is the nth) of the annuity in question to be of the same value A BC with the aggregate of the rents for the same year of all A" 2m(^c) \n(abc) (ab) — n{b() + n{ahc); and the sum B AC n the annuities (taken with their proper signs) on the single and joint lives exhibited in the resulting formula ; if any of these being b — n(ab) — \n(bc) + \n(abc\ the value term of years be assigned, it is manifest that the value of of B's interest nis b — AB ^ BC +1 ABC. such annuity for the term must be the same as that of the aggregate of the annuities above mentioned, each for the Prob. VIII. same term. 168. A, B, and C purchase an annuity on the life of Prob. V. the last survivor of them, which is to be divided equally 162. A and B being any two proposed lives now both at the end of every year among such of them as may then existing, to determine the present value of an annuity re- be living; what should A contribute towards the purchase of this annuity ? ceivable only while A survives B. Solution. Solution. That at the end A rent of this annuity will only be payable at the end of n years there of the nth year, provided that B be then dead and A will be living; but the probability of B being then dead is 1 — nb, the probability, multiplied by A's proportion and that of ^4 being then living na, and these two events dead livin;; of the annuity in that circumstance, is are independent; therefore, the probability of their both happening, or that of the rent being received, is (1 — nb) none ABC -j- }^n(cibc) AB ...+ i„(«6) C nat=.na — n(ab) ; the present value of that rent is, there—%n(abc) n fore, [na — n(aby\v ; whence it follows, that the reB AC + i«(«c) — \n(abc) quired value of the annuity on the life of A after that of BC A xa—n{ab)—n(ac) -f- Jahc) ; and the sum B is a — ab, agreeably to No. 60. 163. If the payment for the annuity which was the sub- of these being na — \n(ab) — l„(ac) + ^ra(aic), the requirject of the last problem is not to be made in present ed value of A’s interest is a—^ ab — ^ AC-f-^ abc. money, but by a constant annual premium p at the end of Prob. IX. each year, while both the lives survive ; since ab is the 169. As soon as any two of the three lives, A, B, and m I number of years’ purchase (6) that an annuity on the joint continuance of those lives is worth, the value of p will be C, are extinct, Z) or his heirs are to enter upon an annuidetermined by this equation, p . ab = A — ab, whence ty, which they are to enjoy during the remainder of the survivor’s life; to determine the value of D’s interest therein. we have p r= 1. AB Solution. 164. But if one premium p is to be paid down now, and an equal premium at the end of each year while both the That at the end lives survive, we shall have jt?. (1 + ab) = a — ab, and of n years there will be a — ab P ~ ThFab* living The probability is 165. For numerical examples illustrative of the formulae dead given from No. 158 to the present, see Nos. 66-74. AB C nc—n(ac)—„(&c)+M(«&c) AC B nb—n(ab)—n(bc) + n(abc) Prob. VI. A na—n(ab)-—n(«c) + ?1(«6c) ; and the sum 166. A and B are in possession of an annuity on the BC life of the survivor of them, which, if either of them die of all these being na-\-nb-\-nc—2n(ab)—2n(ac)—2n(bc) before a third person C, is then to be divided equally be- ~[-3n(abc), the value of B’s interest is A + B -f- C. 2 AB 2 AC 2 BC-j-3 ABC. tween C and the survivor during their joint lives ; to de170. The last four may be sufficient to show the metermine the value of (Js interest. thod of proceeding with any similar problems. Solution. That at the end 171. Let t(abc, &c.) denote the probability that the last of the «th year m survivors out of m + lives A, B, C, &c. will jointly there will be the probability, multiplied by C's proportion of survive the term of t years. And when /i=0, the expression will become t(abc, &c.), the probability that the lives dead living the annuity in that circumstance, is will all survive the term. (138.) A 1 BC na) . n(bc) = A ln(bc) —Jobe)] B When vn zz\ it will become t(aic, &c.), the measure of AC H 2 (1 —— nb) . n(pc ) = | [»(«c) — n(abc)1; 2F VOL. III.

226

ANNUITIES. Algebraical the probability that the last survivor of them will outlive greatest joint continuance of any m of the proposed aw the term, which it will be better to write thus, t(abc, &c.), hves, according to the tables of mortality adapted to them, H retaining the vinculum, but omitting the unit over it, as (HI \ ™^ \abc. 0, and *|abc, &c. = abc, &c.; therefore, -•abc, &c./— &c. in the notation of powers. in that case, the general formula of No. 172 becomes Also let abc, &c. denote the value of an annuity on the — abc, &c.; that is, the excess of the value of an joint continuance of the same number of last survivors out of the same lives. Then, if ^ be equal to 0, it will be abc, &c. the value of an annuity on the joint continuance annuity certain for the whole term above that of an on the w ,oIe duratlon of oint contin,la of all the lives; when «.= 1, it will be abcT&c. the value of as . ' -i ”ce of the s an annuity on the last survivor of them. The values of an. I'l sl*rvnt'vl‘1S. 1l^ie ‘ case » . , nuities on the last survivor of two and of three lives will ." ^ ’ y a er etult P™P0Se . ^ be denoted as in Nos. 158 and 159 respectively; and that annuit^ certain P P y> as ln No. 173, the formula of an annuity on the joint continuance of the last two sur1 ———p— vivors out of three lives, as in No. 160. will become— abc, &c. the excess of the value of the Ihe value of an annuity on the last m survivors out of perpetuity above the value of an annuity on the ioint lives pco w + ^u. lives, llTTPC. according n rl 1 n rr as oc it if is 1C limited limif/^rl fr\ li 4-rwr-Y-% • it ^ these to fthe term r-i-f of ofr* the ilast m survivors ; agreeably to No. 63. t years, or deferred during that term, will also be denoted 176. Example 1. Required the present value of the absolute reversion of an estate in fee simple, after the exby—abc, &c. or —,fABC, &c. (156 and 157.) tinction of the last survivor of three lives, A, B, C, now aged 50, 55, and 60 years respectively; reckoning interest at 5 per cent. Prob. X. The general algebraical expression of this value has 172. An annuity certain for the term of < + years is to be enjoyed by P and his heirs during the joint exist- just been shown to be -1 — abc. ence of the last m survivors out of ^ lives, A, B, C, &c.; and if that joint existence fail before the expiration But - — = 20-000 of t years, the annuity is to go to Q and his heirs for the 0-5 remainder of the term ; to determine the value of Q’s inAnd abc, = 14-001 (68.) terest in that annuity. Therefore 5-999 years’ purchase is the Solution. Qs expectation may be distinguished into two parts: value required. And if the annual produce of the estate, l^, ThaTof enjoying thelnnuTty dudn^the term of C.lear °f Reductions, were L.100, the title to the rever® sion would now be worth L.599. 18s. —, agreeably to t years. 2d, That of enjoying it after the expiration of that No. 76. 177. Ex. 2. An annuity for the term of 70 years certerm. The sum of the present values of the interests of P tain (from this time) is to revert to Q and his heirs at and Q together in the annuity for the term of t years, is the failure of a life A, now 45 years of age ; what is the manifestly equal to the whole present value of the annuity present value of Q’s interest therein, reckoning the interest of money at 5 per cent. ? certain for that term ; that is, equal to 1 — (113 and In No. 174 the algebraical expression of the required 146); and the value of P’s interest for the term of t value is shown to be ^ A. years 1S __abc, &c. (171) ; therefore the value of Q's interest for the same term is 1 — v* tABC, &C. The present ( value of the annuity certain for v years afv ter t years is v (l—v ) (114 and 146); and Q and his heirs will receive this annuity if the joint continuance of the last m survivors above mentioned fail before the expiration of t years ; but the probability of their joint contmuance failing in the term is 1—^abc, &c./; therefore is 1—X the value of Q s interest in the annuity to be received ?/(l—Vs)

after t years, is [‘ —j\abc, &c whole value of Qs interest is

>]

and the

But t.v

x 1-05 = 1-9788107 X 70

«;70_ 032866X2-5167490 .^7° — •967134 ■ #70 967134 = 19-34268 •05 Subtract A = 12-64800 (Tab. VI.) remains 6-69468 years’ purchase; so that if the annuity were L.1000, the value of the reversion would be L.6694. 13s. 7d. 178. Ex. 3. An annuity for the term of 70 years certain from this time is to revert to Q and his heirs at the extinction of the survivor of two lives, A and B, now aged 40 and 50 years respectively, the interest of money being 6 per cent.; it is required to determine the value of Q's interest in this annuity. The algebraical expression of the value is, r 1—^70 — ab (174 and 171).

m ™ v”) • ( • ~&e./| — —abc, &c. 1/3. Carol. 1. When the whole annuity certain is a perpetuity, and the value of Q's interest is •s -f- But by the last example 1 — 1-70 = 19-34268 5 ,881 cc. ami by No. 66, ab = 15-06600 174. Coral. 2. When the term t is not less than the so that the required value is 4*27668 years'

-if, I

v,+t —- r'( 1

ANNUITIES.

227

™ I” ^ ™j Algebraical nfcaourchase; and if the annuity be L.1000, the present value © &c. |_1—t(abc, &c.) v* A" j ABC, View. ^ >f the reversion will be L.4276. 13s. 7d. IV.—Of Assurances on Lives. Cm ~| m m 1—((aic, &c.)v*_J—(1—v)—abc, &c.~ 1—t(abc, &c.)?/ 179. Let the present value of the assurance (77 and ?8) of L.l on the life of A be denoted by the old English capital and that of an assurance on the joint continut D — t(abc, &c.)« + —jAbc , &c. ^|, whence mce of any number of lives A, B, C, &c. by &3SC, &c. —(i—•• L_1 \l.so, let the value of an assurance on the joint continu- we have mce of any m of them out of the whole number m + /i 1 — f(a£c, &c.) v* >e denoted by &UC, &c. 0 JJC, &c.= + 180. And, in every case, let us designate the annual premium (83) for an assurance, by prefixing the characf 1—t(a6c, &c.)w +—abc, &c. er O to the symbol for the single premium; so that O ^ nay denote the annual premium for an assurance on the v— 1. ife of A; ©^33C, &c. the same for an assurance on the 184. Corol. 1. When (i), the term of the assurance, is oint continuance of all the lives, A, B, C, &c.; and not less than the greatest possible joint duration of any m 3 &c. the annual premium for an assurance en the oint continuance of the last m survivors out of the whole of the proposed lives, t(abc, &c.) = 0, —^abc, &c. = tlumber »i + /4 of those lives. 181. Then will .—%. and O —— &33C, &c. and abc, &c., and the general formulae of the two preceding t\ t\ t\ numbers become respectively &c. and © __ & 23 C, &c. 3_t3S course, have entirely perished; but of those in marble we undertake to give a plain and faithful account of a religion which has never met with fair treatment from its histo- are so fortunate as to possess some specimens from the rians. It indicates a bad taste, to say the least of it, to hands of the most renowned artists, and it is universally imitate and repeat the absurd and vehement declamations allowed, that even in their present state, all of them havof the fathers of the Christian church against the gods of ing received more or less injury, they are fully worthy of the ancients. In their times those deities were danger- the fame that has attended on the memory of the great ous rivals; there is certainly no cause to fear them now. men by whom they were fashioned. It has been asserted, No one can see any reason to apprehend that the world that the most lovely of all things are the Greek statues will return again to the old worship. The pope and the and the Greek tragedy; and ingenious, and perhaps archbishop of Canterbury may rest in equal security that somewhat fanciful persons, have imagined that they perthey will never receive a short notice either to sacrifice ceived a certain resemblance in the peculiar style ol the a black heifer to Proserpine, or to vacate their respective sculptors and tragedians of Athens. The sentiment of repose is strongly inculcated by the palaces and offices; the unpleasant option will never be offered to either. It is a mere waste of words, there- best productions of the Grecian chisel, and critics are fore, to persist in calling the heathen, of whom we have sometimes dissatisfied with the small amount of action learned so much, blind, and to rail at their gods. A and the little apparent exertion ; and they affirm that religion which was exempt from sordid rites, and of which the expression is occasionally even that of listlessness. In the end and object were the gratification and cultiva- inferior productions, on the contrary, we observe an extion of the people, at least deserves to have its story cess of action, and a straining, that are painful to the spectold and its fortunes related without scurrility, passion, tator, especially if he regards them for a long time; we or prejudice. Persons of good taste will be equally of- find the same sobriety, frugality, and even parsimony, fended, on the other hand, at the attempts that^are often in the other compositions of the ancients, especially in made by writers, of more zeal than discretion, to wrest their writings, which must seem cold and languid to the the pagan mythology, and to compel it to seem to con- admirers of the exaggerated expressions of modern authors. In classical works, the more exalted the personage, sent with the mysteries of the Christian religion. Lord Bacon wisely says, in allusion to such unholy and of- the more calm and dignified are his emotions; but the fensive practices, “ But I have interdicted my pen all hero of a modern drama or other work of the imagination liberties of this kind, lest I should use strange fire at the often seems, by his violence and unnatural contortions, to altar of the Lord.” Nor should that excessive dread of be convulsed by the powerful action of a Galvanic battery, idolatry, which characterizes a barbarous people, find a rather than impelled and agitated by mere human feelplace in such a work: it is time to discard the absurd no- ings ; unless we may adopt a more obvious and simple tion, that it is impossible to see and admire a beautiful solution of the difficulty, and suppose him to be a maniac. statue without worshipping it—that true piety and a taste We presume to speak on this subject with great diffidence and distrust, but we must confess that the ancients have for the fine arts are of necessity incompatible. The admirable Heyne complains of the unnatural and sometimes carried the sentiment of repose to an excess, forced hypotheses of mythists, and of their disposition to especially in has reliefs, in which the figures, although torture the meaning of the ancient fables, and to pervert they are engaged in pursuits demanding the utmost eneithem to signify matters that were diametrically opposed gy, and of intense interest to all concerned, appear freto the spirit and sense of antiquity. He at the same time quently to be more than half-asleep. It cannot be delays down a golden rule, to guide the future historian of nied, however, that an excess of tranquillity is less dismytholpgy; and happy will he be who shall have the good pleasing than a display of unnecessary and outrageous • c I sense and the good fortune to be governed by it. “ To violence. The nakedness and full draperies of ancient times form compose a plain narrative, representing the primitive form under which each fable has been handed down to us by a striking contrast with the close, strict, and scanty the first poets and the first artists, and afterwards to clothing of modern days, and show us symbolically the show the changes and additions that have been made by former copiousness anil pristine candour, in opposition later poets and artists.” “ II nous manque egalement pour to the disingenuous concealments and narrow poverty o 1’etude dont il est question (the study of antiquity), degenerate souls. Statues and other marbles and sculpdes traites sur les connoissances accessoires, et surtout, tures may be so easily, cheaply, and perfectly copied, by un bon ouvrage sur la fable. Nous avons a la verite means of plaster-casts, that no considerable city ought to beaucoup d’ecrits sur la mythologie; mais je ne sais quel be without a public museum, containing a copy of all the mauvais genie se saisit de tous ceux qui veulent traiter best pieces of this kind in existence. If a few churhs cette matiere. Ils commencent par etablir quelque hypo- persons should for a time refuse permission to take a cast, these, d’apres laquelle ils cherchent a denaturer et a forcer a drawing or some other imitation of the sculpture tha

*

ANTIQUITIES. 259 ters on rings have given occasion to the display of much Antiquities, qnkifiWas wanting might occupy the place of the cast, and an .inscription might inform the visitor where the original was curious learning. Superstition has long been familiar with to be found, and give the name of its unworthy possessor, the importance of rings: Apollonius of Tyana deemed who refused to the lovers of art the facilities which others them so essential to quackery, that he had seven—for had cheerfully granted. We possess many excellent an- each day of the week a different one, marked with the tiques in bronze. If the colour be less agreeable than planet of the day. The scenic mask, whether tragic or that of marble, the superior toughness of the material ad- comic, but especially the latter, was a favourite device : mits of greater spirit and freedom of execution; and of we have seen many gems that exhibit beautiful and surthis advantage the ancient workmen knew how to avail prising examples of that wonderful creation of the fancy. themselves to the utmost, as any good collection of these It affords one instance also of the many that might be remains will fully demonstrate, especially the many ad- cited to show that ancient forms are often preserved in a mirable specimens that are exhibited in the Studii at whimsical manner, and applied to purposes very remote from those for which they were originally designed. We Naples. ... The most remarkable, and perhaps the most inimitable, have often observed an antique comic mask carved in stone excellence of ancient art, i& the perfection that was dis- on the end of a spout on our churches, and the exaggeplayed in cutting gems, whether the figure be sunk be- rated mouth from which jests not less grotesque than itneath the plane surface of the stone, as in the intaglio, or self, but well seasoned with Attic salt, were used to issue, projected above it, as in the cameo. If, on the one giving free vent to mere rain-water: so universal and inhand, gems are imperishable, and almost indestructible, destructible is the influence of antiquity. As a class, on the other they are easily lost by reason of their coins are perhaps the least interesting of antiques; for, small size. The prodigious number of engraved stones v/ith few exceptions, they serve to illustrate nothing but already known to the curious, and which is continually- the succession of a family or dynasty of kings. They augmented by the discovery of new and beautiful speci- have, however, long been favourite objects with collectors, mens, proves that a vast amount of labour and of exquisite partly on this account, and partly because persons who canskill was formerly employed on these minute and delicate not attain to the comprehension of any other part of the works. Rings, which were originally composed of coarse study of antiquities, can at least understand the formation materials, and were used as seals, tokens, and for other of an unbroken series, and that it is often difficult to compurposes of necessity, in progress of time gradually grew plete it. We may concede also in favour of this branch into articles of immense luxury and cost. The taste for of the science, that the Numismatists have sometimes these ornaments had become universal in the civilized rendered assistance to chronology, and have even cleared world in the time of Alexander the Great, who was fond up certain points of geography, and therefore in subordiof having his portrait cut on gems; and men were equally nate departments have aided the historian. Certain eminent artists and accomplished critics have fond of wearing his image, not through a servile adulation, for the fashion or passion continued for several centuries given it as their decided opinion, that enough remains of after his death, but from a notion that it was lucky, which the ancient painting to demonstrate that the ancients was indeed the chief motive in the choice of subjects for were as much superior to the moderns in this art, as they rings. In modern times we waste our gems by engraving are admitted to have been in sculpture. It seems probaupon them the ugliest device of a barbarous age—coat- ble that the first efforts of design were mere shadows or armour ; in like manner much valuable material and much outlines ; of this early style the fictile vases afford examprecious labour were expended anciently, in the days of ples. We have, however, many specimens of finished waning liberty, to preserve the worthless portrait of some works in fresco, which are preserved at Rome and in Naples. dull sample of a Jove-descended king. The public acts Of the former, the Roman remains, some idea, although, of free states had sometimes been sealed with the likeness it must be confessed, a very inadequate one, may be deof an individual who had been a benefactor to the com- rived from the engravings in Turnbull’s Treatise on Ancient munity, as a lasting and delicate compliment, that might Painting. Of the latter, the Pitturedi Ercolano are more flatter, but could not wound, the generous modesty of a faithful and satisfactory representations. The style of disinterested patriot. The emperors of Rome, with that the ancient painters, so far as our imperfect materials will more than Aristophanic genius for burlesque and carica- permit us to judge, rather resembled that of Perugino and ture for which they were remarkable, and of which the Raphael in grace, beauty, and sweetness, than the sublicomic effect was the more striking and humorous, be- mity and graphic bavorrn of the angelic and immortal cause the masters of the world were perfectly unconscious Michael. Michel piu che mortal, Angiol divino. that they were heaping ridicule upon their own sacred Of the celebrated encaustic painting we know nothing, heads, adopted the usage with many aggravations and additions for their own glory. The patriotic Tiberius ex- but that the ancients have left us some brief and vague tended the laws of treason—laws by which it was declared descriptions, and the moderns have made some fruitless to be high treason to treat with disrespect the statues of attempts to revive or re-discover it. the emperor—in order to protect from insult, by the last Of the Mosaic painting we have some very lovely vesand highest penalties, his own image on a ring. We de- tiges, and some of them are as fresh and as fair as when sire to confine our censure to the abuse of portraits. Many they were first laid; with patient industry they may be of the antique likenesses of individuals, who are remem- imitated, either with stones, with morsels of glass, or with bered on account of their virtues or their talents, are small tiles coloured and glazed. This kind of work is of highly interesting: there are several valuable collections bewitching beauty : the eyes of Homer had been so capof this kind in other places, but the Capitoline Museum at tivated with it, that he continued after his blindness to Rome is the grand repertory of ancient portraits. We describe heaven by its pavement; at least if the critics read that in ancient times there were large collections of will permit us to give this sense to the word bumbov. engraved gems, both glyphs and anaglyphs, as in our own We learn from the remains of ancient painting, that it days; and we have moreover innumerable books, contain- was usual to adhere scrupulously to particular colours for ing representations of the most celebrated Dactyliothecce, the draperies of certain gods and heroes; and we may trace ot very various degrees of merit, to enumerate which the same practice in the works of many of the Italian would be tedious. The amulets and astrological charac- masters, who assign invariably the appropriated colours to

ANTIQUITIES. 260 Antiquities, the clothing of saints and personages of note in Christian building of arches and vaulted roofs of masonry. TheAmUi astonishing and colossal relics of their mastery in this use-^Jy !#* In countries where fuel was scarce the process of burn- ful and difficult department of architecture have received ing bricks was expensive ; unburnt bricks were therefore much Jess attention than many works of very inferior beauty much used. In consequence of the greater heat of the sun and utility. The most vulnerable part of a building is the they were hardened in southern climates more perfectly wooden frame of the roof, which is always in danger of being than the very limited portion of sunshine that northern destroyed by fire. It seems, however, to be unnecessary regions enjoy could possibly effect; and we read that the in the construction of edifices of some kinds to use wood at desiccation was continued for several years before they all. The tiles or other external covering might be supportwrere consigned to the builder. If the rain, which in the ed, as they were in some of the ancient temples, by light south at certain seasons falls in torrents, were warded off, arches of masonry, which, as the weight they would have wherever the air is generally dry such structures would to bear would be insignificant, might be built so slightly last for a long period (the perpetual humidity of our at- as not to oppress the parts beneath that sustain them. mosphere, even if we were able to prepare them properly, Many of the arches in the circus of Caracalla, near Rome, would speedily decompose them) ; but, even under the are composed of large earthen vessels walled together, most favourable circumstances, a pile of unburnt bricks is instead of bricks or stones; and of this contrivance there a perishable structure, and many celebrated edifices have are other examples at Rome. The superior lightness is accordingly perished. More durable and more ornamen- manifest; the strength of an earthen vessel, and its power tal materials, however, have been fortunately very plenti- of resisting mere pressure, is considerable. That such ful in those countries where invention and a pure taste structures were sufficiently solid, is demonstrated by their in architecture were most prevalent; and some of the standing to this day. The expedient is worthy of imimost celebrated of the productions of antiquity have re- tation, and of more attention than it has hitherto resisted the gradual attacks of time, and the sijdden vio- ceived. The cupola of the church of San Vitale at Ralence of barbarians. In a few instances they are nearly venna is the most remarkable specimen of this sort of entire ; in many more, enough remains to enable us to re- building, being composed entirely of cylindrical earthen store the building to its original state, or to build another vessels, which are placed in a horizontal position, and are exactly similar to the former. Nor have architects been so arranged as to form one spiral coil, the end of the one wanting in diligence in this respect; very accurate sur- vessel being always inserted into the mouth of the other, veys, and exact and minute admeasurements and drawings, like the pipes that convey water through our streets. models and descriptions of every kind, have been exe- This very curious structure is exactly coeval with the cuted by competent persons, to the great benefit of their body of the civil law, being of the age of the emperor art. We should be enabled to judge very correctly of the Justinian ; and it is said to be in equally good repair, and effect of the ancient temples and other edifices of celebri- as likely to last for some ages longer, as the Corpus Juris. ty, many of which have been admirably restored in small M. d’Agincourt has fully explained this simple but ingecontrivance, and has expressed in a plate, more drawings and engravings by architects, if the restorations were painted in fresco on the walls of our public buildings than it is possible to convey by verbal description alone, in various points of view, and of the full size of the origi- in his great work entitled Histoire de l'Art par les Monals. Since Greece, and especially Athens, has been so namens depuis sa Decadence d Ame Siecle jusqud son carefully explored, and the results of much valuable labour Renouvellement d If)mg. Paris, 1823. The same disposition of stones, and the same artifices, made public, our taste in architecture has been greatly improved. The various members, at least, and the details which would serve to support more securely the roof of a of the buildings that have been lately erected in Great temple of masonry, would be equally effectual in diminishBritain, are more elegant than they were formerly. Un- ing the tendency of the roof to fall in a cavern or excavatfortunately, however, we do not seem to possess an archi- ed temple; and we see, in fact, that they were actually tect capable of combining the beautiful parts into one har- employed in the latter case, and with results equally samonious whole. It should appear, therefore, that a more tisfactory. The ordinary configuration of the artificial profound and enlarged study of antiquity is required to roof of a temple is well adapted to lighten the natural make the artist in this line a master of general effect. A roof of a cavern, especially if the peculiarities of formaliterary work may be faultless in its details, and yet it may tion be carried to a greater extent than we usually find be inefficient as a whole ; it may be impossible to fix in edifices. The part that would fall in first, and bring blame upon any single page or paragraph, yet the entire down the rest with it, is the middle, it being most distant history of Greece, or of Rome, may be unworthy of the from the supports: this is cut away and formed into holevents which it undertakes to record. The narration, al- low pannels, deepening in gradual succession. The Etrusthough the style be chaste and correct, may be lifeless, can catacombs supply remarkable instances of all these spiritless, and uninspiring. So is it in architecture; and contrivances. We even find the hole in the centre of the such is the present state of that art in Great Britain. Our cupola, which is designed to lighten the living roof, where architects seem equally incapable of producing a whole, it is least able to hang in the air, and which also serves to either in the Grecian or the Gothic style, although the admit the day. Of the two problems to support a natural parts may sometimes in themselves have merit. A sil- and an artificial roof, the one is precisely the converse of houette, shade, or profile of the object in question, espe- the other; it being necessary in the former to hew away cially if it be taken in various points of view, will afford whatever portion of space would not be occupied by the the most simple, ready, and satisfactory means of deter- structure in the latter. Certain architectural critics atmining, and is the most certain and conclusive test whe- tribute, we know not how correctly, the undercrofts or ther the effect as a whole be good. If our latest erec- crypts which are commonly found beneath cathedral tions be tried in this manner, the contours will invariably churches, to the catacombs; of which, they assert, they prove to be insipid and uninteresting, and often ill propor- are an imitation and memorial; because the catacombs were, it is said, the first places of worship used by the tioned and ugly. The Romans surpassed the rest of mankind less in the early Christians. It is certain that the catacombs at Rome arts of government than in that remarkable art which Se- serve as a crypt to the church of St Sebastian, and it is neca aptly compares to the constitution of civil society, the also certain that the sepulchral chambers of the Pagans,

ANTIQUITIES. 261 men will learn to restore lost arts, and to amend and im-Antiquities, ^Lultieiwhieh are far more ancient than the Christian worship, alv v y rv,though they were never built under the floor of temples, prove those which we possess. The ancient locks, for -^^ example, were of an admirable and very various construcclosely resemble crypts. The tombs of the ancients are very interesting to the tion. Bramah’s justly celebrated inventions are merely, archaeologist, because, besides a multitude of pots and as is commonly known, an adoption of as many of the depans, and some vases of merit, they have furnished a vices of the ancient locksmiths as modern artists are at countless host of lamps, that have formed the subject present able to understand. In the manufacture of glass, of many amusing volumes, and some excellent paintings the ancients were as much our superiors as in several other in fresco, and other objects of considerable importance. arts. This is demonstrated by the accuracy, variety, and The ancients sought to alleviate as much as possible, delicacy of the forms into which they have moulded vesby calling up ideas of cheerfulness, grace, and beauty, sels of this substance. Among the other excellencies of the heavy burthen of death. The Greeks were emi- this manufacture, we may mention the gems formed of nently distinguished by the warmth and the strength of paste in imitation of stones, to which we owe the preserthe domestic affections. Their tragedies present many vation of some of the most beautiful antique engravings, lovely pictures of the vigorous and luxuriant growth of the originals having been lost: many of these are of a large all the more tender charities, and every part of the size. The manufacturers of porcelain have not hitherto history of their rites of sepulture brings fresh proof of been very successful in impressing their works with the the power and prevalence of the most amiable feelings stamp of genius and true taste ; the Chinese origin is still among this ingenious and cultivated people. The crea- manifest in the shapes of even the best pieces of crockery: tion of families, and the maintenance of them in the closest herein let them pray the aid of the ancients. The conunion and intimacy, is undoubtedly the most desirable struction of the antique chariots is perhaps not altogether object of public and private institutions ; for it is from his unworthy of our attention, for even the smallest and lightfamily in childhood and in youth, in manhood and in old est of our carriages appear to be unnecessarily large and age, that man’s happiness is mainly derived. We must heavy. Among the minor difficulties that were masterbe careful, however, not to mistake the means for the ed by the skill of antiquity, was that of driving and maend, and we must always remember that laws, institu- naging many horses abreast. We see on a gem in the work tions, and principles, that were designed to advance an of Count Caylus {Recueil d'Antiquites, tome i. Plate LX. end, are only valuable so far as they serve the purpose fig. 4) a chariot with 20 horses yoked in this manner. for which they were designed. Men who do not steadily Three horses abreast are often used on the Continent, and look to final causes are apt to gild and hang garlands on with a good effect. We have heard that an equestrian a scaffolding pole, and, in their insane worship of their amateur tried the experiment in England successfully, wooden idol, to forget the marble palace, for the sake of but we do not remember to what extent. The Grecian which alone the unsightly pole was erected. The great breed of horses, it is believed, was much smaller than the success of the Greeks in the cultivation of these affec- English carriage-horses. If a London drayman, therefore, tions may be principally attributed to their extraordinary would be surprised to meet an Athenian team rapidly adtoleration and liberality; for, in other countries, where vancing in a single line, the Attic charioteer would scarcely there is more prudish precision than mild and temperate be less astonished at the immense bulk of the animals that forbearance, by drawing the silken bonds too tight, they slowly march in a long file. This branch of the subject, are often broken. If those rules of decorum which are however, would lead us too far from our original design. It would be dangerous to enter upon the disputed to be observed only with a certain moderation, and ought often to be considerably relaxed with a wise equity, are ground of Etruscan art; for even the most experienced and enforced by the arbiters of society with a rigid and literal confident critics confess that it is sometimes very diffiseverity, they will infallibly create heartlessness, hypo- cult, if not impossible, to distinguish Etruscan monuments crisy, and disgust, and there will be but little domestic from those of the early ages of Greece. It is certain, howhappiness or affection. Genius is in its nature eccentric ; ever, that this ancient nation was much addicted to super-1 of Dempster, and if no allowances be made for its aberrations, men of stition and the fine arts. The lax erudition talent will be converted into enemies,—and they are most the learning and critical skill of Lanzi,2 and the labours of formidable ones. If the treatment that may not be un- a myriad 3of antiquaries, and particularly of the estimsuitable to the humble and patient ass be attempted to- able Gori, are ready to conspire in instructing and perwards the generous steed, it will rouse a spirit of resist- plexing the student. ance and revenge not unworthy of the lion. Many writers Archaeological critics are by no means agreed as to the Remains of have discoursed at great length of the ancient sepulchral degree of merit that is to be ascribed to the Egyptian 31,1, Egyptian rites. The folio of Mark Anthony Boldetti, entitled Os- works of art. Artists unanimously admit that the mechaniservazioni sopra i Cimiterj de Santi Martiri, ed antichi cal execution is very admirable ; and travellers assert with Cristiani di Roma, contains a great body of curious infor- one voice, that we cannot safely and correctly judge of mation, and many valuable inscriptions ; and the compila- their peculiar character or general effect from the ordition is made palatable by a certain simplicity and amusing nary engravings. We are required, moreover, in order to credulity. It is difficult to believe, if we reason from arrive at sound and solid conclusions on this difficult quesanalogy, that were it possible to restore the ancient system tion, to distinguish most carefully between the original and of music, it would not richly repay the labour that might pure Egyptian works, and the modern and spurious imibe bestowed on the task. tations that were manufactured when the rites of Isis It is not from the contemplation of the remains of anti- were fashionable in Rome ; and generally to be on our quity in the fine arts alone that we may hope to derive guard against whatever was executed whilst Egypt was benefit; in many of the mechanical arts the ancients were under the sway of the Romans, and to esteem it as very decidedly our superiors; and by assiduous study of the inferior to the genuine productions of the country. A still specimens of various articles, and of the descriptions of further degree of caution may perhaps be necessary: the certain processes, we may hope that ingenious practical degradation of the old style probably was gradually pre1

De Etruria liegali, 2 vols. fol.

Saggio di Lingua Etrusca, 3 vols. 8vo.

s

Museum Etruscum, 3 vols. fol.

262 ANTIQUITIES. Antiquities, pared, and advancod slowly during the period of more than words are confined to some particular temple, which he A three centuries, when Egypt was under the Grecian domi- criticises : they seem, however, to. admit ot a general apA| nion of the Ptolemies, before it passed by conquest into plication, and they express the opinion of many. Effr; cn the hands of the Romans. Plato indeed informs us, at the ns KoXvaroXos or/.og xa^tx-ig sv Me/xSe/, fiagfiagiitriv iyuv ry^ commencement of his second book De Legibus, that the x-aratfxsuTjv n'hnv ya% tcj gzyaXm umi, xa; xoXkuv, xa/ coXu, Egyptian sculptors and painters were forbidden by law to enyon, 4 ^ vr i * ^ Memoir on the Appearance of Spectres or Phantoms occasioned by Disease, with 1 sychological Remarks. Rea . y ic° ai tke Royal Society of Berlin on the 28th of February 1799. See a translation of this paper in Nicolson't Journal, voi. vi. p. toi.

APPARITIONS. 302 Appari- been derived from the subtile images of Epicurus. These, really contains no theory at all. “ It is a well-known law ” tions. the reader will remember, were held by the Epicureans says he at the outset, “ that the impressions produced on to be spontaneously exhaled or given off by all bodies; some of the external senses, especially on the eye, are''- \ and, when they entered the mind, or, we should rather more durable than the application of the impressing cause.” say, were impressed on the attenuated atoms or corpus- It certainly required no ghost to tell us this; yet it is all cles, of the material soul, were supposed to generate spec- that Dr Ferriar has vouchsafed to give us of a theoretical tral illusions. Rejecting the notion of exhalation, how- kind; “ and,” as Dr Hibbert pertinently remarks, “ the ever, M. Meyer adhered to the spirit of this philosophy; brevity with which it is given is in exact conformity with contending that all our ideas are material, and that they the abruptness of its dismissal; for, after being applied are transported from unknown sources to the storehouse to explain one or two cases only of mental illusions, nuof the memory, through the medium of the organs of merous other instances of the kind are related, but the sense. Hence it was conceived, that the nerves upon theory is not honoured with any further notice.” Still the which sensations depend might not only be affected by book is valuable as a collection of cases establishing the external agents, but impressed byr internal causes, and existence of morbid impressions, without any sensible exthat the,result of this impression w ould be hallucinations ternal agency, and also as showing the power which the or illusions. Thus, rays of light impressing the optic nerves imagination possesses under particular circumstances, of from without might cause the sensation of yellow, while re-acting upon the organs of sense with an intensity sufficorrupt humours, as those of jaundice for instance, by cient to create a temporary belief in the reality of the obimpressing the nerves from within, might produce a simi- jects, the impressions of which are thus renovated and lar effect. Further, as ideas were held to be material, vivified.2 and might be treasured up by the memory, it was conThe work of Dr Hibbert, modestly entitled Sketches oftk ceived that they might, through some unknown channel, Philosophy of Apparitions, is of a different description from find their way to the nerves, and impress them after the that of Dr Ferriar. In it a theory is distinctly propounded, manner of internal causes influencing the mind. “ I shall and followed up through a vast complexity of details, which suppose,” says M. Meyer, “ that I have lost a parent the theory is employed to explain and reconcile; and if the whom I loved, and whom I have seen and spoken to an author had carried his generalization a step further, and at infinity of times. Having perceived him often, I have the same time paid more attention to the logical arrangeconsequently preserved the material figure and perception ment of his topics, he would have left little to be supplied of him in the brain ; for it is very possible and recon- by any future writer on this curious branch of the philocilable to appearances, that a material figure, like that of sophy of the human mind. As it is, however, the book is my deceased friend, may be preserved for a long time in full of interesting matter, and, what is of still greater immy brain, even after his death. By some intimate yet portance, it furnishes ample materials for extending and unknown relation, therefore, which the figure may have enlarging the view of the subject, which the author has, to my body, it may touch the optic or acoustic nerves. In upon the whole, so satisfactorily developed. After a not the very moment, then, that my nerves are affected in very skilful sketch of the opinions, ancient and modern, the same manner that they formerly were when I saw or which have been entertained respecting apparitions, Dr listened to my living friend, I shall be necessarily induced Hibbert proceeds, in the first place, to consider the morbid to believe that I really see or hear him, as if he were pre- affections with which the production of phantasms is often sent.”1 This has certainly the merit of being teres atque connected; 'Hdly, to show that the objects of spectral ilrotundus; but, in the first place, it proceeds upon the as- lusions are frequently suggested by the fantastic imagery sumed materiality of ideas, which, besides being aban- of superstitious belief; 2>dly, to investigate the mental doned by all philosophei-s, is an assumption that is far laws which give rise to spectral illusions; \thly, to notice from being self-evident, and can never be proved ; second- the modifications which the intellectual faculty often unly, M. Meyer is forced at every step to take for granted dergoes during intense excitements of the mind; and, some new principle, in regard to the re-action of these lastly, to state the comparative degrees of faintness, vividmaterial ideas on the nervous system, that equally re- ness, or intensity subsisting between sensations and ideas quires, without admitting of, proof; lastly, he ascribes to during their various excitements and depressions. And his ideas the functions performed by the imagination, and the general result at which he arrives, or, in other words, thus infuses an ingredient of truth which gives a colour of tire law which connects and explains all the phenomena plausibility to his theory. of apparitions, whether arising from morbid affections Dr Ferriar’s Theory of Apparitions, as he has been suggested by the fantastic imagery of superstition, or inpleased to call his very entertaining collection of ghost duced by certain states of the mind without any sensible stories, is a complete misnomer, inasmuch as the book extrinsic agency, is this, viz. “ That apparitions are no1

Essay on Apparitions, attributed to M. Meyer, professor in the university of Halle, 1748. a te 13 • T1d°travelling this in author, which serves illustrate the incidentaland observation in the text:shelter “ Afor gentleman was atbe-a -Shted, while alone, a remote part of theto Highlands of Scotland, was compelled to ask the evening one n y iu . * len le was to be conducted to his bed-room, the landlady observed, with mysterious reluctance, that he would w indo ver “fA. ® 111 . 7 y ^ure. On examination, part of the wall appeared to have been broken down to enlarge the opening. After told that a fnnnV^n ^’ . P^lar, who had lodged in the same room a short time before, had committed suicide, and was d the mornin thP hnHv T.,inuhouse £' According to the superstition of the country, it was deemed improper to remove a d t( Somp bmts wpIL flrin ’ ^ ? convey it through the window was impossible, without removing part of the wall, the oom had be en sl bse uentl menared lAinst J q y haunted by the poor man’s spirit. My friend laid his arms, properly u J ? Fn a dreanAv -i fHo-hif AapPar ° k111^ bed-side, rest, not without some degree of apprehension. He was visited andAaw kin 111 asand ny retired found to himself On casting a AAhe ’ the dli? covere( ° ’ sitting up in bed, with a pistol grasped in his right hand. wSl close to^wimW AmA ATm k by the moonlight, a corpse dressed in a shroud, reared erect against the v 1 dl c t r She and the minutest mrts of its ff ^ al ®Asummoned up resolution to approach the dismal object, the features of which, rn the vtfefa intp F vaf and much he Per.ceived distinctly. He passed one hand over it, felt nothing, and staggered back oiiect of his terror was nrndnrrJ , ’ reasoning with himself, he renewed his investigation, and at length discovered that the his dream had nictured with mk W moon -heams forming lineaments a long bightofimage through the broken window, on which his fancy, impressed by 11 a bod in tms instance, naa excited the recollected and.veffect. ^thd^iHstt^^had^excited^the^rpeoUp / images with ^ uncommon force prepared for interment. Powerful associations of terror,

A P P A R f-A thing more than ideas, or the recollected images of the t tioi mind, which have been rendered as vivid as actual imt' f'/' J pressionsa principle which, though somewhat incuriously expressed, makes, in our opinion, a very close approximation to the truth. Dr Hibbert further conceives that the organs of sense are the actual medium through which past feelings are renovated; or, in other words, that when, from strong mental excitement, ideas have become as vivid as past impressions, or even more so, this intensity is induced by, or rather productive of, an absolute affection of those particular parts of the organic structure on which sensations depend; in the same way precisely as the salivary glands are known to be occasionally as much excited by the idea of some favourite food, as if the sapid body itself were actually present, stimulating the papillce of the fauces. It would have been more simple and equally true if Dr Hibbert had said that the imagination, in some states, re-acts upon the organs of sense, and renovates past feelings or sensations, the natural antecedents of certain perceptions, with an intensity sufficient to create an illusion of reality; and this statement would have had the double advantage, of not only expressing, in a more generalized form, the important law of the human mind, which it is the object of all Dr Hibbert’s investigations to evolve, but at the same time of excluding the particular views of physiology which are more or less mixed up with his metaphysical speculations. But the re-action in question may be either of a pleasurable kind or the reverse, according to the nature of the causes by which it is primarily produced ; and as the mind can only exist in one state at an indivisible instant of time, it follows that when any agent, morbific or other, adds to the general vividness of our pleasurable feelings, those of an opposite or painful kind become proportionally less vivid, or rather are for the moment excluded ; and, vice versa, the same law holds in regard to all our painful feelings, the' increased intensity of which is necessarily accompanied with a corresponding abatement of those of an opposite kind. As the mind, however, passes from one state to another, or alternates between opposite states, with inconceivable rapidity, memory is sometimes apt to blend the recollected feelings of the one with those of the other, and thus to create a confusion in our conceptions of things which are in their own nature perfectly distinct. In some cases, where the nitrous oxide was administered, the patient, while under its influence, vibrated between perfect happiness and most consummate misery; but in the majority of instances the sensations produced were of a pleasurable description, to the exclusion of all those of an opposite kind; just as the sensations produced bjr an attack of the febrile miasma are almost invariably and exclusively those of the most acute pain. Hence the law above stated may be considered as a general one, when taken with the modifications proper to be applied to it. Lastly, Dr Hibbert has shown, that when mental feelings of any description attain a certain degree of vividness or intensity, muscular motions obey the impulse of the will, which is as much influenced by the re-acting and renovating power of imagination, as by any of our ordinary passions, appetites, or desires. Ihese principles, if we are not mistaken, go far to explain all the phenomena of dreams and apparitions; for the latter are merely waking dreams, and differ from the former in degree only, not in kind. In the case of Nicolai, which, as Dr Ferriar justly remarks, is one of the ex1

i T i o N s. 303 treme instances of mental delusion which a man of strong Apparijudgment has ventured to report of himself, past impres- v tions sions were renovated with the utmost accuracy and mi-' -^v^/ nuteness. The philosophical seer of Berlin beheld no “ gorgons, hydras, and chimaeras dire.” The visions which he saw were neither terrible, ludicrous, nor repulsive; on the contrary, most of them were ordinary in their appearance, and some of them even agreeable. They were generally phantasms of his friends and acquaintance; or, in other words, exact copies of his past impressions and perceptions, so renovated and vivified as to create an illusion of reality, though for the most part oddly, if not grotesquely, put together. The story told so well by Dr Ferriar of the vision seen by the benighted gentleman who took up his quarters in the lonely Highland hut, is explicable on precisely the same principle ; for his imagination, excited by his dream, pictured the corpse of the selfmurdered pedlar behind the door by renovating and vivifying the mental images produced by the recital of the circumstances previously given to the traveller. In the cases of disease or superstition, again, the exciting causes are different, and the illusions generated consequently vary ; but, in every instance where we can get at the circumstances, it will be found that these illusions or phantasms are merely vivid renovations of mental impressions previously received, and that, although the grouping may be fantastical, the ordinary laws of association are never transgressed. Dr Brewster has remarked, as a physical fact, that “ when the eye is not exposed to the impressions of external objects, or when it is insensible to these objects in consequence of being engrossed with its own operations, any object of mental contemplation, which has either been called up by the memory or created by the imagination, will be seen as distinctly as if it had been formed from the vision of a real object. In examining these mental impressions,” he adds, “ I have found that they follow the motions of the eye-ball exactly like the spectral impressions of luminous objects, and that they resemble them also in their apparent immobility when the eye-ball is displaced by an external force. If this result shall be found generally true by others, it will follow that the objects of mental contemplation may be seen as distinctly as external objects, and will occupy the same local position in the axis of vision as if they had been formed by the agency of light.”1 This goes to the very root of the theory of apparitions; all the phenomena of which seem to depend upon the relative intensities of the two classes of impressions, and upon the manner of their accidental combination. In perfect health, the mind not only possesses a control over its powers, but the impressions of external objects alone occupy its attention, and the play of imagination is consequently checked, except in sleep, when its operations are relatively more feeble and faint. But in the unhealthy state of the mind, when its attention is partly withdraAvn from the contemplation of external objects, the impressions of its own creation, or rather reproduction, will either overpower or combine themselves with the impressions of external objects, and thus generate illusions which in the one case appear alone, while in the other they are seen projected among those external objects to which the eye-ball is directed, in the manner explained by Dr Brewster. We may add, that the same reasoning which applies to the impressions derived from the sense of sight, is equally applicable to those received

See in the Edinburgh Journal of Science, conducted by Dr Brewster, a paper by the editor, entitled “ Observations on the Vision Vol if^8]0113 on ^ie ■^,etina> in reference to certain supposed Discoveries respecting Visions announced by Mr Charles Bell.”

APPARITIONS. 304 Appari- through the medium of any other sense,—as the ear, for in- than, but for the superstitious and melancholy character * tions. stance, an organ which ministers abundantly to the pro- of the natives, which harmonize with the objects of this foresight, they would have been; and that it is in conse-^ \ duction of spectral illusions. Again, with regard to those illusions, the objects of quence of this brightening effect of the emotion, as conwhich are, according to this theory, suggested by the curring with the dim and shadowy objects which the vaimagery of superstition, it is obvious that a belief in such poury atmosphere of our lakes and valleys presents, that imagery is calculated, in an ignorant and credulous age, fancy, relatively to the individual, becomes a temporary to make a strong impression on the mind, and to imbue it reality. The gifted eye, which has once believed itself deeply with all the peculiarities of the prevailing creed. favoured with such a view of the future, will, of course, In point of fact, there is nothing which men know so ever after have a quicker foresight, and more frequent thoroughly, or remember so minutely, as superstitious le- revelations; its own wilder emotion communicating still gends, when this unearthly lore forms the subject of un- more vivid forms and colours to the objects which it dimly questioned and unquestionable belief. But all such im- perceives.” In the case of such visions, however, there is pressions are more or less productive of and accompanied often more of delusion in the seer, than of illusion in the , with fear; and hence when, from accidental circumstances, phantasms which his “ gifted eye” is supposed to have this passion happens to be excited to any degree of in- beheld; and hence the difficulty, as we have already retensity, it not only withdraws the attention of the mind marked, or perhaps it would be more correct to say the from the contemplation of external objects, but at the impossibility, of explaining upon any one theory all the same time stimulates the imagination; which, again, re- phenomena, as these have been detailed. But although acts through the senses, vivifying mental images alone, or it is inconsistent with the object of this article to diverge perhaps intermingling them, in fantastical combinations, into illustrations in detail, we may be permitted to observe with the impressions derived from external objects, and that all the narratives of spectral illusions which can be thus creating those spectral illusions which dreamers and relied upon as deserving of credit, are perfectly explicable seers in all ages have mistaken for realities. It the force upon the principles here briefly but we trust intelligibly of imagination alone can in some instances, without any unfolded. Having said thus much in reference to the theory of apsensible extrinsic agency, generate unreal mockeries and phantasms, much more must it do so when excited by a paritions, it will not be necessary to enter at any length belief in supernatural agency, reinforced by fear, the most into that part 2of Sir Walter Scott’s work on demonology powerful of all the passions. “ What brighter colours the and witchcraft which relates to the present subject. Sir fears of superstition give to the dim objects perceived in Walter has indeed attempted to sound the very depths of twilight, the inhabitants of the village,” says Dr Thomas the philosophy of spectral illusion, and to account for their Brown, “ who have to pass the churchyard at any late hour, phenomena on known or admitted principles; but, with all and the little students of ballad-lore, who have carried possible respect and deference for this gifted writer, it may with them, from the nursery, many tales which they al- be doubted whether his line has reached the bottom, or most tremble to remember, know well. And in the se- afforded any just measure of its profundity. He has narratcond sight1 of this northern part of the island, there can ed, with a skill and3 effect peculiar to himself, a number of be no doubt, that the objects which the seers conceive very striking cases, and has connected these by a variety themselves to behold, are truly more vivid as conceptions, of observations, some of them not less remarkable for the 1 Most of the stories of second-sight told by the Highlanders seem arrant fabrications; and although we are by no means inclined to doubt the possibility of such illusions, any more than to question the fact, that they have sometimes accidentally coincided in point of time with events which seemed to give some confirmation to the belief in deuteroscopy, yet there is so much absurdity and imposture in nearly all the narratives of this kind which we have read, that we consider them utterly unworthy of serious consideration. The honest fellow who proposed to sell the secret for a pound of tobacco, knew more of the mysteries of second-sight than some grave philosophers. Dr John Macculloch has the following very pertinent remarks on the subject:—“To have circumnavigated the Western Isles without even mentioning the second-sight, would be unpardonable. No inhabitant of St Kilda pretends to have been forewarned of our arrival; ceasing to be believed, it has ceased to exist. It is indifferent whether the propagators of an imposture, or of a piece of supernatural philosophy, be punished or rewarded. In either case the public attention is directed towards the agent; whether by the burning of the witch, or by the flattering distinction which attended the Highland seer. When witches were no longer burned, witchcraft disappeared. Since the second-sight has been limited to a doting old man, or a hypochondriacal tailor, it has been a subject for ridicule ; and in matters of this nature ridicule is death.” {Description of the Western Isles, by John Macculloch, M. D. vol. ii.,p. 32.) While the world believed in the second-sight and in witchcraft, there never failed to be seers and witches. The supposed possession of these faculties insured notoriety, flattered vanity, conferred power, and afforded the means of gratifying malice: And what will not men and women do to attain distinctions and advantages like these ? The vain will covet them, the ambitious will grasp at them, the malicious, if otherwise helpless and spited at the world, will run all risks, both here and hereafter, to secure them. Hence the enormous impostures of witchcraft, and hence also delusions as hideous as the knavery was gross and revolting. This is the true key to the solution of a vast number of cases which, it has been supposed, we can neither believe, account for, nor refute. But the misfortune is, that most of those who have written on the subject have had more faith than philosophy, and more fancy than faith, in consequence of which they have jumbled truth and falsehood together in such wild confusion, that all the alchemy of logic is insufficient to resolve the compound into its constituent elements, and separate the one from the other. 2 Letters on Demonology and Witchcraft, addressed to J. G. Lockhart, Esq. By Sir Walter Scott, Bart. 3 The following is one of the most striking, and although the narrative be long, it will be found exceedingly interesting:—“ A second, and equally remarkable instance, was communicated to the author by the medical man under whose observation it fell, but who was, of course, desirous to keep private the name of the hero of so singular a history. Of the friend by whom the facts were attested, I can only say, that if I found myself at liberty to name him, the rank which he holds in his profession, as well as his attainments in science and philosophy, form an undisputed claim to the most implicit credit. “ It was the fortune of this gentleman to be called in to attend the illness of a person now long deceased, who in his lifetime stood, as I understand, high in a particular department of the law, which often placed the property of others at his discretion and control, and whose conduct, therefore, being open to public observation, he had for many years borne the character of a man of unusual steadiness, good sense, and integrity. He was, at the time of my friend’s visits, confined principally to his sick-room, sometimes to bed, yet occasionally attending to business, and exerting his mind, apparently with all its usual strength and energy, to the conduct of important affairs intrusted to him; nor did there, to a superficial observer, appear any thing in his conduct, while so engaged, that could argue vacillation of intellect or depression of mind. His outward symptoms of malady argued no acute or alarming disease. But slowness of pulse, absence of appetite, difficulty of digestion, and constant depression of spirits, seemed to draw their origin from

APPARITIONS. 305 acuteness they display, than for the very great felicity bert’s work as a guide, and all the collateral lights which Appariwith which they are expressed. But even with Dr Hib- have been thrown upon the subject by the researches of ti0115some hidden cause, which the patient was determined to conceal. The deep gloom of the unfortunate gentleman—the embarrassment, which he could not conceal from his friendly physician—the briefness and obvious constraint with which he answered the interrogations of his medical adviser—induced my friend to take other methods for prosecuting his enquiries. He applied to the sufferer’s family, to learn, if possible, the source of that secret grief which was gnawing the heart and sucking the life-blood of his unfortunate patient. The persons applied to, after conversing together previously, denied all knowledge of any cause for the burden which obviously affected their relative. So far as they knew—and they thought they could hardly be deceived—his worldly affairs were prosperous; no family loss had occurred which could be followed with such persevering distress; no entanglements of affection could be supposed to apply to his age, and no sensation of severe remorse could be consistent with his character. The medical gentleman had finally recourse to serious argument with the invalid himself, and urged to him the folly of devoting himself to a lingering and melancholy death, rather than tell the subject of affliction which was thus wasting him. He specially pressed upon him the injury which he was doing to his own character, by suffering it to be inferred that the secret cause of his dejection, and its consequences, was something too scandalous or flagitious to be made known, bequeathing in this manner to his family a suspected and dishonoured name, and leaving a memory with which might be associated the idea of guilt, which the criminal had died without confessing. The patient, more moved by this species of appeal than by any which had yet been urged, expressed his desire to speak out frankly to Dr Every one else was removed, and the door of the sick-room made secure, when he began his confession in the following manner:— “ ‘ You cannot, my dear friend, be more conscious than I, that I am in the course of dying under the oppression of the fatal disease which consumes my vital powers ; but neither can you understand the nature of my complaint, and the manner in4 which it acts upon me; nor, if you did, I fear, could your zeal and skill avail to rid me of it.’—‘ It is possible,’ said the physician, that mv skill may not equal my wish of serving you ; yet medical science has many resources, of which those unacquainted with its powers "never can form an estimate. But until you plainly tell me your symptoms of complaint, it is impossible for either of us to say what may or may not be in my power, or within that of medicine.’—‘ I may answer you,’ replied the patient, ‘ that my case is not a singular one, since we read of it 4in the famous novel of Le Sage. You remember, 4doubtless, the disease of which the Duke d’Olivarez is there stated to have died ?’— Of the idea,’ answered the medical gentleman, that he was haunted by an apparition, to the actual existence of which he gave no credit, but died, nevertheless, because he was overcome and heart-broken by its imaginary presence.’ 4 I, my dearest Doctor,’ said the sick man, 4 am in that very case ; and so painful and abhorrent is the presence of the persecuting vision, that my reason is totally inadequate to combat the effects of my morbid imagination, and I am sensible I am dying, a wasted victim to an imaginary disease.’ The medical gentleman listened with anxiety to his patient’s statement, and for the present judiciously avoiding any contradiction of the sick man’s preconceived fancy, contented himself with more minute enquiry into the nature of the apparition with which he conceived himself haunted, and into the history of the mode by which so singular a disease had made itself master of his imagination, secured, as it seemed, by strong powers of the understanding, against an attack so irregular. The sick person replied by stating, that its advances were gradual, and at first not of a terrible or even disagreeable character. To illustrate4 this, he gave the following account of the progress of his disease. “ My visions,’ he said, 4 commenced two or three years since, when I found myself from time to time embarrassed by the presence of a large cat, which came and disappeared I could not exactly tell how, till the truth was finally forced upon me, and I was compelled to regard it hs no domestic household cat, but as a bubble of the elements, which had no existence save in my deranged visual organs or depraved imagination. Still I had not that positive objection to the animal entertained by a late gallant Highland chieftain, who has been seen to change to all the colours of his own plaid if a cat by accident happened to be in the room with him, even though he did not see it. On the contrary, I am rather a friend to cats, and endured with so much equanimity the presence of my imaginary attendant, that it had become almost indifferent to me; when within the course of a few months it gave place to, or was succeeded by, a spectre of a more important sort, or which at least had a more imposing appearance. This was no other than the apparition of a gentleman-usher, dressed as if to wait upon a lo”d-lieutenant of Ireland, a lord high commissioner of the kirk, or any other 44 4 who bears on his brow the rank and stamp of delegated sovereignty. This personage, arrayed in a court dress, with bag and sword, tamboured waistcoat, and chapeau-bras, glided beside me like the ghost of Beau Nash; and, whether in my own house or in another, ascended the stairs before me, as if to announce me in the drawing-room ; and at some times appeared to mingle with the company, though it was sufficiently evident that they were not aware of his presence, and that I alone was sensible of the visionary honours which this imaginary being seemed desirous to render me. This freak of the fancy did not produce much impression on me, though it led me to entertain doubts on the nature of my disorder, and alarm for the effect it might produce upon my intellects. But that modification of my disease also had its appointed duration. After a few months the phantom of the gentleman-usher was seen no more, but was succeeded by one horrible to the sight and distressing to the imagination, being no other than the image of death itself—the apparition of a skeleton. Alone or in company,’ said the unfortunate invalid, 4 the presence of this last phantom never quits me. I in vain tell myself a hundred times over that it is no reality, but merely an image summoned up by the morbid acuteness of my own excited imagination and deranged organs of sight. But what avail such reflections, while the emblem at once and presage of mortality is before my eyes,r and while I feel myself, though in fancy only, the companion of a phantom representing a ghastly inhabitant of the grave, even w hile I yet-breathe on the earth? Science, philosophy, even religion, has no cure for such a disorder ; and I feel too surely that I shall die the victim to so melancholy a disease, although I have no belief whatever in the reality of the phantom which it places before me.’ “ The physician was distressed to perceive, from these details, how strongly this visionary apparition was fixed in the imagination of his patient. He ingeniously urged the sick man, who was then in bed, with questions concerning the circumstances of the phantom’s appearance, trusting he might lead him, as a sensible man, into such contradictions and inconsistencies as might bring his common sense, which seemed to be unimpaired, so strongly into the field, as might combat successfully the fantastic disorder which pro4 4 duced such fatal effects. 4 This skeleton, then,’ said the 4 4 Doctor’, seems to you to be always present to 4 your eyes ?’— It is my fate, unhappily,’ answered the invalid, always to see it.’— Then I understand,’ continued the physician, it is now present to your imagination ?’—4 To my imagination it certainly is so,’4 replied the sick man—4 And in what part of the chamber do you now conceive the apparition to appear 4?’ the physician enquired. Immediately at the foot of my bed ; when the curtains4 are left a little open,’ answered the invalid, the skeleton, to my thinking, is placed between them, and fills the vacant space.’— You say you are sensible of the delusion,’ said his friend ; 4 have you firmness to convince yourself of the truth of this ? Can you take courage enough to rise and place yourself 4in the spot so seeming to4be occupied, and convince yourself of the illusion ?’ The poor man sighed, and shook his head negatively. Well,’ said the Doctor, we will try the experiment otherwise.’ Accordingly, he rose from his chair by the bedside, and placing himself betw’een the two half-drawn curtains at the foot of the bed, indicated as the place occupied by the apparition, asked if the spectre was still visible? 4 Not entirely so,’ replied the patient, 4 because your person is betwixt him and me; hut I observe his skull peering above your shoulder.’ “ It is alleged the man of science started on the instant, despite philosophy, on receiving an answer ascertaining, with such minuteness, that the ideal spectre was close to his own person. He resorted to other means of investigation and cure, but with equally indifferent success. The patient sunk into deeper and deeper dejection, and died in the same distress of mind in which he had spent the latter months of his life; and his case remains a melancholy instance of the power of imagination to kill the body, even when its fantastic terrors cannot overcome the intellect, of the unfortunate persons who suffer under them. The patient, in the present case, sunk under his malady; and the circumstances of his singular disorder remaining concealed, he did not, by his death and last illness, lose any of the well-merited reputation for prudence and sagacity which had attended him during the whole course of his life.” VOL. in. r v J 2 q

APPARITIONS. 306 Appari- Dr Ferriar, Dr Brewster, and others, Sir Walter has fail- cognises the principle, which Dr Brewster has shown to Mti tions. ec] reach any general principle applicable to a given hold good in our waking hours, that “ the objects of mental class of cases. The consequence is, that, although his ob- contemplation may be seen as distinctly as external ob-Sfv servations are almost always valuable, and often involve jects, and will occupy the same local position in the axis the very law which connects and explains the phenomena of vision, as if they had been formed by the agency ol of spectral illusion, he constantly stops short on the verge light;” while their being “ inserted” amidst so many objects of the discovery, and is therefore under the necessity of in regard to which there is no deception, will at the same seeking a new explanation of each successive case, which time contribute to strengthen the illusion of reality, and is, for the most part, considered separately and without to render the visionary inaccessible to any arguments reference to or comparison with others. On several occa- tending to call it in question. But no use whatever is sions, indeed, he attempts to generalize, and makes very made of these important principles; which, so far from close approximations to the truth ; but, like those tune- being pushed to their consequences, and thus disencumless persons who sometimes essay good-naturedly to sing, bered of the limitations which the author has assigned to and stumble about the outskirts of an air, without ever them, are stated apparently for no other reason than that being able to hit it exactly, Sir Walter frequently comes so they may be straightway cast aside and forgotten. Another example may be given of this unavailing apvery near the point he aims at, that we are surprised how proximation to the truth, on a most important branch ol he should miss it. This is singularly exemplified in the following obser- the subject. That disordered or excited state of the imavations, which, with reference to the view we have now gination arising from morbific causes, in which it re-acts taken, are exceedingly important:—“ Enthusiastic feel- upon the organs of sense, and generates spectral illusions, ings of an impressive and solemn nature,” says Sir Wal- “ is not,” he thinks, “ properly insanity, although it is ter, “ occur both in private and public life, which seem somewhat allied to that' most horrible of maladies, and to add ocular testimony to an intercourse betwixt earth may, in many constitutions, be the means of bringing it and the world beyond it. For example, the son who has on, and although such hallucinations are uproper to both.” been lately deprived of his father feels a sudden crisis ap- The difference he conceives to be, that in cases of inproach, in which he is anxious to have recourse to his sa- sanity, the mind of the patient is principally affected, gacious advice—or a bereaved husband earnestly desires while the senses or organic system offer in vain to the again to behold the form of which the grave has deprived lunatic their decided testimony against the phantasy of a him for ever—or, to use a darker yet very common in- diseased imagination.” There is some confusion here, stance, the wretched man who has dipped his hand in his both in conception and expression; but still the author is fellow-creature’s blood, is haunted by the apprehension correct in his general idea, however vaguely indicated, that the phantom of the slain stands by the bedside of his that the difference he alludes to is one of degree rather murderer. In all, or any of these cases, who shall doubt than of kind. A few observations, will, we think, make that imagination, favoured by circumstances, has power to this abundantly evident, and at the same time show in how summon up to the organ of sight spectres which only exist in remarkable a manner the phenomena of insanity, viewed the mind of those by whom their apparition seems to be wit- in reference to the subject before us, illustrate that renessed? If we add, that such a vision may take place in flective or renovating power of the imagination to which the course of one of those lively dreams in which the alone we ascribe the production of phantasms and spectres. patient, except in respect to the single subject of one The history of this malady (says Pinel) claims alliance strong impression, is or seems sensible of the real parti- with all the errors and delusions of superstitious credulity culars of the scene around him, a state of slumber which —with those of witchcraft, demoniacal possession, oracles, often occurs—if he is so far conscious, for example, as to divinations, and spectral illusions; and hence he considers know that he is lying on his own bed, and surrounded by it as eminently deserving of attention, on the part of the his own familiar furniture, at the time when the supposed mental, as well as on that of the medical philosopher who apparition is manifested, it becomes almost in vain to argue may be called upon practically to minister consolation and with the visionary against the reality of his dream, since relief to minds diseased. Insanity, considered generally, the spectre, though itself purely fanciful, is inserted amidst is merely the excess of that state or of those states of the so many circumstances which he feels must be true beyond mind during which hallucinations are produced; and this the reach of doubt or question. That which is undeni- excess, when prolonged beyond a certain limit, terminates ably certain becomes in a manner a warrant for the reality in fatuity, or the complete exhaustion and paralysis of the of the appearance to which doubt would have been other- mental powers, just as bodily exertion, when urged bewise attached. And if any event, such as the death of yond a certain pitch (varying, however, in each indivithe person dreamt of, chances to take place, so as to corre- dual), terminates in the suspension of all physical enerspond with the nature and the time of the apparition, the gy, and ultimately in death. In both cases nature has coincidence, though one which must be frequent, since our provided a restorative power, which, up to a definitive dreams usually refer to the accomplishment of that which point, can repair the injury produced by excited action, haunts our minds when awake, and often presage the and enable the mind and body to recover their wonted most probable events, seems perfect, and the chain of tone and health; but if the excitation continue, or be circumstances touching the evidence may not unreason- pushed beyond this limit, the restorative efficacy is deably be considered as complete.” stroyed, and neither can ever regain their former condiNow, it must be obvious to every one, that the true the- tion. It is this excess alone which, in the case of mind, ory ol apparitions is involved in these observations, though constitutes insanity. It is the unnatural continuance or not unfolded in such a manner as to render it available for prolongation of excited action which ultimately overthe explanation of spectral illusions. The author distinctly whelms the whole mental powers; not even excepting the indicates, in the first place, the power of imagination, when imagination itself, the very instrument, if we may so exexcited, “ to summon up to the organ of sight spectres press it, by which this melancholy ruin is accomplished. which only exist in the mind of those by whom their ap- Hence it is commonly observed that persons endowed parition seems to be witnessed,” or, in other words, to with the greatest susceptibility of mental excitement, reproduce past impressions through the medium of the with the warmest passions, the most active imaginations, senses; and, secondly, in certain kinds of dreams, he re- and the most acute sensibilities, evince the strongest pie-

APPARITIONS. 307 disposition to insanity; and as this is the temperament be labouring; but whether this antiphlogistic treatment AppariSonf that usually accompanies genius, every one can easily ap- had the effect of dismissing the phantom hag who had tions. predate the truth of the observation which a celebrated previously repeated her visits so regularly, Sir Walter poet has consecrated in his numbers, that great wit is has not informed us. Delusions of this sort, as Dr Fernearly allied to madness, and that “ thin partitions do riar observes, certainly admit of gradations short of acthe bounds divide” which separate the one from the tual insanity; but the difference, as we have already reother. But this predisposing temperament, of which marked, is one of degree only, not of kind; for, in all genius is a natural product, and insanity the excess or such cases, a little additional intensity of excitement is diseased state, is also that which renders men pecu- only wanting to deprive the mind of that power over its liarly susceptible of superstitious impressions, and upon impressions generally which it has already lost over one which these, when once received into the mind, and trea- set, and thus to overwhelm it at once under a hideous sured up in the memory, are likely, through the medium mass of morbid hallucinatibns. The same observation is of the imagination, to re-act with the greatest force, and applicable to the partial illusions generated by hysteria, thus to give a sort of reflex impulse to the temperament hypochondria, febrile affections, inflammations of the brain, which predisposes towards their reception. Need we delirium tremens, and other diseases which exert a disturbwonder, then, to find the imagery of superstition so fre- ing influence over the nervous system, especially that part quently blended and mixed up with the wild delusions of of it more immediately connected with sensation. The insanity, or the one acting upon and aggravating all the exciting causes may vary, and the particular illusions cresymptoms of the other ? Need we wonder that in a great ated may partake of this variation ; yet it will be found variety of instances superstition should become the ex- that, the excitement once produced, the resulting phenociting cause of insanity, or that the visions of insanity mena observe invariably the same law, and that according as the degree of that excitement is greater or less, should, in their turn, form new objects of superstition ? In all cases of mental excitement, howsoever produced, so will the morbid affection of the mind either amount to the results may vary in proportion to the relative intensity actual insanity, or fall short of it by some gradations. The of the excited action; but on a close examination it will true theory of apparitions, therefore, is essentially the be found that the difference observable amongst them is a same with that of insanity; nor, in determining the gedifference of degree only, not of kind. “ From recalling neral principle which connects the one class of phenomeimages by an act of the memory,” says Dr Ferriar, “ the na, can we fail, if we pursue the proper course of investiwhich regulates and consequenttransition is direct to beholding spectral objects which gation, to ascertain that 1 have been floating in the imaginationand he adds that ly explains the other. These observations, as the reader must have already he has frequently, in the course of his professional practice, conversed with persons who imagined they saw de- perceived, apply only to that part of Sir Walter Scott’s mons, and heard them speak ; a species of delusion which, work which relates to apparitions, and which, in fact, is he thinks, admits of many gradations and distinctions ex- greatly inferior in interest as well as importance to the clusive of actual insanity. Sir Walter Scott also men- masterly exposition he has given of the various systems tions the case of a patient similarly affected, who, being of magic and demonology which have prevailed at different troubled with a diurnal vision of an unsightly hag, con- times and in different countries. Here he is evidently sulted the late Dr Gregory on the subject of this visita- quite at home; and as his treasures of ghostly lore are tion, but, as appears from the narrative, without deriving unbounded, his judicious observations are continually ilany material benefit from the skill of that eminent and lustrated by the most apposite and striking narratives, learned physician. As the spectre was very regular in frequently derived from sources which are not generally its appearance, and always visited the patient at a stated accessible. His remarks on the denunciation against hour, the doctor, on one occasion, exerted all his powers witches contained in the Old Testament, as well as on the of conversation, which were very great, to engage the particular case of the sorceress of Endor, consulted by mind of this individual, and if possible beguile him into Saul, are exceedingly interesting; and we think the disa forgetfulness of time, that the awful hour might pass tinction he has drawn between Jewish witchcraft, which unobserved—but, as it turned out, without effect; for was connected with the abominations of idolatry, and scarcely had the clock struck the hour, when the patient that of modern times, which was the joint product of screamed out that he beheld the apparition. Ordinary ignorance, credulity, fear, persecution, and imposture, perimpressions, indeed, are never sufficient to control such fectly sound. That the witch of Endor was a mere foras are produced by an imagination excited as this man’s tune-teller, to whom the unfortunate king of Israel had must have been. Hence, finding his expedient vain, Dr recourse in his despair, is beyond all question or doubt; Gregory had recourse to his usual remedy of blood-let- and the only difficulty is to explain how it was so orting, in order to relieve the plethoric or apoplectic af- dained that the spirit of the prophet Samuel should arise fection under which he concluded that the patient must amidst the incantations of an impostor, and thus lend a * The activity which the soul frequently displays during sleep, or, in other words, the phenomena of dreams, engaged the attention of metaphysicians at an early period, and gave rise to numerous learned and ingenious speculations, an exquisite summary of which, accompanied with many truly refined and subtile observations of his own, the reader will find in the chapter where Mr Dugald Stewart treats of this subject in his Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind. “ Dreams,” says Mr Addison, “ look like the relaxations and amusements of the soul when she is disencumbered of her machine ; her sports and recreations when she has laid her charge asleep. The soul is clogged and retarded in her operations when she acts in conjunction with a companion that is so heavy and unwieldy in its motions; but in dreams she converses with numberless beings of her own creation, and is transported into ten thousand scenes of her own raising. She is herself the theatre, the actor, and the beholder.” This is finely said, and not more beautiful than true. But the reader will not fail to observe, that as Mr Addison’s description, if somewhat heightened in its colouring and distorted in its features, would apply to insanity as well as to dreams, so the state of the soul which produces the one would, if highly excited, exhibit all the characteristic phenomena of the other. Dreams, indeed, are but faint adumbrations of that vivid phantasmagoria which madness presents to the eye of the mind, and which is also accompanied with an increased intensity in all the feelings and emotions of the soul, whether connected with the predominant hallucination, or otherwise. Hence Pinel has remarked, that, even during the intervals of comparative calmness and reason, he has nowhere met, except in romance, with fonder husbands, more affectionate parents, more impassioned lovers, or purer and more exalted patriots, than in an asylum for lunatics.

A

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308 A P P Apparitor sort of countenance to the belief in magical charms and II divinations, which was already but too generally and n^* deePly root:ed in the minds of the Israelites. This, however, is not the place to enter into the discussion of mat-

ters which properly fall to be treated of under different heads, and which involve principles totally different from those which are applicable to the case of apparitions alone. (a.)

APPARITOR, among the Romans, a general term to comprehend all attendants of judges and magistrates appointed to receive and execute their orders. Apparitor, in England, is a messenger that serves the process of a spiritual court, or a beadle in a university who carries the mace. APPAUMEE, in Heraldry, denotes one hand extended with the full palm appearing, and the thumb and fingers at full length. APPEAL, in Law, the removal of a cause from an inferior to a superior court or judge, when a person thinks himself aggrieved by the sentence of the inferior judge. Appeals lie from the ordinary courts of justice to the house of lords. In ecclesiastical cases, if an appeal is brought before a bishop, it may be removed to the archbishop ; if before an archdeacon, to the court of arches, and thence to the archbishop; and from the archbishop s court to the king in chancery. APPELLATION, the name by which any thing is known or distinguished when spoken of. Nothing can be more foreign to the original meaning of many words and proper names than their present or vulgar appellations; frequently owing to the history of those things being forgotten, or an ignorance of the language in which they were expressed. Who, for example, would dream that the legal proclamation called “ O yes,” was a proclamation commanding the talkers to become hearers, being the French word Oyez, listen, retained in our courts ever since the law pleadings were held in French ? Or would any person suppose that the headland on the French coast near Calais, called by our seamen Blackness, would be so titled from its French name of Blanc Nez, or the White Head-land? King Henry the Eighth having taken the town of Boulogne in France, the gates of which he brought to Hardes in Kent, where they are still remaining, the flatterers of that reign highly magnified this action, which, Porto Bello like, became a popular subject for signs; and the port or harbour of Boulogne, called Boulogne Mouth, was accordingly set up at a noted inn in Holborn. The name of the inn long outliving the sign and fame of the conquest, an ignorant painter, employed by a no less ignorant landlord to paint a new one, represented it by a bull and a large gaping human mouth ; answering to the vulgar pronunciation of hidl and mouth. The same piece of history gave being to the bull and gate, originally meant for Boulogne gate, and represented by an embattled gate or entrance into a fortified town. The barber s pole has been the subject of many conjectures ; some conceiving it to have originated from the word poll or head, with several other conceits as farfetched and as unmeaning; but the true intention of that party-coloured staff was to show that the master of the shop practised surgery, and could breathe a vein as well as mow a beard. The white band which encompasses the staff was meant to represent the fillet thus elegantly twined about it. Nor were the chequers, at this time a common sign of a public house, less expressive,—being the representation of a kind of draught-board called tables, and showing that there that game might be played. From their colour, which was red, and the similarity to a lattice, it was corruptly called the red lettuce, which word is frequently used by ancient writers to signify an ale-house.

The Spectator has explained the sign of the bell-savage inn plausibly enough, in supposing it to have been originally the figure of a beautiful female found in the woods called in French la belle sauvage. But another reason has since been assigned for that appellation, namely, that the inn was once the property of Lady Arabella Savage, and familiarly called Bell Savage's Inn, probably represented, as at present, by a bell and a savage or wild man, which was a rebus for her name; rebuses being much in fashion in the 16th century. The three blue balls prefixed to the doors and windows of pawnbrokers’ shops, by the vulgar humorously enough said to indicate that it is two to one that the things pledged are never redeemed, were in reality the arms of a set of merchants from Lombardy, who were the first that publicly lent money on pledges. They dwelt together in a street, from them named Lombard Street, in London, and also gave their name to another at Paris. The appellation of Lombard was formerly all over Europe considered as synonymous with that of usurer. At the institution of yeomen of the guards, they used to wait at table on all great solemnities, and were ranged near the buffets. This procured them the name of buffetiers, not very unlike in sound to the jocular appellation of beef-eaters, now given them; though probably it was rather the voluntary misnomer of some wit, than an accidental corruption arising from ignorance of the French language. The opprobrious title of bum bayliffe, so constantly bestowed on the sheriff’s officers, is, according to Judge Blackstone, only the corruption of bound bayliffe, every sheriff’s officer being obliged to enter into bonds and to give security for his good behaviour, previous to his appointment. t A cordwainer seems to have no relation to the occupation it is meant to express, which is that of a shoemaker. But cordonier, originally spelt cordaunier, is the French word for that trade ; the best leather used for shoes coming originally from Cordova in Spain. APPELLATIVE Names, in Grammar, in contradistinction to proper names, are such as stand for universal ideas, or a whole rank of beings, wdiether general or special. ThuSj^’sA, bird, man, city, river, are common or appellative names ; and so are trout, eel, lobster ; for they all agree to many individuals, and some to many species. APPENZELL, one of the cantons of Switzerland. It is a mountainous district, surrounded by the canton of St Gall. Three chains of hills, continuations of the Alps, with valleys between them, form the chief part of the surface. The highest point of the hills is 7671 feet. In these are some extraordinary natural excavations, particularly the Ziegerloch and the Wildkirchlein. The climate is raw and cold, little calculated for agriculture, but adapted in some degree for breeding cattle, and for the dairy. The extent has been variously reported: it is probably about 220 square miles. The number of inhabitants, by the last estimate, is about 58,000, who are divided into 22 communes or parishes. The outer part of the canton was occupied by manufacturers of cotton and linen goods, and by calico printers ; but of late years these fabrics have declined, and much distress has followed. The poverty thus produced has led to extensive emigrations to the western world. The constitution is a pure

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^ 11 democracy, each individual above 16 years having a vote. |i About one third of the inhabitants are Catholics, the re)iai;. mainder Protestants of the Calvinistic confession. The vV canton is formed into two divisions, each with its respective capital: Herisau is the capital of the outer division, and Appenzell of the inner. Appenzell, a city, the capital of the inner division of the canton of that name in Switzerland. It stands on the river Sitter, in a beautiful valley. It contains one church of Gothic architecture, a capuchin monastery, a nunnery, with several chapels, and about 3000 inhabitants, who chiefly subsist by linen weaving and bleaching. APPETITE, in a general sense, the desire of enjoying some object, supposed to be conducive to our happiness. This term is applied particularly to hunger, thirst, and the appetite of sex. Considered as principles of action, the appetites are distinguished by the following circumstances :—1. They take their rise from the body, and are common to us with the brutes. 2. They are not constant, but occasional. 3. They are accompanied with an uneasy sensation, which is strong or weak in proportion to the strength or weakness of the appetite. See Stewart’s Philosophy of the Active Powers, book i. chap. i. APPIA Via, a way reaching from Rome through Capua to Brundusium, between 330 and 350 miles long. Appius Claudius, surnamed Coccus, in the year of the city 441, carried it from the Porta Capena to Capua. (Livy, Frontinus.) It wras afterwards carried on to Brundusium, but by whom, or when, is uncertain. It was laid with very hard stone, brought from a great distance, large, and squared (Diodorus); and it was so wide that several waggons could go abreast. Statius calls it the queen of roads. Its course is described by Horace, Strabo, and Antonine. APPIAN, an eminent writer of the Roman history in Greek, under the reigns of Trajan and Adrian. He was of a good family in Alexandria in Egypt; whence he went to Rome, and there distinguished himself so well as an advocate, that he was chosen one of the procurators of the empire, and the government of a province was committed to him. He did not complete the Roman history in a continued series, but wrote distinct histories of all nations that had been conquered by the Romans, in which he placed every thing relating to those nations in the proper order of time. Of all this voluminous work there remains only what treats of the Punic, Syrian, Parthian, Mithridatic, and Spanish wars, with those against Hannibal, the civil wars, and the wars in Illyricum, and some fragments of the Celtic or Gallic wars. An excellent edition of Appian was published by Schweighasuser in Greek and Latin, at Leipsic, in 1785, in 3 vols. 8vo. The extracts from the lost books, preserved by various authors, have been collected in this edition. APPIUS Claudius, a Sabine by birth, one of the principal inhabitants of Regillum. His shining merit having drawn the envy of his fellow-citizens upon him, he retired to Rome with all his family. Appius was admitted into the senate, and was made consul with Publius Servilius Priscus in 258 from the building of Rome; but he was hated by the plebeians, being an austere opposer of their clamours and seditions. The Claudian family continued long one of the most illustrious of the patrician families in home, and several in succession of the name of Appius supported the same stern character that distinguished their first founder. APPLAUSE, an approbation of something, signified by clapping the hands, still practised in theatres. Applause, ■n antiquity, differed from acclamation, as the latter was articulate and performed with the voice, the former with the hands. Among the Romans, applause was an artificial kind of noise made by the audience or spectators to

A P P 309 express their satisfaction. There were three species of Appleby applause, denominated from the different noises made inA raisen II them, viz. Bombus, Imbrices, and Testce ; the first a con- PP fused din, made either by the hands or the mouth; the second and third, by beating on a sort of sounding vessels placed in the theatres for this purpose. Persons were instructed to give applause with skill; and there were even masters who professed to teach the art. The proficients in this way let themselves out for hire to the vain-glorious among the poets, actors, &c., and were properly disposed to support a loud applause. These they called Laudicceni, and At the end of the play a loud peal of applause was expected, and even asked of the audience, either by the chorus or the persons who spoke last. The formula was Spectatores plaudite, or Valete et plaudite. The plausores or applauders were divided into chori, and disposed in theatres opposite to each other, like the choristers in cathedrals, so that there was a kind of concert of applauses. APPLE. See Horticulture. APPLEBY, a small market and borough town in the county of Westmoreland, 269 miles from London, 14 from Penrith, and 32 from Carlisle. It is on the river Eden, which nearly surrounds it. The assizes and the election of county members are held here. It returns two members to parliament. There is a corn market held on Saturday. The population in 1801 was 711; in 1811, 815 ; and in 1821, 999. APPLICATION, in a general sense, is the laying of two things together, in order to discover their agreement or disagreement. Application, in Geometry, is used either for division; for applying one quantity to another, whose areas, but not figure, shall be the same; or for transferring a given line into a circle or other figure, so that its ends shall be in the perimeter of the figure. Application, in Theology, is particularly used by some divines for the act whereby our Saviour transfers or makes over to us what he had earned or purchased by his holy life and death. Accordingly it is by this application of the merits of Christ that we are to be justified and entitled to grace and glory. The sacraments are the ordinary means or instruments whereby this application is effected. APPOLLONIA, a considerable kingdom in Africa, about 100 miles in length, situated on the Gold Coast, from the western extremity of which it extends to the river Ancobra. The territory being intersected by numerous small streams which overflow their banks during the rainy season, is very well adapted for the growth of rice and the sugar-cane. The coast affords neither harbour nor creek; but goods are conveyed on shore in canoes, which are managed by the natives with great dexterity. The government is monarchical; the people are honest, courteous, and hospitable ; and the trader, in dealing with them, finds his person and property quite secure. The ports are Appollonia, Assinee, Great and Little Bassam; at each of which may be obtained gold and ivory, the former of rather superior quality. The British had formerly a fort at Appollonia, which they have now withdrawn. APPOLONIA, a town of Austrian Italy, in the delegation of Brescia, in the government of Venetian Lombardy. It is in a lofty situation, and contains 1386 inhabitants, who are mostly employed in making gun-locks, bayonets, swords, and other implements of war. APPOSITION, in Grammar, the placing of two or more substantives together, in the same case, without any copulative conjunction between them ; as Ardebat Alexim, delicias domini. APPRAISER (from ad, to, and pretium, value), one who rates or sets a value upon goods, &c. He must be

310 A P P Apprehen- a skilful and honest person. It is not a business of itsion ggif^ but is practised by brokers of household furniture, Appren- to which set of men the word is chiefly applied; yet tice. upholsterers and other brokers are employed, or even any ' person or persons who are supposed to be skilled in the commodities to be appraised or valued. APPREHENSION, in Logic, denotes the simple attention of the mind to an object presented either to our sense or our imagination, without passing a judgment or making an inference. Apprehension, in Law, signifies the seizing of a criminal in order to bring him to justice. APPRENTICE (from apprendre, to learn), one who is bound by covenant to serve a tradesman or artificer a certain time, upon condition of the master’s instructing him in his art or mystery. By the common law, every person is left at liberty to follow whatever trade or employment may be agreeable to him. But as it was supposed that great injury would result to the public if unqualified persons were to exercise the various crafts and mysteries connected with the mechanical trades, it was specially provided, by the 5th Eliz., that no person should exercise any art or craft unless he had previously qualified himself for it by a regular apprenticeship, under a penalty of L.400 for every month. Considerable doubts were always entertained as to the trades to which this statute applied ; and as the courts of law do not seem generally to have favoured the principle of the statute, their decisions tended rather to confine than to extend the restriction. It was at length agreed that the law was only applicable to such trades as existed at the time of passing the act, and to such also as implied some mystery or craft. The operation of the statute was also held to be limited to market-towns, it being supposed necessary for the convenience of the inhabitants of country villages, that the same person should exercise different trades, even though he had not been regularly bred by a seven years’ apprenticeship to each. These various limitations of the statute gave rise to many very absurd distinctions, which plainly showed how very unsuitable this antiquated law was to the present advanced state of the mechanical trades. It was found, for example, that a coachmaker could neither himself make nor employ journeymen to make his coach-wheels, but that it behoved him to buy them of a master wheelwright, this last trade having been exercised in England before the 5th Eliz. But a wheelwright, though he has never served an apprenticeship to a coachmaker, might either himself make, or employ journeymen, to make coaches, the trade of a coachmaker not having been prohibited by the statute, as not being exercised in England at the time it was passed. All the great manufactures which, in modern times, have arisen throughout England—in Manchester, Birmingham, Sheffield, Wolverhampton—were on this account exempted from the restrictive operation of this law; and the perfection to which they have arrived seems a practical proof of its inutility for the encouragement of trade. The effects of those restrictions imposed by the 5th Eliz. were at length felt to be so injurious, that, in the year 1813, petitions were presented to parliament from various manufacturing towns for a repeal of certain parts of this exceptionable statute ; and the 54th Geo. III. was accordingly passed, by which all the penalties and prohibitions imposed by 5th Eliz. on those who should exercise any trade or mystery, unless qualified by six or seven years’ apprenticeship, were repealed. That part of the Statute was also repealed which enacted that no person should become an apprentice except in strict conformity to the provisions of the 5th Eliz., and which rendered all indentures contrary to this act null and void. In opposi-

A P P tion to this, it was provided that all indentures or covenants a which would otherwise be valid, should now be valid, any1 tii thing in the 5th Eliz. to the contrary notwithstanding. V APPRENTICESHIP, the servitude of an apprentice, or the duration of his indenture. Seven years seem anciently to have been, all over Europe, the usual term established for the duration of apprenticeships in the greater part of incorporated trades. All such incorporations were anciently called universities, which indeed is the proper Latin name for any incorporation whatever. The university of smiths, the university of tailors, &c. are expressions which we commonly meet with in the old charters of ancient towns. When those particular incorporations which are now peculiarly called universities were first established, the term of years which it was necessary to study in order to obtain the degree of master of arts, appears evidently to have been copied from the term of apprenticeship in common trades, of which the incorporations were much more ancient. As to have wrought seven years under a master properly qualified was necessary in order to entitle any person to become a master, and to have himself apprentices in a common trade ; so to have studied seven years under a master properly qualified -was necessary to entitle him to become a master, teacher, or doctor (words anciently synonymous) in the liberal arts, and to have scholars or apprentices (words likewise originally synonymous) to study under him. Apprenticeships were altogether unknown to the ancients. The reciprocal duties of master and apprentice make a considerable article in every modern code. The Roman law is perfectly silent with regard to them. There is no Greek or Latin word which expresses the idea we now annex to the word apprentice—a servant bound to work at a particular trade for the benefit of a master during a term of years, upon condition that the master shall teach him that trade. Dr Smith considers the institution of apprenticeships as a device, by which trading corporations endeavour to confine to as few hands as possible the mystery of their craft, and by which, keeping the market always understocked with their particular sort of labour, they expect to regulate according to their discretion the price of such manufactures as they bring to market. He accordingly condemns all those laws which limit the number of apprentices to be taken by each master in particular trades, or which prescribe to apprentices a certain term of service before they are permitted to work as journeymen. The tendency of such laws, he observes, is to restrain the competition to a much smaller number than might otherwise be disposed to enter into the trade; the limitations of the number of apprentices restraining it directly, and a long apprenticeship restraining it indirectly, but as effectually, by increasing the expense of education. Long apprenticeships, or indeed any apprenticeship, for however short a term, Dr Smith considers quite unnecessary, as the nicest mechanical arts, such as the making of clocks and watches, contain, according to his theory, no such mystery as to require a long course of instruction. A few weeks, he calculates, or even a few days, would be sufficient to enable a mechanic to set to work in any of those trades ; and if he were paid the full price for his work, he paying of course for such materials as he might spoil through awkwardness and inexperience, he imagines that he would learn his business more effectually, and be more apt to acquire habits of attention and industry, than when he works under a master who has a right to share in the produce of his labour. It may be generally remarked, however, that, in his reasonings on these subjects, Dr Smith seems uniformly

A P P •. r. disposed to overrate the practical effect of those expefcsl • dients by which corporations have been always endea>v -/vouring to secure special advantages for particular trades ; and that his theory respecting apprenticeships is only a part of that more general theory, by which he endeavours to show that the policy of Europe has always been to encourage the industry of the towns at the expense of that of the countryand that the effect of this policy has t ’ been to enable the merchants and manufacturers of the town, in bartering their produce for that of the country, to levy, for several centuries, an unjust and oppressive tax on the agricultural classes of the community. We know, however, that, according to the nature of human society, as it is so admirably explained in Dr Smith’s work, monopoly can never succeed on so great a scale; and, on the same principle, we may rationally q-uestion, if the contract between the apprentice and his master were merely the device of corporations, whether it ever could have come into such universal use throughout Europe. The engagement by which the apprentice is bound to his master is his own voluntary act. He agrees to bind himself to work to his master at an inferior rate, on condition of receiving from his master the necessary instruction in his business. This instruction, Dr Smith asserts, may be given him in the course of a few days or weeks. It is well known, however, to every practical tradesman, or to any one acquainted with the nature of mechanical employments, that the instruction of three days or weeks would scarcely teach an apprentice the name of his tools, and that almost all the mechanical trades require throughout their various operations such nicety and exactness, that the necessary habits are not formed by the training of years, in place of weeks or days. It is for the troublesome superintendence of the apprentice during this period that the master exacts compensation, without which he would employ none but finished workmen. But he puts up with the awkwardness of his apprentice because he expects to be benefited by his labour after he shall be better instructed in his business; on the same principle that the farmer lays out his capital on the improvement of his land, in expectation of a future increase Of produce. The contract of apprenticeship is thus a voluntary agreement between two parties for their mutual benefit, the result neither of law nor of the usages of petty corporations, but of circumstances. The law, indeed, takes cognizance of the contract, and enforces its fulfilment; and it may also have encumbered it with absurd regulations : but the contract itself stands independent both of law and usage, having its origin in the plainest principles of reciprocal expediency. There seems no reason, therefore, to class it with those artificial expedients which originate in the exclusive spirit of trading corporations. Dr Smith appears also to have greatly overrated the effects of those laws, the object of which is to limit the number of apprentices who shall be reared to particular trades. No law of any corporation will ever be found in practice to impose any limitation on the number of apprentices who may be trained to a business. It will depend on the state of the business, whether it is advancing, stationary, or declining, what number of apprentices will be bred to it; and if, while a flourishing trade called for a continual supply of new hands, any corporation were to enact a law limiting the masters to such a number of apprentices as would barely keep up th^ir present stock, a s ar ^ city of hands would soon be felt, wages would rise, and the masters would soon be induced, by regard to their own interest, to rescind the law which imposed so great an inconvenience on themselves. But if the law is thus modified and accommodated to the state of the trade, it is a mere form. It imposes in reality no restraint, since it

APR 311 is always in the power of the masters to alter it whenever Approachthey feel that it interferes with their arrangements. ing But though the law were even rigidly persisted in, it is H evident that it wmuld not permanently diminish the ber of apprentices who would be bred to a business, since the consequence would be, that the workmen would turn masters, and each taking the full allowance of apprentices which the law permits, would soon train up an ample supply of hands. All those petty contrivances of corporations, therefore, though they may originate in the lowest mercantile jealousy, and though they may be exceedingly absurd, cannot materially disturb the general progress of things; and, though they may harass individuals, their effect on the industry of a great country hardly deserves notice; their bad effects being corrected by those general causes on which society depends for completing its arrangements, in spite of the obstacles arising from the mistaken policy of legislators. See Smith’s Wealth of Nations, with Notes, and an additional volume of Dissertations, by David Buchanan. APPROACHING, in fowling, a term used to express such devices as are contrived for the getting within shot of shy birds. It is principally used in marshy low places. The best method of approaching is by means of three hoops tied together at proper distances, according to the height of the man that is to use it, and having boughs of trees tied all round it, with cords to hang it over his shoulders. A man getting into this conceals himself, and approaches by degrees towards his game in the form of a moving bush. Geese, ducks, and teal, quit the waters in the evening, and pass the night in the fields; but at the approach of morning they return to the water, and even when on the water they will retire to great distances on the approach even of a horse or cow, so that the business of the stalking-horse is of little use; but this device of approaching by the moving bush is more successful. APPROBATION, a state or disposition of the mind, wherein we put a value upon, or become pleased with, some person or thing. APPROPRIATION, in the Canon Law, a severing of a benefice ecclesiastical to the proper and perpetual use of some religious house. APPROVER, in Law, one who, professing felony in himself, appealeth or impeacheth another or more of his accomplices. He is so called from the French approuver, comprobare, because he must prove what he hath alleged in his appeal. This proof was anciently either by battle or by the country, at the choice of the appellee, and the form of this accusation may be found in Crompt. Just. 250. APPROXIMATION, in Arithmetic and Algebra, the coming nearer and nearer to a root, or other quantity sought, without expecting ever to find it exactly. APPULSE, in Astronomy, the approach of any planet to a conjunction with the sun or a star. It is a step towards a transit, occultation, conjunction, eclipse, &c. APRIES, son of Psammis, king of Egypt, the same with Pharaoh Hophrah in Jeremiah and Ezekiel. He ruined Sidon, and some say he put Jeremiah to death. He thought neither God nor man could dethrone him, which yet was easily done by Amasis, and he himself was strangled by the Egyptians. APRIL, the fourth month of the year, according to the common computation; but the second according to that of the astronomers. It contains 30 days. The word is derived from Aprilis, of aperio, I open, because the earth in this month begins to open her bosom for the production of vegetables. APRON, in Naval Architecture, is a piece of curved timber fixed behind the lower part of the stern, immediately above the foremost end of the keel.

A P U 312 Apron Apron Is also a name given to a platform or flooring of II plank, raised at the entrance of a dock, against which the Apuleius. dock-gates are shut. Apron, in Gunnery, a piece of lead which caps or covers the vent or touch-hole of a great gun. APSIS, in ecclesiastical writers, denotes an inner part in the ancient churches, wherein the clergy sat, and where the altar was placed. It is supposed to have been thus called because covered with an arch or vault of its own, by the Greeks called a^ig, by the Latins absis. Apsis, in this sense, amounts to the same with what is otherwise called choir, concha, camera, and presbyterium ; and stands opposed to the nave or body of the church. Apsis is more particularly used for the bishop’s seat in ancient churches. This was peculiarly called apsis gradata, because raised on steps above the ordinary stalls. It was also denominated exedra, and in latter times tribune. Apsis is-aJso used for a reliquary or case, wherein the relics of saints were anciently kept. It took the name apsis from its being round or arched at the top, or perhaps from the place where it was kept. The apsis was commonly placed on the altar; it was usually of wood, sometimes also of gold and silver, with sculptures, &c. Apsis, in Astronomy, a term used indifferently for either of the two points of a planet’s orbit, where it is at the greatest or least distance from the sun or earth ; and hence the line connecting those points is called the line of the apsides. The word is Greek, and derived from cemo, I connect. The apsis, at the greatest distance from the sun, is called the aphelion, and at the greatest distance from the earth the apogee; while that at the least distance from the sun is termed the perihelion, and at the least distance from the earth the perigee. APT, an arrondissement in the department of Vaucluse in France, extending over 500 square miles, or 380,000 acres. It is divided into four cantons, and those into fifty communes, containing 52,553 inhabitants. Apt, a city, chief of the arrondissement of the same name in France, situated on the river Calavon. It has a cathedral, and the inhabitants amount to 5374, who find employment in making cotton and silk goods, in distilleries, china manufactories, and especially in extracting essences from lavender, thyme, and other plants. It is in long. 5. 17. 47. E. and lat. 43. 52. 29. N. APTHANE, a title anciently given to the higher degrees of nobility in Scotland. See Thane. APTOTE, among grammarians, an indeclinable noun, or one which has no variation of cases. APULEIUS, Lucius, a Platonic philosopher, well known by his performance entitled the Golden Ass. He lived in the second century, under the Antonines, and was born at Madaura, a Roman colony in Africa. He studied first at Carthage, then at Athens, and afterwards at Rome, where he learned the Latin tongue without the help of a master. He was a man of a curious and inquisitive disposition, especially in religious matters. This prompted him to take several journeys, and to enter into several societies of religion. He spent his whole fortune almost in travelling; so that at his return to Rome, when he was about to dedicate himself to the service of Osiris, he had not money enough to defray the expense attending the ceremonies of the reception, and was obliged to pawn his clothes to raise the necessary sum. He supported himself afterwards by pleading causes; and as he was a great master of eloquence, and of a subtile genius, many considerable causes were trusted to him. But he benefited himself more by marrying a rich widow named P«1

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dentilla. This marriage, however, drew upon him a troublesome law-suit. His wife’s relations, pretending he made l( use of sorcery to gain her heart and money, accused him T& of being a magician, before Claudius Maximus, proconsul F of Africa. Apuleius found no great difficulty in making a successful defence. His Apology, which is still extant, contains some very curious details. Apuleius was indefatigable in his studies, and composed many works, some in verse, and others in prose; but most of them have been lost. He took great pleasure in declaiming, and was heard generally with applause. The citizens of Carthage erected a statue to him, and several other cities did him the same honour. There have been upwards of forty editions of his works; of which the first and rarest was published at Rome in 1469, the last and best at Leyden in 1786-1823, in 3 vols. 4to. This edition was begun hy Oudendorp, and published after his death by Ruhnkenius and Bosscha. His principal pieces, besides the celebrated fiction of the Golden Ass, are his Apology, entitled Omliu deMagia; fragments of speeches, entitled Florida; three books of philosophy, entitled De HabitudineDoctrinanm et NativitatePlatonis; and a curious treatise, DeDeo Socratk. APYCNI Suoni, in Music, sounds distant one or more octaves, and yet concord. APYCNOS, in Music, is said of the diatonic genus, on account of its having spacious intervals, in comparison of the chromatic and enharmonic. APYREXY, among physicians, denotes the intermission of a fever. APYROUS, a word applied to denote that property of some bodies, by which they resist the most violent lire without any sensible alteration. Apyrous bodies ought to be distinguished from those which are refractory. Refractory substances are those which cannot by violent heat be fused, whatever other alteration they may sustain. But a body, properly speaking, apyrous, can neither be fused by heat, nor undergo any other change. Diamonds were long thought to be possessed of this property; but experiments have shown that diamonds may be entirely dissipated or evaporated by heat, and are therefore not entitled to be ranked among apyrous substances. Perhaps there is no body in nature essentially and rigorously apyrous. But it is sufficient that there be bodies apyrous relatively to the degree of fire which art can produce, to entitle them to that name. AQUA, a term frequently met with in the writings of physicians, chemists, &c. for certain medicines or menstruums, in a liquid form, distinguished from each other by peculiar epithets. Aqua Exstincta, or Extinguished Water, is aqua fortis into which some river water has been poured, in order to qualify it, and render it less corrosive. Aqua Fortis, a name given by artists to nitric acid of a certain strength, from its dissolving power. Aqua Marina, a name by which the jewellers call the beryl, on account of its sea-green colour. Aqua Eegia, a compound of nitric and muriatic acid, in different proportions, according to the purpose for which it is intended. It is usually made by dissolving in nitric acid either sal ammoniac or common salt, both of which are combinations of muriatic acid with alkali. Aqua Secunda, aqua fortis diluted with much pure water. It is employed in several arts to clear the surface of metals and certain stones. Aqua Tofana, called also Aqua della Toffanina, or Aqua della Tofa, from its supposed inventress,—Aqua del petesino,1—Aquetta di Napoli, or simply Aquetta,—a poi-

Lanzoni Opera, vol. i. p. 69. Lausannae, 1738, 3 vols. 4to.

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TOFANA. 31 i! 4 who visited Naples in 1730, likewise asserts that she was Aqua Ai i sonous liquor which was used to a very great extent at T»t a- Naples and Rome during the latter half' of the 17th cen- then living in prison, and that few strangers left the city Tofana. votary. Gmelin1 says that more people were destroyed without going to see her. He describes her as a little by it than by the plague, which had prevailed a short and very old woman. The Roman ladies very quickly availed themselves of time before it came into use; and Garelli, chief physician to the emperor, wrote to Hoffmann that Tofania confessed Tofania’s discovery; for it was remarked in 1659, that she had used it to poison more than 600 persons. This many husbands died when they became disagreeable to their wives; and several of the clergy also gave informahe learnt from the emperor himself, to whom the whole criminal process instituted against her was transmitted.2 tion that, for some time past, various persons had conIt is to be regretted that Garelli, who had such an au- fessed themselves guilty of poisoning. This led to the thentic source of information, has not given us some de- detection of a society of young married women (who had tails of the infamous Tofana or Tofania, as the little that for their president an old woman of the name of Hierowe know of her rests upon the authority of travellers, and nyma Spara, a pretended fortune-teller), as the perpetrais evidently exaggerated, and sometimes irreconcilable tors of these murders. On being put to the torture they with established facts. She was a Sicilian by birth, and all confessed except Spara, who seemed to rely upon the resided first at Palermo, and then at Naples. When she protection of powerful individuals whom she had formerly began to exercise her horrible profession, is nowhere served. But she was left to her fate, and was hanged stated; but it will presently appear that it must have along with her assistant, one Gratiosa. Others were afbeen at a very early age, and before 1659. She was ex- terwards hanged, or whipt and banished. Spara, who was tremely liberal of her preparation, chiefly, it is said, to a Sicilian, had acquired her knowledge from Tofania at ladies tired of their husbands; and the better to conceal Palermo.5 Pope Alexander VII., immediately on the discovery the nature of her gift, it was put up in small flat phials, inscribed Manna of St Nicholas of Bari, ornamented on and punishment of those who dealt in poison in his capione side with an image of the saint, that it might pass tal, published an edict forbidding the distillation of aqua for a liquid said to drop from his tomb at Bari, which was fortis, or the purchase of any of its ingredients, without in great request on account of the medicinal virtues the permission of the government; which Gmelin consiascribed to it. Nor is it ascertained how long she carried ders as an artiflee to mislead the people as to the real on her murderous practices with impunity and undisco- composition of the poison, or as originating in the absurd vered. Labat3 says, that when he was at Civita Vecchia nomenclature of the chemists of former times, who called in 1709, the viceroy of Naples, then Count Daun, made arsenic concrete aqua fortis. But the prudence of the the discovery. It was long before she was secured, as Pope was rendered fruitless; for we are informed by she was extremely cautious, and often changed her abode Gayot di Pitaval {Causes Celthres, vol. i. p. 317, Amor retired into convents. At last she was betrayed, and, sterd. 1764), on what authority he does not state, that although in a convent, was seized and carried to the Cas- Tofania’s fatal secret was disclosed by the indiscretion of tel del Uovo, where she was examined. Cardinal Pigna- the judges at Naples, to whom she had made confession telli, then archbishop of Naples, indignant at the viola- of her crime. The whole city soon knew that she emtion of a religious sanctuary, threatened to excommunicate ployed in its composition a very common herb, and that the whole city if she was not delivered up to him; and its preparation was otherwise easy; and in this way the the people were ready to rise. But the sagacious viceroy art of poisoning became very common in Naples, where, | caused a report to be spread that she and her accom- Keysler says, it was still secretly practised when he viplices had determined upon the same day to poison all sited Italy; and Archenholz,6 who was there in 1780, the springs in the city, the fruits brought to market, and states, that Aqua Tofana was then in use, although its the public granaries. The manceuvre succeeded. The composition was only known to a few; but Joseph Frank, credulous people were now clamorous for her punishment, who was long professor in Pavia, and has written a work and saw with satisfaction the persons whom she accused on toxicology (Handbuch der Toxicologic, p. 168, Wien, of having purchased her Aquetta taken from the churches 1803), regards this as an unfounded calumny, and asserts and monasteries. Some of inferior birth were executed that it no longer exists or is heard of. publicly, those of higher rank secretly in prison ; and the Aqua Tofana is described as being as limpid as rock whole city resounded with the praises of the viceroy, water, and without taste, and hence it could be admivvhose energy had saved it from general destruction. A nistered without exciting suspicion. The Abbe Gagliani kind of compromise was entered into with the cardinal; adds,7 that there was not a lady in Naples who had not in consequence of which, after being strangled, her body some of it lying openly on her toilet among her perfumes, was thrown at night into the court of the convent, by in a phial known only to herself. way of testifying some respect for the rights of the It was generally believed that the effect of this poison churcln But the reverend traveller must have either was certain death, and that it could be so tempered or been misinformed as to the actual execution of this Me- managed as to prove fatal in any determinate time, from dea, or she must have been resuscitated; for Garelli ex- a few days to a year or upwards. Four or six drops were piessly says that she was alive in prison at Naples when reckoned a sufficient dose, and they were said to produce >e wrote to Hoffmann, not long before 1718; and Keysler, no violent symptoms, no vomiting, or but very seldom; s v ^ul1'lyini!those some time ago undertaken for the supply of Edin- socket at the extremity of the other. This forms a Mtfbuqrji, which, by the contrivance and direction of Mr much more perfect joint than by flanches and bolts, as Jardine, the company’s engineer, have been executed in it admits of a slight degree of expansion in the pipes a style quite worthy of the city, as well as of the present without opening the joining. After being entered, a advanced state of science and the arts; offering, both in ring of hemp or rope-yarn is wrapped round the end of the general design and in all the details, a model of pro- the pipe, and beat into the socket of the other, and then priety and skill in this species of hydraulic architecture. a mass of lead run in to fill up the opening, which the The Crawley Spring, from which the new supply has been yarn prevents from running into the pipe: the lead being derived, issues from the side of a rising ground on the hard rammed, and stoved with a chisel, forms a joining southern base of one of the Pentland Hills. It is scarce- completely water-tight. Air-cocks are placed at interly seven miles distant from Edinburgh in a straight line, vals all along the pipes to let off the accumulated air, but eight and three fourths in the line of the pipes, which is done by the hand at regular intervals, perhaps these having been carried round a considerable way to every three or four days. The supply of water now the eastward to avoid the Pentland ridge, the eastern ex- conveyed by this aqueduct amounts to 180 or 200 cubic tremity of which lies in the direct line to the city. The feet per minute at an average. This is about five times spring is elevated 564 feet above the level of the sea, and the quantity formerly delivered into the town by all the 360 above the level of Princes Street. There is there- different ponds and reservoirs from which it was then supfore ample height to carry it over the highest parts of the plied, and which was besides often of a very impure and town. The original issue of the spring was greatly aug- unwholesome quality. The introduction of this spring mented by a drain, which was carried for about half a mile therefore gave, as may easily be conceived, wonderful 3bove the spring, up the valley in which it is situated. relief to the inhabitants, and is now found, along with I he soil of this valley, consisting of an immense bed of the former sources, amply sufficient for every purpose of gravel, in many parts 40 feet deep, constitutes a vast na- comfort or luxury. The Crawley aqueduct, however, is tural filter, through which the water, descending from the capable of conveying double this quantity whenever the ugh grounds on each side of the valleyj percolates in a wants of the city shall render necessary a new supply, high degree of purity, and being all intercepted by the which it is in that case intended by the present company Irain, is by it conducted, along with all the original dis- to draw from another excellent and copious spring term’harge of the spring, into a reservoir or water-house, from ed the Black Spring, situated on the north side of the ‘I'hich the pipes take their rise, and continue in one con- Pentland Hills. The whole expense incurred by the mcted train all the way to the city. In the first three Joint-Stock Water Company in bringing in the Crawley Hues they vary from 18 to 20 inches diameter, and de- water, including the expense of the great compensation scend 65 feet in a pretty regular series. In the remain- reservoir for supplying the deficiency to the mills on the er of the track they are 15 inches diameter, and descend stream from which the Crawley was diverted, amounted -M) feet. The descent is not perfectly regular, being in to about L. 145,000, and the company draw an assessment ’(ime parts steeper than in others, according to the natu- on every consumer of five per cent, on the rental of his a declivity of the country. In one or two instances premises, which is understood to yield L.6000 or L.7000 i so they undulate slightly. Near Burdiehouse, four miles a year. They are allowed to divide to the amount of six aim the city, they ascend a little; and, after descending and a half per cent, on their capital, but not more. apidly to Libberton Dams, they again ascend 20 or 30 feet The water from the Crawley Spring is naturally of the o t ie high ground on the south side of the Meadows, finest quality; and issuing continually from a source deepicie are, however, no sudden inequalities,all such having ly seated in the ground, and also at so great an altitude, icon carefully avoided by levelling; for which purpose is always fresh and cool, even in the heat of summer, proonsiderable embankments and cuttings of the ground vided it is not allowed to stagnate in our cisterns. In this ave een “ undertaken without scruple; and as the line respect the supply of Edinburgh is far superior to that of 1 vou. m. 2s

AQUEDUCT. 322 Aqueduct, most other towns of the same magnitude. In Glasgow, The height from the surface of the water in the Dee to A., for example, the supply is sufficiently ample; but being that in the canal was to be 126 feet eight inches. The^fv derived all from the Clyde, it is liable to become Avarm channel for the water consists of cast iron plates, cast and unpleasant in summer. In Liverpool, Manchester, and with flanches, and these screwed together with bolts; they even in London, the supplies, though abundant, are liable are represented in the drawing, between the arched ribs to the same defects. So that on the whole we have rea- and the railing. The lines there show the joinings of the son to congratulate ourselves that the elevated nature of different plates. In order to preserve as much water-way the country round our city affords sources for a supply so as possible, the channel is made the full width of the copious, so pure, and capable of reaching so easily, and canal and towing path, and the latter projected over one without the aid of any machinery, the highest parts of side, and supported inside by posts resting on the bottom of the canal. The aqueduct of Chirk was designed by the town. the same able engineer, and serves also to convey across In all places such as the above, where there is a deficiency of level to carry the wrater naturally to the high- a valley the waters of the same canal. This aqueduct est parts of the town, there is no resource but in the em- was the first in which any iron was employed. Hitherto ployment of machinery. A steam-engine or other agent the channel for the waters had been constructed of stone, is applied to the working of pumps, which both draw the or partly of stone and partly of clay puddle, which it was water from the rivers or from wells, and then propel it generally found very difficult to keep water-tight for a by force through a train of pipes to all the different parts length of time. It was determined, therefore, by Mr of the town, and elevate it by branches to the highest Telford to try the effect of cast iron, and to lay it at first parts that may be necessary; a plan which we believe only in the bottom. The plates were accordingly laid directly over the sprandril walls, which they served to bind is now executing at Aberdeen, and also at Perth. Aqueduct But though the system of pipes has thus superseded together, and united by flanches and screws. The sides bridges or t]ie use 0f stone channels all raised to a level in the con- of the channel were built with stone facings and brick canals. veyance of water, there are still cases, such as those of hearting laid in water-lime mortar. This plan has succanals, where the water must be kept on a perfect level, ceeded completely, and the quantity of masonry in the and. where, therefore, aqueduct bridges are still necessary aqueduct was thereby greatly reduced. The aqueduct in conveying it over the valleys; and of these we have itself is 600 feet long, and 65 feet high above the river, long had examples in France, on the Languedoc canal. The consisting of ten arches, each 42 feet span. The piers first aqueduct bridges for canals in this country were those are ten feet thick. The aqueduct of Slateford serves for conveying the made by the Duke of Bridgewater, under the direction of the celebrated Brindley, and which, being quite new here, waters of the Edinburgh and Glasgow Union Canal across excited no small degree of astonishment. The first and the valley of the Water of Leith at Slateford. It is an largest was the aqueduct at Barton Bridge for conveying the elegant structure, and very similar in the plan to that of canal across the Irwell, 39 feet above the surface of the wa- Chirk, only that the water-channel is composed entirely, ter. It consisted of three arches, the middle one 63 feet the sides as well as the bottom, of cast iron, which is span, and admitting under it the largest barges navigating moreover built in with masonry. It is about 500 feet in the Irwell with sails set. It was commenced in September length, and consists of eight arches, each 45 feet span; 1760 ; and in July of the following year the spectacle was and the height of the canal is about 70 feet above the first presented in this country, of vessels floating and sail- level of the river. On this canal another aqueduct of the ing across the course of the river, while others in the river very same construction occurs in crossing the valley of the itself were passing under them. Since that period canal Almond, and having several more arches. There are, in aqueducts have become more common ; and many excel- different parts of the country, various other aqueducts, lent examples are to be found both in England and Scotland. which might be described ; but our limits preclude our enOf these are the aqueducts over the river Lune, on the larging upon them ; and it is the less necessary, as, exceptLancaster canal, designed by Rennie, a very excellent and ing the formation of the water-way, these structures difsplendid work of five arches, each 72 feet span, and rising 65 fer nothing in their design or the principle of their confeet above the level of the river; and the Kelvin aqueduct, struction from ordinary bridges, particularly those that near Glasgow, which conveys the Forth and Clyde canal are undertaken not so much with the view of crossing over the valley of Kelvin, consisting of four arches, each 70 rivers as of raising up the level of the road itself enfeet span, and rising 70 feet above the level of the river. In tirely out of the valley,—an object now become of great Plate XLIX. we have given views of three other principal importance, from the improvements which have taken aqueducts, viz. the aqueducts of Pont Cysylte, of Chirk, place within the last half-century on all our roads, and and of Slateford near Edinburgh. Of these the Pont the refined notions which have in consequence begun to Cysylte by Mr Telford is justly celebrated for its magni- prevail as to the rates of travelling, and, what conduces tude, for the simplicity of the design, and the skilful dispo- most essentially to this object, the levels of the road. sition of the parts, combining lightness with strength in a Formerly people were content to traverse slowly all the degree seldom attempted. This aqueduct serves to convey inequalities of the country through which the road might the waters of the Ellesmere canal across the Dee and the pass, descending into the valleys, and mounting the vale of Llangollen, which it traverses. The channel for the steepest acclivities. Now, however, a road is thought water is made of cast iron, supported on cast iron ribs or imperfect, and quite behind the standard of improvement, arches, and these resting on pillars of stone. The iron unless every rise greater than 1 in 15 or 1 in 20 feet be being much lighter than stone arches, this is one reason cut down. In crossing the valleys, therefore, it is not why the pillars have been reduced apparently to such enough now that we build a bridge in all respects sufficient slender dimensions. They are quite strong enough, how- for crossing the stream itself; we must raise it nearly to ever, as experience has proved. The whole length of the a level with the ground on each side of the valley; and aqueduct is about 1000 feet, and consists of 19 arches, this circumstance gives rise to new and very extensive each 45 feet span. The breadth of the pillars at the top works of this kind, which formerly never would have been is 8 feet, and the height of the four middle ones is 115 thought of. Of these we may just instance the splendid feet to the springing. The pillars have a slight taper, bridge of one arch of 140 feet span, built over the Den the breadth of the middle ones at the base being 15 feet. Burn at Aberdeen, to form a new access into that town;

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mu also the beautiful bridge of Cartland Craigs, built by Mr |l Telford, over the little stream of the Mouse, on the new rat* road from Glasgow to Carlisle, consisting of three arches ’^'■^50 feet span, and elevated 130 feet above the bed of the stream. More recently (for in this important department of our domestic economy, which regards the perfecting of the interior communications of the country, improvements seem to be going on, not merely with rapidity, but with an accelerated progression which it is quite wonderful to contemplate) the introduction of railways opens a new and still wider field for the skill and talents of the engineer in the erection of such works. This new and improved species of road, it is well known, must be kept still more nearly on a level than any of the roads of the ordinary construction. Considerable inequalities in these may still be tolerated, but in the railroad they are quite inadmissible, and would defeat the very object of the improvement. (See Railway.) In this respect the railway is somewhat similar to the old Roman aqueducts, and, where the country is low, must in like manner be elevated on a series of arcades. These sort of bridges have received the name of Viaducts ; and already we have an extensive one on the Liverpool and Manchester railway, termed the Sankey Viaduct, of nine arches ; and numerous others will no doubt be speedily required. But for the principles and mode of construction of these works, as well as of the aqueduct bridges, so far as the arch is concerned, we refer to the articles Arch and Bridge ; and for further information on the subject of aqueducts, see Julius Frontinus, De Aquceductibus Urbis Romce ; Raphaelis Fabretti De Aquis et Aquceductibus Veteris Ronue Dissertatio; Famiani Nardini Roma Vetus, lib. viii. cap. iv.; Plinii Hist Nat. lib. xxxvi. cap. xv.; Montfaucon, Antiquity Expliquee, tome iv. tab. 128; Governor Pownall’s Notes and Description of Antiquities in the Provincia Romanaof Gaul; Belidor’s Architecture Hydraulique, containing a drawing of the aqueduct of Maintenon; also Mem. Acad. Par.; Andreossy, Voyage d VEmbouchure de la Mer Noire, ou Essai sur le Bosphore ; Philosophical Transactions Abridged, vol. i.; and Link’s Travels in Portugal. (c.) AQUILA, or Aquila and Antinous, the Eagle, in Astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemisphere, usually joined with Antinous. In Bode’s description of the constellations Aquila contains 276 stars, four of which are double, and three nebulous. Aquila, a city of the kingdom of Naples, and chief of the province Abruzzo Ulteriore Second. It is situated on the Aterno, in the vale of Aquila and Pescara. It has no less than 24 parish and 29 monastic churches, besides the cathedral, though the population in 1818 amounted only to 7525 persons. There are some manufactures of linen

A R A 323 and paper, and some trade in corn, cattle, saffron, and the Aquilicium other products of the vicinity. Long. 14. 5. 47. E. Lat. II 42. 25. N. Arabia. AQUILICIUM, or Aquiliciana, in Roman Antiquity, sacrifices performed in times of excessive drought, to obtain rain of the gods. AQUILUS, among the ancients, a dark or dusky colour approaching to black. Hence some of the heathen gods were called dii aquili, q. d. nigri. AQUIMINARIUM, in Antiquity, a kind of lustral vessels, wherein the Romans carried their holy water for expiation and other religious offices. AQUINAS, St Thomas, styled the Angelical Doctor, was of the ancient and noble family of the counts of Aquino, descended from the kings of Sicily and Arragon ; and was born in the castle of Aquino, in the Terra di Lavora in Italy, in the year 1224 or 1225. He entered into the order of the Dominicans ; and, after having taught school divinity in most of the universities of Italy, at last settled at Naples, where he spent the rest of his life in study, in reading lectures, and in acts of piety; and was so far from views of ambition or profit, that he refused the archbishopric of that city, when it was offered him by Pope Clement IV. He died in 1274, leaving an amazing number of writings, which were printed at Venice in 17 vols. folio, in the year 1490. He was canonized by Pope John XXII. in the year 1323; and Pius V. who was of the same order with him, gave him, in 1567, the title of the Fifth Doctor of the church, and appointed his festival to be kept with the same solemnity as those of the other four doctors. His authority has always been great in the schools of the Roman Catholics. Lord Herbert, in his life of Henry VIIL, tells us that one of the principal reasons which induced that king to write against Luther was, that the latter had spoken contemptuously of Thomas Aquinas. AQUINO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, and Terra di Lavora; a bishop’s see, but ruined by the emperor Conrade, and now consisting of about 35 houses. It was the birthplace of the poet Juvenal, and of Thomas Aquinas. Long. 14. 30. E. Lat. 41. 32. N. ARA, or Ara Thuribuli, the altar of incense, in Astronomy, a southern constellation, not visible in our horizon. It consists, according to Bode, of 81 stars. ARABESQUE, or Arabesk, something done after the manner of the Arabians. Arabesque, Grotesque, and Moresque, are terms applied to paintings and ornaments where there are no human or animal figures, but which consist wholly of foliages, plants, stalks, &c. The words take their rise from hence, that the Moors, Arabs, and other Mahometans, use these kinds of ornaments; their religion forbidding them to make any images or figures of men or other animals.

ARABIA. This extensive country, which is situated at the southwestern extremity of Asia, has been famed in all ages for freedom and independence; for the peculiar character and manners of its rude tribes; and for the wild and interesting aspect of its interior deserts, contrasted with the fertility of other tracts, of which the rare and precious products have always formed the staple articles of the Arabian trade. It has been distinguished in history as the fccene of great events, and especially of that wonderful revolution in religion, under the influence of which the Arabs, inflamed with the spirit of proselytism and of con‘inest, spread their victorious arms over the fairest portions of the earth, and brought about not merely the down-

fall of empires, but a revolution of opinion and manners which gradually extended over the greater portion of Africa, and over the eastern world from Constantinople to the frontiers of China. Arabia is a peninsula, stretching north-west and south- Bouneast. It has the form of an irregular triangle, and is in-daries. closed on three sides by the ocean. It is bounded on the south-west by the Red Sea and the Isthmus of Suez ; on the north-east by the Persian Gulf and the lower course of the Euphrates; on the north-west by Syria, the Euphrates, and the intervening desert; and on the south-east by the Indian Ocean. Its length from this ocean to the frontiers of Syria is about 1430 miles, and its breadth

ARABIA. 324 Arabia. from the Isthmus of Suez to Bassora about 700. The the intervening country, judging from the imperfect ac- .s. peninsula enlarges in breadth as it approaches the Indian counts of tx-avellers, forms one extensive and continued'-iv Ocean, the southern basis of the triangle; and from desert. The plains and mountainous districts differ widethe Straits of Babelmandib to the Persian Gulf its extent ly in their climate, soil, and productions. The great characteristic of those vast tracts of desert cannot be less than 1000 miles. The division of this country by the ancients was, according to the natural which frequently extend on a dead level for several hunqualities of the soil, into Arabia Petraea, or the Stony, dred miles, is aridity, and its necessary consequence, barArabia Deserta, and Arabia Felix. No very distinct renness. They consist either of bare rocks or of hard boundary was assigned to these divisions. Under Arabia or loose sand, and are almost destitute of fresh water. Petraea was included that barren and rocky tract in the There is no eminence to arrest the clouds as they pass north-west of Arabia which is situated between the along the plain, and whole years frequently pass away northern shores of the Red Sea and the Mediterranean, without rain. The drought is consequently extreme; and which may have extended southwards nearly to vegetation withers under the fierce influence of a scorchMecca. Arabia Deserta was separated on the north by ing sun; and the burning sands, reflecting the solar rays, the Euphrates from Mesopotamia; on the west it was occasion such intense heat as is not felt even in countries bounded by Syria, Judea, and Arabia Petrsea; on the that lie directly under the equator. There are no rivers, east and south it was separated from Chaldea and Arabia the mountain torrents being speedily imbibed by the Felix by ridges of mountains. Arabia Felix was bounded sandy soil; and the scanty supplies afforded by deep wells on the north by Arabia Petraea and Arabia Deserta, on and springs, scattered at distant intervals, are the sole the south by the Indian Ocean, and on the east and west dependence of the fainting traveller for refreshment, and by the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. The modern division frequently for life. Without this resource these deserts of the country is entirely different, and if possible more must have for ever remained impervious to man. The indistinct. It does not appear that the eastern geogra- aspect of desolation is sometimes relieved by verdant phers are either agreed as to the divisions of the coun- spots, which appear like islands in the trackless ocean; try, or as to the limits of those divisions. By some the and some rare and hardy plants, such as the tamarind whole country is divided into two parts, namely, Yemen and the acacia, which strike their roots into the clefts of and Hedjaz; •while others will have it divided into the the rocks, find here a congenial soil, and flourish amid five great provinces of Yemen, Hedjaz, Nedjed, Tehama, the surrounding waste. In the Arabian plains the thermometer is generallyCh and Yemama. Others, again, adopt a different division, into six or seven parts; and Hadramaut, Mahrah, Shejr, above 100° during the night, at 108° in the morning, andH inii Oman, and other subdivisions, have been raised to the in the course of the day it rises to 110°, and sometimes rank of independent provinces; while, according to a higher in the coolest and shadiest parts. All travellers who different hypothesis, they are held to form a part of the have visited the coasts of the Red Sea appear to have lower provinces of Yemen and Hedjaz. Niebuhr adopts been oppressed by the extraordinary heat, and to have the division into six provinces ; but, along with other geo- considered the temperature of other tropical countries as graphers of eminence, he includes Arabia Petraea in the moderate in comparison. The sultriness of the nights is Hedjaz, which is erroneous, and is inconsistent with the another peculiar evil of the Arabian climate, and a premore correct geography of modern travellers.1 Those disposing cause of disease.2 For this peculiarity the divisions of the country, which are purely arbitrary, are country is partly indebted to its position, hemmed in benoway essential to accuracy of description. The follow- tween the continents of Asia and Africa, and effectually ing, therefore, may be given as the modern divisions. protected by the latter from the influence of the southArabia Petraea, the Hedjaz, Tehama, and Yemen, compre- west monsoon, which blows during the summer on the hend the western portion of the peninsula, including coasts of India, and ushers in the periodical rains. Arabia the range of mountains that extend from the Mediter- never experiences the refreshing influence of this wind. ranean along the coast of the Red Sea as far as the It seems to blow exactly along its south-eastern shore, on Indian Ocean. The province of Yemen lies along the which baffling winds prevail, or a dead calm.3 During the coast of this ocean. To the east are the provinces of whole summer the heat in the lower plains on the coast is Hadramaut and Oman, which last is at the entrance so steady and equable that the atmosphere remains in a of the Persian Gulf, and is washed by it; while on the state of repose. No change of temperature takes place to north-east the province of Lahsa or Hajar is on its west- set the winds in motion; and dead calms occur, and someern shore. These provinces encircle the central deserts, times continue for sixty days without interruption. When which are partly included in the extensive province of the temperature begins to vary with the change of the seaNedjed. sons, and the winds resume their activity, the country is Aspect of Arabia may be generally described as a vast collec- visited by the simoom or the hot blast from the deserts, the coun- tion of rocky and precipitous mountains, encircled by a under whose withering influence all nature seems to lantry. border of low, barren, and sandy plains. On all the sides guish and expire,—which has the quality of extracting on which it is washed by the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean, from whatever it touches every trace of moisture, and to and the Persian Gulf, it is bounded by these plains, which produce, when it is inhaled by men or animals, a painful extend from the sea-shore 100 or 200 miles into the in- feeling, as of suffocation. But though its effects are penterior as far as the hills; and towards the north the ex- nicious to health, they have been greatly exaggerated by tensive plain is formed by the vast deserts which extend credulous or ill-informed travellers; and among others to Syria and over Arabia Petraea; while to the south, Niebuhr, to whom we are indebted for much valuable as far as the mountains which overlook the Indian Ocean, information respecting Arabia, ascribes to it the power ol 1 2 s

See Travels in Arabia, by J. Lewis Burckhardt. Preface of the Editor. Fraser’s Narrative of a Journey into Khorassan, chap. i. Climate of Oman. It is mentioned by Fraser, in the account which he gives of a Voyage from Bombay to Muscat, in the Persian Gulf, that the moment they doubled Cape Kassel Gate, a corruption of liaus-ul-Hud, literally land’s end, and entered the Persian Gulf under the lee of the Arabian land, they were forsaken by the south-west monsoon, and encountered baffling winds or calms until they arrived a Muscat, which is about 120 miles up the Gulf.

ARABIA. ; suffocating any living creature that is exposed to its in- when the heat is intense, occasions violent sweatings, and Arabia, W^'fluence. Others imagine that it has poisonous qualities. It is even more injurious to health than the hot and dry blast appears, however, from the accounts of various travellers, fiom the northern desert. No traveller has given any and among others of Mr Buckingham, that its effects are accurate measurement of the height of the Arabian mounproduced solely by heat. When it is suddenly inhaled, tains ; but the decided change of climate which takes it may, in the same manner as a hot blast from an oven, place in these upland regions marks a considerable elevacause faintishness or sickness, and even swooning; but tion above the adjacent plains. Among the Arabian highlands great diversities of soilSoil. this feeling is occasioned wholly by the heat and parching dualities which it contracts in its passage across the prevail; and the craggy precipitous form of the hills is burning sands. The desert consists in many parts of unfavourable to fertility. They afford neither sufficient loose sand, interspersed with sharp and naked rocks; and space nor soil for vegetable productions, and the earth is the effect of these violent winds is to raise up in clouds continually washed away by the torrents. In many parts this fine sand, and to set it afloat in the atmosphere in the rocks are basaltic in their form, and so steep that the such quantities that it is impossible to see to the distance road ascends by regular steps cut in the rock. These of a few yards. On such occasions, during the violence of mountainous tracts are in general well cultivated and these sand storms, it is the practice of camels and other productive, especially the southern and mountainous proanimals to lie down by instinct, and bury their nostrils under vinces of Yemen and Hadramaut. This was the celebrated the sand, to avoid the influence of the wind. In this situa- region of Arabia Felix, which, contrasted with the adjation the traveller generally lies down on the lee side of the cent deserts, might deserve that appellation, being a fertile camel, and in a short time the sand is blown up to the level country, yielding the far-famed productions of balm and of the animal, which has accordingly to rise and to lie down frankincense, and many sweet-scented trees and shrubs, on a new foundation, in order to avoid being entirely cover- of which the delicious fragrance, according to the descriped. But in many cases, from weariness, faintness, or sleepi- tions of poets, was wafted by the winds over the surroundness, occasioned by the great heat, and often from a feel- ing seas. The mountains of Hedjaz and Yemen, which run ing of despair, both the man and the animal remain on along the eastern shore of the Red Sea, are precipitous and the ground, and in twenty minutes they are buried under often rocky; but water abounds in wells, springs, and rivua load of sand, and perish miserably in those inhospitable lets. This entire tract of country is well peopled as far as deserts. The approach of the simoom wind is indicated the mountains which overlook the Indian Ocean, and conby an unusual redness in the sky, which during the pre- tains numerous villages of the Arab tribes. In all parts where water is near, and can be artificially spread over valence of the wind seems to be all on fire. But though a large proportion of Arabia consists of the ground, trees and inclosed fields are found; and among arid and burning deserts, the country immediately be- the rugged and basaltic mountains extensive and wellhind the dry and sandy plains, which stretches back- watered valleys, which to the south and the east are wards from the sea-shore, rises into rocky and precipi- covered with the herds and flocks of the Bedouin Arabs, tous hills, with intervening valleys of remarkable fertility. and to the north and west, towards the Red Sea, with inThose mountainous tracts, which send forth ridges into dustrious cultivators, who have relinquished their vagrant the interior in various directions, enjoy a temperate cli- habits, and live in houses. In these valleys, which are fremate; and in some parts snow has been even known to quently separated by intervals of barren rock, and the fall, though it does not lie on the ground. Near Sana, passes or entrances into which, through the mountains, are about 200 miles north-east of Mocha, Niebuhr was in- so narrow that they scarcely allow two camels to walk formed that ice had been seen.1 All these interior and abreast, the villages are embellished with gardens, palmhighland districts are occasionally refreshed by copious groves, and date-trees, the fruit of which forms in many rains, though they do not lie within the range of the districts the staple article of the agriculturist; and with monsoons, which in the peninsula of Hindostan usher in extensive plantations of coffee, which, when in flower, the rainy season. Those rains occur at different times exhale an exquisite perfume. In many parts of Yemeu of the year, according to the position of the mountains. whole mountains of basaltic columns are seen, which are On the western declivity of the mountains of Yemen, rendered subservient to many useful purposes. Being along the shore of the Red Sea, they commence in June easily separated, and formed into steps, they facilitate the and terminate in September, which is the season of the ascent of the heights where it is difficult; and they supmonsoons in India. This tract is also refreshed by a ply materials for walls to support the plantations of coffeespring rain, while on the eastern declivity of the same trees on the steep declivities of the mountains. mountains the season of the rains is between the middle The country between the mountains of the Hedjaz of November and the middle of February. In Hadra- and the Red Sea is part of that narrow belt of sand maut and Oman, along the shores of the Indian Ocean which encircles Arabia. It is called Tehama, the appellaand the Persian Gulf, the rainy season lasts from the mid- tion given to all the low plains on the coast, which are gedle of February to the middle of April; and the interior nerally barren, having fewer fertile spots and more scanty I ut-’sorts have their winter rains, which occasionally fail, pasturage than the mountains, where rain is more comand leave the country a prey to severe drought. The mon.2 Of the regions which are washed by the Indian prevailing wind in summer is from the west. The simoom, Ocean and the Persian Gulf we have no full or accurate hy which name the Arabs distinguish every hot wind, information. We know, however, that they are skirted by comes from the east. The south is reckoned favourable sandy plains similar to those on the western shore. The to vegetation; while the influence of the north wind, whe- country which overlooks the Persian Gulf at Mascat ther it be hot or cold, is always thought to be pernicious has an extremely desolate appearance, consisting merely to the health both of man and beast. It is occasionally so of sands, and naked rocks blackened by the scorching sultry that it heats metals in the shade as if they were ex- rays of the sun. It rises into mountains, which may be posed to the sun. On the Persian Gulf the south-east seen from the sea, and probably attain an elevation of "md is common, and is accompanied with moisture, which, from 1500 to 2000 feet.3 These mountainous tracts are 2 Niebuhr, vol. ii. chap. ii. sect. 28. Burckhardt’s Travels in Arabia, vol. ii. Appendix, p. 377* 3 Fraser's Journey into Khorassan. Description of Mascat.

ARABIA. 326 The northern is divided from the southern desert of irata Arabia, but little known; but it does not appear that they differ -4 done. If the accused escape without injury to his tongue est excess. They consider the redress of their own he is supposed innocent; if he suffer from the hot iron wrongs as equally a duty and a privilege; and there are he loses his cause. The Arabs ascribed this wonderful certain affronts and trifling violations of punctilio, which escape, not to the Almighty protector of innocence, but to can only be expiated by the blood of the offender. To the devil.” In all cases of manslaughter or murder where spit beside another is considered an insult which must the fact is denied, this superstitious ordeal is appealed to, be avenged; and Niebuhr mentions the case of an Arab and no other mode of trial admitted. Where the parties who was so highly incensed at one of his neighbours for refuse the decision of the judge, they resume their ori- accidentally spitting on his beard, that he was with great ginal right of avenging their own quarrel; and a strife difficulty appeased, although the offender humbly asked of this nature once begun, and producing blood-shed, pardon, and kissed his beard in token of submission. If leads to a long series of cruel retaliations. one scheik says to another with a Serious air, “ Thy Among the Arabs crimes of every description are pu- bonnet is dirty,” or “ The wrong side of thy turban is nished by fines; corporal punishments are entirely un- out,” it is considered a mortal offence. Murder is the known ; and there are no prisons to circumscribe the free- deepest injury that can be committed; and the Arab dom of the desert. For every offence a fine is fixed in the code regulates the revenge for blood by the nicest kady’s court, which is rigidly exacted: all insulting ex- rules. It is a universal maxim, that he who sheds blood pressions or acts of violence, from a slight blow to wound- owes on that account blood to the family of the slain ing and the effusion of blood, have their respective penal- person; and this debt may be required not only from ties. They adopt the following singular mode of ascer- the actual murderer, but from all his relations. These taining the fine payable for killing a watch-dog: The dead claims constitute the right of thdr, or of “ blood redog is held up by the tail, so that its mouth just touches venge.” In the case of a slain parent, the fifth generathe ground; its length is then measured by means of a tion of his lineal descendants inherit the sacred duty of stick, which is fixed in the earth, and the offender is ob- avenging his blood on a corresponding series of descenliged to pour out over the stick as much wheat as will dants on the other side; and this right is never lost by wholly cover it, which is then given to the owner of the prescription, but descends to the latest posterity. If the dog. The form observed by an Arab in summoning wit- death of the person killed is retaliated on one only of the nesses is by exclaiming, “ Bear thou witness, O murderer’s family, the account is considered to be cleared, or he may touch their arms with his hand, which is con- though mutual hatred soon renews the quarrel. If two i sidered as a summons to give testimony. Where a party of the murderer’s family be killed by the relations of the is accused of a crime, and there are no witnesses, the deceased, the former retaliates ; “ the interest and prinmatter is referred to his oath. The judicial oaths of cipal of the bloody debt,” says the great Roman histothe Arabs have different degrees of sanctity; and for rian, “ are accumulated; the individuals of either family certain oaths they have a superstitious veneration, which lead a life of malice and suspicion; and fifty years may i induces them to tell the truth. One of the most com- sometimes elapse before the account of vengeance be mon oaths is for a party to take hold with one hand of finally settled.” But a murder may be compounded for the middle tent-pole, and to swear “ by the life of this money. The nearest relations of the persons slain may tent and its owners.” The following oath is often taken be- accept the price of blood, which varies among the different fore the kady: A small piece of wood or some straw is tribes from 1000 piasters, or L.50, to 500 piasters. Among presented to him who has to swear, with these words, the Aenezes the blood of one of the tribe is compensated “ Take the wood, and swear by God, and the life of him by 50 she-camels, one riding camel, a mare, a black who caused it to be green, and dried it up.” Another stone, a coat of mail, and a gun ; though it is seldom that oath, even more solemn, is the “ oath of the cross lines,” all these articles are required : that of a stranger by the where the accuser leads the person accused of theft or price paid in the stranger’s tribe. The matter being fiany other crime to a distance from the camp, on account nally settled, a she-camel is brought by the homicide to of the magical nature of the oath; and with his crooked the tent of his adversary, and there killed, the blood knife drawing on the sand a large circle, with many cross being supposed to expiate that of the person slain. The lines inside of it, and obliging the defendant to place his hostile parties feast upon this camel; and at parting, the right foot within the circle, he himself doing the same, homicide flourishes a white handkerchief on his lance, as he addresses him in the following words, which the accus- an emblem of his purity from guilt. Some of the great ed is obliged to repeat: “ By God, and in God, and scheiks, however, account it shameful, and contrary to through God, I swear I did not take it, and it is not in the true spirit of the Arab law, to compound the price of my possession.” blood; and they invariably refuse to commute into a fine A singular institution, that of the wady or guardian, the sacred duty of revenge. Niebuhr mentions that he prevails among the Arab tribes. An Arab may in the was visited by an Arabian of distinction at Loheia, who prime of life request a friend to act as guardian to his was bound to avenge the murder of a relation, and who children. If he accepts the trust, his friend presents him- told him that he was often haunted in his sleep by the self before him with a she-camel; and leading it over to fear of meeting his enemy. In the course of the contihim, says, “ I constitute you guardian for my children, nual wars in which the Arabs are involved, debts of blood and your children for my children, and your grandchil- are frequently incurred. The blood of those who are killdren for my grandchildren.” In this manner one family ed in the heat of battle is required at the hands of their

A R A B I A. 335 lira'n- enemies; and when any tribe violates the laws of war by flour and water, baked in ashes of camel’s dung, and mix- Arabia, slaughtering their enemies as they lie wounded on the ed upv afterwards with a little butter, and thoroughly field, the hostile tribe retaliate by killing double the num- kneaded, is served up in a bowl of wood and leather. ber of their enemies with the same circumstances of cruel- Flour and sour camel’s milk, made into a paste and boiled ty; and hence long and bloody animosities frequently (the ayesh), is the daily and universal dish of the Aenezes. Bread baked in cakes is used at breakfast. Bread, butter, arise. . .... The tent of the Arab is covered with pieces of stuff and dates, are also mixed together into a paste. Btirrents gout, the common dish of the Syrian Arabs, is wheat boiled i i made of goats’ hair stitched together, which afford a com- with some leaves, and then dried in the sun; it is preplete shelter against the heaviest rain. The tent is divided into two parts, one for the men, and the other for served for a year, and served up with butter and oil. The the women, whose respective apartments are separated Arabs never indulge in luxuries, except on a festival, or by a white woollen carpet of Damascus manufacture, the arrival of some stranger; and the richest scheik would drawn across the tent, and fastened to the three middle think it a shame to order his wife to dress any rare dish parts. The men’s apartment is covered with a good Per- merely to please his palate. For a guest of distinction a sian or Bagdad carpet; the women’s apartment is the kid or lamb is prepared, and for one of less consideration receptacle for all the rubbish of the tent, the cooking coffee or bread with melted butter. In Hedjaz, or the utensils, the butter, and water-skins, &c. The height of hilly district of Arabia near the Red Sea, the usual dish the tent is seven feet, its length from 25 to 30 feet, and is Indian rice, mixed with lentils, and without any bread; its breadth about 10 feet. The articles of the tent con- and in the districts where the date grows it forms the sist of saddles and camel furnishings; large bags for holding chief sustenance of the inhabitants. In Nedjed, Hedjaz, water, made of tanned camel-skin ; goat-skins for holding and Yemen, the Arabs use butter to excess. They frecamel’s milk, wheat-sacks made of wool or goat-hair ; the quently swallow a whole cupful of butter before breakr leather bucket for bringing up water from deep wells; a fast, and all their food swims in butter. The constant large copper, the mortar, the hand-mill, wooden dishes, exercise and motion to which they are accustomed so the coffee-pot, the iron chain which fastens the horse’s strengthens their powers of digestion, that they can enfore-feet while he pastures about the camp. They have no dure without injury the extremes of excess and want. chairs throughout the East, the universal practice being They can live for months on the smallest allowance, or to sit cross-legged. In the Arabian towns the houses devour at a sitting the flesh of half a lamb. Butter is are built of stone, and have always terrace roofs. The made from the milk of sheep and goats ; but never, except houses of the tribes on the banks of the Euphrates are in cases of necessity, from that of camels. Among many formed of the branches of the date-tree, and have a round of the Arab tribes it is considered shameful to sell any roof covered with rush mats. butter, or among the Bedouins near Mecca to sell milk; Dios; The dress of the Arabs is a coarse cotton shirt, over yet the Beni Koreish, one of the most noble of the Arawhich the wealthy throw a long gown of silk or cotton bian tribes, freely supply the inhabitants of Mecca with stuff. Most of them, however, only wear over their shirt milk. a thin, light, and white woollen mantle, or one of a coarser Hospitality, the virtue of rude nations, is practised Hospitaor heavier kind, striped white and brown. The mantles among all the Arab tribes, and no violation of its duties worn by the scheiks are’ interwoven with gold, and some- was ever known. When a stranger alights at the tent, times may be worth L.10 sterling. Some of the most the host, or in his absence the wife or daughter, spreads considerable tribes, as the Aenezes, do not wear drawers, a carpet for him and prepares the hospitable meal. If which are reckoned shameful for a man ; and they usually he remains any time his aid is expected in the domeswalk and ride barefooted, even the richest of them, al- tic business of the tent, in fetching water, milking the though they greatly esteem yellow boots and red shoes. camel, or feeding the horse. But he may neglect these They wear on their head a square kerchief of cotton: a duties and still remain, though he will be censured few rich scheiks wear shawls of Damascus or of Bagdad for ingratitude; or he may go to another tent, where manufacture. In winter they wear over the shirt a pe- he will receive a hearty welcome; and every third or lisse made of several sheep-skins stitched together. Many fourth day may change his residence, and be comfortwear these skins even in summer, as they are taught by ably entertained during his stay, however long it may experience that thick clothing is a defence against the be. The greatest insult that can be ofifered to an Arab, sun’s rays. The Arab endures with wonderful constancy is to tell him that he does not treat his guests well. the extremes both of heat and cold. In winter he sleeps Among some tribes women never eat or drink coffee barefooted in an open tent, where the fire is not kept in the presence of a man; and in this case some male up beyond midnight; and in summer on the burning sand, relation, in the absence of the host, does the duties of under the intense rays of the sun. The dress of the wo- hospitality. In the plain of Hauran, southward of Damen consists of a wide cotton gown of a dark colour— mascus, the wives and daughters of the Arabs may drink blue, brown, or black—and on their heads a kerchief. Sil- coffee with the strangers upon their arrival; and in the ver rings are much worn by the Aeneze women, both in mountainous districts south of Mecca, towards Yemen, their ears and noses. They wear glass or silver bracelets, women are allowed, in the absence of their husbands, to of various colours, round their wrists and their ancles, and entertain a guest, and to sit up with him. silver chains about the neck. They go barefooted at all The Arabs are not so dissolute in their morals as most Law of seasons. 1 he women wear over their faces a dark-coloured of the nations in the East. They are generally content marriage, veil, which conceals the mouth and chin. Near Mecca with one wife: instances of conjugal infidelity are not and layf, and beyond these places southward, both men common, and public prostitution is not seen in their camps. and women dress most commonly in leather. They both Yet they are far from being duly impressed with the sawear a leather apron round their loins, the women a cred tie of marriage, which may be at any time dissolvarger one than the men, reaching down to their ancles, ed at the pleasure of the husband ; and this facility of ami adorned with many tassels. In summer the men divorce relaxes morality, though, to some extent, the manners correct the laws. A Bedouin, aware that a liet, "ear no other clothing. I he diet of the Arabs consists everywhere of flour divorce is always in his power, contracts a temporary an )u ‘ Ber, variously made ready. Unleavened paste of marriage of a few weeks; and it is not uncommon for a

336 A R A Arabia, man, before he has attained the age of 40 or 45, to have had 50 wives. The wife also, if she is ill used, may fly for refuge to her father’s tent, whence she cannot be reclaimed by her husband. Yet among the Bedouins many instances are found of conjugal fidelity and love. This rash dissolution of the marriage union is frequently fatal to the peace of one or of both parties. In 1815, Burckhardt mentions that a Bedouin of the Syrian desert, who had divorced his wife, and who was present at her second marriage, shot himself in a fit of distraction, the moment he saw the new husband enter the marriage chamber. The Wahaby ruler Saoud exerted all his authority to prevent the frequent divorces of the Arabs, by disgracing at court, or otherwise punishing, any man who either divorced his wife or used the expression Aley et talak, “ I shall divorce,” which, according to the Arab law or custom, cannot be revoked. Polygamy is permitted, but is not common, among the Arabs, owing chiefly to their poverty. The richer scheiks, however, indulge in a plurality of wives. The marriage ceremony among the Aenezes and most of the Arab tribes is extremely simple. The lover generally commences, through a common friend, a negotiation with the father of the girl; and if she is pleased, the friend, holding the father’s hand, says, “ You declare that you give your daughter as wife to to which the father assenting, the bridegroom comes on the marriage day with a lamb in his arms to the tent of his betrothed, and by cutting its throat before witnesses he completes the marriage ceremony. After the usual rejoicings the bridegroom retires after sunset to a tent at a distance from the camp, while the bride, in her maiden timidity, runs from tent to tent, struggling, kicking, and even biting those who attempt to conduct her to the bridegroom’s chamber. Riteofcir- The rite of circumcision is still practised among the cumcision. Arabs, and is the occasion of a great festival. All the boys are generally circumcised on the sanie day. Each man of the encampment kills at least one sheep in honour of his son, and the whole tribe feast on this abundant cheer. The men exhibit equestrian exercises and warlike evolutions; while the young women join in the national airs, and sometimes removing their veils, allow their lovers a hasty glance of their beauty as they pass. There are, besides, the festivals of Ramadhan and of the sacrifice of Arafat, where the same exercises are exhibited. MechaniThe Arabs are no great proficients in arts or induscal arts, li-their only artists being a few blacksmiths to shoe teiature, tjie ]10rseSj aiul saddlers for the leather work. The arts of tanning and weaving are practised, the first by the men, the latter by the women. Of reading and writing all the Bedouins throughout Arabia are equally ignorant. The Wahaby chiefs were at pains to instruct them, and sent teachers among the different tribes, but with little effect. Nor have they made any progress in science or literature. In the first, their knowledge is confined to the names of the constellations and planets. Their literature consists in romantic tales of love and war, in which they delight; and the minstrel’s strain frequently beguiles the evenings of an Arab encampment. Verses are recited or sung, and the voice is accompanied by a species of guitar, the only musical instrument which they possess. They have national airs also for female singers, which are chanted in choruses of six, eight, or ten voices, at some distance from the camp, in the solitude and silence of the desert. Many of the Arabian poets can neither read nor write, yet compose verses of exact measure, grammatically correct, and neither destitute of sentiment nor poetical beauty. Eloquence has from time immemorial been considered a necessary qualification of an Arab statesman: no scheik, however brave, can ever

B I A. attain to influence among the Arabs without this talent The language of Arabia is derived from the same original^ stock with the Hebrew, the Syriac, and the Chaldean tongues. Each tribe has its own peculiar dialect, but, by universal consent, the palm of elegance and purity has been, and still continues to be, assigned to the idiom of Mecca. The preceding details exhibit in no very favourable J ai l view the moral character of the Arabs; and the boasted11 virtues of the desert, when they are calmly estimated, k seem to resolve into the observance of certain rules or prejudices, without which no community can exist, however rude or lawless. The thieves and outcasts of civilized society are linked together by certain ties of good faith, without which all concert would be impossible even for their own evil ends ; and the honour that prevails among the Arabs seems not to be of a much higher quality. They are, according to the accounts of all travellers, immoderately fond of gain, which they do not scruple to procure by the basest means. “ Lying, cheating, intriguing, and other vices arising from this source, are as prevalent in the desert as in any of' the market-towns of Syria; and on the common occasions of buying and selling, where his dakheil (oath) is not required, the word of an Arab is not entitled to more credit than the oath of a broker in the bazaar of Aleppo.” An Arab wall defend his guest at the peril of his own life; he wall submit with resignation to the most cruel reverses of fortune; and at Mecca, during the pilgrimage, the true Bedouin of the desert, unlike the other pilgrims, disdains to ask alms, and alvrays lives by his own industry, however precarious or humble. On the other hand, in pursuing the trade of rapine, he seems to be degraded, by his thievish, cruel, and treacherous habits, to the lowest rank of barbarism. In their familiar conversation the Arabs are free, sprightly, jocose, and decent. They are not reserved or silent, according to the report of some travellers, except perhaps in their journeys through the desert, where much speaking excites thirst, and parches the mouth. In their tents they are indolent, all that they do being to feed the horse, or milk the camels in the evening. The herds and flocks are committed to the care of a shepherd hired for the purpose; and the husband goes out to hunt with his hawk, or to amuse himself in any other mariner that pleases him ; while the wife and daughters are engaged in the household cares, in grinding the wheat with the hand-mill or pounding it in the mortar, in kneading and baking the bread, making butter, fetching water, working at the loom, or mending the tent-covering. They are patterns of industry, yet they are not allowed to eat with the men, and only partake in their own apartments (the meharrem) of what they leave. If a lamb is killed, they seldom taste, except some of the worst parts, which the men are not able to eat. This degradation of the women is common to the Arabs with other Asiatic nations, and is a true feature of oriental barbarism. ,The small-pox continues to make serious ravages amongl ^ the Bedouins, and to depopulate whole encampments. Inoculation is resorted to with benefit, and the practice of vaccination has extended over Syria. Obstructions and indurations of the stomach, occasioned by the use of camel’s milk, are common; but these complaints are alleviated by the purging qualities of the brackish water of the desert: also fevers, both intermittent and inflammatory ; and the burning with a hot iron is here, as in the former case, the approved cure. Ophthalmic disorders are frequent, and leprosy, which is hereditary in families) and cannot be eradicated. It consists of white spots, as large as the hand, which appear on various parts of the

ARABIA. 1)i ]j0(iy) without rising above the skin. If the white spots skins very neatly sewed, canvass, and cordage made of the Arabia, z'7 appear on the cheek, the beard commonly falls off: the un- date-tree. The Indian goods imported into Djidda are'fortunate sufferer is held in universal disgrace. The tooth- sent into the interior by the caravans, one of which deache is unknown among the Arabs, who have all the most parts for Mecca every evening during the season of the pilgrimage, and at other times twice a week, with goods beautiful teeth. IMS. The chief towns of Arabia are situated either on the and provisions. To Medina goods are partly sent by sea coast of the Red Sea, or in the range of mountains which through Yembo, the sea-port, and partly by a caravan, runs parallel to its shores. They are, Medina, with Yembo which sets out regularly once in forty or fifty days, acits sea-port; farther south, between 200 and 300 miles, companied by a crowd of pilgrims on a visit to Mahomet’s Mecca, with Djidda, its sea-port; Tayf, east of Mecca; tomb. Djidda is also the great entrepot of the coffee trade. still farther south among the mountains, Sada, Sanaa, and on the coast of the Red Sea Gonfocle, Loheia, Hodeida, and Ships laden with this article are constantly arriving from Mocha; Derayeh is in the interior, and Mascat on the Yemen. The cargoes are generally disposed of for dollars, coast of the Persian Gulf. The population of the towns and are sent to Suez and Cairo for the supply of Egypt and consists chiefly of foreign traders, who follow the customs the Mediterranean countries. This trade has been rather of the place, but seldom imbibe the national spirit. Hence on the decline, Mocha coffee having been supplanted in they form an entirely different class from the Bedouin the markets of European Turkey, Asia Minor, and Syria, Arabs. They have their faults without their virtues, are by that produced in the West Indies. The importation of dissolute in their manners, and addicted to the grossest West India coffee into Egypt is now, however, strictly provices. The commerce and religion of Arabia concur to hibited by the pacha Mohammed Ali. From Bagdad and bring together in the towns a mixed population from the Bosra Djidda receives large quantities of an inferior species of tobacco, called tombak; also a supply of tobaccomost remote parts of the world. mmc,, Arabia has no manufactures, for a supply of which it pipes, on which the Arabs, being extremely curious, expend is therefore dependent on its foreign trade. From its large sums of money. From Abyssinia musk is brought by central position, however, and its contiguity to the shores the inhabitants in horns, and in return they receive Indian of the Red Sea, in former times the only navigable com- glass beads, which are in great request all over Africa. Ships munication between Asia and Europe, it has always been arrive from Mascat in the Persian Gulf, and from Bassora. a great entrepot for the commodities of other countries. with the produce of the adjacent countries, and slave-vesIn the ancient world it was the medium of intercourse sels from the coast of Mozambique. From the interior between India and Europe, and still continues to enjoy supplies of corn are received, as well as a great variety of a portion of this commerce. fruits, especially the date, which for a part of the year is The sea-port of Djidda, on the Red Sea, seems to be the common food of the people in Arabia. It is made the great emporium of the Arabian trade. Thither resort into a sort of paste, and is exported to the East Indies the annual fleets from Calcutta, Surat, and Bombay, about and to other countries, where it is sold to great profit the beginning of May. They bring piece goods, Cash- among the Mussulmans of Hindostan. The fine almonds mere shawls, cocoa-nuts, rice, sugar, drugs of all sorts; and raisins produced in the gardens of Tayf are also1 small articles of Indian manufacture, such as china-ware, taken in considerable quantities by the Indian fleet. costly collections of which are often displayed by the rich Honey, which abounds in the mountainous parts, and of inhabitants; hardware, pipes, beads, wooden spoons, glass the best quality, is exchanged by the Arabs for manufacbeads, knives, rosaries, mirrors, cards, &c. These goods tures. The celebrated balm of Mecca, so difficult to be are mostly disposed of for cash to Indian houses, the most obtained in a pure state, is another article of trade; and eminent of which are known to possess capital to the value in adding to that the milk and the wool yielded by the of L.150,000 or L.200,000 sterling, while several infe- flocks and herds, we sum up the whole surplus produce rior houses have capitals of L.40,000 and L.50,000. The which the Bedouins have to give in exchange for other Indian trade is carried on to a great extent, sales of en- articles. Djidda is the great shipping port of the Red tire ships’ cargoes being frequently made in the course of Sea, to which belong 250 vessels; yet no vessels are half an hour, and the money paid down next day. From built here, the scarcity of timber being so great that a every port of the Red Sea traders repair to Djidda during ship can scarcely be repaired either here or at Yembo. this annual fair, and lay out all that they possess in the Suez, Hodeida, and Mocha, are the only harbours at purchase of Indian goods, which rise in price imme- which ships are built, and the timber is transported from diately after the departure of the fleet, and are always Asia Minor, Yemen, or the African coast. sold to good account. From Djidda they are sent to Suez In Arabia, as in most other eastern countries where and Cairo, whence they are dispersed over Egypt and the property is not protected, capital is slowly accumulated, shores of the Mediterranean. The returns from Egypt and is in general far from abundant. The rate of profit are made either in dollars or sequins, or in produce or is consequently high, amounting to 30, 40, or even to 50 goods, such as wheat, for which Arabia depends on Egypt; per cent. No money can be lent out at interest as in tobacco, coffee, and butter, in the use of which articles Europe, it being contrary to the law of the Koran, and all. classes in Arabia indulge to excess; rice, biscuits, no one besides having confidence in another. There is onions, soap; Bedouin cloaks, which are not manufactured no monied interest in Arabia. There are no stocks of any *n Arabia; inferior Turkish carpets, an indispensable ar- description, or public funds, in which money can be inticle in the tent of every scheik; cotton quilts; linen for vested ; and every capitalist is therefore engaged in trade, shirts, and other articles of dress; red and yellow slippers, from which he never can withdraw to live on his money as used by the more opulent merchants, and by all the la- in Europe. Credit is with difficulty obtained, and trade dies, of which there is not one maker in any of the Ara- is carried on by means of barter or by sales for cash. >ian towns; red caps, all kinds of cloth dresses, Cashmere Hence no Arabian merchant can contract debts which and muslin shawls; well-tinned copper vessels, a variety of he is unable to pay; and there are consequently no mer"Inch may be found in every Arabian kitchen; water- cantile failures in Arabia as in Europe. 1

vol. ni.

See Niebuhr, sect. vi. chap. v.; Burckhardt’s Travels in Arabia, vol. i.

2u

338 Arabia.

ARABIA. Mecca and Medina, besides being places of trade, are hometan faith ; and his details are extremely interesting Uilii the two holy cities, to the former of which a visit is en- and curious. “ Of the half-naked hadjys,” he observes, ^^joined the prophet on every pious Mahometan who can “ all dressed in the white ihram, some sat reading the o i ecca. aflpor(j j.]by ie expense> A visit to the tomb of Mahomet at Koran upon their camels, some ejaculated loud prayers, Medina, though it is not strictly commanded, is still reck- whilst others cursed their drivers, and quarrelled with oned a highly meritorious part of the same holy pilgrim- those near them who w'ere choking up the passage.” On age. In obedience to this summons, which is heard the plain of Arafat the mixed multitude encamp accordthroughout the wide precincts of the Mahometan world, ing to a certain order, each nation occupying its appointcrowds of devotees, to the number frequently of 70,000 or ed place ; and at night the fires which blaze throughout 80,000, ambitious of the honourable title of hadjy or pil- the encampment, and the arched and brilliant clusters of grim, arrive at Mecca during the fast of Ramadhan, from lamps which are lighted before the tents of distinguished the most remote quarters of the earth; from European pilgrims, illuminate the plain, and give a peculiar brilTurkey and Greece ; from the countries on the shores of liancy to the scene. In the pilgrimage of 1814 Mohamthe Mediterranean, namely, Syria and Palestine on the med Ali the pacha of Egypt, Solyman the pacha of Daeast, and the Barbary States on the south; from Timbuc- mascus, and the mother of Mohammed Ali, were the too, Soudan, and the depths of Central Africa; from Per- most conspicuous for their rank and splendour. The latter sia ; from the regions of the Indus; and from Hindostan, arrived from Cairo with a princely equipage, her baggage Malacca, and the Asiatic Isles. So vast and various an being transported by 500 camels from the sea-coast of assemblage of strangers collected into one city, from all the Djidda to Mecca. “ Her tent,” says Burckhardt, “ was different nations of the East, forms a most singular spec- in fact an encampment, consisting of a dozen tents of diftacle, and is a striking proof of the power and extensive ferent sizes, inhabited by her women ; the whole inclosed influence of the Mahometan faith. The crowds who re- by a wall of linen cloth 800 paces in circuit, the single eunuchs in splendid sort thither consist of all classes of Mahometans. The entrance to which was guarded by r proud noble, the rich merchant, the bashaw, and the dresses. Around this inclosure w ere pitched the tents of prince in all the pomp of wealth and dignity, are mingled the men who formed her numerous suite. The beautiful in the religious ceremonial of the holy city with the com- embroidery on the exterior of this linen palace, with the mon crowd of poor pilgrims, the wretched and servile various colours displayed in every part of it, constituted Hindoo, or the poor but independent negro of Soudan, an object which reminded me of some descriptions in the who, as a mendicant or a labourer, makes his way for thou- Arabian Tales. Among the rich equipages of the other sands of miles through unknown lands and hostile tribes. hadjys or pilgrims, or of the Mecca people, none were so In arriving at the holy city, it is the duty of the pilgrims, conspicuous as that belonging to the family of Djeylany before attending any worldly business, to visit the Beitul- the merchant, whose tents, pitched in a semicircle, rivalled lah or temple, which at night is brilliantly lighted up with in beauty those of the two pachas, and far exceeded those lamps; to walk seven times round 'the kaaba or black of Sherif Yahya.” On the following day the encampment stone, said to be brought down from heaven by the angel is again broken up, the tents are struck, every thing is Gabriel, and to touch or to kiss it; to drink water, or wash packed up, and the immense crowd, either on foot or in the holy well of Zemzem, miraculously created for mounted on camels and horses, throng round the mounHagar and her son Ishmael; to proceed to Mount Arafat, tain of Arafat to hear the sermon, an essential part oi distant from Mecca about 20 miles, and to be present from the ceremony, which is preached in the afternoon. The afternoon till sun-set at a sermon preached on that holy preacher, mounted on a finely caparisoned camel, haspot; to sacrifice a sheep in the valley of Muna, or to rangues the multitude, most of whom are deeply affected; substitute, if the pilgrim be poor, a fowl at some future weeping and beating their breasts, and denouncing themperiod; and, after several other ceremonies, many of them, selves to be great sinners before the Lord ; while others such as throwing stones at the devil, sufficiently absurd, are fixed in silent adoration, with tears in their eyes. The to return to Mecca, and to revisit the kaaba and the om- preacher reads his sermon from a book in Arabic. “ At rah.1 The Mahometan religion is not of a gloomy or as- intervals,” Burekhardt adds, “ of every four or five micetic cast, and the pilgrimage to Mecca is not undertaken nutes, he paused and stretched forth his arms to implore in this spirit. On the contrary, the visit of the pilgrims blessings from above ; wdiile the assembled multitudes to Mount Arafat, in which they are joined by almost the around and before him waved the skirts of their ihrams whole inhabitants of Mecca and Djidda, resembles not so over their heads, and rent the air with shouts of ‘ Lebeyk much a religious ceremony as a holyday festival, in which Allah huma Lebeyk,’—Here we are at thy commands all ranks indulge in revelry and show. The common peo- O God 1” The natives of the towns and the Turkish ple assemble in their best suits, as if to enjoy a splendid soldiers were in the mean time conversing and joking; spectacle ; and the rich and luxurious vie with each other and, while the more fervent devotees were waving the in the splendid pageantry of their retinue and equipages. ihram, derided that ceremony by violent gesticulations in The whole crowd of pilgrims—tribes and tongues from imitation of them. The preacher, when the sun descends all parts of the Mahometan empire, of the most various behind the western mountains, concludes his discourse costumes, manners, and aspect, with their accompanying and closes the book, when the whole multitude of pih train of camels, dromedaries, and horses—press forward grims make their way over the plains at a quick pace1 on the appointed day to the plain of Arafat, and present in the greatest tumult and disorder, with a clamour tha a scene so animated and impressive, and exhibiting such is quite astounding, and encamp, after a journey of tw( a picturesque variety of nations in so small a space, that hours, where another sermon is heard that lasts frou it is certainly without a parallel in any other part of the daybreak till sunrise of the following day. They ther globe. Burckhardt is the only European traveller who move, on the 10th of Zul Hadjy, towards the valley o has ever been present at this great festival of the Ma- Muna, 1500 paces in length, and inclosed on both sides 1 In visiting Mecca it is the practice of the more strict devotees to assume the ihram, a garment consisting of two pieces °f line'' woollen, or cotton cloth, one of which is wrapped round the loins, and the other thrown over the neck and shoulders, leaving tn< right arm uncovered, ’f he head remains totally uncovered. All other garments must be put off, even at night, when the ihram r assumed. The use of this dress, whether in summer or in winter, is found extremely inconvenient and prejudicial to health.

A R A B I A. 339 by steep and barren cliffs of granite. Here they offer the money market of Mecca. By the extension of the Wa- Arabia, ri ^0the sacrifice of, a sheep; repair to the barber’s shop, haby power in Arabia the intercourse of the pilgrim cara-'— where their heads are shaved; throw at the devil 21 vans with the holy city was interrupted, and the holders stones; and lay aside the ihram, their pilgrimage be- of those tickets had not for eight years received any pay. ing so far completed. A new scene now commences. Their value was consequently lowered, though it has been Almost all the pilgrims who visit the holy city have again somewhat raised since the overthrow of the Wahaby goods to dispose of, from which they hope to defray the power by Mohammed Ali, and the return of the caravans. expenses of the journey. The rich hadjys bring in the But some of the tickets were even after this sold at two caravans large stores of merchandise, which they barter and a half years’ purchase, which evinces no great confiwith the great merchants of Djidda who reside in Mecca, dence in the stability of the Turkish conquests. At Mecca guides are required to all the holy places which for Indian goods; and the poorer pilgrims have all some small stock of articles, the produce or manufacture of it is incumbent on the pilgrims to visit. These form the their respective countries, which they also propose to sell most idle and profligate class of persons in Mecca, and they or exchange in this great resort of religion and of trade. practise on the pilgrim every species of knavery. The The influx of such a vast multitude of strangers, with guide, or delyl as he is called, besieges his room from about 20,000 or 30,000 camels, gives a stimulus to several sunrise to sunset; he obtrudes his advice; he sits down branches of internal commerce. It creates a great addi- with him to breakfast, dinner, and supper; he is always tional demand for provisions, for lodgings, and for other asking him for money, always leading him into expense; articles of necessary use ; and, accordingly, every inhabi- and if he act as interpreter in any mercantile concern, he tant of Mecca who can scrape together the smallest sum is sure to betray the poor ignorant Turk who trusts him. lays it out during the pilgrimage in some adventure, how- The following description by Burckhardt, of his own ever inconsiderable. With pious objects other pursuits delyl or guide, may, he says, be taken as a general picare in this manner associated of a less spiritual nature; ture of the lower classes of Mecca. “ He sat down,” and the pilgrimage to Mecca is in reality a great annual he observes, “ regularly at dinner with me, and often fair, to which merchandise is brought from all parts of brought a small basket, which he ordered my slave to fill the world. This fair continues in the valley of Muna with biscuits, meat, vegetables, or fruit, and carried away three days, from the 10th to the 12th of the month of with him. Every third or fourth day he asked for money. Zul Hadjy. A row of buildings, mostly in ruins, are oc- It is not you who give it,’ he said, ‘ it is God who sends cupied by the Meccans or Bedouins for the purposes of it to me.’ Finding there was no polite mode of getting trade during these three days, while every inch of ground rid of him, I told him plainly that I no longer wanted his not built upon is occupied by sheds or booths made of services—language to which a guide is not accustomed. mats, or by small tents, where provisions and merchan- After three days, however, he returned, as if nothing had dise of all kinds are exposed to sale. The great mer- happened, and asked me for a dollar. ‘ God does not chants who travel with the Syrian caravans exhibit sam- move me to give you any thing,’ I replied; ‘ if he judged ples of the articles which they have brought for sale or to it right he would soften my heart, and cause me to give exchange for Indian goods, while the poorer pilgrims are you my whole purse.’ ‘ Pull my beard,’ he exclaimed, ‘ if crying their small adventures through the streets. After God does not send you ten times more hereafter than the return to Mecca business is still prosecuted with what I beg at present.’ ‘ Pull out every hair of mine,’ I equal ardour by the pilgrim adventurers, and the town is replied, ‘ if I give you one pera until I am convinced that so crowded that the principal street is almost impassable. God will consider it a meritorious act.’ On hearing this The Syrian merchants hire shops, where they trade with he jumped up and walked away, saying, £ We fly for reactivity till the departure of the caravans for Syria and fuge to God from the hearts of the proud and the hands Egypt, which takes place after a stay in the town of ten of the avaricious.’ ” At Cairo the following proverb is days. used to repress an insolent beggar. “ Thou art like the The inhabitants of Mecca derive their subsistence ei- Mekkawy:” thou sayest, “ Give me, and I am thy masther from trade or from the service of the mosque, which ter.” occupies a numerous body of individuals. These are From so great an annual concourse of opulent strangers maintained by fixed salaries remitted from Constanti- and traders, and from the presents and stipends of the nople, and they also share in the presents made by the richer pilgrims to their guides and to the servants of the richer pilgrims to the temple. In the more fervent ages temple, great wealth flows into Mecca, which should be ot Mahometanism the temple of Mecca drew its revenue among the richest cities of the East. But, with the exiron] the various towns and districts of the Turkish em- ception of the first merchants, who seldom spend their pire, and large presents were received from the kings of great gains though they live in splendour, their tables beHindostan and other eastern countries; but those re- ing furnished every day with the rarest delicacies, the invenues have been discontinued, and the mosque is now habitants of Mecca are dissolute and luxurious in their solely supported from the Turkish treasury. The sum habits. The departure of the pilgrims is succeeded by allotted for this purpose is distributed among its officers, the marriage and circumcision feasts, on which all that has according to their rank or services. The name of every been gained during the last three or four months is freservant of the mosque is inscribed in a register at Mecca, quently squandered away. The women give the most proof which a duplicate is sent annually to Constantinople, fuse and magnificent entertainments, while the men waste where the name is also enrolled; and the whole sum is their means in the purchase of female Abyssinian slaves, made up in small packets amUsent to Mecca, each in- and in other indulgences still more vicious and degrading. dorsed with the name of the individual for whom it is de- The utmost profligacy of manners prevails in all the signed. Ihey are distributed by the kady of Mecca, in Arabian towns, as indeed in all Mahometan countries; i ie mosque, after the departure of the pilgrims, and they and the holy temple, the very sanctuary of the Mahoamount from one piaster annually to 10, 20, and in a few metan religion, is daily profaned by the grossest depravirases to 2000, equal to about L.50 sterling. The tickets ties, to which no shame is attached. The young of all w ich entitle those persons to a pension are transferable, classes are encouraged in those immoralities by the old; ie transfer being signed by the kady and the sherif; and and even parents connive at the disgrace of their children, 1C T 01111 a species of stock, which is bought and sold in and profit by their iniquities. From such vices the en-

340 ARABIA. Arabia. campments of the Bedouin Arabs are alone said to be exaggerations. From the rare and precious produce with which Arabia abounds, the most fanciful jdeas were form-4 'hiVJ exempt. Medina is also a holy city, containing the mosque, with ed of its vast wealth. It was said to possess abundant the tomb of the prophet, which is visited during the whole mines of precious stones, and gold, which was found in year by crowds of pilgrims, though this pilgrimage is not, small pieces of the size of nuts, of the brightest colour like that to Mecca, a sacred duty. The tomb was the re- and polish. (Diodorus Siculus, Hist. lib. ii. sect. 48). ceptacle of the pious offerings of the pilgrims, consisting This favoured land was besides supposed to be enriched of precious jewels, ear-rings, bracelets, and other orna- by the peculiar nature of its commerce, its valued proments; and it contained also several magnificent manu- ducts being sold to other nations, while their produce scripts of the Koran. These were carried off by Saoud, was not required in return. The balance of trade was the Wahaby chief, when his armies entered Medina; and thus always in its favour ; and, according to this hypoperpetually flowpart of the precious spoils were presented to Moham- thesis, a supply of gold and silver was 2 med Ali, by Abdallah his son, when he was prisoner in ing into it from all other countries. Cassia and cinnaEgypt. The service of the mosque at Medina is provid- mon are also erroneously mentioned as the products of ed for in the same manner as that of the temple at Mecca; Arabia, probably because they came directly to the Roits officers are more respectable and of higher rank, and mans from that country, which has been in all ages the great depot of Indian produce. The great lake, mentioned greater decorum is everywhere maintained. Arabia has been peopled from the earliest times, but its by the ancient writers, and said to contain bitumen, and to History. ancient history seems to have been lost or corrupted in yield a large revenue, must be the Dead Sea, thus included a long course of oral tradition. The narratives of the by the ancients within the limits of Arabia; or the existence Arabian historians are absurd and fabulous, resting on no of this sea so near Arabia may have given rise to the reevidence ; nor have later writers succeeded in withdraw- port of another lake in the interior, which we know does ing the veil of oblivion from the history of those early not exist. Pliny says that the inhabitants shave their ages. The common notion among the Arabs is, that they beards, with the exception of the upper lip—a custom are descended from Joktan the son of Eber, as well as which, if it ever existed, has not been transmitted to the from Ishmael the son of Abraham by Hagar; and the pos- modern Arabs, who hold the beard in peculiar honour; terity of the former are denominated pure Arabs, while and the story of their promiscuous cohabitation, related by those of the latter are called naturalized or insitious Arabs. Strabo and Ptolemy, is entirely contradicted by all the Joktan had thirteen, or, according to the Arabian traditions, latest and most authentic accounts of Arabian manners. In describing the zoology of Arabia, the anpient writers thirty-one sons, who, after the confusion of languages at Babel, are said to have settled in the south-eastern parts of give an accurate account of the camel and the dromedary; Arabia, and to have gone afterwards to India, with the ex- but some of them assert that the country contains no ception of two, namely, Yarhab and Jorham, the former of horses, for which in modern times it has been so famed; whom gave name to the country. Yarhab settled in Yemen, and their description of the ostrich is altogether fabulous while Jorham founded the kingdom of the Hedjaz, where his and absurd. Pliny asserts that it exceeds the height of a posterity reigned. Ishmael being dismissed by Abraham, man on horseback ; Diodorus, that it is of the size of a newretired to the wilderness of Paran, where he married an born camel, that it throws stones with its feet at its purEgyptian, by whom he had twelve children, who were the suers, and adds various other equally" unfounded details of heads of as many potent tribes of the Scenite or wild its habits and the manner of its death. Ptolemy was the Arabs. He afterwards, according to tradition, married the first writer who divided Arabia into three parts; namely, daughter of Modad, the king of the Hedjaz, lineally de- Arabia Petrsea, Arabia Deserta, and Arabia Felix; which scended from Jorham ; and is thus considered by the1 Ara- division, agreeing with the natural features of the country, bians the father of the greater body of their nation. By is still recognised. Ptolemy, and also Pliny, give a long these tribes Arabia was ruled in ancient times, and a ge- list of towns, and of the various tribes which ranged over nealogical list is preserved of a long line of kings in Yemen the country. These have mostly disappeared; and the and other provinces, of whom nothingfurther is known than situation of Petra, the chief fortress of Arabia Petraea, is the names. The ancient tribes who inhabited Arabia main- a subject of dispute among the learned. The nations who tained flocks and herds. They were addicted to commerce inhabited this tract were the Ishmaelites, the Nabatheans, and rapine, and frequently by their inroads molested the the Cedrei or Kedareni, and the Hagareni, all which apneighbouring states. They were invaded in their turn by pellations have in later times been lost in that of the the Assyrians, the Egyptians, the Medes, and the Persians ; Saracens, so celebrated for several centuries all over the but whatever ancient historians may relate concerning the East. Numerous towns are mentioned in Arabia Deserta, victories of Sesostris, it does not appear that either the of wdiich, being originally of little note, all knowledge is Assyrians, the Egyptians, or the Persians, ever obtained now lost; and of the tribes of the JEsitse and the Agrau any permanent footing in the country. we know nothing but the names. Arabia Felix was the The Greek and Roman writers describe with accuracy the chief seat of population and of wealth. It included the general features of Arabia, the scarcity of water in the de- fine provinces of Yemen, Hedjaz, Tehama, Nedjed, and Yusert, the deep wells known only to the inhabitants, and the mama. It was inhabited by many different tribes, such as pastoral and predatory habits of the people; and, in the the Sabaei, who, from the account of Pliny, were a powerfertile districts, the rich produce of corn, wine, oil, honey, ful tribe, trading in frankincense, and extending from sea frankincense, myrrh, and odoriferous gums. But this au- to sea, either from the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean, or to thentic information is mixed with fabulous tales and absurd the Persian Gulf ;3 by the Minaei, Atramitae, Marinatae, 1 2

Universal History, vol. viii. chap. ix. Plin. Historia Naturalis, lib. vi. cap. 32. “ In universum gentes ditissimse, ut apud quas maximae opes Romanorum Parthorumque subsistant, vendentibus quae e mari aut silvis capiant, nihil invicem redimentibus.” Strabo (lib. xvi.) mentions that, they sold their gums for precious stones and for gold; and that the invasion of Arabia under Augustus, by iElius Gallus, was prompted by the desire of attaining the alliance of rich friends, or the conquest of rich enemies. If these ancient writers had been versed in the modern doctrines of political economy, they would have known that the balance of trade could not have been permanently in favour of a country3 which abounds in gold. “ Sabaei Arabum propter thura clarissinai, ad utraque maria porrectis gentibus.” Plin. Historia Naturalis, lib. vi. cap 32.

ARABIA. 341 reduced by a lieutenant of Trajan, yet the Romans never Arabia, Catabani, Ascitse, Homeritae, Sapphoritae, Omani, Saraceni, 'j&ic. of whose history nothing is now known. The towns seem to have extended their power over Arabia Petraea. of Yaman or Yemen were, Aden, the emporium Arabice of On the decline of the empire Syria was invaded by the Ptolemy, on the Indian Ocean ; and Musa, the modern Arabian freebooters, who sometimes drew on themselves Mocha; both noted marts of trade, at which were exchang- severe retaliation. The doubtful frontier of the respec7 ed the precious produce of the country (consisting of tive territories was thus a constant scene of hostility , until the Arab tribes, inspired by the genius of Mahomet, myrrh, frankincense, perfumes, and pearls, of which there was a noted fishery near some islands in the Red Sea), for advanced to permanent conquests. Arabia afforded an asylum to the Jews who were scatgoods brought by the annual fleets from India. Those o'oods appear to have been landed at Aden or Musa; to tered abroad by the destruction of Jerusalem, and to the have been carried northward in caravans to Leucocome, Christian sectaries who were driven out of the Roman or Portus Albus, in lat. 25° N.; then, according to Strabo, empire by their orthodox brethren. The Christian exiles to have been transported across the Red Sea to Myos introduced the Arian heresy among the Arabians, while Hormos, near the modern Cosseir; and being carried on the Jews spread their peculiar doctrines, and acquiring camels to Coptos, in the Thebaid, a port on the Nile, to wealth by commerce, they built cities, enriched the counhave been thence floated down in boats to Alexandria. try, and had become powerful among the tribes of AraSanaa, the capital of Yemen, of great antiquity, is suppos- bia, when they were exterminated by the sword of Maed to be the Saphor of Ptolemy; and Mareb, the modern homet. Such are some of the early traditions and imperfect Mahomet, Saba, which was a large, opulent, and strong city, is now an inconsiderable village. On the Persian Gulf was sketches of Arabian history. We now approach a new era, situated the port of Moscha, now the city of Mascat; not only of greater certainty, but containing events of far and Gerra or Khatif, which, Pliny and Strabo mention, deeper interest, and of lasting importance. The rise and had turrets and houses formed of square masses of salt, progress of Mahomet, the prophet of the East, and the some of which are still to be seen in the country. In rapid propagation of his faith, which has changed the moral the Hedjaz was Macoraba or Mecca, the seat of a very and political aspect of the eastern world, forms a most sinancient temple; and Yathrib or Lathrippa, the modern gular chapter in the history of human affairs, of which we important details. Medina. Djidda, the port of Mecca, is seldom noticed by shall now endeavour to present the most 7 the ancients ; and Yembo, the port of Medina, is the Jam- Mahomet was born in the 569th y ear of the Christian bia of Ptolemy. The frequent incursions of the Arabs era. His lineal descent from Ishmael, the founder of the into the neighbouring regions exposed them to retalia- Arabian nation, is a fable of his disciples. Historians are tion from hostile armies ; but the aridity of the country agreed, however, that he sprung from the tribe of Kowas found to be still its true defence. It was in vain reish, and the noble family of Hashem. In the 40th year that the invader vanquished the Arabs in the field; they of his age he assumed the title of a prophet, and profled from his pursuit on their horses and camels, and claimed the religion of the Koran, and the destruction of quickly disappeared in the burning desert, whither no the ancient Arabian idolatry, namely, the worship of the army ever dared to follow them. The northern provinces sun, moon, and stars. The resort to Mecca as a holy bordering on Syria were invaded by Antigonus, and af- place of pilgrimage was still continued, and he held in the terwards by Pompey, though they never succeeded in same veneration as before the ancient temple and the acquiring possession of Petra, the great stronghold of the square chapel of Kaaba, inclosing the black stone which country. But the most important expedition of the Ro- the Mahometans suppose to have descended from heaven, mans was that of iElius Gallus, in the reign of Augustus, round which the rude idolaters of Arabia walked seven who, with a force of 10,000 troops, of whom 5007 were times with hasty steps, and then kissed the sacred relic. Jews, and 1000 Nabatheans, natives of the country , land- The visit to the mountain of Arafat was also retained, ed at Leucocome, in latitude 25° N., about 70 miles and all the other minute observances connected with the north-west from Medina, and in the following spring, his pilgrimage already detailed. The temple of Mecca controops having been till that time disabled by disease, he tained 360 idols of men and of animals. The rocks of the advanced southward, crossed a desert of 30 days’ journey, desert were carved into the same figures, or into altars in and in 50 days more arrived in a pleasant and fruitful imitation of the black stone of the Kaaba ; and in earlier region, where he took by assault a city called Najran. times the Arabian altars were stained with human blood. He continued his march southward for other 60 day7s ; and In opposition to these idolatries, Mahomet proclaimed the being finally compelled to retreat by fatigue and disease, unity of the Deity to be the basis of the new faith. He he crossed the Red Sea, and, landing his troops at Myos declared “ that there is only one God, and that Mahomet Hormos, on the Egyptian shore, brought back the poor is the apostle of God.” For the adoration of saints, of remains of1 his army to Alexandria, after an absence of idols, or of any sensible object, he substituted public wortwo years. The situation of the towns in his route being ship by prayer, and a sermon in the mosque on the Friday entirely unknown, we cannot trace his course, though it of every week, as well as private prayers and daily lusmust have been in the direction of Medina and Mecca. trations ; and the annual fast of the month of Ramadhan Ihe great historian of the Decline and Fall of Rome places for 30 days, during which the Mussulman, from the rising the march of2 JElius Gallus between Mareb or Mecca to the setting of the sun, rigidly abstains from food or and the sea. But this is a desert tract, in no respect drink, from baths, perfumes, or any enjoyment that can resembling the character given of the country into which refresh the body. Alms-giving was enjoined, and the he penetrated, which may therefore probably be the ele- use of wine was interdicted. The doctrines of toleration vated tract on the Hedjaz ridge of mountains, extend- were maintained and practised for a time ; but, with the ing north and south parallel with the Red Sea. Northern power, the inclination to persecute was soon displayed, Arabia was also invaded by the emperors Trajan and Se- and the followers of the new faith were commanded to verus, but they effected no settlement in the country; pursue unbelievers with fire and sword, and to extirpate and though the cities of Bosra and Petra were at one time the idolatrous nations of the earth. The first converts to Dion Cassius, Hid. Rom. lib. liii. s.ct. 20.

Gibbon, vol. ix. chap. 50.

342 A R A Arabia, the doctrines of Mahomet were his own family; his wife Cadijah, her friend, his servant Zeid ; afterwards Ali, the son of Abu Taleb, his uncle ; and in three years fourteen other proselytes. Mahomet, by openly preaching to the people, and upbraiding them with their idolatry, obstinacy, and perverseness, drew on himself their hostility; and his life was threatened by the rival tribe of Koreish, who had been long jealous of the pre-eminence of the Hashemites, the hereditary guardians of the Kaaba and the holy temple. The death of Abu Taleb, his uncle, left him exposed to the malice of his enemies, who now resolved to take his life by dispatching a person from each tribe to bury a dagger in his breast; thus to divide the guilt of blood, and by their union to baffle the vengeance of the Hashemites. Mahomet, apprized of this conspiracy, with his friend Abubekr escaped to the cave of Thor, where he lay concealed for three days; and finally to Medina, into -which city he made his public entry sixteen days after his flight from Mecca, and was hailed with the acclamations of the faithful people. From this memorable event is dated the Mahometan era of the Hegira or Flight, which coincides with the 16th July A. d. 622. Assuming the office of pontiff and of king, he was soon surrounded by a devoted band, who were impatient to die as martyrs in his cause. His early exploits were against the trading caravans between Syria and Mecca; and his first battle, in which he defeated, at Beder, Abu Sophian, his enemy, the leader of the unbelieving Koreish, was fought in defence of a rich caravan. In the second battle, which he fought on Mount Ohud, six miles to the north of Medina, the Koreish, to the number of 3000, advancing in the form of a crescent, their right led on by Khaled, a name afterwards so terrible to the infidels, were broken by the fierce attack of Mahomet’s resolute band, who, rashly pursuing their advantage, while 50 archers posted in the rear as a reserve at the same time quitted their ground to plunder, the Moslem army was in its turn attacked and overthrown by Khaled. , Mahomet, wounded in the face with a javelin, and having two of his teeth shattered with a stone, while Khaled exclaimed in the fury of his attack that he was slain, as were seventy of his followers, and among them Hamza the prophet’s uncle, and Mosaab the standard-bearer, still succeeded, though with difficulty, in rallying his broken forces, and in effecting a retreat. In the following year Abu Sophian, with a combined army of Arabs and Jews, sat down before Medina, when he was obliged to retreat after a siege of twenty days. Mahomet, thus secure of his conquests, rapidly subdued the surrounding tribes. The numerous Jews who dwelt in Medina and the neighbourhood, rejecting the proffered faith of the prophet, were either put to the sword or made captives. The Khoreidhites were extirpated after a resistance of twenty-five days ; and the ancient and flourishing city of Chaibar, the seat of the Jewish power, was reduced after a fierce resistance. Torture was applied to the chief in the presence of Mahomet, to extort from him a discovery of his hidden treasures. The captives were massacred ; and, by the savage vengeance of the conquerors, 700 prisoners were buried alive. But it was to Mecca, the holy city, that Mahomet’s longing eyes were directed; and, confident from recent conquests, and still farther strengthened by the conversion of Khaled and Amrou from active and formidable enemies to zealous friends, he now aspired to the conquest of this last remaining stronghold of the infidels in Arabia. He had concluded a truce for ten years with Abu Sophian, for the violation of which a pretext was sought and easily found; and he now advanced, at the head of 10,000 troops, to crown all his former achievements by the conquest of Mecca. So secretly

B I A. had he taken his measures, that the first warning of danger1 a was his approach to the city gates. The intrepid Khaled * routed a large body of the Koreish in the adjacent plain and hotly pursuing the fugitives into the city, massacred a number of the inhabitants, and so alarmed the survivors that they were glad to capitulate, and to deprecate the vengeance of the conqueror by a profession of the new faith. Mahomet made his public entry into the holy a i 5 city at sunrise. He walked seven times round the Kaaba, touching with his staff the black stone as he passed. He destroyed the 360 idols of the temple, prohibited for ever the idolatries of the Koreish, and ordained that no unbeliever should henceforth profane the holy city by his presence. The conquest of Mecca was followed by the submission of other Arabian tribes. Some made resistance, but were subdued; and in the end the whole peninsula yielded faith and obedience to the prophet’s creed and to his victorious arms. Mahomet, thus crowned with victory, was overtaken by a fever at Mecca, and expired a. d. 632, in the 62d year of his age. His death exposed the new state to the dangers of a disputed succession. The right to the throne, on which subject Mahomet was silent when he died, was respectively claimed by two powerful tribes, namely, those who fled to Medina with the prophet, or the fugitives, and those who aided him on his arrival, or the auxiliaries. To terminate this dangerous dispute, Omar, renouncing his own pretensions, held out his hand to Abubekr as his future sovereign; and his authority was recognised in all the provinces. The Hashemites, under Ali their chief, though averse to the new monarch, acknowledged him after some time as commander of the faithful. After a reign of two years he was succeededbyA i t. Omar, who was assassinated in the 12th year of his reign, and was succeeded by Othman ; and it was not till his death that Ali ascended the throne. This contest for the dignity of caliph has ever since divided the Mahometans into the two hostile parties of the Shiites or sectaries, who reprobat^ as usurpers Abubekr, Omar, and Othman; and the Sonmtes, who revere them along with Ali as the legitimate successors of the prophet. This schism is the source of the hatred which still exists between the Persians and Turks. Arabia, during the reign of these several princes, was filled with distraction at home, while the most splendid conquests were achieved abroad. To give a detail of these events, which relate besides to other countries as much as to Arabia, would exceed our limits. We may therefore briefly observe, that during the short reign of Abubekr, the Syrian territories of the Greek emperor were overrun by the victorious Moslems under Abu Obeidah, and afterwards under Khaled, surnamed from his valour and fanaticism the sword of God; that the Greek armies were overthrown! in several decisive battles; and that the rich and populous cities of the country, including Bosra and Damascus, were stormed by the barbarian invaders. A new army, raised by the Greek emperor, the last hope of the falling empire, was scattered before the barbarian host in the decisive battle of Yarmuk. Palestine was now subdued, and Jerusalem, which was reputed a holy city by its ferocious conquerors, and was visited by the Caliph Omar. Flere he directed Amrou to invade Egypt, which was rapidly overrun; and his other lieutenants to complete the conquest of Syria. His orders were punctually obeyed, and Aleppo, Antioch, Tyre, Caesarea, and all the other cities and fortresses in the province,>. r5' | were successively taken. On the east the empire of the Arabs was rapidly extended. “ They advanced,” says the eloquent historian of the Decline and Fall of Rome, “ to the banks and sources of the Euphrates and Tigris; the long-disputed

ARABIA. 343 .. |)nrr;er of Rome and Persia was for ever confounded ; the Fatimite caliphs, the progeny of Ali, were invested withv Arabia, walls of Edessa and Amida, of Dara and Nisibis, which royal authority; and the new line of the Abassides trans- ^“^^had resisted the arms and engines of Sapor or Nashir- ferring the seat of government from Damascus to the 6:s7 van, were levelled in the dust.” The fate of Persia was banks of the Euphrates, laid the foundation of Bagdad, decided in the great battle of Cadesia. The victorious the seat of their empire, and of wealth, literature, and Arabs poured like a flood over the country, and acquired science, for 500 years. In the course of these various revolutions and splendid prodigious spoil; nor did they halt in their victorious career till they had reached the banks of the Oxus, and had conquests, Arabia, the original seat of the Mahometans, added to their empire Herat, Merou, Balk, Samarcand, and had dwindled into an inconsiderable province of their vast empire, and the rude inhabitant of the desert resumed his other rich and trading cities in the East. The short reign of Ali, from the year 655 to 661, was solitary independence, heedless alike of distant victories disturbed by domestic dissension and the rival claims of as of domestic changes. The Hedjaz, the mountainous disMoawiyah, the son of Abu Sophian, well known for his trict of Arabia, and the chief seat of its commerce and1 its tardy and reluctant obedience to the sword, as was alleged, towns, was governed by the lieutenants of the caliphs, or rather than to the doctrines of the prophet. The death sherifs as they are called, who are chosen from the tribe of Ali by an assassin was the signal for new contests. of the Koreish, and who have always acted as the resiMoawiyah reigned at Damascus, which was the new ca- dent sovereigns of the country. But their power was unpital of the caliphs of the house of Ommiyah, and was known in the desert, where the scheiks still continued to succeeded by his son Yezid a. d. 680, whose title was rule. In the disorders attending the decay of the Mahodisputed by the surviving family of Ali, Hozein and Ab- metan power, Arabia was occasionally invaded by hostile dallah Ebn Zobeir, his two sons. They fled from Medina to tribes; but it was chiefly the outskirts of the country Mecca; and Hozein was proceeding to Cufa on assurances that were scathed by the flame of war, which never peof aid from the inhabitants, when he was surrounded and netrated to the interior. It appears from the incidental barbarously murdered, with all his followers, by Obeidal- and scattered notices which we possess, that about the year lah the governor. Abdallah, the sole representative of 1173 Sultan Saladin subdued a king who reigned in Yemen, the house of Hashem, was now proclaimed caliph at Me- and who had revolted against the authority of the caliphs dina, from which city he expelled all the adherents and of the line of Abassides. Having reduced the country, dependents of the house of Ommiyah, to the number of he committed the government to two deputies, who after8000. Yezid dispatched a large force to their aid, by wards claiming independent power, were in their turn rewhich Medina was taken, after a vigorous defence, and duced by the troops of Saladin. In 1517, when Selim I. abandoned to pillage. Mecca, besieged by the army of conquered Egypt, and extinguished the last surviving Yezid, was on the point of sharing the same fate, when representative of the second dynasty of the Abassides, intelligence was received of Yezid’s death. His son, the sherif of Mecca brought to him the keys of the city ; , CM Moawiyah II., succeeded him, and, after a reign of six and the Arabian tribes professed their allegiance, and gave weeks, died without naming a successor. Serious com- hostages as a pledge of their fidelity. The country conmotions now ensued. Merwan, of the house of Ommi- tinued under subjection for 50 years, when Muttahir, yah, was proclaimed caliph at Damascus, while Abdallah sherif of the kingdom, impatient of the Turkish yoke, reigned at Mecca. The former was succeeded by his attacked and routed the army of Murad Pacha, and son Abdalmalac, during whose reign the contest for the freed the country for a time from its oppressors. A powerthrone was terminated by the death of Abdallah, who, ful army, commanded by the governor of Egypt, was disin a desperate sally from Mecca, where he was besieged patched by Selim II. to Yemen; the Arabian force was by the troops of the rival caliph, was overpowered and defeated and dispersed, and the authority of the sultan slain. By his death the sovereignty was firmly established was re-established in Yemen, and extended backwards to in the line of the Ommiades, who reigned in Damascus the highlands. The country, thus reduced, was governed above 70 years. as a Turkish province by pachas sent from Constantinople. But the title of this dynasty not being founded on any But in the interior the independent princes and scheiks clear principle of religion or oflaw, was never recognised still retained their authority, and continued to harass the by the great body of the Moslems. They regarded with Turks, and to drive them back to the coasts. They were veneration the lineal descendants of the prophet, who on expelled from the province of Yemen about the middle of their part still cherished the hope of reigning over the the 17th century; and since this period until the invasion of Moslem empire. Numerous partisans of the line of Abbas the country by Mohammed Ali they have only possessed a were dispersed throughout the provinces, and secret plots precarious and nominal authority in the towns of Djidda for their restoration were gradually matured into rebellion. and Mecca.2 Ihe last caliph of the line of the Ommiades was met on The rise of the sect of the Wahabys, and the rapid Wahabys. the field by a powerful army commanded by Abdallah, extension of their dominion and doctrines, forms a most the uncle of his rival; and after an irretrievable defeat important epoch in the more recent history of Arabia. he escaped to Mosul, and finally to Egypt, where he was These sectaries were the reformers of religion in the defeated and slain, and the last remains of his party ex- East. They were zealous followers of Mahomet, who tinguished. Amid the ruin and massacre of his family were scandalized by the departure of-'modern believers by the conqueror, a royal youth, Abdalrahman, alone from the simplicity of the faith; by their worship at escaped, and making his way into Spain, laid the founda- the tombs of saints; by the luxurious ostentation of tion of a new dynasty of the Ommiades, who reigned in their dress; their remiss attendance at public prayers; Cordova with great splendour for 250 years, from the the immorality of their lives; the scandalous indecencies Atlantic to the Pyrenees. In Egypt and Africa the which they practised in the holy temple of Mecca; and ' “ bepuis ce tems-la (de Mahomet) les Arabes de Piemen (Yemen), et de toutes autres provinces de 1’Arabie, sont toujours delamaCS)SUUS ^0^L:'ssance ^es Khalifs, ou de Bagdet ou Egypte, tant que le Khalifat a dure'e.” (Herbelot, Bibliothtque Orientalc, ye Guignes, Histoire dcs Huns, tome i. livre vii. Cantemir’s History of the Growth and Decay of the Othman Empire', Niebuhr, J Description de 1'Arabic.

ARABIA. 344 Arabia, finally, in opposition to the strict prohibitions of the Ko- ment of Sherif Ghaleb, on the usual condition of hig ^ ran, by1 their free use of tobacco and other intoxicating conversion to the Wahaby faith. This conquest drugs. Such were the chief articles of the new creed, followed by the reduction of the neighbouring tribes, which, in the same manner as the faith itself, was propa- and in 1804 Medina surrendered to the Wallaby arms. gated by fire and sword. Its founder was Mohammed- Here they rigorously enforced the duty of public worship; Ebn-Abd-el Wahab, the son of a scheik in an obscure the absent were punished; and a respectable woman, acvillage, born in the year 1691, whose history and success cused of smoking the Persian pipe, was placed upon a for nearly a century seemed to presage the final triumph jack-ass, and paraded through the town with the pipe susof his doctrines and his arms. It is remarkable that pended round her neck. Saoud soon after visited Medina, the only two great revolutions which have ever taken and carried away from the tomb of Mahomet all the valuplace in Arabia have had their origin in religion. It able articles, namely, jewels and pearls, and Cufic manuw'as in both cases for religion that the sword was os- scripts of the Koran, which it contained; and ordered his tensibly drawn. The subjection or extinction of infidel troops, according to the approved maxims of his sect, who tribes was a step in the progress of the pious work; reprobate the worship of saints, to destroy the cupola over and these objects being accomplished, the original de- the tomb; but it was so strong that with all their efforts sign, however spiritual in its nature, necessarily termi- they could not deface this curious relic of antiquity. The Hedjaz continued to enjoy tranquillity during the nated in conquest and political dominion. The young apostle of the new faith was trained in the strict prin- years 1806, 1807, and 1808, under the divided rule of the ciples of Mahometanism. He was sent to finish his sherif of Mecca and of the Wahabys, the power of the studies in the university of Bassora; and on his return former gradually declining, while Saoud was acknowledgto his native village, commencing reformer of religion and ed as pontiff and king over the greater part of Arabia. of manners, he was banished by the governor. He took The Wahaby hordes extended their inroads southward into refuge in Derayeh, the capital of Nedjed, where he was the mountains of Yemen, whence they descended to the protected by the scheik Mohammed-Ebn-Saouhoud, a zeal- coasts and plundered the towns of Loheia and Hodeida. ous disciple, from political views, as was insinuated, of the On the north they advanced into the Syrian desert, and reformed faith. Here the new tenets were embraced by alarmed the Bedouins in the vicinity of Aleppo, as well crowds of proselytes, eager to draw their swords in the as the inhabitants of Damascus, who had begun to send cause of truth; and so well did the Wahaby chief Saoud away their valuable property to the mountains of Libanus. profit by their new-born zeal, that before his death in The Mesopotamian tribes near Bagdad were attacked and 1765 he had extended his faith and his dominion over pillaged ; and in 1810 Saoud, at the head of 20,000 troops, the whole province of Nedjed. His son Abd-el-Azyz en- stormed the Persian town of2 Kerbeleh, putting all the larged by new conquests the power of the Wahabys. He male inhabitants to the sword. The regular intercourse subdued and rendered tributary the surrounding tribes, of the great pilgrim caravans from Syria, Egypt, Persia, threatened the holy cities, and finally spread the terror and Yemen, had been interrupted since the year 1803, of his arms over all the northern parts of Arabia, from and the few scattered pilgrims that reached the holy Meccaand Medina to Damascus, Bagdad, and Bassora. Mo- cities from the north and west generally came across the hammed-Ebn-Abd-el Wahab, the founder of the Wahaby Red Sea from Cosseir to Djidda. The surrender of Mecca and Medina to the sectaries, sect, died in 1787, at the advanced age of 95. But this event noway damped the zeal of his followers. Their and the interruption of the pilgrimages, excited the shame expeditions were dreaded all along the banks of the Eu- and indignation of all pious Mahometans. Mohammed phrates, and in the neighbourhood of Bassora, which they Ali, who in 1804 was appointed pacha of Egypt, reinvaded every year, committing great excesses, and mas- ceived instructions from the Porte to undertake the resacring the Arab settlers who were the subjects of the conquest of the Holy Land. He accordingly determined Bagdad government. In 1797 the pacha of Bagdad un- on the invasion of Arabia, and prepared an expedition, dertook an expedition against Derayeh, the capital of the which he committed to his son Tousoun Bey, and Ahmed Wahabys. He was repulsed by Saoud, the son of the Aga his treasurer. The infantry, amounting to 2000 reigning chief, who continued his inroads into the Turk- troops, landed at Yembo from Suez in October 1811, and ish territories on the Euphrates. In 1801 he stormed the took the town after a slight resistance. In January 1812 town of Imam Hosseyn, where, according to the intolerant Tousoun advanced against Medina ; but he was assailed in the mountain passes, through which his route lay, by maxims of the new sect, 5000 persons were massacred. Ghaleb, the sherif of Mecca, was alarmed by the con- a powerful army of Wahabys, and utterly routed, with quests of the Wahabys, and since the year 1792 had the loss of all his baggage and artillery. Being in the been vainly contending against their rising power. In course of the summer largely reinforced from Egypt, 1801 the sectaries invaded his dominions in great force. he again advanced to Medina in November; and havIn 1802 they stormed the town of Tayf, which they ing sprung a mine and overthrown part of the wall, he gave up to a general massacre, in which neither men, carried the town by assault, massacring about 1000 ol the women, nor children were spared. In 1803 the holy garrison in the streets. The remainder, to the number of city, notwithstanding the brave resistance of Sherif Gha- 1500, retired to the castle, which they afterwards surrenderleb, surrendered at discretion to the victorious Waha- ed on condition of receiving a safe conduct for themselves bys. On entering it, the strictest discipline was pre- and baggage; in defiance of which they were, on quitting served by Saoud the chief, and not the slightest ex- the town, treacherously massacred by the Turkish troops. cess was committed. The inhabitants were, however, Sherif Ghaleb, intimidated by the capture of Medina, compelled to a more punctual attendance at prayers; to now intimated his desire of surrendering the holy city to conceal their silk dresses; all their finely ornamented Per- the Turkish commander. Mecca, with Djidda, its port, sian pipes were collected before Saoud’s house, and there was accordingly taken possession of in January 1813 withcommitted to the flames; and the sale of tobacco was for- out any opposition ; and in a fortnight the town of Ryb bidden. Mecca was afterwards given up to the govern- which had been held by the Wahabys for sixteen years, 1

Felix Mengin, Histoire dc VEgyptc sous le Gouvernement de Mohammed Ali, tome i. p. 379.

2

Ibid, tome i. p. 3C0.

A 11 A B I A. rahia surrendered after a feeble resistance. In 1813 Moham- the interior of the country. Abdallah had fixed his head AH landed at Djidda ; and on his arrival at Mecca, quarters at Shenana, only five hours’ march from the Turksuspecting the hostile intrigues of Sherif Ghaleb with the ish army. Tousoun was here seriously embarrassed by Arab tribes, he caused him to be arrested and sent under the want of supplies. His treasurer Ibrahim Aga,2 with a guard to Egypt. He was succeeded in the government a detachment, had been some time before surrounded on of Mecca by Yahya, also of the sherif family, the humble the road and cut to pieces, after a gallant resistance, and tool of Mohammed Ali. In the mean time the Turkish his remaining troops were averse to a battle. From these army, weakened by its losses, remained at Mecca and difficulties he was extricated by a peace, which Abdallah Tayf; and, with the exception of an unsuccessful expe- weakly concluded with him, and by which he agreed to dition against Toraba, the chief town of the southern renounce the possession of the holy cities, to be ranked Wahabys, and the capture of Gonfode, a port seven days’ among the faithful subjects of the sultan, to pray for him journey south of Djidda, which was soon after recaptured, in the mosques, and to submit to his authority as his sono enterprise of any importance had been undertaken vereign. But this treaty, however disgraceful to the Wasince the surrender of Mecca and Tayf. But Mohammed habys, was far from satisfying the views of Mohammed Ali was not idle. He employed the time in reinforcing Ali, who, with his usual contempt of all engagements, rehis wasted army, in collecting magazines and stores, in fused to ratify it; and conscious of his strength, would enpurchasing camels, and in strengthening his influence ter into no overtures from Abdallah, however humble, havamong the Arab chiefs, many of whom he succeeded in ing determined either to reduce or to exterminate the detaching from the Wahabys by the influence of presents rebellious sectaries of Arabia of which he was the head. and money. Both parties accordingly prepared for war. In SeptemSaoud, the successful chief of the Wahabys, died at ber 1815 Ibrahim Pacha, son of Mohammed Ali, landed Uedjed in 1814, and his son Abdallah, who succeeded at Yembo with 2000 Turkish troops, besides 2000 peahim, though he was brave, was inferior to his father in all sants pressed into his service at Siout on the Nile, amid the qualities of a political chief. The pacha having com- the outcries of their wives and children. Fie had pleted his preparations, now resolved to strike a decisive also a corps of 500 Moggrebins from Barbary. Flaving blow. In January 1815 he began his march southward in spent some time at Medina in reducing the surround^ the direction of Toraba. The Wahabys, to the number ing tribes, and visiting the holy sepulchre, he directed dF 25,000, occupied a strong position on the mountains all the troops which could be spared from the diffeiear Byssel, from which, after some unsuccessful attempts rent garrisons to march on Hanakye or Henakyeh, about to dislodge them, he contrived, by a feigned retreat, to 100 miles eastward of Medina, where, early in December, Iraw them into the plain. Here their disorderly host his whole force was concentrated. Plere he remained till vas borne down by the' steady attack of the pacha’s dis- the end of April 1817; and though his troops suffered iiplined force, and flying in confusion, they were cut down severely under fever and dysentery, the diseases of the without mercy by the Turkish cavalry. A reward of six climate, he succeeded, by several bold and well-concerted lollars being offered for the head of every Wahaby, 5000 expeditions, in impressing on the Arab tribes the ter>f these bloody trophies were in a few hours piled up ror of his arms. He extended his alliances among them, )efore the pacha’s tent. Of 300 prisoners who were taken, and by his policy as well as by his arms he silent>0 were, according to the cruel maxims of the East, impal- ly prepared the ruin of the Wahaby state. In the conid alive before the gates of Mecca, and the rest at other duct of the war Ibrahim combined, with the cruelty of a )arts. Mohammed Ali hastened to px’ofit by his victory. Turkish conqueror, undaunted courage and skill, a rare Ie arrived in four days before Toraba, which capitulated; perseverance under difficulties, and a fertility of resource ind advancing southward, he encountered the wreck of which seldom failed him. The discipline of his troops he Wahaby army in the mountains near the town of secured his superiority in the field; and the Wahaby host, leishe. Here, after a brave resistance under Tamy, their avoiding the risk of a battle, relied on their fortresses, liief, who was seen riding in front, animating the troops the nakedness of the land, and the noxious climate. >y his war songs, they gave way before the Turkish artil- The issue of the war was thus reduced to a mere arithery. lamy, who was betrayed into the hands of his ene- metical question of the number of men that would be renies by an Arab chief, and by his gallant bearing gained quired to carry it on. These being provided, the conhe esteem of the whole army, was sent to Constantinople, quest of the country was certain, and Mohammed Ali was mere he was instantly beheaded. Another chief, Bakh- too well versed in war not to see the advantages which he oudj, was tortured to death in presence of the pacha, possessed, and too deeply interested to grudge the neceshe Turkish army continued the pursuit of the Wahabys, sary supplies. He was willing to pay the fair price of his nd subdued most of the southern tribes. Mohammed success. The army of Ibrahim, notwithstanding its losses, . ! w?s. h^tent on carrying the war into Yemen, whose was accordingly maintained at its full complement by rejc i cities he hoped to plunder ; but the wasted state of cruits from Egypt; and he now hastened to complete the ie army forced him to an immediate retreat. He conquest of the country by reducing its strongholds, and ■niself accordingly proceeded to Gonfode on the sea- especially Derayeh, its capital. He had gone to the vill»ore, and arrived at Mecca on the 21st of March, after lage of Maouyeh, where he was joined by a powerful chief; p absence ot 15 days. Of his army, consisting of 4000 and having assembled all his forces, consisting of 4000 ini on brought back only 1500 ; and of 10,000 camels, fantry and 1200 horse, besides his Arab auxiliaries, he adn y ™ survived the fatigues of the campaign. in July to the fortress of Rass. In three several g war against the northern Wahabys was prosecuted vanced assaults, conducted with desperate valour, but without Ur ousoun ! \T Pacha, who had advanced east- skill, the assailants were overwhelmed, and finally reai rom ^ ^ Medina to Khabara, about 300 miles into pulsed with severe loss, by the well-directed fire of the 1

1

3 otes 011 ^ Bedouins and Wahabys, p. 356-7. Mengin, Histoire de VEgyptc. tlie laat'ext°f Edinburgh, named Thomas Keith, a private in the 72d regiment of highlanders, and taken prisoner t0 Eg7pt He became a of treasurer byTousoun Pacha! ‘ “lu^Mman, and on account of his valour was promoted to the high V C ia 0L. m. * 2x

346

A

R

A

A

R

A

garrison; and Ibrahim, after vainly contending for three months and 17 days against the obstinate valour of the inhabitants, and incurring a loss of 3400 men, was forced to raise the siege of an ill-fortified place, which, with the aid of engineers, he might have reduced in two days. But this was the only disaster which befell the Turkish arms. The sequel of the campaign was one continued course of conquest. Khabra, Aneyzey and its castle, and Banneydeh, successively fell after a slight resistance. At the latter place the Turkish army remained for two months. Having received large reinforcements, it commenced its marchraccompanied by a train of 10,000 camels and other beasts of burden, across frightful deserts of sand, and in January 1818 encamped at Chakra, which was taken after a siege of seven days. The town ofDorama was stormed after a brave resistance, and abandoned to pillage and the sword; and on the 22d of March Ibrahim directed his victorious march to Derayeh, the capital, and last stronghold of the Wahaby state. This place, which consists of five small towns, each surrounded with a wall protected by bastions at small distances, was now closely besieged by the Turkish army, which, including infantry and cavalry, amounted to 5500 troops. The siege was long and obstinate, but the Turkish troops still maintained their superiority. The different divisions of the town were successively stormed; and the unfortunate Abdallah, thus driven to his last retreat, was reduced to ask a suspension of arms and a conference. His interview with Ibrahim presented a touching spectacle of fallen dignity. He demanded peace: the conqueror granted his request, but added that he was not authorized to leave him at Derayeh}—the positive order of his father was that he should repair to Egypt. Abdallah, after 24 hours of deliberation, intimated his assent to the proposed terms, and only conditioned for his life. Ibrahim would not answer for the decision either of his father or the sultan, farther than that he thought them both too generous to take his life. Abdallah, having bidden a last adieu to his afflicted family, repaired to the tent of Ibrahim, from which he set out on his journey across the desert, and arrived at Cairo. He was sent to Constantinople, where, notwithstanding the intercession of Mohammed Ali, he was beheaded, along with his companions in misfortune,

in the square of St Sophia, after being exhibited in every ^ part of the city for three days. With the death of Ab- i dallah terminated the dominion of the Wahabys, which, ( kx under a succession of vigorous and politic princes, had in ^ the course of a century been extended over the whole peninsula of Arabia. But their empire, loosely held together by the tenure of recent conquest, was overthrown by the first attack to which it was exposed. The chiefs who yielded to the terror of the Wahaby arms deserted on the first appearance of a hostile army; others were seduced by the influence of gold, which was liberally distributed ; and domestic dissension coming in aid of foreign war, dissolved the union of the tribes, and completed the ruin of the country. According to M. Mengin, whose information is undoubted,1 Arabia had ample means of defence, in the difficulties of the country, and in the numbers, intrepidity, and discipline of its troops; and, with an able leader, he expresses his strong and apparently just conviction, that the Turkish army, in place of conquering the country, would have perished in its burning deserts. The ruin of the Wahabys is deeply to be regretted, as it may throwback for several centuries the civilization of Arabia. The Wahaby princes reformed the morals as well as the religion of their country. Under the reign of Saoud the administration of justice was rigid and impartial. The crimes of rapine, thieving, and murder, so common among the Arab tribes, were severely punished; an exact police was established throughout the country; and caravans and travellers were seen journeying on all the roads in perfect security. The Turkish conquests will restore the primitive barbarity of the Arabian manners, and anarchy and crime will resume their wonted sway. But Arabia contains within itself the seeds of independence. The distance of Nedjed from Cairo, and the expense and difficulty of sending supplies through the interior deserts, will render it extremely difficult to maintain a Turkish force in the heart of the country ; while the religious principles of the tribes, tbeir warlike character and love of freedom, animating them to new efforts, may yet enable them to triumph over the foreign tyranny which oppresses them, and to re-establish their freedom on a new and a Emore secure basis. (v

ARABICI, a sect who sprung up in Arabia about the year 207, whose distinguishing tenet was, that the soul died with the body, and also arose again with it. Eusebius (lib. vi. c. 38) relates that a council was called to stop the progress of this rising sect; and that Origen assisted at it, and convinced them so thoroughly of their error that they abjured it. ARABISM, Arabismus, an idiom or manner of speaking peculiar to the Arabs or the Arabic language. ARABIST, a person curious of and skilled in the learning and language of the Arabians; such were Erpe-

nius and Golius. The surgeons of the 13th century are called Arabists by Severinus. ARACAN. See Arracan. ARACHNE, in fabulous history, a young maid of Lydia, said to have been the inventress of spinning. She is fabled to have been so skilful in this art as to challenge Minerva at it, who tore her work, and struck her; which disgrace driving her to despair, she hanged herself. Minerva, from compassion, brought her to life, and transformed her into a spider, which still employs itself in spinning.

* M. Felix Mengin landed in Egypt with the French expedition under Buonaparte. He remained in Cairo for 20 years a country was evacuated by his countrymen, where he collected much valuable information respecting the internal adminis Egypt and the Wahabys. His account of this Mahometan sect is derived from the grandson of Ebn-Abdul-Wahab, its toun

^

347

ARACHNIDES, a?a.yjY!, a spider, and ados, resemblance, a class of rach- From invertebrated animals, formerly regarded as true insects, idesand as such classed by Linnaeus in his order Aptera, under the generic names of Phalangmm, Aranea, Acarus, and Scorpio. The Arachnides were first formed into a distinct class by M. Lamarck, whose arrangement of the Linmean Aptera is admitted by Latreille to approach the most nearly to the natural order. The third primary division in the system of Cuvier, that of the articulated animals (animalia articulata), contains four great classes, viz. Annelides, Crustacea, Arachnides, and Insecta. We have already stated our intention (see Animal Kingdom) to treat of the first of these classes under the title of Helminthology, of the last under Entomology, and of the two intermediate classes in the order of their alphabetical occurrence. We shall therefore now proceed with the history and classification of Arachnides. The naturalists who preceded Lamarck appear to have confounded this class either with the true Insecta, or with the crustaceous tribes, such as crabs and lobsters. It was in the course of his public lectures (in 1800) that the lastnamed, observer instituted for their reception a separate class, under the title which they now bear. Cuvier, in one of his earliest works ( Tableau Elementaire de l'Hist. Nat. des Animaux, 1798), continued, with his contemporaries, to class the Arachnides with insects, of which he regarded them as forming the third principal division, preceded only by the Crustacea and Myriapoda; thus far departing from and improving the old Linnaean system, by assigning them a higher place in his general arrangement, but not yet admitting them to the honour of a separate class. Lamarck published the first edition of his Systeme des Animaux sans Vertebres in the year 1801, and he there explains the reasons which induced him to form the separation previously advocated in his lectures. M. Latreille did not admit the classic separation of the Arachnides, either in his Histoire Naturelle de Crustaces et des Insectes (1802-5), or in his later work, the Genera Crustaceorum et Insectorum (1806-7), but merely placed them at the head of the class of insects. In a subsequent volume, however (Considerations Generales sur l’Ordre Naturel des Crustaces, &c. 1810), he practically admits the propriety of M. Lamarck’s views; and in it we find the Arachnides forming a separate class, and constituted of the same materials as those used by his predecessor. In that portion of Baron Cuvier’s Keane Animal (vol. iii. Jol7) of which M. Latreille is the author, we find the same arrangement followed, with this exception, that in the last-named work the Myriapoda and Chelopoda are removed from the Arachnides and placed at the head ot the class Insecta—a modification likewise adhered to both in the Families Naturelles du Kegne Animal (1825), and in the recent edition of the Kegne Animal itself (1829), which contains the latest view of M. Latreille. By these, m as far as concerns our general principles of arrangement, we shall be chiefly guided in the course of this article; hut we conceive it due to M. Lamarck to present our

readers, 1in the first place, with a short statement of his opinions. He defines the Arachnides as follows: Oviparous animals, at all times provided with articulated legs,—not subject to metamorphoses, nor ever acquiring new kinds of organs. Respiration tracheal or branchial: stigmatiform openings for the entrance of the air. A rudimentary heart and circulation in the greater proportion of species. Copulationes plures per vitam in plurimis.2 It is known that no vertebrated animal provided with feet has ever more than four; and that among such as are invertebrated, those which in a state of complete development are provided with feet, have never less than six. Amongst invertebrated animals, insects have essentially the smallest number of feet; for the various orders and families of that class, when arrived at their final development, have never more than six. They are hence called hexapods by some modern writers. It is otherwise, however, with the Crustacea and Arachnides, the greater proportion of which have more than six feet. Certain species, in their earliest state, have no more than that number; but their other feet appear as they advance in age. A few are hexapod, or six-footed, during the entire term of their existence ; but in addition to those characters which determine the class to which they belong, various other relations connect them with their congeners, and show that they are not genuine insects. Among those articulated animals which possess no system of circulation, insects alone undergo genuine metamorphoses ; and none of the Arachnides are subject to such changes. Now, as all Arachnides are essentially distinct from the Crustacea, and as they differ from insects in the important characteristic just mentioned, it follows, according to M. Lamarck, that they constitute an assemblage of beings which ought not to be held in separation, however diversified they may be in various points of their organization. The most remarkable circumstances in the structure of Arachnides are the following : That while many of these creatures are obviously provided with a circulating system, others present no vestige of that system; that the former breathe by means of branchial cells, while the latter respire through tracheae; and that certain tribes are provided with antennae, and others are entirely destitute of any such organs. These apparent non-conformities of structure result from this, that throughout the extended course of their class, the organization of the Arachnides undergoes rapid and remarkable changes; and if in the course of our observations we were to attend not only to the differences of external or internal parts, but to the progress of nature in the order of her productions, we would sooner perceive the propriety of that succession or change of organization even among animals really allied to each other by the great majority of their relations; and it would not have been deemed necessary to remove to another class such of the Arachnides as were antennated, because it would have been then more clearly perceived how incompatible was such a change with the assignment of their natural and appropriate place in the system.

See the Histoire Naturelle des Animaux sans Vertebres, ^ vols. 8vo. Paris, 1815—22. ’ “ Animalia ovipara, pedibus articulatis in omni tempore instructa, ad metamorphoses non subjecta, nec nova partium genera acquirentia. Respiratio trachealis aut branchialis; orificiis pro aeris intromissione stigmatiformibus. Cor circulatioque in pluribus inchoatis. Copulationes,” &c. ut supra.

ARACHNIDE8. 348 ArachThe class of Arachnides, as established by Lamarck successive developments of parts from the period of their nides. in his Cours, contained five or six small families, which, birth, yet offer not the condition of a larva distinct from 11 though each possessed of particular characters of dis- that of the perfect state : they preserve, not of course the S v r tinction, it would have been difficult to separate from their dimensions, but the form and proportions of the parts common frame-work, without considerable inconvenience with which they were originally produced; and if a few to whatever other class one or more of such families might of them acquire additional parts in the course of their have been removed. If, for example, the antennated development, these are not of a new kind, but merely suArachnides should be classed among insects, we then de- pernumerary to such as previously existed; for example, stroy the most simple and satisfactory definition which a pair of feet, or another segment to the abdomen. But can be given of the last-named class, while we are forced this kind of development is different from that called meto assign to the animals with which we unite them a po- tamorphosis in insects. All of these acquire either a sition in the general series unsuitable to their real nature new form, or parts of structure of a different kind from and attributes. If we transport the tracheal Arachnides those which they possessed when first produced from the to the class Insecta, in order to enable us to define the egg; and their state of larva, manifestly distinct from latter class by the exclusive character of respiring by that of the perfect insect, is never equivocal. Thus the Arachnides of Lamarck, distinguished in a tracheae, then insects can no longer be said to be uniformly distinguished by the possession of antennae, and general point of view from true insects by the want of the genus Phalangium, &c. would be separated from the metamorphoses, yet breathing in air, are remarkable for class which contains the spiders. For these reasons La- the singular gradations which their organization presents I marck is of opinion that the division which contains his us when we compare the different families with each Arachnides, whether antennated or non-antennated, ought other. In fact, these animals exhibit, in their totality, to be preserved in its integrity, if we wish to avoid the different groups, which offer among themselves such great impropriety of associating with insects other forms of dissimilarities of organization, as might almost furnish the animal life1 which nature has distinguished by different materials of as many classes; but such a proceeding would injure the simplicity of systematic arrangement, characters. A class may be constituted of natural materials, and and would be unsuitable, in as far as these great divisions contained within suitable limits, and nevertheless present might still be connected together by characters of general among its various families animals of very different forms application, the same, in truth, as those by which the and construction. During every period of its existence, class of Arachnides is itself distinguished. Although certain Arachnides possess organs adapted to a butterfly presents an aspect very dissimilar to that of a scarabaeus, yet both belong to the true Insecta. When a circulating system, they do not on that account belong strong general affinities (analogies d’enSemble) prevail, to the crustaceous class. They are chiefly distinguished those special diversities of structure which are occasionally from that class by their respiratory organs, which, wheobservable are insufficient to authorize a separation of ther tracheal or branchial, are always placed in the inteclasses. The genera Aranea, Phalangium, and Galeodes, rior of the body, whilst in the Crustacea they are exterare very nearly related to each other, although the first nal. In the former, also, the opening which admits the respire by obvious branchial cells, while the others enjoy fluid to be respired is stigmatiform; but it is not so in the latter. a tracheal respiration. Even the structure of the eyes affords an index to the The non-antennated Arachnides are in general provided with eight feet; and the Acarides and Pycnogonides con- Arachnides. All true insects have two eyes, with plane duct naturally to the Phalangides, such as the genus pha- facettes, presenting the appearance of a very delicate netlangium and others. Now, if these Acarides belong essen- work ; but in the Arachnides the eyes are smooth, whetially to the Arachnides, can the parasitical genera, such ther isolated, as among the greater number, or grouped as Pediculus and Ricinus, which lead towards them so evi- as in spiders, and form a small mass, of which the surface dently, be regarded as belonging to another class ? The is granular or sub-granular, and not in facettes. Arachtransition is so gradual and prepared, that the Acarides, nides form a class superior to insects, because many of provided for the most part with eight feet, like the other them are more highly organized, and all of them are more non-antennated Arachnides, yet present us with many ge- nearly allied to the Crustacea than genuine insects. It nera (such as Astoma, Leptis, Caris) which have never does not follow from this that all the individuals of that more than six. Lamarck maintains the necessity of pre- class are superior to the most perfect insects, or that they serving the class Arachnides according to the limits which have derived their existence, according to the French he has himself assigned to it, because its being so pre- phraseology, by transition from these last-named creaserved relieves the class of insects from species with tures, or by an advance or progression in the scale of orwhich that class has little or no connection. Without ganization. For in the progress of animal life from the citing the impossibility of assigning a suitable position lower to the higher groups, the Arachnides appear to among insects to tribes like the Parasites, the Thysanoura, commence almost at the same epoch as the genuine inand the Myriapoda, the strongest objection to the re- sects, and present a dichotomous or double ramification, union of these animals with insects is, that it will alter corresponding in its level with that which bears the entire the general and truly natural characters assigned to the class of insects. About that same point of the animal kinglatter, viz. that of presenting, after exclusion from the dom there seems in fact to be three distinct streams or egg, a particular state of larva, singularly varied accord- courses of life, immediately succeeding the Epizoana, ing to the different orders in the forms and parts of the viz. that of the apterous insects ( Pulex), which leads sucanimal, and that of finally exhibiting an imago or perfect cessively to all the other forms of insect life; that of the state very different from the larva, and distinguished by antennated parasitical Arachnides (Pediculus and Ricinus), six articulated legs, two reticulated eyes, and a pair of which leads to the Acarides and other non-antennated antennae. Arachnides; and that of the wandering (vagabunda) Arachnides, on the contrary, although in many instances antennated Arachnides (Thysanoura and Myriapoda),from antennated, and, like all other living beings, undergoing which the crustaceous tribes may be said to spring.2 1

Anxmaux sans Vcrtebres, tome v. p. G.

2

Ibid, tome v. p. 10.

ARACHNIDES. 349 :h Thus, of those great divisions which appear to derive establishment of a circulating system. It results from Arach;s. their origin almost from the same point in the scale, the these considerations that, in spite of the difference of orfirst is formed of an enormous series of animated beings, ganization observable in different families of Arachnides nides. characterized by the strongly contrasted aspects of larva these families are nevertheless related and united by and perfect insect; and the others are true Arachnides, natural affinities, which it is impossible to mistake, and and consequently present no such marked distinction be- would be improper to separate, and which appear to tween the conditions of the young and old. In the most place them at an almost equal distance from Insects and perfect of the arachnidean class, such as spiders and scor- Crustacea. In their aspect, however, they in general repions, Cuvier has demonstrated a muscular and dorsal semble somewhat more nearly the latter class. For exheart, subject to sensible systole and diastole; and on the ample, the cancerides or crabs represent in some respects, abdomen he discovered several stigmatic openings (from by their short bodies, and heads confounded with the two to eight), which lead to an equal number of particu- thorax, the usual form of spiders; while the cray-fish and lar purse-shaped cavities, each of which contained a great Thalassinae (^Cancer anotnulus, Leach) recall the figure of many small and very delicate laminae or plates. These the scorpion. isolated cavities, and the plates with which they are fillThe greater proportion of Arachnides dwell on the land, ed, are without doubt the respiratory organs of these a few inhabit the waters, and a certain number are parasitiArachnides. Cuvier regards them in the light of lungs; cal on the bodies of other animals, of which they suck the while Lamarck himself is inclined to view them rather as juices. In general they are carnivorous, and live on blood, branchial cavities analogous to those observable in the or at least on animal substances; a very limited number leech and earth-worm—the property of branchia being, existing on vegetable matter. Many are furnished with in the first place, the power of becoming habituated to mandibles, which perform the functions of a trunk or j the respiration of air (water being their usual medium), sucker; and others are provided with an isolated or sepawhilst the true lung respires air alone ; and, in the second rate trunk, frequently accompanied both by mandibles place (and this character applies of course a fortiori to and palpi. They are for the most part solitary animals, lungs also), never to exist except in animals which are of gloomy habits, and forbidding aspect; they court conpossessed of a circulating system.1 caalment, and avoid exposure to strong light.- The bite finally, from the dorsal heart already mentioned two of many species is dangerous, in consequence of a poisonlarge vessels derive their origin, and are then ramified ous or irritating fluid frequently instilled into the wound. over the membrane of the respiratory cavities. Cuvier The offensive organ in the scorpionides is placed at the regards these vessels as pulmonary, the one acting as an extremity of the abdomen. artery, the other as a vein—and other vessels spring following is a tabular view of M. Lamarck’s system from the same dorsal trunk, and distribute themselves to of The arrangement. various parts of the body. In these animals there is even a liver, composed of four pair of glandular clusters, which General Division of Arachnides. discharge their fluid at four different points of the intesOrder I.—Antennated tracheal Arachnides. Head furtine. nished with two antennae. Respiration effected by It is among the Arachnides that we find the first esmeans of double-corded plexiform trachea?. tablishment ol organs for the circulation of the animal fiuids; and in the same class we perceive, as it were, the Section I.— Crustaceans Arachnides. Two composite termination of tracheal respiration by ramified tracheae, eyes, of which the surface is granular or sub-granular. with a view to the substitution of the branchial system, They are sometimes called wandering Arachnides, to wnicli, though in itself admitting of considerable variadistinguish them from such as are fixed or parasitical. tion, is always characterized by its more local restriction. They are frequently of a scaly structure, and provided Among the Arachnides also we find the commencement of . with mandibles fitted for incision and division. This the principal of the conglomerated glands. section consists of two families, viz. Thysanoura and i lie respiratory sacks, which Cuvier pointed out in the Myriapoda. The following are the genera of Thysaspiders and scorpions, were also detected by M. Latreille noura : Smynthurus, Podura, Machilis, Lepisma. Those in the genus Phryna, in such a manner as to connect, by of Myriapoda are, Scutigera, Lithobiiflt, Scolopendra, that dominating feature in their structure, the Arachnides . Polyxenus, Julus, Glomeris. pcmpalpes and the Arachnides Jileuses of that author. Alt lough among the Phalangides the respiratory sacks have Section II.—Acarideous Arachnides. Two or four smooth not yet become perceptible, yet the aeriferous tracheae eyes. These animals are parasitical, and provided rave changed their character, and no longer consist of either with a retractile sucker or with two mandibles a double cord with a series of plexus, but are merely hooked for the purpose of adhesion. Their bodies are never scaly. The genera are Pediculus and Ricinus. blanched or ramified. The same order prevails among no Acarides, and results mainly from the reduced numtr aiu altered position of the stigmata. Among the an- Order II.—No7i-antennated tracheal Arachnides. No antennae. Tracheae for respiration branched, but not gan' muted Arachnides, in which the stigmata are more nuam ln glionized. Two or four smooth eyes. ^ general lateral, the tracheal cords, like inse ctfe iav e as Section I.—Body either without apparent division, the . ’ ! , many plexus as stigmata; and cTf Aiaclmides, in fact, approach the most nearly to the head, thorax, and abdomen, being united in one mass, ns * ects. I bus tracheal respiration changes by or composed of two divisions. This section is composed egrees its nature and mode of action, as the stigmata of two families, viz. Acarides and Phalangides. The inu ergo an alteration in regard to their number and posiformer contains the following genera: Astoma, Lepmi., and, becoming more and more reduced and restricttus, Caris, Ixodes, Argas, Uropoda, Smaris, Bdella, areS le wa as 11 Acarus, Cheyletus, Gamasus, Oribata, Erythraeus, tlVn>1 "!>!ep , ^ y> were, for branchial respiraiieh only shows itself effectively along with the Trombidium, Hydrachna, Elais, Limnochares. The 1

Analyse des Travaux dcs Sciences de Vlnstitut pendant Vann'ee 1810.

350 Arachnites.

' RACHNIDES. genera of Phalangides are these—Trogulus, Siro, Pha- of the tail. The other Tetracera probably receive it in a similar manner: at all events they are not provided with langium. distinct external stigmata, like the Arachnides of the suc- 4 Section II.—Body divided into three or four distinct seg- ceeding orders. We still find in this first division species ments. This section is likewise composed of two families, which inhabit the sea; but as soon as we enter the order Pycnogonides and Pseudo-scorpiones. Of the first family Acera (scorpions, spiders, &c.) we find none occurring in the genera are, Nymphum, Phoxichilus, Pycnogonum; that element. of the second, Galeodes, Chelifer. The structure of suctorial Arachnides is reducible to Order III.—Non-antennated branchial Arachnides. No three principal forms or combinations of organs; Is?, Those antenna. Branchial cells or pouches for respiration. possessed of antennae, and of which the head is distinct from the thorax—Parasita ; 2d, Those which are unproFrom six to eight smooth eyes. with antennae, each segment of the body furnished Section I.—Pedipalpi or Scorpionida. Palpi very large, vided with a pair of legs, and the head distinct—Pycnogonides; in the form of projecting arms, terminated by claws or 3d, Those which are unprovided with antennae, but of pincers. Abdomen distinctly ringed, and not furnished which the head and thorax are confounded as it were in a with a spinning apparatus. Genera—Scorpio, Thelypho- single segment, which alone is provided with feet—Acera. nus, Phrynus. This last-mentioned order, according to Latreille, would Section II.—Araneides or Spinning Arachnides. Palpi form the first, if the organs of the mouth alone were consimple, in the form of small feet; those of the male sidered, as these are more complicated than in any other bearing the sexual organs. Mandibles terminated by suctorial Arachnides. The Acera have two palpigerous a movable crotchet. Abdomen without rings, and maxillae, and frequently a lip, with two strong mandibles. furnished at its termination with a web-making appara- The generality of the Pycnogonides have also mandibles, tus, consisting of from four to six spinners. Genera— which have been taken for palpi, and true palpi, which Aranea, divided into numerous tribes or sub-genera; have been erroneously regarded as antennae; but their Atypus, Mygale, Avicularia. mouth consists of a tunnel or syphon of a single piece. It In his Considerations Generates, M. Latreille founds the is still more simple in the Parasites, being nothing more orders of the class Arachnides on two principal points as than a very short projection, containing a small sucker, or the first basis. These animals are either masticators or a cavity of which the sides are dilatable, and accompanied suckers. The jaws of the former are simple, and fitted by two crotchets. In regard to the families of the Arachnides, the Tetrafor cutting and triturating the substances on which they cera offer two principal groups. Some dwell in salt or feed; those of the latter, when they exist at all, serve only to seize their prey, and are terminated by a movable fresh water, are usually fixed upon other animals, of which piece, either solitary and hooked, like a claw or crotchet, they suck the blood, and have, with the exception of the or accompanied by a fixed projection like a small finger. genus Bobyra, four very obvious and distinct antennae. Others In the latter case the mandibles have the appearance of a They constitute the first family, that of pair of pincers. The Arachnides of this division compress are more terrestrial than aquatic. They wander from place with their pincers the small animals on which they prey, to place, love obscure and sombre situations, and live upon and so force the alimentary juices to pass by degrees into putrid substances; their two intermediate antennae are the oesophagus. The body of their prey having under- but slightly developed. They form the second family, gone this operation, is thrown aside. In spiders the claw called Oniscides. According to Latreille, the structure of of the mandible seems to execute an additional function. the mouth in Scolopendra is so different from that of Julus, It distils a poisonous liquid, analogous in its nature to that that it is difficult to conceive the motive which influenced which exudes from the mouth of the scolopendra, and Fabricius to unite these Arachnides into a single order, the maxillae and the lip- are the tail or sting of the scorpion. Moreover, all the mas- that of Mitosata. In Julus, 7— ticating Arachnides are furnished with antennae, while the soldered together, forming one transverse plate, without suctorial tribes, with the exception of two genera, Ricinus distinct palpi, or their place supplied by tubercles. Ihe and Pulex, are unprovided with these organs. Thus the Scolopendrae have their maxillae separated, four projecting primary divisions of this class by Latreille nearly corre- palpi, and the labia in the form of hooks, subservient to spond to Lamarck’s two orders, the Antennistes and Pal- the same uses as the mandibles of spiders. These considerations, and the figure of the antennae, have required pistes. M. Latreille then subdivides the masticating Arachnides the establishment of two families, which compose Latreille s into three orders— Tetracera, Myriapoda, and Thysanoura. order Myriapoda, viz. Chilognatha and Syngnatha. Pro* The last alone present a thorax distinct from the abdo- ceeding upon the same principles, he divides the order men, and have no more than six feet. In the two first- Thysanoura likewise into two families, the Lepismenee and named orders the organs of movement amount at least the Podurellce. The next orders, Parasita and Pycnogoto the number of fourteen, disposed along the sides of the nides, contain few genera, and do not admit of subdivision body, each segment of which, with the exception at most into families. The last order, Acera, is composed of eight of the last three, carry one or two pair. The Tetracera families, viz. Scorpionides, Pedipalpi, Aranides, Phalangita, (genus Oniscus of Linnaeus) are distinguished by four an- Acaridiae, Riciniae, Hydrachnellae, and Microphthira. Before commencing our systematic exposition of this tennae ; there are only two in the Myriapocla. The Tetracera have besides several jaws, and are furnished with class, we shall lay before our readers the sentiments ol plates or foliaceous appendages on the inferior surface of Mr Kirby. “ I must next say something on the orders or the posterior extremity of their bodies. The number of the Arachnida. Every one at first sight sees that spitheir feet is invariably fourteen. They are related in ders and scorpions are separated by characters so strongly several particulars to the Crustacea. De Geer observed, marked, that they look rather like animals belonging to that in Assellus and Idotea there is a kind of membranous different classes, than to the same. These form the tvvo cavity, frequently filled with air, beneath the plates of the primary orders of the Arachnida, and they appear to be tail; and similar parts are observable in the true crustace- connected by two secondary or osculant ones,—on the one. ous Squillae of Fabricius. In Oniscus the air penetrates side by Galeodes, and on the other by Thelyphonus an the body by openings, which are covered by the first folds Phrynus. This class, although there is an appearance o

A R A C H N I D E S. 351 Aracheight legs, is, strictly speaking, of a Hexapod type; for the 4. Phrynidea. anterior pair, ordinarily regarded as legs, and performing Def.—Mandibles unguiculate. Anterior palpi chelate •their function, are really the analogues of the maxillary or unguiculate, very robust. Posterior palpi pediform, palpi of perfect insects. This will be evident to you if very long and slender. Abdomen divided into segyou examine any species of Galeodes. These animals, if we ments. Spiracles two pairs. Anus terminating in a look at them cursorily, we should regard as decapods ; but mucro, and sometimes 4in a filiform jointed tail, withwhen we trace the two anterior pairs of apparent legs to out a sting at the end. their insertion, we find that both proceed from the head, In the Regne Animal (2d edition, 1829), Latreille inwhich in that genus is distinct from the trunk; while the three last pairs, which alone are furnished with claws, are cludes in the class Arachnides only those species which planted, as legs usually are, in the latter part. The first correspond to the Arachnides palpistes of M. Lamarck. pair represent the ordinary palpi of Arachnida, are analo- By this arrangement he is of opinion they maybe classed gous to the labial ones of hexapods, and, as likewise in and defined in a more simple and rigorous manner. AccordPhrynus and Thelyphonus, are more robust than what are ing to his most matured views, then, the Arachnides, like usually taken for the first pair of legs ; but they differ in the Crustacea, are destitute of wings, and are not subject being considerably longer, and, instead of terminating in to metamorphoses, but only to simple changes. Their a chela, are furnished with a retractile sucker.1 The sexual organs are removed from the posterior extremity second pair are more slender and shorter than the first. of their bodies, and situated, with the exception of cerThey correspond precisely with what are deemed the first tain males, at the base of the abdomen. They bear a repair of legs of Octopods and Arachnida, and are clearly semblance to insects in as far as the surface of their boanalogous to the maxillary palpi of insects. Whether the dies present openings or transverse clefts named stigmata, base of the first pair of these palpi is in any respect ana- for the entrance of air, but in smaller number than in in1 logous to the labium of insects (as that of the second sects (eight at most, generally two), and placed only at seems to be to their maxillae), I am not prepared to assert; the inferior part of the abdomen. Their respiration is it will therefore be most advisable to name these palpi an- farther carried on either by aerial branchia, performing terior posterior'; but as they evidently proceed from the office of lungs, inclosed in the cells of which the openthe head in Galeodes, and in that genus are clearly analo- ings just mentioned are the entrance, or by means of ragous to those of the Phrynidea (which in their turn as diated tracheae. The organs of vision consist of small simclearly represent those of the Aranidea), it follows, that ple eyes, variously grouped when numerous. The head, in ail they are organs of the part representing the head, usually distinct from the thorax, presents, as analogous to and therefore not in a primary sense Ugs, although in the antennae of insects, two articulated appendages, in the 2 a secondary, as M. Savigny has proved, they may be so form of small talons of two or more pieces, which have been improperly compared to the mandibles of insects, called.”3 The following are the secondary groups of the class though moving in a different direction. They, however, coArachnides, according to Mr Kirby’s exposition, in the operate in the action of the jaws, and arc represented in work last quoted. those Arachnides of which the mouth is formed like a syphon or sucker by two pointed plates or lancets.5 A sort 1. Aranidea.—M‘Leay. (Aranea, L., Araneidce, Lat.) of lip {labium, Fab.), or rather tongue, formed by a pectoThe Aranidea or spiders seem resolvable into two ral prolongation; two maxillae, formed by the radical part sub-orders—the Sedentaries and the Wanderers; of the first article of two small feet or palpi,6 or by a lobe thus forming, perhaps, what Mr M‘Leay would de- or appendage of that article; a beak-shaped projection, nominate the normal groups of a circle of Arachnida. named sternal tongue {langue sternale) by M. Savigny, Def.—Mandibles armed with a perforated claw. Head produced by the re-union of a very small chaperon, terand trunk coalite. Palpi pediform, anterior pair minated by a minute triangular lip, and of a longitudinal without claws. Abdomen without segments or elon- inferior keel, usually hairy :—these, and the parts called gated tail. Spiracles two. Anus furnished with an mandibles, compose, under certain modifications, the general structure of the mouth in the class Arachnides. The apparatus for spinning. pharynx is placed in advance of a sternal projection, which 2. Scorpionidea.—M‘Leay. (Scorpio, L. Latr.) has been regarded as a lip; but when we> consider its poDef.—Mandibles chelate. Head and trunk coalite. An- sition behind the pharynx, and the absence of palpi, it is terior palpi chelate. Posterior palpi pediform. Pec- probably rather analogous to a tongue (languette). The tens two. Abdomen divided into segments, and ter^ feet, like those of insects, are generally terminated by two minating in a jointed tail, armed at the end with a crotchets, sometimes by three, and are all attached to the sting. four pair. thorax, which is almost always formed of a single articulation, for the most part intimately united to the abdo3. Galeodea. men. The abdomen in the greater proportion of species Def.—Head distinct. Eyes two. Mandibles chelate, is soft, or but slightly protected. with dentated chelae. Palpi pediform, the anterior When considered in relation to their nervous system, pair thickest, with a retractile sucker. Trunk con- the Arachnides are obviously distinguished both from the sisting of two principal segments, with a minute sup- Crustacea and Insects; for, with the exception of the scorplementary posterior one. Spiracles two, placed in pions, the ganglia or swellings of the nervous cords never the trunk. Pseudo-pectens two. Abdomen divided exceed three in number. into segments. Anus unarmed, and without a spinThe greater proportion of Arachnides feed on living inning apparatus. sects, the bodies of which they seize or adhere to, and ^ Leon Dufour, SixNouv. Arach. Qc. Ann. Gen.des Sciences Physiq. iV. iii. 17, t. Ixix. f. 7* h3 ’ Mem. sur tcs Anim. satis Vcrtebres. Introduc. to Entom. vol. iv. p. 386. (1826.) * Ibid. p. 388. s Chdictres or Antenne.pinccs of the French writers. According to Latreille, these do not differ from feet properly so called, except in the tarsi, composed of only a single joint, and usually terminated by a small crotchet; they almost entirely resemble the ordinary feet of the Crustacea.

352 ARACHNIDS S. Family II.—Pedipalpi. Arach- suck their juices. Others are parasitical on the bodies of nides. vertebrated animals. A few, such as certain mites, feed Tribe 1.— Tarentidce. on cheese, and on flour and other vegetable productions. Genus 34. Phrynus. In some of the species two of the feet are not developed 35. Thelyphonus. till the animals have changed their skin; and in general Tribe 2.—Scorpionides. it is not till after their fourth or fifth moult, or casting of their exuviae, that the Arachnides attain to their comGenus 36. Buthus. 1 pleted state. 37. Scorpio. The following tabular view exhibits the classification and relative position of the orders and genera of this exr Order II.—Tracheari^:. tensive class. Family I.—Pseudo-Scorpiones. CLASS ARACHNIDES. Genus 38. Galeodes. Order I.—Pulmonarije. 39. Chelifer. Family L—Araneides. Family II.—Pycnogonides. Genus 40. Pycnogonum. Sect. I.— Tetrapneumones. 41. Phoxichilus. Genus 1. Mygale. 42. Nymphon. 2. Cteniza. 43. Ammothea. 3. Atypus. 4. Erodion. Family III.—Holetra. 5. Dysdera. Tribe 1.—Phalangita. 6. Filistata. Genus 44. Phalangium. Sect. II.—Dipneumones. 45. Gonoleptes. A.—Sedentariae. 46. Siro. 47. Macrocheles. Tribe 1.— Tubitelce. 48. Trogulus. Genus 7. Clotho. 8. Drassus. Tribe 2.—Acarides. 9. Segestria. Genus 49. Trombidiura. 10. Clubiona. 50. Erythraeus. 11. Aranea. 51. Gamasus. 12. Argyroneta. 52. Cheyletus. Tribe 2.—Incequitelce. 53. Oribata. 54. Uropoda. Genus 13. Scytodes. 55. Acarus. 14. Theridion. 56. Bdella. 15. Episinus. 57. Smaridia. 16. Pholcus. 58. Ixodes. Tribe 3.— Orbitelcc. 59. Argas. 60. Eylais. Genus 17. Linyphia. 61. Hydrachna. 18. Uloborus. 62. Limnochares. 19. Tetragnatha. 63. Caris. 20. Epeira. 64. Leptus. Tribe 4.—Laterigradai. 65. Aclysia. 66. Astoma. Genus 21. Micrommata. 67. (5cypete. 22. Senelops. 23. Philodromus. We shall now proceed to the first subdivision of the 24. Thomisus. class into two great orders. B.—Erratics;. Order I.—Arachnides Pulmonarle. Tribe 5.—Citigradce, Characterized by the possession of pulmonary sacks, a Genus 25. Oxyopus. heart with distinct vessels, and from six to eight simple 26. Ctenus. eyes. The sacks contain aerial branchia, which perform the 27. Dolomedes. office of lungs, and are named pneumo-branchiabyLatreille. 28. Lycosa. They are placed under the abdomen, and are indicated 29. Myrmecia. externally by stigmata or small transverse openings, of Tribe 6.—Saltigradce. which there are sometimes four on each side, sometimes Genus 30. Tessarops. % only four in all, or two on each side. The eyes vary in 31. Palpimanus. number from six to eight,2 whereas in the subsequent or32. Eresus. der ( Trachearice) there are never more than four. The re33. Salticus. spiratory organ is formed of small plates. The heart is a 1 Latreille has observed, in conformity with the experience of Jurine fils, that the Argulus of Muller does not acquire the faculty of generating till after the completion of the sixth moult. Caterpillars generally change their skins four times before they assume the form of the chrysalis, which, with the final transformation to the perfect state, causes the number of moults to amount also to six. ‘ The genus Tessarops of M. Rafinesque is described as having only four eyes; but M. Latreille is of opinion that the lateral pair had been overlooked.

ARACHNIDES. 353 Serres, Leon Dufour, Treviranus, and other observers, Arachh large vessel, which stretches along the back, and gives off L' branches forwards and on either side.1 The feet are con- our knowledge of the internal organization of several ge- mdes. stantly eight in number. The head is always confounded nera of Arachnides is extremely deficient. Hence it is with the thorax, and presents two pincers (mandibulce, of difficult to trace the boundaries of the orders in a manner authors, cheliceres or antenne-pinces of Latreille) terminat- at once natural and precise. At the same time it has ed by two finger-like projections, of which one is mov- been remarked, that the accurate observation of the eyes able, or by a single hook or claw, always movable. The and other external organs furnish characters which coinmouth is composed of a lip {labium) ; of two palpi, which cide with the distinctions deduced from internal structure, sometimes assume the shape of arms or talons; of two or as far as the latter has been ascertained. four maxillm, formed, when there is only a pair, by the radical article of the palpi, and when there are four, by Family I.—Araneides. that same article and the corresponding portion of the first This extensive family corresponds to the genus Aranea pair of feet; and of a languette of one or two pieces. If we were to assume as a basis the progressive diminution of Linnaeus, and contains all those species commonly callin the number of the pulmonary sacks and stigmata, then ed spiders—the Arachnides fileuses of Latreille. The chathe scorpions which have eight, while the other Arach- racters are, two or four branchial pouches; from six to nides have only four or two, would form the leading ge- eight simple eyes; last article of the mandibles {cheliceres) nus of the class, and the family of Pedipalpi would take in the form of a corneous claw, perforated at the extreprecedence of the Araneides or spinners; but these last- mity for the emission of poison, and folded upon the prenamed Arachnides are to a certain extent isolated, by rea- ceding joint; abdomen usually soft, without divisions, son of the sexual organs of the male, by the hook of their its extremity furnished with from four to six small teatholes for the pasfrontal talons, by their pediculated abdomens, and the pe- like appendages, pierced with numerous 2 culiarities of their spinning apparatus, as well as by their sage of the silk or spinning materials ; feet palpi, without natural habits; and the scorpions also appear to form a pincers at the extremity, but terminated in the female by more natural transition from the pulmonary Arachnides to small hooks, and in the male by the generative organs. the family of the pseudo-scorpions, the first of the second The maxillae are neyer more than two in number. The languette consists of a single piece, always external, and order. Of all the Arachnides the Pulmonarice exhibit the great- placed between the maxillae; its form more or less square, est analogies to the crustaceous class, especially to the sometimes triangular or semicircular. The thorax, usugenus Limulus and others of the paecilopodous order. The ally impressed with a form resembling the letter Y, indipneumo-branchia and their stigmatiform openings may cating the space occupied by the head, is composed of a frequently be detected externally by yellowish-white single article. The legs, of which the forms are analomarkings, disposed in two longitudinal series. The first gous, though the dimensions differ considerably, are comtwo are placed immediately beneath the sexual organs, at posed of seven joints, of which the first two form the least in the females, at a small distance from the origin of haunch, the third the thigh, the fourth and fifth the leg, the abdomen, and on its second segment, when that part and the remaining two the tarsi; the last is terminated is annular or divided into segments. Thus the second by a couple of hooks, which are usually toothed or pectisegment in these Arachnides corresponds in its characters nated, and in many species there is an additional tooth of to the first segment of the female Limulus. We may also smaller size, but not pectinated. The intestinal canal is perceive in them the indications of conglomerated glands, straight: there is first a stomach composed of several and even in certain species traces are observable of chili- sacks; and towards the middle of the abdomen a second dilatation occurs. According to Marcel de Serres the heart ferous vessels. The claw of the mandibles in spiders, and the terminal is situated in the abdomen, and stretches throughout its joint of the tail in scorpions, form a species of dart, perfo- whole length ; there is a considerable swelling towards its rated by one or two openings, which give issue to a poi- superior extremity, after which it assumes and retains the sonous liquid secreted by special glands. This poison is cylindrical form. It is very muscular, and its pulsations mortal to such small creatures as form the natural prey are strong and frequent. The pulmonary pouches, usuof the Arachnides, and is even productive of dangerous ally two in number, are always situated on the lower surconsequences to man and the larger animals. Its mode face of the abdomen, near its origin, and are covered by a of action on animals unprovided with a circulating sys- coriaceous skin, generally of a red colour; the stigmatitem is not clearly understood, but the phenomena attend- form opening proper to each pouch is placed towards its ing it might reasonably be adduced in support of that base, on the inner side. These pouches are formed of a theory which advocates the agency of poison from the bite white membrane, strong but flexible, which presents on its of venomous reptiles as being carried on as much through interior, transverse, projecting, parallel, nearly semicircuthe medium of the nervous as the circulating fluid. The lar folds or plates, which constitute the respiratory organ. almost instantaneous death of animals from the bite of The liver is proper to the abdomen, of which it occupies certain snakes has been regarded as a proof that the vas- the chief portion. It is composed of an infinity of minute cular system was not alone concerned; and the same sud- glands fixed to the intestinal canal, and filled with a peden effect produced upon those classes in which, as far culiar liquid, thick, and of a brown colour. The interior as we can perceive, no vascular system exists, demon- of the abdomen also contains the silk vessels, four in numstrates some other mode of action. ber, long, cylindrical, folded, yellow. They open into a Notwithstanding the researches of Cuvier, Marcel de common canid, situated at the origin of the spinners. 1

According to M. Marcel de Serres {Memoire sur le Vaisseau Dorsal des Insectes'), the blood in the araneides and scorpions proceeds first to the respiratory organs, and from thence by special vessels to the various parts of the body. Latreille, however, seems to think, from the relations which exist between these creatures and the crustaceous tribes, that such circulation may be effected ui the contrary direction. See the lUgne Animal, tome iii. p. 212; and a memoir by Treviranus On the Internal Organization of Arachnitks. 1 vol. 4to, Nuremberg, 1812. “ Some naturalists are of opinion that the two small spinners placed in the centre of the four exterior ones yield no silk. VOL. III. iv 2 Y

354 ARACHNIDES. ArachThe nervous system consists, Is#, of a cerebriform gang- tion of a mortal wound. Others seek the protection of mdes. ]ionj placed towards the base of the thorax, quadrangular leaf or other natural harbour, and only appear in the more in some, in others rounded—from it proceed whitish ner- open parts of their premises when lured by an expected vous threads to the mouth, eyes, and feet; 2dly, of two capture. Many spin comfortable tunnels, or horizontal nervous cords, derived from the above ganglion, which oc- watch towers, as they may be called, in which they repose cupy the median line of the body, and of ganglia which till the vibration of their nets calls them into active serdistribute nervous filaments to the different organs, and vice. An extensive tribe of erratic species (the vagabunprincipally to the alimentary canal and the silk vessels. dec) spin no webs at all, but trust to strength, activity M. Dufour did not ascertain the number and disposition and cunning, for their daily, or, it may be, monthly fareof these latter ganglia. According to Treviranus they do for spiders, though voracious in times of abundance, are not exceed two. capable of frequent and long-continued abstinence. The The dorsal and abdominal region of many spiders ex- webless species are often endowed with the faculty of hibit several small depressed points, which are produ- leaping, and after insidiously approaching their prey by ced by the attachment of the filiform muscles which tra- the most wary and almost imperceptible footsteps, they verse the liver. These are likewise observable in the scor- spring upon it at once, and inflict the fatal wound. Sepions.1 veral kinds hunt down their insect food by speed of footThe silk vessels with which both sexes of many spe- and a few are nocturnal, and surprise their defenceless cies fabricate those webs so remarkable at times for their and unsuspecting victims during the darkness of the symmetrical form and exquisite delicacy of structure, night. According to Mr Sheppard, a large species, which vary in shape and position according to the habits of the occurs among the fen ditches of Norfolk, actually conspecies. The formation by these creatures of skilfully structs a sort of raft of weeds, or floating island, on which wrought nets for the capture of their prey, is a fact of it allows itself to be wafted about, and from which it such every-day occurrence and observation, that we cease seizes upon drowning insects; and another (Lyccsapiratica to regard it in its proper light, as one of the most admir- of Walckenaer) gives chase to its prey over the surface able and surprising instincts of animal life. According to of the water. Reaumur, the silk undergoes its first elaboration in two Unwet they bathe their oily forms, and dwell small reservoirs, shaped like a drop of glass placed With feet repulsive on the dimpling well. obliquely, one on each side, at the base of six other reserThe passion of love, so powerful in its influence over voirs in the form of intestines, which lie side by side, and the most savage beasts, rules with a feeble and transitory folded six or seven times. The latter derive their origin sway over the subjects of our present inquiry. The male from a little below the commencement of the abdomen, spider approaches the female with the greatest circumand proceed to the nipples by a slender thread. It is in spection, fearful lest the sexual feeling should not have the last-named vessels that the silk acquires that greater banished that thirst for blood which under ordinary circonsistence and those other qualities which render it fit cumstances induces them to prey as readily on each other for use. A certain degree of dryness or evaporation as on winged insects. It therefore not unfrequently hapseems necessary for the proper formation of the threads; pens, that if a small male approaches a large female, but when the atmosphere is in a favourable condition the whose feelings unfortunately tio not coincide with his requisite change appears to take place almost instanta- own, instead of being caressed he is eaten. According to neously. Audebert, the female of the domestic spider is capable of Various opinions have been entertained regarding the producing successive generations without any renewal of origin of those white, flaky, filamentous, silky substances intercourse with the male. Fie also states that he kept which are frequently found floating in the atmosphere the same individuals in life for five or six years. during the mornings of spring and autumn. They are All female spiders, including even the erratic and webcalled fils de la vierge by the French, and Lamarck still less species, are provided with reservoirs of silky matter, maintains the opinion that they are meteoric productions. which, if not used in spinning, are at all events employed The results of chemical analysis, as well as of ordinary in forming a protecting covering for the eggs. The most observation, render it little less than certain that they are casual observer of nature must have frequently remarked produced by small spiders of the genera Epeira and Tho- the care with which the anxious mother carries about ■misus. The innumerable threads which the sun-beams and watches over her unhatched offspring; and the delioccasionally bring to view over the entire surface of cate colour of the silken bag which contains the eggs, and ploughed fields are also formed by spiders of the genus the fine contrast which in some cases it presents to the Lycosa. Latreille is of opinion that many of these crea- body of the parent, cannot have escaped observation. The tures, before they are sufficiently provided with spinning truth is, that spiders, though frequently of a repulsive materials to form webs, content themselves by ejecting aspect, are as often distinguished not only by great beauty simple longitudinal thrfeads. They are merely appren- of colour, but by extreme elegance of form and delicacy tices to the weaving art. of structure. We are prejudiced against the race ill geThe habits of spiders vary greatly. Some rest in the neral, because all those that dwell within doors are of a centre of their webs, the outstretched cordage of which dark and lurid hue, and from their haunts and habits have warns them of the temporary entanglement of their prey, become objects of aversion and disgust. Thomson has on which they instantly rush, and devour after the inflic- well described, L organe reproducteur du male est forme de deux verges qui s’ouvrent a I’extremite des palpes, et communiquent chacune avec un testicule en forme de poire, qu’on observe dans le thorax. On voit souvent a cote des verges deux crochets, servant au male a saisir ia temelle. L. organe reproducteur de ces derniers individus est place' dans i’abdomen. 11 est compose' de deux valves, situees veis le milieu de sa partie infeneure, et pres de son origine; ^ leurs deux ouvertures correspondent les oviductus, dont les membranes, en se ddyeloppant, torment les ovaires. Ces organes ne sont point composes de canaux cylindriques, et ne consistent qu’en une membrane generale, enveloppant tous les ceufs, et se divisant seulement vers sa base en deux parties qui se prolongent et constituent les oviductus. On decouvre vers la base des valves un organe particulier, analogue a 1’oviscapre des femelles des insectes, coriace, ayant a ngure d un cuilleron, plus large vers son origine qu’a 1’extre'mite', ou il est assez allonge, et iouissant d’une certaine mobility f parait lournir la matiere soyeuse qui recouvre les ceufs ou leurs cocons.” (Diet. Class, d'llist. Nat. tome i. p. 509.)

rach ■ ides. < ''3b

ARACHNIDES. 355 Where gloomily retired, Soon after its confinement it attempted to form a web The villain spider lives, cunning and fierce, on the side of the vessel, but performed the operation Arachnides. Mixture abhorred ! amid a mangled heap very slowly and awkwardly, owing to the want of the Of carcases, in e iger watch he sits, proper number of legs. However,"in the course of about O’er-lobking all his waving snares around. Near the dire cell the dreadless wanderer oft a fortnight it had completed a small web, upon which it Passes,—as oft the ruffian shows his front; generally sat, and no doubt regarded writh complacencj'. The prey at length ensnared, he dreadful darts A month after being caught it shed its skin, leaving the With rapid glide along the leaning line ; slough on the web. After this change five new legs beAnd fixing in the wretch his cruel fangs, gan to appear, which for a short period were of little or Strikes backward grimly pleased ; the flutt’ring wing, no use to it in walking. These new members, however, And shriller sound, declare extreme distress, And ask the helping hospitable hand. extended themselves considerably in the course of three But many of those which live in fields, woods, and gar- days, and became about half as long as the old ones. The dens, are worthy of being admired for their beauty, no web was now increased, and the spider continued immovless than for their singular instincts and remarkable modes ably sitting on it in the day-time, unless drawn from it, or attracted by a fly thrown to it as its usual provision. of life. The external appearance varies considerably in the Twenty-nine days afterwards it again cast its skin, leaving same species, according to the age of the individual. The the slough hanging in the web, opposite to a hollow cell younger they are, the less varied is their colouring. The it had woven so as to prevent itself from being completely number and colour of the eggs differ according to the seen. The legs were now larger than before the change species. There is seldom more than a single laying of of the skin, and they continued to increase for several eggs in each year. In some species the eggs are free or days, but did not attain the size of the old legs. It was unattached in the cocoons which contain them, in others then put into a small bowl as a more commodious and conthey are fixed by agglutination. In the course of the venient residence, w'here it spun a larger and more persummer season they are usually hatched in from fifteen fect web. We are not acquainted with the result of any to thirty days, according to the temperature. The eggs further observations on the subject. of such as deposit in autumn (as Epeira diadema, a fine Various attempts have been made at different periods species, which occurs in gardens, near the outskirts of to^ fabricate gloves and stockings from the silk of the woods, and in moors and furzes) are, however, seldom spider. Nearly a century ago, Bon of Languedoc suchatched till the commencement of the ensuing spring. ceeded in making a pair of each of these articles from Some species of spider appear to possess the power of this frail material: they were nearly as strong as those of reproducing lost or mutilated parts, after the manner of common silk, and of a fine gray colour. Reaumur was the Crustacea. It is somewhere remarked, that in pro- appointed by the Royal Academy to report on the adportion to the simplicity of organic structure in an ani- vantages which might result from the regular prosecution mal, its body is more capable of repairing by reproduction of a manufactory from spider-silk; but"his opinion w^as, such portions as have been destroyed or deteriorated. that the natural fierceness and voracity of spiders renI his would induce the belief that frogs and lizards are dered them entirely unfit to be bred and brought up tolower in the scale than insects, and that the latter, which gether. From 4000 to 5000 were distributed in cells, do not possess the reproductive power, are more highly each containing from 50 to 200 individuals; but in a short organized than spiders and other Arachnides. This, how- time only a few were left alive. He also stated, that the ever, is not the case; and we may therefore infer that the web of the spider was not equal to that of the silk-worm, principle itself is erroneous, or at least incapable of ge- either in strength or lustre. The cocoons of the latter neral application. The ascertainment of the fact, that weigh from three to four grains, so that 2304 worms prospiders were capable of effecting this repair of parts, is duce a pound of silk. But the bags of a spider, when due to the ingenious observations of MM. Vincent Amo- cleaned of filth and dust, do not weigh above the third reux and Amedee Lepelletier. It was also, however, ob- part of a grain, so that the work of twelve spiders does served by Sir Joseph Banks in this country, and commu- not exceed that of a single silk-worm, and to form a pound nicated by him to Dr Leach, by whom the circumstance of silk 27,648 spiders would be required; and as it is the was recorded in the Supplement to the sixth or preceding females alone that spin the bags, if they are kept in pairs edition of this work. for the purpose of breeding, 55,296 individuals would be As Sir Joseph was writing one evening in his study, a necessary to the formation of every pound. Even this neb-spinning spider, above the medium size, passed over calculation applies only to good spiders of the domestic some papers on the table, holding a fly in its mouth. breed, for those found in gardens scarcely yield the twelfth Surprised to see a spider of this description walking about part of silk of the house species; therefore 280 would not " mi its prey, and struck with something peculiar in its produce more than a single silk-worm, and 663,555 would gait, he caught and placed it under a glass for examina- scarcely yield a pound of silk.1 tion, when 1m perceived, that instead of eight legs, it had Sir George Staunton, in his Embassy to China, states on y three. 1 his mutilation accounted sufficiently for its that spiders’ webs are met with in the forests of Java of inability to spin a web; but the singular circumstance of so strong a texture as to require to be cut through with a Us having changed its natural habits, and having become knife; and in the Philosophical Transactions (1668) we a luntln g instead of a spinning spider, and his desire to are informed that the spiders of Bermudas suspend their ascertain whether its limbs would be reproduced, induced webs between trees seven or eight fathoms distant, and 111 ose *’. ph to prolong its captivity. On the following that they are so strong as to entangle birds as large as morning the creature destroyed two flies by sucking out thrushes. “ The web of a house-spider,” observe Messrs uir juices, leaving the bodies entire. Two or three days Kirby and Spence, “ will, with occasional repairs, serve for * erwards it devoured the body and head of a fly, leaving a considerable period; but the nets of the geometric spian d legs. After this time it sometimes ders are in favourable weather renewed, either wholly, or c g„{ ed and sometimes swallowed the flies. at least their concentric circles, every twenty-four hours, 1

Mamin of the Academy, 1710.

356 ARACHNIDES. Arach- even when not apparently injured. This difference in the minutely to a spider at work weaving its net, he observed 1 nides. operations of the two species depends upon a very re- it suddenly desist, and, turning its nipples to the wind i! V—V-w' markable peculiarity in the conformation of their snares. dart out a thread with the violence of a water jet. This ^ v The threads of the house-spider’s web are all of the same thread, taken up by the wind, was carried to some fathoms’ kind of silk, and flies are caught in them from their claws length, still issuing from the body of the animal. Some becoming entangled in the fine meshes which form the time after the spider leapt into the air, and the thread texture. On the other hand, the net of the garden spi- mounted her up swiftly. He afterwards made the same der is composed of two distinct kinds of silk; that of the observation on about 30 other species of spiders, and radii not adhesive, that of the circles extremely viscid. found the air filled with young and old sailing on their The cause of this difference, which, when it is considered threads, and probably seizing insects in their passage, as that both sorts of silk proceed from the same instru- he found legs and wings, and other manifest signs of ment, is truly wonderful, may be readily perceived. If slaughter, on these threads, as well as on the webs below. you examine a newly formed net with a microscope, you These observations were corroborated by Dr Hulse, who will find that the threads composing the outline and the made the like discovery about the same time. It is Dr radii are simple, those of the circles closely studded with Lister’s opinion that this darting of threads was known minute dew-like globules, which from the elasticity of the to Aristotle and Pliny (vide Hist. Anim. lib. ix. cap. 89; I thread are easily separable from each other. That these and Plin. lib. x. cap. 74), but he believes their sailing are in fact globules of viscid gum, is proved by their ad- was first observed by himself. On these sailing spiders hering to the finger, and retaining dust thrown upon the he further observes, that they will often dart, not a single net, while the unadhesive radii and exterior threads re- thread alone, but a whole sheaf at once, consisting of many main unsoiled. It is these gummed threads alone which filaments, all of one length, but divided from each other, retain the insects that fly into the net; and as they lose and distinct; and the longer they become, the more they their viscid properties by the action of the air, it1 is ne- spread, and appear like the numerous rays of a blazing cessary that they should be frequently renewed.” star. He observed, too, that some species seemed to use Dr Lister was of opinion that spiders possessed the their legs as oars, sometimes 'closing, and again spreading power of again withdrawing their webs within their bo- them out, as occasion might require. When the air is still dies,—a fact which, with Degeer, we may reasonably it is highly probable they can direct their course, and perdoubt, when we consider the immediate atmospheric haps mount or descend at pleasure. In rowing, he observchange which takes place in the nature of the thread after ed they always take their flight backwards. These threads it is once protruded. In fact, when a spider ascends on mount to an almost incredible height, and may always be the same cord by which it had previously dropped from a observed in a fine clear day in autumn, when there is little height, a small ball or rounded web will be found adher- or no wind. In a letter to Mr Ray, he further states, that ing to it, composed of the coil which it has collected in “ I one day observing the air full of webs, forthwith mountits re-ascent. The extreme tenuity of the component ed to the top of the highest steeple on the minster (at or elementary threads of the spider’s web has been well York), and could there discern them exceedingly high explained by Leeuwenhoeck. He states that the threads above me.” of the minutest spiders, some of which are not equal in If a spider is placed on the top of a pole surrounded by bulk to a grain of sand, are so fine that four millions of water, it nevertheless effects its escape by means of a them would not exceed the thickness of a human hair. silken line, which is ere long found to extend from the Now we know that each spinner, of wrhich there are four, pole to some other object on the outside of the pool. It is pierced by about a thousand holes, consequently that is evident that the spider possesses the power of permitevery compound or ordinary thread is composed of 4000 ting the material of which its threads are composed to still finer. Thus a spider’s thread, of the thickness of a escape at pleasure ; but whether this is accomplished by a human hair, may in some instances be composed of not projectile force, by electrical agency, or by the mechanifewer than sixteen thousand millions of single threads ! cal action of the external currents of the atmosphere, is The bite of an ordinary spider occasions almost instant still a subject of dispute. The beautiful regularity with death to most insects. The great species of South Ame- which the radiated parts of the web are usually disposed rica attack vertebrated animals, such as humming-birds favours the idea expressed by a French writer, that the and young pigeons, and their bite is often attended with animal possesses the power of shooting out its threads and dangerous consequences even to the human race. Spiders directing them at pleasure towards a determined point; are themselves preyed upon by birds; and a winged insect whilst the observations of Messrs Rennie and Blackwall of the genus Sphex pierces them with its sting, carries indicate the necessity of a current of air as a moving force. them off, and buries them dead or alive in holes where its It appears, from the experiments of the latter gentleman, eggs are deposited, the larvae produced from which after- that when spiders are placed upon an insulated twig surwards feed upon the dead body of the spider. Most rounded by water, and exposed to a current of air, however species perish about the commencement of winter, al- slight, either naturally or artificially produced, they directly though many others are known to exist for several years. turn the thorax towards the quarter from whence it came, According to Sparmann, they form an article of food to the and elevating the abdomen, they emit from their spinners Bosjiesmen of Southern Africa; and Labillardiere relates, a small portion of glutinous matter, which is instantly carthat the inhabitants of New Caledonia eat with avidity ried out in a line, consisting of four finer ones, with a vegreat quantities of a spider nearly an inch long (A. edulis), locity equal or nearly so to that of the air. They next which they roast over the fire.2 carefully ascertain whether their lines have become firmThe ascent of spiders into the air, and the extension ly attached to any object, by pulling at them with their of their webs from tree to tree across an open space, or anterior pair of legs; if the result satisfies them, they glue even over a running stream, have frequently excited the the nearer end to the twig, and then march across. “ Such attention of naturalists. Dr Lister relates, that attending was invariably the result when spiders were placed where 1 2

Introduction to Entomology, vol. i. p. 414. Voyage d la Recherche de la Perouse ; Introduction to Entomology, vol. i. p. 302.

ARACHNIDES. 357 1, tj,e air was liable to be sensibly agitated: I resolved there- stance, it leaves traces of a poisonous liquid, which, had Arachlides. fore to put a bell glass over them, and in this situation the substance been of a yielding nature, it would have in- nides. 'V they remained 17 days, evidently unable to produce a jected into the wound. This liquid is lactescent, or of a single line by which they could quit the branch they milky aspect, and very abundant in proportion to the size occupied, without encountering the water at its base; of the animal. The female carries her eggs in a cocoon though, on the removal of the glass, they regained their of white silk, of a very close texture, which she holds by liberty with as much celerity as in the instances already means of her palpi, beneath the thorax. When attacked, re-corded.” {Linn. Trans, vol. xv.) Mr Blackwall affirms she drops her eggs to defend herself, and secures them with confidence, that in motionless air, spiders have not again when the combat has ceased. The young, when the power of darting their threads even through the space first produced, are entirely white ; and the earliest change of half an inch. Mr Murray, Mr Bowman, Mr Mark which they experience is the appearance of a black spot in the centre of the dorsal surface of the abdomen. From Watt, and others, maintain a contrary opinion. Lastly, Mr Virey thinks it more probable that spiders eighteen hundred to two thousand young have been obactually fly (by vibrating their feet) through the air, served to proceed from a single silk bag ; but of these it than that they are acted upon either by electrical influ- is probable that an immense proportion perish in infancy, ences or the agitation of the air. He does not assert that by the depredations both of birds and insects. Several species of this genus inhabit Europe, and their they have wings. The bodies of spiders decompose so rapidly after death, characters and economy are detailed by Olivier, Latreille, that both their forms and colours are speedily altered the Abbe Sauvage, and other writers. Our restricted and effaced. It is therefore with great difficulty that limits prevent our describing more than a few, which we they are preserved as subjects of examination in mu- shall select as well from the indigenous as exotic. f Superior extremity of the mandibles unprovided with seums. Hence, perhaps, our comparative ignorance both a series of transverse spines or corneous points. of their structure and habits. Tarsi furnished with a thick hairy brush, which conceals the crotchets. Sect. I.—Tetrapneumones. Sp. Avicularia.—Aranea Avicularia, Linn. The birdcatching spider, Shaw. (See Plate L.)—Body nearly two Two spiracles and two pulmonary sacks or pneumo- inches long, very hairy, especially in the young. Thobranchia on each side. rax depressed, large, oval, truncated posteriorly. GeThis section is characterized by the position of the eyes, neral colour black; the extremities of the palpi, the which are always placed at the anterior extremity of the feet, and inferior hairs of the mouth, reddish. Hooks thorax, and usually close to each other. The mandibles of the mandibles strong, conical, and very black. This {Miceres of Latreille) and feet are robustly formed. The species is said to dwell in the clefts of trees, and in holgreater proportion of species have only four spinners. lows among rocks and stones. According to Madame They fabricate silken tubes, in which they dwell, and Merian, it surprises small birds on their nests, and sucks these are placed sometimes in subterranean tunnels, their blood with avidity. It forms a tube-shaped cell, sometimes under stones, and sometimes beneath the bark narrow at its posterior extremity, composed of a fine white or among the leaves of trees. semi-transparent tissue, resembling muslin. The cocoon The first division of the section corresponds to the of this species is like a large walnut in size and form. Theraphoses of Walckenaer, and contains the three fol- Its native countries are Cayenne and Surinam. Other lowing genera, viz. Mygale, Atypus, and Erodion. These nearly allied species also occur in those parts of South are distinguished from the others by having four spinners America, as well as in Africa and the East Indies. Their and eight eyes, and by the hooks of their mandibles be- bite is dangerous, although the accounts given by Piso ing bent underneath instead of inwards. and other authors is no doubt exaggerated. To this secGenus Mygale, Walckenaer.—Palpi inserted at the su- tion may be referred the M. blondi (see Plate L.), canperior extremity of the maxillae, in such a manner that cerides, fasciata, atra, and brunnea of Latreille. ff Superior extremity of the first piece of the mandibles they appear to be composed of six articles, of which provided with corneous points like the teeth of a the first, straight and elongated, with the inner angle rake. The tarsi are not so covered with hair as to of its upper portion projecting, performs the function conceal the crotchets. of a jaw. The languette is small and nearly square. The species of this section inhabit dry and mountainThe last joint of the palpi in the male is hutton-shaped, and bears at its extremity the reproductive organs ; and ous places, where they form tunnels or subterranean gallethe two anterior legs in that sex are provided with two ries, sometimes two feet in depth. At the entrance they construct a door, moving upon a hinge, and formed of strong spines or spurs at their inferior extremity. silk and clay, undistinguishable from the surrounding soil. This genus, as established by Walckenaer, is composed There is what we may not improperly call a mat of silk of the bird-catching spiders {A. avicularia, Linn.), and the fastened to the inner surface of the door, on which the Araignees mineuses of Olivier. It contains several species of animal frequently reposes, probably for the sake of guardgreat size and singular habits. The foreign kinds are as ing the entrance, and being at hand to secure its passing yet imperfectly characterized. The habits of a large spe- prey. A fine silk tube, which is the proper dwelling, cies found in Martinique, where it is called Matontou, have clothes the interior of the gallery. M. Dufour is of opibeen well described by Moreau de Jonnes. It spins no nion that the females alone excavate the tunnels. web, but lies concealed in holes and crevices of the volSp. Cccmentaria.—Araignee mineuse, Dorthes. In canic tufa, from which, however, it makes frequent ex- Linn. Trans, ii. (See Plate L.)—The female of this specursions in search of prey, which consists not only of in- cies is about eight lines in length, of a reddish brown ^eets, but of humming-birds and other species of the fea- colour, somewhat pale on the edges of the thorax. The t icred race. It hunts chiefly during the night. It is mandibles are blackish, and are each furnished near the possessed of great muscular strength, and unwillingly articulation of the crotchet with five points, of which the quits an object of which it may have become possessed, innermost is the shortest. The abdomen is mouse-colourhen induced to seize upon any hard and polished sub- ed, with darker spots. The first article of all the tarsi is

358 ARACHNID ES. Arach- furnished with small spines, the crotchets of the last have of which the body is entirely black, and the feet rufous » nid ^- a spire at their base, and a double range of pointed teeth. occurs in the neighbourhood of Philadelphia. The spinners are but slightly projecting. The M. carminans of M. Latreille (2d edit, of the Nouv. Diet, dHist. Genus Erodion, Latreille. Missulena, Walckenaer ^ This genus differs from the preceding in its straight Nat.) is supposed to be the male of this species. He elongated languette, which projects between the jaws! differs in the greater length of his legs; in the crotchets of Its eyes are spread over the front of the thorax. the tarsi, of which the teeth are more numerous; in the want of the spines, and the greater shortness of the spinSp. Occatorius, Latreille, Walckenaer. (Plate II. fig. 1 j ners. His two anterior feet are terminated beneath by a 12).—Body black, about an inch in length. Brought strong spine. from New Holland by M. Lesueur. This species inhabits Spain, the southern parts of France, The second division of this section exhibits the proand other shores of the Mediterranean. Its habits are longed languette of the Erodions, and the palpi composed presumed to be nocturnal, as it is never seen abroad or at of five articulations; but the clawrs of the mandibles are work during the day.1 It forms its tunnel in strong earth, folded inwards instead of downwards. The spinners are free from stones, and on a sloping surface to avoid mois- six in number ; and the first pair of legs, instead of the ture. It resists the opening of its door with its utmost fourth, are the longest. Some of these Arachnides have strength, and continues struggling in the entrance till the only six eyes. light has fairly entered, after which it retreats into the earth. The door is beautifully formed, and suspended on Genus Dysdera, Latr. Walck.—Eyes six, disposed in the a hinge from above, so that it always shuts close of its own form of a horse-shoe, opening outwards. Mandibles accord. It preys upon beetles and other large and strong strong and projecting. Maxillae straight, and dilated insects. When its door is cut off or unhinged, it forms anotowards the insertion of the palpi. ther in its place, which, according to Rossi, differs from Sp. Erythrina. (See Plate L.)—Mandibles and thothe first in not being movable. The Italian author does rax sanguineous; colour of the legs lighter. Abdomen not mention by what means its entrance and exit are then accomplished; but Latreille has suggested that the experi- soft and silky, and of a grayish yellow. Inhabits the south of France and England, beneath ment may have been tried just before the commencement of winter, and that the second operculum was closed with stones. It is rare in the latter country, but has been taken near Plymouth, Exeter, and London. A variety of a view to exclude the rigours of that inclement season. this species has been described by Scopoli under the In the following genera of this division the palpi are name of Aranea hombergii. inserted upon an inferior dilatation of the external side of the maxillae, and consist of only five articles. The lan- Genus Filastata, Latr.— Eyes eight, placed on a small elevation at the anterior extremity of the thorax. Manguette, at first very small, as in the genus Atypus, afterdibles small; maxillae arched on their exterior side. wards becomes elongated and advanced between the jaws. Of this genus the F. testacea of Walckenaer was disThe last joint of the palpi in both sexes is lengthened and antennated towards the extremity. The males are not covered near Marseilles. The F. bicolor is described in provided with a strong spur at the extremity of the two the Faun. Franc. Arach. vi. 1-3. anterior legs. Sect. II.—Dipneumones. Genus Atypus, Latreille. Oletera, Walckenaer.— A. Sedentarice. Languette very small, and almost covered by the exThe genera of this great division are possessed of only ternal portion of the base of the maxillae. Eyes contia pair of pulmonary sacks, and corresponding stigmata. guous, and grouped upon a tubercle. The palpi, composed of five joints, are inserted on the Sp. Sulzeri, Latreille. Aranea Picea, Sulzer. (See exterior side of the maxillae, near their base, generally in Plate L.)—General colour blackish. Length of the body a sinus. The languette is advanced between the maxilla?, eight lines. Thorax nearly square, depressed posteriorly, and is sometimes nearly square, sometimes triangular or enlarged and broadly truncated in front. The mandibles semicircular. The spinners are six in number. The last are strong, and their claw is furnished near the base with article of the palpi in the males is more or less ovoid, and a tooth-like projection. The last article of the palpi in usually contains the generative organs in an excavation. the male is pointed at the extremity. The first four tribes of this section may be considered This is the only species of the genus known in Europe. as forming a large group, which we name Sedentarite. It was first described by Sulzer as a Swiss species They either spin webs for the capture of their prey, or (Geschichte der Lisecten. Plate L. fig. 2). It has since throw out isolated and irregular threads for the same been observed by several French entomologists at Sevres, purpose. Their eyes are grouped across the front of the near Paris, and was discovered in this country by Dr thorax. Of these there are usually eight; four or two in Leach, near Exeter. Its habits are curious and interest- the centre, and two or three on each side. Sometimes ing. It constructs for its dwelling a silky scabbard, in- there are only six eyes. termingled with moss, eight or ten inches long. Its diThe first three of these tribes, viz. Tubitelce, Incequirection is at first horizontal over the surface of the ground, tel(c, and Orbitelce, are sometimes included under the more and then perpendicular beneath the surface. The eggs general appellation of Rectigrade, from their straightare deposited at the bottom, enveloped in a white web. forward mode of progression, particularly as contrasted The animal itself is slow in its movements. It is most with that of the fourth tribe or Laterigradce, which, like frequently met with in the month of July. It appears to many of the crustaceous class, can direct their steps in have been described and figured by Roemer as the sub- different directions without turning the body. In these terranean spider. tribes the relative length of the legs is variable. In many An American species, the Ahjpus rvfipes of M. Milbert, the first and the last pair are the longest; in others the two ftc'ul^ofS'g botM^ Highland dayf

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ARACHNIDES. 359 The four anterior eyes placed in a curved line, bending wt anterior pairs; while in some the third and fourth pair are Arachjides the most extended. The eyes, in their general dispobackwards. I he first and last pair of legs the longest nides. r r I his genus inhabit the interior of our dwellings •'’also 'r ' sition, do not form a crescent, or the segment of a circle. the angles of old walls, on plants, hedges, &c. They Tribe I.—TubiteljE. construct large webs, nearly horizontal, at the higher Spinners cylindrical, close to each other, directed back- part of which is a tube or tunnel, where the spider^lies wards. The feet are robust; the first and last pair are concealed. the longest. Sp. Domestica.—Of a livid ash colour. Thorax of the Genus Clotho, Walckenaer. Uroctea, Dufour.—Man- male without spots. On that of the female there is on dibles very small, capable of little extension, and with- each side a blackish band. Abdomen blackish, With a out teeth. Crotchets small, body short, legs long, the longitudinal spotted band on the back. third and fourth pair rather longer than the preceding. This is the most frequent inhabitant of our houses, and The eyes are disposed as in genus Mygale. The max- an object of more than common aversion. It sometimes illa; have on their external side a slight dilatation at attains to a large size. According to Homberg, it is subthe insertion of the palpi, and terminate in a point. ject, especially jn the kingdom of Naples, to a disease The languette is triangular. The superior or lateral which renders it more than usually hideous. Its body spinners are the longest; but the most peculiar cha- becomes covered with scales, among which a number of racter, according to M. Dufour, is the existence, in the mites engender. Geoffroy was of opinion that a spider position of the intermediate spinners, of a pair of comb- was supplied only with a certain portion of spinning mashaped valves, which open or close at the will of the tenal; that if the web was intentionally destroyed, and an animal. individual frequently obliged to reconstruct its web, it beSp. 5-macidata.—Body about an inch in length, of a came at last incapable of further exertion in that line, and chesnut-brown colour; the abdomen black, with five small would probably perish for want of the usual means of subround yellowish spots, of which four are disposed trans- sistence. versely in pairs, and the fifth is single and posterior. Ihe spiders of this country are entirely harmless, from This species was found in Egypt by M. Savigny. It their want of power to pierce the skin. But that they occurs in Dalmatia, and near Montpellier; also in Cata- are furnished with a poisonous liquid, which they instil lonia, and other parts of Spain. Its manners have been into the wound of their victims, cannot be doubted. Olidescribed by M. Dufour. vier, indeed, reports, that a farmer in one of the Isles Genus Drassus, Walck.—Mandibles robust, project- d’Hieres was bitten by a large spider while turning a ing, toothed. beneath. Maxillae obliquely truncated at sheaf of wheat. The wound occasioned at first only a their extremity. The eyes are nearer the anterior edge slight inflammation, so trivial that it was for some time of the thorax, and the line formed by the four posterior neglected, till its increase created alarm. Gangrene and exceeds in length that formed by those on the anterior death ensued. They may be taken internally with imline. The fourth and second pair of feet are obviously punity. “ J ai vue, says Latreille, “ le celebre astronome longer than the others. The legs and first joints of Lalande avaler de suite quatre gros individus de cette the tarsi are armed with sharp points. espece.” (H. domestique.') The spiders of this genus live under stones, in the clefts of walls, and among leaves. They form little Genus Argyroneta, Latr.—Maxillae inclined upon the languette, of which the form is triangular. The four dwelling-places of white silk. The cocoons of some are central eyes form a quadrangle ; the lateral pair of each orbicular, flattened, and composed of two valves applied extremity are grouped together, and placed on a small one against another. eminence. Sp. Relucens.—Small, cylindrical, with a yellow thoSp. Aqiiatica. Aranea Aquatica, Lin. Geoff.—Of a rax, covered with a purple silky down. The abdomen is thin, red, and green, with metallic reflections, and two blackish-brown colour, the abdomen deeper, surface silky, transverse lines of golden yellow, of which the anterior is the back with four impressed points. Lives in ditches and arched. One variety has also four additional golden spots. slow-running waters, beneath the surface of which it spins 1 he species is generally found running on the ground. a beautifully constructed web. “ The habitation of araIt is common in the environs of Paris, and is one" of the vca aquatica, the other spider to which I alluded, is chiefly remarkable for the element in which it is conmost beautiful of the tribe. structed, and the materials that compose it. It is built Genus Segestria, Latr.—Eyes six, of which four are an- in the midst of water, and formed in fact of air ! Spiders terior on a transverse line, and two posterior, placed on are usually terrestrial; but this is aquatic, or rather ameac r side behind the two lateral eyes of the preceding phibious : for though she resides in the midst of w^ater, e in which she swims with great celerity, sometimes on her Ti c and'ansecond Suette pair is elongated andthealmost square, the' first of feet are longest, and belly, but more frequently on her back, and is an admithe third pair the shortest. rable diver, she not unfrequently hunts on shore, and The species of this genus spin cylindrical elongated having caught her prey, plunges with it to the bottom of 'u is m the clefts of old walls, in which they lie concealed, the water. Here it is she forms her singular and unique -itn their anterior pair of legs stretched forwards. Di- abode. She would evidently have but a very uncomfortrgent threads of glutinous silk border the external open- able time were she constantly wet; but this she is sagatlleir .f". and form a net for the capture of cious enough to avoid,_ and, by availing herself of some their°.insect habitation, prey. well-known philosophical principles, she constructs for an apartment, in which, like the mermaids and JP- Senomlata.—Thorax blackish-brown. Abdomen herself sea-nymphs of fable, she resides in comfort and security. a n I i° gitudinal band of blackish spots, I he following is the process:—First she spins loose )rown hfhififr °ld buildings. ’ obscurely banded. Inhabits rocks and threads in various directions, attached to the leaves of aquatic plants, which may be called the frame-work of G Al ANEA Latr her chamber; and over them she spreads a transparent unnpr ^ ’ \ Tegeneria, Walck.—The two JI spinners conspicuously longer than the others. varnish resembling liquid glass, which issues from the

ARACHNIDES. 360 Sp. Malmignatto. Aranea IS-guttata, Fab.—Lateral U Arach- middle of her spinners, and which is so elastic that it is nides. capable of great expansion and contraction ; and if a hole be eyes, separated from each other. Body black, with thirmade in it, it immediately closes again. Next she spreads teen small round spots of a blood-red colour on the abdo. over her belly a pellicle of the same material, and ascends to men. This species inhabits Corsica, the inhabitants of the surface. The precise mode in which she transfers a which island hold it in great dread, from the belief that bubble of air beneath this pellicle is not accurately known ; its bite is dangerous, if not mortal. Another species, the Theridion benignum of Walck. but from an observation made by the ingenious author of the little work from which this account is abstracted, he enaer, may from its name be presumed to possess anoconcludes that she draws the air into her body by the ther character. It lives in autumn among the clusters anus, which she presents to the surface of the pool, and of grapes, where it watches for its prey, and thus deters then pumps it out from an opening at the base of the many insects from injuring the fruit. The prejudice belly, between the pellicle and that part of the body, the against this genus probably arises from several of them hairs of which keep it extended. Clothed with this aerial being of a dark colour, with red spots resembling drops of mantle, which to the spectator seems formed of resplen- blood upon their bodies. dent quicksilver, she plunges to the bottom, and, with as much dexterity as a chemist transfers gas with a gas- Genus Episinus, Walck.—Eyes eight, near each other, and placed upon a common elevation. The thorax narholder, introduces her bubble of air beneath the roof prerow and almost cylindrical. pared for its reception. This manoeuvre she repeats ten or twelve times, until at length, in about a quarter of an Sp. Truncatus.—Thorax acute in front, rather longer hour, she has transported as much air as suffices to ex- than broad, obscure brown above, reddish brown beneath. pand her apartment to its intended extent, and now finds Abdomen pyramidal, truncated behind, its anterior porherself in possession of a little aerial edifice—I had tion brown, third pair of legs whitish, the others brown. almost said an enchanted palace—affording her a commodious and dry retreat in the very midst of the water. Genus Pholcus, Walck.—Eyes eight, tuberculated, divided into three groups, of which there is one on each Here she reposes unmoved by the storms that agitate side composed of three eyes disposed in a triangle, and the surface of the pool, and devours her prey at ease and a third in the centre, somewhat advanced, composed of in safety. Both sexes form these lodgings. At a particular season of the year the male quits his apartment, two eyes on a transverse line. approaches that of the female, enters it, and enlarging it Sp. Phalangioides, Walck. Araignee domestique a by the bubble of air that he carries with him, it becomes pattes, Geoff.—Body long, narrow, pubescent, of a common abode for the happy pair.1 The spider which alongues livid or pale yellow colour. The abdomen is almost cyforms these singular habitations is one of the largest Eu- lindrical, very soft, and spotted above with black. The ropean species, 2and in some countries not uncommon in legs are very long and slender, with whitish rings at the stagnant pools.” extremities of the thighs and tibiae. This species is common in houses in the western parts Tribe II.—Ix^QuiTELiE. of England. Its body vibrates like that of some tipulse. External spinners conical, convergent, slightly project- The female carries her eggs in an agglutinated mass being, disposed en rosette. Legs slender, first and last pair tween her mandibles. usually the longest. The maxillae are inclined on the Tribe III.—Orbitelje. tongue, and are either narrow or present no sensible enlargement at their superior extremity. The abdomen In this tribe the exterior spinners and the legs reis more voluminous, softer, and more highly coloured than in the preceding tribe. Their webs constitute an semble those of the preceding, but the maxillae differ, irregular net-work of various forms, the threads of which being straight, and sensibly broader at their extremity. cross each other in different directions. They bind their The first and second pair of legs are the longest. The prey with cords, which, though silken, secure them very eyes are eight in number, of which four are placed quadeffectually. The species are short-lived, and tend their rangularly in the centre, and a pair on each side. These spiders differ from the Incequiteloe in the form of their eggs very carefully till the exclusion of the young. webs, which are composed of a regular net-work, formed Genus Scytodes, Latr.—Eyes six, disposed in pairs. of concentric circles, crossed by straight lines or radii, M. Dufour states that the crotchets of the tarsi are in- proceeding from the centre, where the animal lies, to the circumference. Some conceal themselves in cavities, or serted in a supplementary article. in chambers built by themselves, near the margins of Sp. Thoracica. (See Plate L.)—Pale reddish-white, their webs, which are sometimes horizontal, sometimes spotted with black. Thorax large, somewhat orbicular. perpendicular. Their eyes are numerous, agglutinated, Abdomen not globose. and inclosed in a large cocoon. This species inhabits houses. It has been found near Dover, but is otherwise scarcely known as a British spe- Genus Linyphia, Latr.—Four central eyes, of which the cies. posterior pair are larger, and separated by a larger space; the others are in pairs, one on each side, and Genus Theridion, Walck.—Eyes eight in number, of placed obliquely. The maxillae are enlarged at their which four in the centre form a square, the two antesuperior extremity. rior being placed upon a small eminence, and a pair are placed on each side upon a common elevation. The This genus constructs among brooms and other hushes thorax is almost triangular, or shaped like a heart re- a slender, open, horizontal net, from which various threads versed. proceed irregularly upwards to different points. 1

Memoire pour servir a commencer VHistoire des Araignees Aquatiques. * Introduction to Entomology, by Kirby and Spence, vol. i. p. 4G9.

ARACH NIDES. 361 . I, Sp. Triangularis.—Pale red, inclining to yellow. Tho- species. From its inferior and anterior part proceed two Arach1 ides rax with a dark dorsal line, bifid in front. Abdomen oval, muscles, which, at first united in one, diverge as they ap- v—nides. IkT" inclining to globose, with spots and angulated bands of proach the posterior portion of the abdomen. The heart brown and white. Inhabits the European hedges, and itself exhibits several branches, the two anterior of which constructs its webs on brooms and pine-trees. are sent to the branchia; and the function of these lastnamed organs, according to Treviranus, is to absorb huGenus Uuoborus, Latr.—Four posterior eyes placed at midity from the atmosphere, and convey it to the circuequal distances on a straight line, and the two la- lating system. The true respiratory organs are discoverteral eyes, of the first line nearer the anterior margin able in a species of stigmata placed in the thorax and of the thorax than the intermediate pair, so as to form abdomen. These stigmata are not pierced, like those of an arch bent backwards. The maxillae commence in insects; but numerous vessels are seen distributed over this genus to enlarge a little above their base, and their surface. terminate in the form of a spatula. The tarsi of the The sceptre or diadem spider, as this species is frelast three pair of legs are terminated by a single claw. quently called, pairs about the end of summer, and depoThe first article of the two posterior pair have a range sits its eggs in autumn. The eggs are of a fine yellow, of small hairs. inclosed in a cocoon of a close texture, but covered with These spiders repose in the centre of their webs, with a looser substance of a yellowish hue. This spider forms their four anterior feet stretched forwards; the third pair no nest, but shelters itself beneath a leaf or some other are extended laterally, and the posterior pair backwards. natural covering. Its web is large and vertical. The Sp. Walckenarius, Latr.—Of a reddish-yellow colour, young are hatched in spring, and are at first yellow, with covered by a silky down, forming on the upper part of a blackish spot on the upper part of the abdomen. M. Vautier has described a singular species of this gethe abdomen two series of small bundles. Length about five lines. The legs are marked with paler rings. Oc- nus, remarkable for the posterior enlargement of its abcurs near Bordeaux, and other southern departments of domen, which is terminated by a couple of arched and France. elongated spines. (Annales des Sciences Naturelles, tome i. p. 261.) It is named Epeira curvicauda. (See Plate L.) Genus Tetragnatha, Latr.—Eyes placed four and four on two nearly parallel lines, and separated by almost Tribe IV.—LAXERiGRADiE. equal intervals. Maxillae long, narrow, enlarged only The species which constitute this tribe are, like those at their superior extremity. Mandibles also very long, of the preceding, of sedentary habits ; but they differ in especially in the males. Their web is vertical. their mode of progression, being able to walk sideways Sp. Extensa.—Abdomen oblong, golden green, with and backwards, as well as straight forward like the others. the sides and two lower lines yellowish. Sits with its Hence the designation of the tribe. Their four anterior legs extended on a vertical web. Inhabits moist places. feet are always longer than the others. In some the first Genus Epeira, Walck.—A pair of eyes on each side, pair are longer than the second; in others they are nearalmost contiguous; the other four forming a central ly equal. The mandibles are usually small, with their crotchets transversely folded, as in the preceding tribes. quadrangle. The maxillae dilated from their base. With the exception of that of jG1. curcubitina, which is ho- The eyes are always eight in number, frequently unequal, rizontal, the webs of this genus are either vertical or in- and forming by their union a crescent, or the segment of clined. Some repose in the centre of their webs, with a circle. The maxillae in the generality of this species are their bodies reversed, or heads downwards; others con- inclined upon the lip. The body is generally flattish, crabstruct a sheltering habitation, sometimes formed of leaves shaped, with the abdomen large, rounded, and triangular. The genera included in this division can scarcely be spun together, sometimes like a silken tube, or of a more open form like a bird’s nest, in the vicinity of their nets. said to spin webs,—they merely throw out a few isolated Some foreign species construct such powerful webs as to threads. They are usually found on plants, tranquil and arrest the flight of small birds, and even to incommode stationary; sometimes concealed between two leaves, of the traveller while journeying through the forests. Many which they fasten the edges together. They watch their of the species are remarkable for the beauty of their co- eggs with great care till the young are hatched. lours, their singular forms, and still more singular habits. Genus Micrommata. Sparassus, Walck.—Maxillae Between 60 and 70 species are described by M. Walckstraight, parallel, rounded on their edges. Eyes disenaer in his Tableau des Araneides; and M. Leon Duposed four and four, on two transverse lines, of which four has greatly contributed to illustrate the history of the posterior is the longer, and arched backwards. this extensive genus in the Annales des Sciences PhyThe second and first pair of feet are the longest. The s, pes of Brussels, and the Annales des Sciences Naturellcs languette is semicircular. of Paris. We regret that the limits of our present unSp. Smaragdina.—Colour bright green, sides bordered dertaking do not admit of our entering into further dewith yellow. Abdomen greenish-yellow, with a darker green line upon the back. Sp. Diadema. (See Plate L.)—Reddish ; abdomen This species places its cocoon in the centre of three or g obose-oval, with an elevated angle on each side near the four leaves fastened together and lined with silk. ase, dorsal band darker, broad, triangular, dentated, J'1 i a triple cross of yellowish-white spots, and four Genus Senelops, Dufour.—Maxillae straight, or slightimpressed dots disposed in a quadrangle. Legs and palpi ly inclined, without lateral sinus, pointed, and obspotted with black. fait liquely truncated on the internal side. Languette semicircular. Six eyes in front, on a transverse line ; two S frpn^ i)neborders °* t^ie of^arwoods, Sest °f rocks, the British species. also It quen s the and gardens; others behind, one on each side. The legs are long; the first pair are the shortest. k ).?r? an. °ther desert places. It varies considerably 111 8126 ant co our Sp. Omalosoma.—Four lines in length, very flat, of a for n aCC U nt ^ Jts ana * We are indebted to Treviranus nrp-w i °^ not tonncal heart reddish-gray colour, with cinereous spots, and the feet sen s a °character observedstructure. in that of The any other j ringed with black. The abdomen appears to present VOL. Ttt. 2z

362 ARACHNIDES. Arach- posteriorly the vestige of rings or segments, forming a movable as if it had been a nail driven into the wood, till nides. sor^ 0p dentation along the sides. by that indiscernible progress (being arrived within the u This rare species was discovered by M. Dufour in the sphere of her reach) she made a fatal leap swift as light-A kingdom of Yalentia. It inhabits rocks, and runs with ning upon the fly, catching him in the pole, where she ^ singular rapidity. It occurs both in Egypt and Syria. never quitted hold till1 her belly was full, and then carried the remainder home.” Genus Philodromus, Walck.—Maxillae inclined upon Though the species above alluded to, and others constithe languette, which is higher than broad. The eyes, tuting the ensuing tribes, spin no webs, they are yet pronearly equal in size, are disposed in the form of a cross vided with a sufficiency of the necessary material to enor semicircle. The mandibles are lengthened and able them to construct cocoons for their eggs, and also cylindrical. to throw out an occasional thread to break their fall when Sp. Tigrina.—Thorax very broad, flattened, of a red- leaping on a vertical surface. dish fawn-colour, brown laterally and posteriorly, white The eyes of the erratic spiders are always eight in .in front. The pentagonal abdomen variously coloured by number, and are grouped rather along than across the means of minute red, brown, and white hairs, by which thorax, forming a curvilinear triangle, or a truncated or . it is covered. It is bordered with brown along the sides, quadrilateral oval. One or two pair of eyes are generally and is marked on the dorsal region with from four to six much larger than the others. The thorax is large, and impressed points. The belly is whitish. The legs are the legs robust. long, slender, reddish, with brown spots. This species is common on trees. When touched it Tribe Y.—Citigradas. immediately either runs off with great rapidity, or sud.denly drops to the ground. Its cocoon, of a beautiful In this tribe the legs are generally fitted for running. white colour, incloses about one hundred unagglutinated The maxillae are alw-ays straight, and rounded at their eggs. It places them in the clefts of trees, and guards extremities. The eyes are grouped in a curvilinear trithem with great care. angle, or in an oval or oblong figure, of which the anterior side is much narrower than the thorax taken in its greatGenus Thomisus, Walck.—Mandibles shorter than in est breadth. The thorax itself is ovoid, narrower in front, the preceding genus, wedge-shaped. Four posterior and somewhat ridged or keel-shaped in its longitudinal feet, shorter than the others. The sexes frequently centre. differ in their size and colours. The females for the most part keep close to their coSp. Citreus.—Colour citron-yellow. The abdomen coons, which they carry about them, either suspended at large, broader behind; the back with two red spots. In- their extremities, or applied between the chest and the habits flowers. The female is common in Britain; the base of the abdomen. They watch over their young for male more rare, of a smaller size, brown, banded with some time after they are hatched. .yellowish-green. Genus Oxyopus, Latr. Sphasus, Walck.—Eyes ranged 1). Erraticce. two and two on four transverse lines, of which the two at the extremes are the shortest; they describe a kind The four preceding tribes are characterized by their of oval figure, truncated at each end. The languette usually sedentary habits. The remainder of the Aranis elongated, narrow at the base, dilated and rounded at eides are of a more wandering disposition. This is in the extremity. The first pair of legs is the longest; proper accordance with their other capabilities; for, as the fourth and second are nearly equal; the third is the they cannot spin webs for the capture of their prey, they shortest. are under the necessity of moving about from place to place to extend the sphere of those exertions, the sucSp. Variegatus.—Body hairy and gray, variegated with cessful issue of which depends on agility as well as cun- red and white. Legs pale reddish, spotted with brown; ning. “ Such,” says Evelyn, “ I did frequently observe the tibial spines elongate. Inhabits France. at Rome, which, espying a fly at three or four yards disSp. Lineatus. (See Plate L.) Abdomen elongated, yeltance, upon the balcony where I stood, would not make directly to her, but crawl under the rail, till, being arrived lowish, with lengthened black spots on the sides, and a ■to the antipodes, it would steal up, seldom missing its black longitudinal band beneath. This species forms its aim ; but if it chanced to want anything of being perfect- web on low growing plants, but nestles among the leaves ly opposite, would, at first peep, immediately slide down of trees about the period of laying. again,—till, taking better notice, it would come the next Genus Ctenus, Walck.—Eyes placed on three transverse time exactly upon the fly’s back; but if this happened lines (2, 4, 2) forming a curvilinear triangle, reversed, not to be within a competent leap, then would this insect and truncated anteriorly. The languette is square and move so softly, as the very shadow of the gnomon seemalmost isometric. The fourth pair of feet are the long■ed not to be more imperceptible, unless the fly moved; est ; the first pair are next in length; the third are the and then would the spider move also in the same proporshortest. , . . tion, keeping that just time with her motion, as if the This genus, according to Latreille, was established tor same soul had animated both these little bodies; and the reception of a species found in Cayenne. Others, whether it were forwards, backwards, or to either side, possessed of the same generic characters, have been 'without at all turning her body, like a well-managed found both in that colony and in Brazil, but their descriphorse ; but if the capricious fly took wing and pitched tions have not yet been made public. Upon another place behind our huntress, then would the spider whirl its body so nimbly about, as nothing could Genus Dolomedes, Latr.—Eyes disposed on three trans be imagined more swift; by which means she always kept verse lines (4, 2, 2,) representing a quadrilateral hguie, somewhat broader than long. The two posterior are the head towards her prey, though, to appearance, as im1

Evelyn’s Travels in Italy.

. I Mies f'C1

ARACHNIDES. 363 placed upon an eminence. The second pair of legs are the most malignant fever, and of such a nature as to ad- Arachequal to the first, if not somewhat longer; and the mit of being cured only by means of music. Some authors uides. fourth pair are the longest of all. The languette is have even given a list of the tunes which are most effisquare, and, like that of the preceding genus, is as cacious in restoring the tarentolati (for so the patients broad as high. • : were called) to health. The true tarentula occurs in the Of this genus, some have the two exterior eyes of the south of Italy, especially near the town of Tarentum, from anterior line larger than the pair comprised between them ; which it has no doubt derived its name. It is the largest and the form of the abdomen is oblong oval, with a termi- of the European species. A species of this genus exists in the south of France, nal point. The females construct a silken nest, funnelshaped, or in the form of a bell, which they place in a which bears a close resemblance to the Italian species, and thicket, or among leaves near the summit of a tree. In appears to have been confounded with it by Olivier. It is this they deposit their cocoons of eggs, of which they the Lycosa Melanogaster of Latreille, and the Tarentula are exceedingly careful. When they leave their retreats, Narbonensis of Walckenaer, and differs from the species either to hunt for prey, or from any cause of alarm nearer above described chiefly in being somewhat less, and in home, they never fail to carry their bundle of eggs along having the abdomen black beneath, and the edges only of with them. Clerk (Aranei suecica:) mentions his having a red colour. observed species of this genus spring with great activity Genus Myrmecia, Latr.—Eyes placed on three transupon flying insects. verse lines; four in front, then two somewhat nearer Other species of Dolomedes have the four anterior eyes the centre than the outer eyes of the first line, and two of equal size, and the abdomen oval, and rounded at the others behind the preceding pair. The mandibles are extremity. These inhabit the margins of water, run over strong. The maxillae are rounded and hairy at the the surface with agility, and even proceed a little beneath extremity. The tongue is almost square, somewhat the surface without being wetted. The females form coarse longer than broad. The feet are long, almost filiform, irregular nets, suspended between the branches of plants, the fourth and first pair being the longest. The thorax and place their cocoons upon them. appears as if divided into three portions, of which the Sp. Mirabilis. Aranea saccata, Linn.—Colour pale redanterior is the largest, and of a square form; and the dish, covered with grayish down. Thorax heart-shaped, others are hunched or knot-shaped. The abdomen is anteriorly abruptly sloping; the anterior angles and dormuch shorter than the thorax, and is covered from its sal line whitish. Abdomen conical, suboval; darker on the origin as far as the middle by a solid epidermis. back. Inhabits the woods of Europe. The female carries Sp. Rufa.—Length about six lines. Fulvous, shining, about her eggs inclosed in a dirty orange-coloured or nearly smooth, with the extremities of the palpi, the thighs, whitish bag. the first article of the posterior feet, and the end of the Genus Lycosa, Latr.—Eyes disposed in a quadrilateral abdomen, blackish. Found near Rio Janeiro. figure, longer than broad, the posterior pair not placed on an eminence. The first pair of feet are sensibly Tribe VI.—Saltigrad.*. longer than the second, but shorter than the fourth, In this gi’oup the eyes are placed in a square figure, of which are the longest of all. The maxillae are truncatwhich the anterior line extends along the breadth of the ed obliquely at their external extremity. The languette thorax. The thorax is demi-ovoid, or nearly square; flat, is square, but rather longer than broad. or but slightly bulged above; as broad before as elseIhe species of this genus run swiftly on the ground. where, and sloping suddenly down the sides. The legs I hey live in holes, either previously formed by the acci- are adapted both to running and leaping, and the thighs dents of nature, or hollowed out by themselves, and forti- of the anterior pair are generally remarkably large and fied along their interior walls by silken threads. Some strong. dwell in the cavities of walls, where they form silken tunSeveral of the species construct amongleaves and stones nels, covered externally by minute particles of earth and small oval sacks of silk, open at both ends, in which they sand. In these retreats they undergo the periodical re- seek refuge during bad weather, and while changing their newal of their skins; and also pass the winter, after having skins. When any danger threatens these retreats they previously closed up the outer orifice of their dwellings, appear on the outside, and after a moment’s reconnoitring ihe females likewise deposit their eggs in these elongat- run off with great agility. The females form small tents, ed cells. Their cocoons are usually fixed to the. extre- which afterwards serve as cradles for their young, and mity of the abdomen, and when the mothers go abroad, where the mother and her progeny dwell for some time they have thus no difficulty in carrying their eggs along together. The males, in their battles with each other, with them. As soon as the young are hatched, they col- exhibit many singular manoeuvres. lect on the back of the female parent, and remain there The genus Tessarops of M. Rafinesque, and that of till they gain sufficient strength to shift for themselves. established by M. Dufour, both belong to this Ihe species are exceedingly voracious, and defend the Palpimanus tribe. That first mentioned is said to have only four eyes. possession of their domiciles with the greatest courage. The latter is very rare, and was discovered in Valentia. ‘S/i. Tarentula. Aranea tarentula, Linn. (See Plate L.) We are not yet acquainted with the characters of either. —Colour ashy brown above; thorax with a radiated line, ‘iiid margins griseous; abdomen marked anteriorly with Genus Eresus, Walck.—Four eyes approached in a small trapezium, near the centre of the anterior portion tngonal spots, posteriorly with arcuate transverse streaks of the thorax; and four others on its sides, forming a . j5 ack’ bordered with white ; beneath saffron-coloured, larger square. The languette is pointed and triangular. w't i a transverse black band; thighs and tibia; beneath nitous white, with two black spots. The tarsi are terminated by three crotchets. i ec Sp. Moniligerus.—Black; abdomen above cinnabar, e ce ebrated |P ies, tarentula, an inhabitant of the south of Europe, is of which so many extraordinary coloured, with four or six black dots, arranged in two ccounts have been given by travellers. It is scarcely longitudinal lines ; joints of the legs whitish; hinder sides lecessary to observe that these are fabulous. Its bite was of the thorax, the thighs, and the first joint of the four K 0 r P °fluce symptoms equally severe with those of hinder legs, pale cinnabar. This is the Aranea quadrigut-

364 A R A C H N I D E S. Arach- tata of Rossi’s Fauna Etrusca. It inhabits France, Ger- prefer retaining the name previously bestowed by Olivier nides. many, and England. not only on account of its possessing a prior claim, but because the term Tarentula, as generally understood, apGenus Salticus, Latr. Attus, Walck.—Four eyes on a plies to a spider of the genus Lijcosa, the Aranea tarentula transverse line on the anterior portion of the thorax, of Linnaeus. the two intermediate larger than the others; the reSp. Lunatus. (See Plate L.)—The arms or foot-palpi maining eyes are placed two and two on each side of the thorax; they thus form a kind of parabola or part of this species are nearly three times the length of the of a square, open posteriorly. The languette is very body. They are unfurnished with spines, except at the obtuse, and truncated at the summit. The tarsi have extremity of the fourth article. This is the phalangium only two crotchets at their extremity. The mandibles lunatum of Pallas. Spicil. Zool. fasc. 9. tab. fig. 5, 6. Sp. Reniformis. Phalangium reniforme, Linn. Herbst. of many of the males are very large. The shape of the thorax and the length and proportions of the legs vary Tarentula reniformis, Fabr. (See Plate L.)—Arms very spiny on their interior margins ; the third and fourth araccording to the species. ticulations elongated. The fifth articulation is furnished Sp. Scenicus. Aranea scenica, Linn.—Black, margin of with four spines. According to Mange this species is the thorax covered with white down ; abdomen short ovate, much dreaded by the negroes of the Antilles. covered above by a reddish white pubescence, with three transverse arcuate lines, and the termination white; the Genus Thelyphonus, Latr.—Palpi shorter and thicker than those of the preceding genus, terminated by pinfirst band is basal and entire, the others acutely bent ancers or double fingers. Body long, thorax oval, abdoteriorly, and interrupted in the middle. men furnished with a slender articulated prolongation This species is called in Britain the hunting spider. It or tail. The anterior tarsi are short, with few articuoccurs on walls and palings, and is a common species, of lations. considerable beauty. It loves exposure to light and heat, This genus appears to have been confounded by Groand is frequently seen near windows in sunny weather. Its movements are lively and amusing. When it sees a novius with Scorpio, by Linnaeus with Phalangium, and by fly or a gnat it moves towards it with a slow and gentle Fabricius with Tarentula. It forms the passage in the namotion, and then springs upon it with a single rapid tural progress of generic forms to the scorpion tribe. bound. It leaps upon its prey as securely down a perpenSp. Caudatus, Latr. Phalangium caudatum, Linn. (See dicular wall as on a horizontal surface, by means of a thread which, previous to each of its bounds, it has the pre- Plate L.)—Some confusion seems to exist in regard to caution to attach to the plane of its position. The palpi the exact or characteristic locality of this species. It is of the female are whitish; her legs reddish-gray, with now said to occur in Java. South America furnishes darker spots. The mandibles of the male are very large. another species, called by the inhabitants of Martinique vinaigrier, on account of its extremely acid odour. Family II.—Pedipalpi. Tribe II.—Scorpionides. Palpi very large, extended in the form of arms, and terminated either by pincers or a claw. Mandibles with Abdomen sessile, or united to the thorax by its entire two fingers, of which one is movable. Abdomen com- breadth, and furnished at its lower base with two movposed of distinct segments, without any terminal spinners. able comb-shaped plates, and terminated by a knotted Sexual organs at the base of the abdomen. Thorax con- base, armed with a sting at its extremity. Stigmata sisting of a single piece, and presenting near its anterior eight in number, four on each side along the belly. Manangles three or two eyes, approached or in groups, and dibles terminated by two fingers, of which the exterior is two other eyes close together in the centre of its anterior movable. or posterior margin. Four or eight pulmonary sacks. The thorax of scorpions assumes the form of a lengthened square. There is a triangular appendage at the base of each of the four anterior feet, which in combination Tribe I.—Tarentulje. produce the appearance of a lip of four divisions; but of Our present division corresponds to the genus tarentula these, according to the views of Latreille, the lateral pair of Fabricius. The abdomen is attached to the thorax by ought to be regarded as maxillae, and the two others as a pedicle, or by a portion of the transverse diameter, forming the languette. The abdomen is composed of without comb-shaped plates at its inferior base, or sting twelve articulations, including those of the tail, which are at its extremity. The stigmata are four in number, six in number. The first division of the abdomen is complaced near the base of the abdomen, and covered by a posed of twm parts, the anterior of which bears the sexual plaque. The mandibles are terminated merely by a claw organs, the posterior the comb-shaped appendages. These or movable crotchet. The languette is elongated, nar- last-named parts are composed of a principal portion, narrow, dart-shaped, concealed. Maxillae two, formed by the row, lengthened, jointed, movable at its base, and furfirst joint of the palpi. Eyes eight, of which three are nished along its inferior side with a range of small, narrow, disposed in the form of a triangle near each anterior cor- elongated, parallel plates, hollowed interiorly, united to ner, and two are placed upon a tubercle near the centre of the principal piece before mentioned, and somewhat resembling the teeth of a comb; their number seems to the anterior margin. Naturalists have as yet acquired but a slight knowledge vary according to the species, and probably even with the of this tribe of Arachnides. They inhabit chiefly the age of the individual. The uses of these organs in the economy of the animal have not yet been determined. warmest countries of Asia and America. The four following segments of the abdomen have each a Genus Phrynus, Olivier.—Palpi terminating in a claw. pair of pulmonary sacks and stigmata. Immediately beBody flat, thorax broad, crescent-shaped. Abdomen hind the sixth segment the abdomen becomes suddenly without a tail. The two anterior tarsi long, slender, narrow, and the six following knotty rings compose the antenniform. tail, terminated by an arched slender point, beneath the This genus was named Tarentula by Fabricius, but wre extremity of whjch are two small holes, from which} td

ARACHNIDES. 365 the will of the animal, there flows a poisonous fluid, con- do not accord with our observations on those found in Arachrai ide tained in an interior reservoir. The tarsi resemble each rrance and Italy. “ Cauda sub aculeo mucronata est.” nides. ■V'*^ other, and are composed of three articulations, the last of An American species is furnished with a projecting point which is armed with a pair of crotchets. The four pos- beneath the sting, and the existence of that feature in the terior legs have a common base, and the first article of Transatlantic species seems to have induced De Geer to the haunches is as it were soldered; the posterior pair mistake the latter for the one described by Linnaeus as are in part joined by their back part to the abdomen. inhabiting the southern countries of Europe. Two nervous cords, which derive their origin from the brain or superior ganglion, unite at intervals and form Genus Buthus, Leach.—Eyes eight. seven other ganglia, of which the last belongs to the Sp. Occitanus. (See Plate L.)—Colour yellowish or redtail. In all other Arachnides, according to Latreille, the dish. Tail rather longer than the body, with elevated number of these ganglia never exceeds three. and delicately granulated lines. Each pecten furnished* Eight stigmata mark the position of an equal number with 28 teeth or upwards. About two inches in length. of whitish purses, containing a great number of small deThis is the species experimented on by Maupertuis. licate plates, among which it is believed the air perme- He inclosed about 100 in one place, and after the lapse ates. A muscular vessel prevails along the back, and of a few days he found only 14 survivors, which had killed communicates by means of two other vessels with each of and eaten their companions. It occurs in France, Portuthese purses. The intestinal canal is straight and slen- gal, and Spain ; likewise in Barbary. der. The liver is composed of four pair of glandular Sp. Afer. (See Plate L.)—Nearly half afoot long, and bunches, which discharge their fluid-into the intestines of a blackish brown colour, with large heart-shaped claws, at four points. The females are viviparous. chagrined on their surface, and slightly haired. A notch Scorpions occur in the warmer regions of Europe, Asia, in the anterior angle of the thorax. Number of teeth in Africa, and America. Several of the larger exotic spe- each comb, thirteen. Occurs both in Africa and India. cies are poisonous, but the bite of the European kinds Sp. Americanus.—Body slender, elongated, yellowish, is rarely attended by fatal consequences, except to small with brown spots. Combs with twenty-eight teeth. Arms animals. Maupertuis tried various experiments upon long and thin; claws filiform. Tail three times the length dogs and poultry with the scorpions of Languedoc. Only of the body. Sting with a point beneath. Inhabits Ameone dog died. The others, as well as the poultry, though rica. repeatedly stung by exasperated scorpions, suffered no inThe Scorpio dentatus of Herbst is allied to the precedjury. Redi’s experiments on pigeons were followed by a ing. It inhabits Sierra Leone. different result. They generally died in convulsions in about five hours after the infliction of the wound. Some, Order II.—Tracheari^:. however, appeared to suffer no inconvenience from the The Tracheal Arachnides are distinguished by their bite of these animals. This difference may be attributed to the particular condition, or rather the quantity of the respiratory organs, which consist of radiated or branched poison contained in the vessels at the time of the trial. tracheae, receiving air only by two stigmatic openings. The scorpions of Tuscany are so harmless that they are They possess no (ascertained) circulating system, and their eyes vary from two to four. Muller assigns six eyes handled by the peasants without any fear. Scorpions generally inhabit sombre and shady places, to the Hydrachna umbrata, but Latreille is of opinion that under stones, among old ruins, deserted dwelling-houses, some optical or other deception may have interfered and even, though more rarely, such as are occupied by with the usual accuracy of the great Danish naturalist. man. They prey upon various kinds of insects, which The respiration of the Pycnogorrides is unknown, no stigthey sting with their envenomed tails. They are very mata having been observed in that family. The Arachnides of this order are the smallest of their fond of the eggs of spiders and of insects. In running, they usually carry their tails curved forwards over their class. Some species are almost microscopical. They are backs; and they possess the power of moving them in all naturally divided into two great divisions. Those which directions, either as offensive or defensive weapons. We belong to the first are more nearly allied to the preceding have already mentioned that they produce their young order, the pulmonary Arachnides, in the form and strucalive. Iledi states the number of these to amount to ture of their masticating organs; such as pertain to the between 26 and 40, but some species are more prolific. second have the parts of the mouth more simply constructMaupertuis found from 27 to 65 in the bodies of those ed of certain parts, which, in union with the languette, which he examined. They were suspended or connected constitute a kind of trunk or sucker. But many of the hy a lengthened thread, and each was inclosed in a very species are so minute, even in their general dimendelicate membrane. The European kinds appear to pro- sions, that the examination of these organs, and the conduce in August, and are afterwards observed to change sequent classification of the species in accordance with a their skins. Some naturalists are of opinion that they cibarian system, are attended with considerable difficulty, couple twice a year. The female carries her young for and, in the opinion of Latreille, ought not to be had reseveral days upon her back, and watches over and defends course to, except in default of other more obvious characteristics. them for about a month. The long-legged spider (commonly so called), which is In the preceding generalities we have given the principal characters of the old genus scorpio. That genus has a species of Phalangium, frequently met with in hay fields een recently divided into two, in conformity with the and other places during the summer season, is a familiar example of this order. So also are mites and other acanumber of the eyes. rideous species. Genus Scorpio, Latr.—Eyes six. Family I.—Pseudo-Scorpiones. Sp. Europceus.—Colour brown, varying in shade. Feet am terminal joint of the tail of a paler yellowish brown. Thorax articulated, the anterior segment the larger. aw s angular and heart-shaped. Pectens, or comb-shaped Abdomen distinct and annulated. Palpi large, in the appendages, each with nine teeth. form of feet or claws. Both sexes with eight feet, having he characters given by Linnaeus to his S. Europaeus two equal hooks at the end of the tarsi, the two anterior

ARACHNIDES. 366 Family II.—Pycnogonides. J Arach- sometimes excepted. Two mandibles (antenne-pinces or nides. cheliceres of La treble) terminated by a couple of fingers; Trunk composed of four segments, occupying almost^1 and two maxillae formed by the first article of the palpi. the entire length of the body, terminated at each extreThis family consists of two genera, the habits of which mity by a tubular article, of which the anterior portion are terrestrial; their bodies oval or oblong. sometimes simple, sometimes accompanied by mandibles {antenne-pinces) and palpi, or by one or other of these orGenus Galeodes, Oliv. Solpuga, Lichtenstein. gans, constitutes the mouth. Both sexes have eight feet Mandibles very large, with vertical, strongly toothed proper for running ; but the females are moreover providfingers, of which one is superior, fixed, frequently fur- ed with two false feet, placed near the anterior pair, and nished at its base with a slender pointed appendage; the serving to carry the eggs. other movable. Palpi large, advanced, in the form of The species of wLich this family is composed inhabit feet or of antennae, terminated by a short button-shaped the sea. They usually keep themselves concealed among article, vesicular and hookless. Anterior pair of feet re- sea-weed along the shores, and feed upon small marine sembling the -palpi; but smaller; they are also hookless. animals. Their movements are slow. Their bodies are Each of the other feet has the terminal joint of the tarsus generally linear, the legs very long, composed of from furnished with a pair of hooks. The posterior pair of feet eight to nine articles, and terminated by two unequal crothave five remarkable scaly excrescences placed upon chets, of which the smaller is cleft. The first articulafoot-stalks, and ranged along the inferior surface of their tion of the body, or that which represents the head and first two articulations. The eyes, two in number, are very mouth, forms an advanced, nearly cylindrical tube, piercclose to each other, and are situated on an eminence of ed at its extremity by a triangular opening. It also bears the anterior portion of the first segment of the thorax, the mandibles and palpi. The former are linear or cylinwhich presents the appearance of a large head bearing drical, composed of two pieces, of which the last is pinthe anterior pair of feet, in addition to the masticating cer-shaped, with the inferior or fixed claw shorter than the organs. other. The palpi are filiform, with a crotchet at the end, According to M. Dufour the terminal article of the and composed of from five to nine articles. Each of the palpi incloses a particular disc-shaped organ, of a whitish succeeding segments of the body, with the exception of colour and pearly lustre, not visible externally unless the the last, serves as a point of attachment to a pair of legs; animal is irritated. The lip (labre) has the form of a small and the segment which articulates with the mouth is probeak, much compressed, recurved, pointed, and hairy. vided on its dorsal portion with a tubercle bearing the The languette is small, keel-shaped, and terminates in two eyes, and on its ventral portion (in the females) with a divergent threads, each placed on a small articulation. small additional pair of feet on which the eggs are distriLatreille perceived a pretty large stigmatic opening on buted. The terminal segment is small, cylindrical, and each side of the body, between the first and second feet, pierced at its extremity. The stigmatic openings in the and another cleft at the base of the abdomen. The ab- bodies of this family have not yet been discovered.1 domen is oval and composed of nine rings. We lately reM. Savigny is of opinion that this family forms the naceived two species of this genus from Persia. tural transition from the class Arachnides to the crustaceSp. Araneoides, Olivier. (See Plate LI.) Solpuga ous tribes, and great uncertainty still prevails in the minds Arachnoides, Herbst.—Colour pale yellowish-brown. In- of naturalists regarding their true position in the system. habits Africa and the western countries of Asia. We place them in the position which they now occupy in Genus Chelifer, Geoff. Obisium, Illiger. — Palpi our present arrangement, in accordance with the views of elongated, furnished with didactile pincers at their M. Latreille. M. Milne Edwards, who has studied these extremity. Eyes placed on the sides of the thorax. animals in their native places, informed that celebrated Legs nearly equal in size, each terminated by a pair of entomologist, that in the interior of the Pycnogonides he observed caeca or lateral expansions of the intestinal crotchets. Body flat. Thorax almost square. These animals run swiftly, both backwards and for- canal. wards. They carry their eggs about with them after the Genus Pycnogonum, Brunnich.—In this genus the manmanner of spiders. The elder Hermann is of opinion dibles and palpi are wanting, and the length of the feet that they spin webs. Such of the species as have the thoscarcely exceeds that of the body, which is proportionrax divided or impressed by a transverse line form the ally short and thick. The species are parasitical on genus Chelifer of Dr Leach. Their eyes are two in numcetaceous animals. ber. Others have the thorax undivided, and of these Sp. Falamarum. (See Plate LI.) Phalangium Balathe eyes amount to four. They form the genus Obisium narum, Linn.—Inhabits the European Ocean. This speof the last-named author. Sp. Fasciatus.—Plands oval. Segments of the abdo- cies is frequently taken by the trawl-fishers in Plymouth men bordered with white. Lives beneath the bark of Sound. It has been found by M. d’Orbigny on the coasts willow and other trees. Sometimes occurs near London. of France. Leach, in Linn. Trans, xi. Genus Phoxichilus, Latr.—In this genus the palpi are Sp. Cancraides. (See Plate LI.)—This species meawanting, as in the preceding ; but we observe a pair of sures about a line and a half in length. The body and mandibles, and a greater elongation of the legs. legs are of a reddish brown. The palpi are about twice To this genus belong Pgcnogonnm spinipes of the Fauna the length of the body. It is a European species, inhabiting old books, herbariums, &c. and preys upon the Groenlandica, Phalangium hirsutum of Montagu {Linn. bodies of several destructive insects. It ought therefore Trans, ix.), Nymphon hirtum of Fabricius, &c. to be cherished in the live state by collectors. Genus Nymfhon, Fab.—Resembles the preceding genus 1 Recent observations induce the belief that these creatures breathe through their skins,—a peculiar character, which, when satisfactorily established, may lead to their being erected into a separate order, intermediate in some respects between the Arachnides and the apterous insects of the parasitical order. (See Rcgne Animal, tome iv. p. 277, note.)

ARACHNIDES. 367 jn the narrow and oblong form of its body, the length Mandibles horny in the males. A blackish band with a Arachnides. E’ 0f hs legs, and the presence of mandibles; but in addi- festooned border on the back of the female. Of certain species of this genus Mr Kirby has formed tion to these organs there are likewise a pair of palpi. his genus Gonoleptes. (See Linn. Trans, vol. xii. Plate Sp. Gracile, Leach. (Zool. Misc. i. 45.)—Colour cine- XXII. fig. 16.) reous; thighs cylindrical. Inhabits most parts of the British seas. We are doubtful whether this species should Genus Siro, Latr.—Mandibles projecting, almost as long he considered as synonymous with the Nymphon grossipes as the body. Eyes distant, each placed upon an iso(Phalangium grossipes, Linn.) figured on Plate LI. The lated tubercle. term grossipes is certainly very inapplicable to either Sp. Rubens. (See Plate LI.)—Colour pale red; legs kind. paler. Dwells in moss at the roots of trees. Genus Ammothea, Leach.—Mandibles much shorter than the rostrum, with equal joints, the fingers arcuate, Genus Macrocheles, Latr.—Mandibles long and projecting. Eyes sessile, or none. Two anterior feet, very and meeting at their tips. Palpi nine jointed, the third long, and antenniform. The upper part of the body joint very long. Legs slender; coxae with the middle forms a plaque or scale, without any distinct rings. joint longest; tibiae with the first joint rather the shortest ; tarsi with the first joint small; claws double, unAccording to Latreille, the Acarus marginatus and tesequal. Egg-bearing organs nine-jointed, inserted un- tudinariu's of Hermann (fils) belong to this genus. der the first legs, behind the rostrum. Sp. CaroUnensis. (See Plate LI.)—Body entirely brown, Genus Trogulus, Latr.—Anterior extremity of the body advanced in the form of a hood or chaperon, and testaceous; back with three trigonate tubercles. (Zool. receiving in an inferior cavity the mandibles and other Miscell. i. 34.) From South Carolina. parts of the mouth. The body is very flat, and coverFamily III.—Holetra. ed by a strong skin. The groups composing this family are characterized by Sp. Nepceformis.—Colour obscure ash-colour. Central the union of the thorax and abdomen in a single mass, portion of the dorsal part of the abdomen, and the sides, beneath a common epidermis. The thorax is almost di- obsoletely subcarinated. External apex of the first joint vided into two by a contraction; and the abdomen, in some of the tarsi produced. Inhabits France and Germany, species, presents the appearance of rings, formed by the lurking beneath stones. folds of the epidermis. The anterior extremity of the body frequently projects in the form of a beak or muzzle. Tribe II.—Acarides. The generality are provided with eight feet; some have Sometimes furnished with mandibles composed of a sinonly six. gle pincer, didactylous or with a simple claw, and conTribe I.—Phalangita, Latr. cealed in a sternal lip ; sometimes furnished with a sucker Mandibles very conspicuous, terminated by didactylous formed of plates or laminae joined together. A few have pincers. Palpi filiform, and composed of five articles, of only a simple cavity for the mouth, without additional apwhich the last is terminated by a small nail. Two dis- pendages. The species of this tribe (corresponding to the genus tinct eyes. Two maxillae formed by a prolongation of the radical article of the palpi; and besides these there are Acarus of Linnaeus) are almost microscopical, and are unisometimes four other jaws, which, however, result merely versally distributed. Some are erratic, and occur in a great from a dilatation of the haunches of the first two pair of variety of situations, among stones, on trees, among flour, legs. Body oval or rounded, and covered, at least on the cheese, and various other substances, whether animal or thorax, by a skin of a somewhat solid texture. The legs, vegetable; others are parasitical on the skins of living which are always eight in number, are long, and distinct- creatures, which they sometimes greatly weaken by their ly divided, like those of insects. Many are provided near excessive multiplication. The disease called itch, if not the origin of the two posterior legs with two stigmata, occasioned by, is at least in some way connected with, the one on either side, concealed by the haunches. The spe- presence of minute species of this family. Dr Galet has cies of this tribe are for the most part of active habits. demonstrated that that disease may be communicated by I'he generative organs are placed internally beneath the the transmission of mites from one (infected) individual to another. Small mites have even been found in the mouth. brain and in the eyes of the human race. Genus Phalangium, Linn. Fab.—Mandibles projectMany of the species, when first produced, have only ing, much shorter than the head. Eyes placed upon a six feet. They are oviparous, and deposit a great numcommon tubercle. The feet are long and slender, and ber of eggs. when separated from the body they for some time afterwards exhibit signs of irritability. The females are Genus Trombidium, Fab.—Mandibles en griffe, or terprovided with a membranous oviduct, filiform, annuminated by a movable claw. Palpi projecting, pointjated, and flexible. The tracheae are tubular. ed, with a movable appendage or finger at the exI he species of this genus are of predacious habits, tremity. Two eyes, each placed at the end of a small they prey upon small insects, which they seize with their fixed pedicle. Body divided into two parts, of which nmndibles, pierce with their crotchets, and suck to death. the first or anterior is very small, and bears, besides the I hey are of pugnacious tempers. Though analogous to eyes and mouth, the first two pair of legs. spiders in their external forms, they cannot spin. They Sp. Holosericeum.—Of a blood-red colour. Abdomen are short-lived, as those hatched in the spring are all supalmost square, narrower behind, and notched. Back furposed to die in the autumn. nished with papillae, hairy at the base, and globular at Sp. Cornutum, Linn, (the male). Opilio, ejusd. (the their extremities. Common in gardens during spring. emale)—Body oval, reddish or ash-coloured above, white Sp. Tinctorum. (See Plate LI.)—This species is three eneath. Palpi long. Two rows of small spines on the or four times larger than the preceding. It occurs in the tubercle which bears the eyes. Thighs with prickles. East Indies, and produces a fine dye.

368 ARACHNIDES. Arach- Genus Erythr^eus, Latr.—Mandibles and palpi as in ed by hairs or bristles. Four eyes, posterior feet the i nides. Trombidium, but the body is undivided, and the eyes longest. Sucker prolonged in the form of a conical or are not mounted on a pedicle. awl-shaped beak. Found in moss, beneath stones, and' under the bark of trees. Sp. Phalangioides.—Legs very long, the last joint broad, compressed. Body obscure red, with a dorsal band Sp. Rubra. La Bdelle rouge of Latreille. (See Plate LI.) of orange yellow. Inhabits most European countries, —Rostrum longer than the thorax. Colour coccineous running on the ground with great rapidity. legs paler than the body. Dwells beneath stones. This is the pince rouge of Geoffroy, and the Acarus longicornis Genus Gamasus, Latr.—Mandibles didactylous; palpi of Linnaeus. It is a minute insect, measuring scarcely projecting, distinct, filiform. half a line in length. Some species of this genus have the upper surface of the body clothed, in whole or in part, with a scaly skin, Genus Smaridia, Latr.—Distinguished from the preceding genus by the palpi, which are scarcely longer while others are entirely soft. than the sucker; straight, and without bristles at the Sp. Coleoptratorum.—Anterior pair of legs somewhat extremity. Eyes two. Anterior pair of legs longer longer than the others. Coriaceous parts of the back than the others. fuscous. Sp. Sambuci. Acarus Sambuci, Schrank.—Colour red, Inhabits the excrements of horses and cattle, and is frequently found adhering in great numbers to the bodies the body slightly haired. Movements slow. Dwells of coleopterous insects of the genus Scarabseus, Hister, &c. beneath the bark of trees, more especially that of the To this genus belongs the Acarus marginatus of Her- elder, observed by Latreille in the south of France. This mann, which is sometimes found in the brain (corpus cal- genus is represented in Plate LI. by a figure of Smaridia passerina. loswn) of the human race. Genus Cheyletus, Latr.—Mandibles didactylous. Palpi Genus Ixodes.—Palpi inclosed in the sucker, along with which they form a short projecting beak, truncated, with thick, arm-shaped, falcated at the extremities. a slight expansion at the end. Sp. Eruditus. Acarus eruditus, Schrank.—Colour brownThe animals of this genus occur among bushes and ish. Inhabits books and museums. underwood, from which they detach themselves to fasten Genus Oribata.—Mandibles didactylous. Palpi short on dogs, sheep, cattle, and other quadrupeds, to which they and concealed. Body covered by a coriaceous or scaly adhere with remarkable tenacity. Their eggs, of which skin, in the form of a shield or buckler. Legs long, or of they lay a prodigious quantity, are, according to M. Chabrier, obtruded by the mouth. medium length. Sp. Reduvius. Acarus reduvius, Linn. (See Plate LI.)— The body in this genus is prolonged anteriorly in the form of a muzzle. There is sometimes an indication of The colour and appearance of this species vary according a thorax. The ends of the tarsi are terminated by a to its state of repletion. The legs are black. single crotchet in some, by two or three in others, without any vesicular ball or cushion. The species are found Genus Argas.—Palpi conical, composed of four articles, not inclosed in the sucker. beneath stones, among moss, and on trees. Their moveSp. Rejlexus. Acarus marginatus, Fab. (See Plate LI.) ments are slow. Sp. Geniculata.—Of a brownish chesnut colour, shin- —Pale yellowish, or flesh-coloured, with deeper anastoing, hairy. Legs pale brown, thighs sub-clavate. Com- mosing lines. Inhabits houses in France, sucking the blood of doves. mon in Sweden, Germany, and England. A species of this genus found in Persia (the malleh de Genus Uropoda, Latr.—Mandibles pincer-shaped; palpi mianeli) is considered to be extremely poisonous. It apnot conspicuous. Body covered by a scaly skin, and ter- pears, however, from the observations of M. Szovits, a naminated by a slender filament, by means of which the turalist recently employed by the Russian government to explore the Caucasus, that the bite of these bugs of Miana, species adhere to the bodies of coleopterous insects. as they are sometimes called {Argas Persians of Fischer), Sp. Vegetans. (See Plate LI.)—Brown, smooth, and is in reality by no means dangerous. shining. Inhabits France and England, attaching itself to the legs and other parts of insects by its pedunculated The three following genera correspond to the genus anus. Hydrachna of Muller. Their habits are aquatic, and Genus Acarus, Fab. Latr.—-Furnished like the preced- their forms oval, or nearly globular, and of a soft consising genera with didactylous mandibles, and very short tence. The number of their eyes varies from two to four, or concealed palpi; but the body is soft, and unfurnish- and even to six, according to Muller. They were usualed with a scaly crust. The tarsi are provided at their ly confounded with the mites till the time of the lastextremity with a vesicular tuft. Many species live on named observer, who inferred that as they lived habitually in a different element, they ought to form a separate the substances used as aliments by the human race. division. They resemble small spiders, and probably on Sp. Siro. The cheese-mite. (See Plate LI.)— that account received the name of Hydrachna, which Whitish, with two brown spots. Body ovate, the middle signifies water-spider. Fabricius, who only employed in coarctate, with long hairs. Legs of equal length. Inha- the formation of his groups characters drawn from the bits houses, feeding on flour and long-kept cheese. structure of the mouth, has united Hydrachna with TromSp. Scabiei. (See Plate LI.)—A microscopical spe- bidium. The observations of Latreille have led not only to cies, which inhabits the skin of man in a diseased state. It the distinct separation of these two genera, but to the subappears, from the observations of Bonnani and others, division of the genus Hydrachna into at least three disthat this insect usually accompanies the disease called tinct groups of species, all of which may be readily distinguished from the various kinds of mites (Acari) by their the itch. ciliated or natatorial legs. Genus Bdella, Latr.—Palpi elongated, bent, terminatThe minute beings now under consideration occur

ARACHNIDES. 369 racli abundantly in stagnant or slowly moving waters. The the summer months on grasses and other plants, from Arachr spring season is the most favourable for the observance of which it detaches itself, and fixing in the skin of the hu- nides. their habits. They run through the water with great ra- man species,^occasions an insupportable itching. “ Acarus pidity, with a continual movement of their legs. Their Autumnalis,” says Dr Shaw, “ popularly known by the dispositions are carnivorous, and their food consists of ani- name of the harvest bug, is also one of the most minute malcular species, of minute insects, small flies, and aquatic of the genus, and is of a bright red colour, with the abdolarvae. Muller kept many Hydrachnae in vessels of water men bent on its hind part, with numerous white bristles. full of animalcula infusoria, millions of which were eaten This troublesome insect will make itself sufficiently known in a few days, soon after which the Hydrachnae were found to most people, during the months of July, August, and in a state of great languor, and transparent from exhaus- September. It is easily distinguishable on the skin by its tion. They speedily revived when a few drops of water bright red colour, and adheres so tenaciously when it has containing animalcules were mingled with that through once fixed itself, as to be scarcely separated without viowhich they swam. lence; its motion when disengaged is pretty quick, though The males are usually much less than the females, and by no means equal to that of some other acari. On the sexes frequently differ in colour. Only four or five the part where it fixes it causes a tumour, generally about species were known before the time of Muller, to whose the size of a pea, sometimes much larger, accompanied by persevering labours we owe the best elucidation which has a severe itching. These insects abound on vegetables, yet been given of their history.1 and are generally contracted by walking in gardens, Latreille is of opinion that the structure of the masti- amongst long grass, or in corn fields.” ( General Zoology, cating organs authorizes the establishment of the three vol. vi. p. 464.) generic groups which follow. According to Mr White of Selbourne, this minute creature greatly abounds in the chalky districts of Hampshire. Genus Eylais, Latr.—Mandibles terminated by a mov- He was assured that the warreners are much infested by able crotchet. them, and are sometimes thrown into fever by their bites. Sp. Extendens. Atax extendens, Fab. (See Plate LI.)—. Another species is common on Phalangium opilio. Body rounded, smooth, shining, immaculate, red. Hinder Genus Aclysia, Audouin.—Form like that of a baglegs straight. Inhabits stagnant waters. pipe. A syphon, without distinct palpi, placed beneath Genus Hydrachna, Latr.—Mouth composed of plates the anterior extremity, which is narrow, curved, and forming a projecting sucker. Palpi provided at their obtuse. The legs are very small. extremity with a movable appendage. The species of this genus are parasitical on the bodies Sp. Geographica. (See Plate LI.)—Black, marked with of water-beetles of the genus Dytiscus. The only one of coccineous spots. Inhabits gently flowing waters. A which we have any knowledge {A. dytisci) is described by beautiful species, not uncommon in several parts of Britain. M. Victor Audouin, in the 1st vol. of the Mem. de la Soc. Sp. Cruenta. (See Plate LI.)—Distended, red; legs of d'Hist. Nat. de Paris. We found it on Dytiscus marginanearly equal length. This is the Trombidium globator of lis, in the vicinity of Edinburgh. A second species has Fabricius, and the mite aquatique ronde of De Geer. been recently discovered in Russia by Count Manheiren. Genus Limnochares, Latr.—Resembles Flydrachna in its sucker-shaped mouth, but the palpi are simple. Sp. Holosericea.—Body ovate, red, rugose, soft; eyes black. This is the Acarus aquaticus of Linnaeus, and the viite satinee aquatique of De Geer. Inhabits the waters of Europe, and occurs frequently in ponds during the summer months. It varies in colour from a bright red to a grayish red. According to Fabricius, it deposits its eggs on water scorpions (Neper). The remaining genera are distinguished from all other Arachnides by having only six legs. Their habits are parasitical. Genus Caris, Latr.—Sucker and palpi apparent. Body rounded, very flat, and covered by a scaly skin. 'V* Vesp>ertiUonis.—Body fuscous. Found on bats. Genus Leptus.—Sucker and palpi apparent. Body soft r r and ovoid. ^ PI ate LI.) Autumnalis. Acarus Autumnalis, Shaw. during (See Colour red, very minute. Common 1

vol. in.

See O. F. Muller’s

Genus Astoma, Latr.—Neither sucker nor palpi visible. The mouth consists merely of a small opening, situated in the breast. The body is soft, and oval; the legs very short. Sp. Parasitica. (See Plate LI.)—Body coccineous, slightly contracted in the centre. This is the mite parasite of De Geer. It inhabits the bodies of flies and other insects. Genus Ocypete, Leach.—This genus, arranged by Dr Leach in the same stirps as Trombidium, is placed by Latreille at the end of his Hexapod Arachnides. It differs from those with which it is conjoined by the possession of mandibles. Sp. Rubra, Leach, Linn. Trans, xi.—Colour red, back furnished with a few long hairs. The legs are covered with many hairs of a rufous cinerescent colour. The eyes are blackish brown. This curious little animal, which is not larger than a grain of sand, is parasitical, and frequently occurs on the larger tipulae, adhering to their legs. Dr Leach obtained no less than 16 specimens from one insect. (t.) 1 vol. 4to, 1781.

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A Arachnides II Araeometer.

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ALPHABETICAL INDEX TO THE GENERA OF ARACHNIDES. Acarus Aclysia...... Ammothea. Aranea Argas Argyroneta Astoma Atypus Bdella Buthus Caris Chelifer Cheyletus.. Clotho Ctenus Dolomedes. Drassus Dysdera.... Epeira Episinus.... Eresus Erodion.. Ery thraeus.

Page .368 .369 .367 .359 .368 .359 .369 .358

Eylais Filistata Galeodes Gamasus Hydrachna

.368 Ixodes .365 Leptus .369 Limnochares ,.366 Linyphia ,.368 Lvcosa ,.359 ,.362 Machrocheles. Micrommata.. ..362 My gale ..359 Myrmecia ..358 Nymphon ..361 ..360 Ocypete ..363 Oribata ..358 Oxyopus ..368

ARACHNOIDES, in Anatomy, an appellation given to several membranes,—as the tunic of the crystalline humour of the eye, the external lamina of the pia mater, and one of the coverings of the spinal marrow. ABACK. See Arrack. ARAEOMETER (composed of aguiog, levis, tennis, and History. [jjtrgov, measure), a measure of the comparative density and rarity of bodies. The name does not occur in ancient authors; hydroscopium and baryllium being the ancient names of the instrument. This instrument v/as known in the civilized part of the Roman empire about the year 400, as appears from the fifteenth epistle of Synesius, addressed to Hypatia, daughter of Theon; and to Hypatia some modem writers have erroneously ascribed its invention. The instrument is also described in some verses annexed to Priscian; and the principles on which its operation is founded are to be seen in the treatise of Archimedes on floating bodies (J)e Humido Insidentibus). The term, as used by writers on natural philosophy, is chiefly applied to instruments which are made to float, so as to indicate the specific gravity of the liquids in which they are placed: the pese liqueur and hydrometer, in common use for measuring the specific gravity of vinous spirits, are instruments of this kind. A floating body displaces a portion of the liquid, the Theory. weight of which is equal to its own weight: the liquid acting upwards with a force equal to this weight, and the weight of the body acting downwards with the same force, equilibrium take's place. If the body be afterwards placed in a liquid of less density, the part of the body immersed will be greater than when the body was in the more dense liquid, because it requires a greater volume of

Page 369 Palpimanus.. Phalangium.. 358 Philodromus. Pholcus 366 Phoxichilus.. 368 Phrynus Pycnogonum, 369 Salticus 368 Scorpio Scytodes 369 Segestria 369 Senelops 360 Siro 363 Smaridia ,367 361 357 .363

Tessarops...., Tetragnatha. Thelyphonus Theridion.... Thomisus.... .366 Trogulus Trombidium. .369 .368 Uloborus .362 Uropoda

v. ,363 .367 .362

.365 .360 .359 ,361 ,367 .368 .363 .361 .364 .360 .362 .367 .367 .361 .368

this less dense liquid to equal the weight of the floating body. The absolute weights of two bodies being the same, their specific gravities are in the inverse ratio ot their volumes — — when G is put for the specific g V gravity of the first body, g for that of the second; F for the volume of the first, and v for the volume of the second. On this principle the common hydrometer is constructed;^ the instrument described by Synesius is also of thiskind.t9 In order that a small difference in the volume immersed may be sensible, the part which is intersected by the surface of the fluid is in the form of a very slender cylinder, the great bulk of the instrument being always immersed in the liquid. At the inferior part is a small ball, containing mercury or small lead shot, which serves as ballast, bringing the centre of gravity low, so that the instrument may float erect, and without much lateral oscillation. The common hydrometers are made of glass, and sometimes of brass, or tin or pewter, and some have been made of amber as objects of curiosity. When made of glass, a scale, inscribed upon paper, is inserted 'j1 the cylindrical stalk: the division of the scale at wind the surface of any liquid intersects the stalk, denotes tie specific gravity of that liquid. The divisions of the sea d should be formed by immersing the instrument in liqui calf. of known specific gravity, and marking a number corre spending to that specific gravity opposite to each division. The specific gravities of water and alcohol mjxe^'nAjr rious proportions have been accurately ascertained by a

ARM Gilpin, (See his Tables, and Dr Blagden’s paper in the Philosophical Transactions.) On immersing the instrument in a mixture of known proportions of these two liquids, the point at which the surface intersects the stalk is to be marked with the number expressing the specific gravity of the mixture taken from the table. Some hydrometers, such as that constructed by the French chemist Beaume, and which is much used in France under the name of Areometre de Beaume, have the scale divided into equal parts, so that the divisions do not correspond as they ought to do with the numbers which express specific gravities. irtn- In the araeometer of Fahrenheit, the uncertainty arist's. ing from the erroneous division of the scale is obviated, no division being required. The form of the instrument is the same as that just described, only at the top there is a small cup, into which weights are put, so as to bring the surface of the denser liquid to a fixed mark on the stalk: when the instrument is placed in a liquid of less density, some of the weights are taken out till the mark again comes to the surface. Suppose the weight of the instrument and of the weights in the cup together equal to 1000, when sunk to the mark in distilled water at a certain temperature; the instrument is now taken out of the water and immersed in a liquid, where 10 must be taken out of the cup in order to bring the mark to the surface; the immersion in wrater indicates that a volume of water weighs 1000 ; the immersion in the second liquid shows that an equal volume of this liquid weighs 990; when the volumes of bodies are equal, the specific gravities are directly as the absolute weights —— consequently the specific gravity of the second liquid is 990, that of water being 1000. To save computation, it is convenrenlT'that the whole weight of the apparatus, when in distilled water at a certain temperature, should be represented by 1000; for this purpose the instrument-maker divides the weight of the apparatus into 1000 parts, and forms small weights consisting of one, two, three, &c. of these 1000th parts, the relation of which to the ounce or pound does not require to be known; the weights thus formed are to be used with the instrument. rhol. The araeometer of Nicholson is like that of Fahrenheit, with the addition of an immersed cup, whereby it is rendered proper for ascertaining the specific gravity of solids. Suppose that it requires 400 grains in the exterior cup to sink the instrument to the mark in distilled water, at 60 degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer; 1st, The body under examination is put into the exterior cup, and weights (say 300 grains) are taken out till the mark again stands at the surface ; this gives the absolute weight of the body 300 grains. The body is then put into the immersed cup S, taking care to brush off any air-bubbles with a hair pencil, and in order to bring the mark to the surface, a weight (say 100 grains) must be put into the exterior cup, that is, the weight of a volume of water equal to the body is 100 grams. I he first part of the process gave the absolute weight of the body 300 grains; and the volumes being equal, the specific gravities are as the absolute weights ; consequently the specific gravity of the body is 300, that of water emg 100. This araeometer may be used to find the specific gravity of liquids : the process, in that case, is the same as

A R iE 171 that described above in speaking of the araeometer of Fah- Arseomerenheit. The araeometer of Nicholson is useful to the mine- te1'ralogist for ascertaining the specific gravity of minerals,' the specific gravity being a convenient character for distinguishing one kind of mineral from another. It is sometimes made of tinned iron, but wdiere more accuracy is required, copper is the material employed. When put together, it does not exceed a foot in length, and therefore is suited to form a part of the travelling mineralogist’s apparatus. Some araeometers have been constructed with the exterior cup C placed underneath, and supported by a stirrup, whose upper part is fixed to the stalk of the araeometer, as represented on the margin. This is done in order to place the centre of gravity low, that the araeometer may thereby float more steadily. The araeometer floats in a cylindrical vessel fitted to the size of the stirrup, and this vessel is supported on a stand so formed as not to interfere with the free motion of the stirrup. DeparThe araeometer of Deparcieux is like the cieux’s. common hydrometer, only the ball is much more voluminous. This renders it capable of indicating the small difference which exists in the specific gravity of the water of different springs, for which purpose Deparcieux proposed it. The dilatation of the large glass bulb by heat has a considerable effect on the operation of this instrument, and this dilatation being different in different instruments, renders the results inaccurate. The different araeometers above mentioned have the advantages of being easily made and easily carried about; but where the specific gravity of a body is required with the greatest accuracy, recourse must be had to the hydrostatic balance, which ought to be constructed with the utmost care by the most skilful artist. The following algebraic expressions may serve to elucidate some of the properties of the araeometers hitherto spoken of: g is the specific gravity of water, which is 1000 ounces when the ounce and foot are taken as unities, 1000 ounces avoirdupois being the weight of a cubic foot of water. z is the diameter of the wire-stalk of the araeometer. nr is 3*1415, &c. the number expressing the periphery of a circle whose diameter is 1. ^■zrz2 is the surface of a transverse section of the wirestalk. v is the volume of the bulb or body of the araeometer. w is the whole weight of the araeometer. x is the length of the stalk that is plunged in the water. ^xnrz2 is the volume of the immersed portion of the stalk. When the araeometer floats in equilibrio, it displaces a volume of water equal to its own weight; therefore, w r , , o\ t ^(.w — tJv) w = ^ + iw>’and’^ = '■ no — gv is the difference between the quantity of water displaced by the whole araeometer, and the quantity displaced by the bulb alone; w — gv, therefore, is the volume of water displaced by the immersed portion of the stalk. As the diameter of the stalk z is very small, the cylinder of water w — gv, which has z for its diameter, is likewise very small, and does not exceed a few grains in weight; therefore a small variation in w (the weight of the araeometer), or in g (the density of the liquid), occasions a great variation in x (the length of the immersed part of the stalk). The value of x changes rapidly, when z (the diameter of the stalk) is changed.

A II IQ 372 Araeome- because the value of x is divided by z2, which is the square ter - of a very small quantity. * When the araeometer lis immersed in a liquidl of uTthVspe another specific gravity g , then the equation is x — cifie gravit}ie value of a;1 from that of x, and ty of hg'nz2 quid. 2w(q o1) there results x — xl = —. This is the diminution gg*z in the length of the immersed part of the stalk, which takes place when the araeometer is transferred to a liquid of a greater density. By this formula it is seen, that the sensibility of the araeometer, that is, the length of the portion of the stalk which emerges upon transferring the araeometer to a denser liquid, is augmented, in the first place by increasing w (the weight of water displaced by the araeometer), that is, by increasing the volume of the body of the araeometer; secondly, by diminishing z (the diameter of the stalk), which is in the denominator of the value of a; — xl; consequently, the faculty of the araeometer to show the different densities of liquids is in w general expressed by the fraction With regard to the vertical mobility of the araeometer, when put in motion by placing a small weight s in its ex. . , „ . , 4(w + s—gv) tenor cup,substitute w + siovw; then,x1 = ——Zg^r* ' Take the difference between this and x —

: ZgKz1 this difference is x1 — x = 5; which shows that the gvz2 length of the portion of the stalk that a small weight causes to immerge is proportional to ■—> or in the direct ratio of the small weight, and in the inverse ratio of the square of the diameter of the stalk. When the small weight, the density of the liquid, and the length of that part of the stalk which is submerged on adding the small weight, are known, then this equation will give the diameter of the stalk in known quantities . 9*{x'-x) When the weight of the whole araeometer is known in ounces, &c., and the specific gravity of one of two liquids (water, for instance) is known, the difference of specific gravity between that liquid and another liquid may be had in known quantities. gl is the specific gravity of water.